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| author | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-02-05 21:21:04 -0800 |
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| committer | nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org> | 2025-02-05 21:21:04 -0800 |
| commit | 3f1e8ed9275999dd1f70017b81b8fca27e8d7efb (patch) | |
| tree | c0a5e73bd80f3f4bf9fbf9b3a06636444b69b510 /75302-h | |
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diff --git a/75302-h/75302-h.htm b/75302-h/75302-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fdd62f0 --- /dev/null +++ b/75302-h/75302-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,10994 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html> +<html lang="en"> +<head> + <meta charset="UTF-8"> + <title> + Dyes and Dyeing | Project Gutenberg + </title> + <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> + <style> + + body { + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + h1,h2,h3,h4{ + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + font-weight: normal; + } + + h1 { + font-size: 250%; + word-spacing: .2em; + } + + h2 { + margin-top: 4em; + } + .chapt_sub { font-size:70%} + h3 { + font-size: 100%; + } + + h4 { + text-align: left; + font-weight: bold; + } + hr { + width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: 33.5%; + margin-right: 33.5%; + clear: both; + } + + hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} + @media print { hr.chap {display: none; visibility: hidden;} } + + div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} + h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} + + ul.index { list-style-type: none; } + li.ifrst { + margin-top: 1em; + text-indent: -2em; + padding-left: 1em; + } + li.indx { + margin-top: .5em; + text-indent: -2em; + padding-left: 1em; + } + li.isub1 { + text-indent: -2em; + padding-left: 2em; + } + + table { + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + } + table.autotable { border-collapse: collapse; } + table.autotable td { padding: 0.25em; } + + + table.toctable { border-collapse: collapse; } + table.listtable { margin-left:15%; + border-collapse: collapse; + + } + + td.hang30 { + padding-left: 8em; + text-indent: -8em; + } + + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: small; + text-align: right; + font-style: normal; + font-weight: normal; + font-variant: normal; + text-indent: 0; + } /* page numbers */ + + .blockquot { + margin-left: 5%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .blockquot2 { + margin-left: 12%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .center {text-align: center;} + + .right {text-align: right;} + + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .allsmcap {font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;} + + .caption {font-size: 80%} + + /* Images */ + + img { + max-width: 100%; + height: auto; + } + img.w100 {width: 100%;} + + + .figcenter { + margin: auto; + text-align: center; + page-break-inside: avoid; + max-width: 100%; + } + + /* Footnotes */ + .footnotes {border: 1px dashed;margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.8em;} + + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 75%; text-align: right;font-size: 0.8em} + + .fnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: .8em; + text-decoration: + none; + } + + p { + text-align: justify; + margin-top: .51em; + margin-bottom: .49em; + text-indent: 1em; + } + + /* to undo start of para indent */ + .noindent {text-indent: 0;} + + .right {text-align: right;} + + .p2 {margin-top: 2em;} + .pb2 {margin-bottom: 2em;} + .p4 {margin-top: 4em;} + .pb6 {margin-bottom: 6em;} + .p8 {margin-top: 8em;} + + .pad1 {padding-left: 1em;} + .padshell {padding-left: 15%} + + + .fs60 {font-size: 60%;} + .fs80 {font-size: 80%;} + .fs90 {font-size: 90%;} + .fs110 {font-size: 110%;} + .fs150 {font-size: 150%;} + .fs200 {font-size: 200%;} + .wsp {word-spacing: 0.3em;} + .lspp5 {letter-spacing: 0.05em;} + .lsp1 {letter-spacing: 0.1em;} + .nowrap {white-space: nowrap;} + + ul.index { list-style-type: none; } + .tdl {text-align: left; + vertical-align: top;} + .tdc {text-align: center;} + + .tdrt {text-align: right; + vertical-align: top; + padding-right: .25em;} + .tdrm {text-align: right; + vertical-align: middle; + padding-right: .25em;} + .tdrb {text-align: right; + vertical-align: bottom; + padding-right: .25em;} + .tdr {text-align: right; + padding-right: .25em;} + .tdct {text-align: center; + vertical-align: top;} + + .wd5 {width: 5%;} + .wd8e {width: 8.8em} + .wd25 {width: 25%;} + .wd30 {width: 30%;} + .wd50 {width: 50%;} + .wd70 {width: 70%;} + .wd90 {width: 90%;} + .wd100 {width: 100%;} + + + .hang1 { + text-indent: -1em; + padding-left: 1em; + text-align:left; + margin-top: .26em; + margin-bottom: .25em; + } + + .pagenum { + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: small; + text-align: right; + font-style: normal; + font-weight: normal; + font-variant: normal; + text-indent: 0; + color: #A9A9A9 + } /* page numbers */ + + .fnanchor { + vertical-align: super; + font-size: x-small; + text-decoration: + none; + } + + /* Transcriber's notes */ + .transnote {border: 1px solid; + color: black; + font-size:small; + padding:0.5em; + margin-bottom:5em; + font-family:sans-serif, serif; + } + + .corr { + text-decoration: none; + border-bottom: thin dashed blue;} + + .x-ebookmaker .corr { + text-decoration: none; + border-bottom: none;} + + + /* Illustration classes */ + .illowp10 {width: 10%; max-width:8em;} + .illowp40 {width: 40%; max-width:20em;} + .illowp55 {width: 55%; max-width:26em;} + .illowp60 {width: 60%; max-width:28em;} + .illowp70 {width: 70%; max-width:32em;} + .illowp75 {width: 75%; max-width:33.5em;} + .illowp80 {width: 80%; max-width:35em;} + .illowp90 {width: 90%; max-width:38em;} + .illowp100 {width: 100%; max-width:40em;} + + + /* for non-image large letter dropcaps */ + p.drop-cap {text-indent: -.7em;} + + /* note: margin = top, right, bottom, left (clockwise?)*/ + p.drop-cap:first-letter { + float: left; + margin: 0.05em 0.2em 0em .15em; + font-size: 350%; + line-height:0.7em; + clear: both; + } + + .x-ebookmaker p.drop-cap {text-indent: 0em;} + + .x-ebookmaker p.drop-cap:first-letter { + float: none; + margin: 0; + font-size: 100%;} + +</style> +</head> +<body> +<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75302 ***</div> +<div class="transnote"><strong> +TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong> + +<p class="noindent">Footnote anchors are denoted by <span class="fnanchor">[number]</span>, and the footnotes have been +placed at the end of the paragraph.</p> + +<p class="noindent">Some minor changes to the text are noted at the <a href="#ENDNOTE">end of the book</a>. +</p></div> + + <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + <div class="chapter"> + </div> + + <figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="cover"> + <img class="w100" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="(Cover)"> + </figure> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp40" id="plate1" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_f000.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">PLATE I. INDIGO DYED BATIK FROM MADRAS</figcaption> +</figure> + +</div> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + + +<div class="chapter"> +<h1 > +DYES <i>and</i> DYEING</h1> + +<p class="center noindent p2 pb6">BY<br> +<br> +<span class="fs150 lsp1">CHARLES E. PELLEW</span><br> +<i>Formerly Adjunct Professor of Chemistry<br> +at Columbia University</i><br> +</p> +<figure class="figcenter illowp10" id="i_f001" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_f001.jpg" alt="(colophon)"> +</figure><br> +<p class="center noindent p4 wsp"> +<span class="fs80 lsp1">NEW YORK</span><br> +ROBERT M. McBRIDE & COMPANY<br> +1918</p> + +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</span></p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + + +<div class="chapter"> +<p class="center noindent lspp5 wsp p4"> +<span class="smcap fs80">Copyright, 1913, by</span><br> +McBRIDE, NAST & COMPANY<br> +<br> +<span class="smcap fs80">Copyright, 1918, by</span><br> +ROBERT M. McBRIDE & COMPANY</p> +<p class="center noindent wsp p8 fs80"> +New and enlarged edition<br> +Published, January, 1918<br> +</p> +</div> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">[iv]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> +</div> + + +<table class="toctable wd90"> +<tr> +<td colspan="2"></td> +<td class="tdl wd5 fs60">PAGE</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter I—INTRODUCTION</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="wd8e"></td> +<td class="tdl">Dyes of the Ancients—Dyes of Our +Ancestors—Animal, Vegetable and +Mineral Dyes—Outfit for Practical +Dyeing.</td> +<td></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter II—MODERN DYESTUFFS</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="wd8e"></td> +<td class="tdl">Discovery of the Aniline or Coal-Tar +Colors—Their Properties and Uses—How +Obtained—How Named—Classification +of Coal-Tar Colors for Craftsmen.</td> +<td></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter III—THE DIRECT COTTON OR +SALT COLORS</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="wd8e"></td> +<td class="tdl">Discovery, Properties and Uses of the +Salt Colors; with Lists of Selected +Dyestuffs, and Dying Directions for +Cotton and Linen—Fastness to Light +and Washing—After-treatment.</td> +<td></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter IV—THEORY AND PRACTICE OF +COLOR DYEING</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="wd8e"></td> +<td class="tdl">Even and Shaded Dyeing with the +Primary Colors—Experiments with +Secondary Colors—Matching Shades.</td> +<td></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter V—THE SULPHUR COLORS</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="wd8e"></td> +<td class="tdl">Discovery—Properties and Uses of +the Sulphur Colors—List of Selected +Dyestuffs, and Dyeing Directions for +Cotton and Linen.</td> +<td></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter VI—THE INDIGO OR VAT COLORS</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="wd8e"></td> +<td class="tdl">Natural and Synthetic Indigo—Properties +and Application—Vat Dyeing, +Old and Modern—Dyeing Directions—The +Modern Vat Colors—Their +Properties and Uses—Selected Dyestuffs—Fastness +to Light and Washing—Dyeing +Directions for Cotton, +Linen and Silk.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[v]</span></td> +<td></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter VII—THE BASIC COLORS</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="wd8e"></td> +<td class="tdl">History, Properties, and Application +to Cotton, Wool, Silk, etc.—Disadvantages—Not +Fast to Light—Dyeing +Directions for Straw, Raffia, etc.</td> +<td></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter VIII—THE ACID COLORS</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="wd8e"></td> +<td class="tdl">History, Properties, Uses, and List of +Selected Dyestuffs—Dyeing Directions +for Wool.</td> +<td></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter IX—DYEING FEATHERS</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="wd8e"></td> +<td class="tdl">The Dye-bath—The Dyeing Method—The +Finishing Process—Dry and +Wet Starching—Dyeing in the Starch—Black +Dyeing of Feathers—Painting +Feathers.</td> +<td></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter X—LEATHER AND LEATHER +DYEING</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="wd8e"></td> +<td class="tdl">History—Preparation of Leather—Oil, +Mineral and Bark Tanning—Dyeing, +Staining and Finishing Leather.</td> +<td></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter XI—SILK I</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="wd8e"></td> +<td class="tdl">History, Origin and Varieties of Silk—Preparing +Silk for Dyeing—Piece +Dyeing—Skein Dyeing—Dyeing Wild +Silks.</td> +<td></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter XII—SILK II</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="wd8e"></td> +<td class="tdl">Black Dyeing of Silk—Coal-Tar Colors—Logwood—Weighting +of Silk—Properties +and Tests for Weighted Silk—Dyeing +Silk with Colors Fast to Washing.</td> +<td></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter XIII—IMITATION AND ARTIFICIAL +SILK</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="wd8e"></td> +<td class="tdl">History, Preparation and Properties +of Mercerized Cotton—History, Preparation +and Properties of Artificial +Silk—Precautions to be Taken in Dyeing +and Finishing. <span id="Page_vi" class="pagenum">[vi]</span></td> +<td></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter XIV—TIED AND DYED WORK</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="wd8e"></td> +<td class="tdl">As Used in South America, India, +Philippines and U.S.—Variations in +Tying Process—How Dyed—Tied +and Discharged Work.</td> +<td></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter XV—STENCILS AND STENCILLING</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="wd8e"></td> +<td class="tdl">Japanese Practice—U.S. Practice—Knives, +Brushes, Paper, etc.—Colors +for Leather, Silk, and Cotton—Stencilling +with Aniline Black Paste.</td> +<td></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter XVI—RESIST AND DISCHARGE +STENCILLING</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="wd8e"></td> +<td class="tdl">Japanese Practice—Resist Paste and +the Sulphur Colors—Discharge Stencilling +with Bleaching Powder and +Hydrosulphite.</td> +<td></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter XVII—BATIK OR WAX RESIST</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="wd8e"></td> +<td class="tdl">Javanese Practice—Modern Practice +and Apparatus—Dyeing of Batiked +Goods—Use of Batik Process on Cotton, +Linen, Silk, Leather, Wood, Bone, +etc.</td> +<td></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter XVIII—THE INFLUENCE OF THE +WAR UPON THE DYESTUFF +INDUSTRY</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_260">260</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="wd8e"></td> +<td class="tdl">Rise of the German Dyestuff Monopoly—Ruin +of the English Dyestuff +Industry—Dyestuff Industry in +the United States—Changed Conditions +Due to the War—Lists of Best +Dyestuffs.</td> +<td></td></tr> +</table> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[vii] </span> + + +<p class="center noindent fs110 p2">THE ILLUSTRATIONS </p> + + +<p class="center noindent fs110 p2">PLATES IN COLOR </p> + +<table class="toctable wd90"> + +<tr> +<td colspan="3"></td> +<td class="tdrb"><span class="fs60">PLATE</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt wd5">I</td> +<td class="tdl" colspan="1"> Indigo dyed batik from Madras</td> +<td class="tdrb" colspan="2"><a href="#plate1"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td colspan="1"></td> +<td class="tdrb" colspan="3"><span class="fs60">FACING PAGE</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">II</td> +<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Japanese towelling, showing impression of fresh damp +leaves</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate2">26</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">III</td><td class="tdl" colspan="2"> + Same towelling after immersion in iron spring</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate3">30</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">IV</td> +<td class="tdl" > (<i>a</i>) Example of tied and dyed work<br> +(<i>b</i>) Example of tied and discharged work </td> +<td class="tdl fs200">}</td> +<td class="tdrm"><a href="#plate4a">210</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">V</td><td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Japanese towelling stencilled in resist and dyed + by immersion in iron spring</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate4b">230</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + + + +<p class="center noindent fs110 p2">ILLUSTRATIONS IN HALF-TONE </p> + +<table class="toctable wd90"> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrt fs60">FIG.</td> +<td colspan="3"></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt wd5">1</td> +<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Shellfish used by the ancients for Tyrian purple</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig1">12</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt" ></td> +<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sir W. H. Perkin</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#WGPerkin">42</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">2</td> +<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Tied and dyed headdress from an Inca tomb in Peru</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig2">192</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">3</td> +<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Shikar chundri, from Rajputana, with knots still untied</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig3">196</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">4</td> +<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Same chundri untied and shaken out</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig4">198</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">5</td> +<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Bagobo headdress from the Island of Mindanao</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig5">200</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">6</td> +<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Sample of tied and dyed work, “tied on itself”</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig6">202</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">7</td> +<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Sample of tied and dyed work, “tied in bands”</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig7">204</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">8</td> +<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Tied and dyed work—Folding the cloth</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig8">206</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">9</td><td class="wd8e"></td> +<td class="tdl">Starting to tie</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig9">206</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">10</td><td class="wd8e"></td> +<td class="tdl">Centre portion tied</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig10">206</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">11 </td><td class="wd8e"></td> +<td class="tdl">Centre and corners tied</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_p208a">208</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">12</td><td class="wd8e"></td> +<td class="tdl">Dyed, untied and shaken out</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_p208a">208</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">13</td> +<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Japanese stencil knife</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig13">212</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">14</td> +<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Japanese stencil brushes</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig14">212</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">15</td> +<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Japanese stencil, showing holes punched by hand tool</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig15">216</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viiii">[viii]</span></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">16</td> +<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Japanese stencil, showing use of stops</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_p216a_2">216</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">17</td> +<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Japanese stencil, showing use of sewing instead of stops</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_p216a_2">216</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">18</td> +<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Japanese stencils, showing use of both stops and net</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig18">218</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">19</td> +<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Large and handsome Japanese stencil, showing use of net</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig19">224</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">20</td> +<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> “Teapot” model of tjanting</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig20">248</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">21</td> +<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Walther glass tjanting</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig21">248</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">22</td> +<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> “Wax pencil” model of tjanting</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig22">248</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">23</td> +<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Javanese tjantings</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig23">250</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt">24</td> +<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> American modification of Javanese tjanting</td> +<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig24">250</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + + + +<p class="center noindent fs110 p2">DIAGRAMS IN THE LETTERPRESS</p> + +<table class="toctable wd90"> + +<tr> +<td class="tdrt wd5"></td><td class="tdl">Primary Colors</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdrt wd5"></td><td class="tdl">Mixed Colors</td> +<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td> +</tr> +</table> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[1]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">When</span> a new text-book is offered to an innocent and +long-suffering public about such an ancient subject as +Dyes and Dyeing, it is, perhaps, the very least that +the author can do, to explain briefly his reasons for +hoping that his particular book may prove of some +special usefulness.</p> + +<p>As a matter of fact this book is intended for the use +of craftsmen and others who are trying to dye and +stain textiles by hand and on a small scale, rather than +for professional dyers or dyeing chemists who are interested +in factory dyeing, conducted on a large scale. +For the latter there is little or no difficulty in getting +any information that they desire, either from the +large and carefully written text-books or, still better, +from the many excellent dyeing manuals and books of +directions issued at frequent intervals by the great +color houses.</p> + +<p>But for craftsmen and their like, the amateur dyers +as opposed to the regular professionals, the required +information is not easy to obtain. Their leaders and +teachers, as a rule, profess a scorn of the wonderful +discoveries which, in the last half century, have revolutionized +the art of dyeing more, perhaps, than any +other branch of handicraft. And the dyeing chemists +and writers have devoted themselves almost exclusively +to the far larger and more important and more profitable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[2]</span> +field of commercial or professional dyeing, and +only here and there is one found who has given any +special attention to the dyes and processes needed by +those working only on a small scale.</p> + +<p>For my own part, after teaching the principles and +practice of modern dyeing to class after class of +chemical students at Columbia, my attention was +called to this particular branch of the subject by finding, +one spring, that some friends had started a hand-weaving +industry at a settlement house in which I was +interested, but had not made any arrangement for a +dyehouse at the same time. This was a serious omission +because it is almost impossible to buy in the +market raw materials for hand-woven rugs, table-covers, +and the like, that are dyed just the right shade +and, at the same time, are fast to both light and washing; +and, unless this last is guaranteed, there is little +or no excuse for charging the large prices necessary +to pay for the extra expense of the hand labor.</p> + +<p>Wishing, therefore, to help out my friends, I offered +to assist as far as possible in this part of the work. +That summer was spent on the St. Lawrence, where +it was possible to study some of the textile work of the +French<i lang="fr">habitants</i> whose dyeing processes, designs, and +looms had descended from mother to daughter since +the old Colonial days; and in the autumn I fitted up +a little dyehouse and started with a small but intelligent +class of neighbors who were working at the +looms.</p> + +<p>Of course, it was foolish to attempt to teach them +the scientific chemical formulæ used by my students<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[3]</span> +uptown. The processes must be short and simple—must +give the desired shades on cotton, linen, wool, +and silk in the course of an hour or an hour and a +half at the outside, counting from the time when the +class was called to order. And the colors must be absolutely +fast to light, and, wherever possible, to washing +also.</p> + +<p>The work was very interesting and proved successful +enough, at least as far as the dyeing went. After +a few months some visiting reporter, in an article on +Greenwich House and its industries, mentioned the +dyeing, in a magazine, and stated that the colors +resulting were not only beautiful but fast. Immediately +I was bombarded with letters from all over the +country, begging for information about permanent dyestuffs +to be used for hand-woven textiles. Requests +came from friends and acquaintances to help them in +various side branches of the subject, such as feather +dyeing, leather dyeing and staining, stencilling, tied +and dyed work, and, above all, Batik. And it soon +became a source of much interest to look up some old +process of dyeing, originating perhaps in the East, +perhaps among the ancient Egyptians, and to work +it out with the best modern dyestuffs.</p> + +<p>Finally, my correspondence grew so burdensome +that I arranged with the well-known New York magazine, +<i>The Craftsman</i>, for a series of articles upon +“Modern Dyestuffs and Dyeing Processes for the +Use of Craftsmen”; and from these articles the present +book is a natural result.</p> + +<p>It is hoped that it will prove useful, not only for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[4]</span> +individuals who are trying, under considerable difficulties, +to get satisfactory results, by means of long-abandoned +processes, upon textile materials of many +sorts and kinds, but also for teachers of art in our +public as well as private schools. Much attention is +being given now to training the hands of children in +various drawing and decorating and weaving processes. +But the modern dyestuffs give a much greater opportunity +to train their eyes to a sense of color and to its +beauties, as well as giving them an introduction into +an art which can be used at home for most useful as +well as beautiful purposes.</p> + +<p>My hearty thanks are due to many friends, notably, +to Mr. Philip Clarkson, head chemist of H. A. Metz +& Co., to Dr. Ludwig, of the Cassella Color Co., and +to many other expert dyeing chemists, who have most +kindly helped me with advice and information about +many widely varying branches of the subject. Also to +many of my craftsman friends, notably Mrs. C. L. +Banks, of Bridgeport, Conn., and Mrs. Charlotte +Busck, of this city, who have been of the greatest +assistance in working out many of the problems involved +in stencilling and Batik; and to Miss Mary Grey, +of Hackettstown, N. J., who has kindly allowed me to +insert an illustration of some of her interesting and +well-designed tied work (Fig. <a href="#fig7">7</a>). It is my earnest +hope that the information contained in this book may +encourage and assist other craftsmen throughout the +country to come up to the high standard of these +skilled textile workers.</p> + +<p class="right"> +C. E. P.<br> +</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[5]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_I">Chapter I<br> +<span class="chapt_sub">INTRODUCTION</span></h2> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">There</span> has been so much said and written about +the beauty and value of the old-fashioned dyestuffs +and dyeing processes and their superiority +to the modern coloring matters, that many well-meaning +people of artistic tastes have never ceased to +deplore the discovery and introduction of the so-called +aniline or coal-tar dyes, and to regard them as a serious +detriment to the art of dyeing.</p> + +<p>Some, indeed, have gone so far as to decry the discoveries +not only of the last fifty years, but also of +the last nineteen or twenty centuries. These quote +with approval the great John Ruskin, founder and +original leader of the whole Arts and Crafts movement +in England, if not in the world, as having said, “There +has been nothing discovered of the slightest interest +in the tinctorial art” (the art of dyeing) “since the +days of the ancient Greeks and Romans.”</p> + +<p>To suppose for an instant that this important and +highly specialized art has not advanced during nearly +two thousand years is, on the face of it, absurd. A +very little knowledge of dyestuffs forces recognition +of the fact that many of the very best, fastest, and +most beautiful of the dyes of our ancestors—such as +cochineal, with which they dyed practically all of their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[6]</span> +fast pinks and scarlets; logwood, with which silk as +well as wool was, and is still dyed black; fustic, +which was used for fast yellows on wool and cotton, +and several others—were natives of America, and +therefore only known to the world at large since the +seventeenth century.</p> + +<p>Indeed, as we shall see, the art of dyeing, based as +it is on chemical processes, discovered one by one, but +never properly explained or understood until the last +sixty or seventy years, is, perhaps, the one art above +all others in which not only the ancient world, but the +world of comparatively a few years ago, was very distinctly +inferior to that of the present day.</p> + +<p>In drawing, sculpture, painting, architecture, ceramics, +wood-carving, lacemaking, metal working, and +almost every other art that can be mentioned, the +craftsman of the Middle Ages, if not indeed of ancient +Rome or Greece, could still hold his place against +modern competitors. Even in such a modern art as +book printing, the lover of books will claim, with considerable +reason, that no more beautiful or more +nearly perfect specimen of the printer’s art has ever +been produced than the Gutenberg Bible, the first +product of the European printing press.</p> + +<p>The art of dyeing, however, has been changing and +developing so much from century to century, that, even +before the wonderful discoveries of the last fifty years, +the effects produced by any one generation of dyers +would have been totally impossible for their ancestors +of a few generations before them.</p> + +<p>It would seem hardly worth while to dwell further<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[7]</span> +upon this subject, were not the idea so fixed in the +minds of craftsmen in general that to get permanent +and artistic effects in dyeing we must go back to the +colors of our ancestors, if not to those of the ancient +world. To this day we hear of new industries being +started in the lines of hand-made tapestries, hand-woven +linens, homespun cloths, and the like, where, +as a great inducement to prospective purchasers, the +goods are loudly proclaimed as dyed with “pure vegetable +colors”; and the first question commonly asked +about a pretty piece of dyed work is, “Are you +sure that it is fast? Did you use the vegetable +dyes?”</p> + +<p>As a result of this ignoring and scorning of the +wonderful results of modern science in its application +to this most important industry, the work of +textile craftsmen all over the world is far behind the +times, and comparatively far behind other lines of +craftwork.</p> + +<p>Nobody expects a modern sculptor to do his carving +with the bronze tools used by the old Athenians; +nor do we consider that the present day worker in +metals should refrain from using the modern gas +furnace, or limit his products to the few metals and +alloys known in the Middle Ages, ignoring those which +modern chemistry has developed. And yet, all over +the world, craftsmen are still pottering with long since +obsolete dyestuffs and obscure and antiquated formulæ, +instead of spending their energies in getting, with +the minimum expenditure of time and trouble, results +of a quality never dreamed of by the most skilful +dyers of half a century ago.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[8]</span></p> + +<p>As a matter of fact, so far from Mr. Ruskin’s +estimate of the value of ancient dyes being correct, +it is actually no more than fair to say that hardly a +single dyeing process, known and used more than +fifty years ago, is of the slightest practical importance +now to any one.</p> + + +<h3>DYES OF THE ANCIENTS</h3> + +<p>So far as we can tell, the art of dyeing is an extremely +ancient one. It seems to have developed in +every country and to have been practised by every race +of mankind, as soon as that race ceased to rely exclusively +upon the skins of fur-bearing animals for +clothing and coverings. Wherever we find people +using woven goods, whether vegetable, like cotton or +linen, or animal, like wool or silk—or wherever, as +in the case of the North American Indians, they have +learned the art of dressing skins so as to make them +soft, pliable, and with a comparatively smooth surface, +we find at least the rudiments of the process of dyeing, +in the staining of these materials to add to their beauty +and interest.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Vegetable Dyes.</i>—The earliest dyes were probably of +vegetable origin, discovered by accidentally staining +garments with juices of fruits or plants. Thus, for +instance, in the Bible we read of “garments dyed in +the blood of grapes”; and we can all call to mind +fruits in common use—blackberries, huckleberries, +peaches, and the like, whose juice could be used, if +nothing better presented itself, to dye or stain +light-colored fabrics.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[9]</span></p> + +<p>In most cases, as in those just mentioned, the colors +would be fugitive, and after a short time become dull +and uninteresting. But in the process of time vegetable +dyes were discovered, in one part and another +of the world, which, in the hands of those who knew +how to work with them, gave colors both fast and +beautiful. And thus grew and developed the art of +the professional dyer.</p> + +<p>For instance, in many widely separated countries, +such as India, Java, South and Central America, plants +are found, known as<i lang="la">indigoferae</i>, whose juices, yellow +when fresh, rapidly turn blue when exposed to the air. +These juices impart a rich and permanent blue stain +to objects moistened with them while they are still +yellow; and this blue is the coloring matter known +as indigo. The plants bearing it have been cultivated +for hundreds, if not, indeed, thousands of years, and +used for dyeing.</p> + +<p>Garments and blankets found in the so-called Inca +graves in Peru and Chili, dating from long before +the Spanish conquest, as well as the oldest specimens +of Hindoo workmanship, and even some of the textiles +found in the tombs of Egypt, all show examples of +this same dyestuff. It was so valuable that, in small +quantities and at vast expense, it was imported by the +Romans from India, as is shown by its Latin name, +Indicum (Indian), from which its present name, indigo, +is directly derived.</p> + +<p>But, curiously enough, exactly the same dyestuff, +but in a very impure form, and derived from an entirely +different plant, the<i lang="la">isatis tinctoria</i>, commonly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span> +known as<em>woad</em>, has been discovered and used in Western +Europe from time immemorial. And when Julius +Cæsar, nearly two thousand years ago, led a Roman +army for the first time across the channel into England, +he found the native Britons adorning themselves +by smearing their bodies with a dirty blue dyestuff +obtained from this source.</p> + +<p>So, little by little, the knowledge of these natural +dyestuffs and their application grew and expanded. +But as a matter of fact, so far at least as can be +gathered from the old writers, those known and used +by the ancient Greeks and Romans were few in number +and of comparatively little interest.</p> + +<p>For blues they were obliged to use the inferior color +derived, as above mentioned, from the native woad, +excepting when, for some special purposes, a little +indigo was imported from the East at enormous expense.</p> + +<p>Their principal yellow dyestuff was saffron, which +is derived from the flowers of the common yellow +crocus. This gives pleasant, warm shades of golden +yellow, not fast, however, to either light or washing. +This same saffron, though long since entirely abandoned +as a dyestuff, is still used in small quantities for +staining candy and foodstuffs, and occasionally for +medicinal purposes.</p> + +<p>The ancients are believed to have discovered the +dyeing properties of the roots of madder—<i>rubia tinctorum</i>—(the +dyer’s root), and to have used it in small +quantities for producing purple and brown and, possibly, +even red shades, on cotton and wool. Whether,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span> +however, the art of dyeing the brilliant crimson and +scarlet shades known as Turkey red was ever worked +out before the Middle Ages, is extremely doubtful.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Animal Dyes.</b>—Unquestionably the best red dyes +known to the people of those early times were of +animal origin, and were used for various shades of +red and of purple.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Kermes.</i>—One of these, called kermes, is very closely +related to the more important and, up to a few years +ago, the very generally used, cochineal, and to the +lac dye.</p> + +<p>These three dyestuffs—kermes, cochineal, and lac—come +to the market in the form of little dark colored +grains, which, when ground up with hot water, give +a bright red solution called carmine, which contains +a considerable amount of a coloring known as carminic +acid. When wool or silk that has been previously +<i>mordanted</i>—that is, impregnated with chemical +agents; in this case salts of tin, aluminium, iron, +or copper—is boiled in one of these solutions, it becomes +scarlet, crimson, purple, or claret color, according +to the mordant employed. From the appearance +and form, as they come to market, of these dyestuffs, +the shades thus derived are commonly known as the +“grain colors.”</p> + +<p>When these granules are soaked for some time in +warm water they swell, and their true character becomes +apparent. They consist of the dried bodies of +small insects, known as “cocci” (berries), which are +carefully cultivated on particular kinds of trees or +shrubs and when full grown are brushed off and dried<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[12]</span> +for market. They are very small—the cochineal +grains, which are the most important, running about +70,000 to the pound.</p> + +<p>Kermes, which was the only one of the three known +to the old Greeks and Romans, consists of the dried +bodies of the “<i>coccus ilicis</i>,” a variety of the insect +which lives on a species of oak, and which, it is said, +is still occasionally used in Southern Europe, and in +Morocco, for dyeing leather and wool.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Tyrian Purple.</i>—The most highly prized ancient dyestuff, +and one concerning which much interest has +always been felt, was the so-called “Tyrian purple.” +This was obtained from the juices of certain species of +snails found in the waters of the Mediterranean Sea, +and, indeed, in the ocean waters of many other warm +climates. Two species of this class—the<i lang="la">murex +Brandaris</i> and the<i lang="la">murex trunculus</i>—were used extensively +by the ancients, and great mounds of their +shells, such for instance as the so-called Monte Testaccio +at Tarentum, are still found along the shores +at places famous, in old days, for their dyeing establishments.</p> + +<p>Other shellfish of the same general type, known +as<i lang="la">purpura lapillus</i>, are found quite abundantly, not +only in the Mediterranean, but also on our own coast +and along the shores of Central and South America. +They have been used by the natives in Nicaragua and +elsewhere, from time immemorial, for obtaining a +similar color.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig1" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p012a.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"> +<p class="noindent center"> +<i>Purpura lapillus</i> <span class="padshell"><i>Murex trunculus</i></span> <span class="padshell"><i>Murex Brandaris</i></span><br> +</p> + +FIG. 1—SHELLFISH USED BY THE ANCIENTS FOR TYRIAN PURPLE</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>These shellfish were so much sought after in the +old days that, by the time of the early Middle Ages,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span> +they were almost exterminated, and the dye disappeared +from commerce entirely. But, long before +that, in the early days of the Roman Empire, the +coloring matter was so expensive that fabulous sums +were paid for cloth or yarns dyed with it, and its use +was practically confined to the imperial family. In +fact one of the imperial titles in the Eastern empire—<i>purpureogenitus</i>, +“born to the purple”—was due to +this fact.</p> + +<p>Some interesting information upon the value set on +this dyestuff by the ancients is afforded by the so-called +Edict of Diocletian, fragments of which, engraved on +stone tablets, have been found in different parts of +the old Roman Empire, ranging from Egypt to Asia +Minor. By this edict, issued in <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 301, the emperor +Diocletian attempted to fix the market price of the +principal articles of commerce, for the Eastern empire. +According to this, the price of wool, heavily dyed with +this color, was worth about $350 a pound, in gold.</p> + +<p>The dyestuff, as we learn from the description of +the process by ancient writers, was obtained from a +whitish or yellowish liquid found, two or three drops +at a time, in a particular vein in the body of these +animals. This juice, when exposed to air and especially +to sunshine, forms the purple or violet color, +much in the some manner that the blue color of +indigo is formed from the yellow juice of the indigo +plant.</p> + +<p>The shellfish in question, having for many centuries +been left undisturbed, are now quite common +in the waters of the Mediterranean, and are occasionally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span> +to be found in the poorer quarters of Venice +and other Italian seaports, exposed for sale as food.</p> + +<p>A year or two ago a German color chemist, famous +for his discovery of the brilliant and extremely permanent +reddish violet dyestuff, known as Thio Indigo red +B., made a careful investigation to see whether, by any +chance, this color of his might happen to be the same +as the famous old Tyrian purple.</p> + +<p>He managed to secure some twelve thousand specimens +of<i lang="la">murex Brandaris</i>, and, with an immense +amount of labor, obtained from these twelve thousand +specimens about twenty-one grains of pure dyestuff. +This he carefully analyzed and experimented +with, until finally he was able to prove that, while +it was not identical with his own Thio Indigo red +dyestuff—which, as the name shows, is a compound +of indigo and sulphur—the Tyrian purple was a similar +compound of the same indigo dyestuff, with the +comparatively rare acid element, bromine. In fact +it is what the chemists would call a brom-indigo; and +this same famous chemist, Dr. Friedlaender, of +Biebrich on the Rhine, after discovering its composition, +amused himself by manufacturing some of it +artificially; and, with the artificial reproduction of +the ancient Tyrian purple, he dyed some skeins of +silk, as an illustration to his article detailing his discovery.</p> + +<p>Now, if there were any truth in the theory of the +superlative value and beauty of these ancient dyestuffs, +it is evident that this rediscovery of the true +and genuine Tyrian purple would have been a matter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[15]</span> +of great practical importance. On the assumption +that one pound of dyestuff would color at least twenty +pounds of wool, this would put the price of the dye +itself, in Diocletian’s day, at a pretty high figure.</p> + +<p>It can now be manufactured, at a profit, for not +over one one-thousandth of what it cost in those days, +not allowing, either, for the difference in value of +money between then and now. And yet this famous +dye, which was so highly esteemed and of which so +much has been written, is so inferior in color and +tone to several of the modern dyestuffs that it probably +would not pay to put it on the market. Dr. +Friedlaender’s samples were, indeed, fast to both light +and washing, but their color showed dull and, to +modern eyes, distinctly uninteresting shades of violet. +And there are already on the market several violet, +red and blue dyes of the same general class—the indigo +or vat dyes—which are quite as fast to light and +washing, and far superior in beauty and brilliancy +of shade.</p> + +<p>It is only proper, however, to state that Dr. +Friedlaender’s investigation did not completely clear +up the subject, though there is no question but that +he really discovered the true Tyrian purple; and the +color of the specimens dyed and exhibited by him +corresponded very closely to some still surviving from +antiquity.</p> + +<p>Among the fine collections of textiles from the +Egyptian tombs that are in the Metropolitan Museum +of Art in New York City, are some excellent examples +of Tyrian purple. These are what the Greeks<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[16]</span> +used to call “di-bapha,” or double dyed—i.e., dyed +very deep, full shades of dark purple. While a wonderful +example of the lighter, violet, shades of the +same dye can be seen in a famous manuscript, known +as “The Golden Gospels,” now in Mr. J. Pierpont +Morgan’s collection in the same city, but which was +given about 1520, by Pope Leo X to King Henry VIII. +This was written, in golden characters, upon vellum +dyed with Tyrian purple, and the shades of the latter +correspond quite closely with the violet of the artificial +brom-indigo compound.</p> + +<p>On the other hand there is evidence to show that +the ancients were also able to obtain, with the same +Tyrian purple dye, perhaps from the shellfish<i lang="la">purpura +lapillus</i>, fast and brilliant shades of scarlet, as well +as these rather dull tones of violet and purple. In +the days of the Roman Empire, as above mentioned, +the use of “purple” garments was denied to all but +the imperial family; but later, after the rise of the +Christian Church, the ecclesiastics gained sufficient +power to obtain this privilege for themselves. And +to this day the cardinals of the Roman Catholic +Church are called “porporati” on account of the +“purple” or, as we would say, scarlet, color of their +characteristic robes. So, whenever we see the red +robes of a high dignitary of the church we are probably +looking at one of the tints of the real old Tyrian +purple, although the art of actually producing it has +long since been lost; and, if rediscovered, would probably +be of as little practical value as Dr. Friedlaender’s +remarkable investigation.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[17]</span></p> + + +<h3>THE DYES OF OUR ANCESTORS</h3> + +<p>Between the days of the ancient Greeks and +Romans, and the discovery of the first aniline dye +in 1856, many and important additions were made +to the list of available dyestuffs, some of which have +continued in use, for special purposes, up to the present +day.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Indian Dyes.</b>—The opening of trade to the Far East, +due to the discovery of the sea route round the Cape +of Good Hope, brought to Europe the free use of +some of the Indian dyestuffs. Indigo, for instance, +was introduced for the first time in considerable quantities, +and, after much opposition, completely took the +place of the much inferior native dyestuff, woad.</p> + +<p>For yellow, the old saffron dye was superseded by +the more powerful, but still rather fugitive, turmeric, +or Indian saffron. This came from the root of the +<i>curcuma tinctoria</i>, a plant freely grown to this day in +both India and China. The safflower was also imported +from India; this is a kind of thistle,<i lang="la">carthamus +tinctorum</i>, the dried heads of flowers of which were +largely used for dyeing pretty shades of pink upon +cotton,<em>directly</em>—that is, without any mordanting +process. This color, too, is comparatively fugitive +to light, and has almost disappeared from sight.</p> + +<p>Of more importance were the so-called red woods, +which came partly from India and partly from the +east and west coasts of Africa; and of which the most +important are the sandal wood, bar wood, and cam +wood. The wood of each of these trees probably<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span> +contains the same coloring matter. The color is not +very easy to extract, but when used with mordants +of chromium, aluminium, or tin salts, it dyes wool +various shades of red and reddish-brown. These +colors are very fast to milling—in other words to +the action of alkalies when the wool is finished in +the manufacture of broadcloth; but they are not particularly +fast to light, and for this reason, as well as +because of their greater expense, they have been for +the most part abandoned.</p> + +<p>From India, too, were introduced the well-known +brown dyes known as cutch (catechu) and gambier. +These come to the market in the form of dark colored +pastes, formed by evaporating infusions of leaves, +seed pods, nuts, and sometimes the wood of various +species of acacia and areca trees. They contain large +amounts of a peculiar variety of the substance known +as tannin or tannic acid, which is widely distributed +among many plants, and which is very useful in dyeing, +as will be described later. The brown coloring +matter has been isolated, and is called catechin. Both +cutch and gambier will dye cotton and wool rich shades +of brown, which are quite fast to light when after-treated +with copper or chromium salts.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Dyes from the New World.</b>—The discovery of America, +and the colonizing and opening to trade of South +America and the West Indies, in the sixteenth and +seventeenth centuries, still further enlarged the field +for dyers.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Cochineal.</i>—One of the first dyes introduced from +there was cochineal, a “grain color,” similar to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[19]</span> +kermes, already described, consisting of the dried +bodies of an insect known as<i lang="la">coccus cacti</i>, because it +lives upon certain kind of cactus which are native +to Mexico and Central America.</p> + +<p>This dyestuff was largely used for dyeing wool +and silk goods, and produced fairly fast shades of +crimson or of scarlet, according to the mordant employed. +But it has been replaced almost entirely +now by the various acid dyes, to be described later, +which are cheaper, are much easier to apply, and are +of equal and, in many cases, of much greater, fastness +to light.</p> + +<p>One of the few cases where cochineal is still used +on a large scale is in England, where the scarlet +coats of the British regulars are dyed with this color, +on a tin mordant. It is believed, however, that this +is not due to any real or fancied superiority of the +old dye over many of the modern colors, but simply +to the terms of an old “perpetual” contract, which, +a hundred and fifty years or more ago, gave the +privilege of dyeing the English “redcoats” to one +particular firm and their successors, on condition that +they use this dye and none other. Although both +dyers and government would profit by the use of +modern dyes, the terms of the old contract are still +rigidly adhered to for fear of losing the monopoly.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Lac Dye.</i>—The similar dyestuff called lac dye, which +had been known and used in India for hundreds of +years, was introduced into Europe towards the end of +the eighteenth century. It also is the body of a small +insect, the<i lang="la">coccus laccae</i>, which lives on the twigs of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span> +the banyan tree, and other varieties of fig trees. +When these twigs are broken off and dried to kill +the insect, there is found present on them, along with +the coloring matter, a large amount of a peculiar +resinous or gummy substance, which, when extracted +and purified, is known and widely used, as “shellac.”</p> + +<p>Lac dye was used in practically the same way as +cochineal, and produced, upon wool, scarlet, orange, +and crimson shades, which were faster and more solid, +but not as brilliant, as the cochineal. It is now used +but rarely, even in the East, having been largely superseded, +there, by brilliant but, unfortunately, in many +cases, cheap and worthless modern dyestuffs.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Fustic.</i>—From America, also, came the excellent yellow +dyestuff, “fustic,” yielded by the tree commonly +called yellow wood, Cuba wood, etc. Its true botanical +name, however, is<i lang="la">chlorophora tinctoria</i>, and it +was largely used for dyeing, either directly in the +form of chips, or as a solid or liquid extract made +from the wood.</p> + +<p>It was principally used with mordants of aluminium +or tin salts, for dyeing wool bright, fast shades of +yellow, or, with the aid of bichromate of potash as +a mordant, for obtaining mixed shades, in conjunction +with indigo, cutch, madder, and logwood. It +has been almost entirely replaced now by fast modern +dyestuffs.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Logwood.</i>—The most important of all these dyestuffs, +and the only one still used on a large scale, is logwood, +a dye extracted from the wood of quite a large tree, +the<i lang="la">haematoxylon Campechianum</i> (the “blood-red<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span> +wood from Campeachy”), which grows freely in the +West Indies and Central American states.</p> + +<p>It was discovered and used by the Spaniards early +in the sixteenth century, and in Queen Elizabeth’s +reign was introduced into England, much against the +wishes of the older school of dyers who furiously +denounced it as producing fugitive colors, and had its +use prohibited by Act of Parliament. It was over a +hundred years before the real value of the dyestuff +was appreciated, and this law was repealed.</p> + +<p>The operation of extracting the coloring matter +from the wood itself, of which it forms only some +three per cent. by weight, is a troublesome and delicate +one. The logs are chipped or rasped into fine pieces, +then moistened and piled in heaps and the color developed +by a process of fermentation. Accordingly, +extracts of logwood have been put on the market by +various large firms, especially of late years, and, while +the use of the wood itself by dyers has for the most +part been abandoned, these extracts are widely used +for dyeing blacks upon silk, in spite of there now +being many excellent acid blacks.</p> + +<p>The dyeing process, too, is rather complicated, for +the goods must be carefully mordanted before dyeing, +with salts of iron, chromium, or tin. For this reason +wool is rarely dyed with logwood. It is, however, +still used for silk dyeing, partly because it gives very +full, deep, permanent shades of black, but principally +because, by using one mordant after another before +dyeing, it is possible to increase enormously the weight +of the dyed silk, at very moderate expense.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span></p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Turkey Red.</i>—The use of madder which, as before +mentioned, was probably known to the ancients, was +greatly developed during the sixteenth and seventeenth +centuries, owing to the introduction from the near +East of the so-called Turkey red process for obtaining, +upon cotton and wool, very fast and very brilliant +shades of scarlet.</p> + +<p>The process took some three months, and consisted +of an elaborate series of mordanting operations, before +the dyeing proper began. The goods were first +soaked in a bath of some fatty material, such as +milk or, later, rancid olive oil, and then dried carefully. +After this they were soaked in a bath of alum +and then in limewater, or a chalk bath—and these +operations were repeated over and over, with various +manipulations in between.</p> + +<p>Finally, the mordanted material was dyed by boiling +it in a bath containing the finely-ground madder +root, and then “brightened” by washing out, in a +boiling soap bath, all the loose color and the unfixed +mordant. This process was repeated until the proper +shade was reached.</p> + +<p>During the early part of the nineteenth century, +various extracts of madder were made, by treating the +ground root with strong sulphuric acid and other +agents, which destroyed the woody tissues and other +inert matter, without injuring the coloring matter. +The dyeing process also was greatly simplified and +shortened. Later the real active principles of the +madder root were investigated, and found to be two +crystalline bodies named alizarine and purpurine, respectively.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span> +And finally, several years after aniline +dyestuffs had been discovered and manufactured, two +German chemists, Graebe and Liebermann, discovered +a method for making these very identical substances +out of coal tar.</p> + +<p>Since that time the cultivation and use of madder +has disappeared almost entirely. But real Turkey red +is manufactured to-day, and in very large quantities—and, +though freely imitated by inferior products, the +modern Turkey red is just as fast to light and to washing +as it ever was in the past, and possesses a brilliance +and a lustre which never could have been obtained +formerly. The process, however, is completed now +in hours, not days, and instead of yielding a few shades +of red and purple, the alizarine colors have been added +to until they cover a large range of blues, purples, +reds, oranges, yellows, and browns, all of them as +fast as the original Eastern products, and all of them +made from coal tar.</p> + +<p>The dyes already mentioned were the ones which, +after hundreds of years of experiment, proved to be +of distinct value. Many of them were expensive in +themselves and, in almost every case, the process of +dyeing with them was a quite complicated one, worked +out by generations of practical dyers, and passed down +from father to son as a precious trade secret.</p> + +<p>Besides these there were, in almost every community, +certain special formulæ and recipes for obtaining, +by comparatively simple methods, dyes of +varying degrees of value from more or less common +vegetable materials. Some of these are occasionally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[24]</span> +met with to this day. Thus, in the province of Quebec, +well down on the St. Lawrence, the French +Canadian women still dye their homespun worsteds +an orange shade of yellow, of very moderate fastness +to light, by boiling them with the skins of the yellow +or brown onions. And they get a pretty, but fugitive, +shade of golden yellow by using the dried flowers of +the goldenrod.</p> + +<p>Some recipes from the mountain districts of North +Carolina, where the sheep are raised and sheared, and +the wool carded, spun, dyed, and woven into homespun, +are unique, and wool dyed with them shows +extremely good color. Thus, for green, we are told +to “Git blackjack or black oak bark, and bile it right +good, and put in a li’l piece of alum. This makes +the pur’tiest green, mighty nigh, that ever was.” And +for purple and black the instructions are to “git +maple bark and bile it. Throw in a grain of copperas +and put in your wool. Bile it just so long if you +want purple, and longer if you want black. The +longer you bile it the darker it gits.”</p> + +<p>Recipes like these can be picked up in country districts +all over the land to this day, and where no +other coloring agents can be obtained, they may still +be of some use. They are to be compared, however, +to the somewhat similar recipes of the herb or “yarb” +doctor, now almost extinct, who concocted various +brews and teas and messes from roots and leaves, and +administered them as valuable remedies.</p> + +<p>Useful these brews undoubtedly were in their day, +when it was impossible to get better medicines at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span> +any price, and the available drugs, even in large cities, +were few and costly and but little understood. But +who of us would now prefer to treat a serious illness +with herb tea when within reach of even a third-class +drug store?</p> + +<p>And so to-day, when modern dyestuffs, even if not +of the very best varieties, can be bought in packages +at the nearest grocery or druggist, who has time to +waste upon the laborious processes and messy, uncertain +formulæ of former and unscientific ages?</p> + + +<h3>MINERAL DYES</h3> + +<p>Tribes and nations in different parts of the world +seem, at a comparatively early date, to have found +out the art of coloring and staining textiles with +mineral compounds. Iron springs, containing iron +salts in solution, are found in many countries; and +such springs are always noteworthy from the taste +of the waters, and the color of the sediments left +when the water stands exposed to the air.</p> + +<p>Therefore discovery of the fact that those waters +would impart a permanent and quite pleasing orange +or reddish-brown color to textiles was perfectly natural.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Iron Buff.</b>—Accordingly, in different parts of the +world, people learned to dip cloths in these springs +and then expose them to the air, thus dyeing them this +iron rust color, commonly called by dyers “iron +buff.” When iron became a common metal, it was +found that any soluble salt of iron would act as a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[26]</span> +dyeing solution, just as well as a natural iron spring; +and hence we find use made, in widely separated +countries, of iron salts for dyeing.</p> + +<p>This iron buff is used to this day, though of course +it has lost the importance it had in the past. The +red sails of the fishermen in the Mediterranean show +this color; and it is a useful and interesting dye for +weavers of hand-made rugs, curtains, and the like, +because of its pleasing tone and great permanence. +On the other hand, it is very likely to rub; and it +fills the fibre of the cloth with mineral matter, thereby +making the material stiff and hard to sew or cut.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Preparation.</i>—Our colonial ancestors made this color +cheaply enough. They carefully saved all the scraps +of iron and steel that they could find—old horseshoes, +broken knife blades, etc., etc.—and placed them in a +barrel half filled with vinegar and water. Little by +little the iron dissolved in the acid and, when it was +strong enough, the housewife would soak her homespun +cloth, or other material, in the solution, warming +and stirring it, and making it absorb as much of the +liquor as possible. Then she would take it out, wring +it thoroughly, rinse it slightly, and dip it for a minute +or two in another barrel half filled with a water extract +of wood ashes.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp40" id="plate2" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p026a.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">PLATE II. JAPANESE TOWELLING, SHOWING IMPRESSION +OF FRESH DAMP LEAVES</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>After removing from the solution and wringing +again, the goods were shaken out and exposed to the +air for some minutes, during which time the color +would develop—in other words, would make its final +change to yellow or orange, or even to brownish-red, +according to the amount of iron absorbed by the fibre.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span></p> + +<p>The process, nowadays, is much the same, excepting +that, for the first or iron bath, it is cheaper and +easier to use a solution of the green crystalline iron +salt, known as copperas, or as<i lang="la">ferrous</i> (iron)<i lang="la">sulphate</i>. +This can be obtained at, or through, any drug store +at a very low price, as it is not necessary to buy a +chemically pure product. The ordinary commercial +salt is as pure as the work requires; this dissolves +quite readily in warm water.</p> + +<p>The amount of copperas to be used, to dye a particular +lot of material a particular shade, can only +be determined by experience and experiment. It is +always easy to build up a color, i.e., to deepen its +shade if it is too light, by dipping the fabric over +again in the same dye-bath. Indeed there is a general +rule to be observed in dyeing all colors like this iron +buff or the manganese brown—as well as the sulphur +and indigo colors, which will be described later—that +are developed, or fixed, by exposure to the air. Whenever +dark shades of these colors are desired, they +should be produced by successive dippings in weak +baths, rather than by one or two dippings in strong +baths. This avoids rubbing, as far as possible, and +lessens the injury to the cloth fibre. In general, it is +best to start with a dye-bath containing some three +or four tablespoonfuls of copperas to one gallon of +hot water.</p> + +<p>For the second, or fixing, bath—that is, the alkali +bath—it is now customary to use a solution of soda +instead of the extract made from wood ashes. Either +cooking soda (bicarbonate of soda) or the stronger<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span> +washing soda or soda crystals, known to the chemist +as carbonate of soda, will be satisfactory, and instead +of soda the corresponding potash salts may be +used, though these are usually more expensive. It is +possible, too, to use a bath of the so-called caustic +soda, or caustic potash, known to the chemist as +hydroxide of soda and hydroxide of potash. But +these, as the name implies, must be handled with care +because, when strong, they are likely to burn the +hands and clothes. Careful analyses of dyed mummy +cloths show that the ancient Egyptians were accustomed +to use for their second or fixing bath, a solution +of slaked lime, or lime water.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Khaki.</i>—By mixing in the first bath of copperas or +other iron salt an equal quantity of chrome alum, and +then fixing and developing as above, a certain amount +of greenish chromium oxide is deposited in the fibre +along with the oxide of iron. This gives rise to the +shade known as “khaki.” Sometimes shaded a little +with manganese brown, this was the regular dye for +the army uniforms, until the recent introduction of +the extremely fast and very satisfactory vat dyes.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Uses.</i>—Iron buff is chiefly used for cotton, linen, and +other vegetable fabrics; on them it gives pleasant, +warm shades of orange and reddish-brown. But on +wool, and especially on silk, it is not so satisfactory, +owing to its tendency to roughen and injure the fibre. +Indeed, in the case of silk, it is likely to greatly diminish, +or even to destroy, the lustre. On cotton and +linen, however, it has great fastness to light and to +washing. Indeed, every one who has tried to get rust<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span> +stains out of a garment or a piece of table linen knows +how hard a matter it is to get rid of the color.</p> + +<p>Another important reason for using this dye is +that the coloring agents are very cheap, and are easily +obtained in any quantities. It has, however, some +serious disadvantages, one of which is that the color, +especially in dark shades, is very liable to rub. This +can best be obviated by building up the shades with +successive dippings; and by thoroughly washing the +finished goods in a hot soap bath. The dyed goods +are pretty certain to be a little stiff, and therefore hard +to sew or cut, owing to the fact that the final color +is composed of iron rust. When vegetable fibres are +filled with a mineral matter they are naturally stiffer +and harder than they were originally.</p> + +<p>Then there is the final objection on the part of professional +dyers to this color, as well as to all the other +developed colors, i.e., those colors fixed by exposure +to the air. It is not easy to get a smooth, even color +with them, and it is very difficult to dye to shade. +For handicraft work, where these two points are of +minor importance as compared with the beauty of the +color, this objection is not so serious, but where it is +necessary to dye large amounts of yarn or cloth to a +definite shade with this, or similar, dyes, it is, as a rule, +far easier to use a dyestuff which does not materially +change its shade after the goods leave the dye-bath.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Iron Grey.</i>—Soon after the discovery, in different +localities, of the iron buff color, it was discovered that +by the action of various vegetable extracts upon the +iron salts, dark grey stains could be produced which,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span> +under certain conditions, would be fairly fast to light +and washing.</p> + +<p>This color was, later, found to be due to the combination +with iron of the peculiar vegetable acid called +tannic acid or tannin. This is found in small quantities +in the juices of twigs and leaves of many varieties +of plants, and, until the introduction of the modern +dyestuffs, this process offered the chief method of +obtaining grey or black shades upon cotton. At present +it is rarely, if ever, used for that purpose, but +the compound is still the basis of most of the writing +inks on the market.</p> + +<p>To make this color, the cloth is soaked for some +time in a solution of an iron salt—nitrate of iron, +formed by boiling a solution of copperas for a minute +or two with a few drops of nitric acid, is preferable +to the untreated copperas—and then, after being +wrung and slightly rinsed, it is plunged into a bath +containing tannic acid. This can be made by dissolving +a few tablespoonfuls of the dry tannic acid in some +water, or by making a hot infusion of the leaves, +twigs, or bark of any plant or tree containing it. Tea +leaves contain much tannin, and so do unripe English +walnuts and butternuts. Acorns, oak leaves with nut +galls on them, the green twigs of alders, and hazelnut +bushes, have all been used to form this color.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp40" id="plate3" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p030a.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">PLATE III. SAME TOWELLING AS IN PLATE +II, AFTER IMMERSION IN IRON SPRING. THE +ROUND WHITE PATTERNS ARE MADE BY +TIEING</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The grey color quickly develops and, after rinsing, +the material can be dried and pressed, or dipped again +to obtain a deeper shade, first into the iron and then +into the tannin bath. The color is a pleasant, soft +shade of grey or, if dyed deeply, a black. It is fast<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span> +to washing, and fairly so to light, though it may become +rusty on standing; like the iron buff, it is not +fast to acids.</p> + +<p>Some interesting examples of the dyeing of cotton +cloth with iron buff and iron grey are shown in +Plate <a href="#plate1">I</a>. They came from the mineral springs at +Arima, near Kobe in Japan, where the waters are so +saturated with iron salts, that comparatively short immersion, +and exposure to air, will bring out a deep +orange shade. The Japanese, not content with dyeing +their goods plain colors, have for many generations +utilized these springs in the production of figures +and designs on the cloth. Plate <a href="#plate5">V</a> is an example +of stencil work, where the white patterns are made +by covering parts of the cloth with a “resist paste” +which protects whatever it is in contact with from +the action of the coloring agent.</p> + +<p>Plate <a href="#plate2">II</a> shows a piece of soft calico on which +impressions of leaves have been made by placing +fresh juicy leaves between two pieces of cloth, and +beating them with wooden mallets.</p> + +<p>Plate <a href="#plate3">III</a> shows the same piece of cloth as in Plate +<a href="#plate2">II</a>, after immersion in the iron spring, and exposure to +air. The tannin from the leaf juice converts some +of the iron oxide into iron grey; while the white figures +are made by tying the cloth with string or tape +(Tied and Dyed work) before dyeing it.</p> + +<p>So far as we can tell, these two were the only +mineral colors known to the ancients. Several other +mineral colors, however, were in common use by the +cotton dyers in the days preceding the introduction<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span> +of modern dyestuffs, but it is hardly worth while to +dwell here on many of them. Yellow and orange +shades were obtained by impregnating cloth with lead +salts, and then developing with a bath of chromate +or bichromate of potash, with more or less caustic +alkali added for the darker shades.</p> + +<p>Prussian blue, too, was used as a substitute for the +more expensive indigo. This was formed by using +the nitrate of iron for the first bath, and then developing +the color with a bath of yellow prussiate (<i>ferrocyanide</i>) +of potash. These colors, however, are so +far inferior in their application, and in fastness to +light and to rubbing, to the colors now at our command, +that they have disappeared entirely for textile +work, though they are still widely used for pigments.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Manganese Bronze (Manganese Brown, Bistre).</b>—There +is one good mineral color, however, which came +into use early in the last century and which, while +hardly ever used by professional dyers, is of interest +to craftsmen. This color, in its chemical composition, +greatly resembles the iron buff. It is quite cheaply +produced by first impregnating the cloth to be dyed +with a solution of a manganese salt (<i>manganese chloride</i> +is the cheapest), and then, by means of a second +bath of alkali, forming a deposit on the fibre of pink +<i>manganese hydroxide</i>—corresponding to the greenish +<i>ferrous hydroxide</i>—which, on exposure to the air, +absorbs oxygen and forms the final brown color.</p> + +<p>Unfortunately the alkali used in this case must be +caustic alkali—<i>potassium hydroxide</i> or<i lang="la">sodium hydroxide</i>—and +not one of the mild alkalies like the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span> +carbonates or bicarbonates, which will do for the iron +color. And, therefore, although it is rather more +expensive, and is somewhat liable to weaken the fabric, +it is generally more convenient to obtain this color +by a one-bath process. A purple solution of the salt +known as<em>permanganate of potash</em>, is prepared and +the cloth dipped. After being immersed it is wrung +carefully and shaken out, and the red or purplish +color gradually changes into the final brown. As soon +as this change has taken place the goods should be +plunged into a hot soap bath and thoroughly scoured, +both to remove any loosely adhering particles of color +which cause rubbing, and to prevent tendering of the +cloth.</p> + +<p>The latter danger, however, is always present with +this process and, therefore, full shades should not be +dyed excepting on heavy, strong goods like rugs or +very coarse yarns or cloth. Even then it should be +done carefully and by successive dippings, with a careful +washing, after the color has been developed in the +air, between each bath.</p> + +<p>This injury to the cloth which, hitherto, has been +the great drawback to the permanganate process, can +be avoided by dipping the goods, as soon as possible +after leaving the dye-baths, into a solution containing +glucose, as, for instance, two or three spoonfuls of +Karo (corn syrup) or molasses in each gallon of hot +water. Directly the purple-stained cloth touches this +solution the color changes to brown, without affecting +the strength of the materials.</p> + +<p>This color, like the other mineral colors, is rarely,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span> +if ever, to be used on silk, being altogether too likely +to injure the texture and the lustre of the material.</p> + +<p>In at least one instance, however, it has been used +on animal fibres with considerable success. During +the critical part of the Boer war, it was at one time +necessary for England to put as many of her troops +as possible—especially her mounted troops—into the +field. Among others the Scots Greys, distinguished +at Waterloo and made famous in many other bloody +campaigns as a fine old fighting regiment, were ordered +to the front. There is a tradition, dating back +over two hundred years, that the horses of this regiment +must all be either white or grey in color. Some +heaven-sent genius at the Horse Guards—the English +War Department—hinted quite forcibly to the +authorities that to send out a cavalry regiment on +white horses to face the Boer sharpshooters, was +rather a dangerous experiment. The authorities, +therefore, consulted a well-known dyeing chemist. +He advised them to send down, on the troopship, +some kegs of permanganate; and to instruct the officers +and men to sponge each horse with a weak solution +of the salt, every day at “Stables.” This was +done, and, in consequence, long before reaching Cape +Town, the skin and hair of every horse was thoroughly +colored a soft, quiet shade of brown.</p> + +<p>The color produced by permanganate varies, according +to the strength of the solution, or rather with the +number of dips in comparatively weak solutions, from +a light brownish tan to a full, rich, soft, seal brown. +Pleasant shades, too, can be obtained by dyeing first<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span> +with the iron rust dye and then covering with the +permanganate. This color is discharged, not only +from textiles but from the hands, by soaking in a +solution of<i lang="la">sodium hydrosulphite</i> (commonly used in +dyeing indigo) and then washing.</p> + + +<h3>PRACTICAL DYEING</h3> + +<p>Before proceeding to the practical dyeing instruction +it is well to say a few words about the equipment +needed for the work.</p> + +<p>Fortunately no elaborate or expensive outfit is necessary, +even for the beginner. And after one has had +a little experience, it is astonishing what an amount +of interesting, and even important work can be turned +out with a few of the very simplest utensils. The +essentials may be set down as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="noindent"> +Dye-pots.<br> +Heating devices.<br> +Stirring rods, or dye-sticks.<br> +Wringers.<br> +Drying arrangements.<br> +</p> +</div> +<p class="noindent"><i>Dye-pots.</i>—For this purpose, common agateware +vessels are best and most convenient. There should +be varying sizes to accommodate different amounts of +material to be dyed. The so-called “miner’s cups,” +which are agateware cups holding a pint or more, are +large enough for practical work, when single skeins +are being dyed. For large pieces use the wash boilers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span> +which vary in capacity from one to five gallons. It +is always best, especially for amateurs, to dye in one +batch enough material to complete the work on hand, +whether rug, portière, or piece of tapestry. This +avoids the necessity of exactly matching the shade +afterward.</p> + +<p>For three and a half to four pounds of cotton +rags, such as are used in making rag carpets, three and +one-half gallon pots are about the right size. This +amount of material will be about enough for the filling +for one rug about 6×4 feet, woven on a hand loom.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Heating Devices.</i>—Work may be done over any +flat-topped stove that burns wood or coal; gas is, of +course, an advantage and so is an oil stove, as with +these the heat may be regulated very exactly and +much time saved. For actual work, a stove with +space for four or five pots is the most convenient type +to use.</p> + +<p>There should always be one large pot set aside for +heating water, another for boiling out the raw goods, +and still a third for boiling out and brightening the +finished materials with soap, when very fast colors +are used on cotton or linen; and each of these pots +should be reserved for its special purpose and<em>not used</em> +for dyeing. This will avoid the danger of staining +the goods.</p> + +<p>The top of a kitchen range will do for heating, +but whenever possible, it is best to have a separate +stove, so placed that the top of it will not be more +than about twenty-four inches from the ground or +floor. This enables the operator to look down into<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[37]</span> +the dye-pot and so avoid strain, and the consequent +excessive fatigue while stirring the goods.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Stirring Rods.</i>—While the material is being dyed, it +should be kept in constant motion. When working +with small amounts of material, or with goods such +as straw, raffia, muslin, or silk in skeins, which are +delicate and easily spoiled, it is far more satisfactory +in every way to use heavy glass rods for stirring. +These are rather expensive. They are about fifteen +inches in length and well rounded at the ends. +If carefully handled and thoroughly washed, they are +always clean and smooth. Care must, of course, be +exercised in their use, as sudden variations of heat +and cold may cause them to crack or chip, and lifting +or stirring large quantities of heavy materials—anything +above five pounds—is liable to break them. In +these cases, it is best to use wooden dye-sticks. +Broomsticks or dowel sticks, cut into two-foot lengths, +with the ends rounded carefully by whittling with a +sharp penknife, are excellent substitutes. For careful +work it is necessary to have several sets of wooden +dye-sticks—two for each main color at least—and +these must be carefully washed each time after using, +or they will stain cloth that is being dyed light shades. +They are bound to get soft and rotten before very +long, from the action of the alkali in the dye-baths, +but they are easily replaced.</p> + +<p>Good rubber gloves are extremely useful while dyeing, +to protect the hands not only from being stained +and discolored by the dyes, but also from the action +of the chemicals—especially while dyeing with indigo<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[38]</span> +and other dyes wherein the caustic alkalies are employed.</p> + +<p>After some experience in the use of dye-sticks, +however, it will be found comparatively easy to handle +the materials, in and out of the dye-baths, with the +sticks, without at any time taking hold of them with +the hand. Nothing demonstrates more clearly the +skill of the dyer than the ability to carry, immerse +in the dye-bath, stir, take out, wring, and rinse the +materials without getting stains on either clothes or +fingers. On the other hand, the amount of slopping +that can be accomplished by a careless, but enthusiastic, +amateur must be lived with to be thoroughly +appreciated.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Wringers.</i>—Both before and after dyeing it is very +important to have at hand a good clothes wringer, +preferably with metal frame. In fact, for very careful +work there should be two wringers; one to wring +out the raw materials after boiling them in soap and +water, or, if clean, in plain water, to insure that they +are thoroughly and evenly wet; and the other to wring +out the excess of dye-liquor from the goods before +rinsing, or, as in some cases, before hanging up to +oxidize. The rubber rolls of these wringers should +be kept clean by scouring with soap and sapolio +immediately after finishing the day’s work, and by +carefully rinsing free from dye-liquor.</p> + +<p>It is always well to keep on hand near the wringer +a supply of clean blotting paper, or cheap filter paper, +or even soft, dry cheesecloth or muslin. For by wrapping +the materials that have just been dyed, in any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span> +of these, and then running them backwards and forwards +through the wringer, it is possible to dry them +with a minimum of time and exposure. This is particularly +important in the case of natural and artificial +silks, either in skeins or scarfs, of ostrich feathers, +and of other light and fragile materials.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Drying Arrangements.</i>—Sufficient room should be +provided for hanging up the cloth to dry. An ordinary +clothes-line, conveniently fastened, is the best +means of support. For special purposes, where the +material handled is very delicate or where the work +is done in a classroom, a simple clothes-horse made +of thick glass tubing, one inch or so in diameter and +supported on a wooden frame, will occupy the least +possible space and give the best support.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_II">Chapter II<br> +<span class="chapt_sub">MODERN DYESTUFFS</span></h2> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> whole art and practice of dyeing was completely +revolutionized once and forever, by the +discovery in 1856 of the artificial dyestuff +named mauveine, or, more commonly, mauve, a name, +by the way, derived from the French name of the +violet-colored mallow flower.</p> + +<p>The discovery was made accidentally, by a young +chemical student, William Henry Perkin, while experimenting +in a very crude and simple way, with a +view to forming artificial quinine from a curious oily +body known as aniline. This aniline was originally +prepared by distilling indigo in a dry retort, and it +had received its name from the native Javanese word +“anil,” meaning indigo. While thus prepared it was, +of course, very expensive. But about this time +methods were invented for obtaining this same compound +in practically unlimited quantities from coal +tar—that heavy, foul-smelling refuse of gas works—which, +up to that time, had been not only useless but +actually a source of annoyance and expense to the gas +companies.</p> + +<p>Perkin conceived the idea that, by partially burning +or oxidizing it, this aniline might be changed into<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span> +quinine. He made the experiment and there resulted +a black molasses-like mass, very far removed from the +white crystals he was hoping for. But by testing this +with various chemicals, he found that hot alcohol dissolved +part of it, and turned it into a violet liquid +which had the power to dye silk and wool the same +bright color. Finding that the color was fairly fast +to light, and that it could be produced without too +much expense, he took out a patent and, with the aid +of his father and brother, set up near Manchester, +England, the first factory for artificial dyestuffs.</p> + +<p>His discoveries were at once published, and chemists +all over the world began to manufacture and +experiment with the new dyestuffs. Great factories +were started all over Europe. From this beginning +the manufacture of coal-tar dyestuffs, and more recently +all their allied compounds, has become one of +the most important and most profitable of all chemical +industries.</p> + +<p>The dyes first discovered, the so-called “Basic +dyes,” were of great brilliancy and strength; but they +were not of any particular beauty when used individually. +Compared with the vegetable colors which +preceded them, and especially the same shades we are +accustomed to see in nature, these dyes were hard, +coarse, crude, and very inartistic. This could be +remedied, however, by mixing two or three of them +together, such mixture tending to soften the different +colors and blend all into pleasant and delicate shades.</p> + +<p>A more serious difficulty was the fact that those +early dyestuffs were usually quite fugitive to light or,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span> +at any rate, far less fast than the best of the vegetable +dyes that preceded them. Besides, they did not +fade true. In other words, a piece of cloth might to-day +be a bright red, and after a few days of exposure +to the sunlight, the exposed portions might turn a yellow, +a white, or even some dark color; and, in any +case, the change would entirely spoil the original color +scheme.</p> + +<p>By 1868, however, the artificial manufacture of +alizarine, first by two German chemists, and then by +Perkin himself, served to open up another whole class +of new dyestuffs, which, when submitted to the proper +tests, proved to be exceedingly fast both to light and +to washing. In consequence, within a few years after +this discovery, the commercial use of madder was +everywhere abandoned. Chemists could now produce +on cotton, linen, wool, and silk, practically the whole +range of colors, brilliant and dull, hard and soft, light +and dark, not only of a beauty, but of a fastness to +light and to washing, never before surpassed, if indeed +equalled.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="WGPerkin" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p042a_1.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"> +<table class="autotable wd100"> +<tr> +<td class="tdct wd50">AT THE AGE OF 14</td> + +<td class="tdct">AT THE AGE OF 22</td> +</tr> +</table> +</figcaption> +</figure> +<br> +<figure class="figcenter illowp55" id="i_p042a_2" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p042a_2.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"> + +<p class="hang1">AT THE TIME OF THE COAL-TAR +COLOR JUBILEE—50 YEARS +AFTER HIS DISCOVERY OF +MAUVEINE</p><br> + +SIR W. H. PERKIN</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p class="p2">Since that time, not a year has gone by without +scores of new dyestuffs being put on the market by +some of the great color houses. Of late years special +efforts have been made to simplify dyeing processes, +and at the same time to insure the fastness as +well as the beauty of the colors. At the present +time it is possible for the veriest amateur, with +practically no previous knowledge of chemistry or +of dyeing, and with only intelligence enough to +follow some simple directions, to get, in one bath,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span> +with very little expenditure of time, an immense variety +of shades that are exceedingly fast to light and +to washing. A very few years ago this result could +not possibly have been obtained, except by some expert +dyer, and then only after long and tedious, as well as +difficult, processes.</p> + +<p>We are all familiar with the constant complaint that +it is now impossible to get goods dyed or printed in +good, fast colors. For instance, take the brilliant scarlet +calico commonly known as Turkey red. In the +days of our grandfathers a piece of cloth dyed Turkey +red would stand rain and sun, washing and scouring, +and the<em>fibre</em> would wear out before the<em>color</em> would +fade. But nowadays, if you buy Turkey red cloth +for the purpose of covering cushions for a piazza-lounge, +you will be fortunate if the color does not begin +to change after three or four days in the open air.</p> + +<p>The reason is simple. In the old days the<em>only</em> way +to get that particular shade was by dyeing the cloth +with ground-up madder root, through a series of +operations lasting the best part of two months. Now +any capable dyer would be able to dye cotton that +exact shade with any of, say, twenty different colors, +most of which would not require more than one or +two hours to dye. Out of these twenty dyestuffs, +four or five, rather more expensive than the rest, +would give just as fast, just as brilliant, and just +as strong color as the good old madder color. But +the rest, which are distinctly cheaper and easier to +apply, would furnish goods which would<em>look</em> exactly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span> +the same to the average purchaser, but which +might not<em>last</em> any time at all.</p> + +<p>Naturally, the average manufacturer carefully instructs +his dyer to furnish him with the “cheap and +nasty” goods, not only because it costs less money, +but also, unfortunately, because he reasons that “it +will be good for business.” The manufacturer has +the greatest sympathy with the inclination of the fastidious +housewife to throw away anything that looks +faded, and to buy in its place something new and +fresh. Curtains or portières that hold their original +shade indefinitely, he has little or no patience with. A +calico dress that keeps its color so that it can be worn +for a second summer, is an abomination not to be +endured. And in every case, when complaint is made, +it is always said to be the fault of the chemist who +produced and put on the market such “horrid, fugitive +dyes.”</p> + +<p>As a matter of fact, it is simply a case of picking +and choosing. There have been discovered, so far, +several thousand different coal-tar dyestuffs of all sorts +and kinds. Out of these, probably one hundred, or less, +can be considered really fast to both light and washing. +The remaining ones, most of which never were +considered valuable enough to put on the market, vary +in degrees of fastness, the poorest being simply stains +which will “bleed” indefinitely with moderate washing, +and which will turn almost any color after exposure +for a few hours to sun and weather.</p> + +<p>In the following pages, considerable pains will be +taken to emphasize the names and properties of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span> +very best and fastest dyestuffs in the different classes,<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> +so that the results of work done with them can be +depended upon.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"> +<div class="footnote"> + +<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> In some classes there are no absolutely fast dyestuffs.</p> + +</div> +</div> + + + +<p>Perhaps the most interesting thing, in connection +with the whole subject of the artificial dyestuffs, is the +enormous influence that they have had upon the life +of the whole human race. This influence was but +slightly appreciated, even by the chemists themselves, +until a few years ago. The awakening dates from +the time of the fiftieth anniversary of the discovery +of mauveine, when from one end of the world to +the other, honors were showered upon Sir William +Henry Perkin, then grown old and nearing the end +of his useful and prosperous life. It was then announced, +and was for the first time generally recognized +as true, that no one of the great discoveries of +the nineteenth century—the steam locomotive, the +steamship, the telephone, the telegraph, the gas light, +the electric light, and the rest—had been more important +to the world at large than the discovery of +the first coal-tar dye. And probably never in the +history of the world have such enormous results been +produced from a single discovery, during the lifetime +of the discoverer himself.</p> + + +<h3>THE ARTIFICIAL DYESTUFFS</h3> + +<p>The artificial dyestuffs form such a large body of +complicated chemical compounds, that at first glance it +would seem hopeless for any one who is not a trained<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[46]</span> +chemist, to attempt to get any clear or definite ideas +about them. This, indeed, would be the case if any +attempt were made to study them chemically, i.e., with +reference to their composition, or their method of +manufacture; but when it comes to the application +of them to the various textile fabrics and other materials, +for which dyes are valuable, we soon find +that the problem is not so very difficult after all.</p> + +<p>To be sure there are many hundreds of different +dyes on the market now, great numbers of which are +known under three or four different trade names, according +to the trade-mark of each particular manufacturer. +But besides the great manufacturers, and +their accredited agents, there are numerous retail +agencies all over the country, large and small, which +make a business of distributing dyes made by the +great concerns. Some of these are very energetic, +and have pushed the sale of artificial dyestuffs in ten- +and fifteen-cent packages, until in almost every village, +large enough to boast of a decent country store, these +dyes can be obtained.</p> + +<p>It is common to hear these dyes sneered at and +abused. They are frequently referred to, especially +by those of “artistic tastes,” as harsh and crude in +color, fugitive to light and washing, and, in short, +generally inferior and worthless products. This is +not the case. They are, in some cases, individual +dyestuffs, and in other cases, mixtures, generally belonging +to the class of colors next to be described, +the Salt dyes; and very good, if not indeed the very +best specimens of that class. These Salt dyes, until<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span> +the last few years, were far from fast, either to light +or washing; but the more recent members of the class +are much more satisfactory, and these colors, too, are +found in the fifteen-cent packages.</p> + +<p>Nor, too, can objection be fairly taken to the shades +as being crude and harsh. That is all a matter of +taste and skill on the part of the dyer. There is no +better practice in dyeing than to take the very hardest, +clearest, most brilliant red, blue, and yellow colors that +can be found at the corner grocery and, following +the directions on the packages, proceed to dye yarn +or cheesecloth with them, at first using the individual +dyes, and afterwards modifying the shade of one +dye with traces of each of the other two. The softness +and richness of the tones that can be thus obtained +will satisfy the most critical.</p> + +<p>The real objection to these widely distributed popular +dyes is a very different one. They are not sold +under their own names, and therefore it is almost +impossible to identify them. To be sure, from the +accompanying directions it is possible for a trained +dyer to recognize at once the class to which the dyestuff +belongs. But it is impossible for him, excepting +after a long, tedious and often very troublesome analysis, +to tell just what member or members of +that particular class is contained in any given package. +For this reason the dyer who has to depend +on them for an important piece of work is in much +the same position as a doctor would be who had to +treat a difficult case with patent medicines compounded +after secret formulæ.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span></p> + +<p>In the following chapters, a discussion of each +class of dyestuffs, and an explanation of their application +and general properties will be followed by lists +of three or four of the very best colors, sold by the +New York agents of six of the largest and most +reliable color manufacturers.</p> + +<p>Workers wishing to obtain these dyes in comparatively +large quantities, say one pound and upwards, +can get them by writing directly to the addresses in +the following table:</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +<i>Badische</i>— The Badische Anilin & Soda Fabrik,<br> +<span style="margin-left: 30%;">128 Duane St.,</span><br> +<span style="margin-left: 35%;">N. Y. City.</span><br> +<br> +<i>Cassella</i>— The Cassella Co.,<br> +<span style="margin-left: 30%;">184 Front St.,</span><br> +<span style="margin-left: 35%;">N. Y. City.</span><br> +<br> +<i>Elberfeld</i>—The Farbenfabriken of Elberfeld Co.,<br> +<span style="margin-left: 30%;">117 Hudson St.,</span><br> +<span style="margin-left: 35%;">N. Y. City.</span><br> +<br> +<i>Kalle</i>— Kalle & Co.,<br> +<span style="margin-left: 30%;">530 Canal St.,</span><br> +<span style="margin-left: 35%;">N. Y. City.</span><br> +<br> +<i>Klipstein</i>—A. Klipstein & Co.,<br> +<span style="margin-left: 30%;">Agent for Society of Chemical Industry of Basle,</span><br> +<span style="margin-left: 35%;">654 Greenwich St.,</span><br> +<span style="margin-left: 40%;">N. Y. City.</span><br> +<br> +<i>Metz</i>— Farbwerke-Hoechst Co., formerly H. A. Metz & Co.,<br> +<span style="margin-left: 30%;">Agent for the Meister Lucius & Bruning Co.,</span><br> +<span style="margin-left: 35%;">122 Hudson St.,</span><br> +<span style="margin-left: 40%;">N. Y. City.</span><br> +</p> + +<p>N. B. Further information concerning dyestuffs, apparatus, +textiles, chemicals, etc., connected with this +work may be obtained on writing to the author at 7 +West 43rd St., New York.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span></p> + + +<h3>THE NAMING OF MODERN DYESTUFFS</h3> + +<p>It is important to remember that, in order to identify +a color by name, it is necessary to know three +things: first, the trade name; second, the shade, or +distinguishing, letter; and third, the manufacturer +or agent. The trade name sometimes bears a reference +to the class, properties, or color of the +dye, as “fast acid blue”; or to its chemical composition, +as “methylene blue,” or “diamine red”; +but in most cases it is simply an arbitrary name, given +by the original discoverer when the patents were +issued, or assigned later by the manufacturer or his +local agents.</p> + +<p>The letter or letters, following the name, refer generally +to the shade, as for instance, B for blue, R +for red, Y or G for yellow (German<i lang="de">gelb</i>), and so on. +Thus “methyl violet” is sold in brands running all +the way from 6 B to 6 R—that is, from full purple +shades that are very close to blue, to bright violet +shades, very close to red. Sometimes, however, the +letter refers to the composition of the dye or its +class, as “fuchsine S” (German<i lang="de">sauer</i>) often called +acid fuchsine or acid magenta; or “alizarine blue, D,” +when the D indicates a “direct” cotton color. And +sometimes the letter F is used to indicate fastness to +light, in which case “F F” would signify a brand +of very unusual fastness, for that particular class of +colors at any rate.</p> + +<p>But not infrequently the letter is merely a mark +applied for purposes of identification, whose significance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[50]</span> +cannot easily be learned by those not in the +business of color selling, even when it is not a secret +closely guarded by the particular firm supplying the +dyestuff.</p> + +<p>For this reason, the name of the manufacturer or +agent should<em>always</em> be added to the color name and +letter, if it is important to get a particular color in +any case. The best of the older dyes are manufactured +by all of the larger firms, of substantially the +same strength and shades, although often not under +the same names. The later colors, whose patents have +not expired, are of course the individual property of +the different manufacturers, and can be, and are, +marketed by them under any name they like to give +them. Accordingly it frequently happens that two +different firms may sell, under the same name, two +entirely different colors; it would be impossible to +tell which dyestuff was intended unless the firm name +were attached.</p> + +<p>But with these three essentials correctly given—name, +brand, and maker—a color can be identified and +obtained true in composition and shade, even after the +lapse of many years.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[51]</span></p> + + +<h3>CLASSIFICATION OF THE COAL-TAR COLORS AVAILABLE FOR CRAFTSMEN.</h3> +<table class="autotable"> +<tr> +<td class="tdc"><i>Class Name.</i></td> +<td class="tdc"><i>Materials on which to be used.</i></td> +<td class="tdc"><i>How applied.</i></td> +<td class="tdc"><i>How developed.</i></td> +<td class="tdc"><i>How finished.</i></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">I. Direct Cotton or Salt Colors:</p></td> +<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">Cotton, linen, and artificial silk.</p> <p class="hang1">Rarely wool and silk.</p></td> +<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">In boiling water, with addition of salt.</p></td> +<td></td> +<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">By rinsing in water.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">II. Sulphur Colors:</p></td> +<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">Cotton and linen.</p><p class="hang1">Rarely silk.</p></td> +<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">In hot or lukewarm water, with addition +of soda, sodium sulphide, salt, and Turkey red oil.</p></td> +<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">By exposure to air after wringing.</p></td> +<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">By washing in a hot soap bath, and rinsing.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">III. Indigo or Vat Colors:</p></td> +<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">Cotton and linen.</p><p class="hang1">Rarely silk.</p> +<p class="hang1">Also as stencil pastes on cotton and linen.</p></td> +<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">In hot or warm water, with addition of caustic soda and sodium hydrosulphite.</p> +</td> +<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">By exposure to air after wringing. <br>Some colors must be developed by + boiling in a soap bath.</p></td> +<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">By washing in a hot soap bath, and rinsing.<br>Stencilled work, +by steaming and washing in hot soap bath.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[52]</span>IV. Basic Colors:</td> +<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">Raffia, straw, rattan, and basketry in general.</p> +<p class="hang1">Artificial silk.</p><p class="hang1">Leather.</p><p class="hang1">Rarely wool and silk.</p> +<p class="hang1">Also as stencil pastes on cotton, linen, and silk.</p></td> +<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">In hot or warm water, with addition of a little acetic acid (vinegar).</p></td> +<td></td><td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">Raffia, etc., finished by rinsing in water.</p> +<p class="hang1">Leather by rubbing with wax when dry.</p> +<p class="hang1">Stencilled work, by steaming and passing through a weak bath of Tartar Emetic.</p></td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">V. Acid Colors:</p></td> +<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">Wool, silk, and feathers.Sometimes leather.</p> +<p class="hang1">Rarely rattan and basketry.</p></td> +<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">In hot or cold water with addition (for wool) of sulphuric acid +and Glauber’s salt. For silk add soap and acid.</p> +<p class="hang1">For leather add a little acetic acid.</p> +<p class="hang1">For feathers add oxalic acid or formic acid.</p></td> +<td></td> +<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">Wool needs very careful rinsing in water, to remove every trace of acid.</p> +<p class="hang1">Silk finished by a cold soap bath, followed by a weak bath of acetic acid.</p> +<p class="hang1">Leather finished with wax.</p> +<p class="hang1">Feathers finished with starch.</p></td> +</tr> +</table> + + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_III">Chapter III<br> +<span class="chapt_sub">DIRECT COTTON OR SALT COLORS</span></h2> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Among </span>the many changes made in the art of dyeing +since the introduction of the coal-tar dyestuffs, +perhaps the most important has been the gradual +overcoming of the necessity for mordanting the textiles +before coloring them in the dye-bath. Almost all +of the old vegetable dyes were mordant dyes; that is, +the color could not be fastened to the fibre, whether +wool, cotton, linen, or even silk, unless the latter had +been impregnated with some chemical which would act +as a<em>mordant</em> to—(i.e., would combine with and hold) +the color. These mordants were, in general, the salts +of some metal, aluminium, tin, chromium, and iron +salts being the ones in common use; and the processes +involved in properly mordanting the goods were in +many cases—notably in the case of madder and the +Turkey red process—far more difficult and tedious +and expensive than the actual dyeing.</p> + +<p>The first dyestuffs discovered, the true aniline dyes, +which were manufactured directly from aniline and +from substances strongly resembling aniline in chemical +composition, were at once found to act in a different +manner on textile fibres. Animal fibres like +wool and silk, fur and leather, were dyed by them +directly, without the use of any mordant at all. If<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span> +the dyestuff were dissolved in water (the addition +of a little acid makes the color dissolve more readily, +but is without other effect) and a wet skein of wool +or silk were immersed in it, and a little heat applied, +the color would leave the liquid, and fasten itself +firmly on to the goods.</p> + +<p>But with cotton and linen and other vegetable +fibres, these dyes would not work so well. When +these materials are warmed in such a dye-bath, the +color does not adhere to the fibres, but washes off +directly in a hot soap bath, if not, indeed, under a +stream of clear hot water. This was noticed by +Perkin very soon after his famous discovery, and, +wishing to use his new color for dyeing cotton and +linen as well as silk and wool, he set to work to +discover how to prepare these materials; in short, +how to mordant them so that they too would take +firm hold of the color. As will be described later in +the chapter on Basic colors, his experiments soon led +to the introduction and the use of tannic acid and +tartar emetic combined, in a process widely used to +this day.</p> + +<p>The next class of dyestuffs discovered were the +so-called acid colors, thus named because they all exhibited +distinctly acid properties—that is, they would +form salts with the substances known as bases (of +which last, by the way, aniline is an important member). +These colors, like the earlier ones, would dye +the animal fibres directly, but would not color the +vegetable fibres, unless the latter were carefully mordanted +with alumina, or iron oxide, or some similar<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span> +metallic base. And even this treatment does not give +colors that are fast to washing, so these acid colors +are never used on cotton or linen.</p> + +<p>After this came the discovery of alizarine, and an +important series of very fast and very valuable dyes, +all of which were characteristic mordant colors. Even +wool and silk, as well as every other textile, must be +carefully mordanted with aluminium, chromium, or +iron salts, in order to have any coloring effect produced +by these dyestuffs. This is the chief reason +why, in spite of their beauty and great permanence, +the alizarine and other mordant colors are being less +used every year. At the end of some twelve or thirteen +years after the discovery of the aniline colors, +therefore, it was still impossible to dye cotton with +them without a more or less elaborate mordanting +process. And yet the problem did not seem to be an +impossible one. One of the natural dyes, the safflower, +already mentioned, has the property of dyeing cotton +pretty, and not very fugitive, shades of pink and rose +colors, directly, without the necessity for any mordant; +and if a natural dyestuff could do that why +could not some artificial ones?</p> + +<p>Some thirty years ago, a chemist (one story says +that it was a laboratory boy) while experimenting +with a dyestuff which was then a recent discovery—Congo +red, a very brilliant but fugitive and +unstable scarlet color—noticed that while filtering +a hot solution of it through filter paper, the paper +was stained deeply, and, which was more important, +the color was not easily washed out with hot water.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[56]</span> +This excited his curiosity, and after following the +matter up a little, he found that not only this Congo +red, but a whole series of dyestuffs formed in the same +general way, had the power of dyeing cotton directly. +This discovery has practically revolutionized the whole +art of cotton dyeing. From these few bright and +pretty, but distinctly untrustworthy dyes, which were +at once named and advertised as “direct cotton +colors,” have sprung great numbers of dyestuffs—several +hundreds at least—of every conceivable shade, +and of late years of every conceivable degree of fastness +to light. All resemble the original Congo red +in that they will dye cotton and linen, if not absolutely +fast, at any rate very fairly fast to washing, +in one bath, without the need of any mordants.</p> + +<p>This, of course, means that the cost of dyeing cloth +with these dyes is very much less than with the other +classes mentioned. And, by the way, it also explains +why, under the name of Turkey red, so many extremely +bad colors have been sold. To dye Turkey +red on cotton, using alizarine, and with the most improved +and simplified methods, necessitates at least +six or seven different steps, each of which requires +not only time and expense, but great skill and care; +and any one of them, if carelessly performed, may +spoil the goods. On the other hand, a mere beginner, +by using one of the early, bright, direct colors (quite +cheap in itself, because the patents have expired) can, +by boiling the goods for half an hour in a dye-bath +with a little soap and salt in it, produce a piece of +cloth dyed almost the exact shade of the old Turkey<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span> +red, for probably one-third, or one-quarter of the +price. It will look the same on the shop counter; will +probably sell just as well to the average, or even to +the painstaking customer; but when exposed to air +and light for a few weeks, perhaps even for a few +days, will lose its brilliancy, and turn some queer, dull +shade, probably of purple.</p> + +<p>Indeed this particular substitution has been going +on for some years on a large scale; and at one time +promised to be of some international importance. The +Turkey red dyers in Manchester, a few years ago, +complained bitterly to the English Government that +their market in India was falling off very seriously; +and they demanded an investigation, to know what +was the matter.</p> + +<p>After careful inquiry by the local officials, word +came back that there was no difference in the taste +of the people for bright scarlet clothes and headgear. +Just as much red was worn as ever before. But active +agents of the large German color houses had been +going through the country, introducing some of these +cheap direct cotton scarlets and showing the natives +how to use them. And in consequence, up and down +India in all the little towns, even in the villages, local +dyers were at work who, for a few cents, would +dye up an old piece of calico bright red. When it +became faded again in a few weeks, they would dye +it over again for a very small sum, thus renewing +the same piece whenever it was desirable to appear in +bright, new clothes.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Names.</i>—These dyes have long been made by all of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[58]</span> +the great firms, although two or three have made more +of a specialty of them than the rest. It was soon +found that the presence of common (table) salt in +the dyestuffs was valuable, as lessening the waste of +dyestuff in the dye-liquor, and also increasing the fastness +to washing of the dyed goods. For this reason +the common name given to this class is that of “Salt +Colors.” Owing, however, to the fact that Congo +red, the first discovered of the whole class, was derived +from the chemical known as benzidine, these +salt colors are sometimes referred to, in general, as +the “Congo,” or as the “benzidine” dyes. Besides +this they are frequently known as “cotton colors,” +or “direct cotton colors.” The different manufacturers, +however, have assigned certain class names to +their own dyestuffs, as follows:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="noindent">Benzo (<i>Elberfeld</i>); Diamine (<i>Cassella</i>); Dianil (<i>Metz</i>); +Mikado (<i>Elberfeld</i>); Naphthamine (<i>Kalle</i>); Oxamine +(<i>Badische</i>); Phenamine (<i>Badische</i>).</p> +</div> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Uses.</i>—These colors are chiefly used for dyeing cotton, +linen, and paper. They take particularly well on +mercerized cotton, and on some varieties of artificial +silk. They can also be used to dye wool and silk, and, +indeed, in many cases give colors faster, both to light +and to washing, on these fibres than on cotton. As +a rule they will not dye animal fibres excepting at a +high temperature—near the boiling point—and in an +acid bath. Whereas cotton and linen are preferably +dyed in an alkaline or at least a neutral bath, and, +while they must be boiled in the dye-bath for at all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span> +permanent results, will take the color as a stain at +quite low temperatures.</p> + +<p>For this reason these dyes are often used for dyeing +even shades in one bath, upon mixed goods—that +is, wool and cotton, cotton and silk, etc. The goods +are first dyed in a lukewarm bath till the cotton is +nearly the proper shade, and then, on heating, the +wool or silk will take up the color and, before long, +catch up with the cotton. It must, however, be remembered +that on cotton and linen these dyes are not, +as a rule, at all fast to washing, unless they have been +well boiled with the goods. When dyed on silk at +a boil, they are fast to hot soap and water, a fact +which, sometimes, is of much importance.</p> + + +<h3>DYEING DIRECTIONS</h3> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Dye-bath.</b>—The color must first be dissolved in water, +care being taken not to leave any undissolved lumps or +specks of color floating around in, or settled at the +bottom of, the dye-bath. For this reason it is generally +best, in all dyeing operations, first of all to +make a decidedly strong solution of the color, by +dissolving a considerable quantity of it (depending +of course on the amount of goods to be dyed) in hot +water, in a pitcher or saucepan. In the dyehouse this +would be called a “stock solution,” and would always +be made of a definite strength,—say five parts of +color to one hundred of water—and kept well covered +up. Sometimes in hot weather it would be treated +with a little preservative like benzoate of soda, so<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span> +that it could be used at any time it was needed. When +this color solution is added to the dye-bath, it should +always be carefully strained through a piece of cheesecloth +or any other fine medium that will catch the +specks and undissolved lumps. Otherwise spots are +liable to appear, on the finished goods, which it is +almost impossible to eradicate without stripping off +every trace of color from the dyed material.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Water.</i>—The dye-bath is prepared with plain water. +The amount necessary for each lot of goods can +only be told by experience. For some classes of dyes, +like the Acid colors and the Basic colors, to be described +later, the quantity of water makes but little +difference. But for dark shades with these Salt colors +it is best not to have more than enough water to thoroughly +soak, and comfortably cover, the wetted goods, +with enough room to stir and turn them easily. The +dye-bath is now set on the stove to warm up and, +when dyeing light or medium shades, some soap is +usually dissolved in it. This is not absolutely necessary +but helps to make the color go on more evenly, +and penetrate the fibres better.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Soap.</i>—For dyeing purposes in general, any pure, +carefully made soap acts satisfactorily. For silk dyeing, +and especially for silk finishing, it is said that +greater lustre can be gained with olive oil (Castile) +soap. But when this cannot be obtained, Ivory soap +or Pears’ soap or, in fact, any good brand of bath or +toilet soap will do almost as well. For the washing +and finishing of wool and silk the use of strong laundry +soaps should be avoided if possible, because they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[61]</span> +usually contain alkali, in the form of borax or of carbonate +of soda, which is liable to “tender the goods.” +For cotton and linen dyeing and finishing, this does +not make any difference. The easiest way to add +the soap to the dye-bath is to use it in one of the +wire soap-shakers, which has a convenient handle, and +holds half a cake or even a whole cake of soap at one +time.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Even Dyeing.</b>—The goods should be well washed, +rinsed, and wrung out, so as to be sure that they are +free from dirt and grease, and have been thoroughly +and evenly wet. They are then placed in the dye-bath, +completely under the liquid, and stirred round and +round and turned over and over with the dye-sticks. +The chief objects in stirring are, first, to prevent part +of the goods from resting on the bottom and then +getting more heat than the rest of the material, in +which case, naturally, it will become darker when finished; +and second, to prevent the outside portion of +the goods from getting more color than the inner +portions. Accordingly the goods, when placed in the +dye-bath, must be well opened up and, excepting when +deliberately making patterns by the method described +later under the name of “Tied and Dyed Work,” they +should not be tied or entangled in knots or bunches. +Every part must be equally exposed, by the turning +and lifting and stirring, to the action of the color +solution.</p> + +<p>If only light shades are desired, the goods are +heated and turned until the proper shade has been +reached—remembering always that, unless the color<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span> +has been boiled on, it is likely to be only a stain which +will wash off easily.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Salt.</i>—For full and indeed for medium shades, it is +customary to add to the dye-bath some agent—usually +table salt or, when the shade is not very dark, phosphate +of soda—which will make the color less soluble +in the dye-liquor and will tend to throw it on the +fibre. For, after all, there is comparatively little affinity +between the cotton fibre and the dyestuff (far +less than between silk or wool and the Acid or Basic +colors), and when a skein is warmed or even boiled in +the dye-bath a large proportion of the color remains +in the liquid. The bath is not “exhausted” as the +dyers say. Hence, if we try to dye full shades with +these colors dissolved in water only, or in soap and +water, it can only be done by using large quantities +of the dyestuff, most of which will be wasted in the +spent dye-liquor.</p> + +<p>For dark shades, then, where there is little danger +of uneven dyeing, the goods are usually dyed for a +short time with the color dissolved in hot water. And +then, to deepen the shade, the goods are lifted, and +common salt added in considerable quantities, three +or four tablespoonfuls to the gallon, and stirred round +till it is dissolved. Then the goods are put back +and well boiled for half an hour or so, before the dyeing +is considered complete. The presence of salt, by +increasing the temperature of the boiling bath, also +helps to make the dyed goods fast to washing.</p> + +<p>Soap cannot be used in the presence of so much salt +for fear of its depositing on the fibre in spots and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span> +so causing trouble. For medium shades, however, +where it is well to use soap in the dye-bath so as to +have the color go on the fibre evenly, a little phosphate +of soda is often employed instead of salt, one or two +tablespoonfuls to the gallon, to diminish the waste of +color, without making the soap insoluble.</p> + +<p>For the darker shades it is particularly important +to thoroughly boil the goods for half an hour or more, +before taking them out of the dye-bath. Otherwise +the dyestuff will not penetrate the fibre, but will simply +stain the surface, and will not only be easily washed +off, with very mild soaping, but, when dry, will be +apt to crack and rub.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Finishing.</i>—After the materials have been dyed as +just described, they should be taken out of the dye-bath, +rinsed with water to wash off the excess of dye-liquor, +and then shaken out and dried.</p> + +<p>When used in this way the best dyes of this class, +such as those listed a little further on, will give, on +cotton and linen, shades that are very fast to light, +and fairly fast to washing. On wool and silk the +shades are fast to both light and washing. For purposes +of comparison it may be stated here what is +generally meant by these terms.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Fastness to Light.</i>—The test for light-fastness is usually +made by partially covering a dyed skein with a +piece of wood, or heavy piece of blotting paper, and +exposing it to direct sunlight, back of a window with +southern exposure. At intervals the skein is taken +out and the color studied, and it is then easy to see +whether any change has taken place in the portion of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span> +the goods exposed to the light. If the goods have +faded appreciably in the space of one week, the dyestuff +is considered<em>not fast</em>.</p> + +<p>If the color changes after two weeks’ exposure, +but not after one week, it is to be considered<em>fairly +fast</em>.</p> + +<p>If it stands for two weeks but fades in four weeks +it is to be called<em>fast</em>.</p> + +<p>And if it resists, without appreciable change, the +action of the summer sunlight for full four weeks, it +is called<em>very fast</em>.</p> + +<p>It should be remembered, in this connection, that +the comparative fastness to light depends largely (a) +upon the materials to be dyed, and (b) upon the +depth and shade of color used in the test. For instance, +if a skein of heavy cotton yarn, and one of +very fine, brilliant, artificial silk are dyed the same +color, and exposed to light under the same conditions, +the cotton skein will hold its color longer than +the silk. The latter, being semi-transparent, allows +the sunlight to pierce it through and through, while +the more opaque cotton gives some distinct protection +to the color that has penetrated beneath the surface. +So, too, a dark shade of any given color will stand +the light much better than a very light or delicate +shade, for the same general reason. The color beneath +the surface is protected from the direct action +of the sun’s rays by the surface color.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Fastness to Washing.</i>—The test for washing-fastness +is made somewhat differently. A skein dyed a full +shade with the color is twisted up with two white<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span> +skeins, one of wool and the other of cotton, and the +three are thoroughly scoured for ten minutes in a +strong bath of good quality laundry soap, heated to +140°F. This temperature is uncomfortably hot for +the hands and yet is well below the boiling point. A +<i>fast</i> color is one where, with this treatment, neither +the soap liquor nor either one of the skeins becomes +colored.</p> + +<p>If the soap liquor is colored but neither one of +the skeins, the dye is called<em>fairly fast</em>.</p> + +<p>If the soap bath is tinged, and one or the other of +the skeins becomes colored at the same time, the dye +is considered<em>not fast</em>.</p> + +<p>It must, however, be borne in mind that before +making this washing-test, all excess of dye-liquor +must first be removed by thorough rinsing. And it +should be remembered that even the fastest of the +Salt colors, as well as of the Acid and Basic colors +described later, when applied directly to the fibre, +without mordanting or after-treating, are never as +fast to washing as those where the dyestuff is fixed +or developed in an insoluble form in the fibre, by +the action of the air, as are the Sulphur and Vat +colors—or by the action of mordants, as with the +Alizarine colors—or by after-treatment with certain +special chemicals, as with the Salt colors in the process +described below. All dyes can, sooner or later, be +dissociated from the fibres to which they are attached. +But if they are in an insoluble condition they drop +off in the form of a powder, and are washed clean +off, and leave sharp, clear outlines on the dyed goods.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span> +If, however, they have gone on in solution they will +go off in solution, and are liable to<em>bleed</em>, and stain +light-colored fibres near them.</p> + +<p>The earlier dyestuffs of this class were deservedly +criticised as being, even when carefully applied, much +given to bleeding, and also distinctly fugitive to the +action of sunlight.</p> + +<p>Of late years the quality of these dyestuffs has +greatly improved, and the best of them, like those +mentioned below, when carefully dyed on cotton, are +fast, if not very fast to light, although for washing +the very best can hardly be classed even as fairly fast, +without after-treatment.</p> + +<p><i>List of Selected Dyestuffs.</i>—</p> +<table class="listtable"> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Badische—</td> +<td class="tdl">Oxamine Fast Red, F</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Cotton, Yellow, G I</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Stilbene Yellow, G K</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Oxamine Blue, B</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Cotton Black, E, extra</td> +</tr> +<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Cassella—</td> +<td class="tdl">Diamine Fast Red, F</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Diamine Fast Yellow, G G</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Diamine Fast Blue, F F G</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Diamine Fast Black, F</td> +</tr> +<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Elberfeld—</td> +<td class="tdl">Benzo Fast Red, 8 B L</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Benzo Fast Yellow, 4 B</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Brilliant Fast Black, 4 B</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Pluto Black, F, extra</td> +</tr> +<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Kalle—</td> +<td class="tdl">Naphthamine Fast Red, H</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Naphthamine Fast Yellow, 2 G L</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Naphthamine Fast Blue, 4 B L</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Naphthamine Fast Violet, R L</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Naphthamine Direct Black</td> +</tr> +<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Metz—</td> +<td class="tdl">Dianil Fast Scarlet, 4 B S</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Dianil Orange, G</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Dianil Yellow, O O</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Dianil Fast Blue, 3 B</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Dianil Fast Black, conc.</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span> + +<p>As above mentioned, even the very best dyes belonging +to this class of Salt colors, give on cotton and +linen results only “fairly fast” to washing. As the +modern laundress is not averse to using stronger agents +than good laundry soap in her washtub, and not infrequently +indulges in considerable amounts of washing +soda (sodium carbonate) and even of bleaching powder, +to clean quickly a dirty piece of goods, dyes that +are “fairly fast” according to the regular standard, +will, in practice, need some care spent on them if they +are to hold their color for long periods. Against light +the best ones are almost as fast as any dyes known, +but none of them are a match for the Sulphur colors, +or especially the Vat colors, when exposed to severe +washing.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>After-treatment.</i>—The professional dyer, who is occasionally +called upon to produce fast colors with +these dyes, and even with the inferior members of +this class, has found various methods of after-treatment, +by which the colors are rendered more permanent.</p> + +<p>A favorite process, where the dyer is enough of a +chemist to carry it out, consists of making an entirely +new dyestuff in the fibre, generally of an entirely different +shade, and with much greater power of resistance +to washing and to light, by treating the dyed +goods first with a mixture of sodium nitrite and of +sulphuric acid, and, after this, passing them through +a solution of some organic chemical such as carbolic +acid, alpha- or beta-naphthol, or others known as developers.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span></p> + +<p>This process, known as “diazotizing and developing,” +is considerably used in the trade, especially for +various shades of black, but is too complicated and +delicate for craftsmen in general.</p> + +<p>A simpler process is to warm the dyed goods for +five or ten minutes in a weak solution of the orange-colored +salt, bichromate of potash, acidified with a +little acetic acid—or of the not uncommon chemical, +sulphate of copper, long known to chemists as blue +vitriol.</p> + +<p>When the best dyes are used, like those in the +preceding list, it is not often necessary to use either +of these reagents. But when, as sometimes happens, +one is obliged to use dyes of this general class, bought +at the country store without a chance of knowing how +fast they are, it is well to know about it. For a piece +of goods the size of an ordinary linen skirt, the after-treating +bath would be made as follows: In two and +a half gallons of hot water, dissolve two tablespoonfuls +of sulphate of copper, one tablespoonful of +bichromate of potash, and two teaspoonfuls of +ordinary acetic acid (equivalent, say, to three or +four teaspoonfuls of strong vinegar). The goods, +after dyeing and rinsing, but before drying, should be +soaked in this bath and heated for ten minutes until +not far from the boiling point. They should then be +taken out, rinsed carefully, and dried. This after-treatment +does not benefit every single color of this +class, but it helps greatly the fastness to light and to +washing of almost all of them. The chief objection +to it, besides the time and expense, is that the shade<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span> +of the finished goods is often considerably changed +by the process.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Properties and Uses of the Salt Colors.</i>—Generally +speaking, the shades produced by the individual +members of this group cover all the colors of the +rainbow and include several good greys. It is hard, +however, to get a full deep black on cotton or +linen with these dyes, without using the “diazotizing +and developing” process of after-treatment. The +dyes go on the fibre in a soluble form, and unless +a developing process like this is used they combine +directly with the fibre, and do not form a coating or +layer upon it, as do some of the “developed” dyestuffs. +Accordingly, no matter how fully or how +deeply we dye a piece of yarn or cloth with a black +dye of this class, the finished goods will show<em>grey</em>, +a very dark grey, to be sure, but still grey, and not +a flat, heavy, true black. The color of most of the +salt blacks is greatly improved, however—as well as +their fastness to light and washing—by soaking the +dyed goods, after rinsing, in a solution containing four +or five spoonfuls of formaldehyde to the gallon.</p> + +<p>This same property, however, of combining directly +with the fibre, makes the colors brighter and more +brilliant than many of the other classes, especially in +the lighter shades. Accordingly for bright, pretty +shades of pinks, blues, yellows, and of mixed shades, +fast to light, but not very fast to washing, very easily +and simply applied, these colors are extremely valuable. +For instance, in dyeing large quantities of bright +colors on calico or cheesecloth, for some special occasion,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[70]</span> +as a pageant or spectacle, these are the colors +to use.</p> + +<p>Another great advantage they possess is that they +dye true; that is, they do not alter their color when +exposed to the air, and the color of the finished goods +can be fairly estimated from the color of the dye-bath.</p> + +<p>Accordingly, the student is strongly urged to practise +the art of dyeing with these colors. They are +cheap and can be readily obtained, although not always +of the very best quality, under the name of +Diamond Dyes for cotton, ezy dyes, etc., from druggists +and grocerymen all over the country.</p> + +<p>They can be easily applied to cheesecloth, muslin, +and other inexpensive materials, and if care is taken +to soak and boil the goods thoroughly, to linens and +heavy cottons. In case of necessity they can be used +on wool and silk, but, as a rule, their use is limited +to vegetable fibres. They are particularly valuable +to amateur dyers and to beginners in the art, because +they have great “levelling” power; that is, it is easy +to dye evenly with them.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, it is a nuisance, oftentimes, to +have to boil the goods, and even then the colors are +not really fast to washing. At any rate, before proceeding +to the study of the more permanent but more +complicated Sulphur and Vat colors, the art of dyeing +even and rainbow shades and at least the beginnings +of the art of combining and matching shades should +be carefully and conscientiously worked out with +these often despised, but really very useful and valuable, +Salt colors.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_IV">Chapter IV<br> +<span class="chapt_sub">THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COLOR +DYEING</span></h2> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Directly</span> the student has mastered the instruction +contained in the three previous chapters, +and can use the dyeing apparatus and +the unmixed dyestuffs so as to get reasonably fast +colors on cotton and linen goods, it is time to attack +the more difficult subject of dyeing to shade. This +art is not an easy one, by any means, and only a few +fundamental principles can be learned from a book. +To make any real progress in it, constant and continuous +practice is necessary; even then, unless the +student is naturally gifted with an eye capable of +readily detecting any changes of color, and has trained +it to distinguish and identify the causes of such +changes, little success in the matching of colors can +be hoped for.</p> + +<p>This does not mean, however, that unless a dyer +can match shades perfectly, he cannot turn out very +interesting and, indeed, beautiful results. But it does +mean that he will find it difficult, if not impossible, +to reproduce such results, and will be frequently handicapped +in trying to utilize his dyeing skill and knowledge +commercially.</p> + +<p>The beginner thinks—not unnaturally perhaps—that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span> +in order to get any considerable variety of +shades it is necessary to have on hand a large and +varied assortment of dyestuffs; and it is consequently +a surprise to find that skilled workers keep +in stock chiefly a good supply of blue, yellow, and +red only. Black is convenient and useful, but not +essential, excepting for special purposes. By mixing +these three “primary” colors it is possible to get +every conceivable shade needed. And another point, +which will be emphasized below and which is also +likely to be a surprise, is that practically every pretty +and agreeable shade, no matter how delicate, is composed +of all three of these primary colors. Blue and +yellow produce green, blue and red produce violet, +and yellow and red produce orange, while the addition +of the third or “complementary” color to any of these +combinations of two makes<em>grey</em>, when all three colors +are perfectly balanced, and when one color or another +predominates, it is greyed and softened by the presence +of small quantities of the other two.</p> + + +<p>Experiments with Single Colors</p> + +<p>The way to study color dyeing is, first of all, to get +a clear idea of the effect of different strengths of each +of these three primary colors in producing both light +and dark shades of a single color. This can be easily +accomplished with the red, blue, and yellow of the Salt +dyes described in the last chapter. Dissolve each color +separately and keep them in separate dye-pots so that +you can readily dye pieces of cheesecloth or other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span> +cheap, easy-dyeing materials any light, medium, or +dark shade, to serve as a basis for future comparisons.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp70" id="i_p073" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p073.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">DIAGRAM OF PRIMARY COLORS + + +<table class="listtable"> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Two color <span class="nowrap">shades—</span></td> +<td class="tdl">Red + Blue =</td> +<td></td> +<td class="tdl">Violet</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Red + Yellow =</td> +<td></td> +<td class="tdl">Orange</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Yellow + Blue =</td> +<td></td> +<td class="tdl">Green</td> +</tr> +<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Complementary <span class="nowrap">colors—</span></td> +<td class="tdl">Red + Blue + Yellow =</td> +<td></td> +<td class="tdl">Grey</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Red + Green =</td> +<td class="tdl" colspan="2">}</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Blue + Orange =</td> +<td class="tdl">}</td> +<td class="tdl"> Grey</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Yellow + Violet =</td> +<td class="tdl" colspan="2">}</td> +</tr> +</table> + +</figcaption> +</figure> + + +<p class="noindent"><i>Even Dyeing.</i>—First wet the cloth or yarn thoroughly +by soaking in hot water, then rinse well and wring +it dry—if necessary, using a wringer. The dyestuff +should already be carefully dissolved in a little boiling +water. Pour some of this solution (not too much, +for the shades should all be pretty light) into the dye-pot +half full of lukewarm water. Then quickly and +wholly immerse the wet material, stirring and working<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span> +about with the dye-sticks, and let the whole heat +steadily until it boils. After a few minutes’ boiling +take out the material and rinse in cold water until it +stops bleeding. When this is carefully done, good, +even, and smooth shades will result.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Shaded Effects.</i>—Of more real interest, although an +abomination to most professional dyers, are the shaded +effects. Instead of trying to get even, smooth colors, +the cloth is intentionally dyed unevenly to get effects +of light and shade in the color, otherwise impossible. +This does not mean that a skein or piece of cloth badly +dyed or discolored by some accident or carelessness +should be proudly exhibited as a piece of really artistic +dyeing, as is done occasionally, by some workers, +with painful results. It is only when the work is done +carefully and thoughtfully that shaded or so-called +“rainbow” effects may be obtained upon skeins, basket +materials, and cloth, which are distinctly interesting +and beautiful, though very different from the regular +work of the professional dyers.</p> + +<p>Many methods of obtaining unique results in this +work will occur to the student, after some practical +experience. Perhaps the best way to begin is to take +a piece of cheesecloth, cut in the form of a scarf—say +two yards or so in length—and hemmed on both +ends, if it is to be kept for exhibition or future use. +Before it is wet, tie it in a rather tight knot in the +middle, or, if the scarf is long enough, two knots about +six or eight inches from each end. For this first piece +tie a very simple knot by merely folding the scarf +over on itself and pulling the goods tight. Then wet<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span> +the cloth thoroughly and dye quickly in the boiling +dye-liquor; rinse off, and untie the knots. The open +part of the cloth will be found dyed the full strength, +and where there were knots there will be shaded places +varying from the full color down to white.</p> + +<p>Another method is to take the wetted scarf in the +middle and gradually lower the ends into the hot +dye-liquor, stopping just before the middle reaches the +dye. If carefully done this will give regularly shaded +effects running from white or very light at the centre, +to heavy, full shades at the ends. Of course, if preferred, +the ends can be kept out of the dye-liquor and +the middle portions immersed. This will give a scarf +that is dark in the centre and light at each end—which +is not so good a color arrangement, ordinarily, as the +light centre and dark ends.</p> + +<p>The same can be done with a square piece of cloth, +well wetted: this will shade in an interesting manner, +if held in the middle and dipped slowly and gradually. +Further developments of this work, known as “Tied +and Dyed Work,” are described in a following +chapter.</p> + + +<p>Experiments with the Secondary Colors</p> + +<p>After the above methods have been fairly mastered, +the student should make some experiments in which +two of the primary colors are mixed together, or +better, superimposed one on the other to show the +“secondary” shades produced by these combinations. +This can be done by mixing the colors two by two, +until three baths of green, violet, and orange respectively<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span> +are formed as before. Then try dyeing first +for even colors and later for the shaded effects.</p> + +<p>The most interesting experiments in this line are +made by the so-called “double shading” method. +Here the same baths of straight primary colors—red +and blue and yellow—should be used as in the earlier +experiments; but the goods are first dyed in one bath, +and then after-dyed or “topped” in a second color.</p> + +<p>A scarf of cheesecloth is good for a first attempt. +This, well wet, is held at one end and very slowly +lowered into the hot bath, until all but about six inches +of the entire length is immersed in the dye. This +much is left free from color. Try a blue dye color +for this series of shades, fading evenly and smoothly +from the deepest full blue at one end to a pure white +at the other.</p> + +<p>After rinsing with water till the bleeding is over, +reverse the scarf, holding it by the opposite end, and +lower it slowly and gradually into a bath of, let us +say, yellow, keeping about six inches out of the dye +as before. This will produce a scarf shaded from +clear blue at one end to clear yellow at the other end +and showing the whole range of green shades produced +by mixing these two colors, along its length.</p> + +<p>Similar tests made with red and blue, and then with +red and yellow, will emphasize to the student’s mind +the fact that green is formed from blue and yellow; +violet from red and blue; and orange from red and +yellow; and that each combination gives an infinite +variety of intermediate shades, according to the comparative +strength of the individual dyes.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[77]</span></p> + + +<p>Matching Colors</p> + +<p>The next step is to dye some pieces evenly with +green, violet, and orange, made by two of the primary +colors, and then to try matching these with fresh, +newly-mixed baths of the same dyes. It will be found +here that success depends upon going slowly; and +upon beginning with light shades and building the +color up to the desired strength carefully, by means +of successive dippings. Note that the color of cloth +when wet is much darker than when dry. Some dyers +hold the wet cloth to the bright sky and look through +it, to get an idea of what the finished color will be +like; but positively certain and satisfactory results +are arrived at only by wetting the sample to be matched +or drying the piece that is being dyed, so that both +sample and piece are equally wet or dry, while their +color is being compared.</p> + +<p>The real difficulty of color dyeing is not met with +until the student tries to obtain shades embodying all +three of the primary colors. A very few experiments +will quickly show that with most modern dyestuffs +it is hard to get soft, pleasant tones with the use of +only two colors. Natural colors, as we find them in +the sky, water, meadow, and woodlands, are never +pure; they are invariably mixed. And our eyes are +so accustomed to them that shades dyed with simple +or pure colors look hard, cold, and inharmonious. +Mixtures of two colors are better and softer than +single colors, but still rather hard. But when the +secondary shade resulting from the combination of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span> +two primary colors is mixed with even a small quantity +of the third primary color, the result is invariably +a soft and pleasing tone.</p> + +<p>The above statements presuppose that it is possible, +in practice, to obtain good dyestuffs in each class, which +are absolutely pure, clean shades of blue, yellow, and +red without any admixture whatever. As a matter +of fact, while the artificial dyestuffs are much more +pure, and hence much more hard and brilliant than +the best natural colors, they still in many, if not indeed, +in most cases, when carefully studied, show shades +that are mixed and not pure. It is very rare to find +a blue that does not incline a little to the yellow (a +Blue G as it would probably be labelled) or else contain +a trace of violet or red (Blue R, or RR). The +reds are almost invariably either scarlets, containing +a trace of yellow, or crimsons containing blue. And +the yellows, also, are very apt to tend towards orange +or occasionally show a trace of green.</p> + +<p>This, of course, complicates the problem for the +practical dyer greatly, and means that instead of being +able to cover the whole range of shades with a red, +blue, and yellow, it is frequently, if not always, necessary +to have some mixed colors, giving sharp, clear +shades of violet, green, and orange respectively, to +obtain certain effects.</p> + +<p>The following diagram will perhaps make this more +clear. In this the three primary colors have been +divided, each into two shades as indicated by the +shade letters, R meaning red, B blue, and G yellow +(German<i lang="de">gelb</i>) shades of the colors. By combining<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span> +these colors as shown in the table, clean, clear shades +will be given, whereas other combinations would be +likely to spoil the shades.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp70" id="i_p079" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p079.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">DIAGRAM OF MIXED COLORS + + + +<p class="hang1">Red B + Blue R = Violet <span class="pad1">Blue R + Red B = Violet</span> <span class="pad1">Yellow +R + Red G = Orange</span></p> + +<p class="hang1">Red B + Orange = Red G <span class="pad1">Blue R + Green = Blue G</span> <span class="pad1">Yellow +R + Green = Yellow G</span></p> + +<p class="hang1">Red G + Yellow R = Orange<span class="pad1"> Blue G + Violet = Blue R </span> <span class="pad1">Yellow +B + Orange = Yellow R</span></p> + +<p class="hang1">Red G + Violet = Red B <span class="pad1">Blue G + Yellow B = Green</span> <span class="pad1"> Yellow +B + Blue G = Green</span></p> + +</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Take, for example, a special case, namely to turn +a piece of crimson calico into a full rich scarlet. The +crimson color contains a great deal of red, mixed with +a little blue. If the piece were after-dyed, or +“topped,” with yellow, even in small quantities, the +result would probably be “muddy,” the yellow and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span> +blue together being in such strength as to seriously +diminish the strength of the red, and make it more +or less brown in shade.</p> + +<p>If, however, a reddish shade of orange were used +for shading, instead of yellow, the red of the mixture +would be constantly increased, while the yellow was +“killing” the blue, i.e., turning it, with a little red, +into grey; and before long the crimson, or bluish +shade of red, would turn first into a true but softened +red, with neither blue nor yellow predominating, and +finally into a scarlet, with distinct traces of yellow.</p> + +<p>In making these Three-color Shades, therefore, +the component parts of each dyestuff used must be +studied; and in every case care must be taken to have +the third color, whatever it is, added in such minute +quantities as only to<em>soften</em> and not to spoil the first +shade. A teaspoonful, sometimes even a few drops +of a solution of one strong color, will generally be +enough to soften, and take the edge off, some gallons +of dye-liquor containing a hard, clear mixture of +the other two. A cupful, on the other hand, or even +two or three tablespoonfuls might utterly spoil the +bath and turn it into “mud,” as a dyer would say.</p> + +<p>It is worth mentioning here that, as a general thing, +it is distinctly more interesting to build up shades by +dipping first in one bath, and then topping with the +second and the third color than it is to mix the different +colors to the desired shade first and then dye +the material in the single bath. On a small scale there +is the same difference, although not so marked and +less easily noticed, as that between even dyeing and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span> +rainbow dyeing. There is often a loss in regularity +and evenness, but the gain in life and light when one +color shines through another which covers it more +than compensates. This overlaying is not so perceptible +in the even dyeing of fine, thin materials, +whether yarn or cloth; but with coarse, heavy yarns +and thick textiles, effects can be obtained by after-dyeing +which cannot be approached when the goods +are dyed in one bath.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Matching Shades.</i>—Some people, I believe, go so +far as to say that, in order to be really expert at true +shade matching when using the three colors in dyeing, +a dyer must have begun to learn the art in the person +of his grandfather, ninety or a hundred years ago, and +kept in practise ever since.</p> + +<p>It certainly is true that heredity and early training +both have a great deal to do with skill in this art, and +a good color dyer will show an almost uncanny instinct, +as he instantly picks out differences in shade +which an untrained eye would never notice, and without +any hesitation prescribes the exact remedy for the +defect. Still there are plenty of good, even first-class +dyers, nowadays, who have learned their art quite +late in life, with the aid of a good eye and intelligent +perseverance.</p> + +<p>The chief rule to remember is this: Red, blue, and +yellow, when mixed in equal strength, make a neutral +grey or black. Accordingly any one color will form +grey or, as we may say, will<em>neutralize</em>, or be<em>complementary</em> +to a mixture of the other two. Thus red +will form grey with green; blue with orange, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[82]</span> +yellow with violet. Accordingly if there is too much +red in the dye-bath, it can be killed by the addition +of a little green; and vice versa. The same is true +with the other complementary colors. If this simple +rule be kept clearly in mind, most of the problems of +matching colors and of getting pleasant and harmonious +shades can be worked out easily. It is chiefly +a matter of practice, and perseverance.</p> + +<p>The student is strongly advised to attack this study +in three ways:</p> + +<p>First, mix the three primary colors together in one +bath, to form definite shades—grey, brown, olive +green, steel blue, etc.; then dye the cloth in the bath +to see how the colors look when on the materials and +dried.</p> + +<p>Second, to dye a piece of cloth one mixed shade +and by topping with other colors, to alter that shade +to match some shade previously selected. For instance, +dye a piece a good shade of reddish or copper +brown, and then try to “kill” the red in it without +materially deepening the shade, i.e., change it from a +copper brown to a greyish or dirt brown of about the +same depth of color.</p> + +<p>Very pretty and instructive experiments can be +made along this line of building up soft grey shades, +by dyeing the cloth successively in weak baths of +the three primary colors. As fast as one color predominates, +it can be killed by dipping into successive +baths of the other two.</p> + +<p>Attractive scarfs and table covers can be made with +a little care, by knotting the material and dyeing light<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span> +rainbow shades of the three colors, one after the +other, changing the knots or tied portions after each +bath. Properly done, this will produce remarkably +interesting, opalescent effects, each color being toned +and softened by the other two, although predominating +in different parts of the material.</p> + +<p>When, in the operation of rainbow dyeing, strongly +contrasting colors have been used with unhappy results +(such as the red, yellow, and blue tri-color effects +that some students will produce) try the effects +of toning, or “covering,” as it is often called, with +some soft, neutral color which combines in itself all +the contrasting tones, or else with a color that is complementary +to the most obnoxious one, softening that +one and strengthening the weaker shades. Grey, of +course, can be used for this; but in general, a soft +shade of brown will be found very valuable for taking +the edge off of too violent contrasts. The permanganate +brown (Manganese bronze), described in the +first chapter, can be used with advantage for this +purpose.</p> + +<p>It is not difficult for a skilful dyer to match any +desired shade by using three complementary colors, +red, blue, and yellow, provided, of course, that these +are pure and unmixed. It often happens, however, +that after matching carefully a soft mixed shade by +daylight, the colors appear entirely different when +viewed by artificial light, and especially by ordinary +gaslight. Daylight, as we are accustomed to it, is +comparatively evenly balanced in color, is in fact a +white light. But artificial light as a rule is distinctly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span> +colored, and it is difficult, though now not impossible, +to find a light that so closely resembles daylight that +colors can be matched at night.</p> + +<p>If the light, for instance, has a bluish tinge, like +some kinds of electric light, it will kill the corresponding +orange in a shade, while yellow light, such +as commonly results from the use of oil, candles, or +gas (less marked when incandescent mantles are +used), dulls and even blackens lavender, violet, and +purple shades, while having little or no effect upon +yellow, orange, and green.</p> + +<p>It is therefore advisable when matching shades that +are to be used at night not to use three-color shades +wherever that is possible, but to get the desired soft +effects by covering directly with grey (i.e., light +shades of black) on top of a single or two-color shade.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_V">Chapter V<br> +<span class="chapt_sub">THE SULPHUR COLORS</span></h2> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Nearly</span> thirty years ago one of the French +color houses put on the market a new dyestuff +which it named “Cachou de Laval”; +Cachou being the same as catechu or “cutch,” the +natural brown dyestuff long known and used in the +East, and Laval being the name of the town in France +where one of its discoverers was born.</p> + +<p>This dyestuff was made by heating sawdust, bran, +turf, leaves, or other vegetable substances with the +strongly reducing alkaline salt,<i lang="la">sodium sulphide</i>, in the +absence of air. The product, dissolved in water, +makes a dark green solution which, after standing in +the air a short time, turns brown and deposits a fine +brownish powder. Cotton or linen, heated in a fresh +solution of this dyestuff, is colored green, but, when +wrung out and exposed to air, the green color, which +easily washes out, changes into a very permanent, +though dull and uninteresting, shade of greyish brown.</p> + +<p>This Cachou de Laval was not a success, commercially, +because of its poor color. It existed, however, +as a chemical curiosity for some twelve or fourteen +years; then suddenly, within a few months or even +weeks of one another, all the great color houses put +out a whole series of colors—chiefly browns, blues,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span> +yellows, and blacks—all formed, like this old “Cachou +de Laval,” by the action of sodium sulphide or, which +amounts to the same thing, of sulphur and caustic +alkali, upon organic material, and all capable of dyeing +cotton and linen, in one bath, colors extremely +fast to washing and generally quite fast to light, after +they have been “set” by exposure to the air.</p> + +<p>While in general these are known and identified +as the Sulphur colors, the different manufacturers +have given special class names to their own series +thus:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p class="noindent">Immedial (<i>Cassella</i>), Katigene (<i>Elberfeld</i>), Kyrogene +(<i>Badische</i>), Pyrogene (<i>Klipstein</i>), Thiogene (<i>Metz</i>), +Thion (<i>Kalle</i>).</p> +</div> + +<p>These colors are used almost exclusively for dyeing +cotton and linen, when shades fast to washing are +required, without first putting them through a mordanting +process. The dyeing is done in one bath, +with little more difficulty than in the case of the Salt +colors described in the last chapter; and, while not +faster to light than the best of that class, they are +not nearly so liable to bleed.</p> + +<p>On wool they are rarely, if ever, used. Wool is +almost always dyed with the acid colors in an acid +bath; and nowadays the range of these colors is so +great and the best of them are so very satisfactory, +that there is hardly ever a necessity for using colors +of another class.</p> + +<p>Neither are these Sulphur colors often used on silk, +although methods have been devised for employing +them in special cases. All the animal fibres, however,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span> +and silk especially, are very easily “tendered,” and +indeed destroyed, by heating in an alkaline solution. +And so it is very easy to spoil a skein or piece of +silk by dyeing it, in the usual manner, with these +dyes, dissolved as they must be in the strongly alkaline +sodium sulphide.</p> + +<p>The presence in the bath of glucose (corn syrup, +molasses, etc.), or of glue or gelatine, helps greatly +to protect these fibres from the action of the chemicals. +But even when dyed with great care, using glucose, +and dyeing the goods for but a short time in a bath +strong in color but weak in alkali, the results are +not very satisfactory, so far as shade and lustre are +concerned. They have the advantage, however, of +being extremely fast to washing, more so, even, than +the Salt colors. In general, however, silk should be +dyed with the Acid colors for ordinary work, and +with the Salt colors when fastness to washing is +required. The Sulphur colors should be reserved for +cotton and linen.</p> + +<p>On mercerized cotton and artificial silk these dyestuffs +take easily and well, when dyed in cold or lukewarm +baths. The lustre, however, of the finished +goods is apt to be less than when Salt colors or Basic +colors are used.</p> + + +<h3>DYEING DIRECTIONS</h3> + +<p>For cotton and linen, measure out the color and +dissolve it in hot water to which has been added twice +its amount of sodium sulphide (crystals) and a quarter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span> +or third the amount of soda ash. (In all these +formulæ washing soda may be used in place of soda +ash—only in quantities almost twice as large.) It is +advisable, though not absolutely necessary, to add also +to the dye-bath one or two tablespoonfuls of Turkey +red oil—a kind of liquid soap made by treating +castor oil first with sulphuric acid and then with soda. +This prevents the formation of a dark scum on the +surface of the dye-liquor, which is likely to cause +streaks in the finished goods, hard to wash out.</p> + +<p>Into the dye-liquor immerse the well-wetted goods, +and heat them, turning them constantly, and keeping +them as far as possible away from the air and under +the level of the liquid. Just before the boiling point +is reached take out the goods, and add salt in the +proportion of, say, two spoonfuls of salt for every +teaspoonful of dyestuff used. Stir till the salt is all +dissolved, put the goods back, and continue to turn +them as before, keeping the goods down under the +liquor and not allowing it to boil.</p> + +<p>After dyeing just below the boiling point for fifteen +minutes, remove the heat, take out the goods, and—as +quickly as possible—run them carefully backward and +forward through the wringer (changing the folds of +the goods each time) until the excess of dye liquor +is entirely squeezed out. Then shake them out, hang +them up for fifteen or twenty minutes in the air to +oxidize and “set,” and after this wash them thoroughly +in a bath of boiling soapsuds until all the loose +color has been removed. Finally, rinse them free +from soap, and hang up to dry.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span></p> + +<p>When light shades are desired, or when the goods +are tender, the dyeing can be done at lukewarm temperature, +and without the addition of salt, with no +detriment to the fastness of the color. In this case, +however, much of the dyestuff will be wasted in the +unexhausted dye-liquor.</p> + +<p><i>List of Selected Dyestuffs.</i>—</p> + + +<table class="listtable"> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Badische—</td> +<td class="tdl">Kyrogene Brown, R R O</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Kyrogene Yellow, G G, extra</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Kyrogene Direct Blue, 3 B, extra</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Kyrogene Black, T G O</td> +</tr><tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Cassella— </td> +<td class="tdl">Immedial Bordeaux, G</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Immedial Yellow Olive, 5 G</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Immedial Direct Blue, B</td> +</tr><tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Elberfeld—</td> +<td class="tdl">Katigen Yellow, G F, extra</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Katigen Indigo, C L G, extra</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Katigen Deep Black, B</td> +</tr><tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Kalle—</td> +<td class="tdl">Thio Indigo Red, B</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Thion Yellow, 3 G, extra</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Thion Blue, B, conc.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Thion Black, G, conc.</td> +</tr><tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Metz—</td> +<td class="tdl">Thiogene Brown, G R</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Thiogene Gold Yellow, A</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Thiogene Green, G</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Thiogene Cyanine, G</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Thiogene Black, M A, extra strong</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<p>These Sulphur colors are particularly strong in +various shades of black, blue, and brown. Some of +the yellow shades, also, are very fast and good. The +class is deficient, however, in reds—the only one so +far discovered being Thio Indigo Red B (<i>Kalle</i>), +which really belongs to the Indigo or Vat colors, +described in the next chapter, and which does not give +very powerful shades when used as a Sulphur color. +As a rule, these dyes produce shades that are softer,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[90]</span> +deeper, and much less brilliant than those of the Direct +Cotton or Salt colors. Being usually mixed, and not +simple primary, colors, they are not very easy to dye +to shade, especially as the color of the freshly dyed +goods changes considerably while it is being oxidized. +On the other hand, they give, without mixing, extremely +pleasant tones, and are all very fast to washing +and, at any rate as regards the selected colors, +are fast to light.</p> + +<p>When exposed to strong direct sunlight some even +of the best of them are liable to change their shade +somewhat; but even then they will be found to fade to +nice, soft shades not out of harmony with the original. +When very great fastness to light is necessary, it +may be worth while to after-treat them as described +in Chapter III, by keeping the dyed goods for twenty +or thirty minutes in a hot bath (not boiling) containing +small amounts of copper sulphate, bichromate of +potash, and acetic acid.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_VI">Chapter VI<br> +<span class="chapt_sub">THE INDIGO OR VAT COLORS</span></h2> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap"><b>History.</b></span>—Most of the colors of this group +have been discovered and put on the market +within the last two years. Thus they form +the most recent as well as, in many respects, the most +interesting and, perhaps, the most important class of +modern dyestuffs. On the other hand, to this same +group belong not only indigo itself, which has been +known and valued in the East from the earliest ages, +but also that most famous of all the ancient dyestuffs, +Tyrian Purple.</p> + +<p>Indigo itself does not exist as such in nature; but +it is easily formed by oxidation, or the exposure to +air, of a substance—Indican—which occurs as such, or +can be produced by a simple process of fermentation, +in the juices of many widely distributed plants. Accordingly, +even quite barbarous races in different parts +of the world noticed the deep permanent blue stains +formed on their bodies and clothing when they +crushed, accidentally or on purpose, the leaves and +stems of the various<i lang="la">Indigoferæ</i>. Gradually they +learned to extract the color in a solid and permanent +form so that they could dye with it, instead of using +the juice of the fresh plant itself—and then they +took to cultivating the plants.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[92]</span></p> + +<p>These plants—<i>Indigofera Anil</i>,<i lang="la">I. tinctoria</i>, and +others originally found wild have been, up to the +last four or five years, extensively cultivated in many +tropical countries, notably in India (some of the best +qualities came from the province of Bengal, and hence +the common name for the natural dyestuff—Bengal +Indigo), Japan, China, Java, South and Central +America, and Africa. From these plants the indigo +of commerce, in the form of dark blue granular +lumps with a characteristic coppery lustre, was prepared +by a comparatively simple process of fermentation, +extraction, and oxidation.</p> + +<p>Indigo may also be obtained, although in small +quantities only, and in an impure condition, from +other plants. Notably among these is<i lang="la">Isatis tinctoria</i>, +or woad, which in early days was extensively cultivated +in England and the Continent, and which, +even now, is used in small quantities in some processes +of indigo dyeing.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Artificial Indigo.</i>—The exact composition of indigo +was first determined some sixty years ago, and from +that time on some of the greatest chemists of the +world have been attempting to prepare it, artificially, +from some comparatively inexpensive source, obtained +from coal tar or elsewhere. As early as 1875 the +problem was solved, at least from a scientific standpoint, +but the process proved too expensive for commercial +purposes. During the last five years, however, +at least two of the great German firms have +discovered methods for making, in any desired quantities +and at very reasonable expense, absolutely pure<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span> +indigo from some of the important coal-tar derivatives. +And since that time the cultivation of the indigo +plant has proved so unprofitable that it has been +almost entirely abandoned, and the land formerly used +for this crop is being turned over to other and, at +present, more useful purposes.</p> + +<p>This synthesis—i.e., chemical formation—of indigo +from coal-tar products has been justly regarded as +one of the great triumphs of modern science. Right +here let me impress upon my readers this fact: the +real dyestuff, indigo, is absolutely the same material, +whether it comes mixed with a great mass of impurities, +as in the woad; or whether it contains from +5 to 25 per cent. of foreign matter of little or no +value, as in the Bengal or natural indigo; or whether +we get it from Metz or the Badische Company, chemically +pure, either in the dry state or, thinned with +water, in the form of a 20 per cent. paste. It is +positively the same dye; and being absolutely without +contamination of any kind, the artificial or synthetic +dyestuff presents advantages in the matter of purity +of shade, ease and surety of manipulation, and permanence +of the color produced, which could never +be obtained before its introduction.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Application of Indigo.</b>—The principles of indigo dyeing +are the same now as with the Egyptians, the +only difference being in the means used to bring +about the chemical changes involved. Indigo itself +is a blue solid, insoluble in water, acids, and alkalies, +and practically unaffected by sunlight. If, +however, the element hydrogen be added to it, or,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[94]</span> +as the chemist would say, if it is “reduced” by the +action of any one of numerous deoxidizing or reducing +agents, the indigo blue is changed to a new +substance, indigo white, which is almost colorless, and +which dissolves, in the presence of alkalies, to a bright +yellow liquid. If cotton, wool, paper, wood, or indeed +almost any solid materials (noticeably the fingers and +nails, as some of my readers may find out), are immersed +in the solution, they will absorb some of this +indigo white, and then, on exposure to the air, the +white indigo will rapidly take up oxygen, and become +converted into the insoluble blue coloring matter.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Fermentation Method.</i>—Until recently the methods +used for reducing the indigo—i.e., changing the solid +blue into the soluble white—were just about the same +as those used by the ancients, and were based upon +some kind of fermentation, usually alcoholic. It was +found out at a very early date that if indigo, ground +up with water to a paste and rendered alkaline by the +addition of wood ashes, lime, or other simple alkali, +were mixed with grape juice or any other sugary +liquid, and then kept warm and allowed to ferment, +the resulting fluid would contain the dyestuff dissolved +in a form suitable for dyeing. The vessel in +which this process was conducted was known as a +vat, and the process of indigo dyeing is still called +“Vat Dyeing.”</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Disadvantages.</i>—At the very best this method is slow, +uncertain, and difficult to manage, especially on a small +scale. In wool dyeing, to this day, a few vats are still +to be found where syrup, ground madder root or, in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span> +some instances, woad, wheat bran, and other materials +which ferment readily in the presence of alkali, are +stirred up with warm water and soda, and then allowed +to stand. In two or three days they are in +active fermentation, and the indigo, in the form of +paste, is added and well stirred in. After much further +delay, if all goes well, the indigo is finally “reduced,” +and, if the amount of alkali, the temperature, +the concentration of the vat, and various other factors +are carefully attended to, the bath can be used for +several days, or even weeks, without being made over +again; fresh indigo and other ingredients being added, +from time to time, as needed. Cotton, linen, wool, +and even silk can be dipped in this bath, which should +be light greenish yellow in color, with a blue or +bluish-green scum or coating, where the indigo is +oxidized on the surface. Goods immersed in this bath +turn yellow, and then, when taken out, wrung free +from loose liquor, and exposed to the air, the yellow +color quickly changes to a permanent blue.</p> + +<p>A serious drawback to all these various fermentation +vats is that a good deal of the dyestuff is always +spoilt—i.e., decomposed into colorless compounds +which can never be regenerated or made useful. Indeed, +the loss from this cause frequently amounts to +20% or 25% of all the dye used, and occasionally, especially +in hot weather, and on a small scale, to far +more.</p> + +<p>But, apart from the actual loss in valuable dyestuff, +there is a much more serious drawback to this +method of indigo dyeing, namely, the waste of time<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span> +and energy involved. There is always a considerable +delay in getting a fermentation vat fairly started, +even where all the conditions are favorable; and when +it is running smoothly, the reducing process is a very +slow one. Furthermore, the indigo, not being dissolved +in the liquid but only suspended in it, has a +constant tendency to sink to the bottom in the form +of a blue mud, and thus escape the chemical action of +the fermentation gases entirely.</p> + +<p>A short time ago a teacher of handicraft dyeing +was expatiating, in my presence, upon the impropriety +of using any of the new chemical processes for dyeing, +and insisted that the only way to dye indigo was +to set up a vat, and feed it, and work with it as our +ancestors used to. It was suggested to her that it +would be at least two or three days before cloth +could be dyed in such a vat. “Eight or ten days +at the earliest,” was the reply. And when it was +hinted that the vat would have to be frequently stirred +during all that time, she proudly answered, “Stirred +regularly and thoroughly every single half-hour, night +and day, during the whole period.”</p> + +<p>“H—m,” remarked a bystander, “that’s a little +worse than sitting up with a baby sick of the croup.”</p> + +<p>Somehow the great advantage of this particular +process over the modern ones, by which a proper bath +can be prepared in perhaps five minutes, failed to impress +itself on some of her listeners.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Modern Chemical Vats.</i>—As soon as it was understood +just what chemical action was going on in the +vats, and the object of it, chemists began to find out<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span> +methods for reducing the indigo without the necessity +of a long, tedious, and even nasty fermentation process. +They first introduced the “copperas-lime” vat, where +the reduction was done by the use of ferrous sulphate +(green vitriol or copperas), and slaked lime was the +alkali used to keep the indigo white dissolved.</p> + +<p>Later they introduced zinc dust, a very powerful +reducing agent, in place of the copperas, avoiding in +this way the large amount of precipitated iron oxide +which always forms in the copperas vat, and leads +to the loss of dye, and muddiness and dulness of +color, necessitating a special clearing bath of dilute +mineral acid.</p> + +<p>At present the most satisfactory method is to use +the chemical known as<i lang="la">sodium hydrosulphite</i>, as a +reducing agent, in a bath made strongly alkaline with +caustic soda. Hydrosulphite is not expensive; it acts +very rapidly, leaving no sediment; it causes no loss or +waste of the indigo; and it does its work perfectly. +Hence, with its introduction, the dyeing of indigo +has become extremely simple.</p> + +<p>To still further shorten and simplify the process, +the large manufacturers not only furnish indigo already +ground up to a fine paste with water, but also +supply it already reduced by hydrosulphite or some +other reducing agent, so that it is almost ready to dye +with as it is, and will dissolve almost instantaneously +in an alkaline bath with the addition of just a little +more reducing agent. Such products are the Indigo +Vat III (<i>Metz</i>), and the Indigo Solution 20% (<i>Badische</i>). +By using either of these, the preparation of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[98]</span> +a vat large enough to dye 3 or 3½ pounds of cotton +is the task of but a few moments. These special +preparations, however, are more expensive than the +regular 20% pastes, and the hydrosulphite vat is so +easy to prepare that the saving of time is hardly +worth the extra cost.</p> + + +<h3>DYEING DIRECTIONS</h3> + +<p>For dyeing by the Vat method the dye-pot is two-thirds +filled with warm water, at about 120° F. (when +the finger can hardly bear the heat), and one or two +tablespoonfuls of caustic soda are added—enough to +make the bath decidedly alkaline. The dyestuff, preferably +first mixed up with some hot water, to thin +the paste, is stirred into the liquid, and then to this is +added sodium hydrosulphite, in powder, or preferably +dissolved in water, until the color of the bath changes +from blue, first to green, and then to greenish yellow, +with a bluish-green coppery scum. If the bath is +bright yellow, too much hydrosulphite has been used, +and some more indigo should be added; or, if this is +not desirable for fear of getting too dark shades, the +bath should be exposed to the air and stirred frequently +until the color is right. If the bath, on scraping +aside the scum, looks blue, or even markedly green, +it needs a little more hydrosulphite. If, after reduction, +the bath looks yellow but turbid, it probably +needs more alkali.</p> + +<p>Into this bath the material is placed, and stirred +around until thoroughly saturated—the temperature<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span> +being kept about 120° F. for heavy goods, to assist +penetration. Light goods can be dyed equally well in +a lukewarm, or even a cold bath. The goods are then +taken out, wrung lightly by hand, and are carefully +passed two or three times through the wringer, to get +the color evenly distributed. They are then shaken +out and hung up in the air to oxidize. In fifteen or +twenty minutes, after the color has changed, they +should be rinsed well in two or three waters, to get +rid of all traces of the caustic alkali, and then boiled +for several minutes in a soap bath, to wash off the +loose dyestuff and prevent rubbing. This after-treatment +with boiling soapsuds is of even more importance +in the case of the other Vat dyes than it is with indigo, +for with most of them the oxidation is not completed +in the air—and so the color is developed as well as +brightened by the soap bath.</p> + +<p>It is very important, when working with these Vat +colors, to remember that hot solutions of caustic alkali +are very hard on the hands and that, therefore, rubber +gloves are extremely useful, if not essential. Stains +left on hands, clothes, and utensils, although difficult +to remove by washing, are almost instantly dissolved +by warm solutions of hydrosulphite with a little soda +or other alkali in them.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Results.</i>—Colors produced by synthetic indigo are clear +and clean, but not brilliant. If the slightly purplish +shades of natural indigo are desired, they can be obtained +with special brands—Indigo R, or Indigo RR, +<i>Metz</i>—or by mixing small quantities of Algol Red B, +<i>Elberfeld</i>, or Thio Indigo Red B, <i>Kalle</i>, with the indigo<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span> +before reducing it. It is generally supposed that +the characteristic shade, the so-called “bloom” of +natural indigo, was due to the presence of small quantities +of a reddish dyestuff, known as indigo red. As +a matter of fact, however, the method of dyeing has +more to do with this than the composition of the +dyestuff.</p> + +<p>For instance, if the indigo is very thoroughly reduced +in the vat before the goods are immersed, as is +generally the case in the modern hydrosulphite +method, and the bath is made up with fresh reducing +agent for each dyeing, the resultant color will be a +very clear, rather greyish, shade of blue without any +purple lustre. If, however, the dyestuff is not very +perfectly reduced, as was generally the case with the +old fermentation vats, and the bath, from standing +in the air, has a heavy scum on the top, and is greenish +rather than clear yellow in color below the surface, +then the dyed fabrics will be apt to show the +marked purplish tone which is so characteristic of the +older indigo dyeings.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Uses.</i>—While of less importance than it used to be +before the discoveries of the last few years, the use +of indigo for dyeing cotton, especially for the craftsman, +is not to be neglected. It furnishes, easily and +rapidly, in one bath, without either boiling, mordanting, +or after-treatment, exceedingly pleasant, soft +shades which are fast to both light and washing. For +resist dyeing, such as Tied and Dyed work, Resist +Stencil work, and Batik, it will be found particularly +useful, because the fabric can be dyed in the cold.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[101]</span></p> + +<p>Indigo possesses, however, certain disadvantages, +especially for the professional dyer, which it shares +with the other Vat dyes described below, and which +prevent it, and the other Vat dyes, from being used +as widely as the Salt colors or even the Sulphur colors. +In the first place these dyes are all of them expensive. +They cost more than most others, pound for pound of +the dry color, and full shades need much larger proportions +of them in the bath.</p> + +<p>Then it is difficult to dye to shade with them, because +the color, as a rule, alters so much when exposed +to the air. In practice, when dyeing large quantities +of goods to the same shade, it is customary to divide +the materials into several lots of the same weight; and +to make a strong “stock solution” of the dyestuff, +properly reduced with alkali and hydrosulphite. By +making up a fresh vat for each lot of goods, using +exactly the same volume of water and of “stock +solution,” and working each lot for the same length of +time and at the same temperature, even results can be +produced with much less trouble than by dyeing to +shade by the eye.</p> + +<p>Another drawback is that indigo-dyed goods, especially +of the heavy full shades, are apt <ins class="corr" +title="Transcriber's Note—removed duplicate 'to'" id="corr_to">to</ins> “rub.” +This can best be avoided by always using a well-reduced +bath; by washing with boiling soap after each +dip; and by building up the deep shades by successive +dippings in moderately weak vats, rather than by obtaining +the shade, once for all, by using a very strong, +concentrated dye-liquor.</p> + +<p>For many hundreds, and even thousands, of years,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[102]</span> +indigo has been universally recognized as the most permanent +and most valuable blue dyestuff for cotton +and indeed for woolen goods. For the latter purpose +it is now but little used, thanks to the introduction +of the exceedingly fast dyestuffs of the Acid and Mordant +classes. But for cotton it is still considerably +used, for fast shades.</p> + + +<h3>THE MODERN VAT COLORS</h3> + +<p>Up to a very recent date indigo was the only dyestuff, +of any importance at any rate, that was used +in the manner just described, and produced colors +fast to light and to washing. During the past three +or four years, however, the attention of the dyeing +chemists has been directed to this question, and at +least five of the great dye houses have introduced +dyestuffs covering a great range of colors which, when +dyed in the same way as indigo, not only rival but +distinctly surpass that color in permanence as well as +beauty.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Names.</b>—These dyestuffs, while known generally as +the Vat colors, have been given special class names by +their manufacturers, as follows: Algol (<i>Elberfeld</i>); +Ciba (<i>Klipstein</i>); Helindone (<i>Metz</i>); Indanthrene +(<i>Badische</i>), and Thio Indigo (<i>Kalle</i>). The Cassella +Company are just introducing the first members of +their series, to be known as Hydrons.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>List of Selected Dyestuffs</b>:—</p> + + +<table class="listtable"> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Badische—</td> + +<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Indanthrene Claret, B, Extra</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> + +<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Indanthrene Yellow, G</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> + +<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Indanthrene Blue, G C D</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">*</td> +<td class="tdl">Indigo pure</td> +</tr> +<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr> + +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Cassella—<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[103]</span></td> +<td class="tdl">*</td> +<td class="tdl">Hydrone Blue, R</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">*</td> +<td class="tdl">Hydrone Blue, G</td> +</tr> +<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Elberfeld—</td> + +<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Algol Red, 5 G</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> + +<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Algol Yellow, 3 G</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> + +<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Algol Blue, 3 G</td> +</tr><tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Kalle—</td> +<td class="tdl">*</td> +<td class="tdl">Thio Indigo Red, B G</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">*</td> +<td class="tdl">Thio Indigo Scarlet, S</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> + +<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Thio Indigo Brown, G</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">*</td> +<td class="tdl">Indigo, K G</td> +</tr> +<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Klipstein—</td> + +<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Ciba Red, G</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> + +<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Cibanone Yellow, R</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> + +<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Ciba Green, G</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> + +<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Ciba Blue, 2 B</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> + +<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Ciba Violet, R</td> +</tr> +<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Metz—</td> + +<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Helindone Red, 3 B</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> + +<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Helindone Fast Scarlet, R</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">*</td> +<td class="tdl">Helindone Yellow, 3 G N</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">*</td> +<td class="tdl">Indigo M L B, 6 B</td> +</tr> +</table> +<p class="center pb2"> +N.B.—The dyestuffs marked * will dye in a lukewarm or even cold bath.<br> +</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Properties and Uses.</b>—These Vat dyes are not all +of equal value, but as a class they are, distinctly, +the fastest of any as yet introduced; and the best +of them may properly be considered as the most +permanent coloring agents of any sort or kind that +have ever yet appeared on the earth. They not only +far surpass in this respect the best of the vegetable +dyestuffs, with the possible exception of the very best +qualities of Turkey red, but in resistance to chemicals +and outside agencies of various sorts, are much +better than the best mineral colors. This is so much +the case that the modern specifications for dyed cloth +for Government purposes, as for instance the khaki +uniforms for soldiers in active service, which up to +a year or two ago were dyed with iron buff modified<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span> +with oxide of chromium, have been raised, in one +country after another, until they exclude every class +of dyestuffs except these new Vat colors.</p> + +<p>During the last year or two these dyes have been +introduced, though with some difficulty, into commerce, +and it is possible to obtain shirtings and other +printed goods, dyed in permanent colors, so permanent +indeed that the cloth will wear completely out before +the color changes in the slightest. The extra cost of +the dyestuffs, and the comparative difficulty of dyeing +to shade, furnish an excuse for increasing the price +of the goods. And the perhaps not unnatural disinclination +of the shopkeepers to push the sale of materials +which, in their opinion, are quite unnecessarily +fast, has combined with the cost to delay the general +adoption of these remarkably valuable coloring +agents.</p> + +<p>For craftsmen, however, where the price of the +dyestuffs constitutes such a small percentage of the +cost of the finished article, and where the absolute permanence +of the color is of the utmost importance, these +colors are most useful. They are not to be used, +excepting under special circumstances, for animal +fibres—wool, silk, leather, feathers, etc.—for fear of +injuring the materials by the action of the caustic +alkali. But on cotton and linen, both in direct or +resist dyeing, and for stencil work, there are no colors +to compare with them in fastness, not excepting even +the very best of the Sulphur colors.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[105]</span></p> + + +<h3>DYEING DIRECTIONS</h3> + +<p>These dyes are all applied, just like indigo, in an +alkaline hydrosulphite vat. The colors are applied +in paste form, usually 20% strong, or at any rate +equivalent in strength to a 20% paste of pure indigo. +Care must be taken to thoroughly mix and stir up this +paste with a glass rod, in the original package, each +time it is used, so as to keep its composition uniform.</p> + +<p>The proper amount, to be determined only by experience, +is first thinned with a little hot water, and +then stirred into the dye-pot, two-thirds full of hot +water, about 140° F. (This is well below a boil, and +yet hot enough to slightly scald the tips of the fingers.) +To this is added caustic soda, in the proportion +of two to three spoonfuls to each one of the +color, the amount of soda being proportionately +greater for light shades than where large amounts +of color are used.</p> + +<p>After this has been dissolved the dyestuff is reduced +by adding slowly, with constant stirring, spoonful +after spoonful of the powdered sodium hydrosulphite +until the bath clears and generally the color +changes. In most cases, as with indigo, the completion +of the reducing change can be told by a marked +alteration in the shade of the bath.</p> + +<p>Thus, in general, the blue dyes, like indigo, turn +yellow or orange when the proper amount of hydrosulphite +is added. For the other colors there is no +general rule. Thus Indanthrene Yellow (<i>Badische</i>), +when reduced, is blue—while the Helindone Yellow<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[106]</span> +(<i>Metz</i>) is blood red. Helindone Scarlets (<i>Metz</i>), +when reduced, appear green, while the Thio Indigo +Red and Scarlet have about the same color, when reduced, +that they have when oxidized.</p> + +<p>The best way to tell whether the bath is in proper +condition is to dip a piece of white blotting paper into +it, and notice, on taking it out, whether the color is in +specks or is dissolved. On standing in the air for a +few minutes the color should become oxidized, and +firmly fixed to the paper. As a rule these Vat colors +should be reduced warm, because, in many cases at +least, the reduced color does not dissolve in a bath of +cold alkali. In most cases, however, after having +been reduced at a temperature of about 140° F, the +bath may be allowed to cool considerably, before it +loses its dyeing value. This enables these colors to +be used for Batik, or other processes where the temperature +must be kept below 80° or 90° F. The dyestuffs +which can be thus used will be found marked +with an asterisk in the list of selected dyestuffs above.</p> + +<p>The well-wetted materials are placed in the reduced +dye-bath, and stirred and worked for five or ten +minutes, or longer, according to the depth of shade +experienced. For full shades, however, as in the +case of indigo, it is much better to build up the color +by successive dippings than to try to put it all on in +one bath. For heavy goods the addition of a little +Turkey red oil, about half a tablespoonful to the +gallon, is an advantage, though not absolutely necessary. +When thoroughly impregnated with the dye-liquor, +the goods are taken out, wrung carefully, two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[107]</span> +or three times, to remove the waste liquor as evenly +as possible, and then shaken out and exposed to the +air for fifteen or twenty minutes. They are then +boiled in a soap bath for about twenty minutes, and +then well rinsed, and dried. This hot soap bath, as +before mentioned, is of great importance in most of +these colors, not only for getting rid of loosely fixed +dyestuff, but for oxidizing and fixing the color itself.</p> + +<p>For dark shades it is well, as in the case of the +Sulphur colors, to add salt—three or four tablespoonfuls +per gallon of dye-liquor—to the bath, taking care +to have it well dissolved before the goods are entered. +This is always done when dyeing with Helindone Yellow +3GN, <i>Metz</i>.</p> + +<p>The shades of these new Vat colors are extremely +bright and clear, and, by combining these properly, +any desired effects may be produced. The splendid +series of reds and scarlets for the first time allow the +characteristic shades of Turkey red to be obtained, in +one bath, and of at least equal, if not of superior +fastness to the original. One peculiarity of these +colors is their extreme fastness, not only to light and +washing, acids and alkalies, but also to various oxidizing +agents, such as chloride of lime or bleaching +powder. Accordingly goods properly dyed and finished +with these dyestuffs can be entrusted with safety, +so far as the color goes, to agencies which would +speedily ruin fabrics dyed in any other manner.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_VII">Chapter VII<br> +<span class="chapt_sub">THE BASIC COLORS</span></h2> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">In</span> an earlier chapter it was mentioned that the +modern dyestuffs originated with the discovery +by Perkin, in 1856, of the violet coloring matter +known as Mauveine. This dye was made by the oxidation +of the then rare chemical, aniline. Following +this discovery, other chemists, especially in France +and Germany, soon obtained from the same chemical +or from substances very closely resembling it, a considerable +quantity of powerful and brilliant dyestuffs +of the same general character.</p> + +<p>The original Mauveine was before long superseded, +first by Hofmann’s Violet, and then by a very important +series of violet and purple dyes known as +Methyl Violet, with shades ranging from 6 or 7B +for the deep, full purples, to the 6 or 7R for the +very red shades. These violet colors have never been +surpassed, or even equalled by any other dyes for +brilliancy and richness, although, in common with +almost all the other dyes of this class, they are not +fast to sunlight.</p> + +<p>Another extremely powerful and brilliant color of +this class, used considerably to this day although discovered +nearly fifty years ago, is the dye often called, +from its origin, Aniline Red. It was, however, named<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span> +by the German manufacturers, Fuchsine, from its rich, +full, crimson shades, resembling the deep tints of +the flower, fuchsia, while the French, who discovered +and manufactured it soon after the close of Louis +Napoleon’s Italian campaign, called it Magenta, after +the famous victory of that name.</p> + +<p>About this time some German chemists discovered +and introduced a full, rich, brown dye, still largely +used for dyeing leather (kid gloves and the like), +and, naturally enough, gave it the name of Bismarck +Brown. And at approximately the same date was +discovered the very valuable blue dyestuff, perhaps +the best of the whole class, with quite a range of +full, deep shades, and with considerable fastness to +light, called Methylene Blue.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>General Properties.</b>—The early colors of this group +are the dyestuffs properly known as the “Aniline +Colors” because of their origin; although this name +has been applied, loosely, to all of the thousands of +artificial dyestuffs without regard to their source of +composition. To the chemist, their chemical structure +and their behavior toward reagents, such as acids and +alkalies, naturally suggested the name “Basic Colors.” +This means that they are substances with strong affinity +for all sorts of acids, with which they form +more or less stable salts, while they can be liberated +from these salts by the action of stronger bases, such +as ammonia, or the fixed alkalies, soda and potash.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Application.</b>—These facts were discovered by Perkin +while trying to introduce his Mauveine into the dyeing +industry, and he discovered the methods, used<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span> +to this day, for applying these dyes to the different +textile materials. He found that the dyes of this +class have a strong affinity for the different animal +fibres, such as wool, silk, leather, etc., all of which +seem to possess some acid properties of their own; +but pure vegetable materials, like cotton, linen, and +paper, from which all impurities such as vegetable +acids, gums, etc., have been removed, have no affinity +at all for even the most powerful of the Basic dyes. +A cotton handkerchief, boiled for hours in a strong +solution of Methyl Violet, can be washed in a few +minutes clear of every particle of color, while a piece +of silk or wool, soaked for an instant in the same dye-bath, +will be permanently stained, deep and full.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Cotton, Linen, etc.</i>—In order to fasten these dyes to +vegetable fibre it is necessary to give the latter a distinctly +acid character, and this was done by Perkin +in a manner still used. He steeped the material for +several hours in a hot bath of the acid vegetable compound, +tannic acid or tannin, found so largely in +hemlock and chestnut bark, sumac leaves, nut-galls, +and the like; and then loosely fixed the tannin, thus +absorbed, by a weak bath of tartar emetic. Cotton or +linen fabrics, thus “mordanted,” will combine with +the Basic dyes as readily and as firmly as any animal +fibre, and the resulting colors, while not, as a rule, +fast to light, are extremely fast to washing.</p> + +<p>Since the introduction of the direct cotton dyes, +both Salt colors and Sulphur colors, this method of +dyeing, for skeins or piece goods, has been largely discontinued; +but, by using a modification of this process,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span> +enormous quantities of Basic colors are still employed, +on cotton and linen, in the manufacture of +calicoes, organdies, and other printed fabrics.</p> + +<p>Curiously enough the Salt and the Sulphur colors, +in almost every instance, possess sufficient acid properties +of their own to act as very fair mordants for +the Basic colors. Accordingly, it is not uncommon +for dyers to “top,” with Basic colors, cotton or +linen goods dyed directly. In the case of the Salt colors, +this increases their fastness to washing, and with +Sulphur colors it makes the shades more brilliant.</p> + +<p>Most vegetable materials that are used in a more +or less natural condition, like straw, raffia, grass, +wood-shavings, jute, and the like, contain enough +of this natural tannic acid to act as a mordant for the +Basic colors, which may in this direction be used as +direct dyes.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Wool, Silk, etc.</i>—For animal fibres, such as wool, silk, +furs, feathers, etc., the Basic colors have been almost +entirely superseded, in commerce, by the class of dyestuffs +known as the Acid colors. These occur in +much greater abundance and variety, and can be applied +with less danger of spoiling the goods by uneven +results. For leather, on the other hand, the Basic +colors are still largely used, especially for dark +shades, or when fastness to light is not particularly +desired. On bark-tanned leather, which is full of tannic +acid, they take hold particularly well, and are +often more convenient to work with than the Acid +colors, although they do not, as a rule, give such even +results.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span></p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Uses.</b>—On a small scale it is hardly worth while for +the amateur to try to use these Basic colors for dyeing +either cotton or linen. The difficulty of correctly +and evenly mordanting the goods is quite as great as +that of applying the dyes afterward. And the Sulphur +colors and Vat colors will be found quite as +fast to washing as the best mordanted Basic colors, +with the additional advantage of being very much +faster to light, as well as easier of application.</p> + +<p>By using some of the methods of the calico printer, +it is possible to employ these dyes, with some success, +for stencilling. But even for this purpose, excepting, +perhaps, on silk, the modern Vat colors are +more convenient, as well as being infinitely more +permanent to light.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Disadvantages.</i>—The chief drawback to the use of +these dyes is that they are not fast to light. Several +of them—Methylene Blue, for instance, and Methylene +Heliotrope O (<i>Metz</i>)—are fairly fast, but the +rest, especially in light shades, and on transparent or +translucent fabrics, are liable, when exposed to sunlight +for any length of time, to alter their shade to a +very marked degree.</p> + +<p>For dark shades this is not so noticeable, for, when +goods are strongly colored, the effect of the sunlight +on at least the deeper portions of the fibre is +largely counteracted by the color of the goods themselves. +So, too, an opaque material, like leather, will +hold the same shade of color distinctly longer than +silk or, especially, artificial silk, where the sunlight +strikes through and through the fibre, without any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span> +protection at all. But, generally speaking, these dyes +will not stand strong sunlight.</p> + +<p>Nor are the shades of these Basic dyes, as a rule, +as attractive as those of other classes. The strong +and brilliant, not to say coarse, shades of Methyl Violet, +Malachite Green, Aniline Red, and the rest, which +created such a sensation when they first appeared in +the early sixties, were the particular colors which provoked +John Ruskin to vehement, if not unparliamentary +remarks. When unmixed they certainly do harrow +the feelings of those artistically inclined, as much +now as then. They are rarely seen now, for the +taste of the public has been sufficiently educated to +make a demand for softer shades. As before explained, +nothing is easier than to soften these fierce, +harsh colors to most beautiful and harmonious tints +by mixing into them a mere trace of their complementaries.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Advantages.</i>—In spite of all that can be said against +them, these cheap, brilliant, and very powerful dyes +are not to be despised, and should still be found in the +outfit of a well-equipped dyer. For straw, raffia, chips, +willow, and other materials used so largely for hats +and for basket-work, these dyes are distinctly valuable, +and, if supplemented by fast Acid colors for light +shades, or for particularly fast effects, will be found +satisfactory enough. So, too, for leather they will be +found extremely useful, excepting where delicate +shades, fast to light, are required.</p> + +<p>Some kinds of artificial silk, also, especially those +made from nitro-cellulose and hence possessed of acid<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[114]</span> +properties, dye far better with these than with any +other dyes, although, as explained above, the colors +will be far from permanent.</p> + +<p>For the craftsman, the fastness to washing of these +dyes is a matter of very little importance, because +they are used by him so exclusively upon materials +such as basketry, leather, and artificial silk, which are +never exposed to rough handling in boiling soap and +water.</p> + +<p>As regards their fastness to light, the greater number +of these must be classed as belonging to the fourth +class, i.e., distinctly fugitive in character. On the +other hand, some special ones can be selected from +the group which are not only distinctly faster than +the rest, but are fast enough to be well up in the +third class, or can at a stretch, be placed in the second +class, i.e., can be considered as satisfactory, at any +rate, against any but very severe exposure.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>The Fastest Basic Colors.</b>—Among these may be +placed the well-known dyestuff, Methylene Blue, perhaps +the most satisfactory of the whole class. A +very good color also is Methylene Heliotrope O +(<i>Metz</i>), which, while less brilliant, is far faster than +the many brands of Methyl Violet, Hofmann’s Violet, +and the rest, which to most dyers are the characteristic +basic violets.</p> + +<p>For blacks, many composite dyes are on the market, +made by the different color houses, known as Leather +Blacks. These are fast enough, for deep shades, but +not to be trusted when thinned down to form greys. +The fastest individual basic black is Diazine Black,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span> +(<i>Kalle</i>), and this should be used for the lighter +shades.</p> + +<p>The Red and Yellow colors are distinctly less satisfactory. +None of them can really be considered +better much than third class. Of the Reds the best +is probably the color known as Safranine, different +brands of which, giving as a rule the yellow shades, +are manufactured by the various color houses; one +brand being about as fast as another. For the bluish +shades of red, probably the fastest is Diazine Red, +(<i>Kalle</i>).</p> + +<p>As regards Yellow, the list is even more unsatisfactory.</p> + +<p>There is a very beautiful golden yellow, known +as Auramine O, manufactured by most of the color +houses, which, however, is hardly fast enough to be +in the third class. This dyestuff, by the way, is +injured by boiling, and therefore should never be +used in a dye-bath heated to over 130° or 140° +Fahrenheit. Less pleasing in shade, but somewhat +faster to sunlight, are the rather orange or brownish +yellows known as New Phosphine G (<i>Cassella</i>), and +Methylene Yellow (<i>Metz</i>). Somewhat brighter colors, +though less fast to light, are produced by Thio flavine +T. None of these, however, compares in fastness to +the selected colors of any other class in this book.</p> + +<p>The various brands of the common dyestuff, Bismarck +Brown, are largely used for leather, and while +probably inferior in fastness to any of the colors +mentioned above, are not found in commercial practice +too fugitive to be pretty satisfactory. When, however,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[116]</span> +materials are liable to be exposed for any length +of time, two or three weeks in succession, to direct +powerful sunlight, it will generally be advisable to +use mixed browns made from fast Acid colors.</p> + +<p>Upon the whole, although we are still frequently +called upon to employ them, they must, from the +craftsman’s standpoint, always be considered as untrustworthy. +They should, therefore, never be used +where dyestuffs of any other class can be made to +take their place.</p> + + +<h3>DYEING DIRECTIONS</h3> + +<p>The application of Basic colors to leather dyeing +will be discussed later. We shall now discuss their +application to basketry materials, such as straw, raffia, +willow, and the like, where they will be found useful.</p> + +<p>It will at once be noticed that these dyestuffs are +far more powerful than any thus far met with in +these lessons. Indeed, while there will be needed, for +full shades of the Vat colors, pastes from about 15% +to 20% of the total weight of the dry materials, of the +Sulphur colors from 7% to 10%, of the Salt colors +from 4% to 6%, and of the Acid colors from 1½% to +about 3%, most of these Basic colors will give very +full shades with from ½% to 1% of the total weight +of dry material.</p> + +<p>These Basic colors do not dissolve readily in water, +but are easily soluble in alcohol, and also in even +very dilute acids. Acids form salts with the dyestuffs +and these salts dissolve when the free coloring matters<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[117]</span> +do not. Accordingly the Basic colors should always +be dissolved carefully in a separate cup or vessel, using +hot water, and adding, for each spoonful of dyestuff, +two or three spoonfuls of acetic acid or, if more convenient, +of strong vinegar.</p> + +<p>The color, thus dissolved, should be added to warm +water in the dye-pot, preferably through a fine strainer +or piece of cheesecloth, to avoid any undissolved particles +which would cause spots. The well-wetted goods +are immersed in this dye-bath, and turned, either in the +cold or with gentle heat, until the desired shade is +reached, or the bath is exhausted. The material is +then taken out, rinsed once or twice in water, cold +or warm, carefully dried, and, if necessary, straightened +and pressed or ironed out.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Straw.</i>—Care must be taken when dyeing these materials +to have them quite free from grease and dirt, +before dyeing them. If they do not wet readily and +evenly, after being soaked in warm water for a couple +of hours, they should be carefully washed in warm +soapsuds, and thoroughly rinsed. The soap, however, +should be of good quality and, especially with straw, +either in the form of straw braid or made up into +hats, no soda or other free alkali should be allowed +in the bath, for fear of injuring the surface and destroying +the gloss. This last is sometimes improved +by dipping the straw, after dyeing and rinsing, into +a weak bath of Castile (olive oil) soap, or of Turkey +red oil (about one tablespoonful to the gallon), before +it is dried.</p> + +<p>In dyeing straw, the greatest pains must be taken<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[118]</span> +to dye it evenly. Braid should be tied up in loose +hanks or bundles, so that the dyestuff can penetrate +readily into every part; and with a loop of tape or +string, by which it can be raised or lowered in the dye-bath. +It should be kept in motion sufficiently to cause +uniform circulation of the liquid. The dye-bath +should not be too strong, especially at the beginning, +and should be heated slowly to the boiling point, where +it should be kept for half an hour or so, to insure +penetration. It is best to add the dyestuff in small +portions, from time to time, as the bath becomes exhausted, +lifting the goods out of the bath each time, +and stirring in the new color before putting the goods +back again. If the goods once become uneven it is +very hard, if not impossible, to get them level again, +or to strip them fully, without spoiling the materials. +The best thing to do, if this misfortune overtakes +them, is to dye them some dark color, where minor +irregularities will be covered up and pass unnoticed. +In other words, “Dump it in the black,” as the dyers +say.</p> + +<p>Ladies’ straw hats are dyed in just the same way as +the loose braid, the same care being taken to clean and +wet the goods thoroughly, and to dye evenly. It is +often of interest to experiment with old hats of good +material, but faded, and to dye them up some pleasant +new shade, and the ribbons and trimmings to match. +Sometimes the remains of the old coloring will strip +well by washing in hot soapsuds, and sometimes by +soaking in warm water containing about one tablespoonful +to the gallon of<i lang="la">sodium hydrosulphite</i>—the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[119]</span> +same salt that was used as a reducing agent for the +Vat colors in the last chapter.</p> + +<p>If the color comes out well, it is then easy enough, +after thoroughly rinsing, to dye them any desired +shade. Otherwise they can be dyed Navy Blue, with +a good shade of Methylene Blue and a trace of red, +or Seal Brown, using a large amount of red and a +little yellow and blue; or they can be dyed black with +a black dye, such as one of the so-called Leather +Blacks, usually made by mixing a deep purple with +a yellow, or one of the strong, powerful Basic greens +with red.</p> + +<p>In general, a well dyed piece of braid is supposed +to show smooth, even coloring, good gloss, and good +penetration of the dyestuff into the folds of the straw. +There are, however, decided possibilities for the intelligent +worker to obtain more interesting effects +with but little trouble. It is very easy to use the +principles, already explained, of rainbow dyeing, for +straw braid, and beautiful effects can be obtained in +this way, though it would need an artistic as well as +an experienced milliner to fully utilize the same in +making hats. But it frequently happens, when dyeing +coarse braid without boiling, that the dye penetrates +unevenly, from the edge towards the centre. +Very pretty shaded effects can be produced in this +way, the general color being uniform, and yet the +straw, when looked at closely, showing tints instead +of one flat, uniform shade. By dyeing the straw a +solid color first, and then shading it in this manner<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span> +with a different color, very interesting effects can be +produced.</p> + +<p>It may be worth while to mention here that, when +bought at wholesale places, it is astonishing how cheap +the raw materials are. Bodies of straw, chip, etc., +framing wire, white satin ribbon, artificial flowers, +wing feathers, etc., from which not only pretty but +even handsome and elegant head coverings can be +created, and cost next to nothing at wholesale. The +mechanical part of dyeing all these things can be +learned in a very short time; after that the possibilities +for a skilled worker, who has a good eye for color and +can dye to the desired shades herself without having +to hunt them far and near, are very large.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Raffia.</i>—This is a material so widely used in the public +schools, as well as by craftsmen, for weaving baskets, +that it is well worth while to pay more attention to +the dyeing of it. It is quite cheap, and very bulky, +and takes these colors extremely well. So that it is +one of the most satisfactory of all raw materials to +experiment with, especially if there is a school or +workshop at hand, where the dyed goods can be +utilized.</p> + +<p>The raffia should be shaken out thoroughly, and +soaked in soft water over night, or at least for several +hours, to thoroughly wet and soften it. If even +shades are desired it can then be dyed, just like straw +braid, in a warm dye-bath containing the dyestuff, +previously dissolved in diluted acetic acid or vinegar.</p> + +<p>It is much more interesting, however, to dye it rainbow +shades from the start. If red, blue, and yellow<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[121]</span> +dyestuffs are dissolved separately, in different cups or +pitchers, these solutions can be used to replenish the +large dye-pots of the same colors. To keep the colors +reasonably clear, and prevent them from speedily degenerating +into “mud,” it is well to keep on hand one +or two rinsing-pots, full of warm water, or to have a +sink near at hand, where each hank or bundle of raffia +should be rinsed after being taken out of one dye-pot +and before going into the next.</p> + +<p>The raffia, when thoroughly wetted out, should, for +convenience’ sake, be made up into separate loosely-tied +bundles, with a loop on each by which to handle it +in the dye-bath without staining the hands. It is +well, too, to have some oil-cloth around, for these +bundles drip a good deal, and the dye-liquor will +stain anything of an animal or vegetable nature with +which it comes in contact. After a little experimenting +with dipping these bundles first into the first dye-pot +and then—rinsing each time—into the other two, +it will be easy to get the general effect of any particular +shade, although, when examined closely, the +fibre will show the presence of all three colors.</p> + +<p>It is interesting to notice, here, as previously with +the Salt colors, how easy it is to modify and soften +the harsh shades of the individual unmixed dyestuffs. +And, as before, it is very interesting as well as very +useful to dye some bundles even shades of some important +compound color, such as brown, for instance, +or olive green, or steel grey, and to notice how the +color is changed on the fibre by adding a little more +red, or yellow, or blue to the bath.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span></p> + +<p>The “eye for color” obtained in this way is of the +greatest possible advantage to a dyer, whether amateur +or professional; and where, as in this case, the +materials are cheap, easy to dye, and possible to utilize, +every advantage should be taken of the opportunity.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Permanent Colors on Basketry.</b>—While for most purposes +the straw, raffia chips, willows, etc., dyed with +Basic colors will be found satisfactory enough, it is +best for craftsmen who are making a specialty of very +high-grade baskets, to use some of the fast Acid +colors, described and listed in the next chapter, for +their reds and yellows, and for all mixed shades in +which these two colors play an important part. The +Acid dyes are applied in a boiling bath, with the addition +of a little acetic acid, and, while not fast to washing, +and not imparting their colors as readily as the +Basic dyes, can be thoroughly depended upon, even +in light and delicate shades, against the action of sunlight. +Salt dyes can also be used, in a boiling bath +with the addition of some salt, but, excepting in some +special cases, are not superior to the Acid dyes, although +somewhat faster to washing.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_VIII">Chapter VIII<br> +<span class="chapt_sub">THE ACID COLORS</span></h2> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> discovery and introduction into commerce +of Mauveine and the other Basic dyes, focussed +the attention of chemists, all over the +world, upon this new and important application of +their science. And it was soon noticed that certain +organic bodies, of a decidedly<em>acid</em> character, had +the power of dyeing wool and silk. These early dyes +were so-called “nitro” compounds, formed by the +action of strong nitric acid upon derivatives of coal +tar, and in most cases they gave strong and brilliant, +but rather fugitive, shades of yellow. The most +interesting of these, perhaps, was the compound +known as “picric acid,” which at one time was considerably +used for dyeing silk yellow. Now it has +been abandoned for that purpose but is manufactured +on an enormous scale for use as an explosive.</p> + +<p>These original acid dyes were of little importance. +But in the early seventies chemists began to make +use of a reaction—known as “diazotizing”—for +making new organic compounds by the coupling of +aniline or bodies similar to aniline, with all sorts and +kinds of other compounds derived from coal tar. +The number of derivatives of this sort proved enormous, +and many of them had more or less valuable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span> +dyeing properties. And in a very short time new +dyestuffs had been discovered, good, bad, and indifferent, +numbering not hundreds, but thousands.</p> + +<p>A very few of these so-called “Azo” dyes were +of the Basic class, like Bismarck Brown, mentioned +in the last chapter. Others, discovered ten or fifteen +years later, constituted the class of Direct Cotton +colors or Salt colors. But the great bulk of these +colors belonged to the so-called “Acid” class, forming +salts with bases and alkalies, and being liberated +from the salts by strong acids.</p> + +<p>The number of Acid Azo colors is very large. In +the catalogues of commercial coal-tar colors there are +some two hundred and fifty of these dyes which have +been picked out of the rest as having sufficient value +to be carefully described, and to have been placed +on the market by the great dye houses. Most of +these are red and orange colors, with a few yellows. +As a rule they are brilliant and clear, but, with a +few exceptions, not particularly fast to light.</p> + +<p>When these were introduced it was soon recognized +that they were of practically no value for cotton and +linen. They are as a rule much more soluble than +the Basic dyes of the foregoing chapter, and hence +are occasionally used as stains for wood, rattan, and +other vegetable materials where considerable penetration +is needed, without fastness to washing. But +such use is of little importance.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Properties.</b>—Acid dyes are almost exclusively employed +for dyeing wool, silk, feathers, and other animal +fibres, and for this they are extremely valuable.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[125]</span> +The introduction of the Acid Azo colors so simplified +and improved the dyeing of wool and silk, +that every effort was made to increase the range of +colors. And when it was found that the Azo colors +were weak on the line of blue, purple, and green, efforts +were made, which after several years proved +successful, to change the various powerful Basic dyes, +the Methyl Violets, Fuchsin or Aniline Red, Aniline +Blue, Malachite Green, and the rest, into Acid dyes, +so that they could all be used in the same dye-baths. +This has resulted in a very wide range of colors indeed, +for the Acid Azo colors cover fully all the +shades of yellow, orange, and especially of red, from +scarlets of all sorts and kinds to deep full crimsons. +And then the remaining shades are covered by the +acidified or sulphonated Basic colors.</p> + +<p>These latter, by the way, though very brilliant and +strong and rich, are no faster to light than the original +Basic colors from which they are derived. Of late +years the Acid colors have held their own, and still +monopolize the commercial, as well as the special, dyeing +of wool and silk excepting under unusual circumstances, +when considerable fastness to washing is required.</p> + +<p>With these dyes, as in the case of the Basic dyes, +the fastness to washing is of little or no consequence +to the craftsman. Nobody expects to scrub hand-dyed +leather; and woollen and silk goods, unless specially +prepared, are not supposed to be turned over to the +tender mercies of the family laundress. However, it +may be well to emphasize here the fact that these dyes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span> +are as a rule “stripped” quite readily by boiling in +a neutral soap bath. And when the craftsman wishes +to dye wool or silk fast to washing, he must either +use the Salt dyes, in a boiling bath, or must dye, with +special precautions against tendering, with either the +Sulphur or the Vat Dyes.</p> + +<p>With regard to light-fastness, however, the case is +different. A great many hundreds, possibly even +thousands, of Acid dyes have been discovered, and +scores of them, covering every shade, can be obtained +in the open market. Most of these are of but little +permanence, but a few products, from each of the great +color houses, can be selected, whose fastness to light +is extremely satisfactory. The dyes in the following +list can hardly be considered as fast as the Vat dyes, +previously described, but are probably faster, as a +class, than any other class mentioned in this book. +They would rank at the very top of the second class, +and some at least would fairly enter the first class, being +absolutely satisfactory against even the strongest +sunlight.</p> + +<p>A series of skeins, dyed all colors of the rainbow, +including many delicate light shades, with a red, yellow, +and blue dye of those mentioned below, withstood +an exposure test which quite ruined a similar +set of skeins dyed with the very best natural dyestuffs. +And a large hand-woven rug, made of wool +dyed light shades with the same dyes, was placed for +two weeks on a roof in New York, half of it being +covered with boards and the rest exposed to the direct +action of the July sunlight, and at the end of this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[127]</span> +time it was impossible to notice any difference in +shade.</p> + +<p>The colors in the following list are to be used, principally, +for wool. They will all dye silk, leather, and +feathers, but in the chapters dealing with those materials +some additional dyes may be mentioned, which +are specially suited for them.</p> + + +<p><i>List of Selected Dyes.</i>—</p> + +<table class="listtable"> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Badische—</td> +<td class="tdl">Palatine Scarlet A, 3 R</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Palatine Light Yellow, R</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Tartrazine (yellow)</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Wool Fast Blue, B L</td> +</tr> +<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Cassella—</td> +<td class="tdl">Brilliant Cochineal, R R</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Acid Yellow, A T, conc.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Tetracyanol, S F</td> +</tr> +<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Elberfeld—</td> +<td class="tdl">Azo Crimson, S</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Fast Red, A</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Fast Yellow, 3 G</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Alizarine Blue, S A P</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Cashmere Black, 3 B N</td> +</tr> +<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Kalle—</td> +<td class="tdl">Biebrich Acid Red, 2 B</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Wool Yellow, T A</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Nero cyanine Blue, B</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Nero cyanine Black, D</td> +</tr> +<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Metz—</td> +<td class="tdl">Fast Acid Red, M</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Fast Acid Orange, G</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Fast Acid Yellow, 3 G</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Fast Acid Blue, B B</td> +</tr> +</table> + + + +<h3>DYEING DIRECTIONS</h3> + +<p>The Acid dyes, like the Basic, are used in an acid +bath, but for a different reason. With the Basic dyes +acetic acid or some other weak acid is added, for the +purpose of readily dissolving the color. In the case +of the Acid dyes, however, the dyestuffs are almost<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span> +always put on the market in the form of the potassium +or ammonium salts of the color acid. And the presence +of some acid is always necessary, to liberate the +color acid, and allow it to combine with the basic principles +existing in the animal fibres.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>For Wool.</i>—The goods, well washed and soaked, +are warmed gently in a bath containing, besides the +dyestuff dissolved in plenty of water, a little sulphuric +acid and a good deal of Glauber’s salt. Both +acid and salt should be free from iron, or the shade +will be dulled.</p> + +<p>The amount of acid to be used may vary between +considerable limits without affecting the results. If +too much is present, there is danger of injuring the +feel and the lustre of the fibre. If there is not enough +acid in the bath, the color will wash right out of the +wool, as soon as it is rinsed. In general it is well to +start with about one tablespoonful of dilute (30%) sulphuric +acid for each gallon of dye-liquor and about +twice that amount of Glauber’s salt.</p> + +<p>It is hard to tell just what is the function of the +Glauber’s salt. It seems, however, to open up the +pores of the wool in some way, and to make it dye +more evenly and deeply. The bath is gently heated, +with constant stirring of the goods, until the right +shade is produced, or, if it is desired to exhaust the +bath and so waste no color, until near the boiling +point.</p> + +<p>The goods when taken out of the dye-bath must be +washed very thoroughly, to remove the last trace of +acid, which otherwise on drying would ruin the wool.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span></p> + +<p>It must be remembered that these Acid dyes hardly +affect cotton in the least, and so the goods dyed in +this way must be free from vegetable fibres, if level +dyeings are to be obtained.</p> + +<p>In dyeing wool skeins commercially it is, of course, +of the utmost importance to have the colors perfectly +level and uniform. This uniformity is obtained easily +enough, when using these Acid dyes, by having the +wool thoroughly wet before placing it in the dye-bath; +by having it well loosened out and well stirred +so that the color will penetrate evenly every part of +the material; and, finally, by starting the bath at a +moderate temperature, and heating it gradually, until +the proper shade is obtained.</p> + +<p>For handicraft dyeing the student is strongly advised +to practise shaded and irregular effects, the so-called +Rainbow dyeing, with wool in skeins, just as, +in previous lessons, with raffia and with cotton. By +using coarse heavy yarns, very beautiful two and +three color effects can be produced, which, when used +for embroidery or weaving, will prove most interesting.</p> + +<p>Great care must always be taken, in wool dyeing, +to preserve the lustre and the soft effect of the wool, +and to avoid felting. This can best be done by using +moderate amounts of acid, by dyeing at moderate temperature +and never raising the dye-bath quite to the +boil; and finally, by handling the goods as little as +possible in the acid dye-bath, consistent of course with +exposing every portion equally to the action of the +dyestuff. Cotton skeins can be worked and rubbed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span> +and pulled, and thrown up and down in the hot dye-bath, +without fear of injuring them. But wool should +be handled carefully, and worked in the dye-pot +quietly and gently, just sufficiently to accomplish two +results. First, the wool at the bottom of the pot +should be raised by a lifting and turning motion and +replaced by fresh material; and second, when the +wool is lowered back into the liquor it should be +loosened, so as to allow the dye-liquor to penetrate the +mass.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_IX">Chapter IX<br> +<span class="chapt_sub">DYEING FEATHERS</span></h2> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> use of feathers and, especially, of ostrich +feathers for millinery has, during the past few +years, increased to enormous proportions. +Besides the home product, from California and the +Western States, which, however, is but small, the +importation of raw feathers from abroad has averaged, +during the past two or three years, nearly eight +millions of dollars. As yet, the dyeing of these feathers +is almost entirely confined to professionals—their +processes, although simple, not being generally +known or published.</p> + +<p>As before mentioned, feathers, like other animal +products, can be colored with ease by either the Basic +or the Acid dyestuffs. In practice, as with wool and +silk, the Acid dyes are universally used, because of +their greater variety, their greater fastness to light, +and their better levelling properties. To use the Acid +colors with success the following points must be carefully +considered. First, the baths must be such as +not to ruin or “burn” the feathers, i.e., they must +leave intact the tiny barbules upon the barbs or +“flues,” as the dyers call them, which make the +feather look soft and full and not stringy.</p> + +<p>Second, the quill must be fully dyed, and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span> +shaft, or stem of the feather, must also be colored +just as well as the flues. This is a very common defect +in feather dyeing. The quill, being hard and stiff and +horny, is much more difficult to penetrate with the +dyestuff than the soft, delicate fibres. If the feather, +therefore, is dyed hurriedly or carelessly, the latter +may be colored dark and full, long before the quill or +the lower part of the stem has been dyed at all. This +necessitates painting the stem after the finishing +process, with oil colors, to match the rest of the +feather.</p> + +<p>Finally, after dyeing, the feather must be properly +finished so that the flues will not look woolly on the +one hand, nor stringy on the other hand, but soft and +full.</p> + +<p>The whole secret of feather dyeing lies in the +proper attainment of these three requirements, success +in which depends respectively upon (a) the composition +of the dye-bath, (b) the method of dyeing, +and (c) the finishing process.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>(a) The Dye-bath.</b>—As is universally the case when +using Acid dyes on animal fibres, the bath must be +distinctly acid, in order to release the free color +acid from the dyestuff, which, in its commercial form, +is a salt. A very little experimenting with ostrich +feathers will show that the presence, not only of +mineral acids like sulphuric or hydrochloric, but even +of the much milder organic acids, like acetic or citric, +is liable to “burn” the feather badly and convert +a well barbuled flue into a bare fibre which, under +no conditions, can look other than stringy. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span> +acid commonly used by the professionals is oxalic acid, +but, of late years, dyeing chemists have been introducing +into the dyeing industry the use of the volatile +and pungent formic acid, and in the dyeing of ostrich +feathers this acid has been found particularly advantageous. +Excepting when a large number of +feathers, strung together on a line, are to be dyed +the same color, it is customary to dye feathers in an +agateware pan or flat dish, and about two-thirds of +a teaspoonful of formic or oxalic acid in a pint of +water, is about the right proportion for one or two +feathers at a time.</p> + + +<p class="noindent"><b>(b) Method of Dyeing.</b>—</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Softening the Feathers.</i>—Before immersing the +feathers in the dye-bath the greatest pains should be +taken, first, to thoroughly cleanse them, and, second, +to thoroughly soften them. As a rule, the feathers +are bleached before dyeing and in this process they +generally lose all of their original grease. But if they +show signs of wetting unevenly when plunged into hot +water, they should be carefully scrubbed with Castile +soap and hot water, and well rinsed till the last trace +of soap has been removed.</p> + +<p>The clean feathers should then be thoroughly softened +by immersing them in hot water. This is especially +important as regards the quills and the stems, +which may have to soak for half an hour or more +before they are soft enough to take the dyestuff.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Dyeing the Feathers.</i>—After softening, each feather +is held by the tip, and laid, butt first, in the dye-bath.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[134]</span> +For light shades the dye-liquor may remain cold, but +for darker shades it is best to enter the feathers at a +low temperature, and raise the latter very gently till +the right shade is reached, or the bath is decidedly hot, +although still far below the boiling point.</p> + +<p>Above all, care must be taken to dye the quill and +butt first, and to keep them in the bath very much +longer than the flues and tip. The latter will dye in +a minute or two, but to thoroughly stain the former +may take twenty minutes or half an hour.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>(c) Finishing.</b>—When the desired shade has been +reached, the feather is taken from the bath and rinsed +thoroughly in warm water, to get rid of the loose +color. Then it must be “starched.” This is the +technical name for the drying process, and is very +different from the laundryman’s idea of “starching,” +although the two processes have occasionally been confused, +with most disastrous results, as far as the +feathers were concerned.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Dry-starching.</i>—After the dyed feathers have been +thoroughly rinsed, they should be partially dried, by +wiping with a soft piece of cloth, like a handkerchief +or piece of cheesecloth, and then laid flat on a piece +of stiff paper and covered with a heaping tablespoonful +or so of dry, finely powdered starch (on a small scale +the quality known as “Electric Starch” is eminently +satisfactory). The starch is thoroughly rubbed into +the feather with the fingers, and then the feather, full +of starch, is beaten and dusted against the edge of the +table or the back of the hand until the starch has all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[135]</span> +been shaken out. After one or two repetitions of this +process, the feather will be found not only dry but +with the barbules properly filled out. Sometimes the +feather, thus treated, has a woolly look, the starching +process having gone too far. In this case it should be +dampened in cold water, and restarched.</p> + +<p>Under no circumstances should any starch paste be +allowed to touch or form on the flues. The starching +must be done in the cold and with the unbroken starch +grains.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Wet-starching.</i>—Some dyers prefer wet-starching to +the dry process just described. In this process, the +feathers, after dyeing and rinsing, are worked for a +minute or two in a thick milk (not paste) made by +stirring one or two large tablespoonfuls of dry starch +in half a pint or so of cold water, till all the lumps +have been broken up. After this milk has been thoroughly +rubbed into every part of the feather, the latter +is taken out, dried roughly by wiping with cheesecloth, +and then by wrapping between blotting paper or folded +cheesecloth and running carefully through a not too +tight wringer. The feather is then taken out and thoroughly +dried, either by laying it on the table in the +sunlight or in a warm room for some time, or, if very +great care is taken, by holding and moving it over a +hot-air register, or high over the stove or gas flame. +Of course, if this is done carelessly and too great +heat is applied, some of the starch grains will be converted +into paste, and the feather probably ruined. +When thoroughly dry, “bone dry,” as the dyers call +it, the feather is beaten against the back of the hand,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[136]</span> +or edge of the table until all the starch is shaken out.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Dyeing in the Starch.</b>—When dyeing light shades +time may be saved by dyeing and wet-starching at the +same time, in the same bath. The feather, thoroughly +soaked in hot water, is placed in the starch milk, to +which a quarter teaspoonful or so of formic acid and +a little dyestuff have been added, and then worked, in +the cold, until the proper shade has been reached, the +starch being taken up at the same time. Then on drying +and beating, the feather will come out both dyed +and finished. This has the disadvantage of leaving a +little acid in the finished feather, but when using small +quantities of oxalic acid, this is of little, if any importance.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Suggestions as to Feather Dyeing.</b>—These processes +should enable any intelligent craftsman to dye even the +most costly and most delicate feathers without danger +of spoiling them. Shade effects in one, two, or more +colors can be easily obtained by the use of a little +ingenuity, remembering always that the quill and the +stem are very much more difficult to dye than the +flues or tip. It will be remembered that comparatively +few ostrich feathers are now used, singly; the plumes +so abundantly in use, nowadays, being almost invariably +built up by sewing two or usually three feathers +together, one underneath the other, the stem being +carefully shaved down so as not to make them too +clumsy.</p> + +<p>Very charming effects can be obtained by dyeing +the individual feathers different but harmonious +colors, and then combining them into one plume later.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span> +But, usually, the plume is made first, and then dyed +afterwards. It may be suggested, here, that very +beautiful effects can be produced by taking large, +handsome, single feathers, before they are bleached, +and dyeing them a pleasant shade of red or blue or of +some mixed color. The natural black of the feather, +with its irregular markings, often gives very interesting +results, and the expense is much less than that of +a built-up feather.</p> + +<p>After the starching process, the dried feather is +usually finished by “curling,” a process simple enough +in itself, but which had best be left to the professional, +for fear of injury. The bleaching of feathers, also, +is a process which is hardly to be attempted by the +amateur, unless he is prepared to spend a good deal of +his time and money in experimenting. The process, +however, is well understood by dyeing chemists and +can be learned without much difficulty, by a careful +student with some knowledge of chemistry.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Stripping Feathers.</i>—By soaking in warm water, +containing a teaspoonful or so of ammonia water to +the pint, and then carefully washing with soap and hot +water, these Acid colors can be, as a rule, stripped from +feathers almost entirely. This does not, to be sure, +improve the original quality of the goods, but, carefully +done, its bad effects are hardly, if at all, perceptible, +and it enables the dyer to remedy a bad piece +of dyeing, or to dye an old feather that has become +faded or discolored by exposure. This, of course, +does not apply to<em>black</em> dyed feathers.</p> + +<p>After white feathers have been worn for some<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[138]</span> +time they generally become soiled and yellow. If the +stock was good to start with they can be immensely +improved in appearance, if not made quite equal to +new, by simply scrubbing them with a piece of Castile +soap, in hot water, and then, after thorough rinsing, +by dyeing them, in the starch-bath, with a very faint +trace of blue or bluish violet.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Black Dyeing of Feathers.</i>—This is the most difficult +process in feather dyeing, and, as a rule, should +be avoided by the amateur. It is impossible, so far, to +get a thoroughly good black by the use of any artificial +dyestuff, or any simple process. The best Acid blacks +on the market, dyed with the greatest care, give a color +to feathers that by themselves may look pretty well, +but, when compared with first-class products, show +dull and grey.</p> + +<p>The only satisfactory blacks, so far, are produced +by a long and tedious series of operations, depending +on mordanting for, and dyeing with, logwood. As a +rule, the professional black dyer—and really good ones +are few and far between—allows at least five or six +days for the process, the different steps of which he +usually guards as a valuable secret, which indeed it is. +The writer possesses one or two of these formulas, +obtained, as special marks of favor, from first-class +dyers, but has never had occasion to test them thoroughly, +and therefore is unwilling to publish them +here. Good dyeing chemists have tried again and +again to shorten and simplify the process, and have +had some success. But to this day no color has been +found to replace logwood, and this black dyeing of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span> +feathers is perhaps the only dyeing problem that has +not as yet been satisfactorily solved with the aid of +modern dyestuffs.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Painting Feathers.</i>—Some dyers, instead of dyeing +feathers, paint them. They dip the cleansed and +carefully dried feather, for a moment, into a bath +of oil paint, thinned greatly with gasolene. The +feather is then taken from the bath, dried by waving +in the air, and, when thoroughly dry, finished by beating +and, if necessary, with a light dry-starching.</p> + +<p>The results, for colors, are fairly satisfactory but +are not so permanent as the dyeing process. In an +oil paint the solid coloring matter, or pigment, is +ground up finely in boiled linseed oil, an oil which +has the property of drying to a firm varnish when +exposed to the air. This mixture is thinned with +turpentine or gasolene to the desired consistency before +using.</p> + +<p>It is evident that, in coloring feathers, if enough +oil is applied to fasten the pigment very firmly to the +flues, there is danger at the same time of plastering +the fine barbules so that they will never get back to +their proper places, and the product will be hopelessly +stringy. On the other hand, if the amount of oil is +so small, thanks to the abundant thinning with gasolene, +that there is no fear of its sticking the barbules +together, there will hardly be enough oil left to firmly +fasten the pigment to the flues, on drying, and the +color is apt to rub, and to wear off quickly.</p> + +<p>Paint, thinned with gasolene, has been applied to +feathers occasionally by means of stencils, some of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[140]</span> +the so-called “barred” effects, looking like the feathers +from a barred Plymouth Rock hen, being made in +this way—the color, black paint or varnish, greatly +thinned, being applied by means of an “air brush” or +atomizer. Occasionally very large, wide, and handsome +feathers have appeared decorated with flowers +and other figures, in bright colors, applied in the same +way with an air brush, sometimes with the help of +stencils, but generally free-hand. These effects are +often rather crude and inartistic, but there is no reason +why, skilfully used, this method of decorating the +backs of feathers might not produce interesting effects.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_X">Chapter X<br> +<span class="chapt_sub">LEATHER AND LEATHER DYEING</span></h2> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">So</span> far as can be learned, in every part of the +world, the first materials used by man for clothing +and coverings were the skins of animals. +In its natural condition, however, the hide stripped +from a dead animal has certain properties which +greatly interfere with such use. When dry it is +stiff and hard; when moist it rapidly decomposes, +and when exposed to hot water it swells and in time +dissolves. These difficulties had to be overcome before +skins and furs could be properly utilized. And, +accordingly, in the history of every nation and race, +one of the very earliest of all developing industries +was the art of leather making; that is, of converting +the hard and easily decomposed rawhide into a soft, +pliable, and comparatively permanent substance, well +suited for the use of man.</p> + +<p>In most uncivilized nations this conversion was +accomplished by rubbing and working some oily or +greasy substance into the hide, until it was thoroughly +soft and flexible. Thus, in our Indian tribes, the old +squaws would turn the deer skins and the pelts of +various fur-bearing animals into beautifully soft and +strong leather, by rubbing and working into them the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[142]</span> +brains of the animals. The Esquimaux and other +Northern tribes from time immemorial, too, have +worked out this method with great perfection. Indeed +without it they would have been unable to survive +at all.</p> + +<p>In other parts of the world it was discovered that +rawhide could be made more durable by treatment with +metallic salts, especially with alum, and then, by softening +this product by rubbing in some oily material, a +very fair leather could be produced. On the other +hand, in warmer climates, as for instance among the +Egyptians, the very earliest records show the use of +vegetable extracts, containing the substances now +known as tannins, for softening and preserving skins; +and these races understood the art of dyeing, painting, +gilding, and embossing the leather thus made, and used +it for shoes, straps, aprons, and harness.</p> + +<p>The Romans and Babylonians were famous for +their leather industry, and the ancient Romans not +only imported but manufactured it themselves, and +used it freely. In the Middle Ages the greatest developments +in the art were made by the Moors +in Spain, whose leather, commonly called Cordovan +leather, from the city which was the centre +of the industry, has probably never been equalled for +beauty and importance. This Cordovan leather, of +which fine specimens are still to be found in museums +and private collections, was made of sheepskin, tanned +with bark. It was ornamented with silver foil, laid +on a backing of size, and covered with a yellow varnish +or lacquer, sometimes tinted with bitumen. This<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span> +protected both the leather and design very perfectly +from injury by air or moderate moisture, and, being +done on a large scale with splendid designs, was used +largely for handsome wall coverings, competing +favorably with tapestries manufactured in France +and elsewhere for the same purposes.</p> + + +<h3>PREPARATION OF LEATHER.</h3> + +<p>In general, we may say that at the present day there +are the same three classes of leather as in the days of +the ancients, according to whether the hide is treated +with oil or fatty materials, with alum or other metallic +salts, or with the bark of trees or other vegetable substances +containing the compound known as tannin.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>1. Oil Tanning.</b>—This, while of less importance than +the other two methods, is still used in considerable +quantities for lighter and cheaper qualities of leather. +The process most commonly used is often called +chamoising, or “shamoying,” because it is used principally +for the production of “chamois leather” or +wash leather. The hides used for this form are usually +thin and light, the flesh sides of split sheepskins being +the commonest, and the resultant leather is not only +soft and flexible and strong, but is also unaffected by +water. For this reason it is more difficult to dye than +other varieties.</p> + + +<p class="noindent"><b>2. Mineral Tanning or Tawing.</b></p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Alum.</i>—For thousands of years it has been known +that if a solution of alum is rubbed or soaked into a +raw hide the fibres of the leather become changed to an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span> +insoluble and permanent condition, and by afterwards +rubbing and rolling, and working in some greasy material, +like the yolk of eggs, a useful variety of leather +can be produced. The alum in this case does not form +a permanent compound with the animal fibres, but can +be washed out by working in warm water. Chemists +have agreed, therefore, to call this temporary reaction +by the name “tawing” as opposed to “tanning” +where the chemical action is a permanent one. The +“kid” leathers used for gloves are commonly made by +this process.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Chrome.</i>—During the last few years a new process has +been introduced, based upon the use of chromium salts, +which are absorbed by the hide in the form of the +yellow or orange-colored salts, chromate and bichromate +of sodium, and then are reduced in the fibres +to a green compound by the use of hydrosulphite of +sodium, or some other strong but harmless reducing +agent.</p> + +<p>This chrome leather is extremely valuable, and is +freely used, especially for the “uppers” of good quality +in the boot and shoe trade. This leather is very +strong, and is water-proof, but possesses a serious +disadvantage for the dyer, in that when it is once dry +it can never be again wetted, and therefore it must be +dyed fresh from the tannery wash tanks, or not at all.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>3. Vegetable, or Bark Tanning.</b>—At some very early +period in the world’s history it was discovered that +certain vegetable extracts, possessing in general a peculiar +“puckery” taste, also possessed valuable properties +in the treatment of raw hide. This process was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span> +certainly well known to the Romans, for Pliny mentions, +as tanning materials, the three great sources of +tannin to-day, namely, gall nuts, the bark of trees, and +sumach. These and many other vegetable materials, +used for tanning, all contain a peculiar substance, +known as “tannin” or tannic acid, which gives them +their useful properties.</p> + +<p>The tannins from different plants are not identical, +although closely related to each other. They all have a +strong astringent taste, and dissolve readily in water, +forming weak acid solutions. They make dark-colored +compounds with iron salts, and convert the hide tissue +of animals into a tough, insoluble, and comparatively +indestructible material which, when loosened and softened +by some mechanical action, is known as leather.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Tannin.</i>—Pure tannin can best be obtained from gall +nuts—small excrescences on the leaves and twigs of +certain plants caused by the puncture of some insect +preparing to deposit its eggs there. The best varieties, +called Aleppo galls, come from Turkey and Austria, +where they are found on oak trees, and contain from +60 to 70 per cent. of tannic acid. From these it can be +extracted in a very pure form, and it comes to market +as an extremely light, fine, grey or light tan-colored +powder, which dissolves in very little water to an almost +colorless solution. Tannin in this form is largely +used for dyeing, especially in the dyeing of cotton or +linen goods with the Basic colors.</p> + +<p>For tanning purposes it is customary to use the bark +of various trees, oak bark being the most esteemed in +Europe and, in this country, hemlock bark being the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span> +most used. These contain from 12 to 15 per cent. of +tannin, as a rule, with a moderate amount of brown +coloring matter. Pine bark is also frequently used, +and the bark of fir, spruce, and larch, while, in Russia +especially, much willow bark and birch bark is used +for light grades, the so-called Russia leather.</p> + +<p>The next most valuable source of tannin is known as +sumach, consisting of the finely-ground twigs and +leaves of several species of that plant. The American +sumach contains more tannin—18 to 25 per cent—than +other varieties, but it is less valuable than the Sicilian +sumach, which contains less coloring matter, and therefore +can be used for tanning light shades of leather. +All the materials can be used in the tannery either directly, +or in the form of previously prepared extracts. +From the Far East come some very important sources +of tannin, used for dyeing as well as for leathermaking, +in the form of dried extracts of various plants. +One of these is Catechu or Cutch, now of value only +for its tannin contents, but in former years used as a +brown dyestuff as well. A similar product, known as +Gambier, is still imported on a large scale from Singapore +and other Eastern ports. It contains less tannin +than Cutch, but less coloring matter as well. It is used +not only for leather but for black silk dyeing with logwood.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>The Tanning Process.</b>—Without going too much into +detail, the conversion of raw hide into leather by +means of tannin is a very lengthy and mechanical +process. The hides are first softened by soaking in +water, and then are dehaired, usually by steeping in a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span> +bath of slaked lime until the hair is loosened and can +be scraped off with a blunt knife.</p> + +<p>This lime must then be extracted by steeping in an +acid bath, preferably containing some organic acid like +lactic or acetic acid; some manufacturers, for the sake +of cheapness, use dilute sulphuric acid for this purpose, +with the invariable result of making the leather +brittle and rotten when it is fully dried.</p> + +<p>After the acid has been rinsed off, the hides are +placed in the tan liquor, made either by dissolving one +of the extracts in water, or by mixing the finely-ground +bark or sumach with water and placing the hides in the +mixture. The tanning process is a very slow one, +especially for heavy hides, and it may take several +months before the tannin penetrates to the center of +the goods. When that time has come, the hides are +taken out, brushed off, rinsed with cold water, drained +off on horses, and then hung up in a drying shed to +slowly dry.</p> + +<p>When in the proper condition they are thoroughly +rolled by hand or machinery, to break up any adhesions, +and to make the leather soft and flexible. +Then they are ready to be finished, are dyed to the +required shade, rubbed down and polished with wax +or varnish, grained by being run through rollers with +engraved patterns, and otherwise prepared for the +trade.</p> + + +<h3>DYEING AND STAINING OF LEATHER.</h3> + +<p class="noindent"><i>General.</i>—It has been mentioned, in previous chapters, +that animal fibres of all sorts, such as wool, silk,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span> +feathers, etc., seem to possess at the same time both +acid and basic properties, and therefore they combine +readily with dyestuffs belonging to the Basic and also +to the Acid class. This at once distinguishes animal +fibres from vegetable fibres such as cotton, linen, and +paper, which, being practically neutral in composition, +will not combine with either Basic or Acid dyestuffs +without the assistance of mordants.</p> + +<p>This same rule applies to leather, and we are therefore +able to dye leather successfully with either Acid +or Basic dyestuffs, using a dye-liquor made acid with, +preferably, a volatile organic acid such as acetic or +formic acid.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Acids.</i>—For Basic colors acetic acid is generally used, +as being cheaper than the other, and quite as good for +dissolving the dyes for the dye-bath. For Acid colors +it is generally best to use formic acid, for acetic acid +in many cases fails to liberate the color-acids from the +dyes, and then the colors fail to “bite.”</p> + +<p>Professional leather dyers, for the sake of economy, +often use a little sulphuric acid in the dye-bath, a +practice which is one of the chief causes of the short +life of modern leathers.</p> + +<p>With other animal fibres, such as wool and silk, the +Acid colors take quite as readily as the Basic; but +with leather, there is some little difference, according +to the way in which the leather has been prepared.</p> + +<p>For our purposes it is hardly worth while to discuss +the dyeing of chrome leather or of chamois leather. +The leather almost universally employed for hand +work has been bark tanned, excepting where very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[149]</span> +white goods are used, of rather light quality. These +are generally tawed with alum, and for this reason +have a greater affinity for the Acid colors than when +the fibres have already been fully charged with +tannic acid, which at the same time, it will be remembered, +acts as an excellent mordant for the Basic +colors.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Dyestuffs.</i>—Accordingly, while Acid colors may be +used, they do not act nearly so readily as the Basic +colors. For this reason, except for special shades such +as a clear sky-blue or a pure scarlet, which can hardly +be obtained excepting by the use of Acid dyes, or where +special fastness to sunlight is required, the best Basic +colors, such as Methylene Blue, Methylene Heliotrope, +Thioflavine T (for yellow) and Safranine (for red) +are usually employed. For black, it is well to use one +of the many Leather blacks, made by mixing together +powerful Basic dyes. For brown, the standard leather +color, used in enormous quantities for gloves and the +like, is the well-known Bismarck Brown, or for more +orange shades, the closely related dyestuff, Chrysoidine. +And, although neither of these colors is as fast to light +as the Basic dyes mentioned above, they give very +satisfactory results. These colors should be dissolved +in water acidified with a little acetic acid.</p> + +<p>The greatest pains must be taken in each case to +see that the color is all in solution, and that no specks +of undissolved color are allowed to come in contact +with the leather. The leather must be very carefully +and thoroughly moistened by soaking, if necessary +over night, in lukewarm water softened, if the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span> +surface of the leather seems to demand it, with a few +drops of ammonia water.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Dyeing Leather and Staining Leather.</b>—As regards +the application of the color; dyers generally make a +distinction between leather that is<em>dyed</em> and leather +that is<em>stained</em>.</p> + +<p>In<em>dyeing</em> leather the moistened goods are placed +in a tray or pan (agateware is most convenient for +small pieces) and floated backwards and forwards in +the dye-liquor, which should be deep enough to fully +cover them. The liquor is usually about lukewarm +on starting, and may be heated very gradually and +gently to about 120° or 130°, if desired. For light +shades, however, this is not at all necessary, and +indeed the color, as a rule, penetrates deeper and is +laid on more evenly when the bath is kept cold. The +leather is kept in the dye-bath until the desired shade +is reached, which should be at the end of half an +hour or so.</p> + +<p>When dyed in this manner, the dyestuff has a +chance to soak into the leather, and so, when finished, +the color is not so liable to be affected by rubbing or +by wear. The leather should come out evenly coated +on both sides, shaded effects if desired being produced +later, by the staining process.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Stained Leather.</i>—In staining leather, on the other +hand, the color solution is applied directly to the surface +of the damp—not wet—goods by means of a +brush or soft sponge, or a little pad of cloth. Accordingly, +no matter how carefully the leather has +been softened and moistened beforehand, the color<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[151]</span> +does not penetrate far, and is found only on the particular +surface where it has been applied.</p> + +<p>For flat, even shades, the dyeing process is usually +preferable, but by staining, it is possible for the +craftsman to work on the surface of the leather, as +an artist does on paper with water colors, and beautiful +effects can be produced. Oil paint is often used +for decorating leather, and when applied skilfully +in thin layers, the effects are good. But staining +with dyestuffs is usually preferable, as showing more +of the grain of the leather, and being more transparent.</p> + +<p>The staining of leather may either be done free-hand, +or else by the filling in of set designs, marked +out previously by tooling or some other method; or, +as will be discussed later, by the use of stencils. In +any case success chiefly depends upon the condition +of the surface that is to receive the dye. The surface +of the leather should be dampened, thoroughly +and evenly, so that the dye will adhere, and even +penetrate a little; but it must not be so wet that the +colors will run.</p> + +<p>To get this exactly right requires considerable +practice. As a rule, the leather is, first, carefully and +evenly soaked in water or, if it is at all greasy, in +water with a little ammonia in it. When this has been +thoroughly done, the leather is taken out and dried off, +first on one side and then on the other, with pieces +of cloth and then later with blotting paper. After +this it is exposed to the air for a little time until the +exact point of dryness has been reached.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[152]</span></p> + +<p>The color solution should be applied with a camel’s +hair brush or a small, soft pad of cotton, and any +excess of liquid wiped off, or soaked up with blotting +paper, and the color rubbed in with the fingers or +pad, as soon as possible.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Acid Dyes for Leather.</b>—As above mentioned, certain +shades are hard to obtain without the use of Acid +colors. This is particularly true in the case of blue. +For the lighter and brighter shades it is necessary to +use one of the Acid blues such as Cyanole FF. (<i>Cassella</i>), +or Patent Blue (<i>Metz</i>). These are applied +in exactly the same way as the Basic colors. Some of +the Acid reds, too, will be found valuable for certain +shades of scarlet, etc., that can hardly be reached with +Safranine. Among the best of the fast Acid colors +for leather may be mentioned:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> + +<p><i>Red.</i>—Fast Scarlet, BXG, <i>Badische</i>; Biebrich Acid +Red, 2B, <i>Kalle</i>, and Fast Acid Red, M, <i>Metz</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Yellow.</i>—Tartrazine, <i>Badische</i>; Wool Yellow, 1A, +<i>Kalle</i>, and Fast Acid Yellow, 3G, <i>Metz</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Blue.</i>—Wool Fast Blue, BL, <i>Badische</i>; Nerocyannic +Blue, B, <i>Kalle</i>, and Fast Acid Blue, BB, <i>Metz</i>.</p> +</div> + +<p>When using these Acid dyes side by side with the +Basic colors, it will be noticed that the latter, as a +rule, are far more powerful, and color the leather +much more rapidly than the Acid dyes. Accordingly +for<em>staining</em> leather the Basic dyes are the most satisfactory. +On the other hand in<em>dyeing</em> leather, where +the dye-liquor is allowed to act longer on the goods, +the Acid colors are more valuable, not only because<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[153]</span> +they are fast to light, but also because they will +penetrate more deeply and more evenly.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Finishing Leather.</b>—After coloring the leather it is +necessary to finish it carefully, to get a smooth surface +and to protect it from injury by rubbing or +moisture. Some workers simply let the leather dry +and then rub down the surface (without using any +wax or oil) with the finger or the palm of the hands. +Usually the grain or hair side of the leather is rubbed +down with a little wax, the white or yellow wax, used +largely as a finishing polish for tan shoes, being frequently +employed for this purpose. It can be readily +obtained from almost any good shoe store or, if desired, +can be made by mixing together equal quantities +of beeswax and carnauba wax in a molten condition, +and thinning the mixture with a little turpentine.</p> + +<p>A recipe used with success by many leather workers +calls for a mixture of beeswax, turpentine, and neatsfoot +oil. The wax is carefully melted, mixed with a +small amount of turpentine, and then enough oil is +stirred in to make it soft. When used upon embossed +or figured leather this wax is never applied directly, +but is placed inside a little bag of soft muslin, and +rubbed on and into the leather with a circular motion—the +palm of the hand being often used to finish the +waxed surface.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Bronze Effects.</b>—An interesting point in connection +with the use of the Basic dyes, and some of the Acid +dyes, too, for staining leather is that, when applied +in a strong solution, as is very likely to be the case<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[154]</span> +when one is trying to get dark shades with an application +of the brush or pad, they quite frequently, on +drying, show a very marked metallic lustre. This is +due to the formation of minute, bright-colored crystals, +which reflect the light, thus imparting to the +fabric colors which have nothing to do with the shade +produced by the dyestuff itself. Thus, Cyanole FF, +<i>Cassella</i>, when dissolved, or when dyed on leather +or any other material, gives a rather greenish shade +of blue. But it gives a very brilliant old gold effect, +almost as bright as gold leaf, when applied in a strong +solution and allowed to dry quickly.</p> + +<p>When this effect is not desired it can be avoided +by building up the dark shades by successive applications +of weak solution, and by rubbing down the little +crystals with, if necessary, a little moisture, whenever +they appear to be forming.</p> + +<p>In some cases, however, this bronzing property is +of some value, and enables the skilful craftsman to +obtain interesting and effective results with a minimum +of trouble and expense. By painting on a strong +solution of dyestuff, and letting it dry quickly, the +bronze effect will be produced, and then by rubbing +in portions, the true coloring of the dyestuff will be +brought out in strong contrast to the crystal-covered +surface. Unfortunately, these bronze effects are not +fast to either rubbing or moisture, and even dry rubbing +will break down the crystals, while rubbing with +a damp cloth or a moist finger will dissolve the color +off in blotches. To render this bronze effect more +durable, it is possible to make a regular bronze<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[155]</span> +lacquer, by adding varnish or gum like orange shellac +or gum benzoin to a strong alcoholic solution of a +Basic dye. The bronze varnish thus produced will, +when dry, stand light finishing with wax in the usual +way. The addition of a little benzoic acid to the +solution increases the lustre of the crystals.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[156]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_XI">Chapter XI<br> +<span class="chapt_sub">SILK—I</span></h2> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">So</span> far as we can tell, silk was first discovered and +manufactured in China about 1700 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, a date +corresponding in Biblical history to the time +of the patriarch Joseph. From China it was exported +to the great and wealthy empire of Persia, and from +there was first brought into Europe by Alexander the +Great after his defeat of the Persian king. Its origin, +although known and described by Aristotle, was for +several hundred years a mystery. During the Roman +Empire, silken garments, woven in Europe, from Chinese +silk imported by way of Persia, were important +and very highly prized articles of luxury.</p> + +<p>About 555 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, while commerce with Persia was +interrupted by warfare, two monks in the pay of the +Emperor Justinian smuggled eggs of the silkworm +and seeds of mulberry trees from China to Constantinople. +This was the origin of the European silk industry. +It spread rapidly to the various countries +bordering on the Mediterranean, and by the seventeenth +century was firmly established not only in Spain +and Italy, but also in France.</p> + +<p>Efforts were made to introduce it, at this time, into +England, but without success. In 1622 King James I<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[157]</span> +started the industry, for the first time, in the colony +of Virginia in this country. Since that time numerous +attempts have been made to develop the American +silkworm industry, but with very little success, owing +to the large amount of hand labor necessary to produce +the material.</p> + +<p>At the present time the very finest raw silk in the +world is produced in the south of France, and next +to that come certain brands of Italian silk. The Japanese +silk is more variable in quality, although steadily +improving, while the Chinese silk, as a rule, is less +satisfactory and more apt to be light and fluffy.</p> + +<p>With regard to the consumption, it was estimated +that in 1907 Europe used some twenty-five million +pounds, and the United States fifteen million pounds +of raw silk, which, at an average price of nearly $5.50 +per pound, amounted to over two hundred and eighteen +million dollars.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Origin and Varieties of Silk.</b>—Silk has been defined as +a “smooth, lustrous, elastic fibre of small diameter and +of animal origin.” As is well known, ordinary commercial +silk is secreted or “spun” by the silkworm, +the caterpillar form of a moth known as<i lang="la">Bombyx +Mori</i>, the moth of the mulberry tree. These silkworms +have been cultivated for thousands of years, +but there exist in different parts of the world, notably +in India and Japan, wild or uncultivated silkworms, +derived from nearly related, but not identical, families +of moths, and whose silk is collected in the forests +by the natives, forming what is known in commerce +as wild or tussah silk.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[158]</span></p> + +<p>Of course, the silk from silkworms, cultivated and +wild, is the only one yet produced on a commercial +scale. But silk can also be obtained from other animals, +notably from spiders and from a peculiar shellfish, +the pinna, found in the waters of the Mediterranean.</p> + +<p>Silk from the silkworm can be divided into two +classes, according to whether the silkworms are the +cultivated or the wild varieties. In each case the silk +is produced by the caterpillar spinning a covering or +shroud, the so-called cocoon, around itself to protect +it when in the form of the chrysalis or pupa, +awaiting its transformation into the moth.</p> + +<p>The ordinary or cultivated silk of commerce comes +from worms fed almost exclusively upon the leaves of +the white mulberry tree, and cannot be produced successfully +without that particular plant. The somewhat +similar worms that produce the wild or tussah +silks live upon the leaves of the oak, elm, ailanthus, +castor oil plant, and others. While the two varieties +resemble each other greatly in their chemical properties, +they can always be distinguished, because cultivated +silk is much more lustrous than the other, but is +decidedly less strong.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Tussah Silk, Pongee, Shantung.</i>—The tussah silks, +when woven, are commonly known under the general +name of pongee. Of late years this name has been +applied to imitation goods possessing the characteristic +dull color, and even the feel of the real article, but far +less strong. These are generally made out of spun silk, +derived from “Shappe,” i.e., the by-products of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[159]</span> +silk industry, spoilt cocoons, waste from the spinning +machines and the dyehouses, and the like—silk, to be +sure, but silk of very inferior quality. Accordingly, it +is now customary to call real pongee by the name +Shantung, after the Chinese province from which much +of the wild silk is brought.</p> + +<p>Shantung, or true pongee, can be readily distinguished +from the imitation by examination of the +threads, both warp and filling. These should be very +long, and loosely spun or rather “thrown,” whereas +the imitation threads are spun together tightly, from +fibres of many different lengths, generally quite short.</p> + + +<h4>Preparing Silk for Dyeing.</h4> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Reeling.</i>—All silk, whether cultivated or wild, comes +originally from the cocoons, which are, as a rule, each +formed out of a continuous strand or thread woven by +the silkworm round and round its own body before it +passes into the chrysalis state. These cocoons are collected, +carefully dried to kill the quiescent animal inside, +and then, in due course of time, they are placed in +basins of warm water which softens the gum which +binds the cocoon threads together, and the separate fine +threads from several cocoons are picked up by brushing, +and are combined into one which is reeled off on +machines. The silk thus obtained is made up into +hanks and bundles, and constitutes the raw silk of commerce.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Raw Silk.</i>—The raw silk is very different in appearance +and texture to the finished silk that we are accustomed +to. It is without lustre, white, yellow, or +even, in the case of some Italian silks, orange in color,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[160]</span> +and quite stiff when handled. These qualities are due +to the presence of from 25 to 35 per cent. of gum, +which is insoluble in cold water, but is softened by hot +water and dissolves readily in a hot soap bath.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Throwing.</i>—The threads of this raw silk are far too +fine and delicate to be fit for the weaving processes or +even for dyeing. So they are combined into coarser +and stronger threads by being “thrown,” a process +equivalent to the spinning process of cotton, linen or +wool. In throwing, the raw silk fibres are again softened +in hot water, and are loosely spun or twisted +together while still sticky. Three, four, or five threads +of raw silk are usually combined to form one strand +of thrown silk, varying, of course, with the quality of +the original silk and the objects for which the thrown +silk is to be used, when woven. For instance, silk +used for filling—“tram,” as it is called in the trade—is +usually thicker and softer, and less strong than the +warp, or “organzine,” and therefore is usually built +up, by the “throwster,” from many threads of less +valuable raw silk, loosely twisted, while the organzine, +used for warp, is generally of the best and +strongest available material, thrown in finer strands +out of fewer threads of raw silk, twisted more tightly.</p> + +<p>It must always be remembered that the skein silk is +thrown from very long continuous threads of raw +silk, full of gum, whereas spun silk, which is being +used more and more every year, is made from short +lengths of waste and scrap silk, held together not by +gum, but by tight twisting and spinning, just like cotton +or linen.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[161]</span></p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Stripping or Degumming.</i>—This thrown silk must +then be prepared for the dyeing by getting rid of the +gum, which not only makes the silk stiff and destroys +its lustre, but which also would interfere with the +smooth, even dyeing of the fibres themselves. For this +purpose the silk, in skeins, is thoroughly washed, or +“stripped,” by soaking in two or three successive baths +of hot, strong, neutral soap solutions. In the dyehouses +Castile (olive oil) soap is invariably used for +this purpose, and, while made of cheap grades of olive +oil, it is always, in good dyehouses, of excellent quality, +for the presence of even minute amounts of free alkali +in these baths is liable to greatly injure and “tender” +the silk.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Boiled-off Liquor.</i>—The soap solution from these +stripping baths is not thrown away in the dyehouses, +but is carefully stored as a valuable reagent. Under +the name of “boiled-off liquor” it is almost exclusively +used, by the dyers, for color dyeing. It is +not often used in black dyeing, and therefore, in a +dyehouse, the presence of a large and well-patronized +black department is considered of great importance as +providing the color dyer with an abundant supply of +boiled-off liquor.</p> + +<p>The stripped or degummed silk is now ready for +weaving directly, the resulting white cloth being sometimes +finished and sold as such, and sometimes “dyed +in the piece.” In most cases, however, the stripped +silk is weighted, dyed, and finished “in the skeins,” +before weaving.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Piece Dyeing.</b>—In dyeing by the piece, the stripped<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[162]</span> +silk is passed through a weak acid bath, usually acetic, +and then woven into goods of the desired quality. +These goods are then dyed in the piece by being run +through the dye-bath until they are of the proper shade. +The dye-bath (for colors) is made by stirring the +proper quantity of Acid dyestuffs into a hot bath of +boiled-off liquor (the bath in which the silk has been +stripped), which is faintly acidified, or “broken,” as +the technical phrase goes, by the addition of some sulphuric +acid. This boiled-off liquor has the property of +laying the dyes on the silk evenly and thoroughly, and +is better for that purpose than any other medium. For +amateur work, or where boiled-off liquor cannot be +obtained, very fair results can be obtained with a +strong bath of olive oil soap (Castile or Marseilles), +“broken” with weak acid, generally dilute sulphuric +acid.</p> + +<p>The term “breaking” the soap bath is very significant. +The acid should be added drop by drop to +the frothing soap bath until the bubbles disappear and +a thin iridescent film of fatty acid rises to the top of +the liquid.</p> + +<p>After the piece goods are brought to the proper +shade, they are finished, usually by carefully rinsing +in water to take away all traces of free acid, then by +passing through a cold soap bath, often with a little +olive oil emulsified in it, to increase the lustre; finally, +through a bath of weak organic acid, like acetic acid, +to develop the so-called “scroop” or “feel” of the +silk. When silk is washed in soap, or is dipped in +even a weak bath of alkali, it becomes soft and clammy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[163]</span> +to the touch, and has no “life” or “snap” to it when +dry. The passage through a bath of weak acid develops +the characteristic stiffness of the silk fibre, and +causes it to give its peculiar rustling sound when +pressed.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Skein Dyeing.</b>—When weighting or adulteration is not +employed, i.e., in the so-called “pure dye” process, the +dyeing of skein silk resembles the piece dyeing described. +The degummed silk is immersed in a dye-bath +containing the dyestuffs (Acid colors) dissolved +in boiled-off liquor, broken with dilute sulphuric acid. +The bath is heated nearly to the boiling point, and the +silk turned in it until the desired shade is produced. It +is then taken out, washed thoroughly in water to remove +the last traces of acid, and then brightened by +passing through a soap bath with some oil, and later +through a bath of acetic acid to develop the “scroop.”</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Drying.</i>—An important part of the process is the final +drying and finishing. The drying should be done +slowly and carefully, and not proceed too far, or the +silk will be brittle. As is well known to dyers, silk +has the power of absorbing 25% or 30% of its weight +of water without becoming perceptibly damp to the +hand, and this moisture, when not carried too far, is +of actual benefit to the material, making it stronger +and more elastic. This property is often made use +of by the honest (?) dyer when, in case some of the +silk in a lot has been spoiled by accident or carelessness, +he makes up the difference in weight by the liberal +use of the watering pot.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Finishing.</i>—This process is perhaps the most difficult<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[164]</span> +and technical of all, for the value of the finished product +depends very largely on it, and it is almost impossible +for an amateur to accomplish it. The skeins, +after drying, are hung on a heavy polished wooden +bar and, with a smooth wooden stick, are shaken out, +straightened, pulled, twisted, and worked until the +fibres are all parallel, the kinks taken out, any weak +or injured portion cut out, and the whole skein has +acquired the proper amount of lustre.</p> + +<p>Sometimes, for specially brilliant fabrics, the skeins +are “lustred” by machinery; this is the so-called +“metallic lustring” when the silk, generally enveloped +in steam so as to be both hot and damp, is pulled out +between two steel arms until it has been stretched a +considerable percentage of its original length. This +undoubtedly lessens the strength of the fibre considerably +and diminishes its elasticity, but under this +strain each fibre is stretched out perfectly smooth and +thus becomes much more brilliant and lustrous.</p> + +<p class="noindent" id="wildsilk"><b>Dyeing Wild Silks.</b>—It has been found difficult to +handle satisfactorily the different sorts of wild silks in +the factory. The bleaching of them has been very +troublesome, although of late years the problem has +been solved pretty well. And the ordinary process +for dyeing silk with Acid dyes in a broken soap, or +boiled-off liquor, bath is, for full deep shades at any +rate, not always satisfactory. In consequence most +of the genuine pongee or Shantung cloth is sold in +the natural unbleached color, a pleasant shade of tan, +or else in light shades.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the best results in dyeing pongee silk full,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[165]</span> +deep, even shades are obtained by mordanting the +material with tannin and tartar emetic, just as cotton +is mordanted before dyeing it with Basic colors, and +then using in the dye-bath one or the other of the +so-called “Janus” colors,—a group of colors on the +border line between Basic and Acid, of which the best +are Janus Yellow G, Janus Yellow R, Janus Red B, +and Janus Black 1 (<i>Metz</i>).</p> + +<p>This process, however, is too complicated for the +unprofessional dyer to use with much success.</p> + +<p>For all but the very full shades the craftsman is +advised to use the Acid colors, as, for instance, some +of the selected colors of the different houses, listed +in Chapter VII, in a bath acidified with acetic acid, +and without the use of soap.</p> + +<p>For dark dull shades the Sulphur colors can be used, +especially if some care is taken to reduce the alkalinity +of the bath by neutralizing or nearly neutralizing +the sodium sulphide with a little acid sodium sulphite. +If the desired shade is so dark as to necessitate heating +and dye-bath, it is also advisable to add a little +gelatin.</p> + +<p>For full shades of rather brighter quality the Vat +dyes may be employed, also with precautions against +the tendering action of the caustic alkali upon the +fibre.</p> + +<p>Before, however, starting in to dye a piece of +pongee on the assumption that it is made from tussah +silk, it is very advisable to examine it carefully, picking +out the individual threads and untwisting them, +and to make a few dyeing tests upon small samples.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[166]</span> +For a large proportion of so-called pongee, which in +color, lustre, feel, and general appearance resembles +the genuine Shantung very closely, is simply made +from spun or waste silk, and can be dyed like ordinary +silk.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Acid Dyes, to be used on Silk.</i>—Any of the dyestuffs +mentioned in the lists on page 127, as suitable +for wool, can be used successfully for silk dyeing. +These colors have all been selected as unusually fast +to light and, in this respect, are to be classified as +“practically all of the first class,” i.e., as absolutely +satisfactory against the action of sunlight.</p> + +<p>But, for a valuable and comparatively fragile material +like silk, it is quite allowable to use colors for +special shades which are less fast to sunlight, if they +possess other valuable qualities. Such, for instance, +are the two red dyestuffs, Fast Acid Eosine G +(<i>Metz</i>) and Fast Acid Phloxine (<i>Metz</i>), which +belong to the group of so-called Eosine or Fluoresceïn +dyestuffs most of which, while very beautiful, are extremely +fugitive. These two dyes, which give shades +of pink and red with yellow and blue fluorescence, respectively, +are considerably more fast than the rest of +their group, and will rank in the third class, if not at +the foot of the second class, as regards light-fastness.</p> + +<p>With regard to fastness to washing, it must be +remembered that these Acid dyes are not fast at all, +when dyed on silk in a broken soap bath. They may +stand very light washing in a cold soap bath, but in +boiling soapsuds will strip completely. This is important +for the amateur, and indeed, for the professional<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[167]</span> +dyer, for whom a dyed silk, either skein or in the +piece, has come out unsatisfactorily—uneven or +spotted, or too dark in shade—for it is possible, if +the silk is of good quality, to clean off the color completely +by boiling soapsuds, without injuring the +goods.</p> + +<p>If the trouble is unevenness, while the shade is satisfactory, +the color can be dissolved off in the boiling +soap bath and then, on breaking the bath with a little +acid, the same dye can be laid right on again, it is +to be hoped this time in a satisfactory manner. The +question of dyeing silk fast to washing, and also of +dyeing silk black, will be dealt with in the next +chapter.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[168]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_XII">Chapter XII<br> +<span class="chapt_sub">SILK—II</span></h2> +</div> + +<p class="center noindent fs110">BLACK DYEING OF SILK. WEIGHTING AND ADULTERATION<br> +OF SILK. DYEING SILK WITH COLORS<br> +FAST TO WASHING</p> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> dyeing process described in the last chapter, +while well suited for dyeing silk bright and +lustrous colors, is not so well adapted to dyeing +it black. To be sure, there are several good fast +acid blacks, such as Silk Patent Black, 2R, <i>Kalle</i>, or +Neutral Wool Black, B, <i>Cassella</i>, or Cashmere Black, +3BN, <i>Elberfeld</i>, or Amido Black, 4024, <i>Metz</i>, which, +dyed in full shades in a broken bath of soap or +boiled-off liquor, will give fairly good results. But +the best of these are not always quite satisfactory, +the resulting color generally showing a tendency to +be a deep full grey rather than a perfectly true lustrous +black.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Salt Colors.</i>—Silk may also be dyed black with some +of the good Salt colors—but unless the dyer takes +the trouble to after-treat the goods by the troublesome +process of diazotizing and developing, the results are +no better, if indeed as good as those resulting from the +Acid blacks mentioned above.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[169]</span></p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Sulphur Colors.</i>—These have very often been tried on +silk without much success, because for dark colors like +blacks, it is necessary to boil the goods in the dye-liquor +for some time and to have the latter very concentrated. +Unfortunately the sodium sulphide, necessary +for dissolving the sulphur dyes, is a powerful +alkali, and hence readily attacks an animal fibre, like +silk. It is possible, however, by the abundant use of +glucose (Karo syrup, etc.) to greatly protect the silk +from this tendering action. It is also possible for a +dyer fairly well trained in chemistry, to very carefully +neutralize the dye-bath by the cautious addition of +acid sodium sulphite, until the dye-liquor is no +longer alkaline and yet the dyestuff is not precipitated. +This process, however, is hardly fitted for an +amateur, and has not proved very successful even +among the professionals.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Logwood Blacks.</i>—Nearly all professional dyers continue +to use the old vegetable dyestuff, logwood, about +which some information was given in the first chapter.</p> + +<p>To dye with this it is customary to use one of the +many good logwood extracts on the market. Great +care must be taken in the proper mordanting of the +silk before it goes into the bath. For this purpose the +silk is impregnated first with iron salts, and later with +tannin, and in some processes, with salts of chromium +or of tin, before entering the logwood bath. In all +cases, therefore, silk dyed black with logwood contains +a certain amount, say 15% to 20% of its weight, +or 2-3 ounces to the pound, of foreign ingredients. +When carefully done this does not injure the material<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[170]</span> +at all, and the “pure dyed” logwood blacks are perfectly +satisfactory both for shade, lustre, and durability.</p> + + +<h3>WEIGHTING OF SILK</h3> + +<p>This moderate increase of weight, however, which +is hardly enough to replace the weight of the gum +lost in the stripping process, was far from satisfying +the demands of the manufacturer for a cheaper raw +material. And accordingly both dyer and dyeing +chemist have exhausted all their energies and skill in +trying to increase this percentage of cheap foreign +matter in the finished silk, to the utmost limit of what +the market will stand.</p> + +<p>The first efforts in this direction were based upon +the saving of some or, indeed, nearly all, of the gum +which is wasted in the stripping or degumming process +previously described. This gum, which amounts to +from 20 to 35 per cent. of the raw silk, makes the silk +stiff in texture and dull in color and more difficult to +dye. Accordingly, in former years, it was invariably +washed out of the silk with the greatest care before +any attempt was made to dye it. But by modifying the +dyeing, and especially the finishing process, it was +found possible to produce the so-called “souples”—i.e., +silks with little or no lustre, but with the characteristic +“scroop” or “feel”—capable of replacing +bright silk as a filling in many fabrics and yet containing +almost all the natural gum left in the fibre.</p> + +<p>The black silks were then attacked and an elaborate +system of mordanting was introduced before the dyeing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[171]</span> +proper began. For instance, the silk can be steeped +alternately in one solution after another, first of iron +salts and then of ferrocyanide of potash, thus forming +Prussian blue in the fibre. Then the excess of iron can +be converted by immersion in tannin solutions, such +as Gambier or Cutch, into black tannate of iron, or ink, +and finally, after perhaps a light bath in chromium +salts, the real black color is brought out by boiling in +logwood extract. The silk is then brightened by boiling +with good neutral Castile soap, is shaded, if necessary, +by dyeing with either an Acid or Basic dye in a +weak bath, and, after drying and finishing, the finished +product may easily weigh two or even three times as +much as the original raw silk, and still retain its +strength, lustre, and elasticity.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Tin Weighting.</i>—The weighting of colored and bright +silks did not proceed so rapidly, and it was not much +more than ten years ago that, by accident, some French +dyers discovered that by immersion in a strong bath of +tin chloride (stannic chloride acidified with some +hydrochloric acid) the silk fibre would absorb a large +percentage of tin salts without necessarily losing lustre, +dyeing capacity, or even strength. This at first was +kept a secret, but its use gradually spread, until now +it is a very poor silk dyer who cannot weight his silk +100 or 150 per cent. without spoiling its immediate +commercial value.</p> + +<p>Without going into unnecessary details, the process +is somewhat as follows: The silk, after being degummed +and thoroughly washed free of soap, is +plunged into a bath of tin chloride and kept there for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[172]</span> +some hours. It is then taken out and the loose tin +salts are washed off in a tank of water (technically +called a box), or in a washing machine. To further +“set” the tin, the silk is then placed for a short time +in a solution of phosphate of soda and again washed +thoroughly. It has now gained from 15 to 25 per cent +of its original weight (2½ to 4 ounces to the pound +of raw silk).</p> + +<p>If further weighting is desired, this treatment, first +in tin chloride and then in phosphate of soda, can be +repeated three or four up to five or even six times, +increasing the weight with each immersion. Then a +bath is usually given of silicate of soda, which adds a +little weight, ½ to ¾ of an ounce, and, it is claimed, +benefits the lustre and strength of the goods. Then, +after a final washing, the silk is ready for the dye-bath.</p> + +<p>The weighted goods are dyed, dried, and finished +about the same as with the “pure dye” process, and +the proud dyer can rejoice at returning to the honest +manufacturer from 150 to 250 pounds of finished silk +for every 100 pounds of raw silk (containing, by the +way, 25 to 30 pounds of gum) which was sent in to +the dyehouse! This “tin-weighing” process is also +applied to black dyeing, and enables the black dyer to +build up his weight with tin salts instead of limiting +him to iron, chromium, ferrocyanide of potash, tannin, +and logwood.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Properties of Weighted Silk.</i>—It is scarcely necessary +to point out that silk, weighted to the extreme limit, +is hardly to be considered as the most durable and +trustworthy of fabrics, even when dyed by the most<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[173]</span> +expert workmen. And when carelessly prepared +heavily weighted silk is an abomination, liable to crack +and wear away with the least provocation.</p> + +<p>It may be worth reminding some of my fair readers +that the old test of a silk taffeta, “so thick and stiff +that it will stand of itself,” is nowadays anything but +a proof of good quality. One or two manufacturers +in this country a few years ago tried to revive the +almost forgotten art of making and selling pure-dyed +goods, and one trouble they experienced in disposing +of their products, outside the high price, was the criticism +that their silk felt so light and thin.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Prevalence of Weighted Silk.</i>—At present it is almost +impossible, at least in New York, to buy pure-dyed +heavy silks. The writer, at any rate, has tried +diligently, during the last year or two, to find for some +special experiments a piece of white taffeta which was +not markedly weighted. After visiting department +stores and the very best dry-goods stores in the city, +at all of which he was informed that no such material +now existed, the best that could be obtained was one +make of silk where the organzine or warp was fairly +pure, the tram being well weighted. Light-weight +Japanese and Chinese silks, however, undyed or dyed +in the piece, can still be procured with little or no +weighting.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Tests for Weighted Silk.</i>—This silk may be identified +by a very simple test. Pure-dyed silk, when dry, is +easily inflammable. When touched with a lighted +match it catches fire at once, “carries the flame” well, +especially if in the form of thread; and, if followed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[174]</span> +up with a flame, it will before long burn away completely, +leaving little or no ash or residue.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, weighted silk, especially when +the added mineral matter amounts to 25% or over, is +quite hard to burn. If it catches fire at all, it just +flashes up for a moment and then the flame dies right +out. And when persistently heated, until the organic +matter is all burnt away, it still leaves a very considerable +residue of ash.</p> + +<p>When this test is to be made on unwoven or skein +silk, it is enough to take two or three threads, five or +six inches long, and to light them in the flame of a +match. For piece goods it is best to pick out the +threads carefully, with a pin or fine knife blade, separating +the tram from the organzine, and then, with +a match, to test each of these in turn. A very little +practice will enable the most inexperienced student to +make this test satisfactorily.</p> + +<p>Of course, for an accurate determination of the +percentage of weighting contained in a given sample +of silk, it is necessary to resort to delicate chemical +analyses. But for all ordinary purposes this simple +flame test is quite sufficient.</p> + + +<h3>DYEING SILK WITH COLORS FAST TO WASHING</h3> + +<p>As a rule the method previously described of dyeing +silk with Acid dyes in a broken bath of soap, or better, +of boiled-off liquor, will be found perfectly satisfactory. +The shades are easily obtained, the colors are +brilliant, and, if the right dyes are used, exceedingly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[175]</span> +fast to light, and the material, if properly rinsed, +suffers no deterioration.</p> + +<p>On the other hand these colors are not, in the slightest +degree, fast to washing.</p> + +<p>The dyed goods can be cleaned with gasoline and +the like, but when passed through a lukewarm bath +of soap and water they bleed badly, and in boiling +soapsuds the color can be completely stripped from +them.</p> + +<p>In most cases this is not a serious objection, for a +person who will send a handsome hand-dyed silk scarf +or piece of embroidery to the family washtub is entitled +to scant sympathy if the results are disastrous. +But occasionally it is important to have colors on silk +which can be guaranteed against moderate or even +against, severe, washing.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Fast Colors on Silk.</i>—There are two grades of fastness +known to the dyers—“fast” and “embroidery +fast.”</p> + +<p>“Fast” means simply that the silk is to be dyed +fast to ordinary, careful handling so that the colors +will not bleed or run in a warm or even hot soap bath, +but does not guarantee them against every possible +maltreatment.</p> + +<p>The best way of doing this is by the use of the +Direct Cotton or Salt dyes, described in Chapter III, +which, it will be remembered, only dye wool or silk at +a high temperature, at or near the boiling point and, +preferably, in an acid bath, but, when once on, are very +hard to dislodge. The selected ones are very fast to +light and present a great range of bright, attractive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[176]</span> +colors, which are nearly, if not quite, as brilliant as +those produced by the Acid dyes.</p> + +<p>They are applied in a boiling bath containing a little +acetic acid, and a good deal of salt, especially for full +shades. For lighter shades, the presence of salt is +hardly necessary. The goods are to be finished just as +with the Acid dyes, with a soap bath followed, if the +scroop is desired, by a weak bath of acetic acid.</p> + +<p>The results, when carefully done, are very good. +They possess, however, one disadvantage for the +amateur dyer. These colors are quite hard to strip, +and so, the desired effect must be produced the first +time, or not at all. It is not possible to strip an unsatisfactory +shade in a hot soap bath, and dye it over +and over again without injury, as in the case with +Acid dyes. They are best stripped by soaking in a +bath of sodium hydrosulphite, and then washing.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Embroidery Fast Colors.</i>—While the above process +gives shades fast enough against all ordinary washing, +it sometimes happens that silk must be dyed fast +enough to withstand exactly the same treatment that +coarse cotton or linen goods are subjected to, without +bleeding or staining. The salt dyes are not quite fast +enough for this, particularly because, not having been +converted in the dyeing process into a special insoluble +condition, if they should be detached from the fibre +by strong or hot soaping, they would be liable to stain +the neighboring tissues and not wash off quite clear.</p> + +<p>One of the hardest tests that colored silk is called +upon to stand is when, in small quantities, it is used +with a large amount of white linen or cotton goods.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[177]</span> +Thus, for instance, when monograms are embroidered +in red or blue silk upon white towels or napkins, and +the latter are scrubbed, week after week, in the regular +wash, the color must be fast, indeed, not to show some +evidences of running. Hence the term “embroidery +fastness” as applied to this class of dyes. Thanks, +also, to the amiable practice of the modern laundress of +lightening her labors by the addition of bleaching powder +and other strong chemicals to the washtub, it is +very important that a silk dyed “embroidery fast” +should be able to withstand the action of these agents +as well as of soap. Up to the last few years these +colors were only obtained by the use of the Alizarine +dyestuffs, the full rich scarlet so often used for this +purpose being the modern form of the old, madder-dyed, +Turkey red of our forefathers.</p> + +<p>But, during the last few years, the troublesome and +tedious mordanting processes necessary for the proper +development of color by the Alizarine dyes, have been +replaced, for craftsmen, and, indeed, by most professional +dyers, by the much simpler and shorter processes +of vat dyeing. As long as Indigo was the sole representative +of the class, it was of very little use for silk +dyeing. But since the introduction of the splendid +series of new vat dyes, the Algol, Ciba, Helindone, +Indanthrene, and Thio Indigo colors, which, dyed in a +single bath, give a whole range of brilliant shades, +wonderfully fast to light and to washing, the necessity +for mordant colors has very largely disappeared.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[178]</span></p> + + +<h3>DYEING SILK WITH VAT DYES</h3> + +<p>It must always be remembered when working with +silk, wool, leather, or any other animal material, that +such materials are extremely sensitive to the action +of alkalies, especially when hot or caustic, while they +are but slightly injured, if at all, by the action of +dilute acids. For this reason it is always better, whenever +possible, to dye silk with the Acid dyes or the +Salt dyes, in an acid or neutral bath, rather than to +use dyestuffs like the Vat dyes or the Sulphur colors, +which need an alkaline dye-liquor. Furthermore, the +silk is likely to have a more brilliant lustre when dyed +with a color which fastens to it by chemical affinity, +from a solution, rather than one where the color is +fixed because the oxygen of the atmosphere changes +it into an insoluble powder, while in the pores of the +silk. It is, however, perfectly possible to dye silk +full shades with the Vat dyes and even—though this +is not often advisable—with the Sulphur dyes, by +using some simple precautions.</p> + +<p>The best Vat dyes for silk are Indigo itself, and its +substitution products, like Brom-Indigo, <i>Elberfeld</i>, or +the Thio Indigo dyes, <i>Kalle</i>, or else the rather closely +related colors like the Helindones, <i>Metz</i>, and the Ciba +colors, <i>Klipstein</i>. It is of importance to use only +those which are shown in the table on page 102, as +dyeing in a cold, or at most, a lukewarm bath.</p> + +<p>The dye-bath should be made with a considerable +amount of dyestuff, so as to avoid the necessity of +keeping the goods in it long. And the amount of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[179]</span> +caustic alkali should be kept as low as possible, consistent +of course with dissolving the reduced dyestuff. +It has been found in practice that the presence of glue +or gelatine in the bath, or even of glucose (molasses, +corn syrup, Karo syrup, etc.), protects the silk, wool, +and other animal fibres greatly from the action of +alkalies. It should, therefore, be added in quantities +of two or three large tablespoonfuls to the gallon of +dye-liquor.</p> + +<p>The wet goods should be immersed in the cold or +lukewarm bath, and turned constantly for a few minutes +only, before taking them out, wringing them, +and hanging them up to oxidize. As soon as the +color sets, which is shown generally, by the change +of shade and which never takes more than, say, +twenty minutes if the materials are well opened up, +the goods should be brightened in a hot bath of good, +neutral, olive oil soap, and then finished as previously +described. It will be remembered that several, indeed +most of the best Vat colors do not develop their final +shade at all, until after the soaping process.</p> + +<p>When carefully done, this process will give exceedingly +fast and quite brilliant colors, without injury to +the strength of the goods.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Comparative Results of Vat Dyes and Sulphur Dyes +on Silk.</i>—It is hard to get full shades with Sulphur +colors because it is generally necessary to heat the dye-bath, +and this, owing to the powerful alkaline properties +of the sodium sulphide, is very injurious to the +silk. Besides this, the sulphur dyes are much less +brilliant than the Vat dyes, and have no good red or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[180]</span> +orange shades in the whole class. They accordingly +should not be used, excepting where no other are available, +or, as will be described in a later chapter, when +doing “resist stencilling” on silk.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, such very unusual advantages +do some of these new Vat dyes possess, for the dyeing +of silk for special purposes, that large quantities +of Helindones, Thio Indigoes, and other good specimens +of this class are being sold, at comparatively +very high prices, to manufacturers of fine shirtings +where the patterns are made by weaving fine lines or +figures of brightly dyed silk into the linen or cotton +fabric. Until the introduction of these dyes in the +last two or three years these shades could not have +been produced fast enough for this purpose.</p> + +<p>Sulphur dyes can also be used on silk without injuring +the goods, by taking the precautions described +earlier in this chapter. The shades, however, are +quiet and dull, as compared to those produced by other +classes of dyestuffs; and it is almost, if not quite, impossible +to get a good full red and, especially, a good +scarlet, by using these colors.</p> + +<p>Silk properly dyed with Sulphur colors is extremely +fast to washing. But these dyes, unlike the best Vat +colors, are as a rule quite sensitive to bleaching agents, +and therefore are not so well adapted for general use +on “embroidery fast” silk.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[181]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_XIII">Chapter XIII<br> +<span class="chapt_sub">IMITATION AND ARTIFICIAL SILK</span></h2> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Owing</span> to the high price of pure silk and the +bad wearing qualities of the highly adulterated +silks, described in the last chapter, there has +been for a long time a strong demand for a fabric +which would combine as far as possible the strength +and wearing power of the one, with the cheap price of +the other, while still retaining the lustre and “scroop” +and characteristic appearance of both.</p> + +<p>The demand at present is met, and not so unsuccessfully, +first by imitation silk, of which mercerized +cotton is the best example, and second, by the various +forms of artificial silk which during the last few years +have been introduced widely in both Europe and our +own country. The competition of these two classes of +products is not at all to be despised. Their quality +is constantly improving, their price diminishing, and +their production increasing rapidly from year to year. +And if the silk manufacturers continue to produce such +poor material in the line of weighted silk fabrics as +they have in the past, it will be but a short time before +they will find the market almost entirely divided between +pure-dyed silks, on the one hand, for expensive +goods, and some of these new products for cheap +materials.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[182]</span></p> + + +<h3>MERCERIZED COTTON</h3> + +<p class="noindent"><i>History and Preparation.</i>—This material was first introduced +as a substitute for silk some ten or twelve +years ago, although the process for making it was +invented about 1840, by a celebrated English dyer, +John Mercer. He discovered that when cotton, either +in cloth or yarn, was subjected for a short time to the +action of strong caustic alkali, and then thoroughly +washed, the resulting material was much stronger than +before, had shrunk very considerably, and had a much +greater affinity for dyestuffs. For instance, dyes like +the Basic colors, which give but a temporary stain on +ordinary cotton, will dye with some degree of fastness +cotton thus treated with alkali, without the use of +mordants. Mercer patented his discovery and made +some use of it in calico printing; as, for instance, in the +making of “crinkled” goods. But the process was +nearly forgotten until, in 1889, it was discovered that, +by proper treatment, cotton could by this means be +made so lustrous as to compare not unfavorably with +silk.</p> + +<p>To make the cotton lustrous, the goods, after dipping +into the strong alkali, are kept firmly stretched, +and their strong tendency to shrink resisted, until the +alkali has been thoroughly rinsed off and the last traces +neutralized with a little acid. If this is done carefully, +when finally dried the cotton fibres will be found drawn +out smooth and lustrous, while still retaining their new +qualities of strength and increased dyeing power. To +get good results in this process the materials treated,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[183]</span> +whether in yarn or cloth, must be made of the very +best and longest stapled cotton, preferably Egyptian, +and when well done the results are extremely satisfactory. +The lustre is not as good as the very best +silk, but it is quite well marked, and for replacing the +cheap grades of heavily weighted silks, as, for instance, +for underwear, linings, etc., the mercerized +goods are of very great value, owing to their strength +and durability, as well as their cheapness.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Dyeing of Mercerized Cotton.</i>—Cotton, thus treated, +is dyed in the same way that ordinary cotton is, with +the exception that it takes the dyes more rapidly, and, +as a rule, gives deeper and more brilliant shades with +the same amount of coloring matter.</p> + +<p>For special purposes it may be best to use the Sulphur +or the Vat dyes, but in general this material is +best dyed with the Salt dyes, which are not only easy +to apply, but are fast to light, very brilliant, and on +these goods, at any rate, very fairly fast to washing. +As before mentioned, the fastness to both light and +washing may be considerably improved by after treatment +of the dyed goods, i.e., by passing them through +a hot bath containing a tablespoonful each of copper +sulphate, potassium bichromate, and acetic acid to the +gallon of water.</p> + +<p>This, however, will rarely be found necessary, provided +the selected colors are used, and the color has +been applied at the boil in a bath containing considerable +salt.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[184]</span></p> + + +<h3>ARTIFICIAL SILK</h3> + +<p class="noindent"><b>History.</b>—The famous old French chemist, Réaumur, +in the year 1734, suggested, after a study of the silk +worm, and of the method by which it “spins” the natural +thread, that it might be possible to make a jelly-like +substance which could be drawn out into a fine +thread and, coagulating, form an artificial silk.</p> + +<p>This suggestion was first acted on, in a practical +way, in the year 1855, when Andermars obtained some +curious results by dipping a needle or fine metal rod +into a thin viscous solution known as collodion, and +then drawing it out rapidly, made fine, smooth threads +as the material solidified. This collodion, which for +many years has been in common use in minor surgery +to paint on wounds and cuts, because it leaves a film +of artificial skin, and in more recent times has been +much used in photography, is a solution of gun cotton +or nitro-cellulose in a mixture of alcohol and ether. +In 1885 Count Hilary de Chardonnet made improvements +in this last process, and produced successfully +the first real artificial silk threads on a commercial +scale.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Chardonnet Silk.</i>—He also used a thick collodion solution, +but instead of<em>drawing</em> it out he<em>pressed</em> it out +through fine holes by using very great pressure. As +fast as the gummy thread exuded it was picked up, +carried along into a drying room, where the alcohol +and ether could escape (to be condensed later and used +over again), and then the solid fibre was passed into a +solution of some suitable reducing agent, such as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[185]</span> +ammonium or sodium sulphydrate, which converts the +inflammable gun cotton into its original condition of +cellulose. These resulting threads, being smooth and +uniform when properly made, have very great lustre. +Indeed, they are often far more brilliant than the very +best and finest natural silk, and can be dyed and woven +into beautiful fabrics.</p> + +<p>This discovery of Chardonnet’s was at once utilized, +and large and flourishing factories of Chardonnet silk +sprang up all over Europe. The first large factory, +which is still doing a very profitable business, was at +Besançon, in France, and later a large factory was +established at Frankfort, Germany.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Pauly Silk.</i>—The success of this process aroused the +interest of other chemists, and before long several +rival processes came into existence, also based on the +use of a viscous solution of a cellulose compound. One +company, making the so-called Pauly silk, utilized the +solvent action of an ammoniacal copper solution upon +cellulose for their starting point.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Elberfeld Silk, Glanzstoff.</i>—The Farbenfabriken von +Elberfeld, famous manufacturers of dyestuffs, took +up the manufacture of silk from a solution of a compound +of cellulose with acetic acid; and the Elberfeld +silk, or, as it is widely known in Germany, Glanzstoff, +is every year becoming a more and more important +factor in the silk business.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Viscose Silk.</i>—A still different process, which during +the past two or three years has been successfully introduced +into the United States, depends upon the curious +substance called Viscose, a thick, sticky solution of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[186]</span> +cellulose made by first treating wood pulp, cotton or +other vegetable fibre with strong caustic soda and then +dissolving the resulting product in carbon disulphide.</p> + +<p>This Viscose was first introduced for many different +purposes. The solvent, carbon disulphide, is very volatile, +and flies off readily, leaving the cellulose behind +in the form of a stiff jelly which, on drying, becomes +solid and strong. So Viscose was used for water-proofing +paper, etc., for making solid articles like +piano keys and billiard balls, and even for making +opaque patterns in calico printing. But its most valuable +application is for artificial silk. It is pressed out +through fine holes, and the thread resulting quickly +solidifies as the solvent evaporates, and can be dried +carefully and worked up on reels or bobbins, to be +dyed later.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Properties.</i>—Artificial silk, as a rule, is a little stiffer +than natural silk, but has an exceedingly fine lustre. +It cannot be spun in as fine threads as fine, natural +silk, but, on the other hand, can be produced in thick, +smooth threads which, stained as a rule black or dark +colors, quite replace horsehair for furniture coverings, +etc. Similar products are made, too, by coating cotton +with a layer of artificial silk.</p> + +<p>Another curious use of this artificial silk process is +when it is formed into still larger threads, very lustrous +and quite stiff, and used for plumes and aigrettes. +They can be dyed any color, have excellent lustre, and +are extremely useful for millinery.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Precautions Necessary in Dyeing.</i>—One great drawback +is common to all these different varieties of artificial<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[187]</span> +silk. They are quite strong, although not particularly +elastic, when dry, but when wet lose their +strength very markedly. Indeed, at one time it was +found extremely troublesome to dye them, as the silk +skein dyers, accustomed to work and wring and +stretch their silk, with impunity, in and out of the hot +dye-baths, would try the same treatment with this new +product, and in consequence ruin every skein. When +thoroughly wet through in a hot bath the thread will +soften until a skein may hardly bear its own weight. +Accordingly, the dyeing is always done as quickly as +possible, and generally at a lukewarm or only moderately +high temperature. The skeins should be +handled as little as possible in the dye-bath, and, when +taken out to wring, should be rinsed slightly to get rid +of extra color, acid, etc., and then carefully dried, not +by twisting on two sticks, as is customary with other +materials, but by wrapping in cheese cloth or blotting +paper and then running the skeins backward and forward +through the clothes wringer.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Tests for Artificial Silk.</b>—It has been ascertained that +all varieties of artificial silk now on the market are +made from some form of cellulose. Efforts have been +made to take thick jellies made from gelatine or similar +animal compounds, and make threads from them, +coagulating them later by treatment with formaldehyde +or similar chemicals.</p> + +<p>These experiments have, however, not as yet proved +successful. Accordingly, any test that will distinguish +between a vegetable and an animal fibre will +show whether a brilliant thread or piece of textiles<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[188]</span> +contains natural silk or not. The simplest of tests is, +of course, to burn a little with a match or at a flame +and see if there results the characteristic “burnt +feather smell” of charring animal tissues. This odor +accompanies the natural silk. The chemist would +probably make the same test more accurately by heating +a wad of the material in the bottom of a small test +tube and noticing whether ammonia was being evolved, +and whether the distillate was alkaline in reaction. +The ammonia and alkali resulting from the nitrogenous +organic matter is a certain indication of animal +matter.</p> + +<p>To distinguish between mercerized cotton and artificial +silk, it is generally enough to soak the samples +for a short time, say a quarter of an hour, in boiling +water and test their strength. Mercerized cotton properly +made would be just as strong afterward as before, +while the artificial silk would be soft and weak, if it +would not, indeed, break down completely. Besides +this, it must be remembered that the mercerized cotton, +in spite of its lustre, is made up of threads tightly +spun together from a large number of short fibres, +none of which are over two inches or so in length, +while the artificial silks are made up, like the natural +silk, of long, continuous fibres twisted together to +form the yarn.</p> + +<p>In general, these artificial silks, manufactured as +they are from wood pulp and other vegetable materials, +are to be dyed with the Salt, Sulphur, or Vat +dyes, care always being taken to expose them to the +action of hot dye-liquors as short a time as possible.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[189]</span> +The Salt dyes are less apt to interfere with the brilliant +lustre, but the Sulphur and Vat dyes have the great +advantage of dyeing in a cold or lukewarm bath, without +any loss in fastness.</p> + +<p>The Chardonnet silk has a special affinity for the +Basic dyes, and in the trade is usually dyed both light +and dark shades with these coloring matters, without +previous mordanting, in a slightly acid bath. This +practice, however, while simple and easy, is not to be +recommended. For the Basic dyes, with but few exceptions, +fugitive under all circumstances, are particularly +sensitive to light, when dyed in light shades, +upon such a brilliant and almost transparent medium +as this is. On the other hand, articles made of artificial +silk, being easily injured by rain, are not so liable +to be exposed to the open weather as some other less +delicate materials.</p> + +<p>The Viscose and Elberfeld silks (Glanzstoff) have +less affinity for the Basic dyes, and dye more readily +with the Salt and Sulphur colors than the Chardonnet +silk, made from gun cotton. But it is perfectly possible +to dye the latter also with fast colors of the Salt, +Sulphur, or Vat classes, providing large amounts of +dyestuff are used to bring up the shade. Indeed it is +poor economy to be sparing of the coloring matter, +when working with any kind of artificial silk. For +speed is essential, and the dyer who lets his material +remain long in the dye-bath is liable to get into difficulties.</p> + +<p>The artificial silk, after dyeing, should be finished +much like natural silk, by rinsing and then passing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[190]</span> +through a bath containing some olive oil, emulsified +in a weak bath of soda ash. This increases the lustre. +It should also be dried at a fairly low temperature and, +while drying, kept stretched out by hanging a wooden +or glass rod in the loop of the hanging skein, or some +similar device, taking care to avoid strain great enough +to pull apart the weakened fibre.</p> + +<p>When dyeing this material great care should also +be taken in tying up the individual skeins and in +handling them. Turn them in the dye-bath as little +as possible consistent with even dyeing. The threads, +unless very tightly spun, are constantly liable to come +untwisted, and the knots to untie, causing much annoyance.</p> + +<p>In conclusion, when carefully made and dyed these +artificial silks furnish beautiful, brilliant, lustrous +fibres, which can be used to great effect in many kinds +of handicraft work. They can easily be procured +with more lustre than the very best natural silk, but +even when dry are deficient in elasticity, and to some +extent in strength, and when wet are very fragile. +The price is kept at a rather high figure, as a rule +only from 25 to 50 cents a pound less than that of +good natural silk. But every year the production is +increasing, new factories are springing up in every +country, and as there is no limit to the production +excepting the demand, it is probable that in a few +years, thanks to competition, the price will be dropped +very considerably and the whole silk business will be +revolutionized. At present it is estimated that the production +of the artificial silk is not far from one-fifth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[191]</span> +that of natural silk, and this fraction is getting larger +every month.</p> + +<p>Indeed, the rise of this particular industry may +fairly be considered as one of the most interesting, +most useful, and most valuable contributions of the +manufacturing chemist during the last quarter century.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[192]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_XIV">Chapter XIV<br> +<span class="chapt_sub">TIED AND DYED WORK</span></h2> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Hitherto,</span> in this book, the student has been +instructed in the general art of dyeing and +coloring the various fabrics, both in the yarn +and in piece, without any attention to the subject of +coloring them in patterns or designs. The remaining +chapters will be devoted to various methods, suitable +for craftsmen, by which the dyestuffs can be applied +so as to give more or less definite patterns to the objects +to be colored.</p> + +<p>This art, in its general principles, was worked out +in various parts of the world at very early periods in +their civilization. In a great many cases colored designs +in textiles were formed, in the process of weaving, +by incorporating yarns of different colors in certain +portions of the fabric.</p> + +<p>But along with this, at a very early stage in the +textile industry, there was developed the art of making +patterns, regular or irregular, by the action of dyestuffs +upon previously woven goods. In general there +are three methods for doing this which, it is claimed, +were known to the ancient Egyptians just as well as +they are to the modern calico printer. These three +methods are known as Direct Coloring, Discharge, +and Resist dyeing.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="fig2" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p192a.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 2—TIED AND DYED HEADDRESS FROM AN +INCA TOMB IN PERU</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[193]</span></p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Direct Coloring.</b>—This means the application of the +dyestuff or coloring matter to different special portions +of the textile or fabric, so as to give a colored +design, upon a lighter background. The dye may be +applied by dipping special portions of the fabric into +it, in which case the pattern is apt to be a very loose +and irregular one. Or, if the material will take the +dye readily enough, as for instance in the staining of +leather, it may be applied with a brush, or a small pad.</p> + +<p>More formal and intricate designs can be made by +applying the color in the form of a paste, through +the help of stencils, as worked out by the Japanese +so beautifully, or by means of wooden or metallic +blocks, as in the block printing in the East, which in +Europe and America has developed into the art of +calico printing, by rolls run by machinery.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Discharge.</b>—This process is the exact reverse of the +preceding one, in that the cloth or other material is +dyed first, and later the color is either entirely removed +or, it may be, very decidedly altered in shade, +in certain special parts, by the application of some +chemical.</p> + +<p>The earliest examples of this are where cloths +stained with Iron buff, have had patterns made in +them by washing out certain portions with acid. Just +as some of the earliest forms of “direct coloring” +are shown in the dark patterns of leaves, formed by +the same Iron buff dye, upon cloth against which +moist fresh leaves have been crushed.</p> + +<p>The discharge process is not as commonly used by +craftsmen as the other two methods, because it has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[194]</span> +not always been easy to find or to use a chemical that +will properly destroy or change any particular color, +without at the same time, if fast dyes are used, destroying +or at least injuring the fabric. The professional +dyer, working in conjunction with the chemist, +carefully weighing the reagents, and using steam chests +and drying chambers with definite and carefully regulated +temperatures, can fully discharge even the fastest +dyes without danger. But this is difficult, if not impossible +for the craftsman, and while the process will +be discussed and described under the subject of stencilling, +it will be found, comparatively, of but little +practical importance.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Resist.</b>—The third and last method for getting colored +patterns is one which has been used in different +ways, by the most widely scattered nations, +and which, to this day, furnishes one of the most +interesting and important processes at the disposal of +the craftsman, as opposed to the professional dyer.</p> + +<p>It consists of applying to certain portions of the +fabric, before dyeing, some agent which, acting either +chemically or mechanically, will “resist” the action of +the dyestuff at the places where it is applied. These +parts accordingly will remain in their original color, +or at any rate will be but slightly colored, while other +portions, not so protected, will be dyed full shades. +This, in many respects, is the most advantageous way +of obtaining patterns for the craftsman, because no +action has taken place tending to injure the strength +or durability of either material or dyestuff, and as the +color is applied in a regular dye-bath there is generally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[195]</span> +an opportunity to apply the dyestuffs in the most approved +manner.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Variations in Resist Work.</i>—The resist method has +been discovered in many parts of the world, and has +been carried out in many ways. In Java, for instance, +a beautiful art was developed known as Batik, +to be described later, in more detail. These people +used, as a resisting medium, molten beeswax, which +could be poured or painted on to the cloth wherever +desired, and, according to whether it was applied hot +or only just warm enough to be liquid, would protect +the material covered, either wholly or partially, against +the action of dyestuffs in a cold bath.</p> + +<p>Less elaborate, but still very interesting processes +are reported from many other quarters. As will be +described in the next chapter the Japanese have long +used a resist paste, to make white patterns against +dark backgrounds with their stencils. In some of the +Pacific Islands natives have learnt to make patterns by +pressing pieces of cloth tightly between shells, as for +instance the two halves of a clam shell, and then dyeing +or staining around them. Other tribes learnt the +trick of tying or sewing flat thin pieces of wood together, +tightly compressing the cloth between them +and thus preventing the dyestuff from reaching those +parts of the goods when dyed later.</p> + +<p>But the most common process, and one which is +not only the simplest and easiest to carry out, but also +offers to the skilful dyer an almost unlimited range +of interesting and effective results, in color and design, +is the so-called “Tied and Dyed Work.”</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[196]</span></p> + + +<h3>TIED AND DYED WORK</h3> + +<p>In this process, Tied and Dyed Work, the pattern +is made by tying string or cord, more or less +tightly, around certain selected portions of the material. +When the goods, thus treated, are subsequently +dyed, these tied portions will be kept from the action +of the dyestuff, and after the operation is finished +and the strings cut or untied, they will be lighter in +color than the adjacent parts of the fabric.</p> + +<p>This process has been known and widely used in +many different parts of the world. Some interesting +examples of it are found among the textiles from the +so-called Inca graves, in Peru and Bolivia, dating +from before the Spanish conquest in the sixteenth century +(see Fig. <a href="#fig2">2</a>). Some extremely interesting specimens +of tied work can be seen in the Philippine collection +in the New York Museum of Natural History, +brought from the Bagobo tribe in Mindanao (see +Fig. <a href="#fig5">5</a>). While perhaps the most extraordinary development +of this process can be found in the so-called +chundries or chunaries, imported from Central Hindustan, +and sold by traders in Eastern goods and textiles +at very moderate prices.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig3" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p196a.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 3—SHIKAR CHUNDRI, FROM RAJPUTANA, WITH KNOTS STILL UNTIED</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Chundries.</b>—These are chiefly manufactured in the +native State of Kotah, in Rajputana, and have been +produced there from time immemorial, for use as +clothing and hangings. Those that are imported to +this country (see Figs. <a href="#fig3">3</a> and <a href="#fig4">4</a>) are generally made +of extremely thin, flimsy muslin, most elaborately +decorated in three or four colors, with patterns made<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[197]</span> +up of an infinite number of small round or rectangular +rings of white or light colors, against a darker background. +They can be obtained in the same condition +that they left the dyer’s hands, folded tightly +together, colored red or brown or black from the final +dye-bath, and covered over with hundreds of little +hard knots or lumps. These, on examination, prove +to be the tied places, each tied by hand, by winding +round and round the base of the projecting loop of +cloth, a very fine thread, closely laid and knotted +extremely firm and tight.</p> + +<p>When unwound, which must be done with much +care on account of the thin, fragile nature of the cloth, +the knotted portions often show most beautiful and +interesting designs—done in different colors, put on +before tying, and protected from the final bath by the +close tight layer of thread. Among the most interesting +of them are the so-called “Shikar” chundries, +where the design, repeated over and over again, illustrates +some hunting scene, as, for instance, a tiger +hunt, with the animal springing at a man armed with +a sword, and a horse or elephant with howdah. When +fully opened one of these chundries makes a strip of +cloth some five or six yards long, and in Rajputana is +used as the full-dress costume of a young lady of +fashion, being folded round and round the body and +over the head in most graceful and charming lines.</p> + +<p>On studying one of these chundries one is struck +by the immense amount of labor expended in the tying +process. The knots which form the pattern make, +frequently, as many as twenty-five or thirty to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[198]</span> +running inch, and each one is tied so tightly around +the cloth, folded so as to form four thicknesses, and +drawn or pressed out into loops, that it completely +protects the part it covers from the dyestuff, only the +tip of the loop remaining exposed. Hence, when it is +untied, there results a small circular or rectangular +ring not over three-quarters of an inch in diameter. +To obtain a surface around which the string can be +thus tightly tied, the folded cloth is evidently pressed +out from the back by a thin pin or spike (the effect +can be produced by tying a thin piece of cloth tightly +around a wooden toothpick) around which the thread +can be tightly drawn and knotted, and which usually +is left in during the dyeing process and taken out +afterwards.</p> + +<p>The patterns are so elaborate, and yet are repeated +over and over again, on the same chundries, with such +regularity, that it is probable that some simple apparatus +is used to press out the cloth in exactly the +proper places. This could be done by using a little +frame with holes in it, into which pins of wood or +ivory could be set, like the markers in a cribbage board, +for instance, forming definite figures on which piece +after piece of cloth could be placed and pressed out +into shape.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig4" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p198a.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 4—SAME CHUNDRI AS IN FIG. <a href="#fig3">3</a>, UNTIED AND SHAKEN OUT</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The most interesting thing, after all, about these +extraordinarily elaborate pieces of handicraft work is +the fact that this vast amount of time and labor is +expended upon such poor materials. The muslin of +which they are made is so thin and poor that considerable +pains must be taken in opening them, to prevent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[199]</span> +their tearing from the strain of pulling off the +knots of fine thread. Then, too, the colors as a rule not +only are fugitive to sunlight, but are easily affected +by washing. Two minutes scrubbing in hot soapsuds +will almost completely efface the pattern and color +from some of the most elaborate and beautiful of them +all. And this is not, as is claimed frequently by +modern writers upon Eastern handicrafts, due to the +introduction of cheap and fugitive “aniline” dyestuffs. +The dyes, used for generations by the Rajput +craftsmen, for their most elaborate chundries, +were principally tumeric, safflower, and other inferior +vegetable colors, applied so loosely as to be +merely stains rather than dyes—and it would be hard +to get modern dyestuffs which, applied with any care, +would be as fugitive as those commonly used for the +very best examples of these beautiful textiles.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Tied Work in the Philippines.</b>—Of different quality is +the work of the Bagobo tribe in Mindanao, interesting +specimens of which are to be seen in the Philippine +collection of the New York Museum of Natural +History. As shown in Fig. <a href="#fig5">5</a>, a headdress belonging +to Miss Laura Benedict, the work is not unlike that +done by the ancient Peruvians, and the patterns, although +often exceedingly complex, are invariably +geometrical, and do not approach in variety or in interest +those from India. The coloring, too, is far simpler—practically +all the examples showing light patterns +on a dull purplish background. But the dyeing is most +carefully and thoroughly made—taking about thirty +days to complete, dyeing each night and washing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[200]</span> +thoroughly each morning during all that time, until +the final product is exceedingly permanent to both +light and washing.</p> + +<p>Miss Benedict, who was the first white person to +enter the Bagobo country and study and report on +their handicrafts, states that the patterns are made +in a curious manner. The pattern is first outlined +upon the cloth by a series of basting stitches, the intersection +of two stitches being the mark for the centre +of one of the tied places. Then the operator, seated, +puts over her big toe a ring attached to a line some +three feet long, on the end of which is a simple hook +made from a bent and sharpened piece of copper or +brass wire. Holding the cloth in one hand, she then +fastens the hook into one of the marked places, pulls +the part out with her foot, and ties up the loop thus +formed, rapidly and tightly, with waxed thread. This +she winds round and round the loop, beginning with +the bottom first, and knots it tight, using the free +hand, assisted, except with very expert workers, with +the thumb and forefinger of the other.</p> + +<p>Specimens of textiles thus tied, and not yet dyed or +opened, and also of the toe-ring, line, and hook used +in the process, can be seen at the Museum, along with +a great variety of beautiful specimens of the finished +work.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="fig5"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p200a.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 5—BAGOBO HEADDRESS FROM THE ISLAND +OF MINDANAO</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>It is rare that, in our present surroundings, any +craftsman can spare the time and patience to copy +the elaborate patterns made in these ways by the Eastern +dyers. But equally beautiful and interesting results +can be produced with very little expenditure of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[201]</span> +time and labor, by the skilful dyer, who knows something +of the fundamental principles of design and can +use his dyes so as to get soft and beautiful as well as +permanent color effects. It is impossible, in a work +like this, to do more than suggest some of the many +ways in which this process can be used. The rest +depends entirely upon practice—and more can be +learned about its possibilities in a couple of hours’ +work with muslin or cheesecloth, and a ball of twine +or tape, in connection with a dye-pot of a good Sulphur +dye, than by weeks of listening or reading about it.</p> + + +<h3>VARIETIES OF TIED WORK</h3> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Tied on Itself.</b>—Interesting effects may often be produced +on long pieces of cloth, scarfs, and the like, by +folding them over and tying them into knots at one +or two selected places, before dyeing. Fig. <a href="#fig6">6</a> shows +an example of this, (a) Tied and ready for dyeing; +(b) Dyed and opened out. This when worked out +in different colors, dyeing first, with some light color, +then tying and dyeing with another color, or else +coloring the tied and dyed piece with a second light +bath of another color, gives very pleasant results as +applied to draperies—as, for instance, simple costumes +for pageants and out-of-doors plays. It is, however, +almost, if not quite, impossible to obtain definite designs +in this way, and it is hardly possible to duplicate +results. But occasionally the process is useful.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Tied with String or Tape.</b>—Far more important is +the process generally meant by the term “tied and +dyed work,” where the pattern is made by tying either<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[202]</span> +thread, string, cord, or even tape, more or less tightly +around special portions of the cloth. These portions +are usually drawn out, or pressed out, or folded, so +as to form a sort of loop around which the string +can be tied. But occasionally the whole cloth, laid +flat and with but little folding, is tied tightly across, +so that the reserved part forms, when untied, a more +or less straight band.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Tied in Bands.</i>—It is often desirable to separate one +part of a design from another by means of a broad +line or band of white or light color. This can be +readily done by tying a piece of strong twine or +tape, tightly, right across the goods at the desired +place before dyeing it. Quite elaborate and interesting +effects can be produced in this way by first folding +the cloth lengthways, and then tying a width of +several inches with a broad piece of tape. If it is not +tied too tight some of the color will work up and +down the folds, under the tape, and give, when finished, +curious wavy effects. (See Fig. <a href="#fig7">7</a>.)</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Tied in Small Loops.</i>—This banding, though interesting +and useful, differs from the sharp little round or +diamond-shaped rings forming the patterns in the +Rajput or Bagobo textiles. These are produced by +pressing or pulling out the cloth into loops or bunches +which are then tied tightly round and round with +string or thread, the middle of the loop being usually +left exposed to the dyestuff, so as to form a colored +centre.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig6"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p202a_1.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">(<i>a</i>)—<i>Tied and Ready for Dyeing</i> +</figcaption> +</figure> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p202a.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">(<i>b</i>)—<i>Dyed, Untied and Shaken Out</i><br> + +FIG. 6—SAMPLE OF TIED AND DYED WORK, +“TIED ON ITSELF”</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>Very small loops can be made, as mentioned above, +by pressing out the cloth with a wooden pin (or toothpick)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[203]</span> +and tying tightly around this, leaving in the pin +until after the dyeing is completed.</p> + +<p>Skilful workers can tie quite small loops by placing +a bead, or dried pea, or piece of gravel in the cloth +and tying the cloth tightly around this. It is best, +always, to have something of the sort, pin or bead, to +act as a centre, or else the knot, after tying, is very apt +to slip off, and spoil the pattern.</p> + +<p>The design for this sort of work should be carefully +planned beforehand, and marked out on the +cloth with pencil or chalk. For, with small loops like +this, the interest is more in the pattern formed by +them than in the changes and contrasts in color between +the different tied parts and the rest of the +cloth.</p> + +<p>A very interesting specimen of work done in +this way by Miss Mary Grey is shown in Fig. <a href="#fig7">7</a>.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Tied in Large Knots and Loops.</i>—It is hard for a +Western craftsman to obtain sharp, well-defined +knots by this method, of a diameter of less than +half an inch or so. Usually, indeed, it is too +much of a bother and nuisance to try any knots +covering less than an inch and a half. From this +size, up to fifteen and twenty inches in diameter, will +be found the vast majority of all American work. The +reason is very simple. The trouble of tying a knot +covering five inches is very little more than that for +a half-inch knot, indeed far less for most people, +while the large knot produces an immediate effect not +equalled by a dozen of the latter. Furthermore, with +large knots, big bold designs can be produced, which,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[204]</span> +with pleasant and skilfully selected colors, give results +far more striking and effective than can be shown +by the small knots, no matter how carefully carried +out. On the other hand, intricate and carefully +planned designs can be worked out with small knots, +which cannot be attempted with the large ones.</p> + +<p>For designs with large knots, beside the cloth, +which should be soft and free from dressing, and a +ball of soft thick twine or better, of cheap cotton +binding tape, half to three-quarters of an inch wide, +it is well to have a supply of large glass beads, of +marbles of different sizes, and, if these are not easy +to get, of pebbles, beans, hazelnuts, and the like. +These are not always to be used, but in most cases +it makes a more interesting contrast to have the centre +of the tied spot come out dark, with the lighter parts, +more or less shaded, around it. That means that the +centre must be exposed to the dyestuff by being +stretched out over a marble or pebble, while the parts +around it are tied up. And the tying, too, is greatly +facilitated by having a hard centre to work against.</p> + +<p>By tying around one marble first, and then putting +in another and tying round that, a series of concentric +rings will be formed, the black rings showing where +the cloth, covering the marble, has been exposed, and +the light-colored part showing where it has been covered +by the tape or string.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp70" id="fig7"> + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p204a.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"> + +<p class="hang1">FIG. 7—SAMPLE OF TIED AND DYED WORK, “TIED IN +BANDS,” WITH INCIDENTAL KNOTS. BY MISS MARY +GREY</p> + +</figcaption> +</figure> + + +<p>As before, the design, if at all elaborate, should be +marked out beforehand on the open cloth, and the +parts tied in accordingly. Much experience is required +to know just how tight to tie the tape so as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[205]</span> +to get a desired effect with each particular kind of +cloth, and each class of dyestuffs. In general, with +small knots the string should be tied very tight, or +otherwise no effect is produced at all. The larger +the tied parts, however, the more pains should be +taken to have the cloth folded before tying, so that +some of the color may work down through the folds +past the tape, and thus produce shaded effects, which +may be of great beauty (see Plate IV, Fig. <a href="#plate4a">a</a>). Of +course, in this, much depends on the cloth; a thick +heavy calico tying with difficulty, but not letting the +dyestuff soak through; while soft open materials like +scrim or cheesecloth, for instance, must be tied much +tighter, or the color will work through so much as to +spoil the design.</p> + +<p>The student is advised to practise, from the start, +tying his tape with a slip loop, or at any rate a bow +knot, and not with a fast square knot each time, so +as to save trouble and bother when untying later. A +skilful craftsman will tie quite a large piece of cloth, +in an interesting and fairly complicated design, in a +few minutes. But after dyeing, while the cloth is +still wet, and the tape or string has shrunk, and the +knots have tightened, it is often more trouble to untie, +or cut it open, than it was to make it, and there is +always the danger of cutting holes in it. A little pains +in laying down one end of the tape, before starting +to tie, so that, when the whole loop is tied up, the +other end will come out alongside of the first so that +it can be joined to it by a bow knot, will save any +amount of time and vexation.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[206]</span></p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Sewed and Dyed Work.</b>—Besides protecting the +cloth from the action of the dyestuff by tying string +or tape around it, the same effect can be produced +by sewing up certain parts of it, before dyeing, and +then, after the rest has been colored, and the loose +dye-liquor washed off, the sewed-up parts can be +opened and pressed into shape.</p> + +<p>This modification of the process, so far as I can +learn, is not practised by the Rajputs with their +chundries, but in the Benedict collection can be seen +some most extraordinary and elaborate pieces of dyed +work made just in this way. The Japanese, also, have +been in the habit of using this method, and sometimes +they produce curious zigzag lines by taking coarse +stitches across the cloth, alternately, first to one side +and then to the other side of the centre line, and then +drawing the thread tight. The needle is often used +for borders—for straight lines can easily be made in +soft materials (and such only should be used for tied +work) by hemming the cloth with strong thread, and +then drawing it up close and tight before putting it in +the dye-bath. The development of this branch of the +process, however, belongs properly to the fair sex.</p> + + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="fig8" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p206a_1.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 8—FOLDING THE CLOTH</figcaption> +</figure> +<table class="autotable"> +<tr><td class="tdct wd50"> +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig9" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p206a_2.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 9—STARTING TO TIE</figcaption> +</figure> +</td><td class="tdct" > +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig10" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p206a_3.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 10—CENTRE PORTION TIED</figcaption> +</figure> +</td></tr></table> +<p class="center noindent">TIED AND DYED WORK</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Dyeing Process.</b>—Now for the dyeing process. Of +course, for practise, the craftsman will use cotton as +his raw material, in the form of muslin, cheesecloth, +scrim, or best of all, light grades of mercerized cotton, +and hence will use the various cotton dyestuffs. The +Salt colors are hardly advisable, because though fast +to light they are not all fast to washing unless well +boiled on, and that means that, unless tied extremely<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[207]</span> +fast and tight, the color would be bound to penetrate, +and wipe out the design. The Sulphur colors and the +Vat colors are the best for the purpose—for they can +be dyed cold or lukewarm, without injuring the fastness +of the dye, and give colors fast both to light and +to washing. In general, it is easier to get even shades +with the Sulphur colors, and their shades are soft and +pleasing, but while fast, they are not as fast as the +Vat dyes, and it is impossible to get a decent scarlet +with them. The skilful dyer will, of course, select his +class to suit the shade he is trying to get and also to +meet the requirements about fastness. But, in general, +he will use the Salt colors for covering and shading the +patterns produced with either the Sulphur or the Vat +dyes. When using the oxidation dyes, like the Sulphur +or Vat colors, plenty of time must be given for the +dyestuffs to oxidize and set before they are untied. +But, on the other hand, directly they are once untied +it is important to wash off the loose dye-liquor from +the cloth, and especially from the tied-in portions, as +soon as possible after untying, otherwise some dye-liquors +that may have soaked in without having had +a chance to oxidize, will, when exposed to air, suddenly +fix themselves and obscure or ruin the pattern.</p> + +<p>After attaining some skill in this process the craftsman +is urged to try it on more important materials +like silk. Most beautiful effects can be, and are being +produced by this means, on soft delicate scarfs made +of Chinese or Indian silks. The Acid colors are, of +course, used for this, and as they take so readily on +silk, the possibilities of shading and over-shading different<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[208]</span> +portions of the design, or of adding a touch +of color here and there where it seems desirable, offer +infinite possibilities to an artistic workman. The combinations +of color that can be produced are infinite, +and the curious blending of regularity and irregularity, +in the designs and figures, renders it a most attractive +process to practise with.</p> + +<p>One great attraction about it is the sense of suspense, +and the impossibility of telling just what effect +is being produced, until the knots are all untied, and +the cloth washed off and opened out.</p> + +<p>Another attraction is the feeling of working all the +time in an unexplored or very partially explored country. +There is the constant chance of obtaining at any +moment effects never thought of before. The experimenter +is always trying some new little trick in tying, +or in folding, or in dyeing, the results of which can +never be foreseen accurately, and which are always +interesting and often very beautiful.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Tied and Discharged Work.</b>—One day, in our laboratory, +some experiments were made which resulted +in a modification of this process which, so far as we +know, was entirely new, and which presents very interesting +possibilities, to say the least. We made the +experiment of dyeing the cloth first, and then tying +it up, and putting it in a bleaching solution, so as to +discharge the color everywhere excepting where it was +protected by the tying. The experiment was successful, +resulting (see Plate IV, Fig. <a href="#plate4b">b</a>), in a series of +dark patterns on a light background. All kinds of +modifications of this can be made. For instance, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[209]</span> +cloth can be dyed with a mixture of two or three +dyes, some of which are fast and the other or others +can be discharged by the chemical used. The pattern +thus will be the full mixed color, say brown, against a +background of red or yellow or blue as the case may be.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_p208a" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p208a.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"> + + +<table class="autotable"> +<tr><td class="tdct wd30" id="fig11"> +FIG. 11—CENTRE +AND CORNERS +TIED +</td><td class="tdct" id="fig12"> + + FIG. 12—DYED, UNTIED AND SHAKEN OUT +</td></tr></table> +TIED AND DYED WORK-CONTINUED</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p>The important thing about this modification is to +select the proper bleaching agent to act on the particular +colors, and the particular kind of material, +used. Our first experiments were with bleaching +powder (chloride of lime), dissolved in water, say two +tablespoonfuls to the gallon, with, if necessary, a few +drops of acetic acid or weak sulphuric acid stirred +into it. This powerful bleaching agent is very apt +to attack the cloth, and only heavy materials, such as +scrim or heavy calico should be used with it. But +although so strong, it does not act at all readily on +a large number of the dyestuffs, including many of +the Vat colors. Some of these, like the Indanthrene +colors, are not affected at all, Indigo is changed +from blue to a brilliant shade of yellow. And Thio +Indigo Red B produces curious shades of purple, settling, +where exposed to the full action of the bleaching +agent, to orange.</p> + +<p>Later we repeated the experiments, using hydrosulphite +of soda, say two tablespoonfuls to the gallon +of warm water, as a discharge, with much better success. +The cloth was not injured, even when delicate +materials like silk and light poplins were used. And +the great majority of colors, including nearly all the +best Salt, Sulphur, and Acid dyes, reduced rapidly +and well. The Vat dyes will reduce, and, in the presence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[210]</span> +of caustic soda, will dissolve out of the exposed +cloth almost entirely, but it is hard to reduce them to +white in this way. In every case the color, after reduction, +must be washed at once in warm soap and +water, or else, on exposure to the air, the color may +come back to some extent, owing to oxidation.</p> + +<p>A weak bath of hydrosulphite of soda, also, should +always be on hand, in the former bleaching process; +for, when bleaching powder (chloride of lime) or +other chlorine compounds, such as Javelle water or +Labarraque’s solution, are used for destroying the +color, their further action can be stopped, and also +the offensive smell removed, by dipping the bleached +material into a so-called antichlor, like this hydrosulphite.</p> + +<p>This subject of discharge is dealt with more at +length in a future chapter.</p> + + +<figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="plate4a" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p210a_a.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">(a) <span class="allsmcap">EXAMPLE OF TIED AND DYED WORK</span></figcaption> +</figure> +<figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="plate4b" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p210a_b.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">(b) <span class="allsmcap">EXAMPLE OF TIED AND DISCHARGED WORK</span><br> + +PLATE IV.</figcaption> +</figure> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[211]</span></p> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_XV">Chapter XV<br> +<span class="chapt_sub">STENCILS AND STENCILLING</span></h2> +</div> + + +<h3>DIRECT APPLICATION OF COLORS</h3> + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap"><b>History.</b></span>—During the last few years a great +deal of attention has been paid to the manufacture +and use of stencils for decorating textiles, +not only by craft workers of different kinds, but +also by art teachers in private and public schools.</p> + +<p>The art is not a modern one, even in this country, +for I have seen and worked with a series of very interesting +stencils cut in brass, which were owned in +Philadelphia by the famous old physician, Dr. Benjamin +Rush, over a hundred years ago, and were used +in his family for marking linen, as well as for decorating +homespuns and paper.</p> + +<p>The real home of the art, however, is Japan, where, +for over three hundred years, stencils have been in +common use, largely replacing the wood blocks used +in other countries, for decorating the common cotton +goods, towels, head coverings, and the like of the lower +classes, and also for ornamenting, where embroidery +was not desired, the beautiful silks and satins of the +wealthy.</p> + +<p>Ever since Japan has been opened to the world +travelers have been telling wonderful stories of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[212]</span> +the great skill of the natives in this beautiful art. According +to some writers, as soon as a child is born +it is given a nickname, and with it, as a sort of totem, +a design—a flower, for instance, for a girl—a tree +or an animal for a boy—and the like. This design, +worked out carefully, after due criticism from all the +family elders, is drawn on brown paper and then carefully +cut out with a sharp knife by some member or +friend of the family. And this stencil is then sent to +the local dyer to be used in dyeing the infant’s clothes. +This same design, or a modification of it, is attached +to the person through life, as his or her own private +pattern, and whenever new clothes are needed they +are dyed after this same pattern.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Japanese Stencils.</b>—<i>Paper.</i>—It is a common fact that +the very first thing noticeable about Japanese stencils, +whether brought from some dyehouse in the interior, +or whether made more or less mechanically, for +the American market, to be sold to students or craftsmen, +is the quality of the paper. It is thin, hardly +heavier than ordinary writing paper, but exceedingly +tough and strong, and cuts very easily, without tearing. +It can occasionally be obtained from importers +in sheets, and even better qualities can be secured, from +among a mass of old stencils, by finding some which +have been only partially cut or used up, and carefully +cutting out from them the unused portions where +these are large enough for the purpose.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="fig13" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p212a_1.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 13—JAPANESE STENCIL KNIFE</figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="fig14" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p212a_2.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 14—JAPANESE STENCIL BRUSHES</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Knives.</i>—In cutting stencil designs our American +practice is to use a sharp penknife, or a Sloyd knife, +or, as happens occasionally with some of my friends<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[213]</span> +with amiable professional husbands, a surgeon’s +scalpel. None of these, however, compare for neatness, +accuracy, and ease and comfort of manipulation, +with the very simple but extremely effective little Japanese +knives shown in Fig. <a href="#fig13">13</a>. The knife blade, of +very highly tempered steel, is two or three inches long +and fits between two flattened plates of wood, tied together +tightly at the bottom but springing apart a +little toward the top, as a handle. This little spring of +the handle is most satisfactory. And as the blade, +which is triangular and sharply pointed, is worn away +gradually by the constant grinding and sharpening +it must receive, the steel can be pushed forward from +between the two halves of the handle, until the proper +length is reached.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Cutting.</i>—The Japanese draw their designs on +paper with India ink, and then, with incredible swiftness +and accuracy, the lines are cut, by pushing the +knife blade, held with the back downwards, away +from the workman, and through the paper which is +placed flat on a piece of wood or small tray, with +depressions in it half an inch or so deep, to avoid the +danger and bother of running the knife point into the +wood.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>American Practice.</b>—Our way differs somewhat. The +design is usually drawn on a separate piece of white +paper, and filled in—in black—with India ink. This is +then placed underneath the stencil paper which, especially +if it has been oiled or paraffined, is translucent +enough to show the pattern through, so that the outline +can be drawn with a sharp pencil. The outline<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[214]</span> +can also be made by tracing the design down on the +stencil paper with the help of a piece of carbon copying +paper. This is laid between the design and the stencil +paper and then the outline of the design is carefully +traced with a sharp-pointed pencil. From these outlines +it is easy, with a sharp stencil knife, to cut out +the design, although it is customary with us to cut +toward the body with the point of the knife down, +upon a piece of blotting paper or soft wood so as +not to dull it too rapidly.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Ties and Stops.</i>—When stencilling is taught in +America great pains are taken to show how the pattern +must be planned and cut out, so as to have plenty of +“ties” or “stops” in the right places, so as to hold +the stencil together. For instance, in making a stencil +of a large capital O, the student should be warned that, +if the paper was cut all the way around, it would leave +a big hole; for the central piece, which would form +the centre of the finished letter, would drop out, and +could not be kept in place. Accordingly, the stencil +would have to be cut carefully, leaving at least two +“bridges” or little “tie pieces” of paper, one probably +at the top, and the other at the bottom of the O, +these being the narrowest points, which would hold the +centre in place, and thus complete the figure. Indeed, +if these little “steps” or “bridges” of paper should +be left out, or become torn or broken, the stencil +would be useless. But a situation like this has little +or no terror for the Japanese, at any rate when working +for their home trade. Their stencils cut for the +American market while always interesting, and often<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[215]</span> +charming, are cut, as ours are, from one piece of +paper, with stops in the exposed places. But the stencils +that have been used, or cut for use, over there, +show a very different state of affairs. All of the +large, handsome ones, and a large proportion of the +smaller, less artistic, and less valuable ones are made, +with almost inconceivable skill and patience, in duplicate. +And the two parts are afterwards pasted together +with absolute accuracy, but with a layer of fine +hair, supposedly human hair, between them. These +hairs, laid irregularly but evenly, make a sort of network +which ties together all portions of the stencil, +no matter how disconnected with the rest, or, as we +would say, “in the air,” it might be.</p> + +<p>So, too, they are in the habit of sewing in, with the +finest of hair or of single threads of fine silk, loose +pieces or broken pieces, and thus holding them in +shape.</p> + +<p>It is interesting to study some of them closely and +see how neatly this tying is done and how little the +time of these unknown workmen must be valued at. +For apart from the large picture stencils which, of +course, would be worth taking a great deal of pains +with, some of the simplest and most ordinary of their +native stencils are not only cut but tied in, with extraordinary +skill. One of these, valued here at but +a few cents, consisted of a background of small figures +in shape and size very much like a capital O of the +type of this page. The stencil measures some eighteen +by ten inches, and there must be between fifteen hundred +and two thousand of these O figures on it.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[216]</span> +Some few of these are now imperfect, but with the +exception of a dozen or two, every single one of all +these has had the centre cut out, and then sewed into +place again, from the sides, so as to be in the exact +centre, without a single “stop” or “tie” on the whole +paper.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Brushes.</i>—With stencils so very delicately made, it is +evident that our crude American style of rubbing in the +color, with heavy hands and stiff bristle brushes, would +not be much of a success! About one good rub with +a brush like that, and every hair in sight would be +torn and broken, and what was a minute before a +work of art would be a torn mass of brown paper.</p> + +<p>Whether any of our American craftsmen have light +enough hands to use, successfully, a fine Japanese stencil +is doubtful. Personally, I could no more stencil +six inches with any of them without ruining it or +making a mess of the cloth than I could in a year cut, +without tearing, six square inches of any one of a +score of cheap and ordinary Japanese stencils which I +own, either presented to me or sold at a very low +price, as being really too insignificant in value to +amount to anything.</p> + +<p>But at any rate, the Japanese do not use a stiff +bristle brush. Their brushes, in general, are of two +sorts, as shown in Fig. <a href="#fig14">14</a>. One is a sort of pad, often +quite large, five or six inches in diameter, made of +rabbit’s fur, tightly bound together with cord or wire, +and with a bundle of small sticks spreading out to +enclose the pad, and drawn together and tied above, +at the upper end, in a sort of pyramid.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig15" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p216a_1.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 15—JAPANESE STENCIL, SHOWING HOLES PUNCHED +BY HAND TOOL</figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_p216a_2" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p216a_2.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption"> + +<table class="autotable"> +<tr><td class="wd50 tdct" id="fig16"> +FIG. 16—JAPANESE +STENCIL, EXACT SIZE, +SHOWING USE OF +STOPS +</td><td class="tdct" id="fig17"> +FIG. 17—JAPANESE +STENCIL, EXACT SIZE, +SHOWING USE OF +SEWING INSTEAD OF +STOPS +</td></tr></table> +</figcaption> +</figure> +<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[217]</span> + +<p>The other variety is a true brush, of a more ordinary +shape, like a flat paint brush, but also made of +the very softest and finest, most velvety hairs imaginable, +laid extremely close together, and compressed +tightly between the two halves of the handle. These +can be obtained occasionally from the dealers at reasonable +prices, and are delightful to work with. Only, +being meant for the soft, light touches of their native +workmen, they do not last long when rubbed down on +the cloth as is our practise. Their life is considerably +increased by pouring some molten beeswax into the +back of both goods and brushes with a batik pot, or +Tjanting, which prevents the fine hairs from pulling +out until the brush is all worn to pieces.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>The Care of Stencils.</i>—A word may here be said about +taking care of stencils, after they have been cut or +purchased. They should always be used on one side, +and carefully wiped off with a damp cloth, directly +after using. They should always be kept flat, never +folded. And, when using them, it must always be remembered +that the ties or bridges are the weak spots, +and that breaking or tearing them, as a rule, will spoil +the stencil. It is, of course, possible to mend them by +sewing, or sometimes by patching with tape. But this +is always troublesome, and with well paraffined stencils +is rarely satisfactory.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>The Different Methods of Using Stencils.</i>—In this +country, so far as can be ascertained, the common way +in which stencils have been used is by brushing through +them, on to the cloth, oil paints thinned with turpentine +or gasoline. As previously explained, in the chapter on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[218]</span> +feather dyeing, this is not very satisfactory. For when +paint is sufficiently thick to adhere well to the cloth, +it is apt to look stiff and shiny. And when it is applied +so thin that the structure of the cloth shows +through, it is, as a rule, not fast to washing or even +to rubbing. Various varnishes are on the market +which help considerably to make the paint fast, but +even then the results are not nearly so durable as when +the proper dyestuffs are used.</p> + +<p>The Japanese practice is exclusively with dyes, and +they have worked out processes which are perfectly +satisfactory, so that their simple, cheap, stencilled towels +can stand washing indefinitely without loss of +color. And by the use of modern dyestuffs there is +no insuperable obstacle to our doing just as well as +they.</p> + +<p>The use of stencils gives an excellent opportunity +to illustrate the three general methods of coloring +fabrics, which, as mentioned in the last chapter, consist +of:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p class="noindent"> +Direct application of color.<br> +Resist, and<br> +Discharge.<br> +</p> +</div> +<p>The last two of these will be reserved for the next +chapter.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="fig18" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p218a.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 18—JAPANESE STENCILS, EXACT SIZE, SHOWING +USE OF BOTH STOPS AND NET</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Direct Application of Color.</b>—In this intricate work +it will generally be found almost a necessity to +apply colors through a stencil in the form of a paste, +for when the coloring liquid is thin it is very apt to +run under the edges of the paper and spoil the design.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[219]</span> +It is best to thicken it with a little “gum dragon,” +a carefully prepared paste of gum tragacanth, to +which the coloring matter, and any reagents that are +needed, can be added. The nature of the reagents +and the class of dyestuffs used depends, of course, +upon the kind of material to be stencilled.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>(a) Leather.</b>—While not very often used, students +interested in leather work will find a carefully designed +and neatly cut stencil a most useful medium +for obtaining interesting and beautiful effects. The +leather, whether bark- or alum-tanned, should be carefully +dampened, and then stencilled with a paste containing +Basic colors dissolved with a drop of acetic +acid. On drying, the leather should be finished as +usual. The Acid colors are not nearly so satisfactory +for stencilling, although, as already mentioned, they +are often advantageous for dyeing, rather than staining, +leather fast colors.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>(b) Silk.</b>—Silk may easily be stencilled provided the +pattern is not expected to be fast to washing.</p> + +<p>1.<em>Acid Colors.</em>—These dyes, mixed with a few +drops of formic or acetic acid, will color it well, but +to make the dyestuff penetrate it is advisable to steam +the goods. This can be done with a teakettle provided +with a wing tip for the spout, made of tin, or by heating +a flatiron or iron plate very hot, and pressing the +stencilled goods back down against it, with a damp +cloth in between. The hot steam thus produced, passing +through the goods, melts the paste and drives the +color down into the fibres and sets it there, so that,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[220]</span> +later, the stencilled goods will stand light rinsing in +lukewarm soap and water without running.</p> + +<p>2.<em>Salt Colors.</em>—Faster results can be obtained, on +silk, with a paste containing salt dyes, with a drop or +two of acetic acid, provided the silk is thoroughly +steamed afterwards.</p> + +<p>3.<em>Basic Colors.</em>—Basic dyes may be used on silk as on +wool, leather, or any other animal fibres for direct +application, the dyestuff dissolved with a drop of acetic +acid, being added to the paste, and then brushed in +and, preferably, lightly steamed to sink the paste down +into the fibres. These dyes, however, with but few +exceptions, are not fast to light, and applied in this +way are not fast, either, to washing. By adding some +reagents to the paste, however, a Basic stencil paste can +be formed which gives colors on silk which will stand +active scrubbing excellently.</p> + +<p>The Basic Stencil Paste is prepared by mixing with +the paste a solution containing the Basic color, dissolved +in acetic acid, and also containing a considerable +quantity of tannic acid. As long as there is +free acetic acid present in this mixture the color remains +in solution, but directly the acid is driven off, +an insoluble compound remains, formed by the combination +of the tannic acid with the color base. This +happens on steaming, and the insolubility of the product +is still further increased by passing it through a +weak bath or wetting it with a weak solution (half a +teaspoonful to the quart) of tartar emetic.</p> + +<p>Accordingly, to use this stencil paste on silk or, +indeed, on cotton, the slightly dampened goods are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[221]</span> +stencilled with the paste, thinned if desired with water +and a little acetic acid. Then directly they are dry +enough so as not to run they are well steamed, then +the gum rinsed off with a little warm water, and the +goods moistened with the tartar emetic. After this +they can be washed with soap with little or no danger +of running.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>(c) Wool.</b>—Wool is rarely stencilled, although stencil +patterns can be produced very well on it by using +acid colors with a little oxalate of ammonia (about the +same amount as the dyestuff), dissolved in a drop or +two of water, and thickened with a little gum tragacanth. +When this paste is applied with a brush, and +then dried, the result is not fast at all, merely a distinct +stain; but if steamed at once the oxalate of +ammonia decomposes, leaving oxalic acid, which, combining +with the color and melting down with it in the +fibres, makes the dyestuff adhere quite firmly.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>(d) Cotton and Linen.</b>—It is much more difficult to +stencil satisfactorily on vegetable goods, such as cotton +and linen, than on the animal fibres above mentioned, +because they are expected to stand very much more +severe treatment. The fastness to washing needed for +a handsome silk scarf is far less than for a cotton +shirtwaist, or linen table-cover, and unless the results +on the latter are at least as fast as the average calico +print, the result is considered a failure.</p> + +<p>There are three classes of dyes which can be used +in this connection, the Basic dyes, the Sulphur dyes, +and the Indigo or Vat dyes. The Basic stencil pastes +have just been described, in connection with silk stencilling,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[222]</span> +and when carefully used they will give very +fair results on cotton, and even on linen, provided it +is free from dressing, and is not too coarse and thick. +It is hardly worth while trying to fasten Basic dyes, +by hand stencilling, upon such materials as heavy, +coarse Russian crash, for instance, such as friends +and students have frequently brought in to experiment +with. But for light, thin materials, and especially for +mercerized goods, poplins and the like, it is possible, +with a little practice, to get effects that are fast to +ordinary washing.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, this method of stencilling has +certain disadvantages. It is rather complicated, needing +the use of a fixing bath of tartar emetic, a very +active poison, by the way, although more uncomfortable +than actually dangerous when taken by mistake +in one dose, because of the severe vomiting it produces +almost immediately. And then, too, the results +at best are not really fast to light, and in the case of +light pinks and yellows are distinctly fugitive.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Vat Color Stencil Pastes.</i>—Many experiments have +been made in our laboratory to work out a satisfactory +stencil paste, so that Indigo and other Vat dyes +could be applied, simply and easily, with no more difficulty +than the usual one of brushing the paste in carefully, +and then steaming as soon as possible. In these +stencil pastes the Indigo and the other Vat dyes are reduced +with the aid of caustic alkali and hydrosulphite +before being mixed with the paste, and some special +precautions are taken to prevent, as far as possible, the +oxidation of the dyestuff before it gets well into the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[223]</span> +fibre. But, as the ordinary hydrosulphite is apt to +decompose on standing, especially when it is wet, it is +always best, just before using, to mix well with the +paste a little fresh reducing agent, dissolved in a drop +of hot water. The reducing agent that should be used +for this purpose is not the ordinary hydrosulphite of +soda, used for vat dyeing, but a compound of sodium +hydrosulphite, “Stencil Salt,” which has the property +of keeping better than the other, and also of not acting +as a reducing agent until it is heated. This, then, is +stirred into the Vat color stencil paste, just before +using, and then, when the goods are steamed, the heat +and moisture combined will enable it to reduce the +color, which will be carried into the fibres in a reduced +and dissolved condition. After steaming well for five +minutes the color should be developed by a bath in +hot soapsuds, after which the goods should be rinsed +and dried. With care this process will give very satisfactory +results, perfectly fast to both light and washing, +after the first loose color has been washed off.</p> + +<p>The indigo stencil paste, as prepared, will keep well +reduced for quite a long time, and it is frequently +quite unnecessary to add any fresh reducing agent to +it. If, when taken from the tube or bottle, it looks +yellow or yellowish green, it can be applied at once +to the cloth, and, if steamed just as soon as possible, +it will generally penetrate quite satisfactorily. With +the other colors of the series, however, it is hard to +tell by the color whether they are reduced or not, and +hence the fresh reducing agent, Stencil Salt, should +always be added to them. The cloth for stencilling<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[224]</span> +with these pastes, as with the Basic pastes, should not +be too thick or heavy, and must be washed quite free +from dressing, or the result will not be satisfactory. +It should also be slightly dampened, if only by holding +over boiling water for a moment or two, so as to help +the color to penetrate.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Sulphur Stencil Paste.</i>—We have also found very +satisfactory results from pastes made with one of the +Sulphur colors, dissolved in a little sodium sulphide +and sodium carbonate, and stiffened with a little +gum. The presence of a reducing agent helps to keep +the color reduced; and, when quickly applied and rapidly +steamed, the colors will sink into the fibre and +adhere firmly.</p> + +<p>The chief drawback with these pastes is the lack +of a good red.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Black Stencil Paste.</b>—So far as can be learned, the +Japanese use for their stencilling an Indigo paste made +on the same general principles as the one just described. +Besides this, which is a very favorite color +of theirs, they use a red and also a very full black +dye, both of which are fast to washing and to light.</p> + +<p>What the composition of these last pastes may be +it is hard to tell. In our laboratory we have made +careful experiments on the subject of stencilling black, +and have worked out a method that we consider satisfactory +by the use of a modification of the well-known +Aniline Black process.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="fig19" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p224a.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 19—LARGE AND HANDSOME JAPANESE +STENCIL, SHOWING USE OF NET</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Aniline Black.</i>—It was noticed, early in the history of +dyestuffs, that if aniline was mixed with strong oxidizing +agents, and carefully heated, it would undergo<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[225]</span> +a series of color changes resulting, finally, in black. +This color, so-called “Aniline Black,” was at one +time manufactured and used for a black pigment; but +it was soon recognized that its real value would only +be developed when it could be formed, in the fibre +itself, by the oxidation of aniline or some compound +of aniline upon the fibres. After many years of experimenting +this problem was solved, and for fifteen +or twenty years the blacks most used on cotton and +linen by the calico printers, as well as by the dyers, +have been one or another of the forms of Aniline +Black.</p> + +<p>The principle on which these processes are based +is as follows: The aniline, usually in the form of +aniline salt (aniline hydrochloride), is mixed with an +oxidizing agent like chlorate of soda, and also with +a small amount of a third substance which, on steaming, +acts as a carrier of oxygen between the aniline +and the chlorate. This substance, often called a catalytic +agent, because at the end of the operation it remains +unchanged, although it has accomplished a large +amount of work, may be one of a number of compounds +as, for instance, a salt of the metal vanadium, +prussiate of potash, a salt of copper, etc., each one +having special advantages and disadvantages of its +own.</p> + +<p>Now, almost any printing paste properly composed +so as to give a good clear Aniline Black on steaming, +(the formulæ can be obtained from any good book +on calico printing, or from any competent dyeing +chemist), will generally work fairly well as a stencil<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[226]</span> +paste—as long as it is fresh. But even when kept +from the air as far as possible, in a tight tube, it +decomposes on standing and becomes very unsatisfactory. +Besides this, there is always a difficulty with +these regular pastes on account of the irregular and +uncertain steaming process that can be used by the +average craftsman. In a calico print works, the temperature +of the steam chest, the proportion of steam +in it, and the length of passage of the cloth through +it, are all accurately determined, and kept at the exact +points necessary for the best results with any given +formula. But with irregular steaming, unless very +great care is taken with the formula, there is always +a danger of “tendering” and burning the fibre, if +too much oxidizing agent is present, or of not developing +a full black, but a dark green color, if the +oxidizing agent is not active enough.</p> + +<p>We have, after a great deal of experimenting, +worked out a formula which, with reasonable care in +steaming, will give a good full black, absolutely fast +to light and washing, upon cotton, linen, and silk, +without any tendering of the cloth. And, by dividing +up the component parts into two separate pastes, which +are kept in separate tubes or bottles, and are mixed +together only when about to be used, we have gone +far to solve the important problem of keeping.</p> + +<p>The use of this Black stencil paste is very simple. +It comes in two tubes or bottles marked A and B.</p> + +<p>When the cloth, free from dressing and slightly +dampened, is all ready, equal amounts are taken from +each of the two tubes, and mixed together in a watch-glass<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[227]</span> +or small glass or porcelain dish with, if necessary, +a drop of water to soften them if they have dried +up at all. This mixed paste is then brushed on to, and +into, the cloth, and, as soon as dry, is steamed as before +described. The black color will develop almost immediately, +and, after a few minutes’ steaming, will be +found fast to hard washing as well as to light.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[228]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_XVI">Chapter XVI<br> +<span class="chapt_sub">RESIST AND DISCHARGE STENCILLING</span></h2> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Travelers</span> in Japan inform us that, with +their customary ingenuity, the natives there +have developed the use of stencils to a point +which quite matches the best achievements of our modern +calico printers, even though backed by good dyeing +chemists. When a young lady there wishes a new +dress, she will draw, perhaps with the help of her +best young man, and certainly with the advice and +criticism of her family, her favorite design on a piece +of brown paper, cut it out in stencil form, and send +it to the local dyer, with the proper amount of calico +or silk or what not, to be properly applied.</p> + +<p>Now, in most cases the dyer is instructed to put the +pattern on the cloth in colors, blue, black, red, yellow, +or mixed shades, and this he does, much as my readers +were taught to do in the last chapter, by painting on +a stencil paste, to be fixed later by steaming.</p> + +<p>The Japanese dyer, by the way, has a great advantage +over the American craftsman in his steaming apparatus. +No matter how small his place, or how poor +his equipment, he always is provided with a neat and +satisfactory steam chest, consisting of a copper pot<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[229]</span> +set in a brick or stone fireplace, to hold the boiling +water, and above it, a close-fitting box with sides made +of lacquered paper, double jacketed to avoid condensation +in cold weather, which can be kept full of +dry steam for hours at a time, and in which the stencilled +goods can be steamed thoroughly and well without +fear of spoiling them.</p> + +<p>Sometimes, however, the color is to be applied in +another way; the cloth itself is to be colored blue or +red or black, and the pattern is to be light, either pure +white or some light color on a dark background.</p> + +<p>The Japanese dyer, from time immemorial, has +known how to do this properly, by means of a +“Resist.” He prepares a resist paste which he carefully +applies to the cloth through the stencil. This is +allowed to dry, the cloth is then dyed, and, after the +color is properly fixed, it is all thoroughly scrubbed, +and the paste, washing off, leaves the cloth, underneath, +in its original color.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Resist Stencil Paste.</i>—This process of resist, ancient +as it is, is used in Japan to this day, +and many, indeed most, of the stencilled towels and +piece goods that come from there are done in this +way. It has the advantages, especially for the craftsman, +over the Direct Color process, in that the color, +being applied in a dye-bath, can be fixed readily and +uniformly, without the bother and uncertainty of a +steaming process. Through a friend, a well-known +dyeing chemist, who has travelled in Japan, I learned +the composition of the Japanese Resist Paste. They +mix rice flour, wheat bran, and a little quicklime (the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[230]</span> +calcium oxide of the chemist) with water and boil +it to make a paste. This they strain, and then they +stir in some powdered carbonate of lime (powdered +chalk), which thickens and gives some body to the +mixture. The paste thus formed is applied, as a rule, +not with a brush but with a flat wooden instrument +or spatula, with which the paste is laid on as with +a trowel, and further, to get the dead white effects +so commonly noticed, the paste is put on the back +of the cloth as well as on the front.</p> + +<p>My friend also explained to me how the Japanese +were able to get irregular shaded effects with their +stencil work, and at the same time to furnish such +beautiful and intricate hand-made work, at such absurdly +low prices. These goods are made of very thin +porous materials, and the dyer applies with his trowel +the thick resist paste, through the stencil, to one piece +after another, laying each one, as fast as it is stencilled, +carefully on top of the previous one, until a pile has +been formed of ten or more separate pieces. This pile +is pressed very tightly together, and then the dyestuff, +as, for instance, Indigo in solution and thoroughly +reduced, is poured on to this mass of goods, soaking +through from one to the other, but always kept out of +the white parts by the double coating of thick paste.</p> + +<p>After a few minutes these pieces are carefully taken +off, one by one, exposed to the air until oxidized, and +then thoroughly washed until the paste and loose color +have all disappeared. For an example of Japanese resist +stencil work, dyed in an iron spring, see Plate <a href="#plate3">III</a>.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="plate5" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p230a.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">PLATE V. JAPANESE TOWELLING DYED BY +IMMERSION IN IRON SPRING. THE WHITE +PATTERN IS CAUSED BY RESIST STENCILLING</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Resist Stencilling with Sulphur Dyes.</i>—Without lavishly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[231]</span> +copying the Japanese practice it is possible to get +very interesting results by using suitable dyestuffs with +a simpler paste.</p> + +<p>The most useful dyes for this purpose are the Sulphur +dyes, which, as the student will remember, can +be applied in the cold, with very short exposure to +the dye-liquor, and are fixed firmly by exposure to +the air, giving results fast to light and extremely fast +to washing. A paste made from wheat flour, thickened +a little with an inert powder, like powdered chalk +or zinc oxide, will work fairly well, acting as a purely +mechanical protection to the fibre. But much better +results can be obtained by adding to the paste as much +as it will absorb of the easily soluble chemical, zinc +sulphate, which acts chemically in resisting the action +of these particular dyestuffs.</p> + +<p>The Sulphur colors, as before explained, are kept in +solution in the dye-bath, by the presence of sodium +sulphide, and when this is absent or is destroyed by +any cause, the dyestuff is precipitated as an insoluble, +inert powder. Now, when zinc sulphate comes in contact +with sodium sulphide it at once decomposes the +latter, forming a white precipitate, zinc sulphide, +which has no action at all on either dyestuff or cloth. +Accordingly a paste containing zinc sulphate has far +greater efficiency as a resist than any mixture that +acts purely mechanically.</p> + +<p>Resist stencil pastes can be obtained, in tubes, at +moderate prices, but can also be readily prepared by +making not too stiff a paste, with wheat flour thoroughly +boiled with a saturated solution of zinc sulphate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[232]</span> +instead of with water, and then stirring into +this paste some powdered chalk or zinc oxide, until +of the proper consistency for stencilling.</p> + +<p>To use this paste, the cloth, as usual, should be +washed free from dressing, and after being smoothed +with a hot iron, should be slightly dampened. The +paste is then brushed through the stencil on to, and +into, the cloth, which is then allowed to dry. The +dye-bath should then be prepared of Sulphur dyes carefully +dissolved, in a separate cup or saucepan, in a +hot solution of sodium sulphide and sodium carbonate +(soda), and added to cold water in the dye-bath.</p> + +<p>A few drops of “Turkey red oil” added to the dye-bath +helps to prevent a thick scum from forming on +top of the liquor, while the addition of a tablespoonful +of salt dissolved in a little hot water helps the +rapidity and depth of the dyeing.</p> + +<p>Plenty of color should be used excepting for very +light shades, for the dyeing should be done just as +quickly as possible. For silk some syrup should be +added.</p> + +<p>The stencilled cloth is then quickly moistened in +cold water, placed in the dye-bath, kept there two or +three minutes, below the level of the liquid; it is then +taken out, the liquor drained off, and after a minute +or two, wrung off; the cloth is then shaken out, and +exposed to the air, for some ten minutes, to set the +color. After this it is well washed in a boiling soap +bath, and, as the paste washes out, the stencilled pattern +will show light against the dark background.</p> + +<p>The whiteness of the pattern depends, of course,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[233]</span> +upon the skill with which the paste has been applied, +and the care taken to prevent it from washing off +before or during the dyeing process. It is difficult, +though not absolutely impossible, to get as sharp and +clear-cut results as those of the Japanese, for instance. +But, on the other hand, with a dark background it is +often, indeed generally, more pleasing to have the +white patterns softened and not standing out too +vividly.</p> + +<p>In our laboratory we have had considerable success +with this process. And some of our friends and +students have used it with very good results upon articles +of clothing, which, made of linen, calico, etc., +must be fast to severe washing as well as to light.</p> + +<p>Of course, it is perfectly easy to alter the color +of the background, as in other classes of resist work, +such as Tied and Dyed work, for instance, or Batik, +by either starting off with colored cloth which is protected +all through by the resist paste, or else by covering +the stencilled and dyed goods, afterwards, with +some shade which will soften and harmonize both pattern +and background. For this covering shade, which +need not be very fast to washing, but must be distributed +uniformly over the whole cloth, the student +will find the Salt colors very useful.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Discharge Stencilling.</i>—Though it is not certain +whether this process is known to, and used by, the +Japanese, it is not a difficult matter, with modern dyes +and modern chemicals, to get interesting results with +it. There are two distinct and separate ways open to +the dyer for discharging, i.e., destroying his dyestuffs,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[234]</span> +whether they are dyed on cloth, or whether, as is not +infrequently the case with amateurs, they are present +as a stain on his hands and fingers. In each case, however, +care must be taken, as may easily be imagined, +to use such chemicals as will spare the materials, +whether cotton and linen, or nails and skin, while attacking +the coloring matter.</p> + +<p>(a)<em>Discharge by Oxidation. Chlorine Compounds, +Bleaching Powder, etc.</em>—In the first place, chemists +have long known that certain chemicals, more particularly +the powerful gaseous element known as +chlorine and certain of its compounds, have the power +of permanently destroying coloring matters by oxidizing +or burning them.</p> + +<p>At first this was done by using chlorine itself, or a +water solution of chlorine. Later, however, it was +found that on passing chlorine into some caustic alkali, +like quicklime, or caustic soda, or caustic potash, these +would absorb immense quantities of chlorine which +would be again given out, as desired, on the addition +of acid, or even, though very slowly and gradually, +by the action of the carbonic acid gas in the air.</p> + +<p>The lime compound, which contains more chlorine +than the others, and has the great advantage of being +dry, has long been known as chloride of lime or as +bleaching powder, and has been, and is, commonly +used from one end of the world to the other as a quick, +ready, cheap source of chlorine either for bleaching +or for disinfection. The potash and soda compounds, +known respectively as Labarraque’s solution and Javelle<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[235]</span> +water, are less active and powerful than bleaching +powder, but have the same general properties.</p> + +<p>Over a hundred years ago, very soon after the discovery +of the bleaching properties of these compounds, +chemists began to use them, not only for decolorizing +and whitening raw cotton and linen cloth, but also for +discharging the color in patterns from dyed goods. +The process was not a difficult one, and is used to this +day to some extent in the calico printing mills. The +cloth is first dyed to shade, fixed, and dried. The pattern +is then printed on with a paste containing some +solid organic acid, like citric acid or tartaric acid, dissolved +in it. After drying, the printed cloth is passed +through a bath of bleaching powder in water, possibly +with a little weak alkali added, to be sure that no free +chlorine is present; and wherever the bleaching powder +meets the acid the cloth is decolorized, but the rest +of the cloth comes out of the bath without being much, +if at all, altered in color. Of course, on coming out +of this bath the cloth must be thoroughly washed to +get rid of any traces of chloride of lime, which otherwise, +on exposure to the air, would play havoc with +the rest of the colors.</p> + +<p>This process worked very well with the old vegetable +dyes, and, every now and then, some craftsman, +of an experimental turn of mind, revives it for stencil +work. The dyed cloth is stencilled with a paste made +of wheat flour boiled with a saturated solution of +citric acid, it is dried, and then passed through a bath +of bleaching powder in water, say two or three tablespoonfuls +to the gallon. It is generally best to stir<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[236]</span> +in a few drops of a soda solution to the bath, till all +smell of chlorine has gone, or else the background may +be affected. The stencilled cloth is dipped in this bath, +and kept there for a few minutes, until the bleaching +process is well under way, and then taken out, and +washed in hot soap and water, and rinsed well.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Advantages and Disadvantages of Bleaching Powder +Discharge.</i>—The chief advantage of this process is that +it is very cheap and the materials can be bought at almost +any grocery. The disadvantages are, however, +important. As long as it is confined to easily discharged, +comparatively fugitive, colors, it will destroy +the color all right in the stencilled parts, although the +bleaching powder bath is apt to attack the color in the +body of the cloth, and the outlines of the pattern are +apt to be soft and irregular because of the escaping +chlorine, where the citric acid is acting.</p> + +<p>When, however, very fast dyes are being used, as +for instance, the Vat colors or, indeed, a great many of +the best dyes in all the classes, the action of chlorine +is very slow, and slight, and, in order to really destroy +the color both the acid and the bleaching powder will +often have to be so strong that the chlorine set free will +destroy the fibre as well. For the term “fastness to +light” implies, as a rule, fastness also to oxidation in +general, and dyes like the best modern ones which will +let the cloth rot away from under them, when long +exposed to the weather without changing color, are +very apt also to keep their color, even when the cloth +is<em>burnt</em> away from under them by the action of +chlorine.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[237]</span></p> + +<p>Accordingly, this process is distinctly one that needs +careful experimentation before it is tried on any important +piece of work. There are plenty of dyestuffs +among the Salt colors, and also among the Sulphur +colors, which discharge well with chlorine. And the +calico printer, working, as he generally does to this +day, with comparatively fugitive dyes, and weighing +accurately both acid and bleaching powder, can generally +get good results with it. But there is always the +disadvantage, that the least excess of chlorine will +attack and tender the cloth, and the better the dyestuff, +as a rule, the stronger the oxidizing agent must be to +discharge it.</p> + +<p>(b)<em>Discharge by Reduction, Hydrosulphite, etc.</em>—The +wary craftsman will find the process much less +dangerous to the cloth, and not much more difficult, if +instead of trying to<em>oxidize</em> the dyestuff, he attempts +to discharge it by<em>reducing</em> it; or, in other words, if +instead of trying to burn it out, he tries to take the +oxygen away from it.</p> + +<p>It so happens that in a vast majority of cases a dyestuff +becomes decolorized by reducing it, just as well +as by oxidizing it. There is, however, a difference. +When the color is oxidized, it is burnt up and destroyed +forever. When it is reduced, however, it is, +in many cases, only decolorized and not destroyed; and +on standing in the air it is apt to take up oxygen again, +and to regain some, at least, of the original color. +On the other hand, while any oxidation process is liable +to attack the cloth as well as the color, the reducing +agents now in use have no effect upon the materials,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[238]</span> +even when powerful enough to act on the very fastest +dyestuffs.</p> + +<p>As before mentioned, the most satisfactory reducing +agent at present known to dyers is hydrosulphite +of soda, and this can be incorporated in a paste, and +used for discharge stencilling. It is, however, as a +rule, more satisfactory to use the more expensive, but +more permanent hydrosulphite compound, described, +in the last chapter, as acting only when heated.</p> + +<p>The reducing stencil paste can be easily made by +mixing with some “gum dragon” or flour paste, as +much as it will hold of a saturated solution of the +“Stencil Salt.”</p> + +<p>The student should experiment with the different +dyes and classes of dyes before attempting a serious +piece of work; but in general, all the Salt colors and +the Acid colors will discharge readily with this paste, +and remain colorless. The Vat colors and the Sulphur +colors can also be reduced to colorless compounds, +but it is not always easy to wash them out of the cloth +after the reduction, and, if they remain in it, they are +apt to regain their color, on standing in the air.</p> + +<p>The dyed cloth, carefully washed and pressed and +dampened, is stencilled with the above paste and allowed +to dry. When dry it is steamed, as described +in the last chapter, and it will be noticed that when a +certain temperature is reached the color will be discharged. +As soon as possible afterwards the cloth +is to be washed in a hot soap bath to remove the reduced +color compound (which, as a rule, has little<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[239]</span> +affinity for the cloth) and to get rid of the paste. +Then the cloth is dried and finished.</p> + +<p>When trying this process with the Vat dyes it is +best to soak the cloth directly after steaming, and +before soaping, in a warm bath containing a little free +caustic soda (remember this is apt to burn the fingers) +because the reduced colors of this class are not, as a +rule, soluble in water, and are apt to oxidize again in +a soap bath.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Results.</i>—In following up these various experiments +in our laboratory we have not used this process in +much as the Resist stencilling, but there is no reason +why it should not give just as good results. Indeed, +the craftsman will probably find, after a little practice, +that it is easier to get clear white patterns with +this than with the other. It has the disadvantage of +requiring the rather bothersome steaming process, +which reduces its value for many purposes. Still it +will often be found that simply ironing the dried stencilled +cloth with a hot flatiron, with a damp cloth between, +will cause the reduction to take place quite satisfactorily.</p> + +<p>The chief advantage of this process over the other +is that, as the dyeing is done before and not after the +stencilling, it is possible to get the exact shade of background +required. While, in the resist stencilling every +minute, almost indeed every second that the stencilled +goods are left in the dye-bath, is liable to obscure +the pattern. And it is hard to get first-class results, +as regards fastness to rubbing and washing, and it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">[240]</span> +is impossible to match shades, when working so +hurriedly.</p> + +<p>Then, too, this discharge process permits the use +of almost every color on the list, while the resist +process practically confines the craftsman to the use of +the Sulphur dyes only.</p> + +<p>Those who are interested in this line of work are +advised to try these two processes upon silk, where +very beautiful and interesting effects can be produced +with but little difficulty. The resist process, using +Sulphur colors, gives quiet soft tones on silk, fast to +the hardest kind of washing. But brighter shades, +equally fast to light, and fairly fast to washing, can be +made with the discharge process by using Salt colors.</p> + +<p>For ordinary work the Acid dyes, of course, would +be used, and these, too, as a rule, discharge readily.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">[241]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_XVII">Chapter XVII<br> +<span class="chapt_sub">BATIK</span></h2> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> last and perhaps the most interesting and +most important process to which we shall call +our reader’s attention is one which, after being +practised in the East for many centuries, has been +brought quite recently to the attention of European +and American craftsmen.</p> + +<p>The term “Batik” is a Javanese word, signifying +painting in wax, and the process, somewhat modified, +is known to professional dyers and calico-printers by +the name of “wax resist.” When in the hands of a +trained draughtsman the process has a charm and character +of its own, which will warrant the interest now +manifested in it, wherever it has been introduced.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>History.</b>—Batik was first introduced by the Dutch +discoverers of Java, who, in 1648, sent home descriptions, +with drawings, of the wonderfully beautiful textiles +worn by the people, especially by the chiefs of +that country. The art was known and practised in the +East long before that time, for in Madras goods were +made, by a combination of block printing and Batik, +at least as early as the fifteenth century. And in the +interior of Java there are some famous old ruins in +which are found stone statues of Buddha, supposed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[242]</span> +to be at least 1,200 or 1,300 years old, clothed in garments +the same as those used at the present day; and +showing, from their decorations, that they were ornamented +by Batik in the same general style of patterns +that are still popular there.</p> + +<p>During the last few years very careful studies have +been made, especially by the Dutch Government, upon +this Javanese process, and they have endeavored to +introduce it into Europe. It was amusing to notice +that in one of the reports issued by the Dutch Government +on this subject it was stated that none of the +modern dyestuffs could be utilized for this purpose, and +that the only colors that could be recommended as +fast to light were the old vegetable dyestuffs, applied +in the complicated and troublesome methods of past +ages. This curiously unscientific attitude has seriously +interfered with the success of the process in +Western lands, and is only now being abandoned.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Javanese Practice.</b>—Detailed information about the +history, technique, and designs of the Javanese process +has been set down in a monumental work: “Die Batikkunst +in Niederlandisch Indien,” published in Harlem +under the auspices of the Dutch Government in 1899. +Perhaps of more interest to the non-scientific reader +is a short but well-written account of “Battack Printing +in Java,” read before the Manchester Literary +and Philosophical Society in 1906 by an English chemist, +John Allan, who spent several months among the +natives, studying the process at first-hand.</p> + +<p>According to these authorities the Javanese and, +indeed, most of the natives of Malaysia, wear garments<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">[243]</span> +simple enough in style and cut, but elaborately +decorated with great variety of both color and design. +The principal garment, common to both men and +women, is the <i>sarong</i>, in shape not unlike a large and +elongated bath towel, which, according to the desire +and sex of the owner, may be made to serve as trousers +or skirt, overcoat or blanket, and is the universal bathing +costume. It is made of calico, rarely homespun, +almost always imported from Lancashire or Holland, +and as the natives, both men and women, are exceedingly +fond of bathing, the colors must be fast enough +to stand constant exposure to water as well as to the +fierce tropical sun.</p> + +<p>They also wear head-dresses made from squares of +calico, dyed with square centres of plain color and +elaborately decorated at the sides; and <i>slendangs</i>, a +kind of girdle or shawl, usually made of silk and less +elaborately decorated. The costume is completed, for +full-dress occasions, by a thin shirt or chemise and a +light jacket.</p> + +<p>For producing the designs on the sarongs, the process +of wax resist is almost always employed by the +natives. Unfortunately of late years the Javanese +market has been flooded with an immense quantity of +cheap and, generally, neatly printed goods made in +Manchester and in Holland in rough imitation of the +native styles. So it is not an easy matter, nowadays, +even in Java, to get genuine specimens of Batik work. +These can always be recognized, however, on careful +examination by the peculiar and characteristic odor +and “feel” of the wax left behind in the cloth, and,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[244]</span> +better, by the fine irregular “crackle” formed in the +dye-pot.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Variations in the Process.</i>—Although there are different +methods, the Batik process, as usually meant, is +a means of dyeing in which, before immersing the +goods in the dye-pot, the patterns are carefully drawn +in molten beeswax, applied from a little copper cup +with a fine spout called a <i>tjanting</i>. Frequently, however, +to save time, the Javanese apply the wax by +means of a metal die or block, made by inserting thin +strips of sheet brass in a wooden frame, so that the +edges of the brass form the desired pattern. These +blocks, provided with a handle covered with cloth, are +first dipped into the molten wax, and then the excess is +removed by pressing against a pad, which is kept warm +by being near the fire of the melting pot. The pattern +is thus stamped onto the cloth instead of being poured +onto it, through a small spout, out of a cup.</p> + +<p>This Batik process is sometimes used by native +craftsmen in other parts of the Far East. Plate <a href="#plate1">I</a>, for +instance, shows a specimen of East Indian work, part +of a long piece of stout cotton bought, years ago, at +Liberty’s in London, with an elaborate design made +with molten wax, applied by brush or tjanting. Even +in the plate the characteristic ‘crackle’ shows plainly.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Wax.</i>—In Java, the wax used for pouring is a +mixture of paraffin and beeswax, or an impure wax +imported from Japan for this purpose. For stamping +the patterns it is necessary to use a stiffer wax made +from rosin and paraffin, sometimes mixed with +varnish gums.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">[245]</span></p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Dyes.</i>—The principal colors used are indigo and +a beautiful golden-brown dye made from the bark of +the mango tree. The combination of these gives a +black, so that the fine old sarongs usually contain +white, blue, brown, and black. Indigo is dyed first, +and, before dyeing, all the cloth, excepting that which +is to come out blue or black, is carefully covered with +the wax. After the indigo bath (the Javanese use a +fermentation vat) the color is set by oxidation. The +old wax is then all washed off with boiling soap and +water, and after drying, the wax is again applied to all +parts, whether white or blue, which are not to receive +the brown dye. The latter is made from a strong, +syrupy extract of bark, and is used without mordanting, +the color being set by exposure to air. As the +dyes must be used cold, to avoid melting and obliterating +the pattern, the goods are usually dipped in +each dye-bath and exposed, several times, before +reaching the desired shade. After the final dyeing, +the wax is removed by a hot bath of wood ashes or +soap, and the garment is pressed out ready to wear.</p> + +<p>When a red color is desired, the natives use a variation +of the old Turkey red process, dyeing with madder +or munjeet upon cloth mordanted with alum and oil. +The wax in this case acts as a resist against the alum +mordant, which is applied cold, and thus prevents the +dyestuff, which is applied at the boil, from coloring the +cloth in the protected portions.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Cloth.</i>—The cloth used for this Batik process is +strong common calico, but, before beginning to +wax it, they give it a careful treatment, to improve<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[246]</span> +both its texture and its ground color. For +a period of several days they alternately soak it in +castor oil, wring it out, boil out the oil with soda +lye, and expose it to the blazing sun; until finally it +becomes soft and smooth, and has a pleasant tan color +which goes excellently with the brown, blue, and black +dyes.</p> + +<p>The peculiarity of all these Batik goods, whether +from the East or made at home or in Europe, is the +characteristic “crackle” effect, due to the breaking +of the wax upon the cloth in the process of dyeing, +thereby admitting the color to the protected cloth in +fine lines and streaks. This distinguishes the wax +resist work from the previously described paste resist, +which if desired will leave a smooth, clean, white background, +or if applied more lightly will give backgrounds +shaded more uniformly and without so many +irregular lines of color.</p> + +<p>This crackle effect, so generally admired in the +West, is often by the Javanese considered a defect, +and a sign of poor workmanship. It can be largely, if +not wholly, avoided by adding a large proportion of +rosin to the wax, by batiking the cloth on both sides, +and by dyeing the goods with as little crumpling as +possible.</p> + + +<h3>MODERN BATIK</h3> + +<p>The application of the artificial dyestuffs to this +ancient process has simplified it greatly, and has +brought it within the scope of craftsmen in general.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">[247]</span></p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Apparatus—Brushes.</b>—You will soon find that for a +good deal of the work, such as covering large +surfaces with wax, or filling in large and bold designs, +a small-sized paint brush is all that is necessary. The +wax is melted in a cup or casserole, and painted on the +cloth wherever the design calls for it. It will be +found, however, no easy matter to get sharp and clear +outlines in this way, and intricate or delicate patterns +cannot be worked out by the brush only. When the +wax is hot, it is hard to prevent it from spreading and +running too far over the cloth, and, on the other hand, +it cools so rapidly on the brush that, unless applied at +once, it is hard to spread it at all, and the wax is liable +not to stick to the cloth.</p> + +<p>Much is saved both in time and in accuracy and +clearness of outline, by using the brush in combination +with the tjanting, drawing the outlines with the latter, +and filling in with the brush.</p> + +<p>When large surfaces have been covered with the +wax, and the characteristic “crackle” effect is desired, +it is often well to cool the goods, by placing +them in the ice box or out of doors for a few minutes, +and then to crumple them in the hands, before dyeing +them. The composition of the wax, also, has much +to do with this part of the work, as will be explained +later.</p> + +<p>The brush can also be employed for painting +molten wax on to the goods through a stencil, in +resist stencil work. This, however, is not satisfactory, +even with metallic stencils, and fails completely with +paper stencils, because the wax, on cooling, fastens<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">[248]</span> +stencil and cloth together so that they cannot be separated +without injury.</p> + +<p>It is much better practice, where a stencil design is +to be worked with wax resist, to make an outline of +the design on the goods with a sharp pencil, and then, +removing the stencil, to fill in the pattern with tjanting +and brush. This same practice of drawing the outline +on the goods with pencil, or tracing paper, or by transferring +from a charcoal drawing, by rubbing, is always +to be recommended: except for those craftsmen who +are such thoroughly trained draughtsmen that they can +draw their designs free-hand, with the tjanting, without +danger of slip or mistake. A pencil or crayon line, +if not quite true, can be erased without spoiling the +whole design, but it is quite a troublesome matter to +correct a mistake made in molten wax.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Tjantings.</b>—The real interest in this Batik process +lies in the use of some form of pouring instrument by +which the molten wax can be applied to the material +in a fine stream, with much the same freedom that a +drawing can be made with soft pencil or crayon. This +practice has been developed in Java to its fullest extent, +and a fine sarong, containing two or three yards +of calico, will be completely covered, from one end to +the other, with wonderfully intricate and elaborate +designs in two or three colors, all produced, perfectly +free-hand, by curious little tjantings, in the light fingers +of the little Javanese women.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="fig20" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p248a_1.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 20—“TEAPOT” MODEL OF TJANTING</figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="fig21" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p248a_2.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 21—WALTHER GLASS TJANTING</figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="fig22" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p248a_3.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 22—“WAX PENCIL” MODEL OF TJANTING</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p><i>Teapots.</i>—When we began experimenting with +Batik, in our laboratory, we had no model of the Javanese +tools to work with, and, from the drawings, we<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[249]</span> +could not see how they could be used without constant +dripping. So we designed a little brass apparatus, +which we and our friends nicknamed a “teapot,” +which, with some modification, is shown in Fig. <a href="#fig20">20</a>, in +which the molten wax remains in the cup until it is +poured out. This, with practice, works fairly well, +and some very interesting work has been done with it.</p> + +<p>It is hard, however, to draw with it on a horizontal +surface, such as we are accustomed to work on. And +to follow Javanese practice, and have the cloth hanging +over a frame, and to press it out with the left hand +while the wax is applied with the instrument in the +right, is oftentimes a nuisance.</p> + +<p><i>The Walther Glass Tjanting.</i>—It is evident that +we were not alone in our fear of the Javanese +models with spouts at the bottom, because, in +Germany, Dr. C. Walther of Crefeld has designed +and introduced a glass tjanting, shown in Fig. <a href="#fig21">21</a>, +which also delivers only on tipping the instrument +forward. This we have experimented with but +without much success. For we have found it difficult +and awkward to draw with it on a horizontal surface, +and also, being made of glass, while it is cheaper than +the metal models, it is at the same time more fragile.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Wax Pencil.</i>—An entirely new idea has recently been +applied to the art of Batik by the introduction of a +(patented) “wax pencil” (see Fig. <a href="#fig22">22</a>), made on the +principle of the early stylographic pens.</p> + +<p>This tool is made of heavy brass, with a removable +wooden holder, and the wax, in cylinders, is shoved +into it from the top after removing a cap. To melt<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">[250]</span> +the wax the wooden holder is slipped off, and the pencil +is heated over a flame or on a hot electric plate, while +the liquid wax is prevented from flowing out by a +“needle valve” held in place by a small spiral spring. +To use the tool, the holder is slipped over the pencil, +taking care not to burn the fingers in so doing, and +the pattern is traced in just the same way that it would +be in ink, pressure on the projecting needle, by raising +the valve, permitting a greater or lesser flow of wax.</p> + +<p>These instruments are certainly more convenient +to draw with than any of the forms previously mentioned, +and, on hard smooth surfaces, such as leather, +wood, bone, metal, etc., are satisfactory enough. But +it is no easy matter to make them so that they will +work well. For the valve which regulates the flow of +wax works with a spiral spring. Now, if this spring +is, or becomes, lax, the wax drips incessantly. If on +the other hand it is too stiff, it is quite troublesome to +press down the pin, at the tip, just hard enough to +deliver a fine stream, without opening it too wide.</p> + +<p>In our experience these instruments, which are quite +expensive, do not work well with cloth and, especially, +with rough weaves of cloth, like crash, scrim, pongee, +coarse calico, and the like. For the pin is liable to +catch and jump on the threads, and then it delivers +the wax very unevenly.</p> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="fig23" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p250a_1.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 23—JAVANESE TJANTINGS</figcaption> +</figure> + +<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="fig24" > + <img class="w100" src="images/i_p250a_2.jpg" alt=""> + <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 24—AMERICAN MODIFICATION OF +JAVANESE TJANTING</figcaption> +</figure> + +<p class="noindent"><i>The Javanese Tjanting.</i>—After much experimenting +one of our friends finally brought us, from Holland, a +real tjanting copied directly from the Javanese, and +five minutes’ practice with it satisfied us that it was superior +to any of the “improved” models that we had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[251]</span> +been working with. Since then we have seen, and +studied, several different styles of Javanese tjantings, +and have learned how they must be used to get the +best results.</p> + +<p>The secret of these instruments is two-fold. First, +the size of the delivery tube, and second, the temperature +of the wax.</p> + +<p>The genuine Javanese tjanting (see Fig. <a href="#fig23">23</a>) is a +little bit of a tool, holding only about 15 or 20 cubic +centimeters of wax, made of very thin hammered +copper, and fastened into a little bamboo handle, some +four or five inches long. At the lowest part of the +cup, which is drawn out at that point into a spout, is +fastened the delivery tube, which is of<em>exceedingly</em> +small calibre, what chemists would call, in fact, a +“capillary” tube. It will be noticed that the wooden +handle extends forward, under the bowl, making it +impossible to heat the bowl itself, or melt the wax in +it, by a direct flame.</p> + +<p>The wax is melted in a separate pot or large cup, +and kept at a high temperature throughout; and the +operator scoops out the wax from this pot with the +bowl of the tjanting, wipes off the drip with a rag, +and then proceeds to draw on the cloth. In Java, or +wherever the cloth is kept upright, by hanging from +a frame, the drip from the outside of the cup and +the end of the handle is not so important, for it will +fall in front of the cloth. When, however, the cloth +is laid flat, for drawing, it is of the utmost importance +to avoid all unnecessary dripping, and so it is probably +advisable to ladle the wax from the pot into the tjanting,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[252]</span> +with a small casserole or ladle, rather than to dip +it out directly.</p> + +<p>Now, if the size of the delivery hole is right, and +the wax is neither too hot nor too cold, it will form +a little globule on the end of the tube, and stay there; +and when this drop is wiped off and the tube at once +applied to the cloth or other material, the wax will +flow out in a fine thin stream, as long as it is drawn +along in contact with the cloth, and when lifted up +it will stop flowing until again applied to it. If the +wax is too hot, so that it runs too freely, it is easy to +cool it to the proper temperature by blowing on it. +If it is too cool, so that it begins to chill in the tube, +and to flow slowly and unevenly, it must be warmed +by being again dipped into the hot wax for a new +supply. Great pains must be taken to have the wax +free from dust or grit, or else the delivery tube will +be constantly stopping up. A fine but stiff bristle or +a very thin whisk of broom corn should be always +on hand for cleaning the tube. And after using the +tjanting pains must be taken to clean out all the wax +thoroughly before laying it aside, so that the tube will +be clear for the melted wax, when it is next filled. +The whole tjanting, tube and cup, should be gently +warmed before filling, for fear of the wax chilling in +the capillary tube before it can be applied. But the +arrangement of the handle is such as to call for the +use of an outside melting pot for the wax, while the +small size of the cup is evidently so that the melted +wax can be all poured out before it has time to chill.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><i>Modification of the Javanese Tjanting.</i>—We have with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[253]</span> +much trouble had some tjantings made here (see Fig. +<a href="#fig24">24</a>), following closely the Javanese principles, which +have proved extremely satisfactory. The delivery +tube is equally fine, and the general action is the +same. But the cup has been made somewhat larger, +and very considerably heavier, so that it will hold more +wax, and will hold the heat better. While, for +economy’s sake, instead of hammered copper, the cup +is made of spun brass, and the wooden handle is attached +to its side, and not to the bottom of it. This +enables the worker to heat the cup directly over the +alcohol lamp, without danger of scorching the handle. +Of course, when this is done carelessly, it is liable to +char some of the wax in and near the tube, and so to +cause stoppages. And also, it is hard to draw a series +of fine lines of exactly the same thickness, unless the +wax in the tjanting is always of practically the same +temperature.</p> + +<p>But there is no difficulty in filling these modified +tjantings, just as the Javanese do, by scooping up the +melted wax from a pot, or by pouring the melted wax +into them from a casserole or ladle. While, in case +the wax gets chilled in the tjanting, it is very convenient +to be able to warm the cup quickly over a low +clean flame, or by setting it upon the corner of a hot +plate.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Composition of the Wax.</b>—As a general rule we have +found that ordinary unrefined beeswax, carefully +melted and strained, or poured off, free from dust and +sediment, is fairly satisfactory. It is, however, pretty +expensive, and so can be replaced, without disadvantage,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[254]</span> +by the cheaper mineral wax, known in a crude +state as<i lang="la">Ozocerite</i>, and in its refined form, which alone +should be employed, as<i lang="la">Ceresine</i>. To make the wax +more brittle, and thus to improve the “crackle,” it is +well to add more or less paraffin. And it is well, too, +to add considerable rosin, to make the wax adhere better +to the goods, and not be so liable to rub or peel off. +On the Continent, it is customary to use Japanese +vegetable wax instead of beeswax, but we have not +found this to be advantageous.</p> + +<p>Where economy is desirable, or where it is hard to +replace supplies, it is well to save the once used wax +and use it over again, by extracting the wax from the +goods, after dyeing, with boiling water, and then, +when this cools, collecting the wax as a cake floating +on the top.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Dyeing Batiked Goods.</b>—In Holland and, to some +extent, elsewhere on the Continent, where this process +has been introduced, great stress has been laid upon +the importance of using the old vegetable colors of +the Javanese, along with their tjantings. It is hardly +necessary to tell my readers that this practice is both +unscientific and, in a true sense, uncraftsmanlike. The +object of any intelligent craftsworker should be to +produce beautiful and interesting and characteristic +results in the most durable and effective manner possible, +with the minimum expenditure of energy upon +the mechanical, as opposed to the artistic, details. +Why, after carefully batiking a good design on a +piece of silk or calico, must the craftsman spend hour +after hour of valuable time in some tedious, complicated,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">[255]</span> +and expensive dyeing process, simply because +“That is the way they do things in Java,” especially +when, by using modern dyestuffs, he can get results +quite as beautiful and far more permanent, in a few +minutes’ time, and with far less danger of spoiling +his work. Even the clever and skilful little Javanese +could learn something from modern dyeing chemists.</p> + +<p>The class of dyestuffs to use depends, of course, +on the kind of materials that are being worked on. +One of the great charms of this process is that it can +be applied to all sorts and kinds of textiles and, indeed, +of a host of things never included under that +name.</p> + +<p>Batik can be applied to cotton, linen, wool, silk, +and other woven goods. It can also, if desired, be +used upon basketry. And charming effects can be produced, +by its aid, upon leather, pasteboard, parchment, +vellum, and other bookbinding materials, as well +as upon wood, bone, or indeed anything that possesses +a smooth surface, and will hold a dyestuff.</p> + +<p>On copper, brass, and other metals it can also be +used, not, indeed, for dyeing, but for etching, with +acids and other chemicals, with great success.</p> + +<p>(a)<em>Calico and Linen.</em>—There is no doubt that for +vegetable fabrics in general Batik is very well fitted, +especially since the introduction of modern dyes, which +are applied in a cold bath and are set by oxidation. +The Sulphur dyes work extremely well, in cold or +lukewarm baths, especially if used in a strong dye-bath. +But they, it will be remembered, are not very +bright colors, and are very short on the red side. For<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">[256]</span> +soft, quiet colorings, however, extremely fast to washing, +and quite fast to light, which can be applied easily +and readily, they will be found very useful.</p> + +<p>But the fastest colors known, both for light and +for washing, are the modern Vat colors, many of +which, once reduced, will dye in a lukewarm or even +a cold dye-bath. While indigo, the type of these +colors, and still most useful, gives a soft rather greyish +shade of blue, more effective by itself than when +mixed, there can be found among the Helindones, +Thio indigoes, and the rest, a full palette of dyes which, +properly mixed, will furnish any shade that may be +desired.</p> + +<p>The dyeing directions for batiked goods are the +same as for ordinary calico. The materials, well +wetted, are immersed, drained, wrung, and oxidized +as usual. The wax is usually removed in one or more +boiling soap baths, which help as well to set the color +and to remove unattached dyestuff.</p> + +<p>(b)<em>Silk.</em>—Silk, as in other processes, can be dyed +in several different ways, according to the fastness to +light and washing desired.</p> + +<p>The easiest way, especially when trying to match +shades, is to dye, with the Acid dyes, in a soap bath +acidified with a little sulphuric, or, preferably, with +acetic acid. These shades, however, while brilliant +and fast to light, are not at all fast to washing, and +so the wax must be removed later, with benzine or +gasoline, and not with a hot soap bath.</p> + +<p>The sulphur dyes, with a little glucose in the bath, +and plenty of dyestuff, will give extremely fast colors<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[257]</span> +on silk, but in most cases these shades will be too +dull for proper effect. They can be greatly improved +in color, though with some sacrifice of fastness, by +topping them, without removing the wax, in a cold +bath of Basic dyes, dissolved with a little acetic acid.</p> + +<p>For extremely fast colors the Vat dyes can be used. +Easier to apply, especially for rather light shades, are +some of the Salt colors which, though they do not +take as well on silk, in the cold, as they do on cotton +will, nevertheless, color it well, with prolonged immersion, +in a strong bath, in the presence of formic +acid, and once on, will stand a very considerable +amount of washing.</p> + +<p>(c)<em>Wool.</em>—In case it is necessary to apply this process +to wool, the latter will probably be dyed in the cold +with Acid dyes, in the presence of some sodium sulphate +(Glauber’s salt) and dilute sulphuric acid.</p> + +<p>To make this color faster to washing, steaming, +and the like, it is best, after dyeing, drying, and removing +the wax with benzine, to boil the dyed goods +for half an hour or more in a bath containing a little +Glauber’s salt and dilute sulphuric acid, but no dyestuff.</p> + +<p>(d)<em>Leather.</em>—As a rule, the Batiked leather should +be dyed with Acid colors, acidified with acetic or +formic acid, though they can be shaded afterwards, if +desired, by staining with Basic colors.</p> + +<p>After dyeing, the wax can be removed by benzine +or, softened carefully by the cautious approach of a +hot iron, can be incorporated with the polishing wax, +used for rubbing down and finishing the surface.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[258]</span></p> + +<p>(e)<em>Wood.</em>—Batiked wood can be stained by soaking +it in, or by brushing it with, a solution of an acid color, +acidified with a little acetic acid. These dyes are more +soluble than most of the other classes, and hence soak +into and penetrate the fibres better. They may bleed, +however, if exposed to warm water.</p> + +<p>The Basic colors or even the Salt colors can be used, +but, while they are apt to adhere more firmly, they +do not soak in as well.</p> + +<p>The wax is either used for polishing, or is removed +by benzine.</p> + +<p>(f)<em>Baskets.</em>—Basketry can be decorated by Batik, although +it is but rarely done. The baskets would be +dyed with Basic colors and acetic acid, excepting where +yellows and reds were needed, fast to light, in which +case the Acid colors would be used.</p> + +<p>(g)<em>Bone.</em>—Very pretty effects can be produced with +Batik upon polished surface of bone or ivory. These +are dyed carefully with Acid colors in a bath containing +acetic acid.</p> + +<p>This process is a combination of dyeing and etching, +for the acid attacks the exposed surfaces, removing +the polish and opening the way for the action of the +dyestuff later.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Batik Used for Etching.</b>—The talents of Batik are numerous, +for the usefulness of the Batik tjanting and +brush are not confined to the dyer, but can be readily +availed of by any metal or wood worker who happens +to be a skilled draughtsman as well. Wax is a good +resist, not only against dyes and the weak chemicals +used in connection with them, but also against many<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[259]</span> +of the most powerful reagents known to the chemist, +such as sulphuric acid, for instance, or strong caustic +alkali.</p> + +<p>Accordingly, if a piece of smooth wood is carefully +batiked and then, instead of being painted with dyestuff +in solution, it has some strong sulphuric acid, +or a concentrated solution of caustic potash poured +and spread upon it, in a few minutes, after the reagent +is washed off and the wax removed with gasoline or +otherwise, the exposed surfaces of the wood will be +found softened and corroded, so that on scrubbing +with a stiff brush, they can be readily rubbed away, +and the waxed portions will stand out in relief.</p> + +<p>Metal work, like copper or brass plates and dishes, +can be etched readily in the same way, the pattern of +the relief being drawn in wax, and the metal exposed +for a greater or less time to the action of dilute nitric +acid.</p> + +<p>Without going further into details it is hoped that +enough has been stated here to impress on the student +the possibilities of this beautiful process in a large +number of different directions.</p> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">[260]</span></p> + +<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_XVIII">Chapter XVIII<br> +<span class="chapt_sub">THE INFLUENCE OF THE WAR UPON +THE DYESTUFF INDUSTRY</span></h2> +</div> + + +<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">In</span> Chapter II of this book it has been explained +how the dyeing industry of the whole world was +changed by the discovery and commercial preparation +of the first aniline dyestuff, mauveine, in 1856, by +the English chemist Perkin. Under his leadership the +supremacy in this new industry was kept in England; +but when he retired from the field the manufacture of +dyestuffs was soon concentrated in Germany. For +over forty years before the beginning of the Great +War, the Germans had almost complete and absolute +control over the whole color business, including many +allied industries like the manufacture of organic chemicals, +drugs, perfumes, flavoring matters and the like, +derived originally from coal tar. In Germany were +four or five great and splendidly equipped factories, +and some ten or fifteen others of less importance, all +thoroughly organized and working together most harmoniously +under what would, in the United States, be +called a most perfect specimen of a Trust. Opposed to +them all over the world there could be found but a +handful of comparatively small and unimportant firms +in Switzerland, France, England and the United<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">[261]</span> +States—producing altogether not over about ten per +cent of the output of their German competitors.</p> + +<p>Compared to other industries the output of dyestuffs +needed for the whole world’s consumption is not a very +large one—some sixty or seventy million dollars a year +all told; and it was freely boasted, and more or less +accepted by the rest of the world, that “the dyestuff +industry is a one-nation industry, and that nation is +Germany!”</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Rise of the German Dyestuff Monopoly.</b>—The story +of how this came about was once told the writer by +Sir William Perkin, when he was in New York, in +1896, at the time of the “Coal Tar Color Jubilee,” the +fiftieth anniversary of his famous discovery.</p> + +<p>He said that in the early days, when he was running +his plant near Manchester, the most dangerous +competitors he had to face were the French. He +described them as excellent chemists and keen, but fair-fighting +business men; and the Germans, in those days, +were far inferior to them in every way—in ability, in +originality, and, above all, in honesty.</p> + +<p>He went so far as to say that, for years before he +left the business, he and other English chemists had +entirely abandoned attempts to patent their discoveries +in Berlin. He had found, by sad experience, that +whenever he sent over an application for a patent on a +new dyestuff, or new chemical compound of importance, +the German Patent Office would at once call in, +for consultation, the leading German chemists who +were interested in that line of work. He would get +request after request for more and more detailed information<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[262]</span> +about every part of the process; and then, +when they had got from him every bit of information +that they could, they would grant the patent to some +one of his German competitors, who, in many cases +at least, had never even dreamed of the thing, until +Perkin had sent his application to Berlin. In fact, he +said the English and French chemists considered them +as rank, bare-faced pirates, and none too successful +pirates at that.</p> + +<p>Two Germans however, in 1869, did work out the +composition of alizarine, the dyestuff of madder, and +published their discovery in the chemical journals. But +while they discovered and patented one method for +preparing this Alizarine from coal tar on a commercial +scale, Perkin in England, and some dyestuff chemists +in France discovered other methods equally good +or perhaps better for producing the same identical +color at less expense. So they still kept well ahead of +the Germans even in that.</p> + +<p>Soon after this, in 1870, the Franco-Prussian war +broke out. At once the French and German factories +closed, at any rate for any foreign trade, and as the +cultivation of madder had by that time been abandoned, +Perkin found that all the Turkey red for the +whole Eastern market must be dyed with his Manchester +alizarine. Orders came pouring in, and in +order to keep up with the demand, it would be necessary +for him to greatly increase the size of his plant, +and to put back into it all his savings of the past fourteen +or fifteen very profitable years.</p> + +<p>This, he told me, he was unwilling to do. But, just<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[263]</span> +at that moment, he was approached by a firm of Manchester +business men, who had been supplying his +works with some of the raw materials from coal tar +(crudes and intermediates as they call them now), with +an offer to buy his works and his interest in the business. +He was perfectly frank and open with them, +showed them his books, his profits for the past few +years, his present orders and the rest, and after a little +bargaining he sold out to them for a very fair +price, which he immediately invested in the best of securities +and on which he lived in comfort for the rest +of his long and extremely happy life.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Ruin of the English Dyestuff Industry.</b>—As soon as +they had gained possession of his factory, the Manchester +people began to pass word around among their +friends, that they were going to show the whole world +how to run a chemical industry. Perkin, they agreed, +was indeed a clever fellow in his way, and undoubtedly +a good chemist, but he was no<em>business</em> man. +They were going to run those works on good, practical, +common-sense business lines, and they and their +few friends whom they allowed to join them, boasted +loudly and deeply of their expected profits. Their +motto was the well-established one “Manufacture +cheap and sell dear”—and they proceeded to follow it +implicitly.</p> + +<p>They went over all the details of the business with +the greatest care, and soon found what seemed to them +a willful piece of extravagance. Perkin himself, and +three or four other chemists, were drawing salaries, not +for the actual making of the dyestuffs but for<em>experimental</em><span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">[264]</span> +purposes, and they had quite an expensive +laboratory used for that purpose alone!</p> + +<p>Of course this was at once eliminated—and great +was their satisfaction when they found that they had +thereby cut down the price of making their dyes two +or three cents a pound.</p> + +<p>Then it came to the “selling dear” part of it. +Perkin told me that the last few years that he ran his +factory, he kept the price of his dyestuffs at a reasonable +figure, so that, indeed, he would get a good profit +from them, but that, on the other hand, it would be +no easy matter for competitors to break into his field +with success. His alizarine, in particular, he had kept +at a price just below what it would pay to grow madder +in opposition to it, and he had not raised the price to +any great extent since the war had given him a +monopoly. These Manchester people, however, fully +recognized that they were the only manufacturers of +alizarine, anywhere, and were over-flooded with orders—so +they instantly jumped up the price of their +alizarine to four or five times its former figures.</p> + +<p>Barely had they completed their “business” reorganization +of the plant when the war came to an +end, and the Germans marched back to their own country, +with “five milliards” of French money, full of +self-confidence (to use a very mild term) and looking +around for new fields to conquer in peace, now that +they had won all that they could at that time by war. +Instantly every German with any knowledge of the textile +or dyestuff industries turned his eyes at once in +that direction. “What! Alizarine at five dollars a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">[265]</span> +pound instead of a dollar; why, any fool can make a +profit on colors at that price!” And immediately, in +different parts of the country, factory after factory +was started, each one centered around some first-class +chemist, of national if not international reputation, +with instructions to gather around himself a staff of +the most brilliant and best trained organic chemists he +could find, to be used first of all in experimental and +investigating work as well as for the mere preparation +of dyestuffs.</p> + +<p>As a result, in a very short time, these new German +firms were supplying alizarine and other dyestuffs to +the Manchester Turkey red manufacturers at lower +prices than they could be made for in Perkin’s old factory +in the immediate neighborhood; and, before the +end of the year, those clever business men were complaining +bitterly to Perkin that he had cheated them in +the sale of his works, and were wanting him to give +them their money back, which, as the old gentleman +told me with a chuckle, he very positively and decidedly +refused to do.</p> + +<p>From that time until the beginning of the Great War +the great English textile industry, with its enormous +trade all over the world, was obliged to buy practically +all its dyestuffs from Germany.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Dyestuff Industry in the United States.</b>—The manufacture +of dyestuffs in this country was a little better +than in England, because of the tariff protection +granted it by the Government for many years. Four +or five factories of very moderate size kept up a rather +precarious existence, because their chief raw materials,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">[266]</span> +the so-called “intermediates,” organic chemicals made +from coal tar and from which the principal products, +dyes, drugs, perfumes and the like are made in turn, +all had to be imported from Europe, and, in most +cases, from their German rivals who naturally kept +a tight rein upon the quantity and quality of their +output.</p> + +<p>In 1913 even this industry was destroyed by the +abolition of the duties on dyestuffs in the new tariff, +thanks to the pressure for free raw materials brought +by the great textile industries, probably at the instigation +of the foreign color houses.</p> + +<p class="noindent"><b>Changed Conditions Due to the War.</b>—Since 1914 this +whole situation has been radically and completely +changed all over the world. Appreciating the great +danger to their textile trades from the lack of dyestuffs, +and also the vast military importance of a large +and highly developed coal tar products industry, for +the manufacture of high explosives, smokeless powder +and the like, nation after nation has given government +assistance not only in the line of money, but also +with patent legislation and new tariff. England with +its British Dye Works, Ltd., France with the St. +Denis Works, now greatly enlarged and strengthened, +Italy, Japan, all have made arrangements for supplying +their trade with home-made dyestuffs, of excellent +quality, not only during but after the temporary disturbance +due to the actual fighting.</p> + +<p>In the United States there soon were made many +more or less independent and spasmodic efforts to +supply at least the principal and most generally used<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">[267]</span> +colors, notably the Basic dyes, Methylene Blue, Methyl +Violet and the like, so much used in calico printing, silk +and wool dyeing, leather and other lines, and the +simpler Sulphur colors, like Sulphur Black, Blues, and +Browns. These were selling, before the end of 1914, +at comparatively huge prices, and until the peace will +probably still command from five to ten times their +usual values.</p> + +<p>But out of these scores of generally quite small and +isolated factories, there have sprung, by the fourth +year of hostilities, a few large, well equipped and +fully financed organizations which will be able, within +a very short time, indeed probably before these lines +appear in print, to fully provide this country with the +main standard dyes, quite as good in every respect as +the same dyes made by the best German color houses. +And, unless very adverse tariff legislation should be +introduced, they should be in a position, after the close +of the war, to hold their trade against any foreign +competition. It will, of course, take several years before +they can supply in this country the very finest +special dyestuffs, of which but small quantities are ever +needed or used, and which in most cases are fully protected +by patents, as well as by secret methods of manufacture. +But, with the exception of the vat colors, of +which artificial Indigo and the closely allied Brom-indigo +are at present the only ones made in this country, +the dyeing trade will be, in a short time, well +supplied with excellent standard colors “made in +America.”</p> + +<p>The three important American dyestuff houses<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">[268]</span> +already started with the addresses of their New York +offices are as follows:—</p> + +<div class="blockquot2"> +<p class="noindent"> +<i>American</i>—American Aniline Products. Inc.,<br> +<span style="margin-left: 8em;">80 Fifth Avenue.</span><br> +<br> +<i>Marden</i>—Marden, Orth and Hastings,<br> +<span style="margin-left: 7em;">61 Broadway.</span><br> +<br> +<i>National</i>—National Aniline and Chemical Co.,<br> +<span style="margin-left: 8em;">244 Madison Avenue.</span><br> +</p> +</div> +<p>And also, soon to engage in the manufacture of dyestuffs +on a large scale:—</p> + +<p class="center"> +The Dupont de Nemours Chemical Co.,<br> +of Wilmington, Del.<br> +</p> + + +<p>Lists of the Best Dyestuffs, in the Different Classes, +Made Thus Far by the American Manufacturers</p> + +<p>At the present moment, November, 1917, but few of +the home-made colors are as fast to light as the specially +selected dyes of the great German houses, listed +on pages 66, 89, 103 and 127. Those in the following +lists are the best made at present, in the United States, +and will be steadily improved upon as time goes on.</p> + + +<p><i>Direct Cotton or Salt Dyes.</i>—</p> + +<table class="listtable wd70"> +<tr> +<td class="tdl wd25">American—</td> +<td class="tdl">Benzo Fast Yellow, A</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Direct Sky Blue</td> +</tr> +<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Marden—</td> +<td class="tdl">Stilbene Yellow</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Direct Blue</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Direct Brown</td> +</tr> +<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">National—</td> +<td class="tdl">Delta Red, 2 B</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Niagara Fast Yellow, F</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Niagara Blue, 2 B</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Erie Black, G X OO</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<p><i>Sulphur Colors.</i>—</p> + +<table class="listtable wd70"> +<tr> +<td class="tdl wd25">Marden—</td> +<td class="tdl">Sulphur Black</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Sulphur Brown</td> +</tr> +<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">National—</td> +<td class="tdl">Sulphur Brown, W F</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Sulphur Yellow, B W</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Sulphur Direct Navy Blue</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Sulphur Black, F conc.</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<p><i>Vat Colors.</i>—</p> + +<table class="listtable wd70"> +<tr> +<td class="tdl wd25"></td> +<td class="tdl">Dibrom Indigo, powder and paste</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Synthetic Indigo, 20% paste</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<p><i>Made by the Dow Chemical Company of Midland, +Michigan. New York Agents, Geisenheimer & Co., +134 Cedar Street.</i></p> + +<p>Synthetic Indigo and Sodium hydrosulphite can also +be obtained from <i>Klipstein, 634 Greenwich Street, +New York</i>.</p> + +<p><i>Basic Colors.</i>—</p> + +<p>Many of these such as Methylene Blue, Methyl +Violet, Phosphine, Bismarck Brown and others, including +leather Black, are being made by <i>American</i>, <i>Marden</i> +and <i>National</i>, as well as by many firms that so +far have not gone into the general color business. One +of the most important of these last, who, besides the +above, make a brilliant basic Green, called by them +Methylene Green, is the <i>Meth-O-Lene Co., Inc., 81-83 +Fulton Street, New York</i>.</p> + +<p>Auramine, at present, can best be obtained from +<i>Klipstein</i>. Nigrosine soluble in water, in jet black and +bluish shades, is made by <i>Marden</i>, <i>Meth-O-Lene</i> and +other firms, and is largely used for dyeing leather fast +brilliant shades of black.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[270]</span></p> + +<p> +<i>Acid Colors.</i>— +</p> +<table class="listtable wd70"> +<tr> +<td class="tdl wd25">American—</td> +<td class="tdl">Fast Yellow, H Ex.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Brilliant Blue, conc.</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Cloth Red, H</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Acid Black, L conc.</td> +</tr> +<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">Marden—</td> +<td class="tdl">Metanril Yellow</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Orange, No. 2</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Fast Acid Red</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Croceine Scarlet</td> +</tr> +<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl">National—</td> +<td class="tdl">Azo Yellow, A S W</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Scarlet, B R</td> +</tr> +<tr> +<td class="tdl"></td> +<td class="tdl">Acid Black, 4 A B</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<p>Also Tartrazine, a fast acid yellow much used for +wool, not for silk.</p> + + +<h3>SPECIAL NOTE</h3> + +<div class="fs90"> + +<p>Further information concerning dyestuffs, apparatus, textiles, +chemicals, etc., connected with this work, may be obtained on +writing to the author at 7 West 43rd Street, New York.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + +<div class="chapter"> +<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX</h2> +</div> + +<p>There is no mention either of the Plate illustrations or of +the Figure illustrations in the index; these may be found in a +list of the illustrations in the front of the book.</p> + + +<ul class="index"> +<li class="ifrst">Acid Azo Colors, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Acid Colors, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123-131</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131-136</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148-150</a>, + <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165-168</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> + +<li class="indx">After-treatment, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Alizarine and Alizarine Dyestuffs, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Alizarine Assistant or Turkey Red Oil, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Aniline, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Aniline Black—for Stencilling, <a href="#Page_224">224-228</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Aniline Colors, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>. Also see <a href="#Basic">Basic Colors</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Aniline Red or Fuchsine, Magenta, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Animal Dyes, <a href="#Page_11">11-14</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">Also see <a href="#Cochineal">Cochineal</a>, +<a href="#Kermes">Kermes</a>, <a href="#Lac">Lac</a>, +<a href="#Tyrian">Tyrian purple</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Artificial Silk, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184-192</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Artificial or Synthetic Indigo, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Bagobo Tied Work, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Basic"></a>Basic Colors, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108-123</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148-153</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220-223</a>, + <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Basketry, Dyeing of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116-123</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> + +<li class="indx" id="batik"><a id="Batik"></a>Batik or Wax Resist, <a href="#Page_241">241-260</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Benedict, Miss Laura (Tied Work from Philippines), <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bismarck Brown, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">[271]</span>Bistre or Permanganate Bronze, <a href="#Page_32">32-35</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Black Dyeing—with Coal-Tar Colors, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, + <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Black Dyeing—with Logwood, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169-172</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Black Stencilling, <a href="#Page_224">224-228</a></li> + +<li class="indx" id="bp"><a id="Bleaching"></a>Bleaching Powder, <a href="#Page_208">208-211</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234-236</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Boiled-off Liquor, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bone-colored by Batik Process, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> + +<li class="indx">British uniforms, dyed with cochineal, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bronze on Leather, <a href="#Page_153">153-155</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Bronze (Permanganate) or Bistre, <a href="#Page_32">32-35</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Brown (Bismarck), <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Brown, dyed with Permanganate of Potash, <a href="#Page_32">32-35</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Cachou de Laval, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Catechu. See <a href="#Cutch">Cutch</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Chardonnet Silk, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Chloride of Lime. See <a href="#Bleaching">Bleaching Powder</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Chrome Orange, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Chrome Yellow, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Chrome Tanning, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Chundries or Chunaries (Indian Tied Work), <a href="#Page_196">196-199</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Classification of Coal-Tar Colors, for Craftsmen, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Cochineal"></a>Cochineal, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Congo Red, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Cordovan Leather, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Cotton Colors. See <a href="#Salt">Salt Colors</a></li> + +<li class="indx" id="cottondye"><a id="Cotton"></a>Cotton Dyeing, <a href="#Page_59">59-64</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88-90</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> + +<li class="indx">“Covering,” <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Crackle Effect—in Batik, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li> + +<li class="indx" id="Cutch">Cutch, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Direct Coloring, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Direct Cotton Dyeing. See <a href="#Salt">Salt Colors</a> +and <a href="#Sulphur">Sulphur Colors</a>. Also <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Discharge Stencilling, <a href="#Page_233">233-241</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Discharge work, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208-211</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Discovery of Acid Colors, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Aniline or Coal-Tar Colors, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Basic Colors, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Indigo, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1" id="salt_co">Salt Colors, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1" id="sulpher_co">Sulphur Colors, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Vat Colors, modern, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Discovery"></a>Discovery (Perkin’s), <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, + <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Dyeing Directions—for Acid Colors, <a href="#Page_127">127-131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132-137</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148-153</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, + <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Artificial Silk, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1" >Basic Colors, <a href="#Page_117">117-123</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148-150</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Basketry, <a href="#Page_117">117-123</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Batik, <a href="#Page_254">254-258</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Cotton and Linen, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59-64</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87-89</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, + <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105-108</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Feathers, <a href="#Page_132">132-137</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Imitation Silk, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Indigo, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Iron Buff (Iron Rust), <a href="#Page_27">27-29</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Iron Grey, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Leather, <a href="#Page_148">148-150</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Permanganate Bronze, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Raffia, <a href="#Page_120">120-123</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Resist Stencilling, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Salt Colors, <a href="#Page_59">59-64</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Silk, <a href="#Page_162">162-165</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174-181</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Straw, <a href="#Page_117">117-120</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Sulphur Colors, <a href="#Page_87">87-89</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Tied and Dyed Work, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Vat Colors, <a href="#Page_105">105-108</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177-181</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a id="Wild"></a>Wild Silk, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Wool, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127-131</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Eastern Dyes, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17-21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, + <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">[272]</span>Elberfeld Silk, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Embroidery-fast Silk, <a href="#Page_175">175-181</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Equipment needed for Dyeing, <a href="#Page_35">35-39</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Fastness to Light, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63-66</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, + <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Fastness to Washing, <a href="#Page_64">64-67</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, + <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174-181</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Feathers and Feather-dyeing, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131-141</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Fermentation Method of Vat dyeing, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Finishing—Artificial Silk, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Feathers, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Leather, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Silk, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Fustic, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Gambier, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Gelatin or Glue, used as Reagent, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Glanzstoff (Elberfeld Silk), <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Glucose, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Grain Colors (Cochineal, Kermes, Lac), <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Grey, Miss Mary—Tied Work, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Grey, from mixture of colors, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Grey, from Iron Salts and Tannin, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Heating devices, used in Dyeing, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> + +<li class="indx">History. See <a href="#Discovery">Discovery</a>.</li> +<li class="isub1">Also Ancient Dyestuffs, <a href="#Page_8">8-16</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Artificial Silk, <a href="#Page_184">184-187</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Batik, <a href="#Page_241">241-245</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Dyes of our Ancestors, <a href="#Page_17">17-24</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Imitation Silk, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Leather, <a href="#Page_141">141-144</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Silk, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Stencils and Stencilling, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Tied and Dyed Work, <a href="#Page_192">192-200</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Horses, dyed Brown with Permanganate, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Hydrosulphite of Sodium, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, + <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237-241</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Imitation Silk, <a href="#Page_181">181-184</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Indian Dyes, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Indian Tied and Dyed Work, <a href="#Page_196">196-199</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Indigo"></a>Indigo and Vat Colors, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91-108</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222-225</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Indigo, Application of, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98-100</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Introduction, <a href="#Page_5">5-8</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Iron Buff (Iron Rust), <a href="#Page_25">25-29</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Iron Grey, <a href="#Page_29">29-31</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Japanese Practice, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211-219</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228-231</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Javanese Practice (Batik), <a href="#Page_242">242-256</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst"><a id="Kermes"></a>Kermes, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Khaki, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst"><a id="Lac"></a>Lac Dye, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Leather, <a href="#Page_141">141-156</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Dyeing and Staining of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148-153</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Finishing of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">History of, <a href="#Page_141">141-144</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Preparation of, <a href="#Page_143">143-148</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Stencilling of, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Linen—Dyeing of. See <a href="#Cotton">Cotton Dyeing</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59-64</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88-90</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Local Dyeing Formulæ, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Logwood, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169-172</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Madder, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Manufacturers of Coal-Tar Colors, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Matching Shades, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Matching Shades by Night, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mauvine (Perkin’s Violet), <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Metal, Etching of by Batik Process, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Methyl Violet. See <a href="#Basic">Basic Colors</a>, also <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Methylene Blue. See <a href="#Basic">Basic Colors</a>, also <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mineral Dyes, <a href="#Page_25">25-35</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">[273]</span>Mixed Shades, with Diagram, <a href="#Page_78">78-84</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Modern and Ancient Dyestuffs, compared, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Mordants and Mordanting, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18-25</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Murex Brandaris (Tyrian Purple Fish), <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Murex Trunculus, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Night, Matching Shades by, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> + +<li class="indx">North Carolina Practice, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst" id="perkin"><a id="Perkin"></a>Perkin, Sir Wm. Henry, <a href="#Page_40">40-43</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Perkin’s Discovery. See <a href="#Perkin">Perkin</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Permanganate Bronze (Permanganate Brown, Bistre), <a href="#Page_32">32-35</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Peruvian Tied Work, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Philippine Tied Work, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199-201</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Primary Colors, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Purpura Lapillus (Tyrian Purple Fish), <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Raffia, Dyeing of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Rainbow Dyeing, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119-122</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, + <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Rajput Tied Work (Chundries), <a href="#Page_196">196-199</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Resist Stencil Paste, <a href="#Page_229">229-234</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Resist Work, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, also 196-209, <a href="#Page_229">229-234</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241-260</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Rubber Gloves—Useful for Dyeing, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> + +<li class="indx">“Rubbing,” <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Rush, Dr. Benjamin, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ruskin, John, Opinion on Modern Dyestuffs, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Safflower, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Saffron, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Saffron, Indian (Turmeric), <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Salt—used in Dyeing, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Salt"></a>Salt Colors (Direct Cotton Colors), <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55-71</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, + <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238-240</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">List of Properties and Uses, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sarongs, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Selected Dyestuffs, Lists of—</li> +<li class="isub1">Acid Colors, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Basic Colors, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Salt Colors, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1"><a id="Sulphur"></a>Sulphur Colors, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Vat Colors, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Shades, Matching of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Shikar, Chundries (Tied Work from India), <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Silk, Artificial, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184-192</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Silk, <a href="#Page_156">156-181</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Dyeing, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161-164</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174-181</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Imitation, <a href="#Page_181">181-184</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Preparation of for Dyeing, <a href="#Page_159">159-162</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Stencilling of, <a href="#Page_219">219-223</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Tests for Weighted, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Varieties of, <a href="#Page_157">157-160</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Weighting of, <a href="#Page_169">169-175</a>;</li> +<li class="isub1">Wild, <a href="#Page_157">157-159</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164-167</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Skein Dyeing <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Soap, uses of, in Dyeing, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161-166</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> + +<li class="indx" id="sodaash"><a id="Soda"></a>Soda Ash (Sodium Carbonate), <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sodium Bicarbonate, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sodium Carbonate. See <a href="#Soda">Soda Ash</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sodium Hydrosulphite, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, + <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237-241</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sodium Hydroxide (Caustic Soda), <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sodium Sulphate (Glauber’s Salt), <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sodium Sulphide, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Starching (for Feathers), <a href="#Page_134">134-136</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Stencils and Stencilling, <a href="#Page_211">211-228</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228-241</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">[274]</span>Stencil Salt, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Stripping, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Sulphur Colors, <a href="#Page_85">85-90</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, + <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Tannin (Tannic Acid), <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, + <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tanning, <a href="#Page_143">143-148</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Three-Color Shades, <a href="#Page_79">79-81</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tied and Discharged Work, <a href="#Page_208">208-211</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tied and Dyed Work, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192-211</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Ties and Stops, <a href="#Page_214">214-217</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tin salts as Mordants, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tin Weighting of Silk, <a href="#Page_171">171-175</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tjantings. See <a href="#Batik">Batik</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244-254</a></li> + +<li class="indx">“Topping,” <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Turkey Red, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Turkey Red Oil (Alizarine Assistant), <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Turmeric (Indian Saffron), <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Tussah Silk. See <a href="#Wild">Wild Silk</a></li> + +<li class="indx"><a id="Tyrian"></a>Tyrian Purple, <a href="#Page_12">12-16</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Vat Colors. See <a href="#Indigo">Indigo</a>, also <a href="#Page_102">102-108</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222-225</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Vat Dyeing, <a href="#Page_94">94-100</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178-180</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Vegetable Colors, <a href="#Page_8">8-11</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17-19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20-25</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Viscose (in Artificial Silk), <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> + + +<li class="ifrst">Washing, Fastness to, <a href="#Page_64">64-67</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, + <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174-181</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Weighting of Silk, <a href="#Page_170">170-175</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Woad, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Wood, Dyeing of, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Wood, Etching of, by Batik Process, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Wool, Dyeing of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128-131</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Wool, Stencilling on, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li> + +<li class="indx">Wringers, Use of in Dyeing, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> +</ul> +<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> + + +<div class="chapter"> +<div class="transnote" id="ENDNOTE"> +<strong> +TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE<br> +</strong> + +<p class="noindent">Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between paragraphs +and outside quotations. In versions of this eBook that support +hyperlinks, the page references in the List of Illustrations lead to +the corresponding illustrations.</p> + +<p class="noindent">Illustrations without captions have had a description added, this is denoted +with parentheses.</p> + +<p class="noindent">The index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page +references.</p> + +<p class="noindent">Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been +corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within +the text and consultation of external sources. +</p> +<p class="noindent">Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added, +when a predominant preference was found in the original book.</p> + +<p class="noindent">Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, +and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.</p> + +<p class="noindent"> +Pg <a href="#corr_to">101</a>: removed duplicate ‘to’ in ‘are apt to to “rub.”’.</p> + 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