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+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75302 ***
+
+  TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
+
+  Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.
+
+  Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=.
+
+  Footnote anchors are denoted by [number], and the footnotes have been
+  placed at the end of the paragraph.
+
+  Some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE I. INDIGO DYED BATIK FROM MADRAS]
+
+
+
+
+                          DYES _and_ DYEING
+
+                                  BY
+
+                          CHARLES E. PELLEW
+
+               _Formerly Adjunct Professor of Chemistry
+                       at Columbia University_
+
+                      [Illustration: (colophon)]
+
+                               NEW YORK
+                     ROBERT M. McBRIDE & COMPANY
+                                 1918
+
+
+
+
+                         COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY
+                       McBRIDE, NAST & COMPANY
+
+                         COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY
+                     ROBERT M. McBRIDE & COMPANY
+
+                       New and enlarged edition
+                       Published, January, 1918
+
+
+
+
+                              CONTENTS
+
+
+  PAGE
+
+  CHAPTER I—INTRODUCTION                                             5
+
+  Dyes of the Ancients—Dyes of Our Ancestors—Animal, Vegetable and
+  Mineral Dyes—Outfit for Practical Dyeing.
+
+  CHAPTER II—MODERN DYESTUFFS                                       40
+
+  Discovery of the Aniline or Coal-Tar Colors—Their Properties and
+  Uses—How Obtained—How Named—Classification of Coal-Tar Colors for
+  Craftsmen.
+
+  CHAPTER III—THE DIRECT COTTON OR SALT COLORS                      53
+
+  Discovery, Properties and Uses of the Salt Colors; with Lists of
+  Selected Dyestuffs, and Dying Directions for Cotton and Linen—
+  Fastness to Light and Washing—After-treatment.
+
+  CHAPTER IV—THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COLOR DYEING                    71
+
+  Even and Shaded Dyeing with the Primary Colors—Experiments with
+  Secondary Colors—Matching Shades.
+
+  CHAPTER V—THE SULPHUR COLORS                                      85
+
+  Discovery—Properties and Uses of the Sulphur Colors—List of
+  Selected Dyestuffs, and Dyeing Directions for Cotton and Linen.
+
+  CHAPTER VI—THE INDIGO OR VAT COLORS                               91
+
+  Natural and Synthetic Indigo—Properties and Application—Vat Dyeing,
+  Old and Modern—Dyeing Directions—The Modern Vat Colors—Their
+  Properties and Uses—Selected Dyestuffs—Fastness to Light and
+  Washing—Dyeing Directions for Cotton, Linen and Silk.
+
+  CHAPTER VII—THE BASIC COLORS                                     108
+
+  History, Properties, and Application to Cotton, Wool, Silk,
+  etc.—Disadvantages—Not Fast to Light—Dyeing Directions for Straw,
+  Raffia, etc.
+
+  CHAPTER VIII—THE ACID COLORS                                     123
+
+  History, Properties, Uses, and List of Selected Dyestuffs—Dyeing
+  Directions for Wool.
+
+  CHAPTER IX—DYEING FEATHERS                                       131
+
+  The Dye-bath—The Dyeing Method—The Finishing Process—Dry and
+  Wet Starching—Dyeing in the Starch—Black Dyeing of Feathers—
+  Painting Feathers.
+
+  CHAPTER X—LEATHER AND LEATHER DYEING                             141
+
+  History—Preparation of Leather—Oil, Mineral and Bark Tanning—
+  Dyeing, Staining and Finishing Leather.
+
+  CHAPTER XI—SILK I                                                156
+
+  History, Origin and Varieties of Silk—Preparing Silk for Dyeing—
+  Piece Dyeing—Skein Dyeing—Dyeing Wild Silks.
+
+  CHAPTER XII—SILK II                                              168
+
+  Black Dyeing of Silk—Coal-Tar Colors—Logwood—Weighting of Silk—
+  Properties and Tests for Weighted Silk—Dyeing Silk with Colors
+  Fast to Washing.
+
+  CHAPTER XIII—IMITATION AND ARTIFICIAL SILK                       181
+
+  History, Preparation and Properties of Mercerized Cotton—History,
+  Preparation and Properties of Artificial Silk—Precautions to be
+  Taken in Dyeing and Finishing.
+
+  CHAPTER XIV—TIED AND DYED WORK                                   192
+
+  As Used in South America, India, Philippines and U.S.—Variations
+  in Tying Process—How Dyed—Tied and Discharged Work.
+
+  CHAPTER XV—STENCILS AND STENCILLING                              211
+
+  Japanese Practice—U.S. Practice—Knives, Brushes, Paper, etc.—
+  Colors for Leather, Silk, and Cotton—Stencilling with Aniline
+  Black Paste.
+
+  CHAPTER XVI—RESIST AND DISCHARGE STENCILLING                     228
+
+  Japanese Practice—Resist Paste and the Sulphur Colors—Discharge
+  Stencilling with Bleaching Powder and Hydrosulphite.
+
+  CHAPTER XVII—BATIK OR WAX RESIST                                 241
+
+  Javanese Practice—Modern Practice and Apparatus—Dyeing of Batiked
+  Goods—Use of Batik Process on Cotton, Linen, Silk, Leather, Wood,
+  Bone, etc.
+
+  CHAPTER XVIII—THE INFLUENCE OF THE WAR UPON THE DYESTUFF
+  INDUSTRY                                                         260
+
+  Rise of the German Dyestuff Monopoly—Ruin of the English Dyestuff
+  Industry—Dyestuff Industry in the United States—Changed
+  Conditions Due to the War—Lists of Best Dyestuffs.
+
+
+
+
+THE ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+  PLATES IN COLOR
+
+  PLATE
+
+  I Indigo dyed batik from Madras                       _Frontispiece_
+
+  FACING PAGE
+
+  II Japanese towelling, showing impression of fresh damp leaves    26
+
+  III Same towelling after immersion in iron spring                 30
+
+  IV (_a_) Example of tied and dyed work       }                   210
+     (_b_) Example of tied and discharged work }
+
+  V Japanese towelling stencilled in resist and dyed by
+  immersion in iron spring                                         230
+
+
+  ILLUSTRATIONS IN HALF-TONE
+
+  FIG.
+
+  1 Shellfish used by the ancients for Tyrian purple                12
+
+  Sir W. H. Perkin                                                  42
+
+  2 Tied and dyed headdress from an Inca tomb in Peru              192
+
+  3 Shikar chundri, from Rajputana, with knots still untied        196
+
+  4 Same chundri untied and shaken out                             198
+
+  5 Bagobo headdress from the Island of Mindanao                   200
+
+  6 Sample of tied and dyed work, “tied on itself”                 202
+
+  7 Sample of tied and dyed work, “tied in bands”                  204
+
+  8 Tied and dyed work—Folding the cloth                           206
+
+  9                    Starting to tie                             206
+
+  10                   Centre portion tied                         206
+
+  11                   Centre and corners tied                     208
+
+  12                   Dyed, untied and shaken out                 208
+
+  13 Japanese stencil knife                                        212
+
+  14 Japanese stencil brushes                                      212
+
+  15 Japanese stencil, showing holes punched by hand tool          216
+
+  16 Japanese stencil, showing use of stops                        216
+
+  17 Japanese stencil, showing use of sewing instead of stops      216
+
+  18 Japanese stencils, showing use of both stops and net          218
+
+  19 Large and handsome Japanese stencil, showing use
+  of net                                                           224
+
+  20 “Teapot” model of tjanting                                    248
+
+  21 Walther glass tjanting                                        248
+
+  22 “Wax pencil” model of tjanting                                248
+
+  23 Javanese tjantings                                            250
+
+  24 American modification of Javanese tjanting                    250
+
+
+  DIAGRAMS IN THE LETTERPRESS
+
+  Primary Colors                                                    73
+
+  Mixed Colors                                                      79
+
+
+
+
+                               PREFACE
+
+
+When a new text-book is offered to an innocent and long-suffering
+public about such an ancient subject as Dyes and Dyeing, it is,
+perhaps, the very least that the author can do, to explain briefly
+his reasons for hoping that his particular book may prove of some
+special usefulness.
+
+As a matter of fact this book is intended for the use of craftsmen
+and others who are trying to dye and stain textiles by hand and on a
+small scale, rather than for professional dyers or dyeing chemists
+who are interested in factory dyeing, conducted on a large scale.
+For the latter there is little or no difficulty in getting any
+information that they desire, either from the large and carefully
+written text-books or, still better, from the many excellent dyeing
+manuals and books of directions issued at frequent intervals by the
+great color houses.
+
+But for craftsmen and their like, the amateur dyers as opposed to
+the regular professionals, the required information is not easy to
+obtain. Their leaders and teachers, as a rule, profess a scorn of
+the wonderful discoveries which, in the last half century, have
+revolutionized the art of dyeing more, perhaps, than any other branch
+of handicraft. And the dyeing chemists and writers have devoted
+themselves almost exclusively to the far larger and more important
+and more profitable field of commercial or professional dyeing, and
+only here and there is one found who has given any special attention
+to the dyes and processes needed by those working only on a small
+scale.
+
+For my own part, after teaching the principles and practice of modern
+dyeing to class after class of chemical students at Columbia, my
+attention was called to this particular branch of the subject by
+finding, one spring, that some friends had started a hand-weaving
+industry at a settlement house in which I was interested, but had
+not made any arrangement for a dyehouse at the same time. This was a
+serious omission because it is almost impossible to buy in the market
+raw materials for hand-woven rugs, table-covers, and the like, that
+are dyed just the right shade and, at the same time, are fast to both
+light and washing; and, unless this last is guaranteed, there is
+little or no excuse for charging the large prices necessary to pay
+for the extra expense of the hand labor.
+
+Wishing, therefore, to help out my friends, I offered to assist as
+far as possible in this part of the work. That summer was spent on
+the St. Lawrence, where it was possible to study some of the textile
+work of the French _habitants_ whose dyeing processes, designs, and
+looms had descended from mother to daughter since the old Colonial
+days; and in the autumn I fitted up a little dyehouse and started
+with a small but intelligent class of neighbors who were working at
+the looms.
+
+Of course, it was foolish to attempt to teach them the scientific
+chemical formulæ used by my students uptown. The processes must
+be short and simple—must give the desired shades on cotton, linen,
+wool, and silk in the course of an hour or an hour and a half at
+the outside, counting from the time when the class was called to
+order. And the colors must be absolutely fast to light, and, wherever
+possible, to washing also.
+
+The work was very interesting and proved successful enough, at least
+as far as the dyeing went. After a few months some visiting reporter,
+in an article on Greenwich House and its industries, mentioned the
+dyeing, in a magazine, and stated that the colors resulting were not
+only beautiful but fast. Immediately I was bombarded with letters
+from all over the country, begging for information about permanent
+dyestuffs to be used for hand-woven textiles. Requests came from
+friends and acquaintances to help them in various side branches of
+the subject, such as feather dyeing, leather dyeing and staining,
+stencilling, tied and dyed work, and, above all, Batik. And it soon
+became a source of much interest to look up some old process of
+dyeing, originating perhaps in the East, perhaps among the ancient
+Egyptians, and to work it out with the best modern dyestuffs.
+
+Finally, my correspondence grew so burdensome that I arranged with
+the well-known New York magazine, _The Craftsman_, for a series of
+articles upon “Modern Dyestuffs and Dyeing Processes for the Use of
+Craftsmen”; and from these articles the present book is a natural
+result.
+
+It is hoped that it will prove useful, not only for individuals who
+are trying, under considerable difficulties, to get satisfactory
+results, by means of long-abandoned processes, upon textile materials
+of many sorts and kinds, but also for teachers of art in our public
+as well as private schools. Much attention is being given now to
+training the hands of children in various drawing and decorating
+and weaving processes. But the modern dyestuffs give a much greater
+opportunity to train their eyes to a sense of color and to its
+beauties, as well as giving them an introduction into an art which
+can be used at home for most useful as well as beautiful purposes.
+
+My hearty thanks are due to many friends, notably, to Mr. Philip
+Clarkson, head chemist of H. A. Metz & Co., to Dr. Ludwig, of the
+Cassella Color Co., and to many other expert dyeing chemists,
+who have most kindly helped me with advice and information about
+many widely varying branches of the subject. Also to many of my
+craftsman friends, notably Mrs. C. L. Banks, of Bridgeport, Conn.,
+and Mrs. Charlotte Busck, of this city, who have been of the
+greatest assistance in working out many of the problems involved in
+stencilling and Batik; and to Miss Mary Grey, of Hackettstown, N. J.,
+who has kindly allowed me to insert an illustration of some of her
+interesting and well-designed tied work (Fig. 7). It is my earnest
+hope that the information contained in this book may encourage and
+assist other craftsmen throughout the country to come up to the high
+standard of these skilled textile workers.
+
+                                                              C. E. P.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER I
+
+                            INTRODUCTION
+
+
+There has been so much said and written about the beauty and value
+of the old-fashioned dyestuffs and dyeing processes and their
+superiority to the modern coloring matters, that many well-meaning
+people of artistic tastes have never ceased to deplore the discovery
+and introduction of the so-called aniline or coal-tar dyes, and to
+regard them as a serious detriment to the art of dyeing.
+
+Some, indeed, have gone so far as to decry the discoveries not
+only of the last fifty years, but also of the last nineteen or
+twenty centuries. These quote with approval the great John Ruskin,
+founder and original leader of the whole Arts and Crafts movement in
+England, if not in the world, as having said, “There has been nothing
+discovered of the slightest interest in the tinctorial art” (the art
+of dyeing) “since the days of the ancient Greeks and Romans.”
+
+To suppose for an instant that this important and highly specialized
+art has not advanced during nearly two thousand years is, on the
+face of it, absurd. A very little knowledge of dyestuffs forces
+recognition of the fact that many of the very best, fastest, and most
+beautiful of the dyes of our ancestors—such as cochineal, with which
+they dyed practically all of their fast pinks and scarlets; logwood,
+with which silk as well as wool was, and is still dyed black; fustic,
+which was used for fast yellows on wool and cotton, and several
+others—were natives of America, and therefore only known to the world
+at large since the seventeenth century.
+
+Indeed, as we shall see, the art of dyeing, based as it is on
+chemical processes, discovered one by one, but never properly
+explained or understood until the last sixty or seventy years, is,
+perhaps, the one art above all others in which not only the ancient
+world, but the world of comparatively a few years ago, was very
+distinctly inferior to that of the present day.
+
+In drawing, sculpture, painting, architecture, ceramics,
+wood-carving, lacemaking, metal working, and almost every other art
+that can be mentioned, the craftsman of the Middle Ages, if not
+indeed of ancient Rome or Greece, could still hold his place against
+modern competitors. Even in such a modern art as book printing, the
+lover of books will claim, with considerable reason, that no more
+beautiful or more nearly perfect specimen of the printer’s art has
+ever been produced than the Gutenberg Bible, the first product of the
+European printing press.
+
+The art of dyeing, however, has been changing and developing so much
+from century to century, that, even before the wonderful discoveries
+of the last fifty years, the effects produced by any one generation
+of dyers would have been totally impossible for their ancestors of a
+few generations before them.
+
+It would seem hardly worth while to dwell further upon this subject,
+were not the idea so fixed in the minds of craftsmen in general that
+to get permanent and artistic effects in dyeing we must go back to
+the colors of our ancestors, if not to those of the ancient world.
+To this day we hear of new industries being started in the lines of
+hand-made tapestries, hand-woven linens, homespun cloths, and the
+like, where, as a great inducement to prospective purchasers, the
+goods are loudly proclaimed as dyed with “pure vegetable colors”; and
+the first question commonly asked about a pretty piece of dyed work
+is, “Are you sure that it is fast? Did you use the vegetable dyes?”
+
+As a result of this ignoring and scorning of the wonderful results of
+modern science in its application to this most important industry,
+the work of textile craftsmen all over the world is far behind the
+times, and comparatively far behind other lines of craftwork.
+
+Nobody expects a modern sculptor to do his carving with the bronze
+tools used by the old Athenians; nor do we consider that the present
+day worker in metals should refrain from using the modern gas
+furnace, or limit his products to the few metals and alloys known in
+the Middle Ages, ignoring those which modern chemistry has developed.
+And yet, all over the world, craftsmen are still pottering with long
+since obsolete dyestuffs and obscure and antiquated formulæ, instead
+of spending their energies in getting, with the minimum expenditure
+of time and trouble, results of a quality never dreamed of by the
+most skilful dyers of half a century ago.
+
+As a matter of fact, so far from Mr. Ruskin’s estimate of the value
+of ancient dyes being correct, it is actually no more than fair to
+say that hardly a single dyeing process, known and used more than
+fifty years ago, is of the slightest practical importance now to any
+one.
+
+
+DYES OF THE ANCIENTS
+
+So far as we can tell, the art of dyeing is an extremely ancient
+one. It seems to have developed in every country and to have been
+practised by every race of mankind, as soon as that race ceased to
+rely exclusively upon the skins of fur-bearing animals for clothing
+and coverings. Wherever we find people using woven goods, whether
+vegetable, like cotton or linen, or animal, like wool or silk—or
+wherever, as in the case of the North American Indians, they
+have learned the art of dressing skins so as to make them soft,
+pliable, and with a comparatively smooth surface, we find at least
+the rudiments of the process of dyeing, in the staining of these
+materials to add to their beauty and interest.
+
+_Vegetable Dyes._—The earliest dyes were probably of vegetable
+origin, discovered by accidentally staining garments with juices
+of fruits or plants. Thus, for instance, in the Bible we read of
+“garments dyed in the blood of grapes”; and we can all call to mind
+fruits in common use—blackberries, huckleberries, peaches, and the
+like, whose juice could be used, if nothing better presented itself,
+to dye or stain light-colored fabrics.
+
+In most cases, as in those just mentioned, the colors would be
+fugitive, and after a short time become dull and uninteresting. But
+in the process of time vegetable dyes were discovered, in one part
+and another of the world, which, in the hands of those who knew how
+to work with them, gave colors both fast and beautiful. And thus grew
+and developed the art of the professional dyer.
+
+For instance, in many widely separated countries, such as India,
+Java, South and Central America, plants are found, known as
+_indigoferae_, whose juices, yellow when fresh, rapidly turn blue
+when exposed to the air. These juices impart a rich and permanent
+blue stain to objects moistened with them while they are still
+yellow; and this blue is the coloring matter known as indigo. The
+plants bearing it have been cultivated for hundreds, if not, indeed,
+thousands of years, and used for dyeing.
+
+Garments and blankets found in the so-called Inca graves in Peru and
+Chili, dating from long before the Spanish conquest, as well as the
+oldest specimens of Hindoo workmanship, and even some of the textiles
+found in the tombs of Egypt, all show examples of this same dyestuff.
+It was so valuable that, in small quantities and at vast expense, it
+was imported by the Romans from India, as is shown by its Latin name,
+Indicum (Indian), from which its present name, indigo, is directly
+derived.
+
+But, curiously enough, exactly the same dyestuff, but in a very
+impure form, and derived from an entirely different plant, the
+_isatis tinctoria_, commonly known as _woad_, has been discovered
+and used in Western Europe from time immemorial. And when Julius
+Cæsar, nearly two thousand years ago, led a Roman army for the first
+time across the channel into England, he found the native Britons
+adorning themselves by smearing their bodies with a dirty blue
+dyestuff obtained from this source.
+
+So, little by little, the knowledge of these natural dyestuffs and
+their application grew and expanded. But as a matter of fact, so
+far at least as can be gathered from the old writers, those known
+and used by the ancient Greeks and Romans were few in number and of
+comparatively little interest.
+
+For blues they were obliged to use the inferior color derived, as
+above mentioned, from the native woad, excepting when, for some
+special purposes, a little indigo was imported from the East at
+enormous expense.
+
+Their principal yellow dyestuff was saffron, which is derived from
+the flowers of the common yellow crocus. This gives pleasant, warm
+shades of golden yellow, not fast, however, to either light or
+washing. This same saffron, though long since entirely abandoned as
+a dyestuff, is still used in small quantities for staining candy and
+foodstuffs, and occasionally for medicinal purposes.
+
+The ancients are believed to have discovered the dyeing properties
+of the roots of madder—_rubia tinctorum_—(the dyer’s root), and to
+have used it in small quantities for producing purple and brown and,
+possibly, even red shades, on cotton and wool. Whether, however,
+the art of dyeing the brilliant crimson and scarlet shades known as
+Turkey red was ever worked out before the Middle Ages, is extremely
+doubtful.
+
+=Animal Dyes.=—Unquestionably the best red dyes known to the people
+of those early times were of animal origin, and were used for various
+shades of red and of purple.
+
+_Kermes._—One of these, called kermes, is very closely related to the
+more important and, up to a few years ago, the very generally used,
+cochineal, and to the lac dye.
+
+These three dyestuffs—kermes, cochineal, and lac—come to the market
+in the form of little dark colored grains, which, when ground up with
+hot water, give a bright red solution called carmine, which contains
+a considerable amount of a coloring known as carminic acid. When wool
+or silk that has been previously _mordanted_—that is, impregnated
+with chemical agents; in this case salts of tin, aluminium, iron,
+or copper—is boiled in one of these solutions, it becomes scarlet,
+crimson, purple, or claret color, according to the mordant employed.
+From the appearance and form, as they come to market, of these
+dyestuffs, the shades thus derived are commonly known as the “grain
+colors.”
+
+When these granules are soaked for some time in warm water they
+swell, and their true character becomes apparent. They consist of
+the dried bodies of small insects, known as “cocci” (berries), which
+are carefully cultivated on particular kinds of trees or shrubs and
+when full grown are brushed off and dried for market. They are very
+small—the cochineal grains, which are the most important, running
+about 70,000 to the pound.
+
+Kermes, which was the only one of the three known to the old Greeks
+and Romans, consists of the dried bodies of the “_coccus ilicis_,”
+a variety of the insect which lives on a species of oak, and which,
+it is said, is still occasionally used in Southern Europe, and in
+Morocco, for dyeing leather and wool.
+
+_Tyrian Purple._—The most highly prized ancient dyestuff, and
+one concerning which much interest has always been felt, was the
+so-called “Tyrian purple.” This was obtained from the juices of
+certain species of snails found in the waters of the Mediterranean
+Sea, and, indeed, in the ocean waters of many other warm climates.
+Two species of this class—the _murex Brandaris_ and the _murex
+trunculus_—were used extensively by the ancients, and great mounds of
+their shells, such for instance as the so-called Monte Testaccio at
+Tarentum, are still found along the shores at places famous, in old
+days, for their dyeing establishments.
+
+Other shellfish of the same general type, known as _purpura
+lapillus_, are found quite abundantly, not only in the Mediterranean,
+but also on our own coast and along the shores of Central and
+South America. They have been used by the natives in Nicaragua and
+elsewhere, from time immemorial, for obtaining a similar color.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  _Purpura lapillus_      _Murex trunculus_      _Murex Brandaris_
+
+FIG. 1—SHELLFISH USED BY THE ANCIENTS FOR TYRIAN PURPLE]
+
+These shellfish were so much sought after in the old days that, by
+the time of the early Middle Ages, they were almost exterminated,
+and the dye disappeared from commerce entirely. But, long before
+that, in the early days of the Roman Empire, the coloring matter
+was so expensive that fabulous sums were paid for cloth or
+yarns dyed with it, and its use was practically confined to the
+imperial family. In fact one of the imperial titles in the Eastern
+empire—_purpureogenitus_, “born to the purple”—was due to this fact.
+
+Some interesting information upon the value set on this dyestuff
+by the ancients is afforded by the so-called Edict of Diocletian,
+fragments of which, engraved on stone tablets, have been found in
+different parts of the old Roman Empire, ranging from Egypt to Asia
+Minor. By this edict, issued in A.D. 301, the emperor Diocletian
+attempted to fix the market price of the principal articles of
+commerce, for the Eastern empire. According to this, the price of
+wool, heavily dyed with this color, was worth about $350 a pound, in
+gold.
+
+The dyestuff, as we learn from the description of the process by
+ancient writers, was obtained from a whitish or yellowish liquid
+found, two or three drops at a time, in a particular vein in the body
+of these animals. This juice, when exposed to air and especially to
+sunshine, forms the purple or violet color, much in the some manner
+that the blue color of indigo is formed from the yellow juice of the
+indigo plant.
+
+The shellfish in question, having for many centuries been left
+undisturbed, are now quite common in the waters of the Mediterranean,
+and are occasionally to be found in the poorer quarters of Venice
+and other Italian seaports, exposed for sale as food.
+
+A year or two ago a German color chemist, famous for his discovery of
+the brilliant and extremely permanent reddish violet dyestuff, known
+as Thio Indigo red B., made a careful investigation to see whether,
+by any chance, this color of his might happen to be the same as the
+famous old Tyrian purple.
+
+He managed to secure some twelve thousand specimens of _murex
+Brandaris_, and, with an immense amount of labor, obtained from these
+twelve thousand specimens about twenty-one grains of pure dyestuff.
+This he carefully analyzed and experimented with, until finally he
+was able to prove that, while it was not identical with his own Thio
+Indigo red dyestuff—which, as the name shows, is a compound of indigo
+and sulphur—the Tyrian purple was a similar compound of the same
+indigo dyestuff, with the comparatively rare acid element, bromine.
+In fact it is what the chemists would call a brom-indigo; and this
+same famous chemist, Dr. Friedlaender, of Biebrich on the Rhine,
+after discovering its composition, amused himself by manufacturing
+some of it artificially; and, with the artificial reproduction
+of the ancient Tyrian purple, he dyed some skeins of silk, as an
+illustration to his article detailing his discovery.
+
+Now, if there were any truth in the theory of the superlative value
+and beauty of these ancient dyestuffs, it is evident that this
+rediscovery of the true and genuine Tyrian purple would have been a
+matter of great practical importance. On the assumption that one
+pound of dyestuff would color at least twenty pounds of wool, this
+would put the price of the dye itself, in Diocletian’s day, at a
+pretty high figure.
+
+It can now be manufactured, at a profit, for not over one
+one-thousandth of what it cost in those days, not allowing, either,
+for the difference in value of money between then and now. And yet
+this famous dye, which was so highly esteemed and of which so much
+has been written, is so inferior in color and tone to several of
+the modern dyestuffs that it probably would not pay to put it on
+the market. Dr. Friedlaender’s samples were, indeed, fast to both
+light and washing, but their color showed dull and, to modern eyes,
+distinctly uninteresting shades of violet. And there are already on
+the market several violet, red and blue dyes of the same general
+class—the indigo or vat dyes—which are quite as fast to light and
+washing, and far superior in beauty and brilliancy of shade.
+
+It is only proper, however, to state that Dr. Friedlaender’s
+investigation did not completely clear up the subject, though there
+is no question but that he really discovered the true Tyrian purple;
+and the color of the specimens dyed and exhibited by him corresponded
+very closely to some still surviving from antiquity.
+
+Among the fine collections of textiles from the Egyptian tombs that
+are in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, are some
+excellent examples of Tyrian purple. These are what the Greeks used
+to call “di-bapha,” or double dyed—i.e., dyed very deep, full shades
+of dark purple. While a wonderful example of the lighter, violet,
+shades of the same dye can be seen in a famous manuscript, known as
+“The Golden Gospels,” now in Mr. J. Pierpont Morgan’s collection in
+the same city, but which was given about 1520, by Pope Leo X to King
+Henry VIII. This was written, in golden characters, upon vellum dyed
+with Tyrian purple, and the shades of the latter correspond quite
+closely with the violet of the artificial brom-indigo compound.
+
+On the other hand there is evidence to show that the ancients were
+also able to obtain, with the same Tyrian purple dye, perhaps from
+the shellfish _purpura lapillus_, fast and brilliant shades of
+scarlet, as well as these rather dull tones of violet and purple. In
+the days of the Roman Empire, as above mentioned, the use of “purple”
+garments was denied to all but the imperial family; but later, after
+the rise of the Christian Church, the ecclesiastics gained sufficient
+power to obtain this privilege for themselves. And to this day the
+cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church are called “porporati” on
+account of the “purple” or, as we would say, scarlet, color of their
+characteristic robes. So, whenever we see the red robes of a high
+dignitary of the church we are probably looking at one of the tints
+of the real old Tyrian purple, although the art of actually producing
+it has long since been lost; and, if rediscovered, would probably
+be of as little practical value as Dr. Friedlaender’s remarkable
+investigation.
+
+
+THE DYES OF OUR ANCESTORS
+
+Between the days of the ancient Greeks and Romans, and the discovery
+of the first aniline dye in 1856, many and important additions were
+made to the list of available dyestuffs, some of which have continued
+in use, for special purposes, up to the present day.
+
+=Indian Dyes.=—The opening of trade to the Far East, due to the
+discovery of the sea route round the Cape of Good Hope, brought
+to Europe the free use of some of the Indian dyestuffs. Indigo,
+for instance, was introduced for the first time in considerable
+quantities, and, after much opposition, completely took the place of
+the much inferior native dyestuff, woad.
+
+For yellow, the old saffron dye was superseded by the more powerful,
+but still rather fugitive, turmeric, or Indian saffron. This came
+from the root of the _curcuma tinctoria_, a plant freely grown to
+this day in both India and China. The safflower was also imported
+from India; this is a kind of thistle, _carthamus tinctorum_,
+the dried heads of flowers of which were largely used for dyeing
+pretty shades of pink upon cotton, _directly_—that is, without any
+mordanting process. This color, too, is comparatively fugitive to
+light, and has almost disappeared from sight.
+
+Of more importance were the so-called red woods, which came partly
+from India and partly from the east and west coasts of Africa; and
+of which the most important are the sandal wood, bar wood, and cam
+wood. The wood of each of these trees probably contains the same
+coloring matter. The color is not very easy to extract, but when
+used with mordants of chromium, aluminium, or tin salts, it dyes
+wool various shades of red and reddish-brown. These colors are very
+fast to milling—in other words to the action of alkalies when the
+wool is finished in the manufacture of broadcloth; but they are not
+particularly fast to light, and for this reason, as well as because
+of their greater expense, they have been for the most part abandoned.
+
+From India, too, were introduced the well-known brown dyes known as
+cutch (catechu) and gambier. These come to the market in the form of
+dark colored pastes, formed by evaporating infusions of leaves, seed
+pods, nuts, and sometimes the wood of various species of acacia and
+areca trees. They contain large amounts of a peculiar variety of the
+substance known as tannin or tannic acid, which is widely distributed
+among many plants, and which is very useful in dyeing, as will be
+described later. The brown coloring matter has been isolated, and is
+called catechin. Both cutch and gambier will dye cotton and wool rich
+shades of brown, which are quite fast to light when after-treated
+with copper or chromium salts.
+
+=Dyes from the New World.=—The discovery of America, and the
+colonizing and opening to trade of South America and the West Indies,
+in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, still further enlarged
+the field for dyers.
+
+_Cochineal._—One of the first dyes introduced from there was
+cochineal, a “grain color,” similar to kermes, already described,
+consisting of the dried bodies of an insect known as _coccus cacti_,
+because it lives upon certain kind of cactus which are native to
+Mexico and Central America.
+
+This dyestuff was largely used for dyeing wool and silk goods, and
+produced fairly fast shades of crimson or of scarlet, according to
+the mordant employed. But it has been replaced almost entirely now by
+the various acid dyes, to be described later, which are cheaper, are
+much easier to apply, and are of equal and, in many cases, of much
+greater, fastness to light.
+
+One of the few cases where cochineal is still used on a large scale
+is in England, where the scarlet coats of the British regulars are
+dyed with this color, on a tin mordant. It is believed, however, that
+this is not due to any real or fancied superiority of the old dye
+over many of the modern colors, but simply to the terms of an old
+“perpetual” contract, which, a hundred and fifty years or more ago,
+gave the privilege of dyeing the English “redcoats” to one particular
+firm and their successors, on condition that they use this dye and
+none other. Although both dyers and government would profit by the
+use of modern dyes, the terms of the old contract are still rigidly
+adhered to for fear of losing the monopoly.
+
+_Lac Dye._—The similar dyestuff called lac dye, which had been known
+and used in India for hundreds of years, was introduced into Europe
+towards the end of the eighteenth century. It also is the body of a
+small insect, the _coccus laccae_, which lives on the twigs of the
+banyan tree, and other varieties of fig trees. When these twigs are
+broken off and dried to kill the insect, there is found present on
+them, along with the coloring matter, a large amount of a peculiar
+resinous or gummy substance, which, when extracted and purified, is
+known and widely used, as “shellac.”
+
+Lac dye was used in practically the same way as cochineal, and
+produced, upon wool, scarlet, orange, and crimson shades, which
+were faster and more solid, but not as brilliant, as the cochineal.
+It is now used but rarely, even in the East, having been largely
+superseded, there, by brilliant but, unfortunately, in many cases,
+cheap and worthless modern dyestuffs.
+
+_Fustic._—From America, also, came the excellent yellow dyestuff,
+“fustic,” yielded by the tree commonly called yellow wood, Cuba wood,
+etc. Its true botanical name, however, is _chlorophora tinctoria_,
+and it was largely used for dyeing, either directly in the form of
+chips, or as a solid or liquid extract made from the wood.
+
+It was principally used with mordants of aluminium or tin salts,
+for dyeing wool bright, fast shades of yellow, or, with the aid of
+bichromate of potash as a mordant, for obtaining mixed shades, in
+conjunction with indigo, cutch, madder, and logwood. It has been
+almost entirely replaced now by fast modern dyestuffs.
+
+_Logwood._—The most important of all these dyestuffs, and the only
+one still used on a large scale, is logwood, a dye extracted from
+the wood of quite a large tree, the _haematoxylon Campechianum_ (the
+“blood-red wood from Campeachy”), which grows freely in the West
+Indies and Central American states.
+
+It was discovered and used by the Spaniards early in the sixteenth
+century, and in Queen Elizabeth’s reign was introduced into England,
+much against the wishes of the older school of dyers who furiously
+denounced it as producing fugitive colors, and had its use prohibited
+by Act of Parliament. It was over a hundred years before the real
+value of the dyestuff was appreciated, and this law was repealed.
+
+The operation of extracting the coloring matter from the wood
+itself, of which it forms only some three per cent. by weight, is
+a troublesome and delicate one. The logs are chipped or rasped
+into fine pieces, then moistened and piled in heaps and the color
+developed by a process of fermentation. Accordingly, extracts
+of logwood have been put on the market by various large firms,
+especially of late years, and, while the use of the wood itself by
+dyers has for the most part been abandoned, these extracts are widely
+used for dyeing blacks upon silk, in spite of there now being many
+excellent acid blacks.
+
+The dyeing process, too, is rather complicated, for the goods must
+be carefully mordanted before dyeing, with salts of iron, chromium,
+or tin. For this reason wool is rarely dyed with logwood. It is,
+however, still used for silk dyeing, partly because it gives very
+full, deep, permanent shades of black, but principally because, by
+using one mordant after another before dyeing, it is possible to
+increase enormously the weight of the dyed silk, at very moderate
+expense.
+
+_Turkey Red._—The use of madder which, as before mentioned, was
+probably known to the ancients, was greatly developed during the
+sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, owing to the introduction from
+the near East of the so-called Turkey red process for obtaining, upon
+cotton and wool, very fast and very brilliant shades of scarlet.
+
+The process took some three months, and consisted of an elaborate
+series of mordanting operations, before the dyeing proper began. The
+goods were first soaked in a bath of some fatty material, such as
+milk or, later, rancid olive oil, and then dried carefully. After
+this they were soaked in a bath of alum and then in limewater, or a
+chalk bath—and these operations were repeated over and over, with
+various manipulations in between.
+
+Finally, the mordanted material was dyed by boiling it in a bath
+containing the finely-ground madder root, and then “brightened” by
+washing out, in a boiling soap bath, all the loose color and the
+unfixed mordant. This process was repeated until the proper shade was
+reached.
+
+During the early part of the nineteenth century, various extracts
+of madder were made, by treating the ground root with strong
+sulphuric acid and other agents, which destroyed the woody tissues
+and other inert matter, without injuring the coloring matter. The
+dyeing process also was greatly simplified and shortened. Later the
+real active principles of the madder root were investigated, and
+found to be two crystalline bodies named alizarine and purpurine,
+respectively. And finally, several years after aniline dyestuffs
+had been discovered and manufactured, two German chemists, Graebe
+and Liebermann, discovered a method for making these very identical
+substances out of coal tar.
+
+Since that time the cultivation and use of madder has disappeared
+almost entirely. But real Turkey red is manufactured to-day, and
+in very large quantities—and, though freely imitated by inferior
+products, the modern Turkey red is just as fast to light and to
+washing as it ever was in the past, and possesses a brilliance and a
+lustre which never could have been obtained formerly. The process,
+however, is completed now in hours, not days, and instead of yielding
+a few shades of red and purple, the alizarine colors have been added
+to until they cover a large range of blues, purples, reds, oranges,
+yellows, and browns, all of them as fast as the original Eastern
+products, and all of them made from coal tar.
+
+The dyes already mentioned were the ones which, after hundreds of
+years of experiment, proved to be of distinct value. Many of them
+were expensive in themselves and, in almost every case, the process
+of dyeing with them was a quite complicated one, worked out by
+generations of practical dyers, and passed down from father to son as
+a precious trade secret.
+
+Besides these there were, in almost every community, certain special
+formulæ and recipes for obtaining, by comparatively simple methods,
+dyes of varying degrees of value from more or less common vegetable
+materials. Some of these are occasionally met with to this day.
+Thus, in the province of Quebec, well down on the St. Lawrence, the
+French Canadian women still dye their homespun worsteds an orange
+shade of yellow, of very moderate fastness to light, by boiling them
+with the skins of the yellow or brown onions. And they get a pretty,
+but fugitive, shade of golden yellow by using the dried flowers of
+the goldenrod.
+
+Some recipes from the mountain districts of North Carolina, where
+the sheep are raised and sheared, and the wool carded, spun, dyed,
+and woven into homespun, are unique, and wool dyed with them shows
+extremely good color. Thus, for green, we are told to “Git blackjack
+or black oak bark, and bile it right good, and put in a li’l piece of
+alum. This makes the pur’tiest green, mighty nigh, that ever was.”
+And for purple and black the instructions are to “git maple bark and
+bile it. Throw in a grain of copperas and put in your wool. Bile it
+just so long if you want purple, and longer if you want black. The
+longer you bile it the darker it gits.”
+
+Recipes like these can be picked up in country districts all over the
+land to this day, and where no other coloring agents can be obtained,
+they may still be of some use. They are to be compared, however, to
+the somewhat similar recipes of the herb or “yarb” doctor, now almost
+extinct, who concocted various brews and teas and messes from roots
+and leaves, and administered them as valuable remedies.
+
+Useful these brews undoubtedly were in their day, when it was
+impossible to get better medicines at any price, and the available
+drugs, even in large cities, were few and costly and but little
+understood. But who of us would now prefer to treat a serious illness
+with herb tea when within reach of even a third-class drug store?
+
+And so to-day, when modern dyestuffs, even if not of the very best
+varieties, can be bought in packages at the nearest grocery or
+druggist, who has time to waste upon the laborious processes and
+messy, uncertain formulæ of former and unscientific ages?
+
+
+MINERAL DYES
+
+Tribes and nations in different parts of the world seem, at a
+comparatively early date, to have found out the art of coloring and
+staining textiles with mineral compounds. Iron springs, containing
+iron salts in solution, are found in many countries; and such springs
+are always noteworthy from the taste of the waters, and the color of
+the sediments left when the water stands exposed to the air.
+
+Therefore discovery of the fact that those waters would impart
+a permanent and quite pleasing orange or reddish-brown color to
+textiles was perfectly natural.
+
+=Iron Buff.=—Accordingly, in different parts of the world, people
+learned to dip cloths in these springs and then expose them to the
+air, thus dyeing them this iron rust color, commonly called by dyers
+“iron buff.” When iron became a common metal, it was found that any
+soluble salt of iron would act as a dyeing solution, just as well
+as a natural iron spring; and hence we find use made, in widely
+separated countries, of iron salts for dyeing.
+
+This iron buff is used to this day, though of course it has lost the
+importance it had in the past. The red sails of the fishermen in the
+Mediterranean show this color; and it is a useful and interesting
+dye for weavers of hand-made rugs, curtains, and the like, because
+of its pleasing tone and great permanence. On the other hand, it is
+very likely to rub; and it fills the fibre of the cloth with mineral
+matter, thereby making the material stiff and hard to sew or cut.
+
+_Preparation._—Our colonial ancestors made this color cheaply enough.
+They carefully saved all the scraps of iron and steel that they could
+find—old horseshoes, broken knife blades, etc., etc.—and placed them
+in a barrel half filled with vinegar and water. Little by little
+the iron dissolved in the acid and, when it was strong enough, the
+housewife would soak her homespun cloth, or other material, in the
+solution, warming and stirring it, and making it absorb as much
+of the liquor as possible. Then she would take it out, wring it
+thoroughly, rinse it slightly, and dip it for a minute or two in
+another barrel half filled with a water extract of wood ashes.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE II. JAPANESE TOWELLING, SHOWING IMPRESSION OF
+FRESH DAMP LEAVES]
+
+After removing from the solution and wringing again, the goods were
+shaken out and exposed to the air for some minutes, during which time
+the color would develop—in other words, would make its final change
+to yellow or orange, or even to brownish-red, according to the amount
+of iron absorbed by the fibre.
+
+The process, nowadays, is much the same, excepting that, for the
+first or iron bath, it is cheaper and easier to use a solution of
+the green crystalline iron salt, known as copperas, or as _ferrous_
+(iron) _sulphate_. This can be obtained at, or through, any drug
+store at a very low price, as it is not necessary to buy a chemically
+pure product. The ordinary commercial salt is as pure as the work
+requires; this dissolves quite readily in warm water.
+
+The amount of copperas to be used, to dye a particular lot of
+material a particular shade, can only be determined by experience and
+experiment. It is always easy to build up a color, i.e., to deepen
+its shade if it is too light, by dipping the fabric over again in
+the same dye-bath. Indeed there is a general rule to be observed in
+dyeing all colors like this iron buff or the manganese brown—as well
+as the sulphur and indigo colors, which will be described later—that
+are developed, or fixed, by exposure to the air. Whenever dark shades
+of these colors are desired, they should be produced by successive
+dippings in weak baths, rather than by one or two dippings in strong
+baths. This avoids rubbing, as far as possible, and lessens the
+injury to the cloth fibre. In general, it is best to start with a
+dye-bath containing some three or four tablespoonfuls of copperas to
+one gallon of hot water.
+
+For the second, or fixing, bath—that is, the alkali bath—it is now
+customary to use a solution of soda instead of the extract made
+from wood ashes. Either cooking soda (bicarbonate of soda) or the
+stronger washing soda or soda crystals, known to the chemist as
+carbonate of soda, will be satisfactory, and instead of soda the
+corresponding potash salts may be used, though these are usually
+more expensive. It is possible, too, to use a bath of the so-called
+caustic soda, or caustic potash, known to the chemist as hydroxide of
+soda and hydroxide of potash. But these, as the name implies, must
+be handled with care because, when strong, they are likely to burn
+the hands and clothes. Careful analyses of dyed mummy cloths show
+that the ancient Egyptians were accustomed to use for their second or
+fixing bath, a solution of slaked lime, or lime water.
+
+_Khaki._—By mixing in the first bath of copperas or other iron salt
+an equal quantity of chrome alum, and then fixing and developing as
+above, a certain amount of greenish chromium oxide is deposited in
+the fibre along with the oxide of iron. This gives rise to the shade
+known as “khaki.” Sometimes shaded a little with manganese brown,
+this was the regular dye for the army uniforms, until the recent
+introduction of the extremely fast and very satisfactory vat dyes.
+
+_Uses._—Iron buff is chiefly used for cotton, linen, and other
+vegetable fabrics; on them it gives pleasant, warm shades of orange
+and reddish-brown. But on wool, and especially on silk, it is not so
+satisfactory, owing to its tendency to roughen and injure the fibre.
+Indeed, in the case of silk, it is likely to greatly diminish, or
+even to destroy, the lustre. On cotton and linen, however, it has
+great fastness to light and to washing. Indeed, every one who has
+tried to get rust stains out of a garment or a piece of table linen
+knows how hard a matter it is to get rid of the color.
+
+Another important reason for using this dye is that the coloring
+agents are very cheap, and are easily obtained in any quantities.
+It has, however, some serious disadvantages, one of which is that
+the color, especially in dark shades, is very liable to rub. This
+can best be obviated by building up the shades with successive
+dippings; and by thoroughly washing the finished goods in a hot soap
+bath. The dyed goods are pretty certain to be a little stiff, and
+therefore hard to sew or cut, owing to the fact that the final color
+is composed of iron rust. When vegetable fibres are filled with a
+mineral matter they are naturally stiffer and harder than they were
+originally.
+
+Then there is the final objection on the part of professional dyers
+to this color, as well as to all the other developed colors, i.e.,
+those colors fixed by exposure to the air. It is not easy to get a
+smooth, even color with them, and it is very difficult to dye to
+shade. For handicraft work, where these two points are of minor
+importance as compared with the beauty of the color, this objection
+is not so serious, but where it is necessary to dye large amounts of
+yarn or cloth to a definite shade with this, or similar, dyes, it is,
+as a rule, far easier to use a dyestuff which does not materially
+change its shade after the goods leave the dye-bath.
+
+_Iron Grey._—Soon after the discovery, in different localities, of
+the iron buff color, it was discovered that by the action of various
+vegetable extracts upon the iron salts, dark grey stains could be
+produced which, under certain conditions, would be fairly fast to
+light and washing.
+
+This color was, later, found to be due to the combination with iron
+of the peculiar vegetable acid called tannic acid or tannin. This
+is found in small quantities in the juices of twigs and leaves of
+many varieties of plants, and, until the introduction of the modern
+dyestuffs, this process offered the chief method of obtaining grey
+or black shades upon cotton. At present it is rarely, if ever, used
+for that purpose, but the compound is still the basis of most of the
+writing inks on the market.
+
+To make this color, the cloth is soaked for some time in a solution
+of an iron salt—nitrate of iron, formed by boiling a solution of
+copperas for a minute or two with a few drops of nitric acid, is
+preferable to the untreated copperas—and then, after being wrung and
+slightly rinsed, it is plunged into a bath containing tannic acid.
+This can be made by dissolving a few tablespoonfuls of the dry tannic
+acid in some water, or by making a hot infusion of the leaves, twigs,
+or bark of any plant or tree containing it. Tea leaves contain much
+tannin, and so do unripe English walnuts and butternuts. Acorns,
+oak leaves with nut galls on them, the green twigs of alders, and
+hazelnut bushes, have all been used to form this color.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE III. SAME TOWELLING AS IN PLATE II, AFTER
+IMMERSION IN IRON SPRING. THE ROUND WHITE PATTERNS ARE MADE BY TIEING]
+
+The grey color quickly develops and, after rinsing, the material can
+be dried and pressed, or dipped again to obtain a deeper shade, first
+into the iron and then into the tannin bath. The color is a pleasant,
+soft shade of grey or, if dyed deeply, a black. It is fast to
+washing, and fairly so to light, though it may become rusty on
+standing; like the iron buff, it is not fast to acids.
+
+Some interesting examples of the dyeing of cotton cloth with iron
+buff and iron grey are shown in Plate I. They came from the mineral
+springs at Arima, near Kobe in Japan, where the waters are so
+saturated with iron salts, that comparatively short immersion, and
+exposure to air, will bring out a deep orange shade. The Japanese,
+not content with dyeing their goods plain colors, have for many
+generations utilized these springs in the production of figures and
+designs on the cloth. Plate V is an example of stencil work, where
+the white patterns are made by covering parts of the cloth with a
+“resist paste” which protects whatever it is in contact with from the
+action of the coloring agent.
+
+Plate II shows a piece of soft calico on which impressions of leaves
+have been made by placing fresh juicy leaves between two pieces of
+cloth, and beating them with wooden mallets.
+
+Plate III shows the same piece of cloth as in Plate II, after
+immersion in the iron spring, and exposure to air. The tannin from
+the leaf juice converts some of the iron oxide into iron grey; while
+the white figures are made by tying the cloth with string or tape
+(Tied and Dyed work) before dyeing it.
+
+So far as we can tell, these two were the only mineral colors
+known to the ancients. Several other mineral colors, however,
+were in common use by the cotton dyers in the days preceding the
+introduction of modern dyestuffs, but it is hardly worth while to
+dwell here on many of them. Yellow and orange shades were obtained by
+impregnating cloth with lead salts, and then developing with a bath
+of chromate or bichromate of potash, with more or less caustic alkali
+added for the darker shades.
+
+Prussian blue, too, was used as a substitute for the more expensive
+indigo. This was formed by using the nitrate of iron for the first
+bath, and then developing the color with a bath of yellow prussiate
+(_ferrocyanide_) of potash. These colors, however, are so far
+inferior in their application, and in fastness to light and to
+rubbing, to the colors now at our command, that they have disappeared
+entirely for textile work, though they are still widely used for
+pigments.
+
+=Manganese Bronze (Manganese Brown, Bistre).=—There is one good
+mineral color, however, which came into use early in the last
+century and which, while hardly ever used by professional dyers, is
+of interest to craftsmen. This color, in its chemical composition,
+greatly resembles the iron buff. It is quite cheaply produced
+by first impregnating the cloth to be dyed with a solution of a
+manganese salt (_manganese chloride_ is the cheapest), and then, by
+means of a second bath of alkali, forming a deposit on the fibre of
+pink _manganese hydroxide_—corresponding to the greenish _ferrous
+hydroxide_—which, on exposure to the air, absorbs oxygen and forms
+the final brown color.
+
+Unfortunately the alkali used in this case must be caustic
+alkali—_potassium hydroxide_ or _sodium hydroxide_—and not one of the
+mild alkalies like the carbonates or bicarbonates, which will do for
+the iron color. And, therefore, although it is rather more expensive,
+and is somewhat liable to weaken the fabric, it is generally more
+convenient to obtain this color by a one-bath process. A purple
+solution of the salt known as _permanganate of potash_, is prepared
+and the cloth dipped. After being immersed it is wrung carefully and
+shaken out, and the red or purplish color gradually changes into the
+final brown. As soon as this change has taken place the goods should
+be plunged into a hot soap bath and thoroughly scoured, both to
+remove any loosely adhering particles of color which cause rubbing,
+and to prevent tendering of the cloth.
+
+The latter danger, however, is always present with this process and,
+therefore, full shades should not be dyed excepting on heavy, strong
+goods like rugs or very coarse yarns or cloth. Even then it should be
+done carefully and by successive dippings, with a careful washing,
+after the color has been developed in the air, between each bath.
+
+This injury to the cloth which, hitherto, has been the great drawback
+to the permanganate process, can be avoided by dipping the goods,
+as soon as possible after leaving the dye-baths, into a solution
+containing glucose, as, for instance, two or three spoonfuls of
+Karo (corn syrup) or molasses in each gallon of hot water. Directly
+the purple-stained cloth touches this solution the color changes to
+brown, without affecting the strength of the materials.
+
+This color, like the other mineral colors, is rarely, if ever, to be
+used on silk, being altogether too likely to injure the texture and
+the lustre of the material.
+
+In at least one instance, however, it has been used on animal
+fibres with considerable success. During the critical part of the
+Boer war, it was at one time necessary for England to put as many
+of her troops as possible—especially her mounted troops—into the
+field. Among others the Scots Greys, distinguished at Waterloo and
+made famous in many other bloody campaigns as a fine old fighting
+regiment, were ordered to the front. There is a tradition, dating
+back over two hundred years, that the horses of this regiment must
+all be either white or grey in color. Some heaven-sent genius at the
+Horse Guards—the English War Department—hinted quite forcibly to
+the authorities that to send out a cavalry regiment on white horses
+to face the Boer sharpshooters, was rather a dangerous experiment.
+The authorities, therefore, consulted a well-known dyeing chemist.
+He advised them to send down, on the troopship, some kegs of
+permanganate; and to instruct the officers and men to sponge each
+horse with a weak solution of the salt, every day at “Stables.” This
+was done, and, in consequence, long before reaching Cape Town, the
+skin and hair of every horse was thoroughly colored a soft, quiet
+shade of brown.
+
+The color produced by permanganate varies, according to the strength
+of the solution, or rather with the number of dips in comparatively
+weak solutions, from a light brownish tan to a full, rich, soft, seal
+brown. Pleasant shades, too, can be obtained by dyeing first with
+the iron rust dye and then covering with the permanganate. This color
+is discharged, not only from textiles but from the hands, by soaking
+in a solution of _sodium hydrosulphite_ (commonly used in dyeing
+indigo) and then washing.
+
+
+PRACTICAL DYEING
+
+Before proceeding to the practical dyeing instruction it is well to
+say a few words about the equipment needed for the work.
+
+Fortunately no elaborate or expensive outfit is necessary, even
+for the beginner. And after one has had a little experience, it is
+astonishing what an amount of interesting, and even important work
+can be turned out with a few of the very simplest utensils. The
+essentials may be set down as follows:
+
+  Dye-pots.
+  Heating devices.
+  Stirring rods, or dye-sticks.
+  Wringers.
+  Drying arrangements.
+
+_Dye-pots._—For this purpose, common agateware vessels are best
+and most convenient. There should be varying sizes to accommodate
+different amounts of material to be dyed. The so-called “miner’s
+cups,” which are agateware cups holding a pint or more, are large
+enough for practical work, when single skeins are being dyed. For
+large pieces use the wash boilers which vary in capacity from one to
+five gallons. It is always best, especially for amateurs, to dye in
+one batch enough material to complete the work on hand, whether rug,
+portière, or piece of tapestry. This avoids the necessity of exactly
+matching the shade afterward.
+
+For three and a half to four pounds of cotton rags, such as are used
+in making rag carpets, three and one-half gallon pots are about the
+right size. This amount of material will be about enough for the
+filling for one rug about 6×4 feet, woven on a hand loom.
+
+_Heating Devices._—Work may be done over any flat-topped stove that
+burns wood or coal; gas is, of course, an advantage and so is an oil
+stove, as with these the heat may be regulated very exactly and much
+time saved. For actual work, a stove with space for four or five pots
+is the most convenient type to use.
+
+There should always be one large pot set aside for heating water,
+another for boiling out the raw goods, and still a third for boiling
+out and brightening the finished materials with soap, when very fast
+colors are used on cotton or linen; and each of these pots should be
+reserved for its special purpose and _not used_ for dyeing. This will
+avoid the danger of staining the goods.
+
+The top of a kitchen range will do for heating, but whenever
+possible, it is best to have a separate stove, so placed that the top
+of it will not be more than about twenty-four inches from the ground
+or floor. This enables the operator to look down into the dye-pot
+and so avoid strain, and the consequent excessive fatigue while
+stirring the goods.
+
+_Stirring Rods._—While the material is being dyed, it should be kept
+in constant motion. When working with small amounts of material, or
+with goods such as straw, raffia, muslin, or silk in skeins, which
+are delicate and easily spoiled, it is far more satisfactory in every
+way to use heavy glass rods for stirring. These are rather expensive.
+They are about fifteen inches in length and well rounded at the ends.
+If carefully handled and thoroughly washed, they are always clean
+and smooth. Care must, of course, be exercised in their use, as
+sudden variations of heat and cold may cause them to crack or chip,
+and lifting or stirring large quantities of heavy materials—anything
+above five pounds—is liable to break them. In these cases, it is
+best to use wooden dye-sticks. Broomsticks or dowel sticks, cut into
+two-foot lengths, with the ends rounded carefully by whittling with
+a sharp penknife, are excellent substitutes. For careful work it is
+necessary to have several sets of wooden dye-sticks—two for each main
+color at least—and these must be carefully washed each time after
+using, or they will stain cloth that is being dyed light shades. They
+are bound to get soft and rotten before very long, from the action of
+the alkali in the dye-baths, but they are easily replaced.
+
+Good rubber gloves are extremely useful while dyeing, to protect the
+hands not only from being stained and discolored by the dyes, but
+also from the action of the chemicals—especially while dyeing with
+indigo and other dyes wherein the caustic alkalies are employed.
+
+After some experience in the use of dye-sticks, however, it will be
+found comparatively easy to handle the materials, in and out of the
+dye-baths, with the sticks, without at any time taking hold of them
+with the hand. Nothing demonstrates more clearly the skill of the
+dyer than the ability to carry, immerse in the dye-bath, stir, take
+out, wring, and rinse the materials without getting stains on either
+clothes or fingers. On the other hand, the amount of slopping that
+can be accomplished by a careless, but enthusiastic, amateur must be
+lived with to be thoroughly appreciated.
+
+_Wringers._—Both before and after dyeing it is very important to have
+at hand a good clothes wringer, preferably with metal frame. In fact,
+for very careful work there should be two wringers; one to wring out
+the raw materials after boiling them in soap and water, or, if clean,
+in plain water, to insure that they are thoroughly and evenly wet;
+and the other to wring out the excess of dye-liquor from the goods
+before rinsing, or, as in some cases, before hanging up to oxidize.
+The rubber rolls of these wringers should be kept clean by scouring
+with soap and sapolio immediately after finishing the day’s work, and
+by carefully rinsing free from dye-liquor.
+
+It is always well to keep on hand near the wringer a supply of clean
+blotting paper, or cheap filter paper, or even soft, dry cheesecloth
+or muslin. For by wrapping the materials that have just been dyed, in
+any of these, and then running them backwards and forwards through
+the wringer, it is possible to dry them with a minimum of time and
+exposure. This is particularly important in the case of natural and
+artificial silks, either in skeins or scarfs, of ostrich feathers,
+and of other light and fragile materials.
+
+_Drying Arrangements._—Sufficient room should be provided for
+hanging up the cloth to dry. An ordinary clothes-line, conveniently
+fastened, is the best means of support. For special purposes, where
+the material handled is very delicate or where the work is done in
+a classroom, a simple clothes-horse made of thick glass tubing, one
+inch or so in diameter and supported on a wooden frame, will occupy
+the least possible space and give the best support.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER II
+
+                          MODERN DYESTUFFS
+
+
+The whole art and practice of dyeing was completely revolutionized
+once and forever, by the discovery in 1856 of the artificial dyestuff
+named mauveine, or, more commonly, mauve, a name, by the way, derived
+from the French name of the violet-colored mallow flower.
+
+The discovery was made accidentally, by a young chemical student,
+William Henry Perkin, while experimenting in a very crude and simple
+way, with a view to forming artificial quinine from a curious oily
+body known as aniline. This aniline was originally prepared by
+distilling indigo in a dry retort, and it had received its name from
+the native Javanese word “anil,” meaning indigo. While thus prepared
+it was, of course, very expensive. But about this time methods were
+invented for obtaining this same compound in practically unlimited
+quantities from coal tar—that heavy, foul-smelling refuse of gas
+works—which, up to that time, had been not only useless but actually
+a source of annoyance and expense to the gas companies.
+
+Perkin conceived the idea that, by partially burning or oxidizing
+it, this aniline might be changed into quinine. He made the
+experiment and there resulted a black molasses-like mass, very far
+removed from the white crystals he was hoping for. But by testing
+this with various chemicals, he found that hot alcohol dissolved
+part of it, and turned it into a violet liquid which had the power
+to dye silk and wool the same bright color. Finding that the color
+was fairly fast to light, and that it could be produced without too
+much expense, he took out a patent and, with the aid of his father
+and brother, set up near Manchester, England, the first factory for
+artificial dyestuffs.
+
+His discoveries were at once published, and chemists all over the
+world began to manufacture and experiment with the new dyestuffs.
+Great factories were started all over Europe. From this beginning the
+manufacture of coal-tar dyestuffs, and more recently all their allied
+compounds, has become one of the most important and most profitable
+of all chemical industries.
+
+The dyes first discovered, the so-called “Basic dyes,” were of great
+brilliancy and strength; but they were not of any particular beauty
+when used individually. Compared with the vegetable colors which
+preceded them, and especially the same shades we are accustomed
+to see in nature, these dyes were hard, coarse, crude, and very
+inartistic. This could be remedied, however, by mixing two or three
+of them together, such mixture tending to soften the different colors
+and blend all into pleasant and delicate shades.
+
+A more serious difficulty was the fact that those early dyestuffs
+were usually quite fugitive to light or, at any rate, far less fast
+than the best of the vegetable dyes that preceded them. Besides, they
+did not fade true. In other words, a piece of cloth might to-day be
+a bright red, and after a few days of exposure to the sunlight, the
+exposed portions might turn a yellow, a white, or even some dark
+color; and, in any case, the change would entirely spoil the original
+color scheme.
+
+By 1868, however, the artificial manufacture of alizarine, first by
+two German chemists, and then by Perkin himself, served to open up
+another whole class of new dyestuffs, which, when submitted to the
+proper tests, proved to be exceedingly fast both to light and to
+washing. In consequence, within a few years after this discovery, the
+commercial use of madder was everywhere abandoned. Chemists could now
+produce on cotton, linen, wool, and silk, practically the whole range
+of colors, brilliant and dull, hard and soft, light and dark, not
+only of a beauty, but of a fastness to light and to washing, never
+before surpassed, if indeed equalled.
+
+[Illustration: AT THE AGE OF 14]
+
+[Illustration: AT THE AGE OF 22]
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  AT THE TIME OF THE COAL-TAR COLOR JUBILEE—50 YEARS AFTER HIS
+  DISCOVERY OF MAUVEINE
+
+SIR W. H. PERKIN]
+
+Since that time, not a year has gone by without scores of new
+dyestuffs being put on the market by some of the great color houses.
+Of late years special efforts have been made to simplify dyeing
+processes, and at the same time to insure the fastness as well as
+the beauty of the colors. At the present time it is possible for the
+veriest amateur, with practically no previous knowledge of chemistry
+or of dyeing, and with only intelligence enough to follow some simple
+directions, to get, in one bath, with very little expenditure of
+time, an immense variety of shades that are exceedingly fast to light
+and to washing. A very few years ago this result could not possibly
+have been obtained, except by some expert dyer, and then only after
+long and tedious, as well as difficult, processes.
+
+We are all familiar with the constant complaint that it is now
+impossible to get goods dyed or printed in good, fast colors. For
+instance, take the brilliant scarlet calico commonly known as Turkey
+red. In the days of our grandfathers a piece of cloth dyed Turkey
+red would stand rain and sun, washing and scouring, and the _fibre_
+would wear out before the _color_ would fade. But nowadays, if you
+buy Turkey red cloth for the purpose of covering cushions for a
+piazza-lounge, you will be fortunate if the color does not begin to
+change after three or four days in the open air.
+
+The reason is simple. In the old days the _only_ way to get that
+particular shade was by dyeing the cloth with ground-up madder root,
+through a series of operations lasting the best part of two months.
+Now any capable dyer would be able to dye cotton that exact shade
+with any of, say, twenty different colors, most of which would not
+require more than one or two hours to dye. Out of these twenty
+dyestuffs, four or five, rather more expensive than the rest, would
+give just as fast, just as brilliant, and just as strong color as the
+good old madder color. But the rest, which are distinctly cheaper and
+easier to apply, would furnish goods which would _look_ exactly the
+same to the average purchaser, but which might not _last_ any time at
+all.
+
+Naturally, the average manufacturer carefully instructs his dyer to
+furnish him with the “cheap and nasty” goods, not only because it
+costs less money, but also, unfortunately, because he reasons that
+“it will be good for business.” The manufacturer has the greatest
+sympathy with the inclination of the fastidious housewife to throw
+away anything that looks faded, and to buy in its place something
+new and fresh. Curtains or portières that hold their original shade
+indefinitely, he has little or no patience with. A calico dress that
+keeps its color so that it can be worn for a second summer, is an
+abomination not to be endured. And in every case, when complaint is
+made, it is always said to be the fault of the chemist who produced
+and put on the market such “horrid, fugitive dyes.”
+
+As a matter of fact, it is simply a case of picking and choosing.
+There have been discovered, so far, several thousand different
+coal-tar dyestuffs of all sorts and kinds. Out of these, probably
+one hundred, or less, can be considered really fast to both light
+and washing. The remaining ones, most of which never were considered
+valuable enough to put on the market, vary in degrees of fastness,
+the poorest being simply stains which will “bleed” indefinitely with
+moderate washing, and which will turn almost any color after exposure
+for a few hours to sun and weather.
+
+In the following pages, considerable pains will be taken to emphasize
+the names and properties of the very best and fastest dyestuffs in
+the different classes,[1] so that the results of work done with them
+can be depended upon.
+
+[1] In some classes there are no absolutely fast dyestuffs.
+
+
+Perhaps the most interesting thing, in connection with the whole
+subject of the artificial dyestuffs, is the enormous influence that
+they have had upon the life of the whole human race. This influence
+was but slightly appreciated, even by the chemists themselves,
+until a few years ago. The awakening dates from the time of the
+fiftieth anniversary of the discovery of mauveine, when from one end
+of the world to the other, honors were showered upon Sir William
+Henry Perkin, then grown old and nearing the end of his useful and
+prosperous life. It was then announced, and was for the first time
+generally recognized as true, that no one of the great discoveries
+of the nineteenth century—the steam locomotive, the steamship, the
+telephone, the telegraph, the gas light, the electric light, and the
+rest—had been more important to the world at large than the discovery
+of the first coal-tar dye. And probably never in the history of
+the world have such enormous results been produced from a single
+discovery, during the lifetime of the discoverer himself.
+
+
+THE ARTIFICIAL DYESTUFFS
+
+The artificial dyestuffs form such a large body of complicated
+chemical compounds, that at first glance it would seem hopeless for
+any one who is not a trained chemist, to attempt to get any clear
+or definite ideas about them. This, indeed, would be the case if any
+attempt were made to study them chemically, i.e., with reference to
+their composition, or their method of manufacture; but when it comes
+to the application of them to the various textile fabrics and other
+materials, for which dyes are valuable, we soon find that the problem
+is not so very difficult after all.
+
+To be sure there are many hundreds of different dyes on the market
+now, great numbers of which are known under three or four different
+trade names, according to the trade-mark of each particular
+manufacturer. But besides the great manufacturers, and their
+accredited agents, there are numerous retail agencies all over the
+country, large and small, which make a business of distributing dyes
+made by the great concerns. Some of these are very energetic, and
+have pushed the sale of artificial dyestuffs in ten- and fifteen-cent
+packages, until in almost every village, large enough to boast of a
+decent country store, these dyes can be obtained.
+
+It is common to hear these dyes sneered at and abused. They are
+frequently referred to, especially by those of “artistic tastes,”
+as harsh and crude in color, fugitive to light and washing, and, in
+short, generally inferior and worthless products. This is not the
+case. They are, in some cases, individual dyestuffs, and in other
+cases, mixtures, generally belonging to the class of colors next to
+be described, the Salt dyes; and very good, if not indeed the very
+best specimens of that class. These Salt dyes, until the last few
+years, were far from fast, either to light or washing; but the more
+recent members of the class are much more satisfactory, and these
+colors, too, are found in the fifteen-cent packages.
+
+Nor, too, can objection be fairly taken to the shades as being crude
+and harsh. That is all a matter of taste and skill on the part of the
+dyer. There is no better practice in dyeing than to take the very
+hardest, clearest, most brilliant red, blue, and yellow colors that
+can be found at the corner grocery and, following the directions on
+the packages, proceed to dye yarn or cheesecloth with them, at first
+using the individual dyes, and afterwards modifying the shade of one
+dye with traces of each of the other two. The softness and richness
+of the tones that can be thus obtained will satisfy the most critical.
+
+The real objection to these widely distributed popular dyes is a
+very different one. They are not sold under their own names, and
+therefore it is almost impossible to identify them. To be sure, from
+the accompanying directions it is possible for a trained dyer to
+recognize at once the class to which the dyestuff belongs. But it is
+impossible for him, excepting after a long, tedious and often very
+troublesome analysis, to tell just what member or members of that
+particular class is contained in any given package. For this reason
+the dyer who has to depend on them for an important piece of work is
+in much the same position as a doctor would be who had to treat a
+difficult case with patent medicines compounded after secret formulæ.
+
+In the following chapters, a discussion of each class of dyestuffs,
+and an explanation of their application and general properties will
+be followed by lists of three or four of the very best colors, sold
+by the New York agents of six of the largest and most reliable color
+manufacturers.
+
+Workers wishing to obtain these dyes in comparatively large
+quantities, say one pound and upwards, can get them by writing
+directly to the addresses in the following table:
+
+  _Badische_— The Badische Anilin & Soda Fabrik,
+                        128 Duane St.,
+                            N. Y. City.
+
+  _Cassella_— The Cassella Co.,
+                        184 Front St.,
+                            N. Y. City.
+
+  _Elberfeld_—The Farbenfabriken of Elberfeld Co.,
+                        117 Hudson St.,
+                            N. Y. City.
+
+  _Kalle_—    Kalle & Co.,
+                        530 Canal St.,
+                            N. Y. City.
+
+  _Klipstein_—A. Klipstein & Co.,
+                        Agent for Society of Chemical Industry of Basle,
+                            654 Greenwich St.,
+                                N. Y. City.
+
+  _Metz_—     Farbwerke-Hoechst Co., formerly H. A. Metz & Co.,
+                        Agent for the Meister Lucius & Bruning Co.,
+                            122 Hudson St.,
+                                N. Y. City.
+
+N. B. Further information concerning dyestuffs, apparatus, textiles,
+chemicals, etc., connected with this work may be obtained on writing
+to the author at 7 West 43rd St., New York.
+
+
+THE NAMING OF MODERN DYESTUFFS
+
+It is important to remember that, in order to identify a color
+by name, it is necessary to know three things: first, the trade
+name; second, the shade, or distinguishing, letter; and third, the
+manufacturer or agent. The trade name sometimes bears a reference
+to the class, properties, or color of the dye, as “fast acid blue”;
+or to its chemical composition, as “methylene blue,” or “diamine
+red”; but in most cases it is simply an arbitrary name, given by the
+original discoverer when the patents were issued, or assigned later
+by the manufacturer or his local agents.
+
+The letter or letters, following the name, refer generally to the
+shade, as for instance, B for blue, R for red, Y or G for yellow
+(German _gelb_), and so on. Thus “methyl violet” is sold in brands
+running all the way from 6 B to 6 R—that is, from full purple shades
+that are very close to blue, to bright violet shades, very close to
+red. Sometimes, however, the letter refers to the composition of
+the dye or its class, as “fuchsine S” (German _sauer_) often called
+acid fuchsine or acid magenta; or “alizarine blue, D,” when the D
+indicates a “direct” cotton color. And sometimes the letter F is used
+to indicate fastness to light, in which case “F F” would signify a
+brand of very unusual fastness, for that particular class of colors
+at any rate.
+
+But not infrequently the letter is merely a mark applied for purposes
+of identification, whose significance cannot easily be learned by
+those not in the business of color selling, even when it is not a
+secret closely guarded by the particular firm supplying the dyestuff.
+
+For this reason, the name of the manufacturer or agent should
+_always_ be added to the color name and letter, if it is important
+to get a particular color in any case. The best of the older dyes
+are manufactured by all of the larger firms, of substantially the
+same strength and shades, although often not under the same names.
+The later colors, whose patents have not expired, are of course the
+individual property of the different manufacturers, and can be,
+and are, marketed by them under any name they like to give them.
+Accordingly it frequently happens that two different firms may sell,
+under the same name, two entirely different colors; it would be
+impossible to tell which dyestuff was intended unless the firm name
+were attached.
+
+But with these three essentials correctly given—name, brand, and
+maker—a color can be identified and obtained true in composition and
+shade, even after the lapse of many years.
+
+
+CLASSIFICATION OF THE COAL-TAR COLORS AVAILABLE FOR CRAFTSMEN.
+
+  _Class Name._
+      | _Materials on which to be used._
+      |    | _How applied._
+      |    |    | _How developed._
+      |    |    |    | _How finished._
+      |    |    |    |
+  I. Direct Cotton or Salt Colors:
+      | Cotton, linen, and artificial silk. Rarely wool and silk.
+      |    | In boiling water, with addition of salt.
+      |    |    |    | By rinsing in water.
+      |    |    |    |
+  II. Sulphur Colors:
+      | Cotton and linen. Rarely silk.
+      |    | In hot or lukewarm water, with addition of soda, sodium
+      |    | sulphide, salt, and Turkey red oil.
+      |    |    | By exposure to air after wringing.
+      |    |    |    | By washing in a hot soap bath, and rinsing.
+      |    |    |    |
+  III. Indigo or Vat Colors:
+      | Cotton and linen. Rarely silk. Also as stencil pastes on cotton
+      | and linen.
+      |    | In hot or warm water, with addition of caustic soda and
+      |    | sodium hydrosulphite.
+      |    |    | By exposure to air after wringing. Some colors must be
+      |    |    | developed by boiling in a soap bath.
+      |    |    |    | By washing in a hot soap bath, and rinsing.
+      |    |    |    | Stencilled work, by steaming and washing in hot
+      |    |    |    | soap bath.
+      |    |    |    |
+  IV. Basic Colors:
+      | Raffia, straw, rattan, and basketry in general. Artificial silk.
+      | Leather. Rarely wool and silk. Also as stencil pastes on cotton,
+      | linen, and silk.
+      |    | In hot or warm water, with addition of a little acetic acid
+      |    | (vinegar).
+      |    |    |    | Raffia, etc., finished by rinsing in water.
+      |    |    |    | Leather by rubbing with wax when dry. Stencilled
+      |    |    |    | work, by steaming and passing through a weak bath
+      |    |    |    | of Tartar Emetic.
+      |    |    |    |
+  V. Acid Colors:
+      | Wool, silk, and feathers. Sometimes leather. Rarely rattan and
+      | basketry.
+      |    | In hot or cold water with addition (for wool) of sulphuric
+      |    | acid and Glauber’s salt. For silk add soap and acid. For
+      |    | leather add a little acetic acid. For feathers add oxalic
+      |    | acid or formic acid.
+      |    |    |    | Wool needs very careful rinsing in water, to
+      |    |    |    | remove every trace of acid. Silk finished by
+      |    |    |    | a cold soap bath, followed by a weak bath of
+      |    |    |    | acetic acid. Leather finished with wax. Feathers
+      |    |    |    | finished with starch.
+      |    |    |    |
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER III
+
+                    DIRECT COTTON OR SALT COLORS
+
+
+Among the many changes made in the art of dyeing since the
+introduction of the coal-tar dyestuffs, perhaps the most important
+has been the gradual overcoming of the necessity for mordanting the
+textiles before coloring them in the dye-bath. Almost all of the old
+vegetable dyes were mordant dyes; that is, the color could not be
+fastened to the fibre, whether wool, cotton, linen, or even silk,
+unless the latter had been impregnated with some chemical which would
+act as a _mordant_ to—(i.e., would combine with and hold) the color.
+These mordants were, in general, the salts of some metal, aluminium,
+tin, chromium, and iron salts being the ones in common use; and the
+processes involved in properly mordanting the goods were in many
+cases—notably in the case of madder and the Turkey red process—far
+more difficult and tedious and expensive than the actual dyeing.
+
+The first dyestuffs discovered, the true aniline dyes, which were
+manufactured directly from aniline and from substances strongly
+resembling aniline in chemical composition, were at once found to
+act in a different manner on textile fibres. Animal fibres like wool
+and silk, fur and leather, were dyed by them directly, without the
+use of any mordant at all. If the dyestuff were dissolved in water
+(the addition of a little acid makes the color dissolve more readily,
+but is without other effect) and a wet skein of wool or silk were
+immersed in it, and a little heat applied, the color would leave the
+liquid, and fasten itself firmly on to the goods.
+
+But with cotton and linen and other vegetable fibres, these dyes
+would not work so well. When these materials are warmed in such a
+dye-bath, the color does not adhere to the fibres, but washes off
+directly in a hot soap bath, if not, indeed, under a stream of clear
+hot water. This was noticed by Perkin very soon after his famous
+discovery, and, wishing to use his new color for dyeing cotton and
+linen as well as silk and wool, he set to work to discover how to
+prepare these materials; in short, how to mordant them so that they
+too would take firm hold of the color. As will be described later
+in the chapter on Basic colors, his experiments soon led to the
+introduction and the use of tannic acid and tartar emetic combined,
+in a process widely used to this day.
+
+The next class of dyestuffs discovered were the so-called acid
+colors, thus named because they all exhibited distinctly acid
+properties—that is, they would form salts with the substances known
+as bases (of which last, by the way, aniline is an important member).
+These colors, like the earlier ones, would dye the animal fibres
+directly, but would not color the vegetable fibres, unless the
+latter were carefully mordanted with alumina, or iron oxide, or some
+similar metallic base. And even this treatment does not give colors
+that are fast to washing, so these acid colors are never used on
+cotton or linen.
+
+After this came the discovery of alizarine, and an important series
+of very fast and very valuable dyes, all of which were characteristic
+mordant colors. Even wool and silk, as well as every other textile,
+must be carefully mordanted with aluminium, chromium, or iron
+salts, in order to have any coloring effect produced by these
+dyestuffs. This is the chief reason why, in spite of their beauty
+and great permanence, the alizarine and other mordant colors are
+being less used every year. At the end of some twelve or thirteen
+years after the discovery of the aniline colors, therefore, it was
+still impossible to dye cotton with them without a more or less
+elaborate mordanting process. And yet the problem did not seem to be
+an impossible one. One of the natural dyes, the safflower, already
+mentioned, has the property of dyeing cotton pretty, and not very
+fugitive, shades of pink and rose colors, directly, without the
+necessity for any mordant; and if a natural dyestuff could do that
+why could not some artificial ones?
+
+Some thirty years ago, a chemist (one story says that it was a
+laboratory boy) while experimenting with a dyestuff which was then
+a recent discovery—Congo red, a very brilliant but fugitive and
+unstable scarlet color—noticed that while filtering a hot solution
+of it through filter paper, the paper was stained deeply, and, which
+was more important, the color was not easily washed out with hot
+water. This excited his curiosity, and after following the matter
+up a little, he found that not only this Congo red, but a whole
+series of dyestuffs formed in the same general way, had the power of
+dyeing cotton directly. This discovery has practically revolutionized
+the whole art of cotton dyeing. From these few bright and pretty,
+but distinctly untrustworthy dyes, which were at once named and
+advertised as “direct cotton colors,” have sprung great numbers of
+dyestuffs—several hundreds at least—of every conceivable shade, and
+of late years of every conceivable degree of fastness to light.
+All resemble the original Congo red in that they will dye cotton
+and linen, if not absolutely fast, at any rate very fairly fast to
+washing, in one bath, without the need of any mordants.
+
+This, of course, means that the cost of dyeing cloth with these
+dyes is very much less than with the other classes mentioned. And,
+by the way, it also explains why, under the name of Turkey red,
+so many extremely bad colors have been sold. To dye Turkey red on
+cotton, using alizarine, and with the most improved and simplified
+methods, necessitates at least six or seven different steps, each
+of which requires not only time and expense, but great skill and
+care; and any one of them, if carelessly performed, may spoil the
+goods. On the other hand, a mere beginner, by using one of the
+early, bright, direct colors (quite cheap in itself, because the
+patents have expired) can, by boiling the goods for half an hour in a
+dye-bath with a little soap and salt in it, produce a piece of cloth
+dyed almost the exact shade of the old Turkey red, for probably
+one-third, or one-quarter of the price. It will look the same on the
+shop counter; will probably sell just as well to the average, or even
+to the painstaking customer; but when exposed to air and light for a
+few weeks, perhaps even for a few days, will lose its brilliancy, and
+turn some queer, dull shade, probably of purple.
+
+Indeed this particular substitution has been going on for some
+years on a large scale; and at one time promised to be of some
+international importance. The Turkey red dyers in Manchester, a few
+years ago, complained bitterly to the English Government that their
+market in India was falling off very seriously; and they demanded an
+investigation, to know what was the matter.
+
+After careful inquiry by the local officials, word came back that
+there was no difference in the taste of the people for bright scarlet
+clothes and headgear. Just as much red was worn as ever before. But
+active agents of the large German color houses had been going through
+the country, introducing some of these cheap direct cotton scarlets
+and showing the natives how to use them. And in consequence, up and
+down India in all the little towns, even in the villages, local dyers
+were at work who, for a few cents, would dye up an old piece of
+calico bright red. When it became faded again in a few weeks, they
+would dye it over again for a very small sum, thus renewing the same
+piece whenever it was desirable to appear in bright, new clothes.
+
+_Names._—These dyes have long been made by all of the great firms,
+although two or three have made more of a specialty of them than the
+rest. It was soon found that the presence of common (table) salt in
+the dyestuffs was valuable, as lessening the waste of dyestuff in the
+dye-liquor, and also increasing the fastness to washing of the dyed
+goods. For this reason the common name given to this class is that of
+“Salt Colors.” Owing, however, to the fact that Congo red, the first
+discovered of the whole class, was derived from the chemical known as
+benzidine, these salt colors are sometimes referred to, in general,
+as the “Congo,” or as the “benzidine” dyes. Besides this they are
+frequently known as “cotton colors,” or “direct cotton colors.” The
+different manufacturers, however, have assigned certain class names
+to their own dyestuffs, as follows:
+
+     Benzo (_Elberfeld_); Diamine (_Cassella_); Dianil (_Metz_);
+            Mikado (_Elberfeld_); Naphthamine (_Kalle_);
+            Oxamine (_Badische_); Phenamine (_Badische_).
+
+_Uses._—These colors are chiefly used for dyeing cotton, linen,
+and paper. They take particularly well on mercerized cotton, and
+on some varieties of artificial silk. They can also be used to dye
+wool and silk, and, indeed, in many cases give colors faster, both
+to light and to washing, on these fibres than on cotton. As a rule
+they will not dye animal fibres excepting at a high temperature—near
+the boiling point—and in an acid bath. Whereas cotton and linen are
+preferably dyed in an alkaline or at least a neutral bath, and, while
+they must be boiled in the dye-bath for at all permanent results,
+will take the color as a stain at quite low temperatures.
+
+For this reason these dyes are often used for dyeing even shades in
+one bath, upon mixed goods—that is, wool and cotton, cotton and silk,
+etc. The goods are first dyed in a lukewarm bath till the cotton is
+nearly the proper shade, and then, on heating, the wool or silk will
+take up the color and, before long, catch up with the cotton. It
+must, however, be remembered that on cotton and linen these dyes are
+not, as a rule, at all fast to washing, unless they have been well
+boiled with the goods. When dyed on silk at a boil, they are fast to
+hot soap and water, a fact which, sometimes, is of much importance.
+
+
+DYEING DIRECTIONS
+
+=Dye-bath.=—The color must first be dissolved in water, care being
+taken not to leave any undissolved lumps or specks of color floating
+around in, or settled at the bottom of, the dye-bath. For this
+reason it is generally best, in all dyeing operations, first of all
+to make a decidedly strong solution of the color, by dissolving a
+considerable quantity of it (depending of course on the amount of
+goods to be dyed) in hot water, in a pitcher or saucepan. In the
+dyehouse this would be called a “stock solution,” and would always be
+made of a definite strength,—say five parts of color to one hundred
+of water—and kept well covered up. Sometimes in hot weather it would
+be treated with a little preservative like benzoate of soda, so that
+it could be used at any time it was needed. When this color solution
+is added to the dye-bath, it should always be carefully strained
+through a piece of cheesecloth or any other fine medium that will
+catch the specks and undissolved lumps. Otherwise spots are liable
+to appear, on the finished goods, which it is almost impossible to
+eradicate without stripping off every trace of color from the dyed
+material.
+
+_Water._—The dye-bath is prepared with plain water. The amount
+necessary for each lot of goods can only be told by experience. For
+some classes of dyes, like the Acid colors and the Basic colors,
+to be described later, the quantity of water makes but little
+difference. But for dark shades with these Salt colors it is best not
+to have more than enough water to thoroughly soak, and comfortably
+cover, the wetted goods, with enough room to stir and turn them
+easily. The dye-bath is now set on the stove to warm up and, when
+dyeing light or medium shades, some soap is usually dissolved in it.
+This is not absolutely necessary but helps to make the color go on
+more evenly, and penetrate the fibres better.
+
+_Soap._—For dyeing purposes in general, any pure, carefully made
+soap acts satisfactorily. For silk dyeing, and especially for silk
+finishing, it is said that greater lustre can be gained with olive
+oil (Castile) soap. But when this cannot be obtained, Ivory soap or
+Pears’ soap or, in fact, any good brand of bath or toilet soap will
+do almost as well. For the washing and finishing of wool and silk the
+use of strong laundry soaps should be avoided if possible, because
+they usually contain alkali, in the form of borax or of carbonate
+of soda, which is liable to “tender the goods.” For cotton and linen
+dyeing and finishing, this does not make any difference. The easiest
+way to add the soap to the dye-bath is to use it in one of the wire
+soap-shakers, which has a convenient handle, and holds half a cake or
+even a whole cake of soap at one time.
+
+=Even Dyeing.=—The goods should be well washed, rinsed, and wrung
+out, so as to be sure that they are free from dirt and grease, and
+have been thoroughly and evenly wet. They are then placed in the
+dye-bath, completely under the liquid, and stirred round and round
+and turned over and over with the dye-sticks. The chief objects in
+stirring are, first, to prevent part of the goods from resting on
+the bottom and then getting more heat than the rest of the material,
+in which case, naturally, it will become darker when finished; and
+second, to prevent the outside portion of the goods from getting more
+color than the inner portions. Accordingly the goods, when placed in
+the dye-bath, must be well opened up and, excepting when deliberately
+making patterns by the method described later under the name of
+“Tied and Dyed Work,” they should not be tied or entangled in knots
+or bunches. Every part must be equally exposed, by the turning and
+lifting and stirring, to the action of the color solution.
+
+If only light shades are desired, the goods are heated and turned
+until the proper shade has been reached—remembering always that,
+unless the color has been boiled on, it is likely to be only a stain
+which will wash off easily.
+
+_Salt._—For full and indeed for medium shades, it is customary to
+add to the dye-bath some agent—usually table salt or, when the shade
+is not very dark, phosphate of soda—which will make the color less
+soluble in the dye-liquor and will tend to throw it on the fibre.
+For, after all, there is comparatively little affinity between the
+cotton fibre and the dyestuff (far less than between silk or wool
+and the Acid or Basic colors), and when a skein is warmed or even
+boiled in the dye-bath a large proportion of the color remains in the
+liquid. The bath is not “exhausted” as the dyers say. Hence, if we
+try to dye full shades with these colors dissolved in water only, or
+in soap and water, it can only be done by using large quantities of
+the dyestuff, most of which will be wasted in the spent dye-liquor.
+
+For dark shades, then, where there is little danger of uneven dyeing,
+the goods are usually dyed for a short time with the color dissolved
+in hot water. And then, to deepen the shade, the goods are lifted,
+and common salt added in considerable quantities, three or four
+tablespoonfuls to the gallon, and stirred round till it is dissolved.
+Then the goods are put back and well boiled for half an hour or so,
+before the dyeing is considered complete. The presence of salt, by
+increasing the temperature of the boiling bath, also helps to make
+the dyed goods fast to washing.
+
+Soap cannot be used in the presence of so much salt for fear of its
+depositing on the fibre in spots and so causing trouble. For medium
+shades, however, where it is well to use soap in the dye-bath so
+as to have the color go on the fibre evenly, a little phosphate of
+soda is often employed instead of salt, one or two tablespoonfuls to
+the gallon, to diminish the waste of color, without making the soap
+insoluble.
+
+For the darker shades it is particularly important to thoroughly boil
+the goods for half an hour or more, before taking them out of the
+dye-bath. Otherwise the dyestuff will not penetrate the fibre, but
+will simply stain the surface, and will not only be easily washed
+off, with very mild soaping, but, when dry, will be apt to crack and
+rub.
+
+_Finishing._—After the materials have been dyed as just described,
+they should be taken out of the dye-bath, rinsed with water to wash
+off the excess of dye-liquor, and then shaken out and dried.
+
+When used in this way the best dyes of this class, such as those
+listed a little further on, will give, on cotton and linen, shades
+that are very fast to light, and fairly fast to washing. On wool and
+silk the shades are fast to both light and washing. For purposes of
+comparison it may be stated here what is generally meant by these
+terms.
+
+_Fastness to Light._—The test for light-fastness is usually made by
+partially covering a dyed skein with a piece of wood, or heavy piece
+of blotting paper, and exposing it to direct sunlight, back of a
+window with southern exposure. At intervals the skein is taken out
+and the color studied, and it is then easy to see whether any change
+has taken place in the portion of the goods exposed to the light.
+If the goods have faded appreciably in the space of one week, the
+dyestuff is considered _not fast_.
+
+If the color changes after two weeks’ exposure, but not after one
+week, it is to be considered _fairly fast_.
+
+If it stands for two weeks but fades in four weeks it is to be called
+_fast_.
+
+And if it resists, without appreciable change, the action of the
+summer sunlight for full four weeks, it is called _very fast_.
+
+It should be remembered, in this connection, that the comparative
+fastness to light depends largely (a) upon the materials to be dyed,
+and (b) upon the depth and shade of color used in the test. For
+instance, if a skein of heavy cotton yarn, and one of very fine,
+brilliant, artificial silk are dyed the same color, and exposed to
+light under the same conditions, the cotton skein will hold its
+color longer than the silk. The latter, being semi-transparent,
+allows the sunlight to pierce it through and through, while the more
+opaque cotton gives some distinct protection to the color that has
+penetrated beneath the surface. So, too, a dark shade of any given
+color will stand the light much better than a very light or delicate
+shade, for the same general reason. The color beneath the surface is
+protected from the direct action of the sun’s rays by the surface
+color.
+
+_Fastness to Washing._—The test for washing-fastness is made somewhat
+differently. A skein dyed a full shade with the color is twisted up
+with two white skeins, one of wool and the other of cotton, and
+the three are thoroughly scoured for ten minutes in a strong bath
+of good quality laundry soap, heated to 140°F. This temperature is
+uncomfortably hot for the hands and yet is well below the boiling
+point. A _fast_ color is one where, with this treatment, neither the
+soap liquor nor either one of the skeins becomes colored.
+
+If the soap liquor is colored but neither one of the skeins, the dye
+is called _fairly fast_.
+
+If the soap bath is tinged, and one or the other of the skeins
+becomes colored at the same time, the dye is considered _not fast_.
+
+It must, however, be borne in mind that before making this
+washing-test, all excess of dye-liquor must first be removed by
+thorough rinsing. And it should be remembered that even the fastest
+of the Salt colors, as well as of the Acid and Basic colors described
+later, when applied directly to the fibre, without mordanting or
+after-treating, are never as fast to washing as those where the
+dyestuff is fixed or developed in an insoluble form in the fibre,
+by the action of the air, as are the Sulphur and Vat colors—or
+by the action of mordants, as with the Alizarine colors—or by
+after-treatment with certain special chemicals, as with the Salt
+colors in the process described below. All dyes can, sooner or later,
+be dissociated from the fibres to which they are attached. But if
+they are in an insoluble condition they drop off in the form of a
+powder, and are washed clean off, and leave sharp, clear outlines
+on the dyed goods. If, however, they have gone on in solution
+they will go off in solution, and are liable to _bleed_, and stain
+light-colored fibres near them.
+
+The earlier dyestuffs of this class were deservedly criticised as
+being, even when carefully applied, much given to bleeding, and also
+distinctly fugitive to the action of sunlight.
+
+Of late years the quality of these dyestuffs has greatly improved,
+and the best of them, like those mentioned below, when carefully dyed
+on cotton, are fast, if not very fast to light, although for washing
+the very best can hardly be classed even as fairly fast, without
+after-treatment.
+
+_List of Selected Dyestuffs._—
+
+  Badische—   Oxamine Fast Red, F
+              Cotton, Yellow, G I
+              Stilbene Yellow, G K
+              Oxamine Blue, B
+              Cotton Black, E, extra
+
+  Cassella—   Diamine Fast Red, F
+              Diamine Fast Yellow, G G
+              Diamine Fast Blue, F F G
+              Diamine Fast Black, F
+
+  Elberfeld—  Benzo Fast Red, 8 B L
+              Benzo Fast Yellow, 4 B
+              Brilliant Fast Black, 4 B
+              Pluto Black, F, extra
+
+  Kalle—      Naphthamine Fast Red, H
+              Naphthamine Fast Yellow, 2 G L
+              Naphthamine Fast Blue, 4 B L
+              Naphthamine Fast Violet, R L
+              Naphthamine Direct Black
+
+  Metz—       Dianil Fast Scarlet, 4 B S
+              Dianil Orange, G
+              Dianil Yellow, O O
+              Dianil Fast Blue, 3 B
+              Dianil Fast Black, conc.
+
+As above mentioned, even the very best dyes belonging to this class
+of Salt colors, give on cotton and linen results only “fairly fast”
+to washing. As the modern laundress is not averse to using stronger
+agents than good laundry soap in her washtub, and not infrequently
+indulges in considerable amounts of washing soda (sodium carbonate)
+and even of bleaching powder, to clean quickly a dirty piece of
+goods, dyes that are “fairly fast” according to the regular standard,
+will, in practice, need some care spent on them if they are to hold
+their color for long periods. Against light the best ones are almost
+as fast as any dyes known, but none of them are a match for the
+Sulphur colors, or especially the Vat colors, when exposed to severe
+washing.
+
+_After-treatment._—The professional dyer, who is occasionally
+called upon to produce fast colors with these dyes, and even with
+the inferior members of this class, has found various methods of
+after-treatment, by which the colors are rendered more permanent.
+
+A favorite process, where the dyer is enough of a chemist to carry
+it out, consists of making an entirely new dyestuff in the fibre,
+generally of an entirely different shade, and with much greater power
+of resistance to washing and to light, by treating the dyed goods
+first with a mixture of sodium nitrite and of sulphuric acid, and,
+after this, passing them through a solution of some organic chemical
+such as carbolic acid, alpha- or beta-naphthol, or others known as
+developers.
+
+This process, known as “diazotizing and developing,” is considerably
+used in the trade, especially for various shades of black, but is too
+complicated and delicate for craftsmen in general.
+
+A simpler process is to warm the dyed goods for five or ten minutes
+in a weak solution of the orange-colored salt, bichromate of potash,
+acidified with a little acetic acid—or of the not uncommon chemical,
+sulphate of copper, long known to chemists as blue vitriol.
+
+When the best dyes are used, like those in the preceding list, it
+is not often necessary to use either of these reagents. But when,
+as sometimes happens, one is obliged to use dyes of this general
+class, bought at the country store without a chance of knowing how
+fast they are, it is well to know about it. For a piece of goods the
+size of an ordinary linen skirt, the after-treating bath would be
+made as follows: In two and a half gallons of hot water, dissolve two
+tablespoonfuls of sulphate of copper, one tablespoonful of bichromate
+of potash, and two teaspoonfuls of ordinary acetic acid (equivalent,
+say, to three or four teaspoonfuls of strong vinegar). The goods,
+after dyeing and rinsing, but before drying, should be soaked in this
+bath and heated for ten minutes until not far from the boiling point.
+They should then be taken out, rinsed carefully, and dried. This
+after-treatment does not benefit every single color of this class,
+but it helps greatly the fastness to light and to washing of almost
+all of them. The chief objection to it, besides the time and expense,
+is that the shade of the finished goods is often considerably
+changed by the process.
+
+_Properties and Uses of the Salt Colors._—Generally speaking, the
+shades produced by the individual members of this group cover all
+the colors of the rainbow and include several good greys. It is
+hard, however, to get a full deep black on cotton or linen with
+these dyes, without using the “diazotizing and developing” process
+of after-treatment. The dyes go on the fibre in a soluble form, and
+unless a developing process like this is used they combine directly
+with the fibre, and do not form a coating or layer upon it, as do
+some of the “developed” dyestuffs. Accordingly, no matter how fully
+or how deeply we dye a piece of yarn or cloth with a black dye of
+this class, the finished goods will show _grey_, a very dark grey,
+to be sure, but still grey, and not a flat, heavy, true black. The
+color of most of the salt blacks is greatly improved, however—as well
+as their fastness to light and washing—by soaking the dyed goods,
+after rinsing, in a solution containing four or five spoonfuls of
+formaldehyde to the gallon.
+
+This same property, however, of combining directly with the fibre,
+makes the colors brighter and more brilliant than many of the other
+classes, especially in the lighter shades. Accordingly for bright,
+pretty shades of pinks, blues, yellows, and of mixed shades, fast to
+light, but not very fast to washing, very easily and simply applied,
+these colors are extremely valuable. For instance, in dyeing large
+quantities of bright colors on calico or cheesecloth, for some
+special occasion, as a pageant or spectacle, these are the colors to
+use.
+
+Another great advantage they possess is that they dye true; that is,
+they do not alter their color when exposed to the air, and the color
+of the finished goods can be fairly estimated from the color of the
+dye-bath.
+
+Accordingly, the student is strongly urged to practise the art
+of dyeing with these colors. They are cheap and can be readily
+obtained, although not always of the very best quality, under the
+name of Diamond Dyes for cotton, ezy dyes, etc., from druggists and
+grocerymen all over the country.
+
+They can be easily applied to cheesecloth, muslin, and other
+inexpensive materials, and if care is taken to soak and boil the
+goods thoroughly, to linens and heavy cottons. In case of necessity
+they can be used on wool and silk, but, as a rule, their use is
+limited to vegetable fibres. They are particularly valuable to
+amateur dyers and to beginners in the art, because they have great
+“levelling” power; that is, it is easy to dye evenly with them.
+
+On the other hand, it is a nuisance, oftentimes, to have to boil the
+goods, and even then the colors are not really fast to washing. At
+any rate, before proceeding to the study of the more permanent but
+more complicated Sulphur and Vat colors, the art of dyeing even and
+rainbow shades and at least the beginnings of the art of combining
+and matching shades should be carefully and conscientiously worked
+out with these often despised, but really very useful and valuable,
+Salt colors.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER IV
+
+                 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COLOR DYEING
+
+
+Directly the student has mastered the instruction contained in the
+three previous chapters, and can use the dyeing apparatus and the
+unmixed dyestuffs so as to get reasonably fast colors on cotton and
+linen goods, it is time to attack the more difficult subject of
+dyeing to shade. This art is not an easy one, by any means, and only
+a few fundamental principles can be learned from a book. To make any
+real progress in it, constant and continuous practice is necessary;
+even then, unless the student is naturally gifted with an eye capable
+of readily detecting any changes of color, and has trained it to
+distinguish and identify the causes of such changes, little success
+in the matching of colors can be hoped for.
+
+This does not mean, however, that unless a dyer can match shades
+perfectly, he cannot turn out very interesting and, indeed, beautiful
+results. But it does mean that he will find it difficult, if not
+impossible, to reproduce such results, and will be frequently
+handicapped in trying to utilize his dyeing skill and knowledge
+commercially.
+
+The beginner thinks—not unnaturally perhaps—that in order to get
+any considerable variety of shades it is necessary to have on hand a
+large and varied assortment of dyestuffs; and it is consequently a
+surprise to find that skilled workers keep in stock chiefly a good
+supply of blue, yellow, and red only. Black is convenient and useful,
+but not essential, excepting for special purposes. By mixing these
+three “primary” colors it is possible to get every conceivable shade
+needed. And another point, which will be emphasized below and which
+is also likely to be a surprise, is that practically every pretty and
+agreeable shade, no matter how delicate, is composed of all three of
+these primary colors. Blue and yellow produce green, blue and red
+produce violet, and yellow and red produce orange, while the addition
+of the third or “complementary” color to any of these combinations of
+two makes _grey_, when all three colors are perfectly balanced, and
+when one color or another predominates, it is greyed and softened by
+the presence of small quantities of the other two.
+
+
+Experiments with Single Colors
+
+The way to study color dyeing is, first of all, to get a clear idea
+of the effect of different strengths of each of these three primary
+colors in producing both light and dark shades of a single color.
+This can be easily accomplished with the red, blue, and yellow of
+the Salt dyes described in the last chapter. Dissolve each color
+separately and keep them in separate dye-pots so that you can readily
+dye pieces of cheesecloth or other cheap, easy-dyeing materials
+any light, medium, or dark shade, to serve as a basis for future
+comparisons.
+
+[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF PRIMARY COLORS
+
+      Two color shades—Red + Blue = Violet
+                       Red + Yellow = Orange
+                       Yellow + Blue = Green
+
+  Complementary colors—Red + Blue + Yellow = Grey
+                       Red + Green =     }
+                       Blue + Orange =   } Grey
+                       Yellow + Violet = }]
+
+_Even Dyeing._—First wet the cloth or yarn thoroughly by soaking
+in hot water, then rinse well and wring it dry—if necessary, using
+a wringer. The dyestuff should already be carefully dissolved in a
+little boiling water. Pour some of this solution (not too much, for
+the shades should all be pretty light) into the dye-pot half full of
+lukewarm water. Then quickly and wholly immerse the wet material,
+stirring and working about with the dye-sticks, and let the whole
+heat steadily until it boils. After a few minutes’ boiling take out
+the material and rinse in cold water until it stops bleeding. When
+this is carefully done, good, even, and smooth shades will result.
+
+_Shaded Effects._—Of more real interest, although an abomination
+to most professional dyers, are the shaded effects. Instead of
+trying to get even, smooth colors, the cloth is intentionally dyed
+unevenly to get effects of light and shade in the color, otherwise
+impossible. This does not mean that a skein or piece of cloth badly
+dyed or discolored by some accident or carelessness should be
+proudly exhibited as a piece of really artistic dyeing, as is done
+occasionally, by some workers, with painful results. It is only when
+the work is done carefully and thoughtfully that shaded or so-called
+“rainbow” effects may be obtained upon skeins, basket materials, and
+cloth, which are distinctly interesting and beautiful, though very
+different from the regular work of the professional dyers.
+
+Many methods of obtaining unique results in this work will occur to
+the student, after some practical experience. Perhaps the best way
+to begin is to take a piece of cheesecloth, cut in the form of a
+scarf—say two yards or so in length—and hemmed on both ends, if it
+is to be kept for exhibition or future use. Before it is wet, tie
+it in a rather tight knot in the middle, or, if the scarf is long
+enough, two knots about six or eight inches from each end. For this
+first piece tie a very simple knot by merely folding the scarf over
+on itself and pulling the goods tight. Then wet the cloth thoroughly
+and dye quickly in the boiling dye-liquor; rinse off, and untie
+the knots. The open part of the cloth will be found dyed the full
+strength, and where there were knots there will be shaded places
+varying from the full color down to white.
+
+Another method is to take the wetted scarf in the middle and
+gradually lower the ends into the hot dye-liquor, stopping just
+before the middle reaches the dye. If carefully done this will give
+regularly shaded effects running from white or very light at the
+centre, to heavy, full shades at the ends. Of course, if preferred,
+the ends can be kept out of the dye-liquor and the middle portions
+immersed. This will give a scarf that is dark in the centre and light
+at each end—which is not so good a color arrangement, ordinarily, as
+the light centre and dark ends.
+
+The same can be done with a square piece of cloth, well wetted: this
+will shade in an interesting manner, if held in the middle and dipped
+slowly and gradually. Further developments of this work, known as
+“Tied and Dyed Work,” are described in a following chapter.
+
+
+Experiments with the Secondary Colors
+
+After the above methods have been fairly mastered, the student
+should make some experiments in which two of the primary colors are
+mixed together, or better, superimposed one on the other to show the
+“secondary” shades produced by these combinations. This can be done
+by mixing the colors two by two, until three baths of green, violet,
+and orange respectively are formed as before. Then try dyeing first
+for even colors and later for the shaded effects.
+
+The most interesting experiments in this line are made by the
+so-called “double shading” method. Here the same baths of straight
+primary colors—red and blue and yellow—should be used as in the
+earlier experiments; but the goods are first dyed in one bath, and
+then after-dyed or “topped” in a second color.
+
+A scarf of cheesecloth is good for a first attempt. This, well wet,
+is held at one end and very slowly lowered into the hot bath, until
+all but about six inches of the entire length is immersed in the dye.
+This much is left free from color. Try a blue dye color for this
+series of shades, fading evenly and smoothly from the deepest full
+blue at one end to a pure white at the other.
+
+After rinsing with water till the bleeding is over, reverse the
+scarf, holding it by the opposite end, and lower it slowly and
+gradually into a bath of, let us say, yellow, keeping about six
+inches out of the dye as before. This will produce a scarf shaded
+from clear blue at one end to clear yellow at the other end and
+showing the whole range of green shades produced by mixing these two
+colors, along its length.
+
+Similar tests made with red and blue, and then with red and yellow,
+will emphasize to the student’s mind the fact that green is formed
+from blue and yellow; violet from red and blue; and orange from red
+and yellow; and that each combination gives an infinite variety of
+intermediate shades, according to the comparative strength of the
+individual dyes.
+
+
+Matching Colors
+
+The next step is to dye some pieces evenly with green, violet, and
+orange, made by two of the primary colors, and then to try matching
+these with fresh, newly-mixed baths of the same dyes. It will be
+found here that success depends upon going slowly; and upon beginning
+with light shades and building the color up to the desired strength
+carefully, by means of successive dippings. Note that the color of
+cloth when wet is much darker than when dry. Some dyers hold the
+wet cloth to the bright sky and look through it, to get an idea of
+what the finished color will be like; but positively certain and
+satisfactory results are arrived at only by wetting the sample to be
+matched or drying the piece that is being dyed, so that both sample
+and piece are equally wet or dry, while their color is being compared.
+
+The real difficulty of color dyeing is not met with until the student
+tries to obtain shades embodying all three of the primary colors.
+A very few experiments will quickly show that with most modern
+dyestuffs it is hard to get soft, pleasant tones with the use of
+only two colors. Natural colors, as we find them in the sky, water,
+meadow, and woodlands, are never pure; they are invariably mixed.
+And our eyes are so accustomed to them that shades dyed with simple
+or pure colors look hard, cold, and inharmonious. Mixtures of two
+colors are better and softer than single colors, but still rather
+hard. But when the secondary shade resulting from the combination of
+two primary colors is mixed with even a small quantity of the third
+primary color, the result is invariably a soft and pleasing tone.
+
+The above statements presuppose that it is possible, in practice, to
+obtain good dyestuffs in each class, which are absolutely pure, clean
+shades of blue, yellow, and red without any admixture whatever. As a
+matter of fact, while the artificial dyestuffs are much more pure,
+and hence much more hard and brilliant than the best natural colors,
+they still in many, if not indeed, in most cases, when carefully
+studied, show shades that are mixed and not pure. It is very rare to
+find a blue that does not incline a little to the yellow (a Blue G as
+it would probably be labelled) or else contain a trace of violet or
+red (Blue R, or RR). The reds are almost invariably either scarlets,
+containing a trace of yellow, or crimsons containing blue. And the
+yellows, also, are very apt to tend towards orange or occasionally
+show a trace of green.
+
+This, of course, complicates the problem for the practical dyer
+greatly, and means that instead of being able to cover the whole
+range of shades with a red, blue, and yellow, it is frequently, if
+not always, necessary to have some mixed colors, giving sharp, clear
+shades of violet, green, and orange respectively, to obtain certain
+effects.
+
+The following diagram will perhaps make this more clear. In this
+the three primary colors have been divided, each into two shades as
+indicated by the shade letters, R meaning red, B blue, and G yellow
+(German _gelb_) shades of the colors. By combining these colors as
+shown in the table, clean, clear shades will be given, whereas other
+combinations would be likely to spoil the shades.
+
+[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF MIXED COLORS
+
+  Red B + Blue R = Violet
+  Blue R + Red B = Violet
+  Yellow R + Red G = Orange
+
+  Red B + Orange = Red G
+  Blue R + Green = Blue G
+  Yellow R + Green = Yellow G
+
+  Red G + Yellow R = Orange
+  Blue G + Violet = Blue R
+  Yellow B + Orange = Yellow R
+
+  Red G + Violet = Red B
+  Blue G + Yellow B = Green
+  Yellow B + Blue G = Green]
+
+Take, for example, a special case, namely to turn a piece of crimson
+calico into a full rich scarlet. The crimson color contains a great
+deal of red, mixed with a little blue. If the piece were after-dyed,
+or “topped,” with yellow, even in small quantities, the result would
+probably be “muddy,” the yellow and blue together being in such
+strength as to seriously diminish the strength of the red, and make
+it more or less brown in shade.
+
+If, however, a reddish shade of orange were used for shading, instead
+of yellow, the red of the mixture would be constantly increased,
+while the yellow was “killing” the blue, i.e., turning it, with a
+little red, into grey; and before long the crimson, or bluish shade
+of red, would turn first into a true but softened red, with neither
+blue nor yellow predominating, and finally into a scarlet, with
+distinct traces of yellow.
+
+In making these Three-color Shades, therefore, the component parts
+of each dyestuff used must be studied; and in every case care must
+be taken to have the third color, whatever it is, added in such
+minute quantities as only to _soften_ and not to spoil the first
+shade. A teaspoonful, sometimes even a few drops of a solution of
+one strong color, will generally be enough to soften, and take the
+edge off, some gallons of dye-liquor containing a hard, clear mixture
+of the other two. A cupful, on the other hand, or even two or three
+tablespoonfuls might utterly spoil the bath and turn it into “mud,”
+as a dyer would say.
+
+It is worth mentioning here that, as a general thing, it is
+distinctly more interesting to build up shades by dipping first in
+one bath, and then topping with the second and the third color than
+it is to mix the different colors to the desired shade first and then
+dye the material in the single bath. On a small scale there is the
+same difference, although not so marked and less easily noticed, as
+that between even dyeing and rainbow dyeing. There is often a loss
+in regularity and evenness, but the gain in life and light when one
+color shines through another which covers it more than compensates.
+This overlaying is not so perceptible in the even dyeing of fine,
+thin materials, whether yarn or cloth; but with coarse, heavy yarns
+and thick textiles, effects can be obtained by after-dyeing which
+cannot be approached when the goods are dyed in one bath.
+
+_Matching Shades._—Some people, I believe, go so far as to say that,
+in order to be really expert at true shade matching when using the
+three colors in dyeing, a dyer must have begun to learn the art in
+the person of his grandfather, ninety or a hundred years ago, and
+kept in practise ever since.
+
+It certainly is true that heredity and early training both have
+a great deal to do with skill in this art, and a good color dyer
+will show an almost uncanny instinct, as he instantly picks out
+differences in shade which an untrained eye would never notice, and
+without any hesitation prescribes the exact remedy for the defect.
+Still there are plenty of good, even first-class dyers, nowadays, who
+have learned their art quite late in life, with the aid of a good eye
+and intelligent perseverance.
+
+The chief rule to remember is this: Red, blue, and yellow, when
+mixed in equal strength, make a neutral grey or black. Accordingly
+any one color will form grey or, as we may say, will _neutralize_,
+or be _complementary_ to a mixture of the other two. Thus red will
+form grey with green; blue with orange, and yellow with violet.
+Accordingly if there is too much red in the dye-bath, it can be
+killed by the addition of a little green; and vice versa. The same
+is true with the other complementary colors. If this simple rule be
+kept clearly in mind, most of the problems of matching colors and of
+getting pleasant and harmonious shades can be worked out easily. It
+is chiefly a matter of practice, and perseverance.
+
+The student is strongly advised to attack this study in three ways:
+
+First, mix the three primary colors together in one bath, to form
+definite shades—grey, brown, olive green, steel blue, etc.; then
+dye the cloth in the bath to see how the colors look when on the
+materials and dried.
+
+Second, to dye a piece of cloth one mixed shade and by topping with
+other colors, to alter that shade to match some shade previously
+selected. For instance, dye a piece a good shade of reddish or copper
+brown, and then try to “kill” the red in it without materially
+deepening the shade, i.e., change it from a copper brown to a greyish
+or dirt brown of about the same depth of color.
+
+Very pretty and instructive experiments can be made along this line
+of building up soft grey shades, by dyeing the cloth successively
+in weak baths of the three primary colors. As fast as one color
+predominates, it can be killed by dipping into successive baths of
+the other two.
+
+Attractive scarfs and table covers can be made with a little care,
+by knotting the material and dyeing light rainbow shades of the
+three colors, one after the other, changing the knots or tied
+portions after each bath. Properly done, this will produce remarkably
+interesting, opalescent effects, each color being toned and softened
+by the other two, although predominating in different parts of the
+material.
+
+When, in the operation of rainbow dyeing, strongly contrasting colors
+have been used with unhappy results (such as the red, yellow, and
+blue tri-color effects that some students will produce) try the
+effects of toning, or “covering,” as it is often called, with some
+soft, neutral color which combines in itself all the contrasting
+tones, or else with a color that is complementary to the most
+obnoxious one, softening that one and strengthening the weaker
+shades. Grey, of course, can be used for this; but in general, a soft
+shade of brown will be found very valuable for taking the edge off
+of too violent contrasts. The permanganate brown (Manganese bronze),
+described in the first chapter, can be used with advantage for this
+purpose.
+
+It is not difficult for a skilful dyer to match any desired shade by
+using three complementary colors, red, blue, and yellow, provided, of
+course, that these are pure and unmixed. It often happens, however,
+that after matching carefully a soft mixed shade by daylight, the
+colors appear entirely different when viewed by artificial light,
+and especially by ordinary gaslight. Daylight, as we are accustomed
+to it, is comparatively evenly balanced in color, is in fact a white
+light. But artificial light as a rule is distinctly colored, and
+it is difficult, though now not impossible, to find a light that so
+closely resembles daylight that colors can be matched at night.
+
+If the light, for instance, has a bluish tinge, like some kinds of
+electric light, it will kill the corresponding orange in a shade,
+while yellow light, such as commonly results from the use of oil,
+candles, or gas (less marked when incandescent mantles are used),
+dulls and even blackens lavender, violet, and purple shades, while
+having little or no effect upon yellow, orange, and green.
+
+It is therefore advisable when matching shades that are to be used at
+night not to use three-color shades wherever that is possible, but to
+get the desired soft effects by covering directly with grey (i.e.,
+light shades of black) on top of a single or two-color shade.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER V
+
+                         THE SULPHUR COLORS
+
+
+Nearly thirty years ago one of the French color houses put on the
+market a new dyestuff which it named “Cachou de Laval”; Cachou being
+the same as catechu or “cutch,” the natural brown dyestuff long known
+and used in the East, and Laval being the name of the town in France
+where one of its discoverers was born.
+
+This dyestuff was made by heating sawdust, bran, turf, leaves, or
+other vegetable substances with the strongly reducing alkaline salt,
+_sodium sulphide_, in the absence of air. The product, dissolved in
+water, makes a dark green solution which, after standing in the air a
+short time, turns brown and deposits a fine brownish powder. Cotton
+or linen, heated in a fresh solution of this dyestuff, is colored
+green, but, when wrung out and exposed to air, the green color, which
+easily washes out, changes into a very permanent, though dull and
+uninteresting, shade of greyish brown.
+
+This Cachou de Laval was not a success, commercially, because of its
+poor color. It existed, however, as a chemical curiosity for some
+twelve or fourteen years; then suddenly, within a few months or even
+weeks of one another, all the great color houses put out a whole
+series of colors—chiefly browns, blues, yellows, and blacks—all
+formed, like this old “Cachou de Laval,” by the action of sodium
+sulphide or, which amounts to the same thing, of sulphur and caustic
+alkali, upon organic material, and all capable of dyeing cotton and
+linen, in one bath, colors extremely fast to washing and generally
+quite fast to light, after they have been “set” by exposure to the
+air.
+
+While in general these are known and identified as the Sulphur
+colors, the different manufacturers have given special class names to
+their own series thus:
+
+           Immedial (_Cassella_), Katigene (_Elberfeld_),
+          Kyrogene (_Badische_), Pyrogene (_Klipstein_),
+                 Thiogene (_Metz_), Thion (_Kalle_).
+
+These colors are used almost exclusively for dyeing cotton and linen,
+when shades fast to washing are required, without first putting them
+through a mordanting process. The dyeing is done in one bath, with
+little more difficulty than in the case of the Salt colors described
+in the last chapter; and, while not faster to light than the best of
+that class, they are not nearly so liable to bleed.
+
+On wool they are rarely, if ever, used. Wool is almost always dyed
+with the acid colors in an acid bath; and nowadays the range of these
+colors is so great and the best of them are so very satisfactory,
+that there is hardly ever a necessity for using colors of another
+class.
+
+Neither are these Sulphur colors often used on silk, although methods
+have been devised for employing them in special cases. All the animal
+fibres, however, and silk especially, are very easily “tendered,”
+and indeed destroyed, by heating in an alkaline solution. And so
+it is very easy to spoil a skein or piece of silk by dyeing it, in
+the usual manner, with these dyes, dissolved as they must be in the
+strongly alkaline sodium sulphide.
+
+The presence in the bath of glucose (corn syrup, molasses, etc.), or
+of glue or gelatine, helps greatly to protect these fibres from the
+action of the chemicals. But even when dyed with great care, using
+glucose, and dyeing the goods for but a short time in a bath strong
+in color but weak in alkali, the results are not very satisfactory,
+so far as shade and lustre are concerned. They have the advantage,
+however, of being extremely fast to washing, more so, even, than the
+Salt colors. In general, however, silk should be dyed with the Acid
+colors for ordinary work, and with the Salt colors when fastness to
+washing is required. The Sulphur colors should be reserved for cotton
+and linen.
+
+On mercerized cotton and artificial silk these dyestuffs take easily
+and well, when dyed in cold or lukewarm baths. The lustre, however,
+of the finished goods is apt to be less than when Salt colors or
+Basic colors are used.
+
+
+DYEING DIRECTIONS
+
+For cotton and linen, measure out the color and dissolve it in hot
+water to which has been added twice its amount of sodium sulphide
+(crystals) and a quarter or third the amount of soda ash. (In all
+these formulæ washing soda may be used in place of soda ash—only
+in quantities almost twice as large.) It is advisable, though
+not absolutely necessary, to add also to the dye-bath one or two
+tablespoonfuls of Turkey red oil—a kind of liquid soap made by
+treating castor oil first with sulphuric acid and then with soda.
+This prevents the formation of a dark scum on the surface of the
+dye-liquor, which is likely to cause streaks in the finished goods,
+hard to wash out.
+
+Into the dye-liquor immerse the well-wetted goods, and heat them,
+turning them constantly, and keeping them as far as possible away
+from the air and under the level of the liquid. Just before the
+boiling point is reached take out the goods, and add salt in the
+proportion of, say, two spoonfuls of salt for every teaspoonful of
+dyestuff used. Stir till the salt is all dissolved, put the goods
+back, and continue to turn them as before, keeping the goods down
+under the liquor and not allowing it to boil.
+
+After dyeing just below the boiling point for fifteen minutes,
+remove the heat, take out the goods, and—as quickly as possible—run
+them carefully backward and forward through the wringer (changing
+the folds of the goods each time) until the excess of dye liquor is
+entirely squeezed out. Then shake them out, hang them up for fifteen
+or twenty minutes in the air to oxidize and “set,” and after this
+wash them thoroughly in a bath of boiling soapsuds until all the
+loose color has been removed. Finally, rinse them free from soap, and
+hang up to dry.
+
+When light shades are desired, or when the goods are tender, the
+dyeing can be done at lukewarm temperature, and without the addition
+of salt, with no detriment to the fastness of the color. In this
+case, however, much of the dyestuff will be wasted in the unexhausted
+dye-liquor.
+
+_List of Selected Dyestuffs._—
+
+  Badische— Kyrogene Brown, R R O
+            Kyrogene Yellow, G G, extra
+            Kyrogene Direct Blue, 3 B, extra
+            Kyrogene Black, T G O
+
+  Cassella— Immedial Bordeaux, G
+            Immedial Yellow Olive, 5 G
+            Immedial Direct Blue, B
+
+  Elberfeld—Katigen Yellow, G F, extra
+            Katigen Indigo, C L G, extra
+            Katigen Deep Black, B
+
+  Kalle—    Thio Indigo Red, B
+            Thion Yellow, 3 G, extra
+            Thion Blue, B, conc.
+            Thion Black, G, conc.
+
+  Metz—     Thiogene Brown, G R
+            Thiogene Gold Yellow, A
+            Thiogene Green, G
+            Thiogene Cyanine, G
+            Thiogene Black, M A, extra strong
+
+These Sulphur colors are particularly strong in various shades of
+black, blue, and brown. Some of the yellow shades, also, are very
+fast and good. The class is deficient, however, in reds—the only one
+so far discovered being Thio Indigo Red B (_Kalle_), which really
+belongs to the Indigo or Vat colors, described in the next chapter,
+and which does not give very powerful shades when used as a Sulphur
+color. As a rule, these dyes produce shades that are softer, deeper,
+and much less brilliant than those of the Direct Cotton or Salt
+colors. Being usually mixed, and not simple primary, colors, they are
+not very easy to dye to shade, especially as the color of the freshly
+dyed goods changes considerably while it is being oxidized. On the
+other hand, they give, without mixing, extremely pleasant tones, and
+are all very fast to washing and, at any rate as regards the selected
+colors, are fast to light.
+
+When exposed to strong direct sunlight some even of the best of them
+are liable to change their shade somewhat; but even then they will
+be found to fade to nice, soft shades not out of harmony with the
+original. When very great fastness to light is necessary, it may
+be worth while to after-treat them as described in Chapter III, by
+keeping the dyed goods for twenty or thirty minutes in a hot bath
+(not boiling) containing small amounts of copper sulphate, bichromate
+of potash, and acetic acid.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER VI
+
+                      THE INDIGO OR VAT COLORS
+
+
+=History.=—Most of the colors of this group have been discovered
+and put on the market within the last two years. Thus they form the
+most recent as well as, in many respects, the most interesting and,
+perhaps, the most important class of modern dyestuffs. On the other
+hand, to this same group belong not only indigo itself, which has
+been known and valued in the East from the earliest ages, but also
+that most famous of all the ancient dyestuffs, Tyrian Purple.
+
+Indigo itself does not exist as such in nature; but it is
+easily formed by oxidation, or the exposure to air, of a
+substance—Indican—which occurs as such, or can be produced by
+a simple process of fermentation, in the juices of many widely
+distributed plants. Accordingly, even quite barbarous races in
+different parts of the world noticed the deep permanent blue stains
+formed on their bodies and clothing when they crushed, accidentally
+or on purpose, the leaves and stems of the various _Indigoferæ_.
+Gradually they learned to extract the color in a solid and permanent
+form so that they could dye with it, instead of using the juice of
+the fresh plant itself—and then they took to cultivating the plants.
+
+These plants—_Indigofera Anil_, _I. tinctoria_, and others originally
+found wild have been, up to the last four or five years, extensively
+cultivated in many tropical countries, notably in India (some of
+the best qualities came from the province of Bengal, and hence the
+common name for the natural dyestuff—Bengal Indigo), Japan, China,
+Java, South and Central America, and Africa. From these plants the
+indigo of commerce, in the form of dark blue granular lumps with a
+characteristic coppery lustre, was prepared by a comparatively simple
+process of fermentation, extraction, and oxidation.
+
+Indigo may also be obtained, although in small quantities only, and
+in an impure condition, from other plants. Notably among these is
+_Isatis tinctoria_, or woad, which in early days was extensively
+cultivated in England and the Continent, and which, even now, is used
+in small quantities in some processes of indigo dyeing.
+
+_Artificial Indigo._—The exact composition of indigo was first
+determined some sixty years ago, and from that time on some of the
+greatest chemists of the world have been attempting to prepare it,
+artificially, from some comparatively inexpensive source, obtained
+from coal tar or elsewhere. As early as 1875 the problem was solved,
+at least from a scientific standpoint, but the process proved too
+expensive for commercial purposes. During the last five years,
+however, at least two of the great German firms have discovered
+methods for making, in any desired quantities and at very reasonable
+expense, absolutely pure indigo from some of the important coal-tar
+derivatives. And since that time the cultivation of the indigo
+plant has proved so unprofitable that it has been almost entirely
+abandoned, and the land formerly used for this crop is being turned
+over to other and, at present, more useful purposes.
+
+This synthesis—i.e., chemical formation—of indigo from coal-tar
+products has been justly regarded as one of the great triumphs of
+modern science. Right here let me impress upon my readers this fact:
+the real dyestuff, indigo, is absolutely the same material, whether
+it comes mixed with a great mass of impurities, as in the woad; or
+whether it contains from 5 to 25 per cent. of foreign matter of
+little or no value, as in the Bengal or natural indigo; or whether we
+get it from Metz or the Badische Company, chemically pure, either in
+the dry state or, thinned with water, in the form of a 20 per cent.
+paste. It is positively the same dye; and being absolutely without
+contamination of any kind, the artificial or synthetic dyestuff
+presents advantages in the matter of purity of shade, ease and surety
+of manipulation, and permanence of the color produced, which could
+never be obtained before its introduction.
+
+=Application of Indigo.=—The principles of indigo dyeing are the same
+now as with the Egyptians, the only difference being in the means
+used to bring about the chemical changes involved. Indigo itself is a
+blue solid, insoluble in water, acids, and alkalies, and practically
+unaffected by sunlight. If, however, the element hydrogen be added to
+it, or, as the chemist would say, if it is “reduced” by the action
+of any one of numerous deoxidizing or reducing agents, the indigo
+blue is changed to a new substance, indigo white, which is almost
+colorless, and which dissolves, in the presence of alkalies, to a
+bright yellow liquid. If cotton, wool, paper, wood, or indeed almost
+any solid materials (noticeably the fingers and nails, as some of my
+readers may find out), are immersed in the solution, they will absorb
+some of this indigo white, and then, on exposure to the air, the
+white indigo will rapidly take up oxygen, and become converted into
+the insoluble blue coloring matter.
+
+_Fermentation Method._—Until recently the methods used for reducing
+the indigo—i.e., changing the solid blue into the soluble white—were
+just about the same as those used by the ancients, and were based
+upon some kind of fermentation, usually alcoholic. It was found
+out at a very early date that if indigo, ground up with water to a
+paste and rendered alkaline by the addition of wood ashes, lime, or
+other simple alkali, were mixed with grape juice or any other sugary
+liquid, and then kept warm and allowed to ferment, the resulting
+fluid would contain the dyestuff dissolved in a form suitable for
+dyeing. The vessel in which this process was conducted was known as a
+vat, and the process of indigo dyeing is still called “Vat Dyeing.”
+
+_Disadvantages._—At the very best this method is slow, uncertain,
+and difficult to manage, especially on a small scale. In wool
+dyeing, to this day, a few vats are still to be found where syrup,
+ground madder root or, in some instances, woad, wheat bran, and
+other materials which ferment readily in the presence of alkali, are
+stirred up with warm water and soda, and then allowed to stand. In
+two or three days they are in active fermentation, and the indigo, in
+the form of paste, is added and well stirred in. After much further
+delay, if all goes well, the indigo is finally “reduced,” and, if
+the amount of alkali, the temperature, the concentration of the vat,
+and various other factors are carefully attended to, the bath can be
+used for several days, or even weeks, without being made over again;
+fresh indigo and other ingredients being added, from time to time,
+as needed. Cotton, linen, wool, and even silk can be dipped in this
+bath, which should be light greenish yellow in color, with a blue or
+bluish-green scum or coating, where the indigo is oxidized on the
+surface. Goods immersed in this bath turn yellow, and then, when
+taken out, wrung free from loose liquor, and exposed to the air, the
+yellow color quickly changes to a permanent blue.
+
+A serious drawback to all these various fermentation vats is that
+a good deal of the dyestuff is always spoilt—i.e., decomposed into
+colorless compounds which can never be regenerated or made useful.
+Indeed, the loss from this cause frequently amounts to 20% or 25% of
+all the dye used, and occasionally, especially in hot weather, and on
+a small scale, to far more.
+
+But, apart from the actual loss in valuable dyestuff, there is a much
+more serious drawback to this method of indigo dyeing, namely, the
+waste of time and energy involved. There is always a considerable
+delay in getting a fermentation vat fairly started, even where all
+the conditions are favorable; and when it is running smoothly,
+the reducing process is a very slow one. Furthermore, the indigo,
+not being dissolved in the liquid but only suspended in it, has
+a constant tendency to sink to the bottom in the form of a blue
+mud, and thus escape the chemical action of the fermentation gases
+entirely.
+
+A short time ago a teacher of handicraft dyeing was expatiating, in
+my presence, upon the impropriety of using any of the new chemical
+processes for dyeing, and insisted that the only way to dye indigo
+was to set up a vat, and feed it, and work with it as our ancestors
+used to. It was suggested to her that it would be at least two or
+three days before cloth could be dyed in such a vat. “Eight or ten
+days at the earliest,” was the reply. And when it was hinted that
+the vat would have to be frequently stirred during all that time,
+she proudly answered, “Stirred regularly and thoroughly every single
+half-hour, night and day, during the whole period.”
+
+“H—m,” remarked a bystander, “that’s a little worse than sitting up
+with a baby sick of the croup.”
+
+Somehow the great advantage of this particular process over the
+modern ones, by which a proper bath can be prepared in perhaps five
+minutes, failed to impress itself on some of her listeners.
+
+_Modern Chemical Vats._—As soon as it was understood just what
+chemical action was going on in the vats, and the object of it,
+chemists began to find out methods for reducing the indigo without
+the necessity of a long, tedious, and even nasty fermentation
+process. They first introduced the “copperas-lime” vat, where the
+reduction was done by the use of ferrous sulphate (green vitriol or
+copperas), and slaked lime was the alkali used to keep the indigo
+white dissolved.
+
+Later they introduced zinc dust, a very powerful reducing agent,
+in place of the copperas, avoiding in this way the large amount of
+precipitated iron oxide which always forms in the copperas vat,
+and leads to the loss of dye, and muddiness and dulness of color,
+necessitating a special clearing bath of dilute mineral acid.
+
+At present the most satisfactory method is to use the chemical known
+as _sodium hydrosulphite_, as a reducing agent, in a bath made
+strongly alkaline with caustic soda. Hydrosulphite is not expensive;
+it acts very rapidly, leaving no sediment; it causes no loss or
+waste of the indigo; and it does its work perfectly. Hence, with its
+introduction, the dyeing of indigo has become extremely simple.
+
+To still further shorten and simplify the process, the large
+manufacturers not only furnish indigo already ground up to a fine
+paste with water, but also supply it already reduced by hydrosulphite
+or some other reducing agent, so that it is almost ready to dye with
+as it is, and will dissolve almost instantaneously in an alkaline
+bath with the addition of just a little more reducing agent. Such
+products are the Indigo Vat III (_Metz_), and the Indigo Solution 20%
+(_Badische_). By using either of these, the preparation of a vat
+large enough to dye 3 or 3½ pounds of cotton is the task of but a
+few moments. These special preparations, however, are more expensive
+than the regular 20% pastes, and the hydrosulphite vat is so easy to
+prepare that the saving of time is hardly worth the extra cost.
+
+
+DYEING DIRECTIONS
+
+For dyeing by the Vat method the dye-pot is two-thirds filled with
+warm water, at about 120° F. (when the finger can hardly bear the
+heat), and one or two tablespoonfuls of caustic soda are added—enough
+to make the bath decidedly alkaline. The dyestuff, preferably first
+mixed up with some hot water, to thin the paste, is stirred into the
+liquid, and then to this is added sodium hydrosulphite, in powder, or
+preferably dissolved in water, until the color of the bath changes
+from blue, first to green, and then to greenish yellow, with a
+bluish-green coppery scum. If the bath is bright yellow, too much
+hydrosulphite has been used, and some more indigo should be added;
+or, if this is not desirable for fear of getting too dark shades, the
+bath should be exposed to the air and stirred frequently until the
+color is right. If the bath, on scraping aside the scum, looks blue,
+or even markedly green, it needs a little more hydrosulphite. If,
+after reduction, the bath looks yellow but turbid, it probably needs
+more alkali.
+
+Into this bath the material is placed, and stirred around until
+thoroughly saturated—the temperature being kept about 120° F. for
+heavy goods, to assist penetration. Light goods can be dyed equally
+well in a lukewarm, or even a cold bath. The goods are then taken
+out, wrung lightly by hand, and are carefully passed two or three
+times through the wringer, to get the color evenly distributed. They
+are then shaken out and hung up in the air to oxidize. In fifteen or
+twenty minutes, after the color has changed, they should be rinsed
+well in two or three waters, to get rid of all traces of the caustic
+alkali, and then boiled for several minutes in a soap bath, to wash
+off the loose dyestuff and prevent rubbing. This after-treatment with
+boiling soapsuds is of even more importance in the case of the other
+Vat dyes than it is with indigo, for with most of them the oxidation
+is not completed in the air—and so the color is developed as well as
+brightened by the soap bath.
+
+It is very important, when working with these Vat colors, to remember
+that hot solutions of caustic alkali are very hard on the hands
+and that, therefore, rubber gloves are extremely useful, if not
+essential. Stains left on hands, clothes, and utensils, although
+difficult to remove by washing, are almost instantly dissolved by
+warm solutions of hydrosulphite with a little soda or other alkali in
+them.
+
+_Results._—Colors produced by synthetic indigo are clear and clean,
+but not brilliant. If the slightly purplish shades of natural indigo
+are desired, they can be obtained with special brands—Indigo R, or
+Indigo RR, _Metz_—or by mixing small quantities of Algol Red B,
+_Elberfeld_, or Thio Indigo Red B, _Kalle_, with the indigo before
+reducing it. It is generally supposed that the characteristic shade,
+the so-called “bloom” of natural indigo, was due to the presence of
+small quantities of a reddish dyestuff, known as indigo red. As a
+matter of fact, however, the method of dyeing has more to do with
+this than the composition of the dyestuff.
+
+For instance, if the indigo is very thoroughly reduced in the vat
+before the goods are immersed, as is generally the case in the modern
+hydrosulphite method, and the bath is made up with fresh reducing
+agent for each dyeing, the resultant color will be a very clear,
+rather greyish, shade of blue without any purple lustre. If, however,
+the dyestuff is not very perfectly reduced, as was generally the case
+with the old fermentation vats, and the bath, from standing in the
+air, has a heavy scum on the top, and is greenish rather than clear
+yellow in color below the surface, then the dyed fabrics will be apt
+to show the marked purplish tone which is so characteristic of the
+older indigo dyeings.
+
+_Uses._—While of less importance than it used to be before the
+discoveries of the last few years, the use of indigo for dyeing
+cotton, especially for the craftsman, is not to be neglected. It
+furnishes, easily and rapidly, in one bath, without either boiling,
+mordanting, or after-treatment, exceedingly pleasant, soft shades
+which are fast to both light and washing. For resist dyeing, such as
+Tied and Dyed work, Resist Stencil work, and Batik, it will be found
+particularly useful, because the fabric can be dyed in the cold.
+
+Indigo possesses, however, certain disadvantages, especially for the
+professional dyer, which it shares with the other Vat dyes described
+below, and which prevent it, and the other Vat dyes, from being used
+as widely as the Salt colors or even the Sulphur colors. In the first
+place these dyes are all of them expensive. They cost more than most
+others, pound for pound of the dry color, and full shades need much
+larger proportions of them in the bath.
+
+Then it is difficult to dye to shade with them, because the color,
+as a rule, alters so much when exposed to the air. In practice, when
+dyeing large quantities of goods to the same shade, it is customary
+to divide the materials into several lots of the same weight; and
+to make a strong “stock solution” of the dyestuff, properly reduced
+with alkali and hydrosulphite. By making up a fresh vat for each
+lot of goods, using exactly the same volume of water and of “stock
+solution,” and working each lot for the same length of time and at
+the same temperature, even results can be produced with much less
+trouble than by dyeing to shade by the eye.
+
+Another drawback is that indigo-dyed goods, especially of the heavy
+full shades, are apt to “rub.” This can best be avoided by always
+using a well-reduced bath; by washing with boiling soap after each
+dip; and by building up the deep shades by successive dippings in
+moderately weak vats, rather than by obtaining the shade, once for
+all, by using a very strong, concentrated dye-liquor.
+
+For many hundreds, and even thousands, of years, indigo has been
+universally recognized as the most permanent and most valuable blue
+dyestuff for cotton and indeed for woolen goods. For the latter
+purpose it is now but little used, thanks to the introduction of the
+exceedingly fast dyestuffs of the Acid and Mordant classes. But for
+cotton it is still considerably used, for fast shades.
+
+
+THE MODERN VAT COLORS
+
+Up to a very recent date indigo was the only dyestuff, of any
+importance at any rate, that was used in the manner just described,
+and produced colors fast to light and to washing. During the past
+three or four years, however, the attention of the dyeing chemists
+has been directed to this question, and at least five of the great
+dye houses have introduced dyestuffs covering a great range of colors
+which, when dyed in the same way as indigo, not only rival but
+distinctly surpass that color in permanence as well as beauty.
+
+=Names.=—These dyestuffs, while known generally as the Vat colors,
+have been given special class names by their manufacturers, as
+follows: Algol (_Elberfeld_); Ciba (_Klipstein_); Helindone (_Metz_);
+Indanthrene (_Badische_), and Thio Indigo (_Kalle_). The Cassella
+Company are just introducing the first members of their series, to be
+known as Hydrons.
+
+=List of Selected Dyestuffs=:—
+
+  Badische—  Indanthrene Claret, B, Extra
+             Indanthrene Yellow, G
+             Indanthrene Blue, G C D
+            *Indigo pure
+
+  Cassella— *Hydrone Blue, R
+            *Hydrone Blue, G
+
+  Elberfeld— Algol Red, 5 G
+             Algol Yellow, 3 G
+             Algol Blue, 3 G
+
+  Kalle—    *Thio Indigo Red, B G
+            *Thio Indigo Scarlet, S
+             Thio Indigo Brown, G
+            *Indigo, K G
+
+  Klipstein— Ciba Red, G
+             Cibanone Yellow, R
+             Ciba Green, G
+             Ciba Blue, 2 B
+             Ciba Violet, R
+
+  Metz—      Helindone Red, 3 B
+             Helindone Fast Scarlet, R
+            *Helindone Yellow, 3 G N
+            *Indigo M L B, 6 B
+
+  N.B.—The dyestuffs marked * will dye in a lukewarm or even cold bath.
+
+=Properties and Uses.=—These Vat dyes are not all of equal value,
+but as a class they are, distinctly, the fastest of any as yet
+introduced; and the best of them may properly be considered as the
+most permanent coloring agents of any sort or kind that have ever
+yet appeared on the earth. They not only far surpass in this respect
+the best of the vegetable dyestuffs, with the possible exception
+of the very best qualities of Turkey red, but in resistance to
+chemicals and outside agencies of various sorts, are much better
+than the best mineral colors. This is so much the case that the
+modern specifications for dyed cloth for Government purposes, as for
+instance the khaki uniforms for soldiers in active service, which up
+to a year or two ago were dyed with iron buff modified with oxide of
+chromium, have been raised, in one country after another, until they
+exclude every class of dyestuffs except these new Vat colors.
+
+During the last year or two these dyes have been introduced, though
+with some difficulty, into commerce, and it is possible to obtain
+shirtings and other printed goods, dyed in permanent colors, so
+permanent indeed that the cloth will wear completely out before the
+color changes in the slightest. The extra cost of the dyestuffs, and
+the comparative difficulty of dyeing to shade, furnish an excuse for
+increasing the price of the goods. And the perhaps not unnatural
+disinclination of the shopkeepers to push the sale of materials
+which, in their opinion, are quite unnecessarily fast, has combined
+with the cost to delay the general adoption of these remarkably
+valuable coloring agents.
+
+For craftsmen, however, where the price of the dyestuffs constitutes
+such a small percentage of the cost of the finished article,
+and where the absolute permanence of the color is of the utmost
+importance, these colors are most useful. They are not to be used,
+excepting under special circumstances, for animal fibres—wool,
+silk, leather, feathers, etc.—for fear of injuring the materials by
+the action of the caustic alkali. But on cotton and linen, both in
+direct or resist dyeing, and for stencil work, there are no colors to
+compare with them in fastness, not excepting even the very best of
+the Sulphur colors.
+
+
+DYEING DIRECTIONS
+
+These dyes are all applied, just like indigo, in an alkaline
+hydrosulphite vat. The colors are applied in paste form, usually 20%
+strong, or at any rate equivalent in strength to a 20% paste of pure
+indigo. Care must be taken to thoroughly mix and stir up this paste
+with a glass rod, in the original package, each time it is used, so
+as to keep its composition uniform.
+
+The proper amount, to be determined only by experience, is first
+thinned with a little hot water, and then stirred into the dye-pot,
+two-thirds full of hot water, about 140° F. (This is well below a
+boil, and yet hot enough to slightly scald the tips of the fingers.)
+To this is added caustic soda, in the proportion of two to three
+spoonfuls to each one of the color, the amount of soda being
+proportionately greater for light shades than where large amounts of
+color are used.
+
+After this has been dissolved the dyestuff is reduced by adding
+slowly, with constant stirring, spoonful after spoonful of the
+powdered sodium hydrosulphite until the bath clears and generally the
+color changes. In most cases, as with indigo, the completion of the
+reducing change can be told by a marked alteration in the shade of
+the bath.
+
+Thus, in general, the blue dyes, like indigo, turn yellow or
+orange when the proper amount of hydrosulphite is added. For the
+other colors there is no general rule. Thus Indanthrene Yellow
+(_Badische_), when reduced, is blue—while the Helindone Yellow
+(_Metz_) is blood red. Helindone Scarlets (_Metz_), when reduced,
+appear green, while the Thio Indigo Red and Scarlet have about the
+same color, when reduced, that they have when oxidized.
+
+The best way to tell whether the bath is in proper condition is to
+dip a piece of white blotting paper into it, and notice, on taking
+it out, whether the color is in specks or is dissolved. On standing
+in the air for a few minutes the color should become oxidized, and
+firmly fixed to the paper. As a rule these Vat colors should be
+reduced warm, because, in many cases at least, the reduced color does
+not dissolve in a bath of cold alkali. In most cases, however, after
+having been reduced at a temperature of about 140° F, the bath may be
+allowed to cool considerably, before it loses its dyeing value. This
+enables these colors to be used for Batik, or other processes where
+the temperature must be kept below 80° or 90° F. The dyestuffs which
+can be thus used will be found marked with an asterisk in the list of
+selected dyestuffs above.
+
+The well-wetted materials are placed in the reduced dye-bath, and
+stirred and worked for five or ten minutes, or longer, according to
+the depth of shade experienced. For full shades, however, as in the
+case of indigo, it is much better to build up the color by successive
+dippings than to try to put it all on in one bath. For heavy goods
+the addition of a little Turkey red oil, about half a tablespoonful
+to the gallon, is an advantage, though not absolutely necessary. When
+thoroughly impregnated with the dye-liquor, the goods are taken out,
+wrung carefully, two or three times, to remove the waste liquor as
+evenly as possible, and then shaken out and exposed to the air for
+fifteen or twenty minutes. They are then boiled in a soap bath for
+about twenty minutes, and then well rinsed, and dried. This hot soap
+bath, as before mentioned, is of great importance in most of these
+colors, not only for getting rid of loosely fixed dyestuff, but for
+oxidizing and fixing the color itself.
+
+For dark shades it is well, as in the case of the Sulphur colors, to
+add salt—three or four tablespoonfuls per gallon of dye-liquor—to
+the bath, taking care to have it well dissolved before the goods are
+entered. This is always done when dyeing with Helindone Yellow 3GN,
+_Metz_.
+
+The shades of these new Vat colors are extremely bright and clear,
+and, by combining these properly, any desired effects may be
+produced. The splendid series of reds and scarlets for the first
+time allow the characteristic shades of Turkey red to be obtained,
+in one bath, and of at least equal, if not of superior fastness
+to the original. One peculiarity of these colors is their extreme
+fastness, not only to light and washing, acids and alkalies, but also
+to various oxidizing agents, such as chloride of lime or bleaching
+powder. Accordingly goods properly dyed and finished with these
+dyestuffs can be entrusted with safety, so far as the color goes, to
+agencies which would speedily ruin fabrics dyed in any other manner.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER VII
+
+                          THE BASIC COLORS
+
+
+In an earlier chapter it was mentioned that the modern dyestuffs
+originated with the discovery by Perkin, in 1856, of the violet
+coloring matter known as Mauveine. This dye was made by the oxidation
+of the then rare chemical, aniline. Following this discovery, other
+chemists, especially in France and Germany, soon obtained from the
+same chemical or from substances very closely resembling it, a
+considerable quantity of powerful and brilliant dyestuffs of the same
+general character.
+
+The original Mauveine was before long superseded, first by Hofmann’s
+Violet, and then by a very important series of violet and purple
+dyes known as Methyl Violet, with shades ranging from 6 or 7B for
+the deep, full purples, to the 6 or 7R for the very red shades.
+These violet colors have never been surpassed, or even equalled by
+any other dyes for brilliancy and richness, although, in common
+with almost all the other dyes of this class, they are not fast to
+sunlight.
+
+Another extremely powerful and brilliant color of this class, used
+considerably to this day although discovered nearly fifty years
+ago, is the dye often called, from its origin, Aniline Red. It was,
+however, named by the German manufacturers, Fuchsine, from its
+rich, full, crimson shades, resembling the deep tints of the flower,
+fuchsia, while the French, who discovered and manufactured it soon
+after the close of Louis Napoleon’s Italian campaign, called it
+Magenta, after the famous victory of that name.
+
+About this time some German chemists discovered and introduced a
+full, rich, brown dye, still largely used for dyeing leather (kid
+gloves and the like), and, naturally enough, gave it the name of
+Bismarck Brown. And at approximately the same date was discovered the
+very valuable blue dyestuff, perhaps the best of the whole class,
+with quite a range of full, deep shades, and with considerable
+fastness to light, called Methylene Blue.
+
+=General Properties.=—The early colors of this group are the
+dyestuffs properly known as the “Aniline Colors” because of their
+origin; although this name has been applied, loosely, to all of
+the thousands of artificial dyestuffs without regard to their
+source of composition. To the chemist, their chemical structure
+and their behavior toward reagents, such as acids and alkalies,
+naturally suggested the name “Basic Colors.” This means that they are
+substances with strong affinity for all sorts of acids, with which
+they form more or less stable salts, while they can be liberated from
+these salts by the action of stronger bases, such as ammonia, or the
+fixed alkalies, soda and potash.
+
+=Application.=—These facts were discovered by Perkin while trying to
+introduce his Mauveine into the dyeing industry, and he discovered
+the methods, used to this day, for applying these dyes to the
+different textile materials. He found that the dyes of this class
+have a strong affinity for the different animal fibres, such as
+wool, silk, leather, etc., all of which seem to possess some acid
+properties of their own; but pure vegetable materials, like cotton,
+linen, and paper, from which all impurities such as vegetable acids,
+gums, etc., have been removed, have no affinity at all for even the
+most powerful of the Basic dyes. A cotton handkerchief, boiled for
+hours in a strong solution of Methyl Violet, can be washed in a few
+minutes clear of every particle of color, while a piece of silk or
+wool, soaked for an instant in the same dye-bath, will be permanently
+stained, deep and full.
+
+_Cotton, Linen, etc._—In order to fasten these dyes to vegetable
+fibre it is necessary to give the latter a distinctly acid character,
+and this was done by Perkin in a manner still used. He steeped the
+material for several hours in a hot bath of the acid vegetable
+compound, tannic acid or tannin, found so largely in hemlock and
+chestnut bark, sumac leaves, nut-galls, and the like; and then
+loosely fixed the tannin, thus absorbed, by a weak bath of tartar
+emetic. Cotton or linen fabrics, thus “mordanted,” will combine with
+the Basic dyes as readily and as firmly as any animal fibre, and the
+resulting colors, while not, as a rule, fast to light, are extremely
+fast to washing.
+
+Since the introduction of the direct cotton dyes, both Salt colors
+and Sulphur colors, this method of dyeing, for skeins or piece goods,
+has been largely discontinued; but, by using a modification of this
+process, enormous quantities of Basic colors are still employed,
+on cotton and linen, in the manufacture of calicoes, organdies, and
+other printed fabrics.
+
+Curiously enough the Salt and the Sulphur colors, in almost every
+instance, possess sufficient acid properties of their own to act
+as very fair mordants for the Basic colors. Accordingly, it is not
+uncommon for dyers to “top,” with Basic colors, cotton or linen goods
+dyed directly. In the case of the Salt colors, this increases their
+fastness to washing, and with Sulphur colors it makes the shades more
+brilliant.
+
+Most vegetable materials that are used in a more or less natural
+condition, like straw, raffia, grass, wood-shavings, jute, and the
+like, contain enough of this natural tannic acid to act as a mordant
+for the Basic colors, which may in this direction be used as direct
+dyes.
+
+_Wool, Silk, etc._—For animal fibres, such as wool, silk, furs,
+feathers, etc., the Basic colors have been almost entirely
+superseded, in commerce, by the class of dyestuffs known as the Acid
+colors. These occur in much greater abundance and variety, and can
+be applied with less danger of spoiling the goods by uneven results.
+For leather, on the other hand, the Basic colors are still largely
+used, especially for dark shades, or when fastness to light is not
+particularly desired. On bark-tanned leather, which is full of tannic
+acid, they take hold particularly well, and are often more convenient
+to work with than the Acid colors, although they do not, as a rule,
+give such even results.
+
+=Uses.=—On a small scale it is hardly worth while for the amateur to
+try to use these Basic colors for dyeing either cotton or linen. The
+difficulty of correctly and evenly mordanting the goods is quite as
+great as that of applying the dyes afterward. And the Sulphur colors
+and Vat colors will be found quite as fast to washing as the best
+mordanted Basic colors, with the additional advantage of being very
+much faster to light, as well as easier of application.
+
+By using some of the methods of the calico printer, it is possible to
+employ these dyes, with some success, for stencilling. But even for
+this purpose, excepting, perhaps, on silk, the modern Vat colors are
+more convenient, as well as being infinitely more permanent to light.
+
+_Disadvantages._—The chief drawback to the use of these dyes is
+that they are not fast to light. Several of them—Methylene Blue,
+for instance, and Methylene Heliotrope O (_Metz_)—are fairly fast,
+but the rest, especially in light shades, and on transparent or
+translucent fabrics, are liable, when exposed to sunlight for any
+length of time, to alter their shade to a very marked degree.
+
+For dark shades this is not so noticeable, for, when goods are
+strongly colored, the effect of the sunlight on at least the deeper
+portions of the fibre is largely counteracted by the color of
+the goods themselves. So, too, an opaque material, like leather,
+will hold the same shade of color distinctly longer than silk or,
+especially, artificial silk, where the sunlight strikes through and
+through the fibre, without any protection at all. But, generally
+speaking, these dyes will not stand strong sunlight.
+
+Nor are the shades of these Basic dyes, as a rule, as attractive as
+those of other classes. The strong and brilliant, not to say coarse,
+shades of Methyl Violet, Malachite Green, Aniline Red, and the rest,
+which created such a sensation when they first appeared in the early
+sixties, were the particular colors which provoked John Ruskin to
+vehement, if not unparliamentary remarks. When unmixed they certainly
+do harrow the feelings of those artistically inclined, as much now as
+then. They are rarely seen now, for the taste of the public has been
+sufficiently educated to make a demand for softer shades. As before
+explained, nothing is easier than to soften these fierce, harsh
+colors to most beautiful and harmonious tints by mixing into them a
+mere trace of their complementaries.
+
+_Advantages._—In spite of all that can be said against them, these
+cheap, brilliant, and very powerful dyes are not to be despised, and
+should still be found in the outfit of a well-equipped dyer. For
+straw, raffia, chips, willow, and other materials used so largely
+for hats and for basket-work, these dyes are distinctly valuable,
+and, if supplemented by fast Acid colors for light shades, or for
+particularly fast effects, will be found satisfactory enough. So,
+too, for leather they will be found extremely useful, excepting where
+delicate shades, fast to light, are required.
+
+Some kinds of artificial silk, also, especially those made from
+nitro-cellulose and hence possessed of acid properties, dye far
+better with these than with any other dyes, although, as explained
+above, the colors will be far from permanent.
+
+For the craftsman, the fastness to washing of these dyes is a
+matter of very little importance, because they are used by him so
+exclusively upon materials such as basketry, leather, and artificial
+silk, which are never exposed to rough handling in boiling soap and
+water.
+
+As regards their fastness to light, the greater number of these
+must be classed as belonging to the fourth class, i.e., distinctly
+fugitive in character. On the other hand, some special ones can be
+selected from the group which are not only distinctly faster than the
+rest, but are fast enough to be well up in the third class, or can at
+a stretch, be placed in the second class, i.e., can be considered as
+satisfactory, at any rate, against any but very severe exposure.
+
+=The Fastest Basic Colors.=—Among these may be placed the well-known
+dyestuff, Methylene Blue, perhaps the most satisfactory of the whole
+class. A very good color also is Methylene Heliotrope O (_Metz_),
+which, while less brilliant, is far faster than the many brands of
+Methyl Violet, Hofmann’s Violet, and the rest, which to most dyers
+are the characteristic basic violets.
+
+For blacks, many composite dyes are on the market, made by the
+different color houses, known as Leather Blacks. These are fast
+enough, for deep shades, but not to be trusted when thinned down to
+form greys. The fastest individual basic black is Diazine Black,
+(_Kalle_), and this should be used for the lighter shades.
+
+The Red and Yellow colors are distinctly less satisfactory. None of
+them can really be considered better much than third class. Of the
+Reds the best is probably the color known as Safranine, different
+brands of which, giving as a rule the yellow shades, are manufactured
+by the various color houses; one brand being about as fast as
+another. For the bluish shades of red, probably the fastest is
+Diazine Red, (_Kalle_).
+
+As regards Yellow, the list is even more unsatisfactory.
+
+There is a very beautiful golden yellow, known as Auramine O,
+manufactured by most of the color houses, which, however, is hardly
+fast enough to be in the third class. This dyestuff, by the way, is
+injured by boiling, and therefore should never be used in a dye-bath
+heated to over 130° or 140° Fahrenheit. Less pleasing in shade,
+but somewhat faster to sunlight, are the rather orange or brownish
+yellows known as New Phosphine G (_Cassella_), and Methylene Yellow
+(_Metz_). Somewhat brighter colors, though less fast to light, are
+produced by Thio flavine T. None of these, however, compares in
+fastness to the selected colors of any other class in this book.
+
+The various brands of the common dyestuff, Bismarck Brown, are
+largely used for leather, and while probably inferior in fastness
+to any of the colors mentioned above, are not found in commercial
+practice too fugitive to be pretty satisfactory. When, however,
+materials are liable to be exposed for any length of time, two or
+three weeks in succession, to direct powerful sunlight, it will
+generally be advisable to use mixed browns made from fast Acid colors.
+
+Upon the whole, although we are still frequently called upon to
+employ them, they must, from the craftsman’s standpoint, always be
+considered as untrustworthy. They should, therefore, never be used
+where dyestuffs of any other class can be made to take their place.
+
+
+DYEING DIRECTIONS
+
+The application of Basic colors to leather dyeing will be discussed
+later. We shall now discuss their application to basketry materials,
+such as straw, raffia, willow, and the like, where they will be found
+useful.
+
+It will at once be noticed that these dyestuffs are far more powerful
+than any thus far met with in these lessons. Indeed, while there
+will be needed, for full shades of the Vat colors, pastes from about
+15% to 20% of the total weight of the dry materials, of the Sulphur
+colors from 7% to 10%, of the Salt colors from 4% to 6%, and of the
+Acid colors from 1½% to about 3%, most of these Basic colors will
+give very full shades with from ½% to 1% of the total weight of dry
+material.
+
+These Basic colors do not dissolve readily in water, but are easily
+soluble in alcohol, and also in even very dilute acids. Acids form
+salts with the dyestuffs and these salts dissolve when the free
+coloring matters do not. Accordingly the Basic colors should always
+be dissolved carefully in a separate cup or vessel, using hot water,
+and adding, for each spoonful of dyestuff, two or three spoonfuls of
+acetic acid or, if more convenient, of strong vinegar.
+
+The color, thus dissolved, should be added to warm water in the
+dye-pot, preferably through a fine strainer or piece of cheesecloth,
+to avoid any undissolved particles which would cause spots. The
+well-wetted goods are immersed in this dye-bath, and turned, either
+in the cold or with gentle heat, until the desired shade is reached,
+or the bath is exhausted. The material is then taken out, rinsed once
+or twice in water, cold or warm, carefully dried, and, if necessary,
+straightened and pressed or ironed out.
+
+_Straw._—Care must be taken when dyeing these materials to have them
+quite free from grease and dirt, before dyeing them. If they do
+not wet readily and evenly, after being soaked in warm water for a
+couple of hours, they should be carefully washed in warm soapsuds,
+and thoroughly rinsed. The soap, however, should be of good quality
+and, especially with straw, either in the form of straw braid or made
+up into hats, no soda or other free alkali should be allowed in the
+bath, for fear of injuring the surface and destroying the gloss. This
+last is sometimes improved by dipping the straw, after dyeing and
+rinsing, into a weak bath of Castile (olive oil) soap, or of Turkey
+red oil (about one tablespoonful to the gallon), before it is dried.
+
+In dyeing straw, the greatest pains must be taken to dye it evenly.
+Braid should be tied up in loose hanks or bundles, so that the
+dyestuff can penetrate readily into every part; and with a loop
+of tape or string, by which it can be raised or lowered in the
+dye-bath. It should be kept in motion sufficiently to cause uniform
+circulation of the liquid. The dye-bath should not be too strong,
+especially at the beginning, and should be heated slowly to the
+boiling point, where it should be kept for half an hour or so, to
+insure penetration. It is best to add the dyestuff in small portions,
+from time to time, as the bath becomes exhausted, lifting the goods
+out of the bath each time, and stirring in the new color before
+putting the goods back again. If the goods once become uneven it is
+very hard, if not impossible, to get them level again, or to strip
+them fully, without spoiling the materials. The best thing to do, if
+this misfortune overtakes them, is to dye them some dark color, where
+minor irregularities will be covered up and pass unnoticed. In other
+words, “Dump it in the black,” as the dyers say.
+
+Ladies’ straw hats are dyed in just the same way as the loose braid,
+the same care being taken to clean and wet the goods thoroughly, and
+to dye evenly. It is often of interest to experiment with old hats
+of good material, but faded, and to dye them up some pleasant new
+shade, and the ribbons and trimmings to match. Sometimes the remains
+of the old coloring will strip well by washing in hot soapsuds, and
+sometimes by soaking in warm water containing about one tablespoonful
+to the gallon of _sodium hydrosulphite_—the same salt that was used
+as a reducing agent for the Vat colors in the last chapter.
+
+If the color comes out well, it is then easy enough, after thoroughly
+rinsing, to dye them any desired shade. Otherwise they can be dyed
+Navy Blue, with a good shade of Methylene Blue and a trace of red,
+or Seal Brown, using a large amount of red and a little yellow and
+blue; or they can be dyed black with a black dye, such as one of the
+so-called Leather Blacks, usually made by mixing a deep purple with a
+yellow, or one of the strong, powerful Basic greens with red.
+
+In general, a well dyed piece of braid is supposed to show smooth,
+even coloring, good gloss, and good penetration of the dyestuff into
+the folds of the straw. There are, however, decided possibilities
+for the intelligent worker to obtain more interesting effects with
+but little trouble. It is very easy to use the principles, already
+explained, of rainbow dyeing, for straw braid, and beautiful effects
+can be obtained in this way, though it would need an artistic as well
+as an experienced milliner to fully utilize the same in making hats.
+But it frequently happens, when dyeing coarse braid without boiling,
+that the dye penetrates unevenly, from the edge towards the centre.
+Very pretty shaded effects can be produced in this way, the general
+color being uniform, and yet the straw, when looked at closely,
+showing tints instead of one flat, uniform shade. By dyeing the straw
+a solid color first, and then shading it in this manner with a
+different color, very interesting effects can be produced.
+
+It may be worth while to mention here that, when bought at wholesale
+places, it is astonishing how cheap the raw materials are. Bodies
+of straw, chip, etc., framing wire, white satin ribbon, artificial
+flowers, wing feathers, etc., from which not only pretty but even
+handsome and elegant head coverings can be created, and cost next to
+nothing at wholesale. The mechanical part of dyeing all these things
+can be learned in a very short time; after that the possibilities for
+a skilled worker, who has a good eye for color and can dye to the
+desired shades herself without having to hunt them far and near, are
+very large.
+
+_Raffia._—This is a material so widely used in the public schools,
+as well as by craftsmen, for weaving baskets, that it is well worth
+while to pay more attention to the dyeing of it. It is quite cheap,
+and very bulky, and takes these colors extremely well. So that it is
+one of the most satisfactory of all raw materials to experiment with,
+especially if there is a school or workshop at hand, where the dyed
+goods can be utilized.
+
+The raffia should be shaken out thoroughly, and soaked in soft water
+over night, or at least for several hours, to thoroughly wet and
+soften it. If even shades are desired it can then be dyed, just like
+straw braid, in a warm dye-bath containing the dyestuff, previously
+dissolved in diluted acetic acid or vinegar.
+
+It is much more interesting, however, to dye it rainbow shades
+from the start. If red, blue, and yellow dyestuffs are dissolved
+separately, in different cups or pitchers, these solutions can be
+used to replenish the large dye-pots of the same colors. To keep the
+colors reasonably clear, and prevent them from speedily degenerating
+into “mud,” it is well to keep on hand one or two rinsing-pots,
+full of warm water, or to have a sink near at hand, where each hank
+or bundle of raffia should be rinsed after being taken out of one
+dye-pot and before going into the next.
+
+The raffia, when thoroughly wetted out, should, for convenience’
+sake, be made up into separate loosely-tied bundles, with a loop
+on each by which to handle it in the dye-bath without staining the
+hands. It is well, too, to have some oil-cloth around, for these
+bundles drip a good deal, and the dye-liquor will stain anything of
+an animal or vegetable nature with which it comes in contact. After
+a little experimenting with dipping these bundles first into the
+first dye-pot and then—rinsing each time—into the other two, it will
+be easy to get the general effect of any particular shade, although,
+when examined closely, the fibre will show the presence of all three
+colors.
+
+It is interesting to notice, here, as previously with the Salt
+colors, how easy it is to modify and soften the harsh shades of the
+individual unmixed dyestuffs. And, as before, it is very interesting
+as well as very useful to dye some bundles even shades of some
+important compound color, such as brown, for instance, or olive
+green, or steel grey, and to notice how the color is changed on the
+fibre by adding a little more red, or yellow, or blue to the bath.
+
+The “eye for color” obtained in this way is of the greatest possible
+advantage to a dyer, whether amateur or professional; and where, as
+in this case, the materials are cheap, easy to dye, and possible to
+utilize, every advantage should be taken of the opportunity.
+
+=Permanent Colors on Basketry.=—While for most purposes the straw,
+raffia chips, willows, etc., dyed with Basic colors will be found
+satisfactory enough, it is best for craftsmen who are making a
+specialty of very high-grade baskets, to use some of the fast Acid
+colors, described and listed in the next chapter, for their reds and
+yellows, and for all mixed shades in which these two colors play an
+important part. The Acid dyes are applied in a boiling bath, with the
+addition of a little acetic acid, and, while not fast to washing,
+and not imparting their colors as readily as the Basic dyes, can be
+thoroughly depended upon, even in light and delicate shades, against
+the action of sunlight. Salt dyes can also be used, in a boiling
+bath with the addition of some salt, but, excepting in some special
+cases, are not superior to the Acid dyes, although somewhat faster to
+washing.
+
+
+
+
+                            CHAPTER VIII
+
+                           THE ACID COLORS
+
+
+The discovery and introduction into commerce of Mauveine and the
+other Basic dyes, focussed the attention of chemists, all over the
+world, upon this new and important application of their science.
+And it was soon noticed that certain organic bodies, of a decidedly
+_acid_ character, had the power of dyeing wool and silk. These early
+dyes were so-called “nitro” compounds, formed by the action of strong
+nitric acid upon derivatives of coal tar, and in most cases they
+gave strong and brilliant, but rather fugitive, shades of yellow.
+The most interesting of these, perhaps, was the compound known as
+“picric acid,” which at one time was considerably used for dyeing
+silk yellow. Now it has been abandoned for that purpose but is
+manufactured on an enormous scale for use as an explosive.
+
+These original acid dyes were of little importance. But in the
+early seventies chemists began to make use of a reaction—known as
+“diazotizing”—for making new organic compounds by the coupling of
+aniline or bodies similar to aniline, with all sorts and kinds of
+other compounds derived from coal tar. The number of derivatives
+of this sort proved enormous, and many of them had more or less
+valuable dyeing properties. And in a very short time new dyestuffs
+had been discovered, good, bad, and indifferent, numbering not
+hundreds, but thousands.
+
+A very few of these so-called “Azo” dyes were of the Basic class,
+like Bismarck Brown, mentioned in the last chapter. Others,
+discovered ten or fifteen years later, constituted the class of
+Direct Cotton colors or Salt colors. But the great bulk of these
+colors belonged to the so-called “Acid” class, forming salts with
+bases and alkalies, and being liberated from the salts by strong
+acids.
+
+The number of Acid Azo colors is very large. In the catalogues of
+commercial coal-tar colors there are some two hundred and fifty
+of these dyes which have been picked out of the rest as having
+sufficient value to be carefully described, and to have been placed
+on the market by the great dye houses. Most of these are red and
+orange colors, with a few yellows. As a rule they are brilliant and
+clear, but, with a few exceptions, not particularly fast to light.
+
+When these were introduced it was soon recognized that they were of
+practically no value for cotton and linen. They are as a rule much
+more soluble than the Basic dyes of the foregoing chapter, and hence
+are occasionally used as stains for wood, rattan, and other vegetable
+materials where considerable penetration is needed, without fastness
+to washing. But such use is of little importance.
+
+=Properties.=—Acid dyes are almost exclusively employed for dyeing
+wool, silk, feathers, and other animal fibres, and for this they
+are extremely valuable. The introduction of the Acid Azo colors
+so simplified and improved the dyeing of wool and silk, that every
+effort was made to increase the range of colors. And when it was
+found that the Azo colors were weak on the line of blue, purple,
+and green, efforts were made, which after several years proved
+successful, to change the various powerful Basic dyes, the Methyl
+Violets, Fuchsin or Aniline Red, Aniline Blue, Malachite Green, and
+the rest, into Acid dyes, so that they could all be used in the same
+dye-baths. This has resulted in a very wide range of colors indeed,
+for the Acid Azo colors cover fully all the shades of yellow, orange,
+and especially of red, from scarlets of all sorts and kinds to deep
+full crimsons. And then the remaining shades are covered by the
+acidified or sulphonated Basic colors.
+
+These latter, by the way, though very brilliant and strong and rich,
+are no faster to light than the original Basic colors from which
+they are derived. Of late years the Acid colors have held their
+own, and still monopolize the commercial, as well as the special,
+dyeing of wool and silk excepting under unusual circumstances, when
+considerable fastness to washing is required.
+
+With these dyes, as in the case of the Basic dyes, the fastness to
+washing is of little or no consequence to the craftsman. Nobody
+expects to scrub hand-dyed leather; and woollen and silk goods,
+unless specially prepared, are not supposed to be turned over to the
+tender mercies of the family laundress. However, it may be well to
+emphasize here the fact that these dyes are as a rule “stripped”
+quite readily by boiling in a neutral soap bath. And when the
+craftsman wishes to dye wool or silk fast to washing, he must either
+use the Salt dyes, in a boiling bath, or must dye, with special
+precautions against tendering, with either the Sulphur or the Vat
+Dyes.
+
+With regard to light-fastness, however, the case is different. A
+great many hundreds, possibly even thousands, of Acid dyes have been
+discovered, and scores of them, covering every shade, can be obtained
+in the open market. Most of these are of but little permanence, but a
+few products, from each of the great color houses, can be selected,
+whose fastness to light is extremely satisfactory. The dyes in the
+following list can hardly be considered as fast as the Vat dyes,
+previously described, but are probably faster, as a class, than any
+other class mentioned in this book. They would rank at the very top
+of the second class, and some at least would fairly enter the first
+class, being absolutely satisfactory against even the strongest
+sunlight.
+
+A series of skeins, dyed all colors of the rainbow, including many
+delicate light shades, with a red, yellow, and blue dye of those
+mentioned below, withstood an exposure test which quite ruined a
+similar set of skeins dyed with the very best natural dyestuffs. And
+a large hand-woven rug, made of wool dyed light shades with the same
+dyes, was placed for two weeks on a roof in New York, half of it
+being covered with boards and the rest exposed to the direct action
+of the July sunlight, and at the end of this time it was impossible
+to notice any difference in shade.
+
+The colors in the following list are to be used, principally, for
+wool. They will all dye silk, leather, and feathers, but in the
+chapters dealing with those materials some additional dyes may be
+mentioned, which are specially suited for them.
+
+
+_List of Selected Dyes._—
+
+  Badische— Palatine Scarlet A, 3 R
+            Palatine Light Yellow, R
+            Tartrazine (yellow)
+            Wool Fast Blue, B L
+
+  Cassella— Brilliant Cochineal, R R
+            Acid Yellow, A T, conc.
+            Tetracyanol, S F
+
+  Elberfeld—Azo Crimson, S
+            Fast Red, A
+            Fast Yellow, 3 G
+            Alizarine Blue, S A P
+            Cashmere Black, 3 B N
+
+  Kalle—    Biebrich Acid Red, 2 B
+            Wool Yellow, T A
+            Nero cyanine Blue, B
+            Nero cyanine Black, D
+
+  Metz—     Fast Acid Red, M
+            Fast Acid Orange, G
+            Fast Acid Yellow, 3 G
+            Fast Acid Blue, B B
+
+
+DYEING DIRECTIONS
+
+The Acid dyes, like the Basic, are used in an acid bath, but for a
+different reason. With the Basic dyes acetic acid or some other weak
+acid is added, for the purpose of readily dissolving the color. In
+the case of the Acid dyes, however, the dyestuffs are almost always
+put on the market in the form of the potassium or ammonium salts of
+the color acid. And the presence of some acid is always necessary,
+to liberate the color acid, and allow it to combine with the basic
+principles existing in the animal fibres.
+
+_For Wool._—The goods, well washed and soaked, are warmed gently in a
+bath containing, besides the dyestuff dissolved in plenty of water,
+a little sulphuric acid and a good deal of Glauber’s salt. Both acid
+and salt should be free from iron, or the shade will be dulled.
+
+The amount of acid to be used may vary between considerable limits
+without affecting the results. If too much is present, there is
+danger of injuring the feel and the lustre of the fibre. If there
+is not enough acid in the bath, the color will wash right out of
+the wool, as soon as it is rinsed. In general it is well to start
+with about one tablespoonful of dilute (30%) sulphuric acid for each
+gallon of dye-liquor and about twice that amount of Glauber’s salt.
+
+It is hard to tell just what is the function of the Glauber’s salt.
+It seems, however, to open up the pores of the wool in some way, and
+to make it dye more evenly and deeply. The bath is gently heated,
+with constant stirring of the goods, until the right shade is
+produced, or, if it is desired to exhaust the bath and so waste no
+color, until near the boiling point.
+
+The goods when taken out of the dye-bath must be washed very
+thoroughly, to remove the last trace of acid, which otherwise on
+drying would ruin the wool.
+
+It must be remembered that these Acid dyes hardly affect cotton
+in the least, and so the goods dyed in this way must be free from
+vegetable fibres, if level dyeings are to be obtained.
+
+In dyeing wool skeins commercially it is, of course, of the utmost
+importance to have the colors perfectly level and uniform. This
+uniformity is obtained easily enough, when using these Acid dyes, by
+having the wool thoroughly wet before placing it in the dye-bath;
+by having it well loosened out and well stirred so that the color
+will penetrate evenly every part of the material; and, finally,
+by starting the bath at a moderate temperature, and heating it
+gradually, until the proper shade is obtained.
+
+For handicraft dyeing the student is strongly advised to practise
+shaded and irregular effects, the so-called Rainbow dyeing, with wool
+in skeins, just as, in previous lessons, with raffia and with cotton.
+By using coarse heavy yarns, very beautiful two and three color
+effects can be produced, which, when used for embroidery or weaving,
+will prove most interesting.
+
+Great care must always be taken, in wool dyeing, to preserve the
+lustre and the soft effect of the wool, and to avoid felting. This
+can best be done by using moderate amounts of acid, by dyeing at
+moderate temperature and never raising the dye-bath quite to the
+boil; and finally, by handling the goods as little as possible in
+the acid dye-bath, consistent of course with exposing every portion
+equally to the action of the dyestuff. Cotton skeins can be worked
+and rubbed, and pulled, and thrown up and down in the hot dye-bath,
+without fear of injuring them. But wool should be handled carefully,
+and worked in the dye-pot quietly and gently, just sufficiently
+to accomplish two results. First, the wool at the bottom of the
+pot should be raised by a lifting and turning motion and replaced
+by fresh material; and second, when the wool is lowered back into
+the liquor it should be loosened, so as to allow the dye-liquor to
+penetrate the mass.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER IX
+
+                           DYEING FEATHERS
+
+
+The use of feathers and, especially, of ostrich feathers for
+millinery has, during the past few years, increased to enormous
+proportions. Besides the home product, from California and the
+Western States, which, however, is but small, the importation of
+raw feathers from abroad has averaged, during the past two or three
+years, nearly eight millions of dollars. As yet, the dyeing of
+these feathers is almost entirely confined to professionals—their
+processes, although simple, not being generally known or published.
+
+As before mentioned, feathers, like other animal products, can be
+colored with ease by either the Basic or the Acid dyestuffs. In
+practice, as with wool and silk, the Acid dyes are universally used,
+because of their greater variety, their greater fastness to light,
+and their better levelling properties. To use the Acid colors with
+success the following points must be carefully considered. First, the
+baths must be such as not to ruin or “burn” the feathers, i.e., they
+must leave intact the tiny barbules upon the barbs or “flues,” as the
+dyers call them, which make the feather look soft and full and not
+stringy.
+
+Second, the quill must be fully dyed, and the shaft, or stem of the
+feather, must also be colored just as well as the flues. This is a
+very common defect in feather dyeing. The quill, being hard and stiff
+and horny, is much more difficult to penetrate with the dyestuff
+than the soft, delicate fibres. If the feather, therefore, is dyed
+hurriedly or carelessly, the latter may be colored dark and full,
+long before the quill or the lower part of the stem has been dyed at
+all. This necessitates painting the stem after the finishing process,
+with oil colors, to match the rest of the feather.
+
+Finally, after dyeing, the feather must be properly finished so that
+the flues will not look woolly on the one hand, nor stringy on the
+other hand, but soft and full.
+
+The whole secret of feather dyeing lies in the proper attainment of
+these three requirements, success in which depends respectively upon
+(a) the composition of the dye-bath, (b) the method of dyeing, and
+(c) the finishing process.
+
+=(a) The Dye-bath.=—As is universally the case when using Acid
+dyes on animal fibres, the bath must be distinctly acid, in order
+to release the free color acid from the dyestuff, which, in its
+commercial form, is a salt. A very little experimenting with ostrich
+feathers will show that the presence, not only of mineral acids
+like sulphuric or hydrochloric, but even of the much milder organic
+acids, like acetic or citric, is liable to “burn” the feather badly
+and convert a well barbuled flue into a bare fibre which, under no
+conditions, can look other than stringy. The acid commonly used
+by the professionals is oxalic acid, but, of late years, dyeing
+chemists have been introducing into the dyeing industry the use of
+the volatile and pungent formic acid, and in the dyeing of ostrich
+feathers this acid has been found particularly advantageous.
+Excepting when a large number of feathers, strung together on a line,
+are to be dyed the same color, it is customary to dye feathers in an
+agateware pan or flat dish, and about two-thirds of a teaspoonful
+of formic or oxalic acid in a pint of water, is about the right
+proportion for one or two feathers at a time.
+
+
+=(b) Method of Dyeing.=—
+
+_Softening the Feathers._—Before immersing the feathers in the
+dye-bath the greatest pains should be taken, first, to thoroughly
+cleanse them, and, second, to thoroughly soften them. As a rule,
+the feathers are bleached before dyeing and in this process they
+generally lose all of their original grease. But if they show signs
+of wetting unevenly when plunged into hot water, they should be
+carefully scrubbed with Castile soap and hot water, and well rinsed
+till the last trace of soap has been removed.
+
+The clean feathers should then be thoroughly softened by immersing
+them in hot water. This is especially important as regards the quills
+and the stems, which may have to soak for half an hour or more before
+they are soft enough to take the dyestuff.
+
+_Dyeing the Feathers._—After softening, each feather is held by the
+tip, and laid, butt first, in the dye-bath. For light shades the
+dye-liquor may remain cold, but for darker shades it is best to
+enter the feathers at a low temperature, and raise the latter very
+gently till the right shade is reached, or the bath is decidedly hot,
+although still far below the boiling point.
+
+Above all, care must be taken to dye the quill and butt first, and
+to keep them in the bath very much longer than the flues and tip.
+The latter will dye in a minute or two, but to thoroughly stain the
+former may take twenty minutes or half an hour.
+
+=(c) Finishing.=—When the desired shade has been reached, the feather
+is taken from the bath and rinsed thoroughly in warm water, to get
+rid of the loose color. Then it must be “starched.” This is the
+technical name for the drying process, and is very different from the
+laundryman’s idea of “starching,” although the two processes have
+occasionally been confused, with most disastrous results, as far as
+the feathers were concerned.
+
+_Dry-starching._—After the dyed feathers have been thoroughly rinsed,
+they should be partially dried, by wiping with a soft piece of cloth,
+like a handkerchief or piece of cheesecloth, and then laid flat on
+a piece of stiff paper and covered with a heaping tablespoonful or
+so of dry, finely powdered starch (on a small scale the quality
+known as “Electric Starch” is eminently satisfactory). The starch is
+thoroughly rubbed into the feather with the fingers, and then the
+feather, full of starch, is beaten and dusted against the edge of the
+table or the back of the hand until the starch has all been shaken
+out. After one or two repetitions of this process, the feather will
+be found not only dry but with the barbules properly filled out.
+Sometimes the feather, thus treated, has a woolly look, the starching
+process having gone too far. In this case it should be dampened in
+cold water, and restarched.
+
+Under no circumstances should any starch paste be allowed to touch or
+form on the flues. The starching must be done in the cold and with
+the unbroken starch grains.
+
+_Wet-starching._—Some dyers prefer wet-starching to the dry process
+just described. In this process, the feathers, after dyeing and
+rinsing, are worked for a minute or two in a thick milk (not paste)
+made by stirring one or two large tablespoonfuls of dry starch in
+half a pint or so of cold water, till all the lumps have been broken
+up. After this milk has been thoroughly rubbed into every part of
+the feather, the latter is taken out, dried roughly by wiping with
+cheesecloth, and then by wrapping between blotting paper or folded
+cheesecloth and running carefully through a not too tight wringer.
+The feather is then taken out and thoroughly dried, either by laying
+it on the table in the sunlight or in a warm room for some time, or,
+if very great care is taken, by holding and moving it over a hot-air
+register, or high over the stove or gas flame. Of course, if this is
+done carelessly and too great heat is applied, some of the starch
+grains will be converted into paste, and the feather probably ruined.
+When thoroughly dry, “bone dry,” as the dyers call it, the feather is
+beaten against the back of the hand, or edge of the table until all
+the starch is shaken out.
+
+=Dyeing in the Starch.=—When dyeing light shades time may be saved
+by dyeing and wet-starching at the same time, in the same bath. The
+feather, thoroughly soaked in hot water, is placed in the starch
+milk, to which a quarter teaspoonful or so of formic acid and a
+little dyestuff have been added, and then worked, in the cold, until
+the proper shade has been reached, the starch being taken up at the
+same time. Then on drying and beating, the feather will come out both
+dyed and finished. This has the disadvantage of leaving a little acid
+in the finished feather, but when using small quantities of oxalic
+acid, this is of little, if any importance.
+
+=Suggestions as to Feather Dyeing.=—These processes should enable
+any intelligent craftsman to dye even the most costly and most
+delicate feathers without danger of spoiling them. Shade effects
+in one, two, or more colors can be easily obtained by the use of a
+little ingenuity, remembering always that the quill and the stem
+are very much more difficult to dye than the flues or tip. It will
+be remembered that comparatively few ostrich feathers are now used,
+singly; the plumes so abundantly in use, nowadays, being almost
+invariably built up by sewing two or usually three feathers together,
+one underneath the other, the stem being carefully shaved down so as
+not to make them too clumsy.
+
+Very charming effects can be obtained by dyeing the individual
+feathers different but harmonious colors, and then combining them
+into one plume later. But, usually, the plume is made first, and
+then dyed afterwards. It may be suggested, here, that very beautiful
+effects can be produced by taking large, handsome, single feathers,
+before they are bleached, and dyeing them a pleasant shade of red or
+blue or of some mixed color. The natural black of the feather, with
+its irregular markings, often gives very interesting results, and the
+expense is much less than that of a built-up feather.
+
+After the starching process, the dried feather is usually finished
+by “curling,” a process simple enough in itself, but which had best
+be left to the professional, for fear of injury. The bleaching of
+feathers, also, is a process which is hardly to be attempted by the
+amateur, unless he is prepared to spend a good deal of his time and
+money in experimenting. The process, however, is well understood by
+dyeing chemists and can be learned without much difficulty, by a
+careful student with some knowledge of chemistry.
+
+_Stripping Feathers._—By soaking in warm water, containing a
+teaspoonful or so of ammonia water to the pint, and then carefully
+washing with soap and hot water, these Acid colors can be, as a rule,
+stripped from feathers almost entirely. This does not, to be sure,
+improve the original quality of the goods, but, carefully done, its
+bad effects are hardly, if at all, perceptible, and it enables the
+dyer to remedy a bad piece of dyeing, or to dye an old feather that
+has become faded or discolored by exposure. This, of course, does not
+apply to _black_ dyed feathers.
+
+After white feathers have been worn for some time they generally
+become soiled and yellow. If the stock was good to start with they
+can be immensely improved in appearance, if not made quite equal
+to new, by simply scrubbing them with a piece of Castile soap, in
+hot water, and then, after thorough rinsing, by dyeing them, in the
+starch-bath, with a very faint trace of blue or bluish violet.
+
+_Black Dyeing of Feathers._—This is the most difficult process in
+feather dyeing, and, as a rule, should be avoided by the amateur. It
+is impossible, so far, to get a thoroughly good black by the use of
+any artificial dyestuff, or any simple process. The best Acid blacks
+on the market, dyed with the greatest care, give a color to feathers
+that by themselves may look pretty well, but, when compared with
+first-class products, show dull and grey.
+
+The only satisfactory blacks, so far, are produced by a long and
+tedious series of operations, depending on mordanting for, and dyeing
+with, logwood. As a rule, the professional black dyer—and really good
+ones are few and far between—allows at least five or six days for the
+process, the different steps of which he usually guards as a valuable
+secret, which indeed it is. The writer possesses one or two of these
+formulas, obtained, as special marks of favor, from first-class
+dyers, but has never had occasion to test them thoroughly, and
+therefore is unwilling to publish them here. Good dyeing chemists
+have tried again and again to shorten and simplify the process, and
+have had some success. But to this day no color has been found to
+replace logwood, and this black dyeing of feathers is perhaps the
+only dyeing problem that has not as yet been satisfactorily solved
+with the aid of modern dyestuffs.
+
+_Painting Feathers._—Some dyers, instead of dyeing feathers, paint
+them. They dip the cleansed and carefully dried feather, for a
+moment, into a bath of oil paint, thinned greatly with gasolene. The
+feather is then taken from the bath, dried by waving in the air, and,
+when thoroughly dry, finished by beating and, if necessary, with a
+light dry-starching.
+
+The results, for colors, are fairly satisfactory but are not so
+permanent as the dyeing process. In an oil paint the solid coloring
+matter, or pigment, is ground up finely in boiled linseed oil, an oil
+which has the property of drying to a firm varnish when exposed to
+the air. This mixture is thinned with turpentine or gasolene to the
+desired consistency before using.
+
+It is evident that, in coloring feathers, if enough oil is applied
+to fasten the pigment very firmly to the flues, there is danger at
+the same time of plastering the fine barbules so that they will never
+get back to their proper places, and the product will be hopelessly
+stringy. On the other hand, if the amount of oil is so small, thanks
+to the abundant thinning with gasolene, that there is no fear of its
+sticking the barbules together, there will hardly be enough oil left
+to firmly fasten the pigment to the flues, on drying, and the color
+is apt to rub, and to wear off quickly.
+
+Paint, thinned with gasolene, has been applied to feathers
+occasionally by means of stencils, some of the so-called “barred”
+effects, looking like the feathers from a barred Plymouth Rock hen,
+being made in this way—the color, black paint or varnish, greatly
+thinned, being applied by means of an “air brush” or atomizer.
+Occasionally very large, wide, and handsome feathers have appeared
+decorated with flowers and other figures, in bright colors, applied
+in the same way with an air brush, sometimes with the help of
+stencils, but generally free-hand. These effects are often rather
+crude and inartistic, but there is no reason why, skilfully used,
+this method of decorating the backs of feathers might not produce
+interesting effects.
+
+
+
+
+                              CHAPTER X
+
+                     LEATHER AND LEATHER DYEING
+
+
+So far as can be learned, in every part of the world, the first
+materials used by man for clothing and coverings were the skins of
+animals. In its natural condition, however, the hide stripped from a
+dead animal has certain properties which greatly interfere with such
+use. When dry it is stiff and hard; when moist it rapidly decomposes,
+and when exposed to hot water it swells and in time dissolves. These
+difficulties had to be overcome before skins and furs could be
+properly utilized. And, accordingly, in the history of every nation
+and race, one of the very earliest of all developing industries was
+the art of leather making; that is, of converting the hard and easily
+decomposed rawhide into a soft, pliable, and comparatively permanent
+substance, well suited for the use of man.
+
+In most uncivilized nations this conversion was accomplished by
+rubbing and working some oily or greasy substance into the hide,
+until it was thoroughly soft and flexible. Thus, in our Indian
+tribes, the old squaws would turn the deer skins and the pelts of
+various fur-bearing animals into beautifully soft and strong leather,
+by rubbing and working into them the brains of the animals. The
+Esquimaux and other Northern tribes from time immemorial, too, have
+worked out this method with great perfection. Indeed without it they
+would have been unable to survive at all.
+
+In other parts of the world it was discovered that rawhide could be
+made more durable by treatment with metallic salts, especially with
+alum, and then, by softening this product by rubbing in some oily
+material, a very fair leather could be produced. On the other hand,
+in warmer climates, as for instance among the Egyptians, the very
+earliest records show the use of vegetable extracts, containing the
+substances now known as tannins, for softening and preserving skins;
+and these races understood the art of dyeing, painting, gilding,
+and embossing the leather thus made, and used it for shoes, straps,
+aprons, and harness.
+
+The Romans and Babylonians were famous for their leather industry,
+and the ancient Romans not only imported but manufactured it
+themselves, and used it freely. In the Middle Ages the greatest
+developments in the art were made by the Moors in Spain, whose
+leather, commonly called Cordovan leather, from the city which was
+the centre of the industry, has probably never been equalled for
+beauty and importance. This Cordovan leather, of which fine specimens
+are still to be found in museums and private collections, was made of
+sheepskin, tanned with bark. It was ornamented with silver foil, laid
+on a backing of size, and covered with a yellow varnish or lacquer,
+sometimes tinted with bitumen. This protected both the leather and
+design very perfectly from injury by air or moderate moisture, and,
+being done on a large scale with splendid designs, was used largely
+for handsome wall coverings, competing favorably with tapestries
+manufactured in France and elsewhere for the same purposes.
+
+
+PREPARATION OF LEATHER.
+
+In general, we may say that at the present day there are the same
+three classes of leather as in the days of the ancients, according to
+whether the hide is treated with oil or fatty materials, with alum or
+other metallic salts, or with the bark of trees or other vegetable
+substances containing the compound known as tannin.
+
+=1. Oil Tanning.=—This, while of less importance than the other two
+methods, is still used in considerable quantities for lighter and
+cheaper qualities of leather. The process most commonly used is often
+called chamoising, or “shamoying,” because it is used principally for
+the production of “chamois leather” or wash leather. The hides used
+for this form are usually thin and light, the flesh sides of split
+sheepskins being the commonest, and the resultant leather is not only
+soft and flexible and strong, but is also unaffected by water. For
+this reason it is more difficult to dye than other varieties.
+
+
+=2. Mineral Tanning or Tawing.=
+
+_Alum._—For thousands of years it has been known that if a solution
+of alum is rubbed or soaked into a raw hide the fibres of the leather
+become changed to an insoluble and permanent condition, and by
+afterwards rubbing and rolling, and working in some greasy material,
+like the yolk of eggs, a useful variety of leather can be produced.
+The alum in this case does not form a permanent compound with the
+animal fibres, but can be washed out by working in warm water.
+Chemists have agreed, therefore, to call this temporary reaction by
+the name “tawing” as opposed to “tanning” where the chemical action
+is a permanent one. The “kid” leathers used for gloves are commonly
+made by this process.
+
+_Chrome._—During the last few years a new process has been
+introduced, based upon the use of chromium salts, which are absorbed
+by the hide in the form of the yellow or orange-colored salts,
+chromate and bichromate of sodium, and then are reduced in the fibres
+to a green compound by the use of hydrosulphite of sodium, or some
+other strong but harmless reducing agent.
+
+This chrome leather is extremely valuable, and is freely used,
+especially for the “uppers” of good quality in the boot and shoe
+trade. This leather is very strong, and is water-proof, but possesses
+a serious disadvantage for the dyer, in that when it is once dry it
+can never be again wetted, and therefore it must be dyed fresh from
+the tannery wash tanks, or not at all.
+
+=3. Vegetable, or Bark Tanning.=—At some very early period in the
+world’s history it was discovered that certain vegetable extracts,
+possessing in general a peculiar “puckery” taste, also possessed
+valuable properties in the treatment of raw hide. This process was
+certainly well known to the Romans, for Pliny mentions, as tanning
+materials, the three great sources of tannin to-day, namely, gall
+nuts, the bark of trees, and sumach. These and many other vegetable
+materials, used for tanning, all contain a peculiar substance, known
+as “tannin” or tannic acid, which gives them their useful properties.
+
+The tannins from different plants are not identical, although closely
+related to each other. They all have a strong astringent taste, and
+dissolve readily in water, forming weak acid solutions. They make
+dark-colored compounds with iron salts, and convert the hide tissue
+of animals into a tough, insoluble, and comparatively indestructible
+material which, when loosened and softened by some mechanical action,
+is known as leather.
+
+_Tannin._—Pure tannin can best be obtained from gall nuts—small
+excrescences on the leaves and twigs of certain plants caused by the
+puncture of some insect preparing to deposit its eggs there. The best
+varieties, called Aleppo galls, come from Turkey and Austria, where
+they are found on oak trees, and contain from 60 to 70 per cent. of
+tannic acid. From these it can be extracted in a very pure form,
+and it comes to market as an extremely light, fine, grey or light
+tan-colored powder, which dissolves in very little water to an almost
+colorless solution. Tannin in this form is largely used for dyeing,
+especially in the dyeing of cotton or linen goods with the Basic
+colors.
+
+For tanning purposes it is customary to use the bark of various
+trees, oak bark being the most esteemed in Europe and, in this
+country, hemlock bark being the most used. These contain from 12 to
+15 per cent. of tannin, as a rule, with a moderate amount of brown
+coloring matter. Pine bark is also frequently used, and the bark of
+fir, spruce, and larch, while, in Russia especially, much willow bark
+and birch bark is used for light grades, the so-called Russia leather.
+
+The next most valuable source of tannin is known as sumach,
+consisting of the finely-ground twigs and leaves of several species
+of that plant. The American sumach contains more tannin—18 to 25 per
+cent—than other varieties, but it is less valuable than the Sicilian
+sumach, which contains less coloring matter, and therefore can be
+used for tanning light shades of leather. All the materials can be
+used in the tannery either directly, or in the form of previously
+prepared extracts. From the Far East come some very important sources
+of tannin, used for dyeing as well as for leathermaking, in the
+form of dried extracts of various plants. One of these is Catechu
+or Cutch, now of value only for its tannin contents, but in former
+years used as a brown dyestuff as well. A similar product, known as
+Gambier, is still imported on a large scale from Singapore and other
+Eastern ports. It contains less tannin than Cutch, but less coloring
+matter as well. It is used not only for leather but for black silk
+dyeing with logwood.
+
+=The Tanning Process.=—Without going too much into detail, the
+conversion of raw hide into leather by means of tannin is a very
+lengthy and mechanical process. The hides are first softened by
+soaking in water, and then are dehaired, usually by steeping in a
+bath of slaked lime until the hair is loosened and can be scraped off
+with a blunt knife.
+
+This lime must then be extracted by steeping in an acid bath,
+preferably containing some organic acid like lactic or acetic acid;
+some manufacturers, for the sake of cheapness, use dilute sulphuric
+acid for this purpose, with the invariable result of making the
+leather brittle and rotten when it is fully dried.
+
+After the acid has been rinsed off, the hides are placed in the tan
+liquor, made either by dissolving one of the extracts in water, or
+by mixing the finely-ground bark or sumach with water and placing
+the hides in the mixture. The tanning process is a very slow one,
+especially for heavy hides, and it may take several months before
+the tannin penetrates to the center of the goods. When that time has
+come, the hides are taken out, brushed off, rinsed with cold water,
+drained off on horses, and then hung up in a drying shed to slowly
+dry.
+
+When in the proper condition they are thoroughly rolled by hand or
+machinery, to break up any adhesions, and to make the leather soft
+and flexible. Then they are ready to be finished, are dyed to the
+required shade, rubbed down and polished with wax or varnish, grained
+by being run through rollers with engraved patterns, and otherwise
+prepared for the trade.
+
+
+DYEING AND STAINING OF LEATHER.
+
+_General._—It has been mentioned, in previous chapters, that animal
+fibres of all sorts, such as wool, silk, feathers, etc., seem
+to possess at the same time both acid and basic properties, and
+therefore they combine readily with dyestuffs belonging to the Basic
+and also to the Acid class. This at once distinguishes animal fibres
+from vegetable fibres such as cotton, linen, and paper, which, being
+practically neutral in composition, will not combine with either
+Basic or Acid dyestuffs without the assistance of mordants.
+
+This same rule applies to leather, and we are therefore able to dye
+leather successfully with either Acid or Basic dyestuffs, using a
+dye-liquor made acid with, preferably, a volatile organic acid such
+as acetic or formic acid.
+
+_Acids._—For Basic colors acetic acid is generally used, as being
+cheaper than the other, and quite as good for dissolving the dyes
+for the dye-bath. For Acid colors it is generally best to use formic
+acid, for acetic acid in many cases fails to liberate the color-acids
+from the dyes, and then the colors fail to “bite.”
+
+Professional leather dyers, for the sake of economy, often use a
+little sulphuric acid in the dye-bath, a practice which is one of the
+chief causes of the short life of modern leathers.
+
+With other animal fibres, such as wool and silk, the Acid colors
+take quite as readily as the Basic; but with leather, there is some
+little difference, according to the way in which the leather has been
+prepared.
+
+For our purposes it is hardly worth while to discuss the dyeing of
+chrome leather or of chamois leather. The leather almost universally
+employed for hand work has been bark tanned, excepting where very
+white goods are used, of rather light quality. These are generally
+tawed with alum, and for this reason have a greater affinity for the
+Acid colors than when the fibres have already been fully charged with
+tannic acid, which at the same time, it will be remembered, acts as
+an excellent mordant for the Basic colors.
+
+_Dyestuffs._—Accordingly, while Acid colors may be used, they do not
+act nearly so readily as the Basic colors. For this reason, except
+for special shades such as a clear sky-blue or a pure scarlet,
+which can hardly be obtained excepting by the use of Acid dyes,
+or where special fastness to sunlight is required, the best Basic
+colors, such as Methylene Blue, Methylene Heliotrope, Thioflavine
+T (for yellow) and Safranine (for red) are usually employed. For
+black, it is well to use one of the many Leather blacks, made by
+mixing together powerful Basic dyes. For brown, the standard leather
+color, used in enormous quantities for gloves and the like, is the
+well-known Bismarck Brown, or for more orange shades, the closely
+related dyestuff, Chrysoidine. And, although neither of these colors
+is as fast to light as the Basic dyes mentioned above, they give
+very satisfactory results. These colors should be dissolved in water
+acidified with a little acetic acid.
+
+The greatest pains must be taken in each case to see that the color
+is all in solution, and that no specks of undissolved color are
+allowed to come in contact with the leather. The leather must be very
+carefully and thoroughly moistened by soaking, if necessary over
+night, in lukewarm water softened, if the surface of the leather
+seems to demand it, with a few drops of ammonia water.
+
+=Dyeing Leather and Staining Leather.=—As regards the application of
+the color; dyers generally make a distinction between leather that is
+_dyed_ and leather that is _stained_.
+
+In _dyeing_ leather the moistened goods are placed in a tray or pan
+(agateware is most convenient for small pieces) and floated backwards
+and forwards in the dye-liquor, which should be deep enough to fully
+cover them. The liquor is usually about lukewarm on starting, and
+may be heated very gradually and gently to about 120° or 130°, if
+desired. For light shades, however, this is not at all necessary,
+and indeed the color, as a rule, penetrates deeper and is laid on
+more evenly when the bath is kept cold. The leather is kept in the
+dye-bath until the desired shade is reached, which should be at the
+end of half an hour or so.
+
+When dyed in this manner, the dyestuff has a chance to soak into the
+leather, and so, when finished, the color is not so liable to be
+affected by rubbing or by wear. The leather should come out evenly
+coated on both sides, shaded effects if desired being produced later,
+by the staining process.
+
+_Stained Leather._—In staining leather, on the other hand, the color
+solution is applied directly to the surface of the damp—not wet—goods
+by means of a brush or soft sponge, or a little pad of cloth.
+Accordingly, no matter how carefully the leather has been softened
+and moistened beforehand, the color does not penetrate far, and is
+found only on the particular surface where it has been applied.
+
+For flat, even shades, the dyeing process is usually preferable,
+but by staining, it is possible for the craftsman to work on the
+surface of the leather, as an artist does on paper with water colors,
+and beautiful effects can be produced. Oil paint is often used for
+decorating leather, and when applied skilfully in thin layers, the
+effects are good. But staining with dyestuffs is usually preferable,
+as showing more of the grain of the leather, and being more
+transparent.
+
+The staining of leather may either be done free-hand, or else by the
+filling in of set designs, marked out previously by tooling or some
+other method; or, as will be discussed later, by the use of stencils.
+In any case success chiefly depends upon the condition of the surface
+that is to receive the dye. The surface of the leather should be
+dampened, thoroughly and evenly, so that the dye will adhere, and
+even penetrate a little; but it must not be so wet that the colors
+will run.
+
+To get this exactly right requires considerable practice. As a rule,
+the leather is, first, carefully and evenly soaked in water or, if it
+is at all greasy, in water with a little ammonia in it. When this has
+been thoroughly done, the leather is taken out and dried off, first
+on one side and then on the other, with pieces of cloth and then
+later with blotting paper. After this it is exposed to the air for a
+little time until the exact point of dryness has been reached.
+
+The color solution should be applied with a camel’s hair brush or
+a small, soft pad of cotton, and any excess of liquid wiped off,
+or soaked up with blotting paper, and the color rubbed in with the
+fingers or pad, as soon as possible.
+
+=Acid Dyes for Leather.=—As above mentioned, certain shades are
+hard to obtain without the use of Acid colors. This is particularly
+true in the case of blue. For the lighter and brighter shades it
+is necessary to use one of the Acid blues such as Cyanole FF.
+(_Cassella_), or Patent Blue (_Metz_). These are applied in exactly
+the same way as the Basic colors. Some of the Acid reds, too, will be
+found valuable for certain shades of scarlet, etc., that can hardly
+be reached with Safranine. Among the best of the fast Acid colors for
+leather may be mentioned:
+
+  _Red._—Fast Scarlet, BXG, _Badische_; Biebrich Acid Red, 2B,
+    _Kalle_, and Fast Acid Red, M, _Metz_.
+
+  _Yellow._—Tartrazine, _Badische_; Wool Yellow, 1A, _Kalle_, and
+    Fast Acid Yellow, 3G, _Metz_.
+
+  _Blue._—Wool Fast Blue, BL, _Badische_; Nerocyannic Blue, B,
+    _Kalle_, and Fast Acid Blue, BB, _Metz_.
+
+When using these Acid dyes side by side with the Basic colors, it
+will be noticed that the latter, as a rule, are far more powerful,
+and color the leather much more rapidly than the Acid dyes.
+Accordingly for _staining_ leather the Basic dyes are the most
+satisfactory. On the other hand in _dyeing_ leather, where the
+dye-liquor is allowed to act longer on the goods, the Acid colors are
+more valuable, not only because they are fast to light, but also
+because they will penetrate more deeply and more evenly.
+
+=Finishing Leather.=—After coloring the leather it is necessary to
+finish it carefully, to get a smooth surface and to protect it from
+injury by rubbing or moisture. Some workers simply let the leather
+dry and then rub down the surface (without using any wax or oil)
+with the finger or the palm of the hands. Usually the grain or hair
+side of the leather is rubbed down with a little wax, the white or
+yellow wax, used largely as a finishing polish for tan shoes, being
+frequently employed for this purpose. It can be readily obtained from
+almost any good shoe store or, if desired, can be made by mixing
+together equal quantities of beeswax and carnauba wax in a molten
+condition, and thinning the mixture with a little turpentine.
+
+A recipe used with success by many leather workers calls for a
+mixture of beeswax, turpentine, and neatsfoot oil. The wax is
+carefully melted, mixed with a small amount of turpentine, and then
+enough oil is stirred in to make it soft. When used upon embossed or
+figured leather this wax is never applied directly, but is placed
+inside a little bag of soft muslin, and rubbed on and into the
+leather with a circular motion—the palm of the hand being often used
+to finish the waxed surface.
+
+=Bronze Effects.=—An interesting point in connection with the use of
+the Basic dyes, and some of the Acid dyes, too, for staining leather
+is that, when applied in a strong solution, as is very likely to be
+the case when one is trying to get dark shades with an application
+of the brush or pad, they quite frequently, on drying, show a very
+marked metallic lustre. This is due to the formation of minute,
+bright-colored crystals, which reflect the light, thus imparting to
+the fabric colors which have nothing to do with the shade produced by
+the dyestuff itself. Thus, Cyanole FF, _Cassella_, when dissolved, or
+when dyed on leather or any other material, gives a rather greenish
+shade of blue. But it gives a very brilliant old gold effect, almost
+as bright as gold leaf, when applied in a strong solution and allowed
+to dry quickly.
+
+When this effect is not desired it can be avoided by building up
+the dark shades by successive applications of weak solution, and
+by rubbing down the little crystals with, if necessary, a little
+moisture, whenever they appear to be forming.
+
+In some cases, however, this bronzing property is of some value, and
+enables the skilful craftsman to obtain interesting and effective
+results with a minimum of trouble and expense. By painting on a
+strong solution of dyestuff, and letting it dry quickly, the bronze
+effect will be produced, and then by rubbing in portions, the true
+coloring of the dyestuff will be brought out in strong contrast to
+the crystal-covered surface. Unfortunately, these bronze effects
+are not fast to either rubbing or moisture, and even dry rubbing
+will break down the crystals, while rubbing with a damp cloth or a
+moist finger will dissolve the color off in blotches. To render this
+bronze effect more durable, it is possible to make a regular bronze
+lacquer, by adding varnish or gum like orange shellac or gum benzoin
+to a strong alcoholic solution of a Basic dye. The bronze varnish
+thus produced will, when dry, stand light finishing with wax in the
+usual way. The addition of a little benzoic acid to the solution
+increases the lustre of the crystals.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XI
+
+                               SILK—I
+
+
+So far as we can tell, silk was first discovered and manufactured in
+China about 1700 B.C., a date corresponding in Biblical history to
+the time of the patriarch Joseph. From China it was exported to the
+great and wealthy empire of Persia, and from there was first brought
+into Europe by Alexander the Great after his defeat of the Persian
+king. Its origin, although known and described by Aristotle, was for
+several hundred years a mystery. During the Roman Empire, silken
+garments, woven in Europe, from Chinese silk imported by way of
+Persia, were important and very highly prized articles of luxury.
+
+About 555 A.D., while commerce with Persia was interrupted by
+warfare, two monks in the pay of the Emperor Justinian smuggled
+eggs of the silkworm and seeds of mulberry trees from China to
+Constantinople. This was the origin of the European silk industry.
+It spread rapidly to the various countries bordering on the
+Mediterranean, and by the seventeenth century was firmly established
+not only in Spain and Italy, but also in France.
+
+Efforts were made to introduce it, at this time, into England, but
+without success. In 1622 King James I started the industry, for
+the first time, in the colony of Virginia in this country. Since
+that time numerous attempts have been made to develop the American
+silkworm industry, but with very little success, owing to the large
+amount of hand labor necessary to produce the material.
+
+At the present time the very finest raw silk in the world is produced
+in the south of France, and next to that come certain brands of
+Italian silk. The Japanese silk is more variable in quality, although
+steadily improving, while the Chinese silk, as a rule, is less
+satisfactory and more apt to be light and fluffy.
+
+With regard to the consumption, it was estimated that in 1907 Europe
+used some twenty-five million pounds, and the United States fifteen
+million pounds of raw silk, which, at an average price of nearly
+$5.50 per pound, amounted to over two hundred and eighteen million
+dollars.
+
+=Origin and Varieties of Silk.=—Silk has been defined as a “smooth,
+lustrous, elastic fibre of small diameter and of animal origin.” As
+is well known, ordinary commercial silk is secreted or “spun” by the
+silkworm, the caterpillar form of a moth known as _Bombyx Mori_, the
+moth of the mulberry tree. These silkworms have been cultivated for
+thousands of years, but there exist in different parts of the world,
+notably in India and Japan, wild or uncultivated silkworms, derived
+from nearly related, but not identical, families of moths, and whose
+silk is collected in the forests by the natives, forming what is
+known in commerce as wild or tussah silk.
+
+Of course, the silk from silkworms, cultivated and wild, is the
+only one yet produced on a commercial scale. But silk can also be
+obtained from other animals, notably from spiders and from a peculiar
+shellfish, the pinna, found in the waters of the Mediterranean.
+
+Silk from the silkworm can be divided into two classes, according to
+whether the silkworms are the cultivated or the wild varieties. In
+each case the silk is produced by the caterpillar spinning a covering
+or shroud, the so-called cocoon, around itself to protect it when in
+the form of the chrysalis or pupa, awaiting its transformation into
+the moth.
+
+The ordinary or cultivated silk of commerce comes from worms fed
+almost exclusively upon the leaves of the white mulberry tree, and
+cannot be produced successfully without that particular plant.
+The somewhat similar worms that produce the wild or tussah silks
+live upon the leaves of the oak, elm, ailanthus, castor oil plant,
+and others. While the two varieties resemble each other greatly
+in their chemical properties, they can always be distinguished,
+because cultivated silk is much more lustrous than the other, but is
+decidedly less strong.
+
+_Tussah Silk, Pongee, Shantung._—The tussah silks, when woven, are
+commonly known under the general name of pongee. Of late years
+this name has been applied to imitation goods possessing the
+characteristic dull color, and even the feel of the real article,
+but far less strong. These are generally made out of spun silk,
+derived from “Shappe,” i.e., the by-products of the silk industry,
+spoilt cocoons, waste from the spinning machines and the dyehouses,
+and the like—silk, to be sure, but silk of very inferior quality.
+Accordingly, it is now customary to call real pongee by the name
+Shantung, after the Chinese province from which much of the wild silk
+is brought.
+
+Shantung, or true pongee, can be readily distinguished from the
+imitation by examination of the threads, both warp and filling. These
+should be very long, and loosely spun or rather “thrown,” whereas
+the imitation threads are spun together tightly, from fibres of many
+different lengths, generally quite short.
+
+
+Preparing Silk for Dyeing.
+
+_Reeling._—All silk, whether cultivated or wild, comes originally
+from the cocoons, which are, as a rule, each formed out of a
+continuous strand or thread woven by the silkworm round and round its
+own body before it passes into the chrysalis state. These cocoons
+are collected, carefully dried to kill the quiescent animal inside,
+and then, in due course of time, they are placed in basins of warm
+water which softens the gum which binds the cocoon threads together,
+and the separate fine threads from several cocoons are picked up by
+brushing, and are combined into one which is reeled off on machines.
+The silk thus obtained is made up into hanks and bundles, and
+constitutes the raw silk of commerce.
+
+_Raw Silk._—The raw silk is very different in appearance and texture
+to the finished silk that we are accustomed to. It is without lustre,
+white, yellow, or even, in the case of some Italian silks, orange in
+color, and quite stiff when handled. These qualities are due to the
+presence of from 25 to 35 per cent. of gum, which is insoluble in
+cold water, but is softened by hot water and dissolves readily in a
+hot soap bath.
+
+_Throwing._—The threads of this raw silk are far too fine and
+delicate to be fit for the weaving processes or even for dyeing.
+So they are combined into coarser and stronger threads by being
+“thrown,” a process equivalent to the spinning process of cotton,
+linen or wool. In throwing, the raw silk fibres are again softened
+in hot water, and are loosely spun or twisted together while still
+sticky. Three, four, or five threads of raw silk are usually
+combined to form one strand of thrown silk, varying, of course,
+with the quality of the original silk and the objects for which the
+thrown silk is to be used, when woven. For instance, silk used for
+filling—“tram,” as it is called in the trade—is usually thicker and
+softer, and less strong than the warp, or “organzine,” and therefore
+is usually built up, by the “throwster,” from many threads of less
+valuable raw silk, loosely twisted, while the organzine, used for
+warp, is generally of the best and strongest available material,
+thrown in finer strands out of fewer threads of raw silk, twisted
+more tightly.
+
+It must always be remembered that the skein silk is thrown from very
+long continuous threads of raw silk, full of gum, whereas spun silk,
+which is being used more and more every year, is made from short
+lengths of waste and scrap silk, held together not by gum, but by
+tight twisting and spinning, just like cotton or linen.
+
+_Stripping or Degumming._—This thrown silk must then be prepared
+for the dyeing by getting rid of the gum, which not only makes the
+silk stiff and destroys its lustre, but which also would interfere
+with the smooth, even dyeing of the fibres themselves. For this
+purpose the silk, in skeins, is thoroughly washed, or “stripped,” by
+soaking in two or three successive baths of hot, strong, neutral soap
+solutions. In the dyehouses Castile (olive oil) soap is invariably
+used for this purpose, and, while made of cheap grades of olive
+oil, it is always, in good dyehouses, of excellent quality, for the
+presence of even minute amounts of free alkali in these baths is
+liable to greatly injure and “tender” the silk.
+
+_Boiled-off Liquor._—The soap solution from these stripping baths
+is not thrown away in the dyehouses, but is carefully stored as a
+valuable reagent. Under the name of “boiled-off liquor” it is almost
+exclusively used, by the dyers, for color dyeing. It is not often
+used in black dyeing, and therefore, in a dyehouse, the presence of
+a large and well-patronized black department is considered of great
+importance as providing the color dyer with an abundant supply of
+boiled-off liquor.
+
+The stripped or degummed silk is now ready for weaving directly, the
+resulting white cloth being sometimes finished and sold as such, and
+sometimes “dyed in the piece.” In most cases, however, the stripped
+silk is weighted, dyed, and finished “in the skeins,” before weaving.
+
+=Piece Dyeing.=—In dyeing by the piece, the stripped silk is passed
+through a weak acid bath, usually acetic, and then woven into goods
+of the desired quality. These goods are then dyed in the piece by
+being run through the dye-bath until they are of the proper shade.
+The dye-bath (for colors) is made by stirring the proper quantity
+of Acid dyestuffs into a hot bath of boiled-off liquor (the bath
+in which the silk has been stripped), which is faintly acidified,
+or “broken,” as the technical phrase goes, by the addition of some
+sulphuric acid. This boiled-off liquor has the property of laying
+the dyes on the silk evenly and thoroughly, and is better for that
+purpose than any other medium. For amateur work, or where boiled-off
+liquor cannot be obtained, very fair results can be obtained with a
+strong bath of olive oil soap (Castile or Marseilles), “broken” with
+weak acid, generally dilute sulphuric acid.
+
+The term “breaking” the soap bath is very significant. The acid
+should be added drop by drop to the frothing soap bath until the
+bubbles disappear and a thin iridescent film of fatty acid rises to
+the top of the liquid.
+
+After the piece goods are brought to the proper shade, they are
+finished, usually by carefully rinsing in water to take away all
+traces of free acid, then by passing through a cold soap bath, often
+with a little olive oil emulsified in it, to increase the lustre;
+finally, through a bath of weak organic acid, like acetic acid, to
+develop the so-called “scroop” or “feel” of the silk. When silk
+is washed in soap, or is dipped in even a weak bath of alkali, it
+becomes soft and clammy to the touch, and has no “life” or “snap”
+to it when dry. The passage through a bath of weak acid develops the
+characteristic stiffness of the silk fibre, and causes it to give its
+peculiar rustling sound when pressed.
+
+=Skein Dyeing.=—When weighting or adulteration is not employed,
+i.e., in the so-called “pure dye” process, the dyeing of skein silk
+resembles the piece dyeing described. The degummed silk is immersed
+in a dye-bath containing the dyestuffs (Acid colors) dissolved in
+boiled-off liquor, broken with dilute sulphuric acid. The bath
+is heated nearly to the boiling point, and the silk turned in it
+until the desired shade is produced. It is then taken out, washed
+thoroughly in water to remove the last traces of acid, and then
+brightened by passing through a soap bath with some oil, and later
+through a bath of acetic acid to develop the “scroop.”
+
+_Drying._—An important part of the process is the final drying and
+finishing. The drying should be done slowly and carefully, and not
+proceed too far, or the silk will be brittle. As is well known to
+dyers, silk has the power of absorbing 25% or 30% of its weight
+of water without becoming perceptibly damp to the hand, and this
+moisture, when not carried too far, is of actual benefit to the
+material, making it stronger and more elastic. This property is often
+made use of by the honest (?) dyer when, in case some of the silk in
+a lot has been spoiled by accident or carelessness, he makes up the
+difference in weight by the liberal use of the watering pot.
+
+_Finishing._—This process is perhaps the most difficult and
+technical of all, for the value of the finished product depends
+very largely on it, and it is almost impossible for an amateur
+to accomplish it. The skeins, after drying, are hung on a heavy
+polished wooden bar and, with a smooth wooden stick, are shaken out,
+straightened, pulled, twisted, and worked until the fibres are all
+parallel, the kinks taken out, any weak or injured portion cut out,
+and the whole skein has acquired the proper amount of lustre.
+
+Sometimes, for specially brilliant fabrics, the skeins are “lustred”
+by machinery; this is the so-called “metallic lustring” when the
+silk, generally enveloped in steam so as to be both hot and damp,
+is pulled out between two steel arms until it has been stretched a
+considerable percentage of its original length. This undoubtedly
+lessens the strength of the fibre considerably and diminishes its
+elasticity, but under this strain each fibre is stretched out
+perfectly smooth and thus becomes much more brilliant and lustrous.
+
+=Dyeing Wild Silks.=—It has been found difficult to handle
+satisfactorily the different sorts of wild silks in the factory. The
+bleaching of them has been very troublesome, although of late years
+the problem has been solved pretty well. And the ordinary process for
+dyeing silk with Acid dyes in a broken soap, or boiled-off liquor,
+bath is, for full deep shades at any rate, not always satisfactory.
+In consequence most of the genuine pongee or Shantung cloth is sold
+in the natural unbleached color, a pleasant shade of tan, or else in
+light shades.
+
+Perhaps the best results in dyeing pongee silk full, deep, even
+shades are obtained by mordanting the material with tannin and
+tartar emetic, just as cotton is mordanted before dyeing it with
+Basic colors, and then using in the dye-bath one or the other of
+the so-called “Janus” colors,—a group of colors on the border line
+between Basic and Acid, of which the best are Janus Yellow G, Janus
+Yellow R, Janus Red B, and Janus Black 1 (_Metz_).
+
+This process, however, is too complicated for the unprofessional dyer
+to use with much success.
+
+For all but the very full shades the craftsman is advised to use the
+Acid colors, as, for instance, some of the selected colors of the
+different houses, listed in Chapter VII, in a bath acidified with
+acetic acid, and without the use of soap.
+
+For dark dull shades the Sulphur colors can be used, especially
+if some care is taken to reduce the alkalinity of the bath by
+neutralizing or nearly neutralizing the sodium sulphide with a
+little acid sodium sulphite. If the desired shade is so dark as to
+necessitate heating and dye-bath, it is also advisable to add a
+little gelatin.
+
+For full shades of rather brighter quality the Vat dyes may be
+employed, also with precautions against the tendering action of the
+caustic alkali upon the fibre.
+
+Before, however, starting in to dye a piece of pongee on the
+assumption that it is made from tussah silk, it is very advisable
+to examine it carefully, picking out the individual threads and
+untwisting them, and to make a few dyeing tests upon small samples.
+For a large proportion of so-called pongee, which in color, lustre,
+feel, and general appearance resembles the genuine Shantung very
+closely, is simply made from spun or waste silk, and can be dyed like
+ordinary silk.
+
+_Acid Dyes, to be used on Silk._—Any of the dyestuffs mentioned
+in the lists on page 127, as suitable for wool, can be used
+successfully for silk dyeing. These colors have all been selected as
+unusually fast to light and, in this respect, are to be classified
+as “practically all of the first class,” i.e., as absolutely
+satisfactory against the action of sunlight.
+
+But, for a valuable and comparatively fragile material like silk, it
+is quite allowable to use colors for special shades which are less
+fast to sunlight, if they possess other valuable qualities. Such,
+for instance, are the two red dyestuffs, Fast Acid Eosine G (_Metz_)
+and Fast Acid Phloxine (_Metz_), which belong to the group of
+so-called Eosine or Fluoresceïn dyestuffs most of which, while very
+beautiful, are extremely fugitive. These two dyes, which give shades
+of pink and red with yellow and blue fluorescence, respectively, are
+considerably more fast than the rest of their group, and will rank in
+the third class, if not at the foot of the second class, as regards
+light-fastness.
+
+With regard to fastness to washing, it must be remembered that
+these Acid dyes are not fast at all, when dyed on silk in a broken
+soap bath. They may stand very light washing in a cold soap bath,
+but in boiling soapsuds will strip completely. This is important
+for the amateur, and indeed, for the professional dyer, for
+whom a dyed silk, either skein or in the piece, has come out
+unsatisfactorily—uneven or spotted, or too dark in shade—for it is
+possible, if the silk is of good quality, to clean off the color
+completely by boiling soapsuds, without injuring the goods.
+
+If the trouble is unevenness, while the shade is satisfactory, the
+color can be dissolved off in the boiling soap bath and then, on
+breaking the bath with a little acid, the same dye can be laid right
+on again, it is to be hoped this time in a satisfactory manner. The
+question of dyeing silk fast to washing, and also of dyeing silk
+black, will be dealt with in the next chapter.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XII
+
+                               SILK—II
+
+BLACK DYEING OF SILK. WEIGHTING AND ADULTERATION OF SILK. DYEING SILK
+WITH COLORS FAST TO WASHING
+
+
+The dyeing process described in the last chapter, while well suited
+for dyeing silk bright and lustrous colors, is not so well adapted
+to dyeing it black. To be sure, there are several good fast acid
+blacks, such as Silk Patent Black, 2R, _Kalle_, or Neutral Wool
+Black, B, _Cassella_, or Cashmere Black, 3BN, _Elberfeld_, or Amido
+Black, 4024, _Metz_, which, dyed in full shades in a broken bath of
+soap or boiled-off liquor, will give fairly good results. But the
+best of these are not always quite satisfactory, the resulting color
+generally showing a tendency to be a deep full grey rather than a
+perfectly true lustrous black.
+
+_Salt Colors._—Silk may also be dyed black with some of the good Salt
+colors—but unless the dyer takes the trouble to after-treat the goods
+by the troublesome process of diazotizing and developing, the results
+are no better, if indeed as good as those resulting from the Acid
+blacks mentioned above.
+
+_Sulphur Colors._—These have very often been tried on silk without
+much success, because for dark colors like blacks, it is necessary to
+boil the goods in the dye-liquor for some time and to have the latter
+very concentrated. Unfortunately the sodium sulphide, necessary for
+dissolving the sulphur dyes, is a powerful alkali, and hence readily
+attacks an animal fibre, like silk. It is possible, however, by the
+abundant use of glucose (Karo syrup, etc.) to greatly protect the
+silk from this tendering action. It is also possible for a dyer
+fairly well trained in chemistry, to very carefully neutralize the
+dye-bath by the cautious addition of acid sodium sulphite, until
+the dye-liquor is no longer alkaline and yet the dyestuff is not
+precipitated. This process, however, is hardly fitted for an amateur,
+and has not proved very successful even among the professionals.
+
+_Logwood Blacks._—Nearly all professional dyers continue to use the
+old vegetable dyestuff, logwood, about which some information was
+given in the first chapter.
+
+To dye with this it is customary to use one of the many good logwood
+extracts on the market. Great care must be taken in the proper
+mordanting of the silk before it goes into the bath. For this purpose
+the silk is impregnated first with iron salts, and later with tannin,
+and in some processes, with salts of chromium or of tin, before
+entering the logwood bath. In all cases, therefore, silk dyed black
+with logwood contains a certain amount, say 15% to 20% of its weight,
+or 2-3 ounces to the pound, of foreign ingredients. When carefully
+done this does not injure the material at all, and the “pure dyed”
+logwood blacks are perfectly satisfactory both for shade, lustre, and
+durability.
+
+
+WEIGHTING OF SILK
+
+This moderate increase of weight, however, which is hardly enough to
+replace the weight of the gum lost in the stripping process, was far
+from satisfying the demands of the manufacturer for a cheaper raw
+material. And accordingly both dyer and dyeing chemist have exhausted
+all their energies and skill in trying to increase this percentage
+of cheap foreign matter in the finished silk, to the utmost limit of
+what the market will stand.
+
+The first efforts in this direction were based upon the saving of
+some or, indeed, nearly all, of the gum which is wasted in the
+stripping or degumming process previously described. This gum,
+which amounts to from 20 to 35 per cent. of the raw silk, makes the
+silk stiff in texture and dull in color and more difficult to dye.
+Accordingly, in former years, it was invariably washed out of the
+silk with the greatest care before any attempt was made to dye it.
+But by modifying the dyeing, and especially the finishing process,
+it was found possible to produce the so-called “souples”—i.e., silks
+with little or no lustre, but with the characteristic “scroop” or
+“feel”—capable of replacing bright silk as a filling in many fabrics
+and yet containing almost all the natural gum left in the fibre.
+
+The black silks were then attacked and an elaborate system of
+mordanting was introduced before the dyeing proper began. For
+instance, the silk can be steeped alternately in one solution after
+another, first of iron salts and then of ferrocyanide of potash, thus
+forming Prussian blue in the fibre. Then the excess of iron can be
+converted by immersion in tannin solutions, such as Gambier or Cutch,
+into black tannate of iron, or ink, and finally, after perhaps a
+light bath in chromium salts, the real black color is brought out by
+boiling in logwood extract. The silk is then brightened by boiling
+with good neutral Castile soap, is shaded, if necessary, by dyeing
+with either an Acid or Basic dye in a weak bath, and, after drying
+and finishing, the finished product may easily weigh two or even
+three times as much as the original raw silk, and still retain its
+strength, lustre, and elasticity.
+
+_Tin Weighting._—The weighting of colored and bright silks did not
+proceed so rapidly, and it was not much more than ten years ago that,
+by accident, some French dyers discovered that by immersion in a
+strong bath of tin chloride (stannic chloride acidified with some
+hydrochloric acid) the silk fibre would absorb a large percentage
+of tin salts without necessarily losing lustre, dyeing capacity, or
+even strength. This at first was kept a secret, but its use gradually
+spread, until now it is a very poor silk dyer who cannot weight his
+silk 100 or 150 per cent. without spoiling its immediate commercial
+value.
+
+Without going into unnecessary details, the process is somewhat as
+follows: The silk, after being degummed and thoroughly washed free of
+soap, is plunged into a bath of tin chloride and kept there for some
+hours. It is then taken out and the loose tin salts are washed off in
+a tank of water (technically called a box), or in a washing machine.
+To further “set” the tin, the silk is then placed for a short time
+in a solution of phosphate of soda and again washed thoroughly. It
+has now gained from 15 to 25 per cent of its original weight (2½ to 4
+ounces to the pound of raw silk).
+
+If further weighting is desired, this treatment, first in tin
+chloride and then in phosphate of soda, can be repeated three or
+four up to five or even six times, increasing the weight with each
+immersion. Then a bath is usually given of silicate of soda, which
+adds a little weight, ½ to ¾ of an ounce, and, it is claimed,
+benefits the lustre and strength of the goods. Then, after a final
+washing, the silk is ready for the dye-bath.
+
+The weighted goods are dyed, dried, and finished about the same
+as with the “pure dye” process, and the proud dyer can rejoice at
+returning to the honest manufacturer from 150 to 250 pounds of
+finished silk for every 100 pounds of raw silk (containing, by the
+way, 25 to 30 pounds of gum) which was sent in to the dyehouse! This
+“tin-weighing” process is also applied to black dyeing, and enables
+the black dyer to build up his weight with tin salts instead of
+limiting him to iron, chromium, ferrocyanide of potash, tannin, and
+logwood.
+
+_Properties of Weighted Silk._—It is scarcely necessary to point out
+that silk, weighted to the extreme limit, is hardly to be considered
+as the most durable and trustworthy of fabrics, even when dyed by the
+most expert workmen. And when carelessly prepared heavily weighted
+silk is an abomination, liable to crack and wear away with the least
+provocation.
+
+It may be worth reminding some of my fair readers that the old
+test of a silk taffeta, “so thick and stiff that it will stand of
+itself,” is nowadays anything but a proof of good quality. One or two
+manufacturers in this country a few years ago tried to revive the
+almost forgotten art of making and selling pure-dyed goods, and one
+trouble they experienced in disposing of their products, outside the
+high price, was the criticism that their silk felt so light and thin.
+
+_Prevalence of Weighted Silk._—At present it is almost impossible,
+at least in New York, to buy pure-dyed heavy silks. The writer, at
+any rate, has tried diligently, during the last year or two, to find
+for some special experiments a piece of white taffeta which was not
+markedly weighted. After visiting department stores and the very best
+dry-goods stores in the city, at all of which he was informed that
+no such material now existed, the best that could be obtained was
+one make of silk where the organzine or warp was fairly pure, the
+tram being well weighted. Light-weight Japanese and Chinese silks,
+however, undyed or dyed in the piece, can still be procured with
+little or no weighting.
+
+_Tests for Weighted Silk._—This silk may be identified by a very
+simple test. Pure-dyed silk, when dry, is easily inflammable. When
+touched with a lighted match it catches fire at once, “carries the
+flame” well, especially if in the form of thread; and, if followed
+up with a flame, it will before long burn away completely, leaving
+little or no ash or residue.
+
+On the other hand, weighted silk, especially when the added mineral
+matter amounts to 25% or over, is quite hard to burn. If it catches
+fire at all, it just flashes up for a moment and then the flame dies
+right out. And when persistently heated, until the organic matter is
+all burnt away, it still leaves a very considerable residue of ash.
+
+When this test is to be made on unwoven or skein silk, it is enough
+to take two or three threads, five or six inches long, and to light
+them in the flame of a match. For piece goods it is best to pick out
+the threads carefully, with a pin or fine knife blade, separating
+the tram from the organzine, and then, with a match, to test each
+of these in turn. A very little practice will enable the most
+inexperienced student to make this test satisfactorily.
+
+Of course, for an accurate determination of the percentage of
+weighting contained in a given sample of silk, it is necessary to
+resort to delicate chemical analyses. But for all ordinary purposes
+this simple flame test is quite sufficient.
+
+
+DYEING SILK WITH COLORS FAST TO WASHING
+
+As a rule the method previously described of dyeing silk with Acid
+dyes in a broken bath of soap, or better, of boiled-off liquor, will
+be found perfectly satisfactory. The shades are easily obtained, the
+colors are brilliant, and, if the right dyes are used, exceedingly
+fast to light, and the material, if properly rinsed, suffers no
+deterioration.
+
+On the other hand these colors are not, in the slightest degree, fast
+to washing.
+
+The dyed goods can be cleaned with gasoline and the like, but when
+passed through a lukewarm bath of soap and water they bleed badly,
+and in boiling soapsuds the color can be completely stripped from
+them.
+
+In most cases this is not a serious objection, for a person who
+will send a handsome hand-dyed silk scarf or piece of embroidery to
+the family washtub is entitled to scant sympathy if the results are
+disastrous. But occasionally it is important to have colors on silk
+which can be guaranteed against moderate or even against, severe,
+washing.
+
+_Fast Colors on Silk._—There are two grades of fastness known to the
+dyers—“fast” and “embroidery fast.”
+
+“Fast” means simply that the silk is to be dyed fast to ordinary,
+careful handling so that the colors will not bleed or run in a warm
+or even hot soap bath, but does not guarantee them against every
+possible maltreatment.
+
+The best way of doing this is by the use of the Direct Cotton or Salt
+dyes, described in Chapter III, which, it will be remembered, only
+dye wool or silk at a high temperature, at or near the boiling point
+and, preferably, in an acid bath, but, when once on, are very hard
+to dislodge. The selected ones are very fast to light and present a
+great range of bright, attractive colors, which are nearly, if not
+quite, as brilliant as those produced by the Acid dyes.
+
+They are applied in a boiling bath containing a little acetic acid,
+and a good deal of salt, especially for full shades. For lighter
+shades, the presence of salt is hardly necessary. The goods are to be
+finished just as with the Acid dyes, with a soap bath followed, if
+the scroop is desired, by a weak bath of acetic acid.
+
+The results, when carefully done, are very good. They possess,
+however, one disadvantage for the amateur dyer. These colors are
+quite hard to strip, and so, the desired effect must be produced
+the first time, or not at all. It is not possible to strip an
+unsatisfactory shade in a hot soap bath, and dye it over and over
+again without injury, as in the case with Acid dyes. They are best
+stripped by soaking in a bath of sodium hydrosulphite, and then
+washing.
+
+_Embroidery Fast Colors._—While the above process gives shades fast
+enough against all ordinary washing, it sometimes happens that silk
+must be dyed fast enough to withstand exactly the same treatment
+that coarse cotton or linen goods are subjected to, without bleeding
+or staining. The salt dyes are not quite fast enough for this,
+particularly because, not having been converted in the dyeing process
+into a special insoluble condition, if they should be detached from
+the fibre by strong or hot soaping, they would be liable to stain the
+neighboring tissues and not wash off quite clear.
+
+One of the hardest tests that colored silk is called upon to stand
+is when, in small quantities, it is used with a large amount of
+white linen or cotton goods. Thus, for instance, when monograms are
+embroidered in red or blue silk upon white towels or napkins, and
+the latter are scrubbed, week after week, in the regular wash, the
+color must be fast, indeed, not to show some evidences of running.
+Hence the term “embroidery fastness” as applied to this class of
+dyes. Thanks, also, to the amiable practice of the modern laundress
+of lightening her labors by the addition of bleaching powder and
+other strong chemicals to the washtub, it is very important that a
+silk dyed “embroidery fast” should be able to withstand the action
+of these agents as well as of soap. Up to the last few years these
+colors were only obtained by the use of the Alizarine dyestuffs, the
+full rich scarlet so often used for this purpose being the modern
+form of the old, madder-dyed, Turkey red of our forefathers.
+
+But, during the last few years, the troublesome and tedious
+mordanting processes necessary for the proper development of color by
+the Alizarine dyes, have been replaced, for craftsmen, and, indeed,
+by most professional dyers, by the much simpler and shorter processes
+of vat dyeing. As long as Indigo was the sole representative of the
+class, it was of very little use for silk dyeing. But since the
+introduction of the splendid series of new vat dyes, the Algol, Ciba,
+Helindone, Indanthrene, and Thio Indigo colors, which, dyed in a
+single bath, give a whole range of brilliant shades, wonderfully fast
+to light and to washing, the necessity for mordant colors has very
+largely disappeared.
+
+
+DYEING SILK WITH VAT DYES
+
+It must always be remembered when working with silk, wool, leather,
+or any other animal material, that such materials are extremely
+sensitive to the action of alkalies, especially when hot or caustic,
+while they are but slightly injured, if at all, by the action of
+dilute acids. For this reason it is always better, whenever possible,
+to dye silk with the Acid dyes or the Salt dyes, in an acid or
+neutral bath, rather than to use dyestuffs like the Vat dyes or the
+Sulphur colors, which need an alkaline dye-liquor. Furthermore,
+the silk is likely to have a more brilliant lustre when dyed with
+a color which fastens to it by chemical affinity, from a solution,
+rather than one where the color is fixed because the oxygen of the
+atmosphere changes it into an insoluble powder, while in the pores of
+the silk. It is, however, perfectly possible to dye silk full shades
+with the Vat dyes and even—though this is not often advisable—with
+the Sulphur dyes, by using some simple precautions.
+
+The best Vat dyes for silk are Indigo itself, and its substitution
+products, like Brom-Indigo, _Elberfeld_, or the Thio Indigo dyes,
+_Kalle_, or else the rather closely related colors like the
+Helindones, _Metz_, and the Ciba colors, _Klipstein_. It is of
+importance to use only those which are shown in the table on page
+102, as dyeing in a cold, or at most, a lukewarm bath.
+
+The dye-bath should be made with a considerable amount of dyestuff,
+so as to avoid the necessity of keeping the goods in it long. And
+the amount of caustic alkali should be kept as low as possible,
+consistent of course with dissolving the reduced dyestuff. It has
+been found in practice that the presence of glue or gelatine in the
+bath, or even of glucose (molasses, corn syrup, Karo syrup, etc.),
+protects the silk, wool, and other animal fibres greatly from the
+action of alkalies. It should, therefore, be added in quantities of
+two or three large tablespoonfuls to the gallon of dye-liquor.
+
+The wet goods should be immersed in the cold or lukewarm bath, and
+turned constantly for a few minutes only, before taking them out,
+wringing them, and hanging them up to oxidize. As soon as the color
+sets, which is shown generally, by the change of shade and which
+never takes more than, say, twenty minutes if the materials are well
+opened up, the goods should be brightened in a hot bath of good,
+neutral, olive oil soap, and then finished as previously described.
+It will be remembered that several, indeed most of the best Vat
+colors do not develop their final shade at all, until after the
+soaping process.
+
+When carefully done, this process will give exceedingly fast and
+quite brilliant colors, without injury to the strength of the goods.
+
+_Comparative Results of Vat Dyes and Sulphur Dyes on Silk._—It is
+hard to get full shades with Sulphur colors because it is generally
+necessary to heat the dye-bath, and this, owing to the powerful
+alkaline properties of the sodium sulphide, is very injurious to the
+silk. Besides this, the sulphur dyes are much less brilliant than the
+Vat dyes, and have no good red or orange shades in the whole class.
+They accordingly should not be used, excepting where no other are
+available, or, as will be described in a later chapter, when doing
+“resist stencilling” on silk.
+
+On the other hand, such very unusual advantages do some of these
+new Vat dyes possess, for the dyeing of silk for special purposes,
+that large quantities of Helindones, Thio Indigoes, and other good
+specimens of this class are being sold, at comparatively very high
+prices, to manufacturers of fine shirtings where the patterns are
+made by weaving fine lines or figures of brightly dyed silk into the
+linen or cotton fabric. Until the introduction of these dyes in the
+last two or three years these shades could not have been produced
+fast enough for this purpose.
+
+Sulphur dyes can also be used on silk without injuring the goods, by
+taking the precautions described earlier in this chapter. The shades,
+however, are quiet and dull, as compared to those produced by other
+classes of dyestuffs; and it is almost, if not quite, impossible to
+get a good full red and, especially, a good scarlet, by using these
+colors.
+
+Silk properly dyed with Sulphur colors is extremely fast to washing.
+But these dyes, unlike the best Vat colors, are as a rule quite
+sensitive to bleaching agents, and therefore are not so well adapted
+for general use on “embroidery fast” silk.
+
+
+
+
+                            CHAPTER XIII
+
+                    IMITATION AND ARTIFICIAL SILK
+
+
+Owing to the high price of pure silk and the bad wearing qualities of
+the highly adulterated silks, described in the last chapter, there
+has been for a long time a strong demand for a fabric which would
+combine as far as possible the strength and wearing power of the one,
+with the cheap price of the other, while still retaining the lustre
+and “scroop” and characteristic appearance of both.
+
+The demand at present is met, and not so unsuccessfully, first by
+imitation silk, of which mercerized cotton is the best example, and
+second, by the various forms of artificial silk which during the
+last few years have been introduced widely in both Europe and our
+own country. The competition of these two classes of products is not
+at all to be despised. Their quality is constantly improving, their
+price diminishing, and their production increasing rapidly from year
+to year. And if the silk manufacturers continue to produce such poor
+material in the line of weighted silk fabrics as they have in the
+past, it will be but a short time before they will find the market
+almost entirely divided between pure-dyed silks, on the one hand, for
+expensive goods, and some of these new products for cheap materials.
+
+
+MERCERIZED COTTON
+
+_History and Preparation._—This material was first introduced as
+a substitute for silk some ten or twelve years ago, although the
+process for making it was invented about 1840, by a celebrated
+English dyer, John Mercer. He discovered that when cotton, either in
+cloth or yarn, was subjected for a short time to the action of strong
+caustic alkali, and then thoroughly washed, the resulting material
+was much stronger than before, had shrunk very considerably, and had
+a much greater affinity for dyestuffs. For instance, dyes like the
+Basic colors, which give but a temporary stain on ordinary cotton,
+will dye with some degree of fastness cotton thus treated with
+alkali, without the use of mordants. Mercer patented his discovery
+and made some use of it in calico printing; as, for instance, in the
+making of “crinkled” goods. But the process was nearly forgotten
+until, in 1889, it was discovered that, by proper treatment, cotton
+could by this means be made so lustrous as to compare not unfavorably
+with silk.
+
+To make the cotton lustrous, the goods, after dipping into the
+strong alkali, are kept firmly stretched, and their strong tendency
+to shrink resisted, until the alkali has been thoroughly rinsed off
+and the last traces neutralized with a little acid. If this is done
+carefully, when finally dried the cotton fibres will be found drawn
+out smooth and lustrous, while still retaining their new qualities
+of strength and increased dyeing power. To get good results in this
+process the materials treated, whether in yarn or cloth, must
+be made of the very best and longest stapled cotton, preferably
+Egyptian, and when well done the results are extremely satisfactory.
+The lustre is not as good as the very best silk, but it is quite well
+marked, and for replacing the cheap grades of heavily weighted silks,
+as, for instance, for underwear, linings, etc., the mercerized goods
+are of very great value, owing to their strength and durability, as
+well as their cheapness.
+
+_Dyeing of Mercerized Cotton._—Cotton, thus treated, is dyed in
+the same way that ordinary cotton is, with the exception that it
+takes the dyes more rapidly, and, as a rule, gives deeper and more
+brilliant shades with the same amount of coloring matter.
+
+For special purposes it may be best to use the Sulphur or the Vat
+dyes, but in general this material is best dyed with the Salt dyes,
+which are not only easy to apply, but are fast to light, very
+brilliant, and on these goods, at any rate, very fairly fast to
+washing. As before mentioned, the fastness to both light and washing
+may be considerably improved by after treatment of the dyed goods,
+i.e., by passing them through a hot bath containing a tablespoonful
+each of copper sulphate, potassium bichromate, and acetic acid to the
+gallon of water.
+
+This, however, will rarely be found necessary, provided the selected
+colors are used, and the color has been applied at the boil in a bath
+containing considerable salt.
+
+
+ARTIFICIAL SILK
+
+=History.=—The famous old French chemist, Réaumur, in the year 1734,
+suggested, after a study of the silk worm, and of the method by which
+it “spins” the natural thread, that it might be possible to make a
+jelly-like substance which could be drawn out into a fine thread and,
+coagulating, form an artificial silk.
+
+This suggestion was first acted on, in a practical way, in the
+year 1855, when Andermars obtained some curious results by dipping
+a needle or fine metal rod into a thin viscous solution known as
+collodion, and then drawing it out rapidly, made fine, smooth threads
+as the material solidified. This collodion, which for many years has
+been in common use in minor surgery to paint on wounds and cuts,
+because it leaves a film of artificial skin, and in more recent times
+has been much used in photography, is a solution of gun cotton or
+nitro-cellulose in a mixture of alcohol and ether. In 1885 Count
+Hilary de Chardonnet made improvements in this last process, and
+produced successfully the first real artificial silk threads on a
+commercial scale.
+
+_Chardonnet Silk._—He also used a thick collodion solution, but
+instead of _drawing_ it out he _pressed_ it out through fine holes
+by using very great pressure. As fast as the gummy thread exuded it
+was picked up, carried along into a drying room, where the alcohol
+and ether could escape (to be condensed later and used over again),
+and then the solid fibre was passed into a solution of some suitable
+reducing agent, such as ammonium or sodium sulphydrate, which
+converts the inflammable gun cotton into its original condition of
+cellulose. These resulting threads, being smooth and uniform when
+properly made, have very great lustre. Indeed, they are often far
+more brilliant than the very best and finest natural silk, and can be
+dyed and woven into beautiful fabrics.
+
+This discovery of Chardonnet’s was at once utilized, and large and
+flourishing factories of Chardonnet silk sprang up all over Europe.
+The first large factory, which is still doing a very profitable
+business, was at Besançon, in France, and later a large factory was
+established at Frankfort, Germany.
+
+_Pauly Silk._—The success of this process aroused the interest of
+other chemists, and before long several rival processes came into
+existence, also based on the use of a viscous solution of a cellulose
+compound. One company, making the so-called Pauly silk, utilized the
+solvent action of an ammoniacal copper solution upon cellulose for
+their starting point.
+
+_Elberfeld Silk, Glanzstoff._—The Farbenfabriken von Elberfeld,
+famous manufacturers of dyestuffs, took up the manufacture of silk
+from a solution of a compound of cellulose with acetic acid; and the
+Elberfeld silk, or, as it is widely known in Germany, Glanzstoff,
+is every year becoming a more and more important factor in the silk
+business.
+
+_Viscose Silk._—A still different process, which during the past
+two or three years has been successfully introduced into the United
+States, depends upon the curious substance called Viscose, a thick,
+sticky solution of cellulose made by first treating wood pulp,
+cotton or other vegetable fibre with strong caustic soda and then
+dissolving the resulting product in carbon disulphide.
+
+This Viscose was first introduced for many different purposes.
+The solvent, carbon disulphide, is very volatile, and flies off
+readily, leaving the cellulose behind in the form of a stiff jelly
+which, on drying, becomes solid and strong. So Viscose was used for
+water-proofing paper, etc., for making solid articles like piano
+keys and billiard balls, and even for making opaque patterns in
+calico printing. But its most valuable application is for artificial
+silk. It is pressed out through fine holes, and the thread resulting
+quickly solidifies as the solvent evaporates, and can be dried
+carefully and worked up on reels or bobbins, to be dyed later.
+
+_Properties._—Artificial silk, as a rule, is a little stiffer than
+natural silk, but has an exceedingly fine lustre. It cannot be spun
+in as fine threads as fine, natural silk, but, on the other hand, can
+be produced in thick, smooth threads which, stained as a rule black
+or dark colors, quite replace horsehair for furniture coverings, etc.
+Similar products are made, too, by coating cotton with a layer of
+artificial silk.
+
+Another curious use of this artificial silk process is when it is
+formed into still larger threads, very lustrous and quite stiff,
+and used for plumes and aigrettes. They can be dyed any color, have
+excellent lustre, and are extremely useful for millinery.
+
+_Precautions Necessary in Dyeing._—One great drawback is common to
+all these different varieties of artificial silk. They are quite
+strong, although not particularly elastic, when dry, but when wet
+lose their strength very markedly. Indeed, at one time it was
+found extremely troublesome to dye them, as the silk skein dyers,
+accustomed to work and wring and stretch their silk, with impunity,
+in and out of the hot dye-baths, would try the same treatment
+with this new product, and in consequence ruin every skein. When
+thoroughly wet through in a hot bath the thread will soften until
+a skein may hardly bear its own weight. Accordingly, the dyeing is
+always done as quickly as possible, and generally at a lukewarm or
+only moderately high temperature. The skeins should be handled as
+little as possible in the dye-bath, and, when taken out to wring,
+should be rinsed slightly to get rid of extra color, acid, etc., and
+then carefully dried, not by twisting on two sticks, as is customary
+with other materials, but by wrapping in cheese cloth or blotting
+paper and then running the skeins backward and forward through the
+clothes wringer.
+
+=Tests for Artificial Silk.=—It has been ascertained that all
+varieties of artificial silk now on the market are made from some
+form of cellulose. Efforts have been made to take thick jellies
+made from gelatine or similar animal compounds, and make threads
+from them, coagulating them later by treatment with formaldehyde or
+similar chemicals.
+
+These experiments have, however, not as yet proved successful.
+Accordingly, any test that will distinguish between a vegetable and
+an animal fibre will show whether a brilliant thread or piece of
+textiles contains natural silk or not. The simplest of tests is, of
+course, to burn a little with a match or at a flame and see if there
+results the characteristic “burnt feather smell” of charring animal
+tissues. This odor accompanies the natural silk. The chemist would
+probably make the same test more accurately by heating a wad of the
+material in the bottom of a small test tube and noticing whether
+ammonia was being evolved, and whether the distillate was alkaline
+in reaction. The ammonia and alkali resulting from the nitrogenous
+organic matter is a certain indication of animal matter.
+
+To distinguish between mercerized cotton and artificial silk, it
+is generally enough to soak the samples for a short time, say a
+quarter of an hour, in boiling water and test their strength.
+Mercerized cotton properly made would be just as strong afterward
+as before, while the artificial silk would be soft and weak, if it
+would not, indeed, break down completely. Besides this, it must be
+remembered that the mercerized cotton, in spite of its lustre, is
+made up of threads tightly spun together from a large number of short
+fibres, none of which are over two inches or so in length, while
+the artificial silks are made up, like the natural silk, of long,
+continuous fibres twisted together to form the yarn.
+
+In general, these artificial silks, manufactured as they are from
+wood pulp and other vegetable materials, are to be dyed with the
+Salt, Sulphur, or Vat dyes, care always being taken to expose them to
+the action of hot dye-liquors as short a time as possible. The Salt
+dyes are less apt to interfere with the brilliant lustre, but the
+Sulphur and Vat dyes have the great advantage of dyeing in a cold or
+lukewarm bath, without any loss in fastness.
+
+The Chardonnet silk has a special affinity for the Basic dyes, and
+in the trade is usually dyed both light and dark shades with these
+coloring matters, without previous mordanting, in a slightly acid
+bath. This practice, however, while simple and easy, is not to be
+recommended. For the Basic dyes, with but few exceptions, fugitive
+under all circumstances, are particularly sensitive to light, when
+dyed in light shades, upon such a brilliant and almost transparent
+medium as this is. On the other hand, articles made of artificial
+silk, being easily injured by rain, are not so liable to be exposed
+to the open weather as some other less delicate materials.
+
+The Viscose and Elberfeld silks (Glanzstoff) have less affinity for
+the Basic dyes, and dye more readily with the Salt and Sulphur colors
+than the Chardonnet silk, made from gun cotton. But it is perfectly
+possible to dye the latter also with fast colors of the Salt,
+Sulphur, or Vat classes, providing large amounts of dyestuff are used
+to bring up the shade. Indeed it is poor economy to be sparing of the
+coloring matter, when working with any kind of artificial silk. For
+speed is essential, and the dyer who lets his material remain long in
+the dye-bath is liable to get into difficulties.
+
+The artificial silk, after dyeing, should be finished much like
+natural silk, by rinsing and then passing through a bath containing
+some olive oil, emulsified in a weak bath of soda ash. This increases
+the lustre. It should also be dried at a fairly low temperature and,
+while drying, kept stretched out by hanging a wooden or glass rod in
+the loop of the hanging skein, or some similar device, taking care to
+avoid strain great enough to pull apart the weakened fibre.
+
+When dyeing this material great care should also be taken in tying up
+the individual skeins and in handling them. Turn them in the dye-bath
+as little as possible consistent with even dyeing. The threads,
+unless very tightly spun, are constantly liable to come untwisted,
+and the knots to untie, causing much annoyance.
+
+In conclusion, when carefully made and dyed these artificial silks
+furnish beautiful, brilliant, lustrous fibres, which can be used to
+great effect in many kinds of handicraft work. They can easily be
+procured with more lustre than the very best natural silk, but even
+when dry are deficient in elasticity, and to some extent in strength,
+and when wet are very fragile. The price is kept at a rather high
+figure, as a rule only from 25 to 50 cents a pound less than that
+of good natural silk. But every year the production is increasing,
+new factories are springing up in every country, and as there is no
+limit to the production excepting the demand, it is probable that in
+a few years, thanks to competition, the price will be dropped very
+considerably and the whole silk business will be revolutionized. At
+present it is estimated that the production of the artificial silk is
+not far from one-fifth that of natural silk, and this fraction is
+getting larger every month.
+
+Indeed, the rise of this particular industry may fairly be considered
+as one of the most interesting, most useful, and most valuable
+contributions of the manufacturing chemist during the last quarter
+century.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XIV
+
+                         TIED AND DYED WORK
+
+
+Hitherto, in this book, the student has been instructed in the
+general art of dyeing and coloring the various fabrics, both in the
+yarn and in piece, without any attention to the subject of coloring
+them in patterns or designs. The remaining chapters will be devoted
+to various methods, suitable for craftsmen, by which the dyestuffs
+can be applied so as to give more or less definite patterns to the
+objects to be colored.
+
+This art, in its general principles, was worked out in various parts
+of the world at very early periods in their civilization. In a great
+many cases colored designs in textiles were formed, in the process
+of weaving, by incorporating yarns of different colors in certain
+portions of the fabric.
+
+But along with this, at a very early stage in the textile industry,
+there was developed the art of making patterns, regular or irregular,
+by the action of dyestuffs upon previously woven goods. In general
+there are three methods for doing this which, it is claimed, were
+known to the ancient Egyptians just as well as they are to the modern
+calico printer. These three methods are known as Direct Coloring,
+Discharge, and Resist dyeing.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2—TIED AND DYED HEADDRESS FROM AN INCA TOMB IN
+PERU]
+
+=Direct Coloring.=—This means the application of the dyestuff or
+coloring matter to different special portions of the textile or
+fabric, so as to give a colored design, upon a lighter background.
+The dye may be applied by dipping special portions of the fabric into
+it, in which case the pattern is apt to be a very loose and irregular
+one. Or, if the material will take the dye readily enough, as for
+instance in the staining of leather, it may be applied with a brush,
+or a small pad.
+
+More formal and intricate designs can be made by applying the color
+in the form of a paste, through the help of stencils, as worked out
+by the Japanese so beautifully, or by means of wooden or metallic
+blocks, as in the block printing in the East, which in Europe and
+America has developed into the art of calico printing, by rolls run
+by machinery.
+
+=Discharge.=—This process is the exact reverse of the preceding
+one, in that the cloth or other material is dyed first, and later
+the color is either entirely removed or, it may be, very decidedly
+altered in shade, in certain special parts, by the application of
+some chemical.
+
+The earliest examples of this are where cloths stained with Iron
+buff, have had patterns made in them by washing out certain portions
+with acid. Just as some of the earliest forms of “direct coloring”
+are shown in the dark patterns of leaves, formed by the same Iron
+buff dye, upon cloth against which moist fresh leaves have been
+crushed.
+
+The discharge process is not as commonly used by craftsmen as the
+other two methods, because it has not always been easy to find or to
+use a chemical that will properly destroy or change any particular
+color, without at the same time, if fast dyes are used, destroying
+or at least injuring the fabric. The professional dyer, working in
+conjunction with the chemist, carefully weighing the reagents, and
+using steam chests and drying chambers with definite and carefully
+regulated temperatures, can fully discharge even the fastest dyes
+without danger. But this is difficult, if not impossible for the
+craftsman, and while the process will be discussed and described
+under the subject of stencilling, it will be found, comparatively, of
+but little practical importance.
+
+=Resist.=—The third and last method for getting colored patterns
+is one which has been used in different ways, by the most widely
+scattered nations, and which, to this day, furnishes one of the most
+interesting and important processes at the disposal of the craftsman,
+as opposed to the professional dyer.
+
+It consists of applying to certain portions of the fabric, before
+dyeing, some agent which, acting either chemically or mechanically,
+will “resist” the action of the dyestuff at the places where it is
+applied. These parts accordingly will remain in their original color,
+or at any rate will be but slightly colored, while other portions,
+not so protected, will be dyed full shades. This, in many respects,
+is the most advantageous way of obtaining patterns for the craftsman,
+because no action has taken place tending to injure the strength
+or durability of either material or dyestuff, and as the color is
+applied in a regular dye-bath there is generally an opportunity to
+apply the dyestuffs in the most approved manner.
+
+_Variations in Resist Work._—The resist method has been discovered in
+many parts of the world, and has been carried out in many ways. In
+Java, for instance, a beautiful art was developed known as Batik, to
+be described later, in more detail. These people used, as a resisting
+medium, molten beeswax, which could be poured or painted on to the
+cloth wherever desired, and, according to whether it was applied hot
+or only just warm enough to be liquid, would protect the material
+covered, either wholly or partially, against the action of dyestuffs
+in a cold bath.
+
+Less elaborate, but still very interesting processes are reported
+from many other quarters. As will be described in the next chapter
+the Japanese have long used a resist paste, to make white patterns
+against dark backgrounds with their stencils. In some of the Pacific
+Islands natives have learnt to make patterns by pressing pieces
+of cloth tightly between shells, as for instance the two halves
+of a clam shell, and then dyeing or staining around them. Other
+tribes learnt the trick of tying or sewing flat thin pieces of
+wood together, tightly compressing the cloth between them and thus
+preventing the dyestuff from reaching those parts of the goods when
+dyed later.
+
+But the most common process, and one which is not only the simplest
+and easiest to carry out, but also offers to the skilful dyer an
+almost unlimited range of interesting and effective results, in color
+and design, is the so-called “Tied and Dyed Work.”
+
+
+TIED AND DYED WORK
+
+In this process, Tied and Dyed Work, the pattern is made by tying
+string or cord, more or less tightly, around certain selected
+portions of the material. When the goods, thus treated, are
+subsequently dyed, these tied portions will be kept from the action
+of the dyestuff, and after the operation is finished and the strings
+cut or untied, they will be lighter in color than the adjacent parts
+of the fabric.
+
+This process has been known and widely used in many different parts
+of the world. Some interesting examples of it are found among the
+textiles from the so-called Inca graves, in Peru and Bolivia, dating
+from before the Spanish conquest in the sixteenth century (see Fig.
+2). Some extremely interesting specimens of tied work can be seen in
+the Philippine collection in the New York Museum of Natural History,
+brought from the Bagobo tribe in Mindanao (see Fig. 5). While
+perhaps the most extraordinary development of this process can be
+found in the so-called chundries or chunaries, imported from Central
+Hindustan, and sold by traders in Eastern goods and textiles at very
+moderate prices.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3—SHIKAR CHUNDRI, FROM RAJPUTANA, WITH KNOTS
+STILL UNTIED]
+
+=Chundries.=—These are chiefly manufactured in the native State
+of Kotah, in Rajputana, and have been produced there from time
+immemorial, for use as clothing and hangings. Those that are imported
+to this country (see Figs. 3 and 4) are generally made of extremely
+thin, flimsy muslin, most elaborately decorated in three or four
+colors, with patterns made up of an infinite number of small round
+or rectangular rings of white or light colors, against a darker
+background. They can be obtained in the same condition that they
+left the dyer’s hands, folded tightly together, colored red or brown
+or black from the final dye-bath, and covered over with hundreds of
+little hard knots or lumps. These, on examination, prove to be the
+tied places, each tied by hand, by winding round and round the base
+of the projecting loop of cloth, a very fine thread, closely laid and
+knotted extremely firm and tight.
+
+When unwound, which must be done with much care on account of the
+thin, fragile nature of the cloth, the knotted portions often show
+most beautiful and interesting designs—done in different colors, put
+on before tying, and protected from the final bath by the close tight
+layer of thread. Among the most interesting of them are the so-called
+“Shikar” chundries, where the design, repeated over and over again,
+illustrates some hunting scene, as, for instance, a tiger hunt,
+with the animal springing at a man armed with a sword, and a horse
+or elephant with howdah. When fully opened one of these chundries
+makes a strip of cloth some five or six yards long, and in Rajputana
+is used as the full-dress costume of a young lady of fashion, being
+folded round and round the body and over the head in most graceful
+and charming lines.
+
+On studying one of these chundries one is struck by the immense
+amount of labor expended in the tying process. The knots which form
+the pattern make, frequently, as many as twenty-five or thirty to
+the running inch, and each one is tied so tightly around the cloth,
+folded so as to form four thicknesses, and drawn or pressed out
+into loops, that it completely protects the part it covers from the
+dyestuff, only the tip of the loop remaining exposed. Hence, when
+it is untied, there results a small circular or rectangular ring
+not over three-quarters of an inch in diameter. To obtain a surface
+around which the string can be thus tightly tied, the folded cloth
+is evidently pressed out from the back by a thin pin or spike (the
+effect can be produced by tying a thin piece of cloth tightly around
+a wooden toothpick) around which the thread can be tightly drawn and
+knotted, and which usually is left in during the dyeing process and
+taken out afterwards.
+
+The patterns are so elaborate, and yet are repeated over and over
+again, on the same chundries, with such regularity, that it is
+probable that some simple apparatus is used to press out the cloth
+in exactly the proper places. This could be done by using a little
+frame with holes in it, into which pins of wood or ivory could be
+set, like the markers in a cribbage board, for instance, forming
+definite figures on which piece after piece of cloth could be placed
+and pressed out into shape.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4—SAME CHUNDRI AS IN FIG. 3, UNTIED AND SHAKEN
+OUT]
+
+The most interesting thing, after all, about these extraordinarily
+elaborate pieces of handicraft work is the fact that this vast amount
+of time and labor is expended upon such poor materials. The muslin
+of which they are made is so thin and poor that considerable pains
+must be taken in opening them, to prevent their tearing from
+the strain of pulling off the knots of fine thread. Then, too, the
+colors as a rule not only are fugitive to sunlight, but are easily
+affected by washing. Two minutes scrubbing in hot soapsuds will
+almost completely efface the pattern and color from some of the
+most elaborate and beautiful of them all. And this is not, as is
+claimed frequently by modern writers upon Eastern handicrafts, due
+to the introduction of cheap and fugitive “aniline” dyestuffs. The
+dyes, used for generations by the Rajput craftsmen, for their most
+elaborate chundries, were principally tumeric, safflower, and other
+inferior vegetable colors, applied so loosely as to be merely stains
+rather than dyes—and it would be hard to get modern dyestuffs which,
+applied with any care, would be as fugitive as those commonly used
+for the very best examples of these beautiful textiles.
+
+=Tied Work in the Philippines.=—Of different quality is the work of
+the Bagobo tribe in Mindanao, interesting specimens of which are
+to be seen in the Philippine collection of the New York Museum of
+Natural History. As shown in Fig. 5, a headdress belonging to Miss
+Laura Benedict, the work is not unlike that done by the ancient
+Peruvians, and the patterns, although often exceedingly complex, are
+invariably geometrical, and do not approach in variety or in interest
+those from India. The coloring, too, is far simpler—practically all
+the examples showing light patterns on a dull purplish background.
+But the dyeing is most carefully and thoroughly made—taking about
+thirty days to complete, dyeing each night and washing thoroughly
+each morning during all that time, until the final product is
+exceedingly permanent to both light and washing.
+
+Miss Benedict, who was the first white person to enter the Bagobo
+country and study and report on their handicrafts, states that the
+patterns are made in a curious manner. The pattern is first outlined
+upon the cloth by a series of basting stitches, the intersection of
+two stitches being the mark for the centre of one of the tied places.
+Then the operator, seated, puts over her big toe a ring attached to
+a line some three feet long, on the end of which is a simple hook
+made from a bent and sharpened piece of copper or brass wire. Holding
+the cloth in one hand, she then fastens the hook into one of the
+marked places, pulls the part out with her foot, and ties up the loop
+thus formed, rapidly and tightly, with waxed thread. This she winds
+round and round the loop, beginning with the bottom first, and knots
+it tight, using the free hand, assisted, except with very expert
+workers, with the thumb and forefinger of the other.
+
+Specimens of textiles thus tied, and not yet dyed or opened, and also
+of the toe-ring, line, and hook used in the process, can be seen at
+the Museum, along with a great variety of beautiful specimens of the
+finished work.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5—BAGOBO HEADDRESS FROM THE ISLAND OF MINDANAO]
+
+It is rare that, in our present surroundings, any craftsman can spare
+the time and patience to copy the elaborate patterns made in these
+ways by the Eastern dyers. But equally beautiful and interesting
+results can be produced with very little expenditure of time and
+labor, by the skilful dyer, who knows something of the fundamental
+principles of design and can use his dyes so as to get soft and
+beautiful as well as permanent color effects. It is impossible, in
+a work like this, to do more than suggest some of the many ways
+in which this process can be used. The rest depends entirely upon
+practice—and more can be learned about its possibilities in a couple
+of hours’ work with muslin or cheesecloth, and a ball of twine or
+tape, in connection with a dye-pot of a good Sulphur dye, than by
+weeks of listening or reading about it.
+
+
+VARIETIES OF TIED WORK
+
+=Tied on Itself.=—Interesting effects may often be produced on long
+pieces of cloth, scarfs, and the like, by folding them over and
+tying them into knots at one or two selected places, before dyeing.
+Fig. 6 shows an example of this, (a) Tied and ready for dyeing;
+(b) Dyed and opened out. This when worked out in different colors,
+dyeing first, with some light color, then tying and dyeing with
+another color, or else coloring the tied and dyed piece with a second
+light bath of another color, gives very pleasant results as applied
+to draperies—as, for instance, simple costumes for pageants and
+out-of-doors plays. It is, however, almost, if not quite, impossible
+to obtain definite designs in this way, and it is hardly possible to
+duplicate results. But occasionally the process is useful.
+
+=Tied with String or Tape.=—Far more important is the process
+generally meant by the term “tied and dyed work,” where the pattern
+is made by tying either thread, string, cord, or even tape, more or
+less tightly around special portions of the cloth. These portions are
+usually drawn out, or pressed out, or folded, so as to form a sort of
+loop around which the string can be tied. But occasionally the whole
+cloth, laid flat and with but little folding, is tied tightly across,
+so that the reserved part forms, when untied, a more or less straight
+band.
+
+_Tied in Bands._—It is often desirable to separate one part of a
+design from another by means of a broad line or band of white or
+light color. This can be readily done by tying a piece of strong
+twine or tape, tightly, right across the goods at the desired place
+before dyeing it. Quite elaborate and interesting effects can be
+produced in this way by first folding the cloth lengthways, and then
+tying a width of several inches with a broad piece of tape. If it is
+not tied too tight some of the color will work up and down the folds,
+under the tape, and give, when finished, curious wavy effects. (See
+Fig. 7.)
+
+_Tied in Small Loops._—This banding, though interesting and useful,
+differs from the sharp little round or diamond-shaped rings forming
+the patterns in the Rajput or Bagobo textiles. These are produced by
+pressing or pulling out the cloth into loops or bunches which are
+then tied tightly round and round with string or thread, the middle
+of the loop being usually left exposed to the dyestuff, so as to form
+a colored centre.
+
+[Illustration: (_a_)—_Tied and Ready for Dyeing_
+
+(_b_)—_Dyed, Untied and Shaken Out_
+
+FIG. 6—SAMPLE OF TIED AND DYED WORK, “TIED ON ITSELF”]
+
+Very small loops can be made, as mentioned above, by pressing out the
+cloth with a wooden pin (or toothpick) and tying tightly around
+this, leaving in the pin until after the dyeing is completed.
+
+Skilful workers can tie quite small loops by placing a bead, or dried
+pea, or piece of gravel in the cloth and tying the cloth tightly
+around this. It is best, always, to have something of the sort, pin
+or bead, to act as a centre, or else the knot, after tying, is very
+apt to slip off, and spoil the pattern.
+
+The design for this sort of work should be carefully planned
+beforehand, and marked out on the cloth with pencil or chalk. For,
+with small loops like this, the interest is more in the pattern
+formed by them than in the changes and contrasts in color between the
+different tied parts and the rest of the cloth.
+
+A very interesting specimen of work done in this way by Miss Mary
+Grey is shown in Fig. 7.
+
+_Tied in Large Knots and Loops._—It is hard for a Western craftsman
+to obtain sharp, well-defined knots by this method, of a diameter of
+less than half an inch or so. Usually, indeed, it is too much of a
+bother and nuisance to try any knots covering less than an inch and
+a half. From this size, up to fifteen and twenty inches in diameter,
+will be found the vast majority of all American work. The reason is
+very simple. The trouble of tying a knot covering five inches is
+very little more than that for a half-inch knot, indeed far less for
+most people, while the large knot produces an immediate effect not
+equalled by a dozen of the latter. Furthermore, with large knots, big
+bold designs can be produced, which, with pleasant and skilfully
+selected colors, give results far more striking and effective than
+can be shown by the small knots, no matter how carefully carried out.
+On the other hand, intricate and carefully planned designs can be
+worked out with small knots, which cannot be attempted with the large
+ones.
+
+For designs with large knots, beside the cloth, which should be soft
+and free from dressing, and a ball of soft thick twine or better,
+of cheap cotton binding tape, half to three-quarters of an inch
+wide, it is well to have a supply of large glass beads, of marbles
+of different sizes, and, if these are not easy to get, of pebbles,
+beans, hazelnuts, and the like. These are not always to be used, but
+in most cases it makes a more interesting contrast to have the centre
+of the tied spot come out dark, with the lighter parts, more or less
+shaded, around it. That means that the centre must be exposed to
+the dyestuff by being stretched out over a marble or pebble, while
+the parts around it are tied up. And the tying, too, is greatly
+facilitated by having a hard centre to work against.
+
+By tying around one marble first, and then putting in another and
+tying round that, a series of concentric rings will be formed, the
+black rings showing where the cloth, covering the marble, has been
+exposed, and the light-colored part showing where it has been covered
+by the tape or string.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+  FIG. 7—SAMPLE OF TIED AND DYED WORK, “TIED IN BANDS,” WITH
+  INCIDENTAL KNOTS. BY MISS MARY GREY]
+
+As before, the design, if at all elaborate, should be marked out
+beforehand on the open cloth, and the parts tied in accordingly.
+Much experience is required to know just how tight to tie the tape
+so as to get a desired effect with each particular kind of cloth,
+and each class of dyestuffs. In general, with small knots the string
+should be tied very tight, or otherwise no effect is produced at all.
+The larger the tied parts, however, the more pains should be taken
+to have the cloth folded before tying, so that some of the color may
+work down through the folds past the tape, and thus produce shaded
+effects, which may be of great beauty (see Plate IV, Fig. a). Of
+course, in this, much depends on the cloth; a thick heavy calico
+tying with difficulty, but not letting the dyestuff soak through;
+while soft open materials like scrim or cheesecloth, for instance,
+must be tied much tighter, or the color will work through so much as
+to spoil the design.
+
+The student is advised to practise, from the start, tying his tape
+with a slip loop, or at any rate a bow knot, and not with a fast
+square knot each time, so as to save trouble and bother when untying
+later. A skilful craftsman will tie quite a large piece of cloth, in
+an interesting and fairly complicated design, in a few minutes. But
+after dyeing, while the cloth is still wet, and the tape or string
+has shrunk, and the knots have tightened, it is often more trouble to
+untie, or cut it open, than it was to make it, and there is always
+the danger of cutting holes in it. A little pains in laying down one
+end of the tape, before starting to tie, so that, when the whole loop
+is tied up, the other end will come out alongside of the first so
+that it can be joined to it by a bow knot, will save any amount of
+time and vexation.
+
+=Sewed and Dyed Work.=—Besides protecting the cloth from the action
+of the dyestuff by tying string or tape around it, the same effect
+can be produced by sewing up certain parts of it, before dyeing,
+and then, after the rest has been colored, and the loose dye-liquor
+washed off, the sewed-up parts can be opened and pressed into shape.
+
+This modification of the process, so far as I can learn, is not
+practised by the Rajputs with their chundries, but in the Benedict
+collection can be seen some most extraordinary and elaborate pieces
+of dyed work made just in this way. The Japanese, also, have been in
+the habit of using this method, and sometimes they produce curious
+zigzag lines by taking coarse stitches across the cloth, alternately,
+first to one side and then to the other side of the centre line,
+and then drawing the thread tight. The needle is often used for
+borders—for straight lines can easily be made in soft materials (and
+such only should be used for tied work) by hemming the cloth with
+strong thread, and then drawing it up close and tight before putting
+it in the dye-bath. The development of this branch of the process,
+however, belongs properly to the fair sex.
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8—FOLDING THE CLOTH
+
+FIG. 9—STARTING TO TIE
+
+FIG. 10—CENTRE PORTION TIED
+
+TIED AND DYED WORK]
+
+=Dyeing Process.=—Now for the dyeing process. Of course, for
+practise, the craftsman will use cotton as his raw material, in the
+form of muslin, cheesecloth, scrim, or best of all, light grades of
+mercerized cotton, and hence will use the various cotton dyestuffs.
+The Salt colors are hardly advisable, because though fast to light
+they are not all fast to washing unless well boiled on, and that
+means that, unless tied extremely fast and tight, the color would
+be bound to penetrate, and wipe out the design. The Sulphur colors
+and the Vat colors are the best for the purpose—for they can be dyed
+cold or lukewarm, without injuring the fastness of the dye, and give
+colors fast both to light and to washing. In general, it is easier
+to get even shades with the Sulphur colors, and their shades are
+soft and pleasing, but while fast, they are not as fast as the Vat
+dyes, and it is impossible to get a decent scarlet with them. The
+skilful dyer will, of course, select his class to suit the shade he
+is trying to get and also to meet the requirements about fastness.
+But, in general, he will use the Salt colors for covering and shading
+the patterns produced with either the Sulphur or the Vat dyes. When
+using the oxidation dyes, like the Sulphur or Vat colors, plenty of
+time must be given for the dyestuffs to oxidize and set before they
+are untied. But, on the other hand, directly they are once untied
+it is important to wash off the loose dye-liquor from the cloth,
+and especially from the tied-in portions, as soon as possible after
+untying, otherwise some dye-liquors that may have soaked in without
+having had a chance to oxidize, will, when exposed to air, suddenly
+fix themselves and obscure or ruin the pattern.
+
+After attaining some skill in this process the craftsman is urged to
+try it on more important materials like silk. Most beautiful effects
+can be, and are being produced by this means, on soft delicate scarfs
+made of Chinese or Indian silks. The Acid colors are, of course, used
+for this, and as they take so readily on silk, the possibilities of
+shading and over-shading different portions of the design, or of
+adding a touch of color here and there where it seems desirable,
+offer infinite possibilities to an artistic workman. The combinations
+of color that can be produced are infinite, and the curious blending
+of regularity and irregularity, in the designs and figures, renders
+it a most attractive process to practise with.
+
+One great attraction about it is the sense of suspense, and the
+impossibility of telling just what effect is being produced, until
+the knots are all untied, and the cloth washed off and opened out.
+
+Another attraction is the feeling of working all the time in an
+unexplored or very partially explored country. There is the constant
+chance of obtaining at any moment effects never thought of before.
+The experimenter is always trying some new little trick in tying, or
+in folding, or in dyeing, the results of which can never be foreseen
+accurately, and which are always interesting and often very beautiful.
+
+=Tied and Discharged Work.=—One day, in our laboratory, some
+experiments were made which resulted in a modification of this
+process which, so far as we know, was entirely new, and which
+presents very interesting possibilities, to say the least. We made
+the experiment of dyeing the cloth first, and then tying it up,
+and putting it in a bleaching solution, so as to discharge the
+color everywhere excepting where it was protected by the tying.
+The experiment was successful, resulting (see Plate IV, Fig. b),
+in a series of dark patterns on a light background. All kinds of
+modifications of this can be made. For instance, the cloth can
+be dyed with a mixture of two or three dyes, some of which are fast
+and the other or others can be discharged by the chemical used. The
+pattern thus will be the full mixed color, say brown, against a
+background of red or yellow or blue as the case may be.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11—CENTRE AND CORNERS TIED
+
+FIG. 12—DYED, UNTIED AND SHAKEN OUT
+
+TIED AND DYED WORK-CONTINUED]
+
+The important thing about this modification is to select the proper
+bleaching agent to act on the particular colors, and the particular
+kind of material, used. Our first experiments were with bleaching
+powder (chloride of lime), dissolved in water, say two tablespoonfuls
+to the gallon, with, if necessary, a few drops of acetic acid or weak
+sulphuric acid stirred into it. This powerful bleaching agent is very
+apt to attack the cloth, and only heavy materials, such as scrim or
+heavy calico should be used with it. But although so strong, it does
+not act at all readily on a large number of the dyestuffs, including
+many of the Vat colors. Some of these, like the Indanthrene colors,
+are not affected at all, Indigo is changed from blue to a brilliant
+shade of yellow. And Thio Indigo Red B produces curious shades of
+purple, settling, where exposed to the full action of the bleaching
+agent, to orange.
+
+Later we repeated the experiments, using hydrosulphite of soda, say
+two tablespoonfuls to the gallon of warm water, as a discharge, with
+much better success. The cloth was not injured, even when delicate
+materials like silk and light poplins were used. And the great
+majority of colors, including nearly all the best Salt, Sulphur, and
+Acid dyes, reduced rapidly and well. The Vat dyes will reduce, and,
+in the presence of caustic soda, will dissolve out of the exposed
+cloth almost entirely, but it is hard to reduce them to white in this
+way. In every case the color, after reduction, must be washed at once
+in warm soap and water, or else, on exposure to the air, the color
+may come back to some extent, owing to oxidation.
+
+A weak bath of hydrosulphite of soda, also, should always be on
+hand, in the former bleaching process; for, when bleaching powder
+(chloride of lime) or other chlorine compounds, such as Javelle water
+or Labarraque’s solution, are used for destroying the color, their
+further action can be stopped, and also the offensive smell removed,
+by dipping the bleached material into a so-called antichlor, like
+this hydrosulphite.
+
+This subject of discharge is dealt with more at length in a future
+chapter.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+(a) EXAMPLE OF TIED AND DYED WORK
+
+(b) EXAMPLE OF TIED AND DISCHARGED WORK
+
+PLATE IV.]
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XV
+
+                      STENCILS AND STENCILLING
+
+
+DIRECT APPLICATION OF COLORS
+
+=History.=—During the last few years a great deal of attention has
+been paid to the manufacture and use of stencils for decorating
+textiles, not only by craft workers of different kinds, but also by
+art teachers in private and public schools.
+
+The art is not a modern one, even in this country, for I have seen
+and worked with a series of very interesting stencils cut in brass,
+which were owned in Philadelphia by the famous old physician, Dr.
+Benjamin Rush, over a hundred years ago, and were used in his family
+for marking linen, as well as for decorating homespuns and paper.
+
+The real home of the art, however, is Japan, where, for over three
+hundred years, stencils have been in common use, largely replacing
+the wood blocks used in other countries, for decorating the common
+cotton goods, towels, head coverings, and the like of the lower
+classes, and also for ornamenting, where embroidery was not desired,
+the beautiful silks and satins of the wealthy.
+
+Ever since Japan has been opened to the world travelers have been
+telling wonderful stories of the great skill of the natives in this
+beautiful art. According to some writers, as soon as a child is born
+it is given a nickname, and with it, as a sort of totem, a design—a
+flower, for instance, for a girl—a tree or an animal for a boy—and
+the like. This design, worked out carefully, after due criticism from
+all the family elders, is drawn on brown paper and then carefully
+cut out with a sharp knife by some member or friend of the family.
+And this stencil is then sent to the local dyer to be used in dyeing
+the infant’s clothes. This same design, or a modification of it,
+is attached to the person through life, as his or her own private
+pattern, and whenever new clothes are needed they are dyed after this
+same pattern.
+
+=Japanese Stencils.=—_Paper._—It is a common fact that the very
+first thing noticeable about Japanese stencils, whether brought
+from some dyehouse in the interior, or whether made more or less
+mechanically, for the American market, to be sold to students or
+craftsmen, is the quality of the paper. It is thin, hardly heavier
+than ordinary writing paper, but exceedingly tough and strong, and
+cuts very easily, without tearing. It can occasionally be obtained
+from importers in sheets, and even better qualities can be secured,
+from among a mass of old stencils, by finding some which have been
+only partially cut or used up, and carefully cutting out from them
+the unused portions where these are large enough for the purpose.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13—JAPANESE STENCIL KNIFE]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14—JAPANESE STENCIL BRUSHES]
+
+_Knives._—In cutting stencil designs our American practice is to use
+a sharp penknife, or a Sloyd knife, or, as happens occasionally with
+some of my friends with amiable professional husbands, a surgeon’s
+scalpel. None of these, however, compare for neatness, accuracy, and
+ease and comfort of manipulation, with the very simple but extremely
+effective little Japanese knives shown in Fig. 13. The knife blade,
+of very highly tempered steel, is two or three inches long and fits
+between two flattened plates of wood, tied together tightly at the
+bottom but springing apart a little toward the top, as a handle. This
+little spring of the handle is most satisfactory. And as the blade,
+which is triangular and sharply pointed, is worn away gradually by
+the constant grinding and sharpening it must receive, the steel can
+be pushed forward from between the two halves of the handle, until
+the proper length is reached.
+
+_Cutting._—The Japanese draw their designs on paper with India ink,
+and then, with incredible swiftness and accuracy, the lines are cut,
+by pushing the knife blade, held with the back downwards, away from
+the workman, and through the paper which is placed flat on a piece of
+wood or small tray, with depressions in it half an inch or so deep,
+to avoid the danger and bother of running the knife point into the
+wood.
+
+=American Practice.=—Our way differs somewhat. The design is usually
+drawn on a separate piece of white paper, and filled in—in black—with
+India ink. This is then placed underneath the stencil paper which,
+especially if it has been oiled or paraffined, is translucent enough
+to show the pattern through, so that the outline can be drawn with
+a sharp pencil. The outline can also be made by tracing the design
+down on the stencil paper with the help of a piece of carbon copying
+paper. This is laid between the design and the stencil paper and then
+the outline of the design is carefully traced with a sharp-pointed
+pencil. From these outlines it is easy, with a sharp stencil knife,
+to cut out the design, although it is customary with us to cut toward
+the body with the point of the knife down, upon a piece of blotting
+paper or soft wood so as not to dull it too rapidly.
+
+_Ties and Stops._—When stencilling is taught in America great pains
+are taken to show how the pattern must be planned and cut out, so as
+to have plenty of “ties” or “stops” in the right places, so as to
+hold the stencil together. For instance, in making a stencil of a
+large capital O, the student should be warned that, if the paper was
+cut all the way around, it would leave a big hole; for the central
+piece, which would form the centre of the finished letter, would drop
+out, and could not be kept in place. Accordingly, the stencil would
+have to be cut carefully, leaving at least two “bridges” or little
+“tie pieces” of paper, one probably at the top, and the other at
+the bottom of the O, these being the narrowest points, which would
+hold the centre in place, and thus complete the figure. Indeed, if
+these little “steps” or “bridges” of paper should be left out, or
+become torn or broken, the stencil would be useless. But a situation
+like this has little or no terror for the Japanese, at any rate when
+working for their home trade. Their stencils cut for the American
+market while always interesting, and often charming, are cut, as
+ours are, from one piece of paper, with stops in the exposed places.
+But the stencils that have been used, or cut for use, over there,
+show a very different state of affairs. All of the large, handsome
+ones, and a large proportion of the smaller, less artistic, and less
+valuable ones are made, with almost inconceivable skill and patience,
+in duplicate. And the two parts are afterwards pasted together with
+absolute accuracy, but with a layer of fine hair, supposedly human
+hair, between them. These hairs, laid irregularly but evenly, make a
+sort of network which ties together all portions of the stencil, no
+matter how disconnected with the rest, or, as we would say, “in the
+air,” it might be.
+
+So, too, they are in the habit of sewing in, with the finest of hair
+or of single threads of fine silk, loose pieces or broken pieces, and
+thus holding them in shape.
+
+It is interesting to study some of them closely and see how neatly
+this tying is done and how little the time of these unknown workmen
+must be valued at. For apart from the large picture stencils which,
+of course, would be worth taking a great deal of pains with, some of
+the simplest and most ordinary of their native stencils are not only
+cut but tied in, with extraordinary skill. One of these, valued here
+at but a few cents, consisted of a background of small figures in
+shape and size very much like a capital O of the type of this page.
+The stencil measures some eighteen by ten inches, and there must be
+between fifteen hundred and two thousand of these O figures on it.
+Some few of these are now imperfect, but with the exception of a
+dozen or two, every single one of all these has had the centre cut
+out, and then sewed into place again, from the sides, so as to be in
+the exact centre, without a single “stop” or “tie” on the whole paper.
+
+_Brushes._—With stencils so very delicately made, it is evident that
+our crude American style of rubbing in the color, with heavy hands
+and stiff bristle brushes, would not be much of a success! About one
+good rub with a brush like that, and every hair in sight would be
+torn and broken, and what was a minute before a work of art would be
+a torn mass of brown paper.
+
+Whether any of our American craftsmen have light enough hands to
+use, successfully, a fine Japanese stencil is doubtful. Personally,
+I could no more stencil six inches with any of them without ruining
+it or making a mess of the cloth than I could in a year cut, without
+tearing, six square inches of any one of a score of cheap and
+ordinary Japanese stencils which I own, either presented to me or
+sold at a very low price, as being really too insignificant in value
+to amount to anything.
+
+But at any rate, the Japanese do not use a stiff bristle brush. Their
+brushes, in general, are of two sorts, as shown in Fig. 14. One is a
+sort of pad, often quite large, five or six inches in diameter, made
+of rabbit’s fur, tightly bound together with cord or wire, and with
+a bundle of small sticks spreading out to enclose the pad, and drawn
+together and tied above, at the upper end, in a sort of pyramid.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15—JAPANESE STENCIL, SHOWING HOLES PUNCHED BY
+HAND TOOL]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16—JAPANESE STENCIL, EXACT SIZE, SHOWING USE OF
+STOPS]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17—JAPANESE STENCIL, EXACT SIZE, SHOWING USE OF
+SEWING INSTEAD OF STOPS]
+
+The other variety is a true brush, of a more ordinary shape, like
+a flat paint brush, but also made of the very softest and finest,
+most velvety hairs imaginable, laid extremely close together, and
+compressed tightly between the two halves of the handle. These can
+be obtained occasionally from the dealers at reasonable prices, and
+are delightful to work with. Only, being meant for the soft, light
+touches of their native workmen, they do not last long when rubbed
+down on the cloth as is our practise. Their life is considerably
+increased by pouring some molten beeswax into the back of both goods
+and brushes with a batik pot, or Tjanting, which prevents the fine
+hairs from pulling out until the brush is all worn to pieces.
+
+_The Care of Stencils._—A word may here be said about taking care of
+stencils, after they have been cut or purchased. They should always
+be used on one side, and carefully wiped off with a damp cloth,
+directly after using. They should always be kept flat, never folded.
+And, when using them, it must always be remembered that the ties or
+bridges are the weak spots, and that breaking or tearing them, as a
+rule, will spoil the stencil. It is, of course, possible to mend them
+by sewing, or sometimes by patching with tape. But this is always
+troublesome, and with well paraffined stencils is rarely satisfactory.
+
+_The Different Methods of Using Stencils._—In this country, so far
+as can be ascertained, the common way in which stencils have been
+used is by brushing through them, on to the cloth, oil paints thinned
+with turpentine or gasoline. As previously explained, in the chapter
+on feather dyeing, this is not very satisfactory. For when paint is
+sufficiently thick to adhere well to the cloth, it is apt to look
+stiff and shiny. And when it is applied so thin that the structure
+of the cloth shows through, it is, as a rule, not fast to washing
+or even to rubbing. Various varnishes are on the market which help
+considerably to make the paint fast, but even then the results are
+not nearly so durable as when the proper dyestuffs are used.
+
+The Japanese practice is exclusively with dyes, and they have worked
+out processes which are perfectly satisfactory, so that their simple,
+cheap, stencilled towels can stand washing indefinitely without loss
+of color. And by the use of modern dyestuffs there is no insuperable
+obstacle to our doing just as well as they.
+
+The use of stencils gives an excellent opportunity to illustrate the
+three general methods of coloring fabrics, which, as mentioned in the
+last chapter, consist of:
+
+  Direct application of color.
+  Resist, and
+  Discharge.
+
+The last two of these will be reserved for the next chapter.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18—JAPANESE STENCILS, EXACT SIZE, SHOWING USE OF
+BOTH STOPS AND NET]
+
+=Direct Application of Color.=—In this intricate work it will
+generally be found almost a necessity to apply colors through a
+stencil in the form of a paste, for when the coloring liquid is thin
+it is very apt to run under the edges of the paper and spoil the
+design. It is best to thicken it with a little “gum dragon,” a
+carefully prepared paste of gum tragacanth, to which the coloring
+matter, and any reagents that are needed, can be added. The nature of
+the reagents and the class of dyestuffs used depends, of course, upon
+the kind of material to be stencilled.
+
+=(a) Leather.=—While not very often used, students interested in
+leather work will find a carefully designed and neatly cut stencil a
+most useful medium for obtaining interesting and beautiful effects.
+The leather, whether bark- or alum-tanned, should be carefully
+dampened, and then stencilled with a paste containing Basic colors
+dissolved with a drop of acetic acid. On drying, the leather should
+be finished as usual. The Acid colors are not nearly so satisfactory
+for stencilling, although, as already mentioned, they are often
+advantageous for dyeing, rather than staining, leather fast colors.
+
+=(b) Silk.=—Silk may easily be stencilled provided the pattern is not
+expected to be fast to washing.
+
+1. _Acid Colors._—These dyes, mixed with a few drops of formic or
+acetic acid, will color it well, but to make the dyestuff penetrate
+it is advisable to steam the goods. This can be done with a teakettle
+provided with a wing tip for the spout, made of tin, or by heating a
+flatiron or iron plate very hot, and pressing the stencilled goods
+back down against it, with a damp cloth in between. The hot steam
+thus produced, passing through the goods, melts the paste and drives
+the color down into the fibres and sets it there, so that, later,
+the stencilled goods will stand light rinsing in lukewarm soap and
+water without running.
+
+2. _Salt Colors._—Faster results can be obtained, on silk, with
+a paste containing salt dyes, with a drop or two of acetic acid,
+provided the silk is thoroughly steamed afterwards.
+
+3. _Basic Colors._—Basic dyes may be used on silk as on wool,
+leather, or any other animal fibres for direct application, the
+dyestuff dissolved with a drop of acetic acid, being added to the
+paste, and then brushed in and, preferably, lightly steamed to sink
+the paste down into the fibres. These dyes, however, with but few
+exceptions, are not fast to light, and applied in this way are not
+fast, either, to washing. By adding some reagents to the paste,
+however, a Basic stencil paste can be formed which gives colors on
+silk which will stand active scrubbing excellently.
+
+The Basic Stencil Paste is prepared by mixing with the paste a
+solution containing the Basic color, dissolved in acetic acid, and
+also containing a considerable quantity of tannic acid. As long as
+there is free acetic acid present in this mixture the color remains
+in solution, but directly the acid is driven off, an insoluble
+compound remains, formed by the combination of the tannic acid with
+the color base. This happens on steaming, and the insolubility of the
+product is still further increased by passing it through a weak bath
+or wetting it with a weak solution (half a teaspoonful to the quart)
+of tartar emetic.
+
+Accordingly, to use this stencil paste on silk or, indeed, on cotton,
+the slightly dampened goods are stencilled with the paste, thinned
+if desired with water and a little acetic acid. Then directly they
+are dry enough so as not to run they are well steamed, then the gum
+rinsed off with a little warm water, and the goods moistened with the
+tartar emetic. After this they can be washed with soap with little or
+no danger of running.
+
+=(c) Wool.=—Wool is rarely stencilled, although stencil patterns
+can be produced very well on it by using acid colors with a little
+oxalate of ammonia (about the same amount as the dyestuff),
+dissolved in a drop or two of water, and thickened with a little
+gum tragacanth. When this paste is applied with a brush, and then
+dried, the result is not fast at all, merely a distinct stain; but
+if steamed at once the oxalate of ammonia decomposes, leaving oxalic
+acid, which, combining with the color and melting down with it in the
+fibres, makes the dyestuff adhere quite firmly.
+
+=(d) Cotton and Linen.=—It is much more difficult to stencil
+satisfactorily on vegetable goods, such as cotton and linen, than
+on the animal fibres above mentioned, because they are expected to
+stand very much more severe treatment. The fastness to washing needed
+for a handsome silk scarf is far less than for a cotton shirtwaist,
+or linen table-cover, and unless the results on the latter are at
+least as fast as the average calico print, the result is considered a
+failure.
+
+There are three classes of dyes which can be used in this connection,
+the Basic dyes, the Sulphur dyes, and the Indigo or Vat dyes. The
+Basic stencil pastes have just been described, in connection with
+silk stencilling, and when carefully used they will give very fair
+results on cotton, and even on linen, provided it is free from
+dressing, and is not too coarse and thick. It is hardly worth while
+trying to fasten Basic dyes, by hand stencilling, upon such materials
+as heavy, coarse Russian crash, for instance, such as friends and
+students have frequently brought in to experiment with. But for
+light, thin materials, and especially for mercerized goods, poplins
+and the like, it is possible, with a little practice, to get effects
+that are fast to ordinary washing.
+
+On the other hand, this method of stencilling has certain
+disadvantages. It is rather complicated, needing the use of a fixing
+bath of tartar emetic, a very active poison, by the way, although
+more uncomfortable than actually dangerous when taken by mistake
+in one dose, because of the severe vomiting it produces almost
+immediately. And then, too, the results at best are not really fast
+to light, and in the case of light pinks and yellows are distinctly
+fugitive.
+
+_Vat Color Stencil Pastes._—Many experiments have been made in our
+laboratory to work out a satisfactory stencil paste, so that Indigo
+and other Vat dyes could be applied, simply and easily, with no more
+difficulty than the usual one of brushing the paste in carefully, and
+then steaming as soon as possible. In these stencil pastes the Indigo
+and the other Vat dyes are reduced with the aid of caustic alkali and
+hydrosulphite before being mixed with the paste, and some special
+precautions are taken to prevent, as far as possible, the oxidation
+of the dyestuff before it gets well into the fibre. But, as the
+ordinary hydrosulphite is apt to decompose on standing, especially
+when it is wet, it is always best, just before using, to mix well
+with the paste a little fresh reducing agent, dissolved in a drop of
+hot water. The reducing agent that should be used for this purpose
+is not the ordinary hydrosulphite of soda, used for vat dyeing, but
+a compound of sodium hydrosulphite, “Stencil Salt,” which has the
+property of keeping better than the other, and also of not acting as
+a reducing agent until it is heated. This, then, is stirred into the
+Vat color stencil paste, just before using, and then, when the goods
+are steamed, the heat and moisture combined will enable it to reduce
+the color, which will be carried into the fibres in a reduced and
+dissolved condition. After steaming well for five minutes the color
+should be developed by a bath in hot soapsuds, after which the goods
+should be rinsed and dried. With care this process will give very
+satisfactory results, perfectly fast to both light and washing, after
+the first loose color has been washed off.
+
+The indigo stencil paste, as prepared, will keep well reduced for
+quite a long time, and it is frequently quite unnecessary to add any
+fresh reducing agent to it. If, when taken from the tube or bottle,
+it looks yellow or yellowish green, it can be applied at once to the
+cloth, and, if steamed just as soon as possible, it will generally
+penetrate quite satisfactorily. With the other colors of the series,
+however, it is hard to tell by the color whether they are reduced or
+not, and hence the fresh reducing agent, Stencil Salt, should always
+be added to them. The cloth for stencilling with these pastes,
+as with the Basic pastes, should not be too thick or heavy, and
+must be washed quite free from dressing, or the result will not be
+satisfactory. It should also be slightly dampened, if only by holding
+over boiling water for a moment or two, so as to help the color to
+penetrate.
+
+_Sulphur Stencil Paste._—We have also found very satisfactory results
+from pastes made with one of the Sulphur colors, dissolved in a
+little sodium sulphide and sodium carbonate, and stiffened with a
+little gum. The presence of a reducing agent helps to keep the color
+reduced; and, when quickly applied and rapidly steamed, the colors
+will sink into the fibre and adhere firmly.
+
+The chief drawback with these pastes is the lack of a good red.
+
+=Black Stencil Paste.=—So far as can be learned, the Japanese use for
+their stencilling an Indigo paste made on the same general principles
+as the one just described. Besides this, which is a very favorite
+color of theirs, they use a red and also a very full black dye, both
+of which are fast to washing and to light.
+
+What the composition of these last pastes may be it is hard to tell.
+In our laboratory we have made careful experiments on the subject
+of stencilling black, and have worked out a method that we consider
+satisfactory by the use of a modification of the well-known Aniline
+Black process.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19—LARGE AND HANDSOME JAPANESE STENCIL, SHOWING
+USE OF NET]
+
+_Aniline Black._—It was noticed, early in the history of dyestuffs,
+that if aniline was mixed with strong oxidizing agents, and carefully
+heated, it would undergo a series of color changes resulting,
+finally, in black. This color, so-called “Aniline Black,” was at
+one time manufactured and used for a black pigment; but it was soon
+recognized that its real value would only be developed when it
+could be formed, in the fibre itself, by the oxidation of aniline
+or some compound of aniline upon the fibres. After many years of
+experimenting this problem was solved, and for fifteen or twenty
+years the blacks most used on cotton and linen by the calico
+printers, as well as by the dyers, have been one or another of the
+forms of Aniline Black.
+
+The principle on which these processes are based is as follows: The
+aniline, usually in the form of aniline salt (aniline hydrochloride),
+is mixed with an oxidizing agent like chlorate of soda, and also
+with a small amount of a third substance which, on steaming, acts
+as a carrier of oxygen between the aniline and the chlorate. This
+substance, often called a catalytic agent, because at the end of the
+operation it remains unchanged, although it has accomplished a large
+amount of work, may be one of a number of compounds as, for instance,
+a salt of the metal vanadium, prussiate of potash, a salt of copper,
+etc., each one having special advantages and disadvantages of its own.
+
+Now, almost any printing paste properly composed so as to give a
+good clear Aniline Black on steaming, (the formulæ can be obtained
+from any good book on calico printing, or from any competent dyeing
+chemist), will generally work fairly well as a stencil paste—as
+long as it is fresh. But even when kept from the air as far as
+possible, in a tight tube, it decomposes on standing and becomes very
+unsatisfactory. Besides this, there is always a difficulty with these
+regular pastes on account of the irregular and uncertain steaming
+process that can be used by the average craftsman. In a calico print
+works, the temperature of the steam chest, the proportion of steam
+in it, and the length of passage of the cloth through it, are all
+accurately determined, and kept at the exact points necessary for the
+best results with any given formula. But with irregular steaming,
+unless very great care is taken with the formula, there is always a
+danger of “tendering” and burning the fibre, if too much oxidizing
+agent is present, or of not developing a full black, but a dark green
+color, if the oxidizing agent is not active enough.
+
+We have, after a great deal of experimenting, worked out a formula
+which, with reasonable care in steaming, will give a good full black,
+absolutely fast to light and washing, upon cotton, linen, and silk,
+without any tendering of the cloth. And, by dividing up the component
+parts into two separate pastes, which are kept in separate tubes or
+bottles, and are mixed together only when about to be used, we have
+gone far to solve the important problem of keeping.
+
+The use of this Black stencil paste is very simple. It comes in two
+tubes or bottles marked A and B.
+
+When the cloth, free from dressing and slightly dampened, is all
+ready, equal amounts are taken from each of the two tubes, and mixed
+together in a watch-glass or small glass or porcelain dish with, if
+necessary, a drop of water to soften them if they have dried up at
+all. This mixed paste is then brushed on to, and into, the cloth,
+and, as soon as dry, is steamed as before described. The black color
+will develop almost immediately, and, after a few minutes’ steaming,
+will be found fast to hard washing as well as to light.
+
+
+
+
+                             CHAPTER XVI
+
+                  RESIST AND DISCHARGE STENCILLING
+
+
+Travelers in Japan inform us that, with their customary ingenuity,
+the natives there have developed the use of stencils to a point which
+quite matches the best achievements of our modern calico printers,
+even though backed by good dyeing chemists. When a young lady there
+wishes a new dress, she will draw, perhaps with the help of her best
+young man, and certainly with the advice and criticism of her family,
+her favorite design on a piece of brown paper, cut it out in stencil
+form, and send it to the local dyer, with the proper amount of calico
+or silk or what not, to be properly applied.
+
+Now, in most cases the dyer is instructed to put the pattern on the
+cloth in colors, blue, black, red, yellow, or mixed shades, and this
+he does, much as my readers were taught to do in the last chapter, by
+painting on a stencil paste, to be fixed later by steaming.
+
+The Japanese dyer, by the way, has a great advantage over the
+American craftsman in his steaming apparatus. No matter how small his
+place, or how poor his equipment, he always is provided with a neat
+and satisfactory steam chest, consisting of a copper pot set in a
+brick or stone fireplace, to hold the boiling water, and above it, a
+close-fitting box with sides made of lacquered paper, double jacketed
+to avoid condensation in cold weather, which can be kept full of dry
+steam for hours at a time, and in which the stencilled goods can be
+steamed thoroughly and well without fear of spoiling them.
+
+Sometimes, however, the color is to be applied in another way; the
+cloth itself is to be colored blue or red or black, and the pattern
+is to be light, either pure white or some light color on a dark
+background.
+
+The Japanese dyer, from time immemorial, has known how to do this
+properly, by means of a “Resist.” He prepares a resist paste which he
+carefully applies to the cloth through the stencil. This is allowed
+to dry, the cloth is then dyed, and, after the color is properly
+fixed, it is all thoroughly scrubbed, and the paste, washing off,
+leaves the cloth, underneath, in its original color.
+
+_Resist Stencil Paste._—This process of resist, ancient as it is, is
+used in Japan to this day, and many, indeed most, of the stencilled
+towels and piece goods that come from there are done in this way. It
+has the advantages, especially for the craftsman, over the Direct
+Color process, in that the color, being applied in a dye-bath, can be
+fixed readily and uniformly, without the bother and uncertainty of a
+steaming process. Through a friend, a well-known dyeing chemist, who
+has travelled in Japan, I learned the composition of the Japanese
+Resist Paste. They mix rice flour, wheat bran, and a little quicklime
+(the calcium oxide of the chemist) with water and boil it to make
+a paste. This they strain, and then they stir in some powdered
+carbonate of lime (powdered chalk), which thickens and gives some
+body to the mixture. The paste thus formed is applied, as a rule, not
+with a brush but with a flat wooden instrument or spatula, with which
+the paste is laid on as with a trowel, and further, to get the dead
+white effects so commonly noticed, the paste is put on the back of
+the cloth as well as on the front.
+
+My friend also explained to me how the Japanese were able to get
+irregular shaded effects with their stencil work, and at the same
+time to furnish such beautiful and intricate hand-made work, at
+such absurdly low prices. These goods are made of very thin porous
+materials, and the dyer applies with his trowel the thick resist
+paste, through the stencil, to one piece after another, laying each
+one, as fast as it is stencilled, carefully on top of the previous
+one, until a pile has been formed of ten or more separate pieces.
+This pile is pressed very tightly together, and then the dyestuff,
+as, for instance, Indigo in solution and thoroughly reduced, is
+poured on to this mass of goods, soaking through from one to the
+other, but always kept out of the white parts by the double coating
+of thick paste.
+
+After a few minutes these pieces are carefully taken off, one by one,
+exposed to the air until oxidized, and then thoroughly washed until
+the paste and loose color have all disappeared. For an example of
+Japanese resist stencil work, dyed in an iron spring, see Plate III.
+
+[Illustration: PLATE V. JAPANESE TOWELLING DYED BY IMMERSION IN IRON
+SPRING. THE WHITE PATTERN IS CAUSED BY RESIST STENCILLING]
+
+_Resist Stencilling with Sulphur Dyes._—Without lavishly copying
+the Japanese practice it is possible to get very interesting results
+by using suitable dyestuffs with a simpler paste.
+
+The most useful dyes for this purpose are the Sulphur dyes, which,
+as the student will remember, can be applied in the cold, with very
+short exposure to the dye-liquor, and are fixed firmly by exposure
+to the air, giving results fast to light and extremely fast to
+washing. A paste made from wheat flour, thickened a little with an
+inert powder, like powdered chalk or zinc oxide, will work fairly
+well, acting as a purely mechanical protection to the fibre. But much
+better results can be obtained by adding to the paste as much as it
+will absorb of the easily soluble chemical, zinc sulphate, which acts
+chemically in resisting the action of these particular dyestuffs.
+
+The Sulphur colors, as before explained, are kept in solution in
+the dye-bath, by the presence of sodium sulphide, and when this is
+absent or is destroyed by any cause, the dyestuff is precipitated
+as an insoluble, inert powder. Now, when zinc sulphate comes in
+contact with sodium sulphide it at once decomposes the latter,
+forming a white precipitate, zinc sulphide, which has no action at
+all on either dyestuff or cloth. Accordingly a paste containing zinc
+sulphate has far greater efficiency as a resist than any mixture that
+acts purely mechanically.
+
+Resist stencil pastes can be obtained, in tubes, at moderate prices,
+but can also be readily prepared by making not too stiff a paste,
+with wheat flour thoroughly boiled with a saturated solution of zinc
+sulphate instead of with water, and then stirring into this paste
+some powdered chalk or zinc oxide, until of the proper consistency
+for stencilling.
+
+To use this paste, the cloth, as usual, should be washed free from
+dressing, and after being smoothed with a hot iron, should be
+slightly dampened. The paste is then brushed through the stencil on
+to, and into, the cloth, which is then allowed to dry. The dye-bath
+should then be prepared of Sulphur dyes carefully dissolved, in a
+separate cup or saucepan, in a hot solution of sodium sulphide and
+sodium carbonate (soda), and added to cold water in the dye-bath.
+
+A few drops of “Turkey red oil” added to the dye-bath helps to
+prevent a thick scum from forming on top of the liquor, while the
+addition of a tablespoonful of salt dissolved in a little hot water
+helps the rapidity and depth of the dyeing.
+
+Plenty of color should be used excepting for very light shades, for
+the dyeing should be done just as quickly as possible. For silk some
+syrup should be added.
+
+The stencilled cloth is then quickly moistened in cold water, placed
+in the dye-bath, kept there two or three minutes, below the level of
+the liquid; it is then taken out, the liquor drained off, and after a
+minute or two, wrung off; the cloth is then shaken out, and exposed
+to the air, for some ten minutes, to set the color. After this it is
+well washed in a boiling soap bath, and, as the paste washes out, the
+stencilled pattern will show light against the dark background.
+
+The whiteness of the pattern depends, of course, upon the skill
+with which the paste has been applied, and the care taken to prevent
+it from washing off before or during the dyeing process. It is
+difficult, though not absolutely impossible, to get as sharp and
+clear-cut results as those of the Japanese, for instance. But, on the
+other hand, with a dark background it is often, indeed generally,
+more pleasing to have the white patterns softened and not standing
+out too vividly.
+
+In our laboratory we have had considerable success with this process.
+And some of our friends and students have used it with very good
+results upon articles of clothing, which, made of linen, calico,
+etc., must be fast to severe washing as well as to light.
+
+Of course, it is perfectly easy to alter the color of the background,
+as in other classes of resist work, such as Tied and Dyed work, for
+instance, or Batik, by either starting off with colored cloth which
+is protected all through by the resist paste, or else by covering
+the stencilled and dyed goods, afterwards, with some shade which
+will soften and harmonize both pattern and background. For this
+covering shade, which need not be very fast to washing, but must be
+distributed uniformly over the whole cloth, the student will find the
+Salt colors very useful.
+
+_Discharge Stencilling._—Though it is not certain whether this
+process is known to, and used by, the Japanese, it is not a difficult
+matter, with modern dyes and modern chemicals, to get interesting
+results with it. There are two distinct and separate ways open to the
+dyer for discharging, i.e., destroying his dyestuffs, whether they
+are dyed on cloth, or whether, as is not infrequently the case with
+amateurs, they are present as a stain on his hands and fingers. In
+each case, however, care must be taken, as may easily be imagined, to
+use such chemicals as will spare the materials, whether cotton and
+linen, or nails and skin, while attacking the coloring matter.
+
+(a) _Discharge by Oxidation. Chlorine Compounds, Bleaching Powder,
+etc._—In the first place, chemists have long known that certain
+chemicals, more particularly the powerful gaseous element known as
+chlorine and certain of its compounds, have the power of permanently
+destroying coloring matters by oxidizing or burning them.
+
+At first this was done by using chlorine itself, or a water solution
+of chlorine. Later, however, it was found that on passing chlorine
+into some caustic alkali, like quicklime, or caustic soda, or caustic
+potash, these would absorb immense quantities of chlorine which would
+be again given out, as desired, on the addition of acid, or even,
+though very slowly and gradually, by the action of the carbonic acid
+gas in the air.
+
+The lime compound, which contains more chlorine than the others, and
+has the great advantage of being dry, has long been known as chloride
+of lime or as bleaching powder, and has been, and is, commonly
+used from one end of the world to the other as a quick, ready,
+cheap source of chlorine either for bleaching or for disinfection.
+The potash and soda compounds, known respectively as Labarraque’s
+solution and Javelle water, are less active and powerful than
+bleaching powder, but have the same general properties.
+
+Over a hundred years ago, very soon after the discovery of the
+bleaching properties of these compounds, chemists began to use them,
+not only for decolorizing and whitening raw cotton and linen cloth,
+but also for discharging the color in patterns from dyed goods. The
+process was not a difficult one, and is used to this day to some
+extent in the calico printing mills. The cloth is first dyed to
+shade, fixed, and dried. The pattern is then printed on with a paste
+containing some solid organic acid, like citric acid or tartaric
+acid, dissolved in it. After drying, the printed cloth is passed
+through a bath of bleaching powder in water, possibly with a little
+weak alkali added, to be sure that no free chlorine is present;
+and wherever the bleaching powder meets the acid the cloth is
+decolorized, but the rest of the cloth comes out of the bath without
+being much, if at all, altered in color. Of course, on coming out
+of this bath the cloth must be thoroughly washed to get rid of any
+traces of chloride of lime, which otherwise, on exposure to the air,
+would play havoc with the rest of the colors.
+
+This process worked very well with the old vegetable dyes, and,
+every now and then, some craftsman, of an experimental turn of mind,
+revives it for stencil work. The dyed cloth is stencilled with a
+paste made of wheat flour boiled with a saturated solution of citric
+acid, it is dried, and then passed through a bath of bleaching
+powder in water, say two or three tablespoonfuls to the gallon. It
+is generally best to stir in a few drops of a soda solution to the
+bath, till all smell of chlorine has gone, or else the background may
+be affected. The stencilled cloth is dipped in this bath, and kept
+there for a few minutes, until the bleaching process is well under
+way, and then taken out, and washed in hot soap and water, and rinsed
+well.
+
+_Advantages and Disadvantages of Bleaching Powder Discharge._—The
+chief advantage of this process is that it is very cheap and the
+materials can be bought at almost any grocery. The disadvantages are,
+however, important. As long as it is confined to easily discharged,
+comparatively fugitive, colors, it will destroy the color all right
+in the stencilled parts, although the bleaching powder bath is apt
+to attack the color in the body of the cloth, and the outlines of
+the pattern are apt to be soft and irregular because of the escaping
+chlorine, where the citric acid is acting.
+
+When, however, very fast dyes are being used, as for instance, the
+Vat colors or, indeed, a great many of the best dyes in all the
+classes, the action of chlorine is very slow, and slight, and, in
+order to really destroy the color both the acid and the bleaching
+powder will often have to be so strong that the chlorine set free
+will destroy the fibre as well. For the term “fastness to light”
+implies, as a rule, fastness also to oxidation in general, and dyes
+like the best modern ones which will let the cloth rot away from
+under them, when long exposed to the weather without changing color,
+are very apt also to keep their color, even when the cloth is _burnt_
+away from under them by the action of chlorine.
+
+Accordingly, this process is distinctly one that needs careful
+experimentation before it is tried on any important piece of work.
+There are plenty of dyestuffs among the Salt colors, and also among
+the Sulphur colors, which discharge well with chlorine. And the
+calico printer, working, as he generally does to this day, with
+comparatively fugitive dyes, and weighing accurately both acid and
+bleaching powder, can generally get good results with it. But there
+is always the disadvantage, that the least excess of chlorine will
+attack and tender the cloth, and the better the dyestuff, as a rule,
+the stronger the oxidizing agent must be to discharge it.
+
+(b) _Discharge by Reduction, Hydrosulphite, etc._—The wary craftsman
+will find the process much less dangerous to the cloth, and not much
+more difficult, if instead of trying to _oxidize_ the dyestuff, he
+attempts to discharge it by _reducing_ it; or, in other words, if
+instead of trying to burn it out, he tries to take the oxygen away
+from it.
+
+It so happens that in a vast majority of cases a dyestuff becomes
+decolorized by reducing it, just as well as by oxidizing it. There
+is, however, a difference. When the color is oxidized, it is burnt up
+and destroyed forever. When it is reduced, however, it is, in many
+cases, only decolorized and not destroyed; and on standing in the air
+it is apt to take up oxygen again, and to regain some, at least, of
+the original color. On the other hand, while any oxidation process is
+liable to attack the cloth as well as the color, the reducing agents
+now in use have no effect upon the materials, even when powerful
+enough to act on the very fastest dyestuffs.
+
+As before mentioned, the most satisfactory reducing agent at present
+known to dyers is hydrosulphite of soda, and this can be incorporated
+in a paste, and used for discharge stencilling. It is, however, as a
+rule, more satisfactory to use the more expensive, but more permanent
+hydrosulphite compound, described, in the last chapter, as acting
+only when heated.
+
+The reducing stencil paste can be easily made by mixing with some
+“gum dragon” or flour paste, as much as it will hold of a saturated
+solution of the “Stencil Salt.”
+
+The student should experiment with the different dyes and classes of
+dyes before attempting a serious piece of work; but in general, all
+the Salt colors and the Acid colors will discharge readily with this
+paste, and remain colorless. The Vat colors and the Sulphur colors
+can also be reduced to colorless compounds, but it is not always
+easy to wash them out of the cloth after the reduction, and, if they
+remain in it, they are apt to regain their color, on standing in the
+air.
+
+The dyed cloth, carefully washed and pressed and dampened, is
+stencilled with the above paste and allowed to dry. When dry it is
+steamed, as described in the last chapter, and it will be noticed
+that when a certain temperature is reached the color will be
+discharged. As soon as possible afterwards the cloth is to be washed
+in a hot soap bath to remove the reduced color compound (which, as
+a rule, has little affinity for the cloth) and to get rid of the
+paste. Then the cloth is dried and finished.
+
+When trying this process with the Vat dyes it is best to soak the
+cloth directly after steaming, and before soaping, in a warm bath
+containing a little free caustic soda (remember this is apt to burn
+the fingers) because the reduced colors of this class are not, as a
+rule, soluble in water, and are apt to oxidize again in a soap bath.
+
+_Results._—In following up these various experiments in our
+laboratory we have not used this process in much as the Resist
+stencilling, but there is no reason why it should not give just as
+good results. Indeed, the craftsman will probably find, after a
+little practice, that it is easier to get clear white patterns with
+this than with the other. It has the disadvantage of requiring the
+rather bothersome steaming process, which reduces its value for many
+purposes. Still it will often be found that simply ironing the dried
+stencilled cloth with a hot flatiron, with a damp cloth between, will
+cause the reduction to take place quite satisfactorily.
+
+The chief advantage of this process over the other is that, as the
+dyeing is done before and not after the stencilling, it is possible
+to get the exact shade of background required. While, in the resist
+stencilling every minute, almost indeed every second that the
+stencilled goods are left in the dye-bath, is liable to obscure
+the pattern. And it is hard to get first-class results, as regards
+fastness to rubbing and washing, and it is impossible to match
+shades, when working so hurriedly.
+
+Then, too, this discharge process permits the use of almost every
+color on the list, while the resist process practically confines the
+craftsman to the use of the Sulphur dyes only.
+
+Those who are interested in this line of work are advised to try
+these two processes upon silk, where very beautiful and interesting
+effects can be produced with but little difficulty. The resist
+process, using Sulphur colors, gives quiet soft tones on silk, fast
+to the hardest kind of washing. But brighter shades, equally fast to
+light, and fairly fast to washing, can be made with the discharge
+process by using Salt colors.
+
+For ordinary work the Acid dyes, of course, would be used, and these,
+too, as a rule, discharge readily.
+
+
+
+
+                            CHAPTER XVII
+
+                                BATIK
+
+
+The last and perhaps the most interesting and most important process
+to which we shall call our reader’s attention is one which, after
+being practised in the East for many centuries, has been brought
+quite recently to the attention of European and American craftsmen.
+
+The term “Batik” is a Javanese word, signifying painting in wax, and
+the process, somewhat modified, is known to professional dyers and
+calico-printers by the name of “wax resist.” When in the hands of a
+trained draughtsman the process has a charm and character of its own,
+which will warrant the interest now manifested in it, wherever it has
+been introduced.
+
+=History.=—Batik was first introduced by the Dutch discoverers of
+Java, who, in 1648, sent home descriptions, with drawings, of the
+wonderfully beautiful textiles worn by the people, especially by
+the chiefs of that country. The art was known and practised in the
+East long before that time, for in Madras goods were made, by a
+combination of block printing and Batik, at least as early as the
+fifteenth century. And in the interior of Java there are some famous
+old ruins in which are found stone statues of Buddha, supposed to be
+at least 1,200 or 1,300 years old, clothed in garments the same as
+those used at the present day; and showing, from their decorations,
+that they were ornamented by Batik in the same general style of
+patterns that are still popular there.
+
+During the last few years very careful studies have been made,
+especially by the Dutch Government, upon this Javanese process, and
+they have endeavored to introduce it into Europe. It was amusing to
+notice that in one of the reports issued by the Dutch Government on
+this subject it was stated that none of the modern dyestuffs could
+be utilized for this purpose, and that the only colors that could
+be recommended as fast to light were the old vegetable dyestuffs,
+applied in the complicated and troublesome methods of past ages.
+This curiously unscientific attitude has seriously interfered with
+the success of the process in Western lands, and is only now being
+abandoned.
+
+=Javanese Practice.=—Detailed information about the history,
+technique, and designs of the Javanese process has been set down in a
+monumental work: “Die Batikkunst in Niederlandisch Indien,” published
+in Harlem under the auspices of the Dutch Government in 1899.
+Perhaps of more interest to the non-scientific reader is a short but
+well-written account of “Battack Printing in Java,” read before the
+Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society in 1906 by an English
+chemist, John Allan, who spent several months among the natives,
+studying the process at first-hand.
+
+According to these authorities the Javanese and, indeed, most of
+the natives of Malaysia, wear garments simple enough in style and
+cut, but elaborately decorated with great variety of both color and
+design. The principal garment, common to both men and women, is the
+_sarong_, in shape not unlike a large and elongated bath towel,
+which, according to the desire and sex of the owner, may be made to
+serve as trousers or skirt, overcoat or blanket, and is the universal
+bathing costume. It is made of calico, rarely homespun, almost always
+imported from Lancashire or Holland, and as the natives, both men
+and women, are exceedingly fond of bathing, the colors must be fast
+enough to stand constant exposure to water as well as to the fierce
+tropical sun.
+
+They also wear head-dresses made from squares of calico, dyed with
+square centres of plain color and elaborately decorated at the sides;
+and _slendangs_, a kind of girdle or shawl, usually made of silk and
+less elaborately decorated. The costume is completed, for full-dress
+occasions, by a thin shirt or chemise and a light jacket.
+
+For producing the designs on the sarongs, the process of wax resist
+is almost always employed by the natives. Unfortunately of late years
+the Javanese market has been flooded with an immense quantity of
+cheap and, generally, neatly printed goods made in Manchester and in
+Holland in rough imitation of the native styles. So it is not an easy
+matter, nowadays, even in Java, to get genuine specimens of Batik
+work. These can always be recognized, however, on careful examination
+by the peculiar and characteristic odor and “feel” of the wax left
+behind in the cloth, and, better, by the fine irregular “crackle”
+formed in the dye-pot.
+
+_Variations in the Process._—Although there are different methods,
+the Batik process, as usually meant, is a means of dyeing in which,
+before immersing the goods in the dye-pot, the patterns are carefully
+drawn in molten beeswax, applied from a little copper cup with a
+fine spout called a _tjanting_. Frequently, however, to save time,
+the Javanese apply the wax by means of a metal die or block, made by
+inserting thin strips of sheet brass in a wooden frame, so that the
+edges of the brass form the desired pattern. These blocks, provided
+with a handle covered with cloth, are first dipped into the molten
+wax, and then the excess is removed by pressing against a pad, which
+is kept warm by being near the fire of the melting pot. The pattern
+is thus stamped onto the cloth instead of being poured onto it,
+through a small spout, out of a cup.
+
+This Batik process is sometimes used by native craftsmen in other
+parts of the Far East. Plate I, for instance, shows a specimen of
+East Indian work, part of a long piece of stout cotton bought, years
+ago, at Liberty’s in London, with an elaborate design made with
+molten wax, applied by brush or tjanting. Even in the plate the
+characteristic ‘crackle’ shows plainly.
+
+_Wax._—In Java, the wax used for pouring is a mixture of paraffin and
+beeswax, or an impure wax imported from Japan for this purpose. For
+stamping the patterns it is necessary to use a stiffer wax made from
+rosin and paraffin, sometimes mixed with varnish gums.
+
+_Dyes._—The principal colors used are indigo and a beautiful
+golden-brown dye made from the bark of the mango tree. The
+combination of these gives a black, so that the fine old sarongs
+usually contain white, blue, brown, and black. Indigo is dyed first,
+and, before dyeing, all the cloth, excepting that which is to come
+out blue or black, is carefully covered with the wax. After the
+indigo bath (the Javanese use a fermentation vat) the color is set
+by oxidation. The old wax is then all washed off with boiling soap
+and water, and after drying, the wax is again applied to all parts,
+whether white or blue, which are not to receive the brown dye. The
+latter is made from a strong, syrupy extract of bark, and is used
+without mordanting, the color being set by exposure to air. As
+the dyes must be used cold, to avoid melting and obliterating the
+pattern, the goods are usually dipped in each dye-bath and exposed,
+several times, before reaching the desired shade. After the final
+dyeing, the wax is removed by a hot bath of wood ashes or soap, and
+the garment is pressed out ready to wear.
+
+When a red color is desired, the natives use a variation of the
+old Turkey red process, dyeing with madder or munjeet upon cloth
+mordanted with alum and oil. The wax in this case acts as a resist
+against the alum mordant, which is applied cold, and thus prevents
+the dyestuff, which is applied at the boil, from coloring the cloth
+in the protected portions.
+
+_Cloth._—The cloth used for this Batik process is strong common
+calico, but, before beginning to wax it, they give it a careful
+treatment, to improve both its texture and its ground color. For a
+period of several days they alternately soak it in castor oil, wring
+it out, boil out the oil with soda lye, and expose it to the blazing
+sun; until finally it becomes soft and smooth, and has a pleasant tan
+color which goes excellently with the brown, blue, and black dyes.
+
+The peculiarity of all these Batik goods, whether from the East or
+made at home or in Europe, is the characteristic “crackle” effect,
+due to the breaking of the wax upon the cloth in the process of
+dyeing, thereby admitting the color to the protected cloth in fine
+lines and streaks. This distinguishes the wax resist work from the
+previously described paste resist, which if desired will leave a
+smooth, clean, white background, or if applied more lightly will give
+backgrounds shaded more uniformly and without so many irregular lines
+of color.
+
+This crackle effect, so generally admired in the West, is often by
+the Javanese considered a defect, and a sign of poor workmanship. It
+can be largely, if not wholly, avoided by adding a large proportion
+of rosin to the wax, by batiking the cloth on both sides, and by
+dyeing the goods with as little crumpling as possible.
+
+
+MODERN BATIK
+
+The application of the artificial dyestuffs to this ancient process
+has simplified it greatly, and has brought it within the scope of
+craftsmen in general.
+
+=Apparatus—Brushes.=—You will soon find that for a good deal of the
+work, such as covering large surfaces with wax, or filling in large
+and bold designs, a small-sized paint brush is all that is necessary.
+The wax is melted in a cup or casserole, and painted on the cloth
+wherever the design calls for it. It will be found, however, no easy
+matter to get sharp and clear outlines in this way, and intricate or
+delicate patterns cannot be worked out by the brush only. When the
+wax is hot, it is hard to prevent it from spreading and running too
+far over the cloth, and, on the other hand, it cools so rapidly on
+the brush that, unless applied at once, it is hard to spread it at
+all, and the wax is liable not to stick to the cloth.
+
+Much is saved both in time and in accuracy and clearness of outline,
+by using the brush in combination with the tjanting, drawing the
+outlines with the latter, and filling in with the brush.
+
+When large surfaces have been covered with the wax, and the
+characteristic “crackle” effect is desired, it is often well to cool
+the goods, by placing them in the ice box or out of doors for a few
+minutes, and then to crumple them in the hands, before dyeing them.
+The composition of the wax, also, has much to do with this part of
+the work, as will be explained later.
+
+The brush can also be employed for painting molten wax on to the
+goods through a stencil, in resist stencil work. This, however, is
+not satisfactory, even with metallic stencils, and fails completely
+with paper stencils, because the wax, on cooling, fastens stencil
+and cloth together so that they cannot be separated without injury.
+
+It is much better practice, where a stencil design is to be worked
+with wax resist, to make an outline of the design on the goods with a
+sharp pencil, and then, removing the stencil, to fill in the pattern
+with tjanting and brush. This same practice of drawing the outline on
+the goods with pencil, or tracing paper, or by transferring from a
+charcoal drawing, by rubbing, is always to be recommended: except for
+those craftsmen who are such thoroughly trained draughtsmen that they
+can draw their designs free-hand, with the tjanting, without danger
+of slip or mistake. A pencil or crayon line, if not quite true,
+can be erased without spoiling the whole design, but it is quite a
+troublesome matter to correct a mistake made in molten wax.
+
+=Tjantings.=—The real interest in this Batik process lies in the use
+of some form of pouring instrument by which the molten wax can be
+applied to the material in a fine stream, with much the same freedom
+that a drawing can be made with soft pencil or crayon. This practice
+has been developed in Java to its fullest extent, and a fine sarong,
+containing two or three yards of calico, will be completely covered,
+from one end to the other, with wonderfully intricate and elaborate
+designs in two or three colors, all produced, perfectly free-hand, by
+curious little tjantings, in the light fingers of the little Javanese
+women.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20—“TEAPOT” MODEL OF TJANTING]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21—WALTHER GLASS TJANTING]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22—“WAX PENCIL” MODEL OF TJANTING]
+
+_Teapots._—When we began experimenting with Batik, in our laboratory,
+we had no model of the Javanese tools to work with, and, from the
+drawings, we could not see how they could be used without constant
+dripping. So we designed a little brass apparatus, which we and our
+friends nicknamed a “teapot,” which, with some modification, is shown
+in Fig. 20, in which the molten wax remains in the cup until it is
+poured out. This, with practice, works fairly well, and some very
+interesting work has been done with it.
+
+It is hard, however, to draw with it on a horizontal surface, such as
+we are accustomed to work on. And to follow Javanese practice, and
+have the cloth hanging over a frame, and to press it out with the
+left hand while the wax is applied with the instrument in the right,
+is oftentimes a nuisance.
+
+_The Walther Glass Tjanting._—It is evident that we were not alone in
+our fear of the Javanese models with spouts at the bottom, because,
+in Germany, Dr. C. Walther of Crefeld has designed and introduced a
+glass tjanting, shown in Fig. 21, which also delivers only on tipping
+the instrument forward. This we have experimented with but without
+much success. For we have found it difficult and awkward to draw with
+it on a horizontal surface, and also, being made of glass, while it
+is cheaper than the metal models, it is at the same time more fragile.
+
+_Wax Pencil._—An entirely new idea has recently been applied to the
+art of Batik by the introduction of a (patented) “wax pencil” (see
+Fig. 22), made on the principle of the early stylographic pens.
+
+This tool is made of heavy brass, with a removable wooden holder, and
+the wax, in cylinders, is shoved into it from the top after removing
+a cap. To melt the wax the wooden holder is slipped off, and the
+pencil is heated over a flame or on a hot electric plate, while the
+liquid wax is prevented from flowing out by a “needle valve” held
+in place by a small spiral spring. To use the tool, the holder is
+slipped over the pencil, taking care not to burn the fingers in so
+doing, and the pattern is traced in just the same way that it would
+be in ink, pressure on the projecting needle, by raising the valve,
+permitting a greater or lesser flow of wax.
+
+These instruments are certainly more convenient to draw with than any
+of the forms previously mentioned, and, on hard smooth surfaces, such
+as leather, wood, bone, metal, etc., are satisfactory enough. But it
+is no easy matter to make them so that they will work well. For the
+valve which regulates the flow of wax works with a spiral spring.
+Now, if this spring is, or becomes, lax, the wax drips incessantly.
+If on the other hand it is too stiff, it is quite troublesome to
+press down the pin, at the tip, just hard enough to deliver a fine
+stream, without opening it too wide.
+
+In our experience these instruments, which are quite expensive, do
+not work well with cloth and, especially, with rough weaves of cloth,
+like crash, scrim, pongee, coarse calico, and the like. For the pin
+is liable to catch and jump on the threads, and then it delivers the
+wax very unevenly.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23—JAVANESE TJANTINGS]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24—AMERICAN MODIFICATION OF JAVANESE TJANTING]
+
+_The Javanese Tjanting._—After much experimenting one of our friends
+finally brought us, from Holland, a real tjanting copied directly
+from the Javanese, and five minutes’ practice with it satisfied us
+that it was superior to any of the “improved” models that we had
+been working with. Since then we have seen, and studied, several
+different styles of Javanese tjantings, and have learned how they
+must be used to get the best results.
+
+The secret of these instruments is two-fold. First, the size of the
+delivery tube, and second, the temperature of the wax.
+
+The genuine Javanese tjanting (see Fig. 23) is a little bit of a
+tool, holding only about 15 or 20 cubic centimeters of wax, made of
+very thin hammered copper, and fastened into a little bamboo handle,
+some four or five inches long. At the lowest part of the cup, which
+is drawn out at that point into a spout, is fastened the delivery
+tube, which is of _exceedingly_ small calibre, what chemists would
+call, in fact, a “capillary” tube. It will be noticed that the wooden
+handle extends forward, under the bowl, making it impossible to heat
+the bowl itself, or melt the wax in it, by a direct flame.
+
+The wax is melted in a separate pot or large cup, and kept at a high
+temperature throughout; and the operator scoops out the wax from this
+pot with the bowl of the tjanting, wipes off the drip with a rag, and
+then proceeds to draw on the cloth. In Java, or wherever the cloth is
+kept upright, by hanging from a frame, the drip from the outside of
+the cup and the end of the handle is not so important, for it will
+fall in front of the cloth. When, however, the cloth is laid flat,
+for drawing, it is of the utmost importance to avoid all unnecessary
+dripping, and so it is probably advisable to ladle the wax from the
+pot into the tjanting, with a small casserole or ladle, rather than
+to dip it out directly.
+
+Now, if the size of the delivery hole is right, and the wax is
+neither too hot nor too cold, it will form a little globule on the
+end of the tube, and stay there; and when this drop is wiped off and
+the tube at once applied to the cloth or other material, the wax
+will flow out in a fine thin stream, as long as it is drawn along
+in contact with the cloth, and when lifted up it will stop flowing
+until again applied to it. If the wax is too hot, so that it runs too
+freely, it is easy to cool it to the proper temperature by blowing on
+it. If it is too cool, so that it begins to chill in the tube, and
+to flow slowly and unevenly, it must be warmed by being again dipped
+into the hot wax for a new supply. Great pains must be taken to
+have the wax free from dust or grit, or else the delivery tube will
+be constantly stopping up. A fine but stiff bristle or a very thin
+whisk of broom corn should be always on hand for cleaning the tube.
+And after using the tjanting pains must be taken to clean out all
+the wax thoroughly before laying it aside, so that the tube will be
+clear for the melted wax, when it is next filled. The whole tjanting,
+tube and cup, should be gently warmed before filling, for fear of
+the wax chilling in the capillary tube before it can be applied. But
+the arrangement of the handle is such as to call for the use of an
+outside melting pot for the wax, while the small size of the cup is
+evidently so that the melted wax can be all poured out before it has
+time to chill.
+
+_Modification of the Javanese Tjanting._—We have with much trouble
+had some tjantings made here (see Fig. 24), following closely the
+Javanese principles, which have proved extremely satisfactory. The
+delivery tube is equally fine, and the general action is the same.
+But the cup has been made somewhat larger, and very considerably
+heavier, so that it will hold more wax, and will hold the heat
+better. While, for economy’s sake, instead of hammered copper, the
+cup is made of spun brass, and the wooden handle is attached to its
+side, and not to the bottom of it. This enables the worker to heat
+the cup directly over the alcohol lamp, without danger of scorching
+the handle. Of course, when this is done carelessly, it is liable to
+char some of the wax in and near the tube, and so to cause stoppages.
+And also, it is hard to draw a series of fine lines of exactly
+the same thickness, unless the wax in the tjanting is always of
+practically the same temperature.
+
+But there is no difficulty in filling these modified tjantings, just
+as the Javanese do, by scooping up the melted wax from a pot, or by
+pouring the melted wax into them from a casserole or ladle. While, in
+case the wax gets chilled in the tjanting, it is very convenient to
+be able to warm the cup quickly over a low clean flame, or by setting
+it upon the corner of a hot plate.
+
+=Composition of the Wax.=—As a general rule we have found that
+ordinary unrefined beeswax, carefully melted and strained, or
+poured off, free from dust and sediment, is fairly satisfactory.
+It is, however, pretty expensive, and so can be replaced, without
+disadvantage, by the cheaper mineral wax, known in a crude state as
+_Ozocerite_, and in its refined form, which alone should be employed,
+as _Ceresine_. To make the wax more brittle, and thus to improve the
+“crackle,” it is well to add more or less paraffin. And it is well,
+too, to add considerable rosin, to make the wax adhere better to the
+goods, and not be so liable to rub or peel off. On the Continent, it
+is customary to use Japanese vegetable wax instead of beeswax, but we
+have not found this to be advantageous.
+
+Where economy is desirable, or where it is hard to replace supplies,
+it is well to save the once used wax and use it over again, by
+extracting the wax from the goods, after dyeing, with boiling water,
+and then, when this cools, collecting the wax as a cake floating on
+the top.
+
+=Dyeing Batiked Goods.=—In Holland and, to some extent, elsewhere
+on the Continent, where this process has been introduced, great
+stress has been laid upon the importance of using the old vegetable
+colors of the Javanese, along with their tjantings. It is hardly
+necessary to tell my readers that this practice is both unscientific
+and, in a true sense, uncraftsmanlike. The object of any intelligent
+craftsworker should be to produce beautiful and interesting and
+characteristic results in the most durable and effective manner
+possible, with the minimum expenditure of energy upon the mechanical,
+as opposed to the artistic, details. Why, after carefully batiking a
+good design on a piece of silk or calico, must the craftsman spend
+hour after hour of valuable time in some tedious, complicated,
+and expensive dyeing process, simply because “That is the way they
+do things in Java,” especially when, by using modern dyestuffs, he
+can get results quite as beautiful and far more permanent, in a few
+minutes’ time, and with far less danger of spoiling his work. Even
+the clever and skilful little Javanese could learn something from
+modern dyeing chemists.
+
+The class of dyestuffs to use depends, of course, on the kind of
+materials that are being worked on. One of the great charms of this
+process is that it can be applied to all sorts and kinds of textiles
+and, indeed, of a host of things never included under that name.
+
+Batik can be applied to cotton, linen, wool, silk, and other woven
+goods. It can also, if desired, be used upon basketry. And charming
+effects can be produced, by its aid, upon leather, pasteboard,
+parchment, vellum, and other bookbinding materials, as well as upon
+wood, bone, or indeed anything that possesses a smooth surface, and
+will hold a dyestuff.
+
+On copper, brass, and other metals it can also be used, not, indeed,
+for dyeing, but for etching, with acids and other chemicals, with
+great success.
+
+(a) _Calico and Linen._—There is no doubt that for vegetable
+fabrics in general Batik is very well fitted, especially since the
+introduction of modern dyes, which are applied in a cold bath and are
+set by oxidation. The Sulphur dyes work extremely well, in cold or
+lukewarm baths, especially if used in a strong dye-bath. But they, it
+will be remembered, are not very bright colors, and are very short
+on the red side. For soft, quiet colorings, however, extremely fast
+to washing, and quite fast to light, which can be applied easily and
+readily, they will be found very useful.
+
+But the fastest colors known, both for light and for washing, are
+the modern Vat colors, many of which, once reduced, will dye in a
+lukewarm or even a cold dye-bath. While indigo, the type of these
+colors, and still most useful, gives a soft rather greyish shade of
+blue, more effective by itself than when mixed, there can be found
+among the Helindones, Thio indigoes, and the rest, a full palette
+of dyes which, properly mixed, will furnish any shade that may be
+desired.
+
+The dyeing directions for batiked goods are the same as for ordinary
+calico. The materials, well wetted, are immersed, drained, wrung,
+and oxidized as usual. The wax is usually removed in one or more
+boiling soap baths, which help as well to set the color and to remove
+unattached dyestuff.
+
+(b) _Silk._—Silk, as in other processes, can be dyed in several
+different ways, according to the fastness to light and washing
+desired.
+
+The easiest way, especially when trying to match shades, is to dye,
+with the Acid dyes, in a soap bath acidified with a little sulphuric,
+or, preferably, with acetic acid. These shades, however, while
+brilliant and fast to light, are not at all fast to washing, and so
+the wax must be removed later, with benzine or gasoline, and not with
+a hot soap bath.
+
+The sulphur dyes, with a little glucose in the bath, and plenty of
+dyestuff, will give extremely fast colors on silk, but in most
+cases these shades will be too dull for proper effect. They can be
+greatly improved in color, though with some sacrifice of fastness, by
+topping them, without removing the wax, in a cold bath of Basic dyes,
+dissolved with a little acetic acid.
+
+For extremely fast colors the Vat dyes can be used. Easier to apply,
+especially for rather light shades, are some of the Salt colors
+which, though they do not take as well on silk, in the cold, as
+they do on cotton will, nevertheless, color it well, with prolonged
+immersion, in a strong bath, in the presence of formic acid, and once
+on, will stand a very considerable amount of washing.
+
+(c) _Wool._—In case it is necessary to apply this process to wool,
+the latter will probably be dyed in the cold with Acid dyes, in
+the presence of some sodium sulphate (Glauber’s salt) and dilute
+sulphuric acid.
+
+To make this color faster to washing, steaming, and the like, it is
+best, after dyeing, drying, and removing the wax with benzine, to
+boil the dyed goods for half an hour or more in a bath containing a
+little Glauber’s salt and dilute sulphuric acid, but no dyestuff.
+
+(d) _Leather._—As a rule, the Batiked leather should be dyed with
+Acid colors, acidified with acetic or formic acid, though they can be
+shaded afterwards, if desired, by staining with Basic colors.
+
+After dyeing, the wax can be removed by benzine or, softened
+carefully by the cautious approach of a hot iron, can be incorporated
+with the polishing wax, used for rubbing down and finishing the
+surface.
+
+(e) _Wood._—Batiked wood can be stained by soaking it in, or by
+brushing it with, a solution of an acid color, acidified with a
+little acetic acid. These dyes are more soluble than most of the
+other classes, and hence soak into and penetrate the fibres better.
+They may bleed, however, if exposed to warm water.
+
+The Basic colors or even the Salt colors can be used, but, while they
+are apt to adhere more firmly, they do not soak in as well.
+
+The wax is either used for polishing, or is removed by benzine.
+
+(f) _Baskets._—Basketry can be decorated by Batik, although it is but
+rarely done. The baskets would be dyed with Basic colors and acetic
+acid, excepting where yellows and reds were needed, fast to light, in
+which case the Acid colors would be used.
+
+(g) _Bone._—Very pretty effects can be produced with Batik upon
+polished surface of bone or ivory. These are dyed carefully with Acid
+colors in a bath containing acetic acid.
+
+This process is a combination of dyeing and etching, for the acid
+attacks the exposed surfaces, removing the polish and opening the way
+for the action of the dyestuff later.
+
+=Batik Used for Etching.=—The talents of Batik are numerous, for the
+usefulness of the Batik tjanting and brush are not confined to the
+dyer, but can be readily availed of by any metal or wood worker who
+happens to be a skilled draughtsman as well. Wax is a good resist,
+not only against dyes and the weak chemicals used in connection with
+them, but also against many of the most powerful reagents known to
+the chemist, such as sulphuric acid, for instance, or strong caustic
+alkali.
+
+Accordingly, if a piece of smooth wood is carefully batiked and
+then, instead of being painted with dyestuff in solution, it has
+some strong sulphuric acid, or a concentrated solution of caustic
+potash poured and spread upon it, in a few minutes, after the reagent
+is washed off and the wax removed with gasoline or otherwise, the
+exposed surfaces of the wood will be found softened and corroded,
+so that on scrubbing with a stiff brush, they can be readily rubbed
+away, and the waxed portions will stand out in relief.
+
+Metal work, like copper or brass plates and dishes, can be etched
+readily in the same way, the pattern of the relief being drawn in
+wax, and the metal exposed for a greater or less time to the action
+of dilute nitric acid.
+
+Without going further into details it is hoped that enough has been
+stated here to impress on the student the possibilities of this
+beautiful process in a large number of different directions.
+
+
+
+
+                            CHAPTER XVIII
+
+         THE INFLUENCE OF THE WAR UPON THE DYESTUFF INDUSTRY
+
+
+In Chapter II of this book it has been explained how the dyeing
+industry of the whole world was changed by the discovery and
+commercial preparation of the first aniline dyestuff, mauveine,
+in 1856, by the English chemist Perkin. Under his leadership the
+supremacy in this new industry was kept in England; but when he
+retired from the field the manufacture of dyestuffs was soon
+concentrated in Germany. For over forty years before the beginning of
+the Great War, the Germans had almost complete and absolute control
+over the whole color business, including many allied industries like
+the manufacture of organic chemicals, drugs, perfumes, flavoring
+matters and the like, derived originally from coal tar. In Germany
+were four or five great and splendidly equipped factories, and some
+ten or fifteen others of less importance, all thoroughly organized
+and working together most harmoniously under what would, in the
+United States, be called a most perfect specimen of a Trust. Opposed
+to them all over the world there could be found but a handful of
+comparatively small and unimportant firms in Switzerland, France,
+England and the United States—producing altogether not over about
+ten per cent of the output of their German competitors.
+
+Compared to other industries the output of dyestuffs needed for
+the whole world’s consumption is not a very large one—some sixty
+or seventy million dollars a year all told; and it was freely
+boasted, and more or less accepted by the rest of the world, that
+“the dyestuff industry is a one-nation industry, and that nation is
+Germany!”
+
+=Rise of the German Dyestuff Monopoly.=—The story of how this came
+about was once told the writer by Sir William Perkin, when he was in
+New York, in 1896, at the time of the “Coal Tar Color Jubilee,” the
+fiftieth anniversary of his famous discovery.
+
+He said that in the early days, when he was running his plant near
+Manchester, the most dangerous competitors he had to face were
+the French. He described them as excellent chemists and keen, but
+fair-fighting business men; and the Germans, in those days, were far
+inferior to them in every way—in ability, in originality, and, above
+all, in honesty.
+
+He went so far as to say that, for years before he left the business,
+he and other English chemists had entirely abandoned attempts to
+patent their discoveries in Berlin. He had found, by sad experience,
+that whenever he sent over an application for a patent on a new
+dyestuff, or new chemical compound of importance, the German Patent
+Office would at once call in, for consultation, the leading German
+chemists who were interested in that line of work. He would get
+request after request for more and more detailed information about
+every part of the process; and then, when they had got from him
+every bit of information that they could, they would grant the
+patent to some one of his German competitors, who, in many cases at
+least, had never even dreamed of the thing, until Perkin had sent
+his application to Berlin. In fact, he said the English and French
+chemists considered them as rank, bare-faced pirates, and none too
+successful pirates at that.
+
+Two Germans however, in 1869, did work out the composition of
+alizarine, the dyestuff of madder, and published their discovery in
+the chemical journals. But while they discovered and patented one
+method for preparing this Alizarine from coal tar on a commercial
+scale, Perkin in England, and some dyestuff chemists in France
+discovered other methods equally good or perhaps better for producing
+the same identical color at less expense. So they still kept well
+ahead of the Germans even in that.
+
+Soon after this, in 1870, the Franco-Prussian war broke out. At
+once the French and German factories closed, at any rate for any
+foreign trade, and as the cultivation of madder had by that time
+been abandoned, Perkin found that all the Turkey red for the whole
+Eastern market must be dyed with his Manchester alizarine. Orders
+came pouring in, and in order to keep up with the demand, it would be
+necessary for him to greatly increase the size of his plant, and to
+put back into it all his savings of the past fourteen or fifteen very
+profitable years.
+
+This, he told me, he was unwilling to do. But, just at that moment,
+he was approached by a firm of Manchester business men, who had been
+supplying his works with some of the raw materials from coal tar
+(crudes and intermediates as they call them now), with an offer to
+buy his works and his interest in the business. He was perfectly
+frank and open with them, showed them his books, his profits for
+the past few years, his present orders and the rest, and after a
+little bargaining he sold out to them for a very fair price, which he
+immediately invested in the best of securities and on which he lived
+in comfort for the rest of his long and extremely happy life.
+
+=Ruin of the English Dyestuff Industry.=—As soon as they had gained
+possession of his factory, the Manchester people began to pass word
+around among their friends, that they were going to show the whole
+world how to run a chemical industry. Perkin, they agreed, was
+indeed a clever fellow in his way, and undoubtedly a good chemist,
+but he was no _business_ man. They were going to run those works on
+good, practical, common-sense business lines, and they and their few
+friends whom they allowed to join them, boasted loudly and deeply
+of their expected profits. Their motto was the well-established one
+“Manufacture cheap and sell dear”—and they proceeded to follow it
+implicitly.
+
+They went over all the details of the business with the greatest
+care, and soon found what seemed to them a willful piece of
+extravagance. Perkin himself, and three or four other chemists, were
+drawing salaries, not for the actual making of the dyestuffs but for
+_experimental_ purposes, and they had quite an expensive laboratory
+used for that purpose alone!
+
+Of course this was at once eliminated—and great was their
+satisfaction when they found that they had thereby cut down the price
+of making their dyes two or three cents a pound.
+
+Then it came to the “selling dear” part of it. Perkin told me that
+the last few years that he ran his factory, he kept the price of his
+dyestuffs at a reasonable figure, so that, indeed, he would get a
+good profit from them, but that, on the other hand, it would be no
+easy matter for competitors to break into his field with success. His
+alizarine, in particular, he had kept at a price just below what it
+would pay to grow madder in opposition to it, and he had not raised
+the price to any great extent since the war had given him a monopoly.
+These Manchester people, however, fully recognized that they were the
+only manufacturers of alizarine, anywhere, and were over-flooded with
+orders—so they instantly jumped up the price of their alizarine to
+four or five times its former figures.
+
+Barely had they completed their “business” reorganization of the
+plant when the war came to an end, and the Germans marched back to
+their own country, with “five milliards” of French money, full of
+self-confidence (to use a very mild term) and looking around for new
+fields to conquer in peace, now that they had won all that they could
+at that time by war. Instantly every German with any knowledge of
+the textile or dyestuff industries turned his eyes at once in that
+direction. “What! Alizarine at five dollars a pound instead of a
+dollar; why, any fool can make a profit on colors at that price!” And
+immediately, in different parts of the country, factory after factory
+was started, each one centered around some first-class chemist, of
+national if not international reputation, with instructions to gather
+around himself a staff of the most brilliant and best trained organic
+chemists he could find, to be used first of all in experimental and
+investigating work as well as for the mere preparation of dyestuffs.
+
+As a result, in a very short time, these new German firms were
+supplying alizarine and other dyestuffs to the Manchester Turkey red
+manufacturers at lower prices than they could be made for in Perkin’s
+old factory in the immediate neighborhood; and, before the end of the
+year, those clever business men were complaining bitterly to Perkin
+that he had cheated them in the sale of his works, and were wanting
+him to give them their money back, which, as the old gentleman told
+me with a chuckle, he very positively and decidedly refused to do.
+
+From that time until the beginning of the Great War the great English
+textile industry, with its enormous trade all over the world, was
+obliged to buy practically all its dyestuffs from Germany.
+
+=Dyestuff Industry in the United States.=—The manufacture of
+dyestuffs in this country was a little better than in England,
+because of the tariff protection granted it by the Government for
+many years. Four or five factories of very moderate size kept up a
+rather precarious existence, because their chief raw materials, the
+so-called “intermediates,” organic chemicals made from coal tar and
+from which the principal products, dyes, drugs, perfumes and the like
+are made in turn, all had to be imported from Europe, and, in most
+cases, from their German rivals who naturally kept a tight rein upon
+the quantity and quality of their output.
+
+In 1913 even this industry was destroyed by the abolition of the
+duties on dyestuffs in the new tariff, thanks to the pressure for
+free raw materials brought by the great textile industries, probably
+at the instigation of the foreign color houses.
+
+=Changed Conditions Due to the War.=—Since 1914 this whole situation
+has been radically and completely changed all over the world.
+Appreciating the great danger to their textile trades from the lack
+of dyestuffs, and also the vast military importance of a large and
+highly developed coal tar products industry, for the manufacture of
+high explosives, smokeless powder and the like, nation after nation
+has given government assistance not only in the line of money,
+but also with patent legislation and new tariff. England with its
+British Dye Works, Ltd., France with the St. Denis Works, now greatly
+enlarged and strengthened, Italy, Japan, all have made arrangements
+for supplying their trade with home-made dyestuffs, of excellent
+quality, not only during but after the temporary disturbance due to
+the actual fighting.
+
+In the United States there soon were made many more or less
+independent and spasmodic efforts to supply at least the principal
+and most generally used colors, notably the Basic dyes, Methylene
+Blue, Methyl Violet and the like, so much used in calico printing,
+silk and wool dyeing, leather and other lines, and the simpler
+Sulphur colors, like Sulphur Black, Blues, and Browns. These were
+selling, before the end of 1914, at comparatively huge prices, and
+until the peace will probably still command from five to ten times
+their usual values.
+
+But out of these scores of generally quite small and isolated
+factories, there have sprung, by the fourth year of hostilities, a
+few large, well equipped and fully financed organizations which will
+be able, within a very short time, indeed probably before these lines
+appear in print, to fully provide this country with the main standard
+dyes, quite as good in every respect as the same dyes made by the
+best German color houses. And, unless very adverse tariff legislation
+should be introduced, they should be in a position, after the close
+of the war, to hold their trade against any foreign competition.
+It will, of course, take several years before they can supply in
+this country the very finest special dyestuffs, of which but small
+quantities are ever needed or used, and which in most cases are fully
+protected by patents, as well as by secret methods of manufacture.
+But, with the exception of the vat colors, of which artificial Indigo
+and the closely allied Brom-indigo are at present the only ones made
+in this country, the dyeing trade will be, in a short time, well
+supplied with excellent standard colors “made in America.”
+
+The three important American dyestuff houses already started with
+the addresses of their New York offices are as follows:—
+
+  _American_—American Aniline Products. Inc.,
+                  80 Fifth Avenue.
+
+  _Marden_—Marden, Orth and Hastings,
+                61 Broadway.
+
+  _National_—National Aniline and Chemical Co.,
+                  244 Madison Avenue.
+
+And also, soon to engage in the manufacture of dyestuffs on a large
+scale:—
+
+                 The Dupont de Nemours Chemical Co.,
+                         of Wilmington, Del.
+
+
+Lists of the Best Dyestuffs, in the Different Classes, Made Thus Far
+by the American Manufacturers
+
+At the present moment, November, 1917, but few of the home-made
+colors are as fast to light as the specially selected dyes of the
+great German houses, listed on pages 66, 89, 103 and 127. Those in
+the following lists are the best made at present, in the United
+States, and will be steadily improved upon as time goes on.
+
+  _Direct Cotton or Salt Dyes._—
+
+  American—Benzo Fast Yellow, A
+            Direct Sky Blue
+
+  Marden—  Stilbene Yellow
+            Direct Blue
+            Direct Brown
+
+  National—Delta Red, 2 B
+            Niagara Fast Yellow, F
+            Niagara Blue, 2 B
+            Erie Black, G X OO
+
+  _Sulphur Colors._—
+
+  Marden—  Sulphur Black
+            Sulphur Brown
+
+  National—Sulphur Brown, W F
+            Sulphur Yellow, B W
+            Sulphur Direct Navy Blue
+            Sulphur Black, F conc.
+
+  _Vat Colors._—
+
+            Dibrom Indigo, powder and paste
+            Synthetic Indigo, 20% paste
+
+_Made by the Dow Chemical Company of Midland, Michigan. New York
+Agents, Geisenheimer & Co., 134 Cedar Street._
+
+Synthetic Indigo and Sodium hydrosulphite can also be obtained from
+_Klipstein, 634 Greenwich Street, New York_.
+
+_Basic Colors._—
+
+Many of these such as Methylene Blue, Methyl Violet, Phosphine,
+Bismarck Brown and others, including leather Black, are being made by
+_American_, _Marden_ and _National_, as well as by many firms that so
+far have not gone into the general color business. One of the most
+important of these last, who, besides the above, make a brilliant
+basic Green, called by them Methylene Green, is the _Meth-O-Lene Co.,
+Inc., 81-83 Fulton Street, New York_.
+
+Auramine, at present, can best be obtained from _Klipstein_.
+Nigrosine soluble in water, in jet black and bluish shades, is made
+by _Marden_, _Meth-O-Lene_ and other firms, and is largely used for
+dyeing leather fast brilliant shades of black.
+
+
+  _Acid Colors._—
+
+  American—Fast Yellow, H Ex.
+            Brilliant Blue, conc.
+            Cloth Red, H
+            Acid Black, L conc.
+
+  Marden—  Metanril Yellow
+            Orange, No. 2
+            Fast Acid Red
+            Croceine Scarlet
+
+  National—Azo Yellow, A S W
+            Scarlet, B R
+            Acid Black, 4 A B
+
+Also Tartrazine, a fast acid yellow much used for wool, not for silk.
+
+
+SPECIAL NOTE
+
+  Further information concerning dyestuffs, apparatus, textiles,
+  chemicals, etc., connected with this work, may be obtained on
+  writing to the author at 7 West 43rd Street, New York.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+There is no mention either of the Plate illustrations or of the
+Figure illustrations in the index; these may be found in a list of
+the illustrations in the front of the book.
+
+
+  Acid Azo Colors, 123, 124
+
+  Acid Colors, 52, 54, 123-131, 131-136, 148-150, 152, 165-168, 219,
+        258
+
+  After-treatment, 18, 67, 68, 89
+
+  Alizarine and Alizarine Dyestuffs, 22, 23, 42
+
+  Alizarine Assistant or Turkey Red Oil, 88, 106, 232
+
+  Aniline, 40, 41
+
+  Aniline Black—for Stencilling, 224-228
+
+  Aniline Colors, 109. Also see Basic Colors
+
+  Aniline Red or Fuchsine, Magenta, 40, 109
+
+  Animal Dyes, 11-14.
+    Also see Cochineal, Kermes, Lac, Tyrian purple
+
+  Artificial Silk, 39, 87, 112, 181, 184-192
+
+  Artificial or Synthetic Indigo, 92, 93
+
+
+  Bagobo Tied Work, 196, 199, 200, 202, 206
+
+  Basic Colors, 52, 54, 108-123, 148-153, 220-223, 258
+
+  Basketry, Dyeing of, 113, 114, 116-123, 258
+
+  Batik or Wax Resist, 241-260
+
+  Benedict, Miss Laura (Tied Work from Philippines), 199, 200, 206
+
+  Bismarck Brown, 109, 115, 124
+
+  Bistre or Permanganate Bronze, 32-35
+
+  Black Dyeing—with Coal-Tar Colors, 69, 86, 89, 114, 168, 169
+
+  Black Dyeing—with Logwood, 21, 138, 169-172
+
+  Black Stencilling, 224-228
+
+  Bleaching Powder, 208-211, 234-236
+
+  Boiled-off Liquor, 161, 162, 164, 168, 174
+
+  Bone-colored by Batik Process, 258
+
+  British uniforms, dyed with cochineal, 19
+
+  Bronze on Leather, 153-155
+
+  Bronze (Permanganate) or Bistre, 32-35
+
+  Brown (Bismarck), 109, 115, 124
+
+  Brown, dyed with Permanganate of Potash, 32-35
+
+
+  Cachou de Laval, 85
+
+  Catechu. See Cutch
+
+  Chardonnet Silk, 184, 185, 189
+
+  Chloride of Lime. See Bleaching Powder
+
+  Chrome Orange, 32
+
+  Chrome Yellow, 32
+
+  Chrome Tanning, 144
+
+  Chundries or Chunaries (Indian Tied Work), 196-199
+
+  Classification of Coal-Tar Colors, for Craftsmen, 51, 52
+
+  Cochineal, 11, 18, 19
+
+  Congo Red, 55, 56, 57
+
+  Cordovan Leather, 142
+
+  Cotton Colors. See Salt Colors
+
+  Cotton Dyeing, 59-64, 86, 88-90, 98, 99
+
+  “Covering,” 83
+
+  Crackle Effect—in Batik, 244, 246, 247
+
+  Cutch, 18, 85, 146, 171
+
+
+  Direct Coloring, 193
+
+  Direct Cotton Dyeing. See Salt Colors and Sulphur Colors. Also 17,
+        53, 55, 85
+
+  Discharge Stencilling, 233-241
+
+  Discharge work, 193, 208-211
+
+  Discovery of Acid Colors, 123, 124;
+    Aniline or Coal-Tar Colors, 40, 41, 46;
+    Basic Colors, 108, 109;
+    Indigo, 9, 10, 91, 92;
+    Salt Colors, 55, 56;
+    Sulphur Colors, 85, 86;
+    Vat Colors, modern, 103
+
+  Discovery (Perkin’s), 40, 41, 46, 54, 108, 109
+
+  Dyeing Directions—for Acid Colors, 127-131, 132-137, 148-153, 162,
+        163;
+    Artificial Silk, 187, 189, 190;
+    Basic Colors, 117-123, 148-150;
+    Basketry, 117-123;
+    Batik, 254-258;
+    Cotton and Linen, 27, 30, 33, 59-64, 87-89, 98, 99, 105-108;
+    Feathers, 132-137;
+    Imitation Silk, 183;
+    Indigo, 98, 99;
+    Iron Buff (Iron Rust), 27-29;
+    Iron Grey, 30;
+    Leather, 148-150;
+    Permanganate Bronze, 33;
+    Raffia, 120-123;
+    Resist Stencilling, 232;
+    Salt Colors, 59-64, 175, 176, 233;
+    Silk, 162-165, 174-181, 207;
+    Straw, 117-120;
+    Sulphur Colors, 87-89, 180, 207, 232;
+    Tied and Dyed Work, 206, 207;
+    Vat Colors, 105-108, 177-181;
+    Wild Silk, 164, 165;
+    Wool, 24, 127-131
+
+
+  Eastern Dyes, 10, 13, 17-21, 22, 199, 200, 245
+
+  Elberfeld Silk, 185, 189
+
+  Embroidery-fast Silk, 175-181
+
+  Equipment needed for Dyeing, 35-39
+
+
+  Fastness to Light, 42, 49, 63-66, 89, 100, 102, 103, 112, 114, 126,
+        153
+
+  Fastness to Washing, 64-67, 89, 100, 103, 124, 137, 174-181
+
+  Feathers and Feather-dyeing, 39, 131-141
+
+  Fermentation Method of Vat dyeing, 94
+
+  Finishing—Artificial Silk, 39, 189, 190;
+    Feathers, 39, 134, 135;
+    Leather, 153;
+    Silk, 39, 163, 164
+
+  Fustic, 20
+
+
+  Gambier, 146, 171
+
+  Gelatin or Glue, used as Reagent, 87
+
+  Glanzstoff (Elberfeld Silk), 185, 189
+
+  Glucose, 33, 87, 179
+
+  Grain Colors (Cochineal, Kermes, Lac), 11, 12, 19
+
+  Grey, Miss Mary—Tied Work, 203
+
+  Grey, from mixture of colors, 72, 73, 82, 83
+
+  Grey, from Iron Salts and Tannin, 29, 31
+
+
+  Heating devices, used in Dyeing, 36
+
+  History. See Discovery.
+    Also Ancient Dyestuffs, 8-16;
+    Artificial Silk, 184-187;
+    Batik, 241-245;
+    Dyes of our Ancestors, 17-24;
+    Imitation Silk, 182, 183;
+    Leather, 141-144;
+    Silk, 156, 157;
+    Stencils and Stencilling, 211, 212;
+    Tied and Dyed Work, 192-200
+
+  Horses, dyed Brown with Permanganate, 34
+
+  Hydrosulphite of Sodium, 35, 97, 98, 104, 105, 118, 209, 210, 237-241
+
+
+  Imitation Silk, 181-184
+
+  Indian Dyes, 17, 18, 199
+
+  Indian Tied and Dyed Work, 196-199, 202, 206
+
+  Indigo and Vat Colors, 9, 10, 14, 91-108, 222-225
+
+  Indigo, Application of, 93, 98-100
+
+  Introduction, 5-8
+
+  Iron Buff (Iron Rust), 25-29, 103
+
+  Iron Grey, 29-31
+
+
+  Japanese Practice, 31, 211-219, 228-231
+
+  Javanese Practice (Batik), 242-256
+
+
+  Kermes, 12
+
+  Khaki, 28
+
+
+  Lac Dye, 11, 19, 20
+
+  Leather, 141-156;
+    Dyeing and Staining of, 111, 148-153;
+    Finishing of, 153;
+    History of, 141-144;
+    Preparation of, 143-148;
+    Stencilling of, 219
+
+  Linen—Dyeing of. See Cotton Dyeing, 59-64, 86, 88-90, 98, 99
+
+  Local Dyeing Formulæ, 24
+
+  Logwood, 21, 138, 169-172
+
+
+  Madder, 10
+
+  Manufacturers of Coal-Tar Colors, 48
+
+  Matching Shades, 77, 78, 101
+
+  Matching Shades by Night, 84
+
+  Mauvine (Perkin’s Violet), 40, 41, 108, 109
+
+  Metal, Etching of by Batik Process, 259
+
+  Methyl Violet. See Basic Colors, also 49, 108
+
+  Methylene Blue. See Basic Colors, also 109, 112, 114, 149
+
+  Mineral Dyes, 25-35
+
+  Mixed Shades, with Diagram, 78-84
+
+  Modern and Ancient Dyestuffs, compared, 5, 6
+
+  Mordants and Mordanting, 11, 18-25, 53, 55, 110
+
+  Murex Brandaris (Tyrian Purple Fish), 12
+
+  Murex Trunculus, 12
+
+
+  Night, Matching Shades by, 84
+
+  North Carolina Practice, 24
+
+
+  Perkin, Sir Wm. Henry, 40-43, 46, 108, 109
+
+  Perkin’s Discovery. See Perkin
+
+  Permanganate Bronze (Permanganate Brown, Bistre), 32-35
+
+  Peruvian Tied Work, 196
+
+  Philippine Tied Work, 196, 199-201
+
+  Primary Colors, 72, 73
+
+  Purpura Lapillus (Tyrian Purple Fish), 12
+
+
+  Raffia, Dyeing of, 120, 121
+
+  Rainbow Dyeing, 74, 75, 82, 83, 119-122, 129, 136
+
+  Rajput Tied Work (Chundries), 196-199, 202, 206
+
+  Resist Stencil Paste, 229-234
+
+  Resist Work, 194, 195, also 196-209, 229-234, 241-260
+
+  Rubber Gloves—Useful for Dyeing, 37
+
+  “Rubbing,” 101, 102
+
+  Rush, Dr. Benjamin, 211
+
+  Ruskin, John, Opinion on Modern Dyestuffs, 5
+
+
+  Safflower, 17, 55
+
+  Saffron, 10
+
+  Saffron, Indian (Turmeric), 17
+
+  Salt—used in Dyeing, 62, 87, 88, 107
+
+  Salt Colors (Direct Cotton Colors), 51, 55-71, 111, 175, 220, 237,
+        238-240;
+    List of Properties and Uses, 69
+
+  Sarongs, 243
+
+  Selected Dyestuffs, Lists of—
+    Acid Colors, 127, 152, 166;
+    Basic Colors, 114, 115, 149;
+    Salt Colors, 66;
+    Sulphur Colors, 90;
+    Vat Colors, 103, 179
+
+  Shades, Matching of, 81
+
+  Shikar, Chundries (Tied Work from India), 197
+
+  Silk, Artificial, 39, 87, 112, 181, 184-192
+
+  Silk, 156-181;
+    Dyeing, 58, 86, 87, 161-164, 174-181;
+    Imitation, 181-184;
+    Preparation of for Dyeing, 159-162;
+    Stencilling of, 219-223, 240;
+    Tests for Weighted, 173, 174;
+    Varieties of, 157-160;
+    Weighting of, 169-175;
+    Wild, 157-159, 164-167
+
+  Skein Dyeing 129, 130, 163
+
+  Soap, uses of, in Dyeing, 60, 61, 161-166, 171
+
+  Soda Ash (Sodium Carbonate), 27, 28, 88
+
+  Sodium Bicarbonate, 27, 28
+
+  Sodium Carbonate. See Soda Ash
+
+  Sodium Hydrosulphite, 35, 97, 98, 104, 105, 118, 209, 210, 237-241
+
+  Sodium Hydroxide (Caustic Soda), 97, 105
+
+  Sodium Sulphate (Glauber’s Salt), 128
+
+  Sodium Sulphide, 85, 86, 88
+
+  Starching (for Feathers), 134-136
+
+  Stencils and Stencilling, 211-228, 228-241
+
+  Stencil Salt, 223, 224, 239
+
+  Stripping, 126, 137, 166, 167
+
+  Sulphur Colors, 85-90, 102, 111, 179, 180, 224, 237, 238
+
+
+  Tannin (Tannic Acid), 18, 30, 31, 145, 146, 171
+
+  Tanning, 143-148
+
+  Three-Color Shades, 79-81
+
+  Tied and Discharged Work, 208-211
+
+  Tied and Dyed Work, 31, 192-211
+
+  Ties and Stops, 214-217
+
+  Tin salts as Mordants, 11, 19
+
+  Tin Weighting of Silk, 171-175
+
+  Tjantings. See Batik, 244-254
+
+  “Topping,” 111
+
+  Turkey Red, 11, 22, 56, 57
+
+  Turkey Red Oil (Alizarine Assistant), 88, 106, 232
+
+  Turmeric (Indian Saffron), 17
+
+  Tussah Silk. See Wild Silk
+
+  Tyrian Purple, 12-16, 91
+
+
+  Vat Colors. See Indigo, also 102-108, 222-225
+
+  Vat Dyeing, 94-100, 178-180
+
+  Vegetable Colors, 8-11, 17-19, 20-25
+
+  Viscose (in Artificial Silk), 185, 186
+
+
+  Washing, Fastness to, 64-67, 89, 100, 103, 124, 125, 137, 166, 174-181
+
+  Weighting of Silk, 170-175
+
+  Woad, 9, 10
+
+  Wood, Dyeing of, 258
+
+  Wood, Etching of, by Batik Process, 259
+
+  Wool, Dyeing of, 58, 86, 128-131
+
+  Wool, Stencilling on, 221
+
+  Wringers, Use of in Dyeing, 38
+
+
+
+
+  TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE
+
+
+  Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between paragraphs
+  and outside quotations. In versions of this eBook that support
+  hyperlinks, the page references in the List of Illustrations lead to
+  the corresponding illustrations.
+
+  Illustrations without captions have had a description added, this is
+  denoted with parentheses.
+
+  The index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page
+  references.
+
+  Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been
+  corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within
+  the text and consultation of external sources.
+
+  Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added,
+  when a predominant preference was found in the original book.
+
+  Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text,
+  and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.
+
+
+  Pg 101: removed duplicate ‘to’ in ‘are apt to to “rub.”’.
+
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75302 ***
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+
+      /* Transcriber's notes */
+     .transnote {border: 1px solid;
+             color: black;
+             font-size:small;
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+</style>
+</head>
+<body>
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75302 ***</div>
+<div class="transnote"><strong>
+TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE</strong>
+
+<p class="noindent">Footnote anchors are denoted by <span class="fnanchor">[number]</span>, and the footnotes have been
+placed at the end of the paragraph.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Some minor changes to the text are noted at the <a href="#ENDNOTE">end of the book</a>.
+</p></div>
+
+ <hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+    <div class="chapter">
+    </div>
+
+    <figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="cover">
+      <img class="w100" src="images/cover.jpg" alt="(Cover)">
+    </figure>
+
+    
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp40" id="plate1" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_f000.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">PLATE I. INDIGO DYED BATIK FROM MADRAS</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+</div>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h1 >
+DYES <i>and</i> DYEING</h1>
+
+<p class="center noindent p2 pb6">BY<br>
+<br>
+<span class="fs150 lsp1">CHARLES E. PELLEW</span><br>
+<i>Formerly Adjunct Professor of Chemistry<br>
+at Columbia University</i><br>
+</p>
+<figure class="figcenter illowp10" id="i_f001" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_f001.jpg" alt="(colophon)">
+</figure><br>
+<p class="center noindent p4 wsp">
+<span class="fs80 lsp1">NEW YORK</span><br>
+ROBERT M. McBRIDE &amp; COMPANY<br>
+1918</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</span></p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p class="center noindent lspp5 wsp p4">
+<span class="smcap fs80">Copyright, 1913, by</span><br>
+McBRIDE, NAST &amp; COMPANY<br>
+<br>
+<span class="smcap fs80">Copyright, 1918, by</span><br>
+ROBERT M. McBRIDE &amp; COMPANY</p>
+<p class="center noindent wsp p8 fs80">
+New and enlarged edition<br>
+Published, January, 1918<br>
+</p>
+</div>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_iv">[iv]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<table class="toctable wd90">
+<tr>
+<td colspan="2"></td>
+<td class="tdl wd5 fs60">PAGE</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter I—INTRODUCTION</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="wd8e"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Dyes of the Ancients—Dyes of Our 
+Ancestors—Animal, Vegetable and
+Mineral Dyes—Outfit for Practical
+Dyeing.</td>
+<td></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter II—MODERN DYESTUFFS</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="wd8e"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Discovery of the Aniline or Coal-Tar
+Colors—Their Properties and Uses—How
+Obtained—How Named—Classification
+of Coal-Tar Colors for Craftsmen.</td>
+<td></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter III—THE DIRECT COTTON OR
+SALT COLORS</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="wd8e"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Discovery, Properties and Uses of the
+Salt Colors; with Lists of Selected
+Dyestuffs, and Dying Directions for
+Cotton and Linen—Fastness to Light
+and Washing—After-treatment.</td>
+<td></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter IV—THEORY AND PRACTICE OF
+COLOR DYEING</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="wd8e"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Even and Shaded Dyeing with the
+Primary Colors—Experiments with
+Secondary Colors—Matching Shades.</td>
+<td></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter V—THE SULPHUR COLORS</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="wd8e"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Discovery—Properties and Uses of
+the Sulphur Colors—List of Selected
+Dyestuffs, and Dyeing Directions for
+Cotton and Linen.</td>
+<td></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter VI—THE INDIGO OR VAT COLORS</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="wd8e"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Natural and Synthetic Indigo—Properties
+and Application—Vat Dyeing,
+Old and Modern—Dyeing Directions—The
+Modern Vat Colors—Their
+Properties and Uses—Selected Dyestuffs—Fastness
+to Light and Washing—Dyeing
+Directions for Cotton,
+Linen and Silk.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[v]</span></td>
+<td></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter VII—THE BASIC COLORS</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="wd8e"></td>
+<td class="tdl">History, Properties, and Application
+to Cotton, Wool, Silk, etc.—Disadvantages—Not
+Fast to Light—Dyeing
+Directions for Straw, Raffia, etc.</td>
+<td></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter VIII—THE ACID COLORS</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="wd8e"></td>
+<td class="tdl">History, Properties, Uses, and List of
+Selected Dyestuffs—Dyeing Directions
+for Wool.</td>
+<td></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter IX—DYEING FEATHERS</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="wd8e"></td>
+<td class="tdl">The Dye-bath—The Dyeing Method—The
+Finishing Process—Dry and
+Wet Starching—Dyeing in the Starch—Black
+Dyeing of Feathers—Painting
+Feathers.</td>
+<td></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter X—LEATHER AND LEATHER
+DYEING</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="wd8e"></td>
+<td class="tdl">History—Preparation of Leather—Oil,
+Mineral and Bark Tanning—Dyeing,
+Staining and Finishing Leather.</td>
+<td></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter XI—SILK I</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="wd8e"></td>
+<td class="tdl">History, Origin and Varieties of Silk—Preparing
+Silk for Dyeing—Piece
+Dyeing—Skein Dyeing—Dyeing Wild
+Silks.</td>
+<td></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter XII—SILK II</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="wd8e"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Black Dyeing of Silk—Coal-Tar Colors—Logwood—Weighting
+of Silk—Properties
+and Tests for Weighted Silk—Dyeing
+Silk with Colors Fast to Washing.</td>
+<td></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter XIII—IMITATION AND ARTIFICIAL
+SILK</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="wd8e"></td>
+<td class="tdl">History, Preparation and Properties
+of Mercerized Cotton—History, Preparation
+and Properties of Artificial
+Silk—Precautions to be Taken in Dyeing
+and Finishing. <span id="Page_vi" class="pagenum">[vi]</span></td>
+<td></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter XIV—TIED AND DYED WORK</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="wd8e"></td>
+<td class="tdl">As Used in South America, India,
+Philippines and U.S.—Variations in
+Tying Process—How Dyed—Tied
+and Discharged Work.</td>
+<td></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter XV—STENCILS AND STENCILLING</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="wd8e"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Japanese Practice—U.S. Practice—Knives,
+Brushes, Paper, etc.—Colors
+for Leather, Silk, and Cotton—Stencilling
+with Aniline Black Paste.</td>
+<td></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter XVI—RESIST AND DISCHARGE
+STENCILLING</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="wd8e"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Japanese Practice—Resist Paste and
+the Sulphur Colors—Discharge Stencilling
+with Bleaching Powder and
+Hydrosulphite.</td>
+<td></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter XVII—BATIK OR WAX RESIST</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_241">241</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="wd8e"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Javanese Practice—Modern Practice
+and Apparatus—Dyeing of Batiked
+Goods—Use of Batik Process on Cotton,
+Linen, Silk, Leather, Wood, Bone,
+etc.</td>
+<td></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl hang30" colspan="2">Chapter XVIII—THE INFLUENCE OF THE
+WAR UPON THE DYESTUFF
+INDUSTRY</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_260">260</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="wd8e"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Rise of the German Dyestuff Monopoly—Ruin
+of the English Dyestuff
+Industry—Dyestuff Industry in
+the United States—Changed Conditions
+Due to the War—Lists of Best
+Dyestuffs.</td>
+<td></td></tr>
+</table>
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[vii]  </span>
+
+
+<p class="center noindent fs110 p2">THE ILLUSTRATIONS  </p>
+
+
+<p class="center noindent fs110 p2">PLATES IN COLOR  </p>
+
+<table class="toctable wd90">
+
+<tr>
+<td colspan="3"></td>
+<td class="tdrb"><span class="fs60">PLATE</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt wd5">I</td>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="1"> Indigo dyed batik from Madras</td>
+<td class="tdrb" colspan="2"><a href="#plate1"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td colspan="1"></td>
+<td class="tdrb" colspan="3"><span class="fs60">FACING PAGE</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">II</td>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Japanese towelling, showing impression of fresh damp
+leaves</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate2">26</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">III</td><td class="tdl" colspan="2"> 
+ Same towelling after immersion in iron spring</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate3">30</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">IV</td>
+<td class="tdl" >  (<i>a</i>) Example of tied and dyed work<br>
+(<i>b</i>) Example of tied and discharged work </td>
+<td class="tdl fs200">}</td>
+<td class="tdrm"><a href="#plate4a">210</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">V</td><td class="tdl" colspan="2">  Japanese towelling stencilled in resist and dyed
+ by immersion in iron spring</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#plate4b">230</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p class="center noindent fs110 p2">ILLUSTRATIONS IN HALF-TONE </p> 
+
+<table class="toctable wd90">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt fs60">FIG.</td>
+<td colspan="3"></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt wd5">1</td>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Shellfish used by the ancients for Tyrian purple</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig1">12</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt" ></td>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2">Sir W. H. Perkin</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#WGPerkin">42</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">2</td>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2">  Tied and dyed headdress from an Inca tomb in Peru</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig2">192</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">3</td>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2">  Shikar chundri, from Rajputana, with knots still untied</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig3">196</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">4</td>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2">  Same chundri untied and shaken out</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig4">198</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">5</td>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2">  Bagobo headdress from the Island of Mindanao</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig5">200</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">6</td>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2">  Sample of tied and dyed work, “tied on itself”</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig6">202</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">7</td>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2">  Sample of tied and dyed work, “tied in bands”</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig7">204</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">8</td>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2">  Tied and dyed work—Folding the cloth</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig8">206</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">9</td><td class="wd8e"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Starting to tie</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig9">206</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">10</td><td class="wd8e"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Centre portion tied</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig10">206</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">11  </td><td class="wd8e"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Centre and corners tied</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_p208a">208</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">12</td><td class="wd8e"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Dyed, untied and shaken out</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_p208a">208</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">13</td>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Japanese stencil knife</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig13">212</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">14</td>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Japanese stencil brushes</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig14">212</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">15</td>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Japanese stencil, showing holes punched by hand tool</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig15">216</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_viiii">[viii]</span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">16</td>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Japanese stencil, showing use of stops</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_p216a_2">216</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">17</td>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Japanese stencil, showing use of sewing instead of stops</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#i_p216a_2">216</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">18</td>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Japanese stencils, showing use of both stops and net</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig18">218</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">19</td>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Large and handsome Japanese stencil, showing use of net</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig19">224</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">20</td>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> “Teapot” model of tjanting</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig20">248</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">21</td>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Walther glass tjanting</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig21">248</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">22</td>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> “Wax pencil” model of tjanting</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig22">248</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">23</td>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> Javanese tjantings</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig23">250</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt">24</td>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2"> American modification of Javanese tjanting</td>
+<td class="tdrb"><a href="#fig24">250</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<p class="center noindent fs110 p2">DIAGRAMS IN THE LETTERPRESS</p> 
+
+<table class="toctable wd90">
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt wd5"></td><td class="tdl">Primary Colors</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdrt wd5"></td><td class="tdl">Mixed Colors</td>
+<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[1]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE</h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">When</span> a new text-book is offered to an innocent and
+long-suffering public about such an ancient subject as
+Dyes and Dyeing, it is, perhaps, the very least that
+the author can do, to explain briefly his reasons for
+hoping that his particular book may prove of some
+special usefulness.</p>
+
+<p>As a matter of fact this book is intended for the use
+of craftsmen and others who are trying to dye and
+stain textiles by hand and on a small scale, rather than
+for professional dyers or dyeing chemists who are interested
+in factory dyeing, conducted on a large scale.
+For the latter there is little or no difficulty in getting
+any information that they desire, either from the
+large and carefully written text-books or, still better,
+from the many excellent dyeing manuals and books of
+directions issued at frequent intervals by the great
+color houses.</p>
+
+<p>But for craftsmen and their like, the amateur dyers
+as opposed to the regular professionals, the required
+information is not easy to obtain. Their leaders and
+teachers, as a rule, profess a scorn of the wonderful
+discoveries which, in the last half century, have revolutionized
+the art of dyeing more, perhaps, than any
+other branch of handicraft. And the dyeing chemists
+and writers have devoted themselves almost exclusively
+to the far larger and more important and more profitable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[2]</span>
+field of commercial or professional dyeing, and
+only here and there is one found who has given any
+special attention to the dyes and processes needed by
+those working only on a small scale.</p>
+
+<p>For my own part, after teaching the principles and
+practice of modern dyeing to class after class of
+chemical students at Columbia, my attention was
+called to this particular branch of the subject by finding,
+one spring, that some friends had started a hand-weaving
+industry at a settlement house in which I was
+interested, but had not made any arrangement for a
+dyehouse at the same time. This was a serious omission
+because it is almost impossible to buy in the
+market raw materials for hand-woven rugs, table-covers,
+and the like, that are dyed just the right shade
+and, at the same time, are fast to both light and washing;
+and, unless this last is guaranteed, there is little
+or no excuse for charging the large prices necessary
+to pay for the extra expense of the hand labor.</p>
+
+<p>Wishing, therefore, to help out my friends, I offered
+to assist as far as possible in this part of the work.
+That summer was spent on the St. Lawrence, where
+it was possible to study some of the textile work of the
+French<i lang="fr">habitants</i> whose dyeing processes, designs, and
+looms had descended from mother to daughter since
+the old Colonial days; and in the autumn I fitted up
+a little dyehouse and started with a small but intelligent
+class of neighbors who were working at the
+looms.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, it was foolish to attempt to teach them
+the scientific chemical formulæ used by my students<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[3]</span>
+uptown. The processes must be short and simple—must
+give the desired shades on cotton, linen, wool,
+and silk in the course of an hour or an hour and a
+half at the outside, counting from the time when the
+class was called to order. And the colors must be absolutely
+fast to light, and, wherever possible, to washing
+also.</p>
+
+<p>The work was very interesting and proved successful
+enough, at least as far as the dyeing went. After
+a few months some visiting reporter, in an article on
+Greenwich House and its industries, mentioned the
+dyeing, in a magazine, and stated that the colors
+resulting were not only beautiful but fast. Immediately
+I was bombarded with letters from all over the
+country, begging for information about permanent dyestuffs
+to be used for hand-woven textiles. Requests
+came from friends and acquaintances to help them in
+various side branches of the subject, such as feather
+dyeing, leather dyeing and staining, stencilling, tied
+and dyed work, and, above all, Batik. And it soon
+became a source of much interest to look up some old
+process of dyeing, originating perhaps in the East,
+perhaps among the ancient Egyptians, and to work
+it out with the best modern dyestuffs.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, my correspondence grew so burdensome
+that I arranged with the well-known New York magazine,
+<i>The Craftsman</i>, for a series of articles upon
+“Modern Dyestuffs and Dyeing Processes for the
+Use of Craftsmen”; and from these articles the present
+book is a natural result.</p>
+
+<p>It is hoped that it will prove useful, not only for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[4]</span>
+individuals who are trying, under considerable difficulties,
+to get satisfactory results, by means of long-abandoned
+processes, upon textile materials of many
+sorts and kinds, but also for teachers of art in our
+public as well as private schools. Much attention is
+being given now to training the hands of children in
+various drawing and decorating and weaving processes.
+But the modern dyestuffs give a much greater opportunity
+to train their eyes to a sense of color and to its
+beauties, as well as giving them an introduction into
+an art which can be used at home for most useful as
+well as beautiful purposes.</p>
+
+<p>My hearty thanks are due to many friends, notably,
+to Mr. Philip Clarkson, head chemist of H. A. Metz
+&amp; Co., to Dr. Ludwig, of the Cassella Color Co., and
+to many other expert dyeing chemists, who have most
+kindly helped me with advice and information about
+many widely varying branches of the subject. Also to
+many of my craftsman friends, notably Mrs. C. L.
+Banks, of Bridgeport, Conn., and Mrs. Charlotte
+Busck, of this city, who have been of the greatest
+assistance in working out many of the problems involved
+in stencilling and Batik; and to Miss Mary Grey,
+of Hackettstown, N. J., who has kindly allowed me to
+insert an illustration of some of her interesting and
+well-designed tied work (Fig. <a href="#fig7">7</a>). It is my earnest
+hope that the information contained in this book may
+encourage and assist other craftsmen throughout the
+country to come up to the high standard of these
+skilled textile workers.</p>
+
+<p class="right">
+C. E. P.<br>
+</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[5]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_I">Chapter I<br>
+<span class="chapt_sub">INTRODUCTION</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">There</span> has been so much said and written about
+the beauty and value of the old-fashioned dyestuffs
+and dyeing processes and their superiority
+to the modern coloring matters, that many well-meaning
+people of artistic tastes have never ceased to
+deplore the discovery and introduction of the so-called
+aniline or coal-tar dyes, and to regard them as a serious
+detriment to the art of dyeing.</p>
+
+<p>Some, indeed, have gone so far as to decry the discoveries
+not only of the last fifty years, but also of
+the last nineteen or twenty centuries. These quote
+with approval the great John Ruskin, founder and
+original leader of the whole Arts and Crafts movement
+in England, if not in the world, as having said, “There
+has been nothing discovered of the slightest interest
+in the tinctorial art” (the art of dyeing) “since the
+days of the ancient Greeks and Romans.”</p>
+
+<p>To suppose for an instant that this important and
+highly specialized art has not advanced during nearly
+two thousand years is, on the face of it, absurd. A
+very little knowledge of dyestuffs forces recognition
+of the fact that many of the very best, fastest, and
+most beautiful of the dyes of our ancestors—such as
+cochineal, with which they dyed practically all of their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[6]</span>
+fast pinks and scarlets; logwood, with which silk as
+well as wool was, and is still dyed black; fustic,
+which was used for fast yellows on wool and cotton,
+and several others—were natives of America, and
+therefore only known to the world at large since the
+seventeenth century.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, as we shall see, the art of dyeing, based as
+it is on chemical processes, discovered one by one, but
+never properly explained or understood until the last
+sixty or seventy years, is, perhaps, the one art above
+all others in which not only the ancient world, but the
+world of comparatively a few years ago, was very distinctly
+inferior to that of the present day.</p>
+
+<p>In drawing, sculpture, painting, architecture, ceramics,
+wood-carving, lacemaking, metal working, and
+almost every other art that can be mentioned, the
+craftsman of the Middle Ages, if not indeed of ancient
+Rome or Greece, could still hold his place against
+modern competitors. Even in such a modern art as
+book printing, the lover of books will claim, with considerable
+reason, that no more beautiful or more
+nearly perfect specimen of the printer’s art has ever
+been produced than the Gutenberg Bible, the first
+product of the European printing press.</p>
+
+<p>The art of dyeing, however, has been changing and
+developing so much from century to century, that, even
+before the wonderful discoveries of the last fifty years,
+the effects produced by any one generation of dyers
+would have been totally impossible for their ancestors
+of a few generations before them.</p>
+
+<p>It would seem hardly worth while to dwell further<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[7]</span>
+upon this subject, were not the idea so fixed in the
+minds of craftsmen in general that to get permanent
+and artistic effects in dyeing we must go back to the
+colors of our ancestors, if not to those of the ancient
+world. To this day we hear of new industries being
+started in the lines of hand-made tapestries, hand-woven
+linens, homespun cloths, and the like, where,
+as a great inducement to prospective purchasers, the
+goods are loudly proclaimed as dyed with “pure vegetable
+colors”; and the first question commonly asked
+about a pretty piece of dyed work is, “Are you
+sure that it is fast? Did you use the vegetable
+dyes?”</p>
+
+<p>As a result of this ignoring and scorning of the
+wonderful results of modern science in its application
+to this most important industry, the work of
+textile craftsmen all over the world is far behind the
+times, and comparatively far behind other lines of
+craftwork.</p>
+
+<p>Nobody expects a modern sculptor to do his carving
+with the bronze tools used by the old Athenians;
+nor do we consider that the present day worker in
+metals should refrain from using the modern gas
+furnace, or limit his products to the few metals and
+alloys known in the Middle Ages, ignoring those which
+modern chemistry has developed. And yet, all over
+the world, craftsmen are still pottering with long since
+obsolete dyestuffs and obscure and antiquated formulæ,
+instead of spending their energies in getting, with
+the minimum expenditure of time and trouble, results
+of a quality never dreamed of by the most skilful
+dyers of half a century ago.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[8]</span></p>
+
+<p>As a matter of fact, so far from Mr. Ruskin’s
+estimate of the value of ancient dyes being correct,
+it is actually no more than fair to say that hardly a
+single dyeing process, known and used more than
+fifty years ago, is of the slightest practical importance
+now to any one.</p>
+
+
+<h3>DYES OF THE ANCIENTS</h3>
+
+<p>So far as we can tell, the art of dyeing is an extremely
+ancient one. It seems to have developed in
+every country and to have been practised by every race
+of mankind, as soon as that race ceased to rely exclusively
+upon the skins of fur-bearing animals for
+clothing and coverings. Wherever we find people
+using woven goods, whether vegetable, like cotton or
+linen, or animal, like wool or silk—or wherever, as
+in the case of the North American Indians, they have
+learned the art of dressing skins so as to make them
+soft, pliable, and with a comparatively smooth surface,
+we find at least the rudiments of the process of dyeing,
+in the staining of these materials to add to their beauty
+and interest.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Vegetable Dyes.</i>—The earliest dyes were probably of
+vegetable origin, discovered by accidentally staining
+garments with juices of fruits or plants. Thus, for
+instance, in the Bible we read of “garments dyed in
+the blood of grapes”; and we can all call to mind
+fruits in common use—blackberries, huckleberries,
+peaches, and the like, whose juice could be used, if
+nothing better presented itself, to dye or stain 
+light-colored fabrics.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[9]</span></p>
+
+<p>In most cases, as in those just mentioned, the colors
+would be fugitive, and after a short time become dull
+and uninteresting. But in the process of time vegetable
+dyes were discovered, in one part and another
+of the world, which, in the hands of those who knew
+how to work with them, gave colors both fast and
+beautiful. And thus grew and developed the art of
+the professional dyer.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, in many widely separated countries,
+such as India, Java, South and Central America, plants
+are found, known as<i lang="la">indigoferae</i>, whose juices, yellow
+when fresh, rapidly turn blue when exposed to the air.
+These juices impart a rich and permanent blue stain
+to objects moistened with them while they are still
+yellow; and this blue is the coloring matter known
+as indigo. The plants bearing it have been cultivated
+for hundreds, if not, indeed, thousands of years, and
+used for dyeing.</p>
+
+<p>Garments and blankets found in the so-called Inca
+graves in Peru and Chili, dating from long before
+the Spanish conquest, as well as the oldest specimens
+of Hindoo workmanship, and even some of the textiles
+found in the tombs of Egypt, all show examples of
+this same dyestuff. It was so valuable that, in small
+quantities and at vast expense, it was imported by the
+Romans from India, as is shown by its Latin name,
+Indicum (Indian), from which its present name, indigo,
+is directly derived.</p>
+
+<p>But, curiously enough, exactly the same dyestuff,
+but in a very impure form, and derived from an entirely
+different plant, the<i lang="la">isatis tinctoria</i>, commonly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span>
+known as<em>woad</em>, has been discovered and used in Western
+Europe from time immemorial. And when Julius
+Cæsar, nearly two thousand years ago, led a Roman
+army for the first time across the channel into England,
+he found the native Britons adorning themselves
+by smearing their bodies with a dirty blue dyestuff
+obtained from this source.</p>
+
+<p>So, little by little, the knowledge of these natural
+dyestuffs and their application grew and expanded.
+But as a matter of fact, so far at least as can be
+gathered from the old writers, those known and used
+by the ancient Greeks and Romans were few in number
+and of comparatively little interest.</p>
+
+<p>For blues they were obliged to use the inferior color
+derived, as above mentioned, from the native woad,
+excepting when, for some special purposes, a little
+indigo was imported from the East at enormous expense.</p>
+
+<p>Their principal yellow dyestuff was saffron, which
+is derived from the flowers of the common yellow
+crocus. This gives pleasant, warm shades of golden
+yellow, not fast, however, to either light or washing.
+This same saffron, though long since entirely abandoned
+as a dyestuff, is still used in small quantities for
+staining candy and foodstuffs, and occasionally for
+medicinal purposes.</p>
+
+<p>The ancients are believed to have discovered the
+dyeing properties of the roots of madder—<i>rubia tinctorum</i>—(the
+dyer’s root), and to have used it in small
+quantities for producing purple and brown and, possibly,
+even red shades, on cotton and wool. Whether,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span>
+however, the art of dyeing the brilliant crimson and
+scarlet shades known as Turkey red was ever worked
+out before the Middle Ages, is extremely doubtful.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Animal Dyes.</b>—Unquestionably the best red dyes
+known to the people of those early times were of
+animal origin, and were used for various shades of
+red and of purple.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Kermes.</i>—One of these, called kermes, is very closely
+related to the more important and, up to a few years
+ago, the very generally used, cochineal, and to the
+lac dye.</p>
+
+<p>These three dyestuffs—kermes, cochineal, and lac—come
+to the market in the form of little dark colored
+grains, which, when ground up with hot water, give
+a bright red solution called carmine, which contains
+a considerable amount of a coloring known as carminic
+acid. When wool or silk that has been previously
+<i>mordanted</i>—that is, impregnated with chemical
+agents; in this case salts of tin, aluminium, iron,
+or copper—is boiled in one of these solutions, it becomes
+scarlet, crimson, purple, or claret color, according
+to the mordant employed. From the appearance
+and form, as they come to market, of these dyestuffs,
+the shades thus derived are commonly known as the
+“grain colors.”</p>
+
+<p>When these granules are soaked for some time in
+warm water they swell, and their true character becomes
+apparent. They consist of the dried bodies of
+small insects, known as “cocci” (berries), which are
+carefully cultivated on particular kinds of trees or
+shrubs and when full grown are brushed off and dried<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[12]</span>
+for market. They are very small—the cochineal
+grains, which are the most important, running about
+70,000 to the pound.</p>
+
+<p>Kermes, which was the only one of the three known
+to the old Greeks and Romans, consists of the dried
+bodies of the “<i>coccus ilicis</i>,” a variety of the insect
+which lives on a species of oak, and which, it is said,
+is still occasionally used in Southern Europe, and in
+Morocco, for dyeing leather and wool.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Tyrian Purple.</i>—The most highly prized ancient dyestuff,
+and one concerning which much interest has
+always been felt, was the so-called “Tyrian purple.”
+This was obtained from the juices of certain species of
+snails found in the waters of the Mediterranean Sea,
+and, indeed, in the ocean waters of many other warm
+climates. Two species of this class—the<i lang="la">murex
+Brandaris</i> and the<i lang="la">murex trunculus</i>—were used extensively
+by the ancients, and great mounds of their
+shells, such for instance as the so-called Monte Testaccio
+at Tarentum, are still found along the shores
+at places famous, in old days, for their dyeing establishments.</p>
+
+<p>Other shellfish of the same general type, known
+as<i lang="la">purpura lapillus</i>, are found quite abundantly, not
+only in the Mediterranean, but also on our own coast
+and along the shores of Central and South America.
+They have been used by the natives in Nicaragua and
+elsewhere, from time immemorial, for obtaining a
+similar color.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig1" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p012a.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+<p class="noindent center">
+<i>Purpura lapillus</i>      <span class="padshell"><i>Murex trunculus</i></span>      <span class="padshell"><i>Murex Brandaris</i></span><br>
+</p>
+
+FIG. 1—SHELLFISH USED BY THE ANCIENTS FOR TYRIAN PURPLE</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>These shellfish were so much sought after in the
+old days that, by the time of the early Middle Ages,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span>
+they were almost exterminated, and the dye disappeared
+from commerce entirely. But, long before
+that, in the early days of the Roman Empire, the
+coloring matter was so expensive that fabulous sums
+were paid for cloth or yarns dyed with it, and its use
+was practically confined to the imperial family. In
+fact one of the imperial titles in the Eastern empire—<i>purpureogenitus</i>,
+“born to the purple”—was due to
+this fact.</p>
+
+<p>Some interesting information upon the value set on
+this dyestuff by the ancients is afforded by the so-called
+Edict of Diocletian, fragments of which, engraved on
+stone tablets, have been found in different parts of
+the old Roman Empire, ranging from Egypt to Asia
+Minor. By this edict, issued in <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span> 301, the emperor
+Diocletian attempted to fix the market price of the
+principal articles of commerce, for the Eastern empire.
+According to this, the price of wool, heavily dyed with
+this color, was worth about $350 a pound, in gold.</p>
+
+<p>The dyestuff, as we learn from the description of
+the process by ancient writers, was obtained from a
+whitish or yellowish liquid found, two or three drops
+at a time, in a particular vein in the body of these
+animals. This juice, when exposed to air and especially
+to sunshine, forms the purple or violet color,
+much in the some manner that the blue color of
+indigo is formed from the yellow juice of the indigo
+plant.</p>
+
+<p>The shellfish in question, having for many centuries
+been left undisturbed, are now quite common
+in the waters of the Mediterranean, and are occasionally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span>
+to be found in the poorer quarters of Venice
+and other Italian seaports, exposed for sale as food.</p>
+
+<p>A year or two ago a German color chemist, famous
+for his discovery of the brilliant and extremely permanent
+reddish violet dyestuff, known as Thio Indigo red
+B., made a careful investigation to see whether, by any
+chance, this color of his might happen to be the same
+as the famous old Tyrian purple.</p>
+
+<p>He managed to secure some twelve thousand specimens
+of<i lang="la">murex Brandaris</i>, and, with an immense
+amount of labor, obtained from these twelve thousand
+specimens about twenty-one grains of pure dyestuff.
+This he carefully analyzed and experimented
+with, until finally he was able to prove that, while
+it was not identical with his own Thio Indigo red
+dyestuff—which, as the name shows, is a compound
+of indigo and sulphur—the Tyrian purple was a similar
+compound of the same indigo dyestuff, with the
+comparatively rare acid element, bromine. In fact
+it is what the chemists would call a brom-indigo; and
+this same famous chemist, Dr. Friedlaender, of
+Biebrich on the Rhine, after discovering its composition,
+amused himself by manufacturing some of it
+artificially; and, with the artificial reproduction of
+the ancient Tyrian purple, he dyed some skeins of
+silk, as an illustration to his article detailing his discovery.</p>
+
+<p>Now, if there were any truth in the theory of the
+superlative value and beauty of these ancient dyestuffs,
+it is evident that this rediscovery of the true
+and genuine Tyrian purple would have been a matter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[15]</span>
+of great practical importance. On the assumption
+that one pound of dyestuff would color at least twenty
+pounds of wool, this would put the price of the dye
+itself, in Diocletian’s day, at a pretty high figure.</p>
+
+<p>It can now be manufactured, at a profit, for not
+over one one-thousandth of what it cost in those days,
+not allowing, either, for the difference in value of
+money between then and now. And yet this famous
+dye, which was so highly esteemed and of which so
+much has been written, is so inferior in color and
+tone to several of the modern dyestuffs that it probably
+would not pay to put it on the market. Dr.
+Friedlaender’s samples were, indeed, fast to both light
+and washing, but their color showed dull and, to
+modern eyes, distinctly uninteresting shades of violet.
+And there are already on the market several violet,
+red and blue dyes of the same general class—the indigo
+or vat dyes—which are quite as fast to light and
+washing, and far superior in beauty and brilliancy
+of shade.</p>
+
+<p>It is only proper, however, to state that Dr.
+Friedlaender’s investigation did not completely clear
+up the subject, though there is no question but that
+he really discovered the true Tyrian purple; and the
+color of the specimens dyed and exhibited by him
+corresponded very closely to some still surviving from
+antiquity.</p>
+
+<p>Among the fine collections of textiles from the
+Egyptian tombs that are in the Metropolitan Museum
+of Art in New York City, are some excellent examples
+of Tyrian purple. These are what the Greeks<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[16]</span>
+used to call “di-bapha,” or double dyed—i.e., dyed
+very deep, full shades of dark purple. While a wonderful
+example of the lighter, violet, shades of the
+same dye can be seen in a famous manuscript, known
+as “The Golden Gospels,” now in Mr. J. Pierpont
+Morgan’s collection in the same city, but which was
+given about 1520, by Pope Leo X to King Henry VIII.
+This was written, in golden characters, upon vellum
+dyed with Tyrian purple, and the shades of the latter
+correspond quite closely with the violet of the artificial
+brom-indigo compound.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand there is evidence to show that
+the ancients were also able to obtain, with the same
+Tyrian purple dye, perhaps from the shellfish<i lang="la">purpura
+lapillus</i>, fast and brilliant shades of scarlet, as well
+as these rather dull tones of violet and purple. In
+the days of the Roman Empire, as above mentioned,
+the use of “purple” garments was denied to all but
+the imperial family; but later, after the rise of the
+Christian Church, the ecclesiastics gained sufficient
+power to obtain this privilege for themselves. And
+to this day the cardinals of the Roman Catholic
+Church are called “porporati” on account of the
+“purple” or, as we would say, scarlet, color of their
+characteristic robes. So, whenever we see the red
+robes of a high dignitary of the church we are probably
+looking at one of the tints of the real old Tyrian
+purple, although the art of actually producing it has
+long since been lost; and, if rediscovered, would probably
+be of as little practical value as Dr. Friedlaender’s
+remarkable investigation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[17]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3>THE DYES OF OUR ANCESTORS</h3>
+
+<p>Between the days of the ancient Greeks and
+Romans, and the discovery of the first aniline dye
+in 1856, many and important additions were made
+to the list of available dyestuffs, some of which have
+continued in use, for special purposes, up to the present
+day.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Indian Dyes.</b>—The opening of trade to the Far East,
+due to the discovery of the sea route round the Cape
+of Good Hope, brought to Europe the free use of
+some of the Indian dyestuffs. Indigo, for instance,
+was introduced for the first time in considerable quantities,
+and, after much opposition, completely took the
+place of the much inferior native dyestuff, woad.</p>
+
+<p>For yellow, the old saffron dye was superseded by
+the more powerful, but still rather fugitive, turmeric,
+or Indian saffron. This came from the root of the
+<i>curcuma tinctoria</i>, a plant freely grown to this day in
+both India and China. The safflower was also imported
+from India; this is a kind of thistle,<i lang="la">carthamus
+tinctorum</i>, the dried heads of flowers of which were
+largely used for dyeing pretty shades of pink upon
+cotton,<em>directly</em>—that is, without any mordanting
+process. This color, too, is comparatively fugitive
+to light, and has almost disappeared from sight.</p>
+
+<p>Of more importance were the so-called red woods,
+which came partly from India and partly from the
+east and west coasts of Africa; and of which the most
+important are the sandal wood, bar wood, and cam
+wood. The wood of each of these trees probably<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span>
+contains the same coloring matter. The color is not
+very easy to extract, but when used with mordants
+of chromium, aluminium, or tin salts, it dyes wool
+various shades of red and reddish-brown. These
+colors are very fast to milling—in other words to
+the action of alkalies when the wool is finished in
+the manufacture of broadcloth; but they are not particularly
+fast to light, and for this reason, as well as
+because of their greater expense, they have been for
+the most part abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>From India, too, were introduced the well-known
+brown dyes known as cutch (catechu) and gambier.
+These come to the market in the form of dark colored
+pastes, formed by evaporating infusions of leaves,
+seed pods, nuts, and sometimes the wood of various
+species of acacia and areca trees. They contain large
+amounts of a peculiar variety of the substance known
+as tannin or tannic acid, which is widely distributed
+among many plants, and which is very useful in dyeing,
+as will be described later. The brown coloring
+matter has been isolated, and is called catechin. Both
+cutch and gambier will dye cotton and wool rich shades
+of brown, which are quite fast to light when after-treated
+with copper or chromium salts.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Dyes from the New World.</b>—The discovery of America,
+and the colonizing and opening to trade of South
+America and the West Indies, in the sixteenth and
+seventeenth centuries, still further enlarged the field
+for dyers.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Cochineal.</i>—One of the first dyes introduced from
+there was cochineal, a “grain color,” similar to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[19]</span>
+kermes, already described, consisting of the dried
+bodies of an insect known as<i lang="la">coccus cacti</i>, because it
+lives upon certain kind of cactus which are native
+to Mexico and Central America.</p>
+
+<p>This dyestuff was largely used for dyeing wool
+and silk goods, and produced fairly fast shades of
+crimson or of scarlet, according to the mordant employed.
+But it has been replaced almost entirely
+now by the various acid dyes, to be described later,
+which are cheaper, are much easier to apply, and are
+of equal and, in many cases, of much greater, fastness
+to light.</p>
+
+<p>One of the few cases where cochineal is still used
+on a large scale is in England, where the scarlet
+coats of the British regulars are dyed with this color,
+on a tin mordant. It is believed, however, that this
+is not due to any real or fancied superiority of the
+old dye over many of the modern colors, but simply
+to the terms of an old “perpetual” contract, which,
+a hundred and fifty years or more ago, gave the
+privilege of dyeing the English “redcoats” to one
+particular firm and their successors, on condition that
+they use this dye and none other. Although both
+dyers and government would profit by the use of
+modern dyes, the terms of the old contract are still
+rigidly adhered to for fear of losing the monopoly.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Lac Dye.</i>—The similar dyestuff called lac dye, which
+had been known and used in India for hundreds of
+years, was introduced into Europe towards the end of
+the eighteenth century. It also is the body of a small
+insect, the<i lang="la">coccus laccae</i>, which lives on the twigs of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span>
+the banyan tree, and other varieties of fig trees.
+When these twigs are broken off and dried to kill
+the insect, there is found present on them, along with
+the coloring matter, a large amount of a peculiar
+resinous or gummy substance, which, when extracted
+and purified, is known and widely used, as “shellac.”</p>
+
+<p>Lac dye was used in practically the same way as
+cochineal, and produced, upon wool, scarlet, orange,
+and crimson shades, which were faster and more solid,
+but not as brilliant, as the cochineal. It is now used
+but rarely, even in the East, having been largely superseded,
+there, by brilliant but, unfortunately, in many
+cases, cheap and worthless modern dyestuffs.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Fustic.</i>—From America, also, came the excellent yellow
+dyestuff, “fustic,” yielded by the tree commonly
+called yellow wood, Cuba wood, etc. Its true botanical
+name, however, is<i lang="la">chlorophora tinctoria</i>, and it
+was largely used for dyeing, either directly in the
+form of chips, or as a solid or liquid extract made
+from the wood.</p>
+
+<p>It was principally used with mordants of aluminium
+or tin salts, for dyeing wool bright, fast shades of
+yellow, or, with the aid of bichromate of potash as
+a mordant, for obtaining mixed shades, in conjunction
+with indigo, cutch, madder, and logwood. It
+has been almost entirely replaced now by fast modern
+dyestuffs.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Logwood.</i>—The most important of all these dyestuffs,
+and the only one still used on a large scale, is logwood,
+a dye extracted from the wood of quite a large tree,
+the<i lang="la">haematoxylon Campechianum</i> (the “blood-red<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span>
+wood from Campeachy”), which grows freely in the
+West Indies and Central American states.</p>
+
+<p>It was discovered and used by the Spaniards early
+in the sixteenth century, and in Queen Elizabeth’s
+reign was introduced into England, much against the
+wishes of the older school of dyers who furiously
+denounced it as producing fugitive colors, and had its
+use prohibited by Act of Parliament. It was over a
+hundred years before the real value of the dyestuff
+was appreciated, and this law was repealed.</p>
+
+<p>The operation of extracting the coloring matter
+from the wood itself, of which it forms only some
+three per cent. by weight, is a troublesome and delicate
+one. The logs are chipped or rasped into fine pieces,
+then moistened and piled in heaps and the color developed
+by a process of fermentation. Accordingly,
+extracts of logwood have been put on the market by
+various large firms, especially of late years, and, while
+the use of the wood itself by dyers has for the most
+part been abandoned, these extracts are widely used
+for dyeing blacks upon silk, in spite of there now
+being many excellent acid blacks.</p>
+
+<p>The dyeing process, too, is rather complicated, for
+the goods must be carefully mordanted before dyeing,
+with salts of iron, chromium, or tin. For this reason
+wool is rarely dyed with logwood. It is, however,
+still used for silk dyeing, partly because it gives very
+full, deep, permanent shades of black, but principally
+because, by using one mordant after another before
+dyeing, it is possible to increase enormously the weight
+of the dyed silk, at very moderate expense.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span></p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Turkey Red.</i>—The use of madder which, as before
+mentioned, was probably known to the ancients, was
+greatly developed during the sixteenth and seventeenth
+centuries, owing to the introduction from the near
+East of the so-called Turkey red process for obtaining,
+upon cotton and wool, very fast and very brilliant
+shades of scarlet.</p>
+
+<p>The process took some three months, and consisted
+of an elaborate series of mordanting operations, before
+the dyeing proper began. The goods were first
+soaked in a bath of some fatty material, such as
+milk or, later, rancid olive oil, and then dried carefully.
+After this they were soaked in a bath of alum
+and then in limewater, or a chalk bath—and these
+operations were repeated over and over, with various
+manipulations in between.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, the mordanted material was dyed by boiling
+it in a bath containing the finely-ground madder
+root, and then “brightened” by washing out, in a
+boiling soap bath, all the loose color and the unfixed
+mordant. This process was repeated until the proper
+shade was reached.</p>
+
+<p>During the early part of the nineteenth century,
+various extracts of madder were made, by treating the
+ground root with strong sulphuric acid and other
+agents, which destroyed the woody tissues and other
+inert matter, without injuring the coloring matter.
+The dyeing process also was greatly simplified and
+shortened. Later the real active principles of the
+madder root were investigated, and found to be two
+crystalline bodies named alizarine and purpurine, respectively.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span>
+And finally, several years after aniline
+dyestuffs had been discovered and manufactured, two
+German chemists, Graebe and Liebermann, discovered
+a method for making these very identical substances
+out of coal tar.</p>
+
+<p>Since that time the cultivation and use of madder
+has disappeared almost entirely. But real Turkey red
+is manufactured to-day, and in very large quantities—and,
+though freely imitated by inferior products, the
+modern Turkey red is just as fast to light and to washing
+as it ever was in the past, and possesses a brilliance
+and a lustre which never could have been obtained
+formerly. The process, however, is completed now
+in hours, not days, and instead of yielding a few shades
+of red and purple, the alizarine colors have been added
+to until they cover a large range of blues, purples,
+reds, oranges, yellows, and browns, all of them as
+fast as the original Eastern products, and all of them
+made from coal tar.</p>
+
+<p>The dyes already mentioned were the ones which,
+after hundreds of years of experiment, proved to be
+of distinct value. Many of them were expensive in
+themselves and, in almost every case, the process of
+dyeing with them was a quite complicated one, worked
+out by generations of practical dyers, and passed down
+from father to son as a precious trade secret.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these there were, in almost every community,
+certain special formulæ and recipes for obtaining,
+by comparatively simple methods, dyes of
+varying degrees of value from more or less common
+vegetable materials. Some of these are occasionally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[24]</span>
+met with to this day. Thus, in the province of Quebec,
+well down on the St. Lawrence, the French
+Canadian women still dye their homespun worsteds
+an orange shade of yellow, of very moderate fastness
+to light, by boiling them with the skins of the yellow
+or brown onions. And they get a pretty, but fugitive,
+shade of golden yellow by using the dried flowers of
+the goldenrod.</p>
+
+<p>Some recipes from the mountain districts of North
+Carolina, where the sheep are raised and sheared, and
+the wool carded, spun, dyed, and woven into homespun,
+are unique, and wool dyed with them shows
+extremely good color. Thus, for green, we are told
+to “Git blackjack or black oak bark, and bile it right
+good, and put in a li’l piece of alum. This makes
+the pur’tiest green, mighty nigh, that ever was.” And
+for purple and black the instructions are to “git
+maple bark and bile it. Throw in a grain of copperas
+and put in your wool. Bile it just so long if you
+want purple, and longer if you want black. The
+longer you bile it the darker it gits.”</p>
+
+<p>Recipes like these can be picked up in country districts
+all over the land to this day, and where no
+other coloring agents can be obtained, they may still
+be of some use. They are to be compared, however,
+to the somewhat similar recipes of the herb or “yarb”
+doctor, now almost extinct, who concocted various
+brews and teas and messes from roots and leaves, and
+administered them as valuable remedies.</p>
+
+<p>Useful these brews undoubtedly were in their day,
+when it was impossible to get better medicines at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span>
+any price, and the available drugs, even in large cities,
+were few and costly and but little understood. But
+who of us would now prefer to treat a serious illness
+with herb tea when within reach of even a third-class
+drug store?</p>
+
+<p>And so to-day, when modern dyestuffs, even if not
+of the very best varieties, can be bought in packages
+at the nearest grocery or druggist, who has time to
+waste upon the laborious processes and messy, uncertain
+formulæ of former and unscientific ages?</p>
+
+
+<h3>MINERAL DYES</h3>
+
+<p>Tribes and nations in different parts of the world
+seem, at a comparatively early date, to have found
+out the art of coloring and staining textiles with
+mineral compounds. Iron springs, containing iron
+salts in solution, are found in many countries; and
+such springs are always noteworthy from the taste
+of the waters, and the color of the sediments left
+when the water stands exposed to the air.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore discovery of the fact that those waters
+would impart a permanent and quite pleasing orange
+or reddish-brown color to textiles was perfectly natural.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Iron Buff.</b>—Accordingly, in different parts of the
+world, people learned to dip cloths in these springs
+and then expose them to the air, thus dyeing them this
+iron rust color, commonly called by dyers “iron
+buff.” When iron became a common metal, it was
+found that any soluble salt of iron would act as a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[26]</span>
+dyeing solution, just as well as a natural iron spring;
+and hence we find use made, in widely separated
+countries, of iron salts for dyeing.</p>
+
+<p>This iron buff is used to this day, though of course
+it has lost the importance it had in the past. The
+red sails of the fishermen in the Mediterranean show
+this color; and it is a useful and interesting dye for
+weavers of hand-made rugs, curtains, and the like,
+because of its pleasing tone and great permanence.
+On the other hand, it is very likely to rub; and it
+fills the fibre of the cloth with mineral matter, thereby
+making the material stiff and hard to sew or cut.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Preparation.</i>—Our colonial ancestors made this color
+cheaply enough. They carefully saved all the scraps
+of iron and steel that they could find—old horseshoes,
+broken knife blades, etc., etc.—and placed them in a
+barrel half filled with vinegar and water. Little by
+little the iron dissolved in the acid and, when it was
+strong enough, the housewife would soak her homespun
+cloth, or other material, in the solution, warming
+and stirring it, and making it absorb as much of the
+liquor as possible. Then she would take it out, wring
+it thoroughly, rinse it slightly, and dip it for a minute
+or two in another barrel half filled with a water extract
+of wood ashes.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp40" id="plate2" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p026a.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">PLATE II. JAPANESE TOWELLING, SHOWING IMPRESSION
+OF FRESH DAMP LEAVES</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>After removing from the solution and wringing
+again, the goods were shaken out and exposed to the
+air for some minutes, during which time the color
+would develop—in other words, would make its final
+change to yellow or orange, or even to brownish-red,
+according to the amount of iron absorbed by the fibre.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span></p>
+
+<p>The process, nowadays, is much the same, excepting
+that, for the first or iron bath, it is cheaper and
+easier to use a solution of the green crystalline iron
+salt, known as copperas, or as<i lang="la">ferrous</i> (iron)<i lang="la">sulphate</i>.
+This can be obtained at, or through, any drug store
+at a very low price, as it is not necessary to buy a
+chemically pure product. The ordinary commercial
+salt is as pure as the work requires; this dissolves
+quite readily in warm water.</p>
+
+<p>The amount of copperas to be used, to dye a particular
+lot of material a particular shade, can only
+be determined by experience and experiment. It is
+always easy to build up a color, i.e., to deepen its
+shade if it is too light, by dipping the fabric over
+again in the same dye-bath. Indeed there is a general
+rule to be observed in dyeing all colors like this iron
+buff or the manganese brown—as well as the sulphur
+and indigo colors, which will be described later—that
+are developed, or fixed, by exposure to the air. Whenever
+dark shades of these colors are desired, they
+should be produced by successive dippings in weak
+baths, rather than by one or two dippings in strong
+baths. This avoids rubbing, as far as possible, and
+lessens the injury to the cloth fibre. In general, it is
+best to start with a dye-bath containing some three
+or four tablespoonfuls of copperas to one gallon of
+hot water.</p>
+
+<p>For the second, or fixing, bath—that is, the alkali
+bath—it is now customary to use a solution of soda
+instead of the extract made from wood ashes. Either
+cooking soda (bicarbonate of soda) or the stronger<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span>
+washing soda or soda crystals, known to the chemist
+as carbonate of soda, will be satisfactory, and instead
+of soda the corresponding potash salts may be
+used, though these are usually more expensive. It is
+possible, too, to use a bath of the so-called caustic
+soda, or caustic potash, known to the chemist as
+hydroxide of soda and hydroxide of potash. But
+these, as the name implies, must be handled with care
+because, when strong, they are likely to burn the
+hands and clothes. Careful analyses of dyed mummy
+cloths show that the ancient Egyptians were accustomed
+to use for their second or fixing bath, a solution
+of slaked lime, or lime water.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Khaki.</i>—By mixing in the first bath of copperas or
+other iron salt an equal quantity of chrome alum, and
+then fixing and developing as above, a certain amount
+of greenish chromium oxide is deposited in the fibre
+along with the oxide of iron. This gives rise to the
+shade known as “khaki.” Sometimes shaded a little
+with manganese brown, this was the regular dye for
+the army uniforms, until the recent introduction of
+the extremely fast and very satisfactory vat dyes.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Uses.</i>—Iron buff is chiefly used for cotton, linen, and
+other vegetable fabrics; on them it gives pleasant,
+warm shades of orange and reddish-brown. But on
+wool, and especially on silk, it is not so satisfactory,
+owing to its tendency to roughen and injure the fibre.
+Indeed, in the case of silk, it is likely to greatly diminish,
+or even to destroy, the lustre. On cotton and
+linen, however, it has great fastness to light and to
+washing. Indeed, every one who has tried to get rust<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span>
+stains out of a garment or a piece of table linen knows
+how hard a matter it is to get rid of the color.</p>
+
+<p>Another important reason for using this dye is
+that the coloring agents are very cheap, and are easily
+obtained in any quantities. It has, however, some
+serious disadvantages, one of which is that the color,
+especially in dark shades, is very liable to rub. This
+can best be obviated by building up the shades with
+successive dippings; and by thoroughly washing the
+finished goods in a hot soap bath. The dyed goods
+are pretty certain to be a little stiff, and therefore hard
+to sew or cut, owing to the fact that the final color
+is composed of iron rust. When vegetable fibres are
+filled with a mineral matter they are naturally stiffer
+and harder than they were originally.</p>
+
+<p>Then there is the final objection on the part of professional
+dyers to this color, as well as to all the other
+developed colors, i.e., those colors fixed by exposure
+to the air. It is not easy to get a smooth, even color
+with them, and it is very difficult to dye to shade.
+For handicraft work, where these two points are of
+minor importance as compared with the beauty of the
+color, this objection is not so serious, but where it is
+necessary to dye large amounts of yarn or cloth to a
+definite shade with this, or similar, dyes, it is, as a rule,
+far easier to use a dyestuff which does not materially
+change its shade after the goods leave the dye-bath.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Iron Grey.</i>—Soon after the discovery, in different
+localities, of the iron buff color, it was discovered that
+by the action of various vegetable extracts upon the
+iron salts, dark grey stains could be produced which,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span>
+under certain conditions, would be fairly fast to light
+and washing.</p>
+
+<p>This color was, later, found to be due to the combination
+with iron of the peculiar vegetable acid called
+tannic acid or tannin. This is found in small quantities
+in the juices of twigs and leaves of many varieties
+of plants, and, until the introduction of the modern
+dyestuffs, this process offered the chief method of
+obtaining grey or black shades upon cotton. At present
+it is rarely, if ever, used for that purpose, but
+the compound is still the basis of most of the writing
+inks on the market.</p>
+
+<p>To make this color, the cloth is soaked for some
+time in a solution of an iron salt—nitrate of iron,
+formed by boiling a solution of copperas for a minute
+or two with a few drops of nitric acid, is preferable
+to the untreated copperas—and then, after being
+wrung and slightly rinsed, it is plunged into a bath
+containing tannic acid. This can be made by dissolving
+a few tablespoonfuls of the dry tannic acid in some
+water, or by making a hot infusion of the leaves,
+twigs, or bark of any plant or tree containing it. Tea
+leaves contain much tannin, and so do unripe English
+walnuts and butternuts. Acorns, oak leaves with nut
+galls on them, the green twigs of alders, and hazelnut
+bushes, have all been used to form this color.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp40" id="plate3" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p030a.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">PLATE III. SAME TOWELLING AS IN PLATE
+II, AFTER IMMERSION IN IRON SPRING. THE
+ROUND WHITE PATTERNS ARE MADE BY
+TIEING</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The grey color quickly develops and, after rinsing,
+the material can be dried and pressed, or dipped again
+to obtain a deeper shade, first into the iron and then
+into the tannin bath. The color is a pleasant, soft
+shade of grey or, if dyed deeply, a black. It is fast<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span>
+to washing, and fairly so to light, though it may become
+rusty on standing; like the iron buff, it is not
+fast to acids.</p>
+
+<p>Some interesting examples of the dyeing of cotton
+cloth with iron buff and iron grey are shown in
+Plate <a href="#plate1">I</a>. They came from the mineral springs at
+Arima, near Kobe in Japan, where the waters are so
+saturated with iron salts, that comparatively short immersion,
+and exposure to air, will bring out a deep
+orange shade. The Japanese, not content with dyeing
+their goods plain colors, have for many generations
+utilized these springs in the production of figures
+and designs on the cloth. Plate <a href="#plate5">V</a> is an example
+of stencil work, where the white patterns are made
+by covering parts of the cloth with a “resist paste”
+which protects whatever it is in contact with from
+the action of the coloring agent.</p>
+
+<p>Plate <a href="#plate2">II</a> shows a piece of soft calico on which
+impressions of leaves have been made by placing
+fresh juicy leaves between two pieces of cloth, and
+beating them with wooden mallets.</p>
+
+<p>Plate <a href="#plate3">III</a> shows the same piece of cloth as in Plate
+<a href="#plate2">II</a>, after immersion in the iron spring, and exposure to
+air. The tannin from the leaf juice converts some
+of the iron oxide into iron grey; while the white figures
+are made by tying the cloth with string or tape
+(Tied and Dyed work) before dyeing it.</p>
+
+<p>So far as we can tell, these two were the only
+mineral colors known to the ancients. Several other
+mineral colors, however, were in common use by the
+cotton dyers in the days preceding the introduction<span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span>
+of modern dyestuffs, but it is hardly worth while to
+dwell here on many of them. Yellow and orange
+shades were obtained by impregnating cloth with lead
+salts, and then developing with a bath of chromate
+or bichromate of potash, with more or less caustic
+alkali added for the darker shades.</p>
+
+<p>Prussian blue, too, was used as a substitute for the
+more expensive indigo. This was formed by using
+the nitrate of iron for the first bath, and then developing
+the color with a bath of yellow prussiate (<i>ferrocyanide</i>)
+of potash. These colors, however, are so
+far inferior in their application, and in fastness to
+light and to rubbing, to the colors now at our command,
+that they have disappeared entirely for textile
+work, though they are still widely used for pigments.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Manganese Bronze (Manganese Brown, Bistre).</b>—There
+is one good mineral color, however, which came
+into use early in the last century and which, while
+hardly ever used by professional dyers, is of interest
+to craftsmen. This color, in its chemical composition,
+greatly resembles the iron buff. It is quite cheaply
+produced by first impregnating the cloth to be dyed
+with a solution of a manganese salt (<i>manganese chloride</i>
+is the cheapest), and then, by means of a second
+bath of alkali, forming a deposit on the fibre of pink
+<i>manganese hydroxide</i>—corresponding to the greenish
+<i>ferrous hydroxide</i>—which, on exposure to the air,
+absorbs oxygen and forms the final brown color.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately the alkali used in this case must be
+caustic alkali—<i>potassium hydroxide</i> or<i lang="la">sodium hydroxide</i>—and
+not one of the mild alkalies like the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span>
+carbonates or bicarbonates, which will do for the iron
+color. And, therefore, although it is rather more
+expensive, and is somewhat liable to weaken the fabric,
+it is generally more convenient to obtain this color
+by a one-bath process. A purple solution of the salt
+known as<em>permanganate of potash</em>, is prepared and
+the cloth dipped. After being immersed it is wrung
+carefully and shaken out, and the red or purplish
+color gradually changes into the final brown. As soon
+as this change has taken place the goods should be
+plunged into a hot soap bath and thoroughly scoured,
+both to remove any loosely adhering particles of color
+which cause rubbing, and to prevent tendering of the
+cloth.</p>
+
+<p>The latter danger, however, is always present with
+this process and, therefore, full shades should not be
+dyed excepting on heavy, strong goods like rugs or
+very coarse yarns or cloth. Even then it should be
+done carefully and by successive dippings, with a careful
+washing, after the color has been developed in the
+air, between each bath.</p>
+
+<p>This injury to the cloth which, hitherto, has been
+the great drawback to the permanganate process, can
+be avoided by dipping the goods, as soon as possible
+after leaving the dye-baths, into a solution containing
+glucose, as, for instance, two or three spoonfuls of
+Karo (corn syrup) or molasses in each gallon of hot
+water. Directly the purple-stained cloth touches this
+solution the color changes to brown, without affecting
+the strength of the materials.</p>
+
+<p>This color, like the other mineral colors, is rarely,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span>
+if ever, to be used on silk, being altogether too likely
+to injure the texture and the lustre of the material.</p>
+
+<p>In at least one instance, however, it has been used
+on animal fibres with considerable success. During
+the critical part of the Boer war, it was at one time
+necessary for England to put as many of her troops
+as possible—especially her mounted troops—into the
+field. Among others the Scots Greys, distinguished
+at Waterloo and made famous in many other bloody
+campaigns as a fine old fighting regiment, were ordered
+to the front. There is a tradition, dating back
+over two hundred years, that the horses of this regiment
+must all be either white or grey in color. Some
+heaven-sent genius at the Horse Guards—the English
+War Department—hinted quite forcibly to the
+authorities that to send out a cavalry regiment on
+white horses to face the Boer sharpshooters, was
+rather a dangerous experiment. The authorities,
+therefore, consulted a well-known dyeing chemist.
+He advised them to send down, on the troopship,
+some kegs of permanganate; and to instruct the officers
+and men to sponge each horse with a weak solution
+of the salt, every day at “Stables.” This was
+done, and, in consequence, long before reaching Cape
+Town, the skin and hair of every horse was thoroughly
+colored a soft, quiet shade of brown.</p>
+
+<p>The color produced by permanganate varies, according
+to the strength of the solution, or rather with the
+number of dips in comparatively weak solutions, from
+a light brownish tan to a full, rich, soft, seal brown.
+Pleasant shades, too, can be obtained by dyeing first<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span>
+with the iron rust dye and then covering with the
+permanganate. This color is discharged, not only
+from textiles but from the hands, by soaking in a
+solution of<i lang="la">sodium hydrosulphite</i> (commonly used in
+dyeing indigo) and then washing.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PRACTICAL DYEING</h3>
+
+<p>Before proceeding to the practical dyeing instruction
+it is well to say a few words about the equipment
+needed for the work.</p>
+
+<p>Fortunately no elaborate or expensive outfit is necessary,
+even for the beginner. And after one has had
+a little experience, it is astonishing what an amount
+of interesting, and even important work can be turned
+out with a few of the very simplest utensils. The
+essentials may be set down as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p class="noindent">
+Dye-pots.<br>
+Heating devices.<br>
+Stirring rods, or dye-sticks.<br>
+Wringers.<br>
+Drying arrangements.<br>
+</p>
+</div>
+<p class="noindent"><i>Dye-pots.</i>—For this purpose, common agateware
+vessels are best and most convenient. There should
+be varying sizes to accommodate different amounts of
+material to be dyed. The so-called “miner’s cups,”
+which are agateware cups holding a pint or more, are
+large enough for practical work, when single skeins
+are being dyed. For large pieces use the wash boilers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span>
+which vary in capacity from one to five gallons. It
+is always best, especially for amateurs, to dye in one
+batch enough material to complete the work on hand,
+whether rug, portière, or piece of tapestry. This
+avoids the necessity of exactly matching the shade
+afterward.</p>
+
+<p>For three and a half to four pounds of cotton
+rags, such as are used in making rag carpets, three and
+one-half gallon pots are about the right size. This
+amount of material will be about enough for the filling
+for one rug about 6×4 feet, woven on a hand loom.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Heating Devices.</i>—Work may be done over any
+flat-topped stove that burns wood or coal; gas is, of
+course, an advantage and so is an oil stove, as with
+these the heat may be regulated very exactly and
+much time saved. For actual work, a stove with
+space for four or five pots is the most convenient type
+to use.</p>
+
+<p>There should always be one large pot set aside for
+heating water, another for boiling out the raw goods,
+and still a third for boiling out and brightening the
+finished materials with soap, when very fast colors
+are used on cotton or linen; and each of these pots
+should be reserved for its special purpose and<em>not used</em>
+for dyeing. This will avoid the danger of staining
+the goods.</p>
+
+<p>The top of a kitchen range will do for heating,
+but whenever possible, it is best to have a separate
+stove, so placed that the top of it will not be more
+than about twenty-four inches from the ground or
+floor. This enables the operator to look down into<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[37]</span>
+the dye-pot and so avoid strain, and the consequent
+excessive fatigue while stirring the goods.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Stirring Rods.</i>—While the material is being dyed, it
+should be kept in constant motion. When working
+with small amounts of material, or with goods such
+as straw, raffia, muslin, or silk in skeins, which are
+delicate and easily spoiled, it is far more satisfactory
+in every way to use heavy glass rods for stirring.
+These are rather expensive. They are about fifteen
+inches in length and well rounded at the ends.
+If carefully handled and thoroughly washed, they are
+always clean and smooth. Care must, of course, be
+exercised in their use, as sudden variations of heat
+and cold may cause them to crack or chip, and lifting
+or stirring large quantities of heavy materials—anything
+above five pounds—is liable to break them. In
+these cases, it is best to use wooden dye-sticks.
+Broomsticks or dowel sticks, cut into two-foot lengths,
+with the ends rounded carefully by whittling with a
+sharp penknife, are excellent substitutes. For careful
+work it is necessary to have several sets of wooden
+dye-sticks—two for each main color at least—and
+these must be carefully washed each time after using,
+or they will stain cloth that is being dyed light shades.
+They are bound to get soft and rotten before very
+long, from the action of the alkali in the dye-baths,
+but they are easily replaced.</p>
+
+<p>Good rubber gloves are extremely useful while dyeing,
+to protect the hands not only from being stained
+and discolored by the dyes, but also from the action
+of the chemicals—especially while dyeing with indigo<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[38]</span>
+and other dyes wherein the caustic alkalies are employed.</p>
+
+<p>After some experience in the use of dye-sticks,
+however, it will be found comparatively easy to handle
+the materials, in and out of the dye-baths, with the
+sticks, without at any time taking hold of them with
+the hand. Nothing demonstrates more clearly the
+skill of the dyer than the ability to carry, immerse
+in the dye-bath, stir, take out, wring, and rinse the
+materials without getting stains on either clothes or
+fingers. On the other hand, the amount of slopping
+that can be accomplished by a careless, but enthusiastic,
+amateur must be lived with to be thoroughly
+appreciated.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Wringers.</i>—Both before and after dyeing it is very
+important to have at hand a good clothes wringer,
+preferably with metal frame. In fact, for very careful
+work there should be two wringers; one to wring
+out the raw materials after boiling them in soap and
+water, or, if clean, in plain water, to insure that they
+are thoroughly and evenly wet; and the other to wring
+out the excess of dye-liquor from the goods before
+rinsing, or, as in some cases, before hanging up to
+oxidize. The rubber rolls of these wringers should
+be kept clean by scouring with soap and sapolio
+immediately after finishing the day’s work, and by
+carefully rinsing free from dye-liquor.</p>
+
+<p>It is always well to keep on hand near the wringer
+a supply of clean blotting paper, or cheap filter paper,
+or even soft, dry cheesecloth or muslin. For by wrapping
+the materials that have just been dyed, in any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span>
+of these, and then running them backwards and forwards
+through the wringer, it is possible to dry them
+with a minimum of time and exposure. This is particularly
+important in the case of natural and artificial
+silks, either in skeins or scarfs, of ostrich feathers,
+and of other light and fragile materials.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Drying Arrangements.</i>—Sufficient room should be
+provided for hanging up the cloth to dry. An ordinary
+clothes-line, conveniently fastened, is the best
+means of support. For special purposes, where the
+material handled is very delicate or where the work
+is done in a classroom, a simple clothes-horse made
+of thick glass tubing, one inch or so in diameter and
+supported on a wooden frame, will occupy the least
+possible space and give the best support.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_II">Chapter II<br>
+<span class="chapt_sub">MODERN DYESTUFFS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> whole art and practice of dyeing was completely
+revolutionized once and forever, by the
+discovery in 1856 of the artificial dyestuff
+named mauveine, or, more commonly, mauve, a name,
+by the way, derived from the French name of the
+violet-colored mallow flower.</p>
+
+<p>The discovery was made accidentally, by a young
+chemical student, William Henry Perkin, while experimenting
+in a very crude and simple way, with a
+view to forming artificial quinine from a curious oily
+body known as aniline. This aniline was originally
+prepared by distilling indigo in a dry retort, and it
+had received its name from the native Javanese word
+“anil,” meaning indigo. While thus prepared it was,
+of course, very expensive. But about this time
+methods were invented for obtaining this same compound
+in practically unlimited quantities from coal
+tar—that heavy, foul-smelling refuse of gas works—which,
+up to that time, had been not only useless but
+actually a source of annoyance and expense to the gas
+companies.</p>
+
+<p>Perkin conceived the idea that, by partially burning
+or oxidizing it, this aniline might be changed into<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span>
+quinine. He made the experiment and there resulted
+a black molasses-like mass, very far removed from the
+white crystals he was hoping for. But by testing this
+with various chemicals, he found that hot alcohol dissolved
+part of it, and turned it into a violet liquid
+which had the power to dye silk and wool the same
+bright color. Finding that the color was fairly fast
+to light, and that it could be produced without too
+much expense, he took out a patent and, with the aid
+of his father and brother, set up near Manchester,
+England, the first factory for artificial dyestuffs.</p>
+
+<p>His discoveries were at once published, and chemists
+all over the world began to manufacture and
+experiment with the new dyestuffs. Great factories
+were started all over Europe. From this beginning
+the manufacture of coal-tar dyestuffs, and more recently
+all their allied compounds, has become one of
+the most important and most profitable of all chemical
+industries.</p>
+
+<p>The dyes first discovered, the so-called “Basic
+dyes,” were of great brilliancy and strength; but they
+were not of any particular beauty when used individually.
+Compared with the vegetable colors which
+preceded them, and especially the same shades we are
+accustomed to see in nature, these dyes were hard,
+coarse, crude, and very inartistic. This could be
+remedied, however, by mixing two or three of them
+together, such mixture tending to soften the different
+colors and blend all into pleasant and delicate shades.</p>
+
+<p>A more serious difficulty was the fact that those
+early dyestuffs were usually quite fugitive to light or,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span>
+at any rate, far less fast than the best of the vegetable
+dyes that preceded them. Besides, they did not
+fade true. In other words, a piece of cloth might to-day
+be a bright red, and after a few days of exposure
+to the sunlight, the exposed portions might turn a yellow,
+a white, or even some dark color; and, in any
+case, the change would entirely spoil the original color
+scheme.</p>
+
+<p>By 1868, however, the artificial manufacture of
+alizarine, first by two German chemists, and then by
+Perkin himself, served to open up another whole class
+of new dyestuffs, which, when submitted to the proper
+tests, proved to be exceedingly fast both to light and
+to washing. In consequence, within a few years after
+this discovery, the commercial use of madder was
+everywhere abandoned. Chemists could now produce
+on cotton, linen, wool, and silk, practically the whole
+range of colors, brilliant and dull, hard and soft, light
+and dark, not only of a beauty, but of a fastness to
+light and to washing, never before surpassed, if indeed
+equalled.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="WGPerkin" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p042a_1.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+<table class="autotable wd100">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdct wd50">AT THE AGE OF 14</td>
+
+<td class="tdct">AT THE AGE OF 22</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+</figcaption>
+</figure>
+<br>
+<figure class="figcenter illowp55" id="i_p042a_2" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p042a_2.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+
+<p class="hang1">AT THE TIME OF THE COAL-TAR
+COLOR JUBILEE—50 YEARS
+AFTER HIS DISCOVERY OF
+MAUVEINE</p><br>
+
+SIR W. H. PERKIN</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p class="p2">Since that time, not a year has gone by without
+scores of new dyestuffs being put on the market by
+some of the great color houses. Of late years special
+efforts have been made to simplify dyeing processes,
+and at the same time to insure the fastness as
+well as the beauty of the colors. At the present
+time it is possible for the veriest amateur, with
+practically no previous knowledge of chemistry or
+of dyeing, and with only intelligence enough to
+follow some simple directions, to get, in one bath,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span>
+with very little expenditure of time, an immense variety
+of shades that are exceedingly fast to light and
+to washing. A very few years ago this result could
+not possibly have been obtained, except by some expert
+dyer, and then only after long and tedious, as well as
+difficult, processes.</p>
+
+<p>We are all familiar with the constant complaint that
+it is now impossible to get goods dyed or printed in
+good, fast colors. For instance, take the brilliant scarlet
+calico commonly known as Turkey red. In the
+days of our grandfathers a piece of cloth dyed Turkey
+red would stand rain and sun, washing and scouring,
+and the<em>fibre</em> would wear out before the<em>color</em> would
+fade. But nowadays, if you buy Turkey red cloth
+for the purpose of covering cushions for a piazza-lounge,
+you will be fortunate if the color does not begin
+to change after three or four days in the open air.</p>
+
+<p>The reason is simple. In the old days the<em>only</em> way
+to get that particular shade was by dyeing the cloth
+with ground-up madder root, through a series of
+operations lasting the best part of two months. Now
+any capable dyer would be able to dye cotton that
+exact shade with any of, say, twenty different colors,
+most of which would not require more than one or
+two hours to dye. Out of these twenty dyestuffs,
+four or five, rather more expensive than the rest,
+would give just as fast, just as brilliant, and just
+as strong color as the good old madder color. But
+the rest, which are distinctly cheaper and easier to
+apply, would furnish goods which would<em>look</em> exactly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span>
+the same to the average purchaser, but which
+might not<em>last</em> any time at all.</p>
+
+<p>Naturally, the average manufacturer carefully instructs
+his dyer to furnish him with the “cheap and
+nasty” goods, not only because it costs less money,
+but also, unfortunately, because he reasons that “it
+will be good for business.” The manufacturer has
+the greatest sympathy with the inclination of the fastidious
+housewife to throw away anything that looks
+faded, and to buy in its place something new and
+fresh. Curtains or portières that hold their original
+shade indefinitely, he has little or no patience with. A
+calico dress that keeps its color so that it can be worn
+for a second summer, is an abomination not to be
+endured. And in every case, when complaint is made,
+it is always said to be the fault of the chemist who
+produced and put on the market such “horrid, fugitive
+dyes.”</p>
+
+<p>As a matter of fact, it is simply a case of picking
+and choosing. There have been discovered, so far,
+several thousand different coal-tar dyestuffs of all sorts
+and kinds. Out of these, probably one hundred, or less,
+can be considered really fast to both light and washing.
+The remaining ones, most of which never were
+considered valuable enough to put on the market, vary
+in degrees of fastness, the poorest being simply stains
+which will “bleed” indefinitely with moderate washing,
+and which will turn almost any color after exposure
+for a few hours to sun and weather.</p>
+
+<p>In the following pages, considerable pains will be
+taken to emphasize the names and properties of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span>
+very best and fastest dyestuffs in the different classes,<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a>
+so that the results of work done with them can be
+depended upon.</p>
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+<div class="footnote">
+
+<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> In some classes there are no absolutely fast dyestuffs.</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<p>Perhaps the most interesting thing, in connection
+with the whole subject of the artificial dyestuffs, is the
+enormous influence that they have had upon the life
+of the whole human race. This influence was but
+slightly appreciated, even by the chemists themselves,
+until a few years ago. The awakening dates from
+the time of the fiftieth anniversary of the discovery
+of mauveine, when from one end of the world to
+the other, honors were showered upon Sir William
+Henry Perkin, then grown old and nearing the end
+of his useful and prosperous life. It was then announced,
+and was for the first time generally recognized
+as true, that no one of the great discoveries of
+the nineteenth century—the steam locomotive, the
+steamship, the telephone, the telegraph, the gas light,
+the electric light, and the rest—had been more important
+to the world at large than the discovery of
+the first coal-tar dye. And probably never in the
+history of the world have such enormous results been
+produced from a single discovery, during the lifetime
+of the discoverer himself.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE ARTIFICIAL DYESTUFFS</h3>
+
+<p>The artificial dyestuffs form such a large body of
+complicated chemical compounds, that at first glance it
+would seem hopeless for any one who is not a trained<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[46]</span>
+chemist, to attempt to get any clear or definite ideas
+about them. This, indeed, would be the case if any
+attempt were made to study them chemically, i.e., with
+reference to their composition, or their method of
+manufacture; but when it comes to the application
+of them to the various textile fabrics and other materials,
+for which dyes are valuable, we soon find
+that the problem is not so very difficult after all.</p>
+
+<p>To be sure there are many hundreds of different
+dyes on the market now, great numbers of which are
+known under three or four different trade names, according
+to the trade-mark of each particular manufacturer.
+But besides the great manufacturers, and
+their accredited agents, there are numerous retail
+agencies all over the country, large and small, which
+make a business of distributing dyes made by the
+great concerns. Some of these are very energetic,
+and have pushed the sale of artificial dyestuffs in ten-
+and fifteen-cent packages, until in almost every village,
+large enough to boast of a decent country store, these
+dyes can be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>It is common to hear these dyes sneered at and
+abused. They are frequently referred to, especially
+by those of “artistic tastes,” as harsh and crude in
+color, fugitive to light and washing, and, in short,
+generally inferior and worthless products. This is
+not the case. They are, in some cases, individual
+dyestuffs, and in other cases, mixtures, generally belonging
+to the class of colors next to be described,
+the Salt dyes; and very good, if not indeed the very
+best specimens of that class. These Salt dyes, until<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span>
+the last few years, were far from fast, either to light
+or washing; but the more recent members of the class
+are much more satisfactory, and these colors, too, are
+found in the fifteen-cent packages.</p>
+
+<p>Nor, too, can objection be fairly taken to the shades
+as being crude and harsh. That is all a matter of
+taste and skill on the part of the dyer. There is no
+better practice in dyeing than to take the very hardest,
+clearest, most brilliant red, blue, and yellow colors that
+can be found at the corner grocery and, following
+the directions on the packages, proceed to dye yarn
+or cheesecloth with them, at first using the individual
+dyes, and afterwards modifying the shade of one
+dye with traces of each of the other two. The softness
+and richness of the tones that can be thus obtained
+will satisfy the most critical.</p>
+
+<p>The real objection to these widely distributed popular
+dyes is a very different one. They are not sold
+under their own names, and therefore it is almost
+impossible to identify them. To be sure, from the
+accompanying directions it is possible for a trained
+dyer to recognize at once the class to which the dyestuff
+belongs. But it is impossible for him, excepting
+after a long, tedious and often very troublesome analysis,
+to tell just what member or members of
+that particular class is contained in any given package.
+For this reason the dyer who has to depend
+on them for an important piece of work is in much
+the same position as a doctor would be who had to
+treat a difficult case with patent medicines compounded
+after secret formulæ.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span></p>
+
+<p>In the following chapters, a discussion of each
+class of dyestuffs, and an explanation of their application
+and general properties will be followed by lists
+of three or four of the very best colors, sold by the
+New York agents of six of the largest and most
+reliable color manufacturers.</p>
+
+<p>Workers wishing to obtain these dyes in comparatively
+large quantities, say one pound and upwards,
+can get them by writing directly to the addresses in
+the following table:</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+<i>Badische</i>— The Badische Anilin &amp; Soda Fabrik,<br>
+<span style="margin-left: 30%;">128 Duane St.,</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 35%;">N. Y. City.</span><br>
+<br>
+<i>Cassella</i>— The Cassella Co.,<br>
+<span style="margin-left: 30%;">184 Front St.,</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 35%;">N. Y. City.</span><br>
+<br>
+<i>Elberfeld</i>—The Farbenfabriken of Elberfeld Co.,<br>
+<span style="margin-left: 30%;">117 Hudson St.,</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 35%;">N. Y. City.</span><br>
+<br>
+<i>Kalle</i>—    Kalle &amp; Co.,<br>
+<span style="margin-left: 30%;">530 Canal St.,</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 35%;">N. Y. City.</span><br>
+<br>
+<i>Klipstein</i>—A. Klipstein &amp; Co.,<br>
+<span style="margin-left: 30%;">Agent for Society of Chemical Industry of Basle,</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 35%;">654 Greenwich St.,</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 40%;">N. Y. City.</span><br>
+<br>
+<i>Metz</i>—     Farbwerke-Hoechst Co., formerly H. A. Metz &amp; Co.,<br>
+<span style="margin-left: 30%;">Agent for the Meister Lucius &amp; Bruning Co.,</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 35%;">122 Hudson St.,</span><br>
+<span style="margin-left: 40%;">N. Y. City.</span><br>
+</p>
+
+<p>N. B. Further information concerning dyestuffs, apparatus,
+textiles, chemicals, etc., connected with this
+work may be obtained on writing to the author at 7
+West 43rd St., New York.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3>THE NAMING OF MODERN DYESTUFFS</h3>
+
+<p>It is important to remember that, in order to identify
+a color by name, it is necessary to know three
+things: first, the trade name; second, the shade, or
+distinguishing, letter; and third, the manufacturer
+or agent. The trade name sometimes bears a reference
+to the class, properties, or color of the
+dye, as “fast acid blue”; or to its chemical composition,
+as “methylene blue,” or “diamine red”;
+but in most cases it is simply an arbitrary name, given
+by the original discoverer when the patents were
+issued, or assigned later by the manufacturer or his
+local agents.</p>
+
+<p>The letter or letters, following the name, refer generally
+to the shade, as for instance, B for blue, R
+for red, Y or G for yellow (German<i lang="de">gelb</i>), and so on.
+Thus “methyl violet” is sold in brands running all
+the way from 6 B to 6 R—that is, from full purple
+shades that are very close to blue, to bright violet
+shades, very close to red. Sometimes, however, the
+letter refers to the composition of the dye or its
+class, as “fuchsine S” (German<i lang="de">sauer</i>) often called
+acid fuchsine or acid magenta; or “alizarine blue, D,”
+when the D indicates a “direct” cotton color. And
+sometimes the letter F is used to indicate fastness to
+light, in which case “F F” would signify a brand
+of very unusual fastness, for that particular class of
+colors at any rate.</p>
+
+<p>But not infrequently the letter is merely a mark
+applied for purposes of identification, whose significance<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[50]</span>
+cannot easily be learned by those not in the
+business of color selling, even when it is not a secret
+closely guarded by the particular firm supplying the
+dyestuff.</p>
+
+<p>For this reason, the name of the manufacturer or
+agent should<em>always</em> be added to the color name and
+letter, if it is important to get a particular color in
+any case. The best of the older dyes are manufactured
+by all of the larger firms, of substantially the
+same strength and shades, although often not under
+the same names. The later colors, whose patents have
+not expired, are of course the individual property of
+the different manufacturers, and can be, and are,
+marketed by them under any name they like to give
+them. Accordingly it frequently happens that two
+different firms may sell, under the same name, two
+entirely different colors; it would be impossible to
+tell which dyestuff was intended unless the firm name
+were attached.</p>
+
+<p>But with these three essentials correctly given—name,
+brand, and maker—a color can be identified and
+obtained true in composition and shade, even after the
+lapse of many years.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[51]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3>CLASSIFICATION OF THE COAL-TAR COLORS AVAILABLE FOR CRAFTSMEN.</h3>
+<table class="autotable">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdc"><i>Class Name.</i></td>
+<td class="tdc"><i>Materials on which to be used.</i></td>
+<td class="tdc"><i>How applied.</i></td>
+<td class="tdc"><i>How developed.</i></td>
+<td class="tdc"><i>How finished.</i></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">I. Direct Cotton or Salt Colors:</p></td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">Cotton, linen, and artificial silk.</p> <p class="hang1">Rarely wool and silk.</p></td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">In boiling water, with addition of salt.</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">By rinsing in water.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">II. Sulphur Colors:</p></td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">Cotton and linen.</p><p class="hang1">Rarely silk.</p></td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">In hot or lukewarm water, with addition
+of soda, sodium sulphide, salt, and Turkey red oil.</p></td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">By exposure to air after wringing.</p></td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">By washing in a hot soap bath, and rinsing.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">III. Indigo or Vat Colors:</p></td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">Cotton and linen.</p><p class="hang1">Rarely silk.</p>
+<p class="hang1">Also as stencil pastes on cotton and linen.</p></td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">In hot or warm water, with addition of caustic soda and sodium hydrosulphite.</p>
+</td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">By exposure to air after wringing. <br>Some colors must  be developed by
+ boiling in a soap bath.</p></td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">By washing in a hot soap bath, and rinsing.<br>Stencilled work, 
+by steaming and washing in hot soap bath.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[52]</span>IV. Basic Colors:</td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">Raffia, straw, rattan, and basketry in general.</p>
+<p class="hang1">Artificial silk.</p><p class="hang1">Leather.</p><p class="hang1">Rarely wool and silk.</p>
+<p class="hang1">Also as stencil pastes on cotton, linen, and silk.</p></td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">In hot or warm water, with addition of a little acetic acid (vinegar).</p></td>
+<td></td><td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">Raffia, etc., finished by rinsing in water.</p>
+<p class="hang1">Leather by rubbing with wax when dry.</p>
+<p class="hang1">Stencilled work, by steaming and passing through a weak bath of Tartar Emetic.</p></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">V. Acid Colors:</p></td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">Wool, silk, and feathers.Sometimes leather.</p>
+<p class="hang1">Rarely rattan and basketry.</p></td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">In hot or cold water with addition (for wool) of sulphuric acid
+and Glauber’s salt. For silk add soap and acid.</p>
+<p class="hang1">For leather add a little acetic acid.</p>
+<p class="hang1">For feathers add oxalic acid or formic acid.</p></td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl"><p class="hang1">Wool needs very careful rinsing in water, to remove every trace of acid.</p>
+<p class="hang1">Silk finished by a cold soap bath, followed by a weak bath of acetic acid.</p>
+<p class="hang1">Leather finished with wax.</p>
+<p class="hang1">Feathers finished with starch.</p></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+                                                                                
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span>
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_III">Chapter III<br>
+<span class="chapt_sub">DIRECT COTTON OR SALT COLORS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Among </span>the many changes made in the art of dyeing
+since the introduction of the coal-tar dyestuffs,
+perhaps the most important has been the gradual
+overcoming of the necessity for mordanting the textiles
+before coloring them in the dye-bath. Almost all
+of the old vegetable dyes were mordant dyes; that is,
+the color could not be fastened to the fibre, whether
+wool, cotton, linen, or even silk, unless the latter had
+been impregnated with some chemical which would act
+as a<em>mordant</em> to—(i.e., would combine with and hold)
+the color. These mordants were, in general, the salts
+of some metal, aluminium, tin, chromium, and iron
+salts being the ones in common use; and the processes
+involved in properly mordanting the goods were in
+many cases—notably in the case of madder and the
+Turkey red process—far more difficult and tedious
+and expensive than the actual dyeing.</p>
+
+<p>The first dyestuffs discovered, the true aniline dyes,
+which were manufactured directly from aniline and
+from substances strongly resembling aniline in chemical
+composition, were at once found to act in a different
+manner on textile fibres. Animal fibres like
+wool and silk, fur and leather, were dyed by them
+directly, without the use of any mordant at all. If<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span>
+the dyestuff were dissolved in water (the addition
+of a little acid makes the color dissolve more readily,
+but is without other effect) and a wet skein of wool
+or silk were immersed in it, and a little heat applied,
+the color would leave the liquid, and fasten itself
+firmly on to the goods.</p>
+
+<p>But with cotton and linen and other vegetable
+fibres, these dyes would not work so well. When
+these materials are warmed in such a dye-bath, the
+color does not adhere to the fibres, but washes off
+directly in a hot soap bath, if not, indeed, under a
+stream of clear hot water. This was noticed by
+Perkin very soon after his famous discovery, and,
+wishing to use his new color for dyeing cotton and
+linen as well as silk and wool, he set to work to
+discover how to prepare these materials; in short,
+how to mordant them so that they too would take
+firm hold of the color. As will be described later in
+the chapter on Basic colors, his experiments soon led
+to the introduction and the use of tannic acid and
+tartar emetic combined, in a process widely used to
+this day.</p>
+
+<p>The next class of dyestuffs discovered were the
+so-called acid colors, thus named because they all exhibited
+distinctly acid properties—that is, they would
+form salts with the substances known as bases (of
+which last, by the way, aniline is an important member).
+These colors, like the earlier ones, would dye
+the animal fibres directly, but would not color the
+vegetable fibres, unless the latter were carefully mordanted
+with alumina, or iron oxide, or some similar<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span>
+metallic base. And even this treatment does not give
+colors that are fast to washing, so these acid colors
+are never used on cotton or linen.</p>
+
+<p>After this came the discovery of alizarine, and an
+important series of very fast and very valuable dyes,
+all of which were characteristic mordant colors. Even
+wool and silk, as well as every other textile, must be
+carefully mordanted with aluminium, chromium, or
+iron salts, in order to have any coloring effect produced
+by these dyestuffs. This is the chief reason
+why, in spite of their beauty and great permanence,
+the alizarine and other mordant colors are being less
+used every year. At the end of some twelve or thirteen
+years after the discovery of the aniline colors,
+therefore, it was still impossible to dye cotton with
+them without a more or less elaborate mordanting
+process. And yet the problem did not seem to be an
+impossible one. One of the natural dyes, the safflower,
+already mentioned, has the property of dyeing cotton
+pretty, and not very fugitive, shades of pink and rose
+colors, directly, without the necessity for any mordant;
+and if a natural dyestuff could do that why
+could not some artificial ones?</p>
+
+<p>Some thirty years ago, a chemist (one story says
+that it was a laboratory boy) while experimenting
+with a dyestuff which was then a recent discovery—Congo
+red, a very brilliant but fugitive and
+unstable scarlet color—noticed that while filtering
+a hot solution of it through filter paper, the paper
+was stained deeply, and, which was more important,
+the color was not easily washed out with hot water.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[56]</span>
+This excited his curiosity, and after following the
+matter up a little, he found that not only this Congo
+red, but a whole series of dyestuffs formed in the same
+general way, had the power of dyeing cotton directly.
+This discovery has practically revolutionized the whole
+art of cotton dyeing. From these few bright and
+pretty, but distinctly untrustworthy dyes, which were
+at once named and advertised as “direct cotton
+colors,” have sprung great numbers of dyestuffs—several
+hundreds at least—of every conceivable shade,
+and of late years of every conceivable degree of fastness
+to light. All resemble the original Congo red
+in that they will dye cotton and linen, if not absolutely
+fast, at any rate very fairly fast to washing,
+in one bath, without the need of any mordants.</p>
+
+<p>This, of course, means that the cost of dyeing cloth
+with these dyes is very much less than with the other
+classes mentioned. And, by the way, it also explains
+why, under the name of Turkey red, so many extremely
+bad colors have been sold. To dye Turkey
+red on cotton, using alizarine, and with the most improved
+and simplified methods, necessitates at least
+six or seven different steps, each of which requires
+not only time and expense, but great skill and care;
+and any one of them, if carelessly performed, may
+spoil the goods. On the other hand, a mere beginner,
+by using one of the early, bright, direct colors (quite
+cheap in itself, because the patents have expired) can,
+by boiling the goods for half an hour in a dye-bath
+with a little soap and salt in it, produce a piece of
+cloth dyed almost the exact shade of the old Turkey<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span>
+red, for probably one-third, or one-quarter of the
+price. It will look the same on the shop counter; will
+probably sell just as well to the average, or even to
+the painstaking customer; but when exposed to air
+and light for a few weeks, perhaps even for a few
+days, will lose its brilliancy, and turn some queer, dull
+shade, probably of purple.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed this particular substitution has been going
+on for some years on a large scale; and at one time
+promised to be of some international importance. The
+Turkey red dyers in Manchester, a few years ago,
+complained bitterly to the English Government that
+their market in India was falling off very seriously;
+and they demanded an investigation, to know what
+was the matter.</p>
+
+<p>After careful inquiry by the local officials, word
+came back that there was no difference in the taste
+of the people for bright scarlet clothes and headgear.
+Just as much red was worn as ever before. But active
+agents of the large German color houses had been
+going through the country, introducing some of these
+cheap direct cotton scarlets and showing the natives
+how to use them. And in consequence, up and down
+India in all the little towns, even in the villages, local
+dyers were at work who, for a few cents, would
+dye up an old piece of calico bright red. When it
+became faded again in a few weeks, they would dye
+it over again for a very small sum, thus renewing
+the same piece whenever it was desirable to appear in
+bright, new clothes.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Names.</i>—These dyes have long been made by all of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[58]</span>
+the great firms, although two or three have made more
+of a specialty of them than the rest. It was soon
+found that the presence of common (table) salt in
+the dyestuffs was valuable, as lessening the waste of
+dyestuff in the dye-liquor, and also increasing the fastness
+to washing of the dyed goods. For this reason
+the common name given to this class is that of “Salt
+Colors.” Owing, however, to the fact that Congo
+red, the first discovered of the whole class, was derived
+from the chemical known as benzidine, these
+salt colors are sometimes referred to, in general, as
+the “Congo,” or as the “benzidine” dyes. Besides
+this they are frequently known as “cotton colors,”
+or “direct cotton colors.” The different manufacturers,
+however, have assigned certain class names to
+their own dyestuffs, as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="noindent">Benzo (<i>Elberfeld</i>); Diamine (<i>Cassella</i>); Dianil (<i>Metz</i>);
+Mikado (<i>Elberfeld</i>); Naphthamine (<i>Kalle</i>); Oxamine
+(<i>Badische</i>); Phenamine (<i>Badische</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Uses.</i>—These colors are chiefly used for dyeing cotton,
+linen, and paper. They take particularly well on
+mercerized cotton, and on some varieties of artificial
+silk. They can also be used to dye wool and silk, and,
+indeed, in many cases give colors faster, both to light
+and to washing, on these fibres than on cotton. As
+a rule they will not dye animal fibres excepting at a
+high temperature—near the boiling point—and in an
+acid bath. Whereas cotton and linen are preferably
+dyed in an alkaline or at least a neutral bath, and,
+while they must be boiled in the dye-bath for at all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span>
+permanent results, will take the color as a stain at
+quite low temperatures.</p>
+
+<p>For this reason these dyes are often used for dyeing
+even shades in one bath, upon mixed goods—that
+is, wool and cotton, cotton and silk, etc. The goods
+are first dyed in a lukewarm bath till the cotton is
+nearly the proper shade, and then, on heating, the
+wool or silk will take up the color and, before long,
+catch up with the cotton. It must, however, be remembered
+that on cotton and linen these dyes are not,
+as a rule, at all fast to washing, unless they have been
+well boiled with the goods. When dyed on silk at
+a boil, they are fast to hot soap and water, a fact
+which, sometimes, is of much importance.</p>
+
+
+<h3>DYEING DIRECTIONS</h3>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Dye-bath.</b>—The color must first be dissolved in water,
+care being taken not to leave any undissolved lumps or
+specks of color floating around in, or settled at the
+bottom of, the dye-bath. For this reason it is generally
+best, in all dyeing operations, first of all to
+make a decidedly strong solution of the color, by
+dissolving a considerable quantity of it (depending
+of course on the amount of goods to be dyed) in hot
+water, in a pitcher or saucepan. In the dyehouse this
+would be called a “stock solution,” and would always
+be made of a definite strength,—say five parts of
+color to one hundred of water—and kept well covered
+up. Sometimes in hot weather it would be treated
+with a little preservative like benzoate of soda, so<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span>
+that it could be used at any time it was needed. When
+this color solution is added to the dye-bath, it should
+always be carefully strained through a piece of cheesecloth
+or any other fine medium that will catch the
+specks and undissolved lumps. Otherwise spots are
+liable to appear, on the finished goods, which it is
+almost impossible to eradicate without stripping off
+every trace of color from the dyed material.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Water.</i>—The dye-bath is prepared with plain water.
+The amount necessary for each lot of goods can
+only be told by experience. For some classes of dyes,
+like the Acid colors and the Basic colors, to be described
+later, the quantity of water makes but little
+difference. But for dark shades with these Salt colors
+it is best not to have more than enough water to thoroughly
+soak, and comfortably cover, the wetted goods,
+with enough room to stir and turn them easily. The
+dye-bath is now set on the stove to warm up and,
+when dyeing light or medium shades, some soap is
+usually dissolved in it. This is not absolutely necessary
+but helps to make the color go on more evenly,
+and penetrate the fibres better.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Soap.</i>—For dyeing purposes in general, any pure,
+carefully made soap acts satisfactorily. For silk dyeing,
+and especially for silk finishing, it is said that
+greater lustre can be gained with olive oil (Castile)
+soap. But when this cannot be obtained, Ivory soap
+or Pears’ soap or, in fact, any good brand of bath or
+toilet soap will do almost as well. For the washing
+and finishing of wool and silk the use of strong laundry
+soaps should be avoided if possible, because they<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[61]</span>
+usually contain alkali, in the form of borax or of carbonate
+of soda, which is liable to “tender the goods.”
+For cotton and linen dyeing and finishing, this does
+not make any difference. The easiest way to add
+the soap to the dye-bath is to use it in one of the
+wire soap-shakers, which has a convenient handle, and
+holds half a cake or even a whole cake of soap at one
+time.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Even Dyeing.</b>—The goods should be well washed,
+rinsed, and wrung out, so as to be sure that they are
+free from dirt and grease, and have been thoroughly
+and evenly wet. They are then placed in the dye-bath,
+completely under the liquid, and stirred round and
+round and turned over and over with the dye-sticks.
+The chief objects in stirring are, first, to prevent part
+of the goods from resting on the bottom and then
+getting more heat than the rest of the material, in
+which case, naturally, it will become darker when finished;
+and second, to prevent the outside portion of
+the goods from getting more color than the inner
+portions. Accordingly the goods, when placed in the
+dye-bath, must be well opened up and, excepting when
+deliberately making patterns by the method described
+later under the name of “Tied and Dyed Work,” they
+should not be tied or entangled in knots or bunches.
+Every part must be equally exposed, by the turning
+and lifting and stirring, to the action of the color
+solution.</p>
+
+<p>If only light shades are desired, the goods are
+heated and turned until the proper shade has been
+reached—remembering always that, unless the color<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span>
+has been boiled on, it is likely to be only a stain which
+will wash off easily.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Salt.</i>—For full and indeed for medium shades, it is
+customary to add to the dye-bath some agent—usually
+table salt or, when the shade is not very dark, phosphate
+of soda—which will make the color less soluble
+in the dye-liquor and will tend to throw it on the
+fibre. For, after all, there is comparatively little affinity
+between the cotton fibre and the dyestuff (far
+less than between silk or wool and the Acid or Basic
+colors), and when a skein is warmed or even boiled in
+the dye-bath a large proportion of the color remains
+in the liquid. The bath is not “exhausted” as the
+dyers say. Hence, if we try to dye full shades with
+these colors dissolved in water only, or in soap and
+water, it can only be done by using large quantities
+of the dyestuff, most of which will be wasted in the
+spent dye-liquor.</p>
+
+<p>For dark shades, then, where there is little danger
+of uneven dyeing, the goods are usually dyed for a
+short time with the color dissolved in hot water. And
+then, to deepen the shade, the goods are lifted, and
+common salt added in considerable quantities, three
+or four tablespoonfuls to the gallon, and stirred round
+till it is dissolved. Then the goods are put back
+and well boiled for half an hour or so, before the dyeing
+is considered complete. The presence of salt, by
+increasing the temperature of the boiling bath, also
+helps to make the dyed goods fast to washing.</p>
+
+<p>Soap cannot be used in the presence of so much salt
+for fear of its depositing on the fibre in spots and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span>
+so causing trouble. For medium shades, however,
+where it is well to use soap in the dye-bath so as to
+have the color go on the fibre evenly, a little phosphate
+of soda is often employed instead of salt, one or two
+tablespoonfuls to the gallon, to diminish the waste of
+color, without making the soap insoluble.</p>
+
+<p>For the darker shades it is particularly important
+to thoroughly boil the goods for half an hour or more,
+before taking them out of the dye-bath. Otherwise
+the dyestuff will not penetrate the fibre, but will simply
+stain the surface, and will not only be easily washed
+off, with very mild soaping, but, when dry, will be
+apt to crack and rub.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Finishing.</i>—After the materials have been dyed as
+just described, they should be taken out of the dye-bath,
+rinsed with water to wash off the excess of dye-liquor,
+and then shaken out and dried.</p>
+
+<p>When used in this way the best dyes of this class,
+such as those listed a little further on, will give, on
+cotton and linen, shades that are very fast to light,
+and fairly fast to washing. On wool and silk the
+shades are fast to both light and washing. For purposes
+of comparison it may be stated here what is
+generally meant by these terms.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Fastness to Light.</i>—The test for light-fastness is usually
+made by partially covering a dyed skein with a
+piece of wood, or heavy piece of blotting paper, and
+exposing it to direct sunlight, back of a window with
+southern exposure. At intervals the skein is taken
+out and the color studied, and it is then easy to see
+whether any change has taken place in the portion of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span>
+the goods exposed to the light. If the goods have
+faded appreciably in the space of one week, the dyestuff
+is considered<em>not fast</em>.</p>
+
+<p>If the color changes after two weeks’ exposure,
+but not after one week, it is to be considered<em>fairly
+fast</em>.</p>
+
+<p>If it stands for two weeks but fades in four weeks
+it is to be called<em>fast</em>.</p>
+
+<p>And if it resists, without appreciable change, the
+action of the summer sunlight for full four weeks, it
+is called<em>very fast</em>.</p>
+
+<p>It should be remembered, in this connection, that
+the comparative fastness to light depends largely (a)
+upon the materials to be dyed, and (b) upon the
+depth and shade of color used in the test. For instance,
+if a skein of heavy cotton yarn, and one of
+very fine, brilliant, artificial silk are dyed the same
+color, and exposed to light under the same conditions,
+the cotton skein will hold its color longer than
+the silk. The latter, being semi-transparent, allows
+the sunlight to pierce it through and through, while
+the more opaque cotton gives some distinct protection
+to the color that has penetrated beneath the surface.
+So, too, a dark shade of any given color will stand
+the light much better than a very light or delicate
+shade, for the same general reason. The color beneath
+the surface is protected from the direct action
+of the sun’s rays by the surface color.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Fastness to Washing.</i>—The test for washing-fastness
+is made somewhat differently. A skein dyed a full
+shade with the color is twisted up with two white<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span>
+skeins, one of wool and the other of cotton, and the
+three are thoroughly scoured for ten minutes in a
+strong bath of good quality laundry soap, heated to
+140°F. This temperature is uncomfortably hot for
+the hands and yet is well below the boiling point. A
+<i>fast</i> color is one where, with this treatment, neither
+the soap liquor nor either one of the skeins becomes
+colored.</p>
+
+<p>If the soap liquor is colored but neither one of
+the skeins, the dye is called<em>fairly fast</em>.</p>
+
+<p>If the soap bath is tinged, and one or the other of
+the skeins becomes colored at the same time, the dye
+is considered<em>not fast</em>.</p>
+
+<p>It must, however, be borne in mind that before
+making this washing-test, all excess of dye-liquor
+must first be removed by thorough rinsing. And it
+should be remembered that even the fastest of the
+Salt colors, as well as of the Acid and Basic colors
+described later, when applied directly to the fibre,
+without mordanting or after-treating, are never as
+fast to washing as those where the dyestuff is fixed
+or developed in an insoluble form in the fibre, by
+the action of the air, as are the Sulphur and Vat
+colors—or by the action of mordants, as with the
+Alizarine colors—or by after-treatment with certain
+special chemicals, as with the Salt colors in the process
+described below. All dyes can, sooner or later, be
+dissociated from the fibres to which they are attached.
+But if they are in an insoluble condition they drop
+off in the form of a powder, and are washed clean
+off, and leave sharp, clear outlines on the dyed goods.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span>
+If, however, they have gone on in solution they will
+go off in solution, and are liable to<em>bleed</em>, and stain
+light-colored fibres near them.</p>
+
+<p>The earlier dyestuffs of this class were deservedly
+criticised as being, even when carefully applied, much
+given to bleeding, and also distinctly fugitive to the
+action of sunlight.</p>
+
+<p>Of late years the quality of these dyestuffs has
+greatly improved, and the best of them, like those
+mentioned below, when carefully dyed on cotton, are
+fast, if not very fast to light, although for washing
+the very best can hardly be classed even as fairly fast,
+without after-treatment.</p>
+
+<p><i>List of Selected Dyestuffs.</i>—</p>
+<table class="listtable">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Badische—</td>
+<td class="tdl">Oxamine Fast Red, F</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Cotton, Yellow, G I</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Stilbene Yellow, G K</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Oxamine Blue, B</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Cotton Black, E, extra</td>
+</tr>
+<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Cassella—</td>
+<td class="tdl">Diamine Fast Red, F</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Diamine Fast Yellow, G G</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Diamine Fast Blue, F F G</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Diamine Fast Black, F</td>
+</tr>
+<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Elberfeld—</td>
+<td class="tdl">Benzo Fast Red, 8 B L</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Benzo Fast Yellow, 4 B</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Brilliant Fast Black, 4 B</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Pluto Black, F, extra</td>
+</tr>
+<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Kalle—</td>
+<td class="tdl">Naphthamine Fast Red, H</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Naphthamine Fast Yellow, 2 G L</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Naphthamine Fast Blue, 4 B L</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Naphthamine Fast Violet, R L</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Naphthamine Direct Black</td>
+</tr>
+<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Metz—</td>
+<td class="tdl">Dianil Fast Scarlet, 4 B S</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Dianil Orange, G</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Dianil Yellow, O O</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Dianil Fast Blue, 3 B</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Dianil Fast Black, conc.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span>
+
+<p>As above mentioned, even the very best dyes belonging
+to this class of Salt colors, give on cotton and
+linen results only “fairly fast” to washing. As the
+modern laundress is not averse to using stronger agents
+than good laundry soap in her washtub, and not infrequently
+indulges in considerable amounts of washing
+soda (sodium carbonate) and even of bleaching powder,
+to clean quickly a dirty piece of goods, dyes that
+are “fairly fast” according to the regular standard,
+will, in practice, need some care spent on them if they
+are to hold their color for long periods. Against light
+the best ones are almost as fast as any dyes known,
+but none of them are a match for the Sulphur colors,
+or especially the Vat colors, when exposed to severe
+washing.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>After-treatment.</i>—The professional dyer, who is occasionally
+called upon to produce fast colors with
+these dyes, and even with the inferior members of
+this class, has found various methods of after-treatment,
+by which the colors are rendered more permanent.</p>
+
+<p>A favorite process, where the dyer is enough of a
+chemist to carry it out, consists of making an entirely
+new dyestuff in the fibre, generally of an entirely different
+shade, and with much greater power of resistance
+to washing and to light, by treating the dyed
+goods first with a mixture of sodium nitrite and of
+sulphuric acid, and, after this, passing them through
+a solution of some organic chemical such as carbolic
+acid, alpha- or beta-naphthol, or others known as developers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span></p>
+
+<p>This process, known as “diazotizing and developing,”
+is considerably used in the trade, especially for
+various shades of black, but is too complicated and
+delicate for craftsmen in general.</p>
+
+<p>A simpler process is to warm the dyed goods for
+five or ten minutes in a weak solution of the orange-colored
+salt, bichromate of potash, acidified with a
+little acetic acid—or of the not uncommon chemical,
+sulphate of copper, long known to chemists as blue
+vitriol.</p>
+
+<p>When the best dyes are used, like those in the
+preceding list, it is not often necessary to use either
+of these reagents. But when, as sometimes happens,
+one is obliged to use dyes of this general class, bought
+at the country store without a chance of knowing how
+fast they are, it is well to know about it. For a piece
+of goods the size of an ordinary linen skirt, the after-treating
+bath would be made as follows: In two and
+a half gallons of hot water, dissolve two tablespoonfuls
+of sulphate of copper, one tablespoonful of
+bichromate of potash, and two teaspoonfuls of
+ordinary acetic acid (equivalent, say, to three or
+four teaspoonfuls of strong vinegar). The goods,
+after dyeing and rinsing, but before drying, should be
+soaked in this bath and heated for ten minutes until
+not far from the boiling point. They should then be
+taken out, rinsed carefully, and dried. This after-treatment
+does not benefit every single color of this
+class, but it helps greatly the fastness to light and to
+washing of almost all of them. The chief objection
+to it, besides the time and expense, is that the shade<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span>
+of the finished goods is often considerably changed
+by the process.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Properties and Uses of the Salt Colors.</i>—Generally
+speaking, the shades produced by the individual
+members of this group cover all the colors of the
+rainbow and include several good greys. It is hard,
+however, to get a full deep black on cotton or
+linen with these dyes, without using the “diazotizing
+and developing” process of after-treatment. The
+dyes go on the fibre in a soluble form, and unless
+a developing process like this is used they combine
+directly with the fibre, and do not form a coating or
+layer upon it, as do some of the “developed” dyestuffs.
+Accordingly, no matter how fully or how
+deeply we dye a piece of yarn or cloth with a black
+dye of this class, the finished goods will show<em>grey</em>,
+a very dark grey, to be sure, but still grey, and not
+a flat, heavy, true black. The color of most of the
+salt blacks is greatly improved, however—as well as
+their fastness to light and washing—by soaking the
+dyed goods, after rinsing, in a solution containing four
+or five spoonfuls of formaldehyde to the gallon.</p>
+
+<p>This same property, however, of combining directly
+with the fibre, makes the colors brighter and more
+brilliant than many of the other classes, especially in
+the lighter shades. Accordingly for bright, pretty
+shades of pinks, blues, yellows, and of mixed shades,
+fast to light, but not very fast to washing, very easily
+and simply applied, these colors are extremely valuable.
+For instance, in dyeing large quantities of bright
+colors on calico or cheesecloth, for some special occasion,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[70]</span>
+as a pageant or spectacle, these are the colors
+to use.</p>
+
+<p>Another great advantage they possess is that they
+dye true; that is, they do not alter their color when
+exposed to the air, and the color of the finished goods
+can be fairly estimated from the color of the dye-bath.</p>
+
+<p>Accordingly, the student is strongly urged to practise
+the art of dyeing with these colors. They are
+cheap and can be readily obtained, although not always
+of the very best quality, under the name of
+Diamond Dyes for cotton, ezy dyes, etc., from druggists
+and grocerymen all over the country.</p>
+
+<p>They can be easily applied to cheesecloth, muslin,
+and other inexpensive materials, and if care is taken
+to soak and boil the goods thoroughly, to linens and
+heavy cottons. In case of necessity they can be used
+on wool and silk, but, as a rule, their use is limited
+to vegetable fibres. They are particularly valuable
+to amateur dyers and to beginners in the art, because
+they have great “levelling” power; that is, it is easy
+to dye evenly with them.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, it is a nuisance, oftentimes, to
+have to boil the goods, and even then the colors are
+not really fast to washing. At any rate, before proceeding
+to the study of the more permanent but more
+complicated Sulphur and Vat colors, the art of dyeing
+even and rainbow shades and at least the beginnings
+of the art of combining and matching shades should
+be carefully and conscientiously worked out with
+these often despised, but really very useful and valuable,
+Salt colors.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_IV">Chapter IV<br>
+<span class="chapt_sub">THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COLOR
+DYEING</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Directly</span> the student has mastered the instruction
+contained in the three previous chapters,
+and can use the dyeing apparatus and
+the unmixed dyestuffs so as to get reasonably fast
+colors on cotton and linen goods, it is time to attack
+the more difficult subject of dyeing to shade. This
+art is not an easy one, by any means, and only a few
+fundamental principles can be learned from a book.
+To make any real progress in it, constant and continuous
+practice is necessary; even then, unless the
+student is naturally gifted with an eye capable of
+readily detecting any changes of color, and has trained
+it to distinguish and identify the causes of such
+changes, little success in the matching of colors can
+be hoped for.</p>
+
+<p>This does not mean, however, that unless a dyer
+can match shades perfectly, he cannot turn out very
+interesting and, indeed, beautiful results. But it does
+mean that he will find it difficult, if not impossible,
+to reproduce such results, and will be frequently handicapped
+in trying to utilize his dyeing skill and knowledge
+commercially.</p>
+
+<p>The beginner thinks—not unnaturally perhaps—that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span>
+in order to get any considerable variety of
+shades it is necessary to have on hand a large and
+varied assortment of dyestuffs; and it is consequently
+a surprise to find that skilled workers keep
+in stock chiefly a good supply of blue, yellow, and
+red only. Black is convenient and useful, but not
+essential, excepting for special purposes. By mixing
+these three “primary” colors it is possible to get
+every conceivable shade needed. And another point,
+which will be emphasized below and which is also
+likely to be a surprise, is that practically every pretty
+and agreeable shade, no matter how delicate, is composed
+of all three of these primary colors. Blue and
+yellow produce green, blue and red produce violet,
+and yellow and red produce orange, while the addition
+of the third or “complementary” color to any of these
+combinations of two makes<em>grey</em>, when all three colors
+are perfectly balanced, and when one color or another
+predominates, it is greyed and softened by the presence
+of small quantities of the other two.</p>
+
+
+<p>Experiments with Single Colors</p>
+
+<p>The way to study color dyeing is, first of all, to get
+a clear idea of the effect of different strengths of each
+of these three primary colors in producing both light
+and dark shades of a single color. This can be easily
+accomplished with the red, blue, and yellow of the Salt
+dyes described in the last chapter. Dissolve each color
+separately and keep them in separate dye-pots so that
+you can readily dye pieces of cheesecloth or other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span>
+cheap, easy-dyeing materials any light, medium, or
+dark shade, to serve as a basis for future comparisons.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp70" id="i_p073" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p073.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">DIAGRAM OF PRIMARY COLORS
+
+
+<table class="listtable">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Two color <span class="nowrap">shades—</span></td>
+<td class="tdl">Red + Blue =</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl">Violet</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Red + Yellow =</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl">Orange</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Yellow + Blue =</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl">Green</td>
+</tr>
+<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Complementary <span class="nowrap">colors—</span></td>
+<td class="tdl">Red + Blue + Yellow =</td>
+<td></td>
+<td class="tdl">Grey</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Red + Green =</td>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2">}</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Blue + Orange =</td>
+<td class="tdl">}</td>
+<td class="tdl"> Grey</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Yellow + Violet =</td>
+<td class="tdl" colspan="2">}</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Even Dyeing.</i>—First wet the cloth or yarn thoroughly
+by soaking in hot water, then rinse well and wring
+it dry—if necessary, using a wringer. The dyestuff
+should already be carefully dissolved in a little boiling
+water. Pour some of this solution (not too much,
+for the shades should all be pretty light) into the dye-pot
+half full of lukewarm water. Then quickly and
+wholly immerse the wet material, stirring and working<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span>
+about with the dye-sticks, and let the whole heat
+steadily until it boils. After a few minutes’ boiling
+take out the material and rinse in cold water until it
+stops bleeding. When this is carefully done, good,
+even, and smooth shades will result.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Shaded Effects.</i>—Of more real interest, although an
+abomination to most professional dyers, are the shaded
+effects. Instead of trying to get even, smooth colors,
+the cloth is intentionally dyed unevenly to get effects
+of light and shade in the color, otherwise impossible.
+This does not mean that a skein or piece of cloth badly
+dyed or discolored by some accident or carelessness
+should be proudly exhibited as a piece of really artistic
+dyeing, as is done occasionally, by some workers,
+with painful results. It is only when the work is done
+carefully and thoughtfully that shaded or so-called
+“rainbow” effects may be obtained upon skeins, basket
+materials, and cloth, which are distinctly interesting
+and beautiful, though very different from the regular
+work of the professional dyers.</p>
+
+<p>Many methods of obtaining unique results in this
+work will occur to the student, after some practical
+experience. Perhaps the best way to begin is to take
+a piece of cheesecloth, cut in the form of a scarf—say
+two yards or so in length—and hemmed on both
+ends, if it is to be kept for exhibition or future use.
+Before it is wet, tie it in a rather tight knot in the
+middle, or, if the scarf is long enough, two knots about
+six or eight inches from each end. For this first piece
+tie a very simple knot by merely folding the scarf
+over on itself and pulling the goods tight. Then wet<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span>
+the cloth thoroughly and dye quickly in the boiling
+dye-liquor; rinse off, and untie the knots. The open
+part of the cloth will be found dyed the full strength,
+and where there were knots there will be shaded places
+varying from the full color down to white.</p>
+
+<p>Another method is to take the wetted scarf in the
+middle and gradually lower the ends into the hot
+dye-liquor, stopping just before the middle reaches the
+dye. If carefully done this will give regularly shaded
+effects running from white or very light at the centre,
+to heavy, full shades at the ends. Of course, if preferred,
+the ends can be kept out of the dye-liquor and
+the middle portions immersed. This will give a scarf
+that is dark in the centre and light at each end—which
+is not so good a color arrangement, ordinarily, as the
+light centre and dark ends.</p>
+
+<p>The same can be done with a square piece of cloth,
+well wetted: this will shade in an interesting manner,
+if held in the middle and dipped slowly and gradually.
+Further developments of this work, known as “Tied
+and Dyed Work,” are described in a following
+chapter.</p>
+
+
+<p>Experiments with the Secondary Colors</p>
+
+<p>After the above methods have been fairly mastered,
+the student should make some experiments in which
+two of the primary colors are mixed together, or
+better, superimposed one on the other to show the
+“secondary” shades produced by these combinations.
+This can be done by mixing the colors two by two,
+until three baths of green, violet, and orange respectively<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span>
+are formed as before. Then try dyeing first
+for even colors and later for the shaded effects.</p>
+
+<p>The most interesting experiments in this line are
+made by the so-called “double shading” method.
+Here the same baths of straight primary colors—red
+and blue and yellow—should be used as in the earlier
+experiments; but the goods are first dyed in one bath,
+and then after-dyed or “topped” in a second color.</p>
+
+<p>A scarf of cheesecloth is good for a first attempt.
+This, well wet, is held at one end and very slowly
+lowered into the hot bath, until all but about six inches
+of the entire length is immersed in the dye. This
+much is left free from color. Try a blue dye color
+for this series of shades, fading evenly and smoothly
+from the deepest full blue at one end to a pure white
+at the other.</p>
+
+<p>After rinsing with water till the bleeding is over,
+reverse the scarf, holding it by the opposite end, and
+lower it slowly and gradually into a bath of, let us
+say, yellow, keeping about six inches out of the dye
+as before. This will produce a scarf shaded from
+clear blue at one end to clear yellow at the other end
+and showing the whole range of green shades produced
+by mixing these two colors, along its length.</p>
+
+<p>Similar tests made with red and blue, and then with
+red and yellow, will emphasize to the student’s mind
+the fact that green is formed from blue and yellow;
+violet from red and blue; and orange from red and
+yellow; and that each combination gives an infinite
+variety of intermediate shades, according to the comparative
+strength of the individual dyes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[77]</span></p>
+
+
+<p>Matching Colors</p>
+
+<p>The next step is to dye some pieces evenly with
+green, violet, and orange, made by two of the primary
+colors, and then to try matching these with fresh,
+newly-mixed baths of the same dyes. It will be found
+here that success depends upon going slowly; and
+upon beginning with light shades and building the
+color up to the desired strength carefully, by means
+of successive dippings. Note that the color of cloth
+when wet is much darker than when dry. Some dyers
+hold the wet cloth to the bright sky and look through
+it, to get an idea of what the finished color will be
+like; but positively certain and satisfactory results
+are arrived at only by wetting the sample to be matched
+or drying the piece that is being dyed, so that both
+sample and piece are equally wet or dry, while their
+color is being compared.</p>
+
+<p>The real difficulty of color dyeing is not met with
+until the student tries to obtain shades embodying all
+three of the primary colors. A very few experiments
+will quickly show that with most modern dyestuffs
+it is hard to get soft, pleasant tones with the use of
+only two colors. Natural colors, as we find them in
+the sky, water, meadow, and woodlands, are never
+pure; they are invariably mixed. And our eyes are
+so accustomed to them that shades dyed with simple
+or pure colors look hard, cold, and inharmonious.
+Mixtures of two colors are better and softer than
+single colors, but still rather hard. But when the
+secondary shade resulting from the combination of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span>
+two primary colors is mixed with even a small quantity
+of the third primary color, the result is invariably
+a soft and pleasing tone.</p>
+
+<p>The above statements presuppose that it is possible,
+in practice, to obtain good dyestuffs in each class, which
+are absolutely pure, clean shades of blue, yellow, and
+red without any admixture whatever. As a matter
+of fact, while the artificial dyestuffs are much more
+pure, and hence much more hard and brilliant than
+the best natural colors, they still in many, if not indeed,
+in most cases, when carefully studied, show shades
+that are mixed and not pure. It is very rare to find
+a blue that does not incline a little to the yellow (a
+Blue G as it would probably be labelled) or else contain
+a trace of violet or red (Blue R, or RR). The
+reds are almost invariably either scarlets, containing
+a trace of yellow, or crimsons containing blue. And
+the yellows, also, are very apt to tend towards orange
+or occasionally show a trace of green.</p>
+
+<p>This, of course, complicates the problem for the
+practical dyer greatly, and means that instead of being
+able to cover the whole range of shades with a red,
+blue, and yellow, it is frequently, if not always, necessary
+to have some mixed colors, giving sharp, clear
+shades of violet, green, and orange respectively, to
+obtain certain effects.</p>
+
+<p>The following diagram will perhaps make this more
+clear. In this the three primary colors have been
+divided, each into two shades as indicated by the
+shade letters, R meaning red, B blue, and G yellow
+(German<i lang="de">gelb</i>) shades of the colors. By combining<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span>
+these colors as shown in the table, clean, clear shades
+will be given, whereas other combinations would be
+likely to spoil the shades.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp70" id="i_p079" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p079.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">DIAGRAM OF MIXED COLORS
+
+
+
+<p class="hang1">Red B + Blue R = Violet <span class="pad1">Blue R + Red B = Violet</span> <span class="pad1">Yellow
+R + Red G = Orange</span></p>
+
+<p class="hang1">Red B + Orange = Red G <span class="pad1">Blue R + Green = Blue G</span> <span class="pad1">Yellow
+R + Green = Yellow G</span></p>
+
+<p class="hang1">Red G + Yellow R = Orange<span class="pad1"> Blue G + Violet = Blue R </span> <span class="pad1">Yellow
+B + Orange = Yellow R</span></p>
+
+<p class="hang1">Red G + Violet = Red B <span class="pad1">Blue G + Yellow B = Green</span> <span class="pad1"> Yellow
+B + Blue G = Green</span></p>
+
+</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Take, for example, a special case, namely to turn
+a piece of crimson calico into a full rich scarlet. The
+crimson color contains a great deal of red, mixed with
+a little blue. If the piece were after-dyed, or
+“topped,” with yellow, even in small quantities, the
+result would probably be “muddy,” the yellow and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span>
+blue together being in such strength as to seriously
+diminish the strength of the red, and make it more
+or less brown in shade.</p>
+
+<p>If, however, a reddish shade of orange were used
+for shading, instead of yellow, the red of the mixture
+would be constantly increased, while the yellow was
+“killing” the blue, i.e., turning it, with a little red,
+into grey; and before long the crimson, or bluish
+shade of red, would turn first into a true but softened
+red, with neither blue nor yellow predominating, and
+finally into a scarlet, with distinct traces of yellow.</p>
+
+<p>In making these Three-color Shades, therefore,
+the component parts of each dyestuff used must be
+studied; and in every case care must be taken to have
+the third color, whatever it is, added in such minute
+quantities as only to<em>soften</em> and not to spoil the first
+shade. A teaspoonful, sometimes even a few drops
+of a solution of one strong color, will generally be
+enough to soften, and take the edge off, some gallons
+of dye-liquor containing a hard, clear mixture of
+the other two. A cupful, on the other hand, or even
+two or three tablespoonfuls might utterly spoil the
+bath and turn it into “mud,” as a dyer would say.</p>
+
+<p>It is worth mentioning here that, as a general thing,
+it is distinctly more interesting to build up shades by
+dipping first in one bath, and then topping with the
+second and the third color than it is to mix the different
+colors to the desired shade first and then dye
+the material in the single bath. On a small scale there
+is the same difference, although not so marked and
+less easily noticed, as that between even dyeing and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span>
+rainbow dyeing. There is often a loss in regularity
+and evenness, but the gain in life and light when one
+color shines through another which covers it more
+than compensates. This overlaying is not so perceptible
+in the even dyeing of fine, thin materials,
+whether yarn or cloth; but with coarse, heavy yarns
+and thick textiles, effects can be obtained by after-dyeing
+which cannot be approached when the goods
+are dyed in one bath.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Matching Shades.</i>—Some people, I believe, go so
+far as to say that, in order to be really expert at true
+shade matching when using the three colors in dyeing,
+a dyer must have begun to learn the art in the person
+of his grandfather, ninety or a hundred years ago, and
+kept in practise ever since.</p>
+
+<p>It certainly is true that heredity and early training
+both have a great deal to do with skill in this art, and
+a good color dyer will show an almost uncanny instinct,
+as he instantly picks out differences in shade
+which an untrained eye would never notice, and without
+any hesitation prescribes the exact remedy for the
+defect. Still there are plenty of good, even first-class
+dyers, nowadays, who have learned their art quite
+late in life, with the aid of a good eye and intelligent
+perseverance.</p>
+
+<p>The chief rule to remember is this: Red, blue, and
+yellow, when mixed in equal strength, make a neutral
+grey or black. Accordingly any one color will form
+grey or, as we may say, will<em>neutralize</em>, or be<em>complementary</em>
+to a mixture of the other two. Thus red
+will form grey with green; blue with orange, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[82]</span>
+yellow with violet. Accordingly if there is too much
+red in the dye-bath, it can be killed by the addition
+of a little green; and vice versa. The same is true
+with the other complementary colors. If this simple
+rule be kept clearly in mind, most of the problems of
+matching colors and of getting pleasant and harmonious
+shades can be worked out easily. It is chiefly
+a matter of practice, and perseverance.</p>
+
+<p>The student is strongly advised to attack this study
+in three ways:</p>
+
+<p>First, mix the three primary colors together in one
+bath, to form definite shades—grey, brown, olive
+green, steel blue, etc.; then dye the cloth in the bath
+to see how the colors look when on the materials and
+dried.</p>
+
+<p>Second, to dye a piece of cloth one mixed shade
+and by topping with other colors, to alter that shade
+to match some shade previously selected. For instance,
+dye a piece a good shade of reddish or copper
+brown, and then try to “kill” the red in it without
+materially deepening the shade, i.e., change it from a
+copper brown to a greyish or dirt brown of about the
+same depth of color.</p>
+
+<p>Very pretty and instructive experiments can be
+made along this line of building up soft grey shades,
+by dyeing the cloth successively in weak baths of
+the three primary colors. As fast as one color predominates,
+it can be killed by dipping into successive
+baths of the other two.</p>
+
+<p>Attractive scarfs and table covers can be made with
+a little care, by knotting the material and dyeing light<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span>
+rainbow shades of the three colors, one after the
+other, changing the knots or tied portions after each
+bath. Properly done, this will produce remarkably
+interesting, opalescent effects, each color being toned
+and softened by the other two, although predominating
+in different parts of the material.</p>
+
+<p>When, in the operation of rainbow dyeing, strongly
+contrasting colors have been used with unhappy results
+(such as the red, yellow, and blue tri-color effects
+that some students will produce) try the effects
+of toning, or “covering,” as it is often called, with
+some soft, neutral color which combines in itself all
+the contrasting tones, or else with a color that is complementary
+to the most obnoxious one, softening that
+one and strengthening the weaker shades. Grey, of
+course, can be used for this; but in general, a soft
+shade of brown will be found very valuable for taking
+the edge off of too violent contrasts. The permanganate
+brown (Manganese bronze), described in the
+first chapter, can be used with advantage for this
+purpose.</p>
+
+<p>It is not difficult for a skilful dyer to match any
+desired shade by using three complementary colors,
+red, blue, and yellow, provided, of course, that these
+are pure and unmixed. It often happens, however,
+that after matching carefully a soft mixed shade by
+daylight, the colors appear entirely different when
+viewed by artificial light, and especially by ordinary
+gaslight. Daylight, as we are accustomed to it, is
+comparatively evenly balanced in color, is in fact a
+white light. But artificial light as a rule is distinctly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span>
+colored, and it is difficult, though now not impossible,
+to find a light that so closely resembles daylight that
+colors can be matched at night.</p>
+
+<p>If the light, for instance, has a bluish tinge, like
+some kinds of electric light, it will kill the corresponding
+orange in a shade, while yellow light, such
+as commonly results from the use of oil, candles, or
+gas (less marked when incandescent mantles are
+used), dulls and even blackens lavender, violet, and
+purple shades, while having little or no effect upon
+yellow, orange, and green.</p>
+
+<p>It is therefore advisable when matching shades that
+are to be used at night not to use three-color shades
+wherever that is possible, but to get the desired soft
+effects by covering directly with grey (i.e., light
+shades of black) on top of a single or two-color shade.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_V">Chapter V<br>
+<span class="chapt_sub">THE SULPHUR COLORS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Nearly</span> thirty years ago one of the French
+color houses put on the market a new dyestuff
+which it named “Cachou de Laval”;
+Cachou being the same as catechu or “cutch,” the
+natural brown dyestuff long known and used in the
+East, and Laval being the name of the town in France
+where one of its discoverers was born.</p>
+
+<p>This dyestuff was made by heating sawdust, bran,
+turf, leaves, or other vegetable substances with the
+strongly reducing alkaline salt,<i lang="la">sodium sulphide</i>, in the
+absence of air. The product, dissolved in water,
+makes a dark green solution which, after standing in
+the air a short time, turns brown and deposits a fine
+brownish powder. Cotton or linen, heated in a fresh
+solution of this dyestuff, is colored green, but, when
+wrung out and exposed to air, the green color, which
+easily washes out, changes into a very permanent,
+though dull and uninteresting, shade of greyish brown.</p>
+
+<p>This Cachou de Laval was not a success, commercially,
+because of its poor color. It existed, however,
+as a chemical curiosity for some twelve or fourteen
+years; then suddenly, within a few months or even
+weeks of one another, all the great color houses put
+out a whole series of colors—chiefly browns, blues,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span>
+yellows, and blacks—all formed, like this old “Cachou
+de Laval,” by the action of sodium sulphide or, which
+amounts to the same thing, of sulphur and caustic
+alkali, upon organic material, and all capable of dyeing
+cotton and linen, in one bath, colors extremely
+fast to washing and generally quite fast to light, after
+they have been “set” by exposure to the air.</p>
+
+<p>While in general these are known and identified
+as the Sulphur colors, the different manufacturers
+have given special class names to their own series
+thus:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p class="noindent">Immedial (<i>Cassella</i>), Katigene (<i>Elberfeld</i>), Kyrogene
+(<i>Badische</i>), Pyrogene (<i>Klipstein</i>), Thiogene (<i>Metz</i>),
+Thion (<i>Kalle</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>These colors are used almost exclusively for dyeing
+cotton and linen, when shades fast to washing are
+required, without first putting them through a mordanting
+process. The dyeing is done in one bath,
+with little more difficulty than in the case of the Salt
+colors described in the last chapter; and, while not
+faster to light than the best of that class, they are
+not nearly so liable to bleed.</p>
+
+<p>On wool they are rarely, if ever, used. Wool is
+almost always dyed with the acid colors in an acid
+bath; and nowadays the range of these colors is so
+great and the best of them are so very satisfactory,
+that there is hardly ever a necessity for using colors
+of another class.</p>
+
+<p>Neither are these Sulphur colors often used on silk,
+although methods have been devised for employing
+them in special cases. All the animal fibres, however,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span>
+and silk especially, are very easily “tendered,” and
+indeed destroyed, by heating in an alkaline solution.
+And so it is very easy to spoil a skein or piece of
+silk by dyeing it, in the usual manner, with these
+dyes, dissolved as they must be in the strongly alkaline
+sodium sulphide.</p>
+
+<p>The presence in the bath of glucose (corn syrup,
+molasses, etc.), or of glue or gelatine, helps greatly
+to protect these fibres from the action of the chemicals.
+But even when dyed with great care, using glucose,
+and dyeing the goods for but a short time in a bath
+strong in color but weak in alkali, the results are
+not very satisfactory, so far as shade and lustre are
+concerned. They have the advantage, however, of
+being extremely fast to washing, more so, even, than
+the Salt colors. In general, however, silk should be
+dyed with the Acid colors for ordinary work, and
+with the Salt colors when fastness to washing is
+required. The Sulphur colors should be reserved for
+cotton and linen.</p>
+
+<p>On mercerized cotton and artificial silk these dyestuffs
+take easily and well, when dyed in cold or lukewarm
+baths. The lustre, however, of the finished
+goods is apt to be less than when Salt colors or Basic
+colors are used.</p>
+
+
+<h3>DYEING DIRECTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>For cotton and linen, measure out the color and
+dissolve it in hot water to which has been added twice
+its amount of sodium sulphide (crystals) and a quarter<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span>
+or third the amount of soda ash. (In all these
+formulæ washing soda may be used in place of soda
+ash—only in quantities almost twice as large.) It is
+advisable, though not absolutely necessary, to add also
+to the dye-bath one or two tablespoonfuls of Turkey
+red oil—a kind of liquid soap made by treating
+castor oil first with sulphuric acid and then with soda.
+This prevents the formation of a dark scum on the
+surface of the dye-liquor, which is likely to cause
+streaks in the finished goods, hard to wash out.</p>
+
+<p>Into the dye-liquor immerse the well-wetted goods,
+and heat them, turning them constantly, and keeping
+them as far as possible away from the air and under
+the level of the liquid. Just before the boiling point
+is reached take out the goods, and add salt in the
+proportion of, say, two spoonfuls of salt for every
+teaspoonful of dyestuff used. Stir till the salt is all
+dissolved, put the goods back, and continue to turn
+them as before, keeping the goods down under the
+liquor and not allowing it to boil.</p>
+
+<p>After dyeing just below the boiling point for fifteen
+minutes, remove the heat, take out the goods, and—as
+quickly as possible—run them carefully backward and
+forward through the wringer (changing the folds of
+the goods each time) until the excess of dye liquor
+is entirely squeezed out. Then shake them out, hang
+them up for fifteen or twenty minutes in the air to
+oxidize and “set,” and after this wash them thoroughly
+in a bath of boiling soapsuds until all the loose
+color has been removed. Finally, rinse them free
+from soap, and hang up to dry.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span></p>
+
+<p>When light shades are desired, or when the goods
+are tender, the dyeing can be done at lukewarm temperature,
+and without the addition of salt, with no
+detriment to the fastness of the color. In this case,
+however, much of the dyestuff will be wasted in the
+unexhausted dye-liquor.</p>
+
+<p><i>List of Selected Dyestuffs.</i>—</p>
+
+
+<table class="listtable">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Badische—</td>
+<td class="tdl">Kyrogene Brown, R R O</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Kyrogene Yellow, G G, extra</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Kyrogene Direct Blue, 3 B, extra</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Kyrogene Black, T G O</td>
+</tr><tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Cassella— </td>
+<td class="tdl">Immedial Bordeaux, G</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Immedial Yellow Olive, 5 G</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Immedial Direct Blue, B</td>
+</tr><tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Elberfeld—</td>
+<td class="tdl">Katigen Yellow, G F, extra</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Katigen Indigo, C L G, extra</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Katigen Deep Black, B</td>
+</tr><tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Kalle—</td>
+<td class="tdl">Thio Indigo Red, B</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Thion Yellow, 3 G, extra</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Thion Blue, B, conc.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Thion Black, G, conc.</td>
+</tr><tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Metz—</td>
+<td class="tdl">Thiogene Brown, G R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Thiogene Gold Yellow, A</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Thiogene Green, G</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Thiogene Cyanine, G</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Thiogene Black, M A, extra strong</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>These Sulphur colors are particularly strong in
+various shades of black, blue, and brown. Some of
+the yellow shades, also, are very fast and good. The
+class is deficient, however, in reds—the only one so
+far discovered being Thio Indigo Red B (<i>Kalle</i>),
+which really belongs to the Indigo or Vat colors,
+described in the next chapter, and which does not give
+very powerful shades when used as a Sulphur color.
+As a rule, these dyes produce shades that are softer,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[90]</span>
+deeper, and much less brilliant than those of the Direct
+Cotton or Salt colors. Being usually mixed, and not
+simple primary, colors, they are not very easy to dye
+to shade, especially as the color of the freshly dyed
+goods changes considerably while it is being oxidized.
+On the other hand, they give, without mixing, extremely
+pleasant tones, and are all very fast to washing
+and, at any rate as regards the selected colors,
+are fast to light.</p>
+
+<p>When exposed to strong direct sunlight some even
+of the best of them are liable to change their shade
+somewhat; but even then they will be found to fade to
+nice, soft shades not out of harmony with the original.
+When very great fastness to light is necessary, it
+may be worth while to after-treat them as described
+in Chapter III, by keeping the dyed goods for twenty
+or thirty minutes in a hot bath (not boiling) containing
+small amounts of copper sulphate, bichromate of
+potash, and acetic acid.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_VI">Chapter VI<br>
+<span class="chapt_sub">THE INDIGO OR VAT COLORS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap"><b>History.</b></span>—Most of the colors of this group
+have been discovered and put on the market
+within the last two years. Thus they form
+the most recent as well as, in many respects, the most
+interesting and, perhaps, the most important class of
+modern dyestuffs. On the other hand, to this same
+group belong not only indigo itself, which has been
+known and valued in the East from the earliest ages,
+but also that most famous of all the ancient dyestuffs,
+Tyrian Purple.</p>
+
+<p>Indigo itself does not exist as such in nature; but
+it is easily formed by oxidation, or the exposure to
+air, of a substance—Indican—which occurs as such, or
+can be produced by a simple process of fermentation,
+in the juices of many widely distributed plants. Accordingly,
+even quite barbarous races in different parts
+of the world noticed the deep permanent blue stains
+formed on their bodies and clothing when they
+crushed, accidentally or on purpose, the leaves and
+stems of the various<i lang="la">Indigoferæ</i>. Gradually they
+learned to extract the color in a solid and permanent
+form so that they could dye with it, instead of using
+the juice of the fresh plant itself—and then they
+took to cultivating the plants.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[92]</span></p>
+
+<p>These plants—<i>Indigofera Anil</i>,<i lang="la">I. tinctoria</i>, and
+others originally found wild have been, up to the
+last four or five years, extensively cultivated in many
+tropical countries, notably in India (some of the best
+qualities came from the province of Bengal, and hence
+the common name for the natural dyestuff—Bengal
+Indigo), Japan, China, Java, South and Central
+America, and Africa. From these plants the indigo
+of commerce, in the form of dark blue granular
+lumps with a characteristic coppery lustre, was prepared
+by a comparatively simple process of fermentation,
+extraction, and oxidation.</p>
+
+<p>Indigo may also be obtained, although in small
+quantities only, and in an impure condition, from
+other plants. Notably among these is<i lang="la">Isatis tinctoria</i>,
+or woad, which in early days was extensively cultivated
+in England and the Continent, and which,
+even now, is used in small quantities in some processes
+of indigo dyeing.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Artificial Indigo.</i>—The exact composition of indigo
+was first determined some sixty years ago, and from
+that time on some of the greatest chemists of the
+world have been attempting to prepare it, artificially,
+from some comparatively inexpensive source, obtained
+from coal tar or elsewhere. As early as 1875 the
+problem was solved, at least from a scientific standpoint,
+but the process proved too expensive for commercial
+purposes. During the last five years, however,
+at least two of the great German firms have
+discovered methods for making, in any desired quantities
+and at very reasonable expense, absolutely pure<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span>
+indigo from some of the important coal-tar derivatives.
+And since that time the cultivation of the indigo
+plant has proved so unprofitable that it has been
+almost entirely abandoned, and the land formerly used
+for this crop is being turned over to other and, at
+present, more useful purposes.</p>
+
+<p>This synthesis—i.e., chemical formation—of indigo
+from coal-tar products has been justly regarded as
+one of the great triumphs of modern science. Right
+here let me impress upon my readers this fact: the
+real dyestuff, indigo, is absolutely the same material,
+whether it comes mixed with a great mass of impurities,
+as in the woad; or whether it contains from
+5 to 25 per cent. of foreign matter of little or no
+value, as in the Bengal or natural indigo; or whether
+we get it from Metz or the Badische Company, chemically
+pure, either in the dry state or, thinned with
+water, in the form of a 20 per cent. paste. It is
+positively the same dye; and being absolutely without
+contamination of any kind, the artificial or synthetic
+dyestuff presents advantages in the matter of purity
+of shade, ease and surety of manipulation, and permanence
+of the color produced, which could never
+be obtained before its introduction.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Application of Indigo.</b>—The principles of indigo dyeing
+are the same now as with the Egyptians, the
+only difference being in the means used to bring
+about the chemical changes involved. Indigo itself
+is a blue solid, insoluble in water, acids, and alkalies,
+and practically unaffected by sunlight. If,
+however, the element hydrogen be added to it, or,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[94]</span>
+as the chemist would say, if it is “reduced” by the
+action of any one of numerous deoxidizing or reducing
+agents, the indigo blue is changed to a new
+substance, indigo white, which is almost colorless, and
+which dissolves, in the presence of alkalies, to a bright
+yellow liquid. If cotton, wool, paper, wood, or indeed
+almost any solid materials (noticeably the fingers and
+nails, as some of my readers may find out), are immersed
+in the solution, they will absorb some of this
+indigo white, and then, on exposure to the air, the
+white indigo will rapidly take up oxygen, and become
+converted into the insoluble blue coloring matter.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Fermentation Method.</i>—Until recently the methods
+used for reducing the indigo—i.e., changing the solid
+blue into the soluble white—were just about the same
+as those used by the ancients, and were based upon
+some kind of fermentation, usually alcoholic. It was
+found out at a very early date that if indigo, ground
+up with water to a paste and rendered alkaline by the
+addition of wood ashes, lime, or other simple alkali,
+were mixed with grape juice or any other sugary
+liquid, and then kept warm and allowed to ferment,
+the resulting fluid would contain the dyestuff dissolved
+in a form suitable for dyeing. The vessel in
+which this process was conducted was known as a
+vat, and the process of indigo dyeing is still called
+“Vat Dyeing.”</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Disadvantages.</i>—At the very best this method is slow,
+uncertain, and difficult to manage, especially on a small
+scale. In wool dyeing, to this day, a few vats are still
+to be found where syrup, ground madder root or, in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span>
+some instances, woad, wheat bran, and other materials
+which ferment readily in the presence of alkali, are
+stirred up with warm water and soda, and then allowed
+to stand. In two or three days they are in
+active fermentation, and the indigo, in the form of
+paste, is added and well stirred in. After much further
+delay, if all goes well, the indigo is finally “reduced,”
+and, if the amount of alkali, the temperature,
+the concentration of the vat, and various other factors
+are carefully attended to, the bath can be used for
+several days, or even weeks, without being made over
+again; fresh indigo and other ingredients being added,
+from time to time, as needed. Cotton, linen, wool,
+and even silk can be dipped in this bath, which should
+be light greenish yellow in color, with a blue or
+bluish-green scum or coating, where the indigo is
+oxidized on the surface. Goods immersed in this bath
+turn yellow, and then, when taken out, wrung free
+from loose liquor, and exposed to the air, the yellow
+color quickly changes to a permanent blue.</p>
+
+<p>A serious drawback to all these various fermentation
+vats is that a good deal of the dyestuff is always
+spoilt—i.e., decomposed into colorless compounds
+which can never be regenerated or made useful. Indeed,
+the loss from this cause frequently amounts to
+20% or 25% of all the dye used, and occasionally, especially
+in hot weather, and on a small scale, to far
+more.</p>
+
+<p>But, apart from the actual loss in valuable dyestuff,
+there is a much more serious drawback to this
+method of indigo dyeing, namely, the waste of time<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span>
+and energy involved. There is always a considerable
+delay in getting a fermentation vat fairly started,
+even where all the conditions are favorable; and when
+it is running smoothly, the reducing process is a very
+slow one. Furthermore, the indigo, not being dissolved
+in the liquid but only suspended in it, has a
+constant tendency to sink to the bottom in the form
+of a blue mud, and thus escape the chemical action of
+the fermentation gases entirely.</p>
+
+<p>A short time ago a teacher of handicraft dyeing
+was expatiating, in my presence, upon the impropriety
+of using any of the new chemical processes for dyeing,
+and insisted that the only way to dye indigo was
+to set up a vat, and feed it, and work with it as our
+ancestors used to. It was suggested to her that it
+would be at least two or three days before cloth
+could be dyed in such a vat. “Eight or ten days
+at the earliest,” was the reply. And when it was
+hinted that the vat would have to be frequently stirred
+during all that time, she proudly answered, “Stirred
+regularly and thoroughly every single half-hour, night
+and day, during the whole period.”</p>
+
+<p>“H—m,” remarked a bystander, “that’s a little
+worse than sitting up with a baby sick of the croup.”</p>
+
+<p>Somehow the great advantage of this particular
+process over the modern ones, by which a proper bath
+can be prepared in perhaps five minutes, failed to impress
+itself on some of her listeners.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Modern Chemical Vats.</i>—As soon as it was understood
+just what chemical action was going on in the
+vats, and the object of it, chemists began to find out<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span>
+methods for reducing the indigo without the necessity
+of a long, tedious, and even nasty fermentation process.
+They first introduced the “copperas-lime” vat, where
+the reduction was done by the use of ferrous sulphate
+(green vitriol or copperas), and slaked lime was the
+alkali used to keep the indigo white dissolved.</p>
+
+<p>Later they introduced zinc dust, a very powerful
+reducing agent, in place of the copperas, avoiding in
+this way the large amount of precipitated iron oxide
+which always forms in the copperas vat, and leads
+to the loss of dye, and muddiness and dulness of
+color, necessitating a special clearing bath of dilute
+mineral acid.</p>
+
+<p>At present the most satisfactory method is to use
+the chemical known as<i lang="la">sodium hydrosulphite</i>, as a
+reducing agent, in a bath made strongly alkaline with
+caustic soda. Hydrosulphite is not expensive; it acts
+very rapidly, leaving no sediment; it causes no loss or
+waste of the indigo; and it does its work perfectly.
+Hence, with its introduction, the dyeing of indigo
+has become extremely simple.</p>
+
+<p>To still further shorten and simplify the process,
+the large manufacturers not only furnish indigo already
+ground up to a fine paste with water, but also
+supply it already reduced by hydrosulphite or some
+other reducing agent, so that it is almost ready to dye
+with as it is, and will dissolve almost instantaneously
+in an alkaline bath with the addition of just a little
+more reducing agent. Such products are the Indigo
+Vat III (<i>Metz</i>), and the Indigo Solution 20% (<i>Badische</i>).
+By using either of these, the preparation of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[98]</span>
+a vat large enough to dye 3 or 3½ pounds of cotton
+is the task of but a few moments. These special
+preparations, however, are more expensive than the
+regular 20% pastes, and the hydrosulphite vat is so
+easy to prepare that the saving of time is hardly
+worth the extra cost.</p>
+
+
+<h3>DYEING DIRECTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>For dyeing by the Vat method the dye-pot is two-thirds
+filled with warm water, at about 120° F. (when
+the finger can hardly bear the heat), and one or two
+tablespoonfuls of caustic soda are added—enough to
+make the bath decidedly alkaline. The dyestuff, preferably
+first mixed up with some hot water, to thin
+the paste, is stirred into the liquid, and then to this is
+added sodium hydrosulphite, in powder, or preferably
+dissolved in water, until the color of the bath changes
+from blue, first to green, and then to greenish yellow,
+with a bluish-green coppery scum. If the bath is
+bright yellow, too much hydrosulphite has been used,
+and some more indigo should be added; or, if this is
+not desirable for fear of getting too dark shades, the
+bath should be exposed to the air and stirred frequently
+until the color is right. If the bath, on scraping
+aside the scum, looks blue, or even markedly green,
+it needs a little more hydrosulphite. If, after reduction,
+the bath looks yellow but turbid, it probably
+needs more alkali.</p>
+
+<p>Into this bath the material is placed, and stirred
+around until thoroughly saturated—the temperature<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span>
+being kept about 120° F. for heavy goods, to assist
+penetration. Light goods can be dyed equally well in
+a lukewarm, or even a cold bath. The goods are then
+taken out, wrung lightly by hand, and are carefully
+passed two or three times through the wringer, to get
+the color evenly distributed. They are then shaken
+out and hung up in the air to oxidize. In fifteen or
+twenty minutes, after the color has changed, they
+should be rinsed well in two or three waters, to get
+rid of all traces of the caustic alkali, and then boiled
+for several minutes in a soap bath, to wash off the
+loose dyestuff and prevent rubbing. This after-treatment
+with boiling soapsuds is of even more importance
+in the case of the other Vat dyes than it is with indigo,
+for with most of them the oxidation is not completed
+in the air—and so the color is developed as well as
+brightened by the soap bath.</p>
+
+<p>It is very important, when working with these Vat
+colors, to remember that hot solutions of caustic alkali
+are very hard on the hands and that, therefore, rubber
+gloves are extremely useful, if not essential. Stains
+left on hands, clothes, and utensils, although difficult
+to remove by washing, are almost instantly dissolved
+by warm solutions of hydrosulphite with a little soda
+or other alkali in them.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Results.</i>—Colors produced by synthetic indigo are clear
+and clean, but not brilliant. If the slightly purplish
+shades of natural indigo are desired, they can be obtained
+with special brands—Indigo R, or Indigo RR,
+<i>Metz</i>—or by mixing small quantities of Algol Red B,
+<i>Elberfeld</i>, or Thio Indigo Red B, <i>Kalle</i>, with the indigo<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span>
+before reducing it. It is generally supposed that
+the characteristic shade, the so-called “bloom” of
+natural indigo, was due to the presence of small quantities
+of a reddish dyestuff, known as indigo red. As
+a matter of fact, however, the method of dyeing has
+more to do with this than the composition of the
+dyestuff.</p>
+
+<p>For instance, if the indigo is very thoroughly reduced
+in the vat before the goods are immersed, as is
+generally the case in the modern hydrosulphite
+method, and the bath is made up with fresh reducing
+agent for each dyeing, the resultant color will be a
+very clear, rather greyish, shade of blue without any
+purple lustre. If, however, the dyestuff is not very
+perfectly reduced, as was generally the case with the
+old fermentation vats, and the bath, from standing
+in the air, has a heavy scum on the top, and is greenish
+rather than clear yellow in color below the surface,
+then the dyed fabrics will be apt to show the
+marked purplish tone which is so characteristic of the
+older indigo dyeings.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Uses.</i>—While of less importance than it used to be
+before the discoveries of the last few years, the use
+of indigo for dyeing cotton, especially for the craftsman,
+is not to be neglected. It furnishes, easily and
+rapidly, in one bath, without either boiling, mordanting,
+or after-treatment, exceedingly pleasant, soft
+shades which are fast to both light and washing. For
+resist dyeing, such as Tied and Dyed work, Resist
+Stencil work, and Batik, it will be found particularly
+useful, because the fabric can be dyed in the cold.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[101]</span></p>
+
+<p>Indigo possesses, however, certain disadvantages,
+especially for the professional dyer, which it shares
+with the other Vat dyes described below, and which
+prevent it, and the other Vat dyes, from being used
+as widely as the Salt colors or even the Sulphur colors.
+In the first place these dyes are all of them expensive.
+They cost more than most others, pound for pound of
+the dry color, and full shades need much larger proportions
+of them in the bath.</p>
+
+<p>Then it is difficult to dye to shade with them, because
+the color, as a rule, alters so much when exposed
+to the air. In practice, when dyeing large quantities
+of goods to the same shade, it is customary to divide
+the materials into several lots of the same weight; and
+to make a strong “stock solution” of the dyestuff,
+properly reduced with alkali and hydrosulphite. By
+making up a fresh vat for each lot of goods, using
+exactly the same volume of water and of “stock
+solution,” and working each lot for the same length of
+time and at the same temperature, even results can be
+produced with much less trouble than by dyeing to
+shade by the eye.</p>
+
+<p>Another drawback is that indigo-dyed goods, especially
+of the heavy full shades, are apt <ins class="corr"
+title="Transcriber's Note—removed duplicate 'to'" id="corr_to">to</ins> “rub.”
+This can best be avoided by always using a well-reduced
+bath; by washing with boiling soap after each
+dip; and by building up the deep shades by successive
+dippings in moderately weak vats, rather than by obtaining
+the shade, once for all, by using a very strong,
+concentrated dye-liquor.</p>
+
+<p>For many hundreds, and even thousands, of years,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[102]</span>
+indigo has been universally recognized as the most permanent
+and most valuable blue dyestuff for cotton
+and indeed for woolen goods. For the latter purpose
+it is now but little used, thanks to the introduction
+of the exceedingly fast dyestuffs of the Acid and Mordant
+classes. But for cotton it is still considerably
+used, for fast shades.</p>
+
+
+<h3>THE MODERN VAT COLORS</h3>
+
+<p>Up to a very recent date indigo was the only dyestuff,
+of any importance at any rate, that was used
+in the manner just described, and produced colors
+fast to light and to washing. During the past three
+or four years, however, the attention of the dyeing
+chemists has been directed to this question, and at
+least five of the great dye houses have introduced
+dyestuffs covering a great range of colors which, when
+dyed in the same way as indigo, not only rival but
+distinctly surpass that color in permanence as well as
+beauty.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Names.</b>—These dyestuffs, while known generally as
+the Vat colors, have been given special class names by
+their manufacturers, as follows: Algol (<i>Elberfeld</i>);
+Ciba (<i>Klipstein</i>); Helindone (<i>Metz</i>); Indanthrene
+(<i>Badische</i>), and Thio Indigo (<i>Kalle</i>). The Cassella
+Company are just introducing the first members of
+their series, to be known as Hydrons.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>List of Selected Dyestuffs</b>:—</p>
+
+
+<table class="listtable">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Badische—</td>
+
+<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Indanthrene Claret, B, Extra</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+
+<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Indanthrene Yellow, G</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+
+<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Indanthrene Blue, G C D</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">*</td>
+<td class="tdl">Indigo pure</td>
+</tr>
+<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
+
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Cassella—<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[103]</span></td>
+<td class="tdl">*</td>
+<td class="tdl">Hydrone Blue, R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">*</td>
+<td class="tdl">Hydrone Blue, G</td>
+</tr>
+<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Elberfeld—</td>
+
+<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Algol Red, 5 G</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+
+<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Algol Yellow, 3 G</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+
+<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Algol Blue, 3 G</td>
+</tr><tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Kalle—</td>
+<td class="tdl">*</td>
+<td class="tdl">Thio Indigo Red, B G</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">*</td>
+<td class="tdl">Thio Indigo Scarlet, S</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+
+<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Thio Indigo Brown, G</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">*</td>
+<td class="tdl">Indigo, K G</td>
+</tr>
+<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Klipstein—</td>
+
+<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Ciba Red, G</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+
+<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Cibanone Yellow, R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+
+<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Ciba Green, G</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+
+<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Ciba Blue, 2 B</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+
+<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Ciba Violet, R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Metz—</td>
+
+<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Helindone Red, 3 B</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+
+<td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl">Helindone Fast Scarlet, R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">*</td>
+<td class="tdl">Helindone Yellow, 3 G N</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">*</td>
+<td class="tdl">Indigo M L B, 6 B</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<p class="center pb2">
+N.B.—The dyestuffs marked * will dye in a lukewarm or even cold bath.<br>
+</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Properties and Uses.</b>—These Vat dyes are not all
+of equal value, but as a class they are, distinctly,
+the fastest of any as yet introduced; and the best
+of them may properly be considered as the most
+permanent coloring agents of any sort or kind that
+have ever yet appeared on the earth. They not only
+far surpass in this respect the best of the vegetable
+dyestuffs, with the possible exception of the very best
+qualities of Turkey red, but in resistance to chemicals
+and outside agencies of various sorts, are much
+better than the best mineral colors. This is so much
+the case that the modern specifications for dyed cloth
+for Government purposes, as for instance the khaki
+uniforms for soldiers in active service, which up to
+a year or two ago were dyed with iron buff modified<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span>
+with oxide of chromium, have been raised, in one
+country after another, until they exclude every class
+of dyestuffs except these new Vat colors.</p>
+
+<p>During the last year or two these dyes have been
+introduced, though with some difficulty, into commerce,
+and it is possible to obtain shirtings and other
+printed goods, dyed in permanent colors, so permanent
+indeed that the cloth will wear completely out before
+the color changes in the slightest. The extra cost of
+the dyestuffs, and the comparative difficulty of dyeing
+to shade, furnish an excuse for increasing the price
+of the goods. And the perhaps not unnatural disinclination
+of the shopkeepers to push the sale of materials
+which, in their opinion, are quite unnecessarily
+fast, has combined with the cost to delay the general
+adoption of these remarkably valuable coloring
+agents.</p>
+
+<p>For craftsmen, however, where the price of the
+dyestuffs constitutes such a small percentage of the
+cost of the finished article, and where the absolute permanence
+of the color is of the utmost importance, these
+colors are most useful. They are not to be used,
+excepting under special circumstances, for animal
+fibres—wool, silk, leather, feathers, etc.—for fear of
+injuring the materials by the action of the caustic
+alkali. But on cotton and linen, both in direct or
+resist dyeing, and for stencil work, there are no colors
+to compare with them in fastness, not excepting even
+the very best of the Sulphur colors.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[105]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3>DYEING DIRECTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>These dyes are all applied, just like indigo, in an
+alkaline hydrosulphite vat. The colors are applied
+in paste form, usually 20% strong, or at any rate
+equivalent in strength to a 20% paste of pure indigo.
+Care must be taken to thoroughly mix and stir up this
+paste with a glass rod, in the original package, each
+time it is used, so as to keep its composition uniform.</p>
+
+<p>The proper amount, to be determined only by experience,
+is first thinned with a little hot water, and
+then stirred into the dye-pot, two-thirds full of hot
+water, about 140° F. (This is well below a boil, and
+yet hot enough to slightly scald the tips of the fingers.)
+To this is added caustic soda, in the proportion
+of two to three spoonfuls to each one of the
+color, the amount of soda being proportionately
+greater for light shades than where large amounts
+of color are used.</p>
+
+<p>After this has been dissolved the dyestuff is reduced
+by adding slowly, with constant stirring, spoonful
+after spoonful of the powdered sodium hydrosulphite
+until the bath clears and generally the color
+changes. In most cases, as with indigo, the completion
+of the reducing change can be told by a marked
+alteration in the shade of the bath.</p>
+
+<p>Thus, in general, the blue dyes, like indigo, turn
+yellow or orange when the proper amount of hydrosulphite
+is added. For the other colors there is no
+general rule. Thus Indanthrene Yellow (<i>Badische</i>),
+when reduced, is blue—while the Helindone Yellow<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[106]</span>
+(<i>Metz</i>) is blood red. Helindone Scarlets (<i>Metz</i>),
+when reduced, appear green, while the Thio Indigo
+Red and Scarlet have about the same color, when reduced,
+that they have when oxidized.</p>
+
+<p>The best way to tell whether the bath is in proper
+condition is to dip a piece of white blotting paper into
+it, and notice, on taking it out, whether the color is in
+specks or is dissolved. On standing in the air for a
+few minutes the color should become oxidized, and
+firmly fixed to the paper. As a rule these Vat colors
+should be reduced warm, because, in many cases at
+least, the reduced color does not dissolve in a bath of
+cold alkali. In most cases, however, after having
+been reduced at a temperature of about 140° F, the
+bath may be allowed to cool considerably, before it
+loses its dyeing value. This enables these colors to
+be used for Batik, or other processes where the temperature
+must be kept below 80° or 90° F. The dyestuffs
+which can be thus used will be found marked
+with an asterisk in the list of selected dyestuffs above.</p>
+
+<p>The well-wetted materials are placed in the reduced
+dye-bath, and stirred and worked for five or ten
+minutes, or longer, according to the depth of shade
+experienced. For full shades, however, as in the
+case of indigo, it is much better to build up the color
+by successive dippings than to try to put it all on in
+one bath. For heavy goods the addition of a little
+Turkey red oil, about half a tablespoonful to the
+gallon, is an advantage, though not absolutely necessary.
+When thoroughly impregnated with the dye-liquor,
+the goods are taken out, wrung carefully, two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[107]</span>
+or three times, to remove the waste liquor as evenly
+as possible, and then shaken out and exposed to the
+air for fifteen or twenty minutes. They are then
+boiled in a soap bath for about twenty minutes, and
+then well rinsed, and dried. This hot soap bath, as
+before mentioned, is of great importance in most of
+these colors, not only for getting rid of loosely fixed
+dyestuff, but for oxidizing and fixing the color itself.</p>
+
+<p>For dark shades it is well, as in the case of the
+Sulphur colors, to add salt—three or four tablespoonfuls
+per gallon of dye-liquor—to the bath, taking care
+to have it well dissolved before the goods are entered.
+This is always done when dyeing with Helindone Yellow
+3GN, <i>Metz</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The shades of these new Vat colors are extremely
+bright and clear, and, by combining these properly,
+any desired effects may be produced. The splendid
+series of reds and scarlets for the first time allow the
+characteristic shades of Turkey red to be obtained, in
+one bath, and of at least equal, if not of superior
+fastness to the original. One peculiarity of these
+colors is their extreme fastness, not only to light and
+washing, acids and alkalies, but also to various oxidizing
+agents, such as chloride of lime or bleaching
+powder. Accordingly goods properly dyed and finished
+with these dyestuffs can be entrusted with safety,
+so far as the color goes, to agencies which would
+speedily ruin fabrics dyed in any other manner.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_VII">Chapter VII<br>
+<span class="chapt_sub">THE BASIC COLORS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">In</span> an earlier chapter it was mentioned that the
+modern dyestuffs originated with the discovery
+by Perkin, in 1856, of the violet coloring matter
+known as Mauveine. This dye was made by the oxidation
+of the then rare chemical, aniline. Following
+this discovery, other chemists, especially in France
+and Germany, soon obtained from the same chemical
+or from substances very closely resembling it, a considerable
+quantity of powerful and brilliant dyestuffs
+of the same general character.</p>
+
+<p>The original Mauveine was before long superseded,
+first by Hofmann’s Violet, and then by a very important
+series of violet and purple dyes known as
+Methyl Violet, with shades ranging from 6 or 7B
+for the deep, full purples, to the 6 or 7R for the
+very red shades. These violet colors have never been
+surpassed, or even equalled by any other dyes for
+brilliancy and richness, although, in common with
+almost all the other dyes of this class, they are not
+fast to sunlight.</p>
+
+<p>Another extremely powerful and brilliant color of
+this class, used considerably to this day although discovered
+nearly fifty years ago, is the dye often called,
+from its origin, Aniline Red. It was, however, named<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span>
+by the German manufacturers, Fuchsine, from its rich,
+full, crimson shades, resembling the deep tints of
+the flower, fuchsia, while the French, who discovered
+and manufactured it soon after the close of Louis
+Napoleon’s Italian campaign, called it Magenta, after
+the famous victory of that name.</p>
+
+<p>About this time some German chemists discovered
+and introduced a full, rich, brown dye, still largely
+used for dyeing leather (kid gloves and the like),
+and, naturally enough, gave it the name of Bismarck
+Brown. And at approximately the same date was
+discovered the very valuable blue dyestuff, perhaps
+the best of the whole class, with quite a range of
+full, deep shades, and with considerable fastness to
+light, called Methylene Blue.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>General Properties.</b>—The early colors of this group
+are the dyestuffs properly known as the “Aniline
+Colors” because of their origin; although this name
+has been applied, loosely, to all of the thousands of
+artificial dyestuffs without regard to their source of
+composition. To the chemist, their chemical structure
+and their behavior toward reagents, such as acids and
+alkalies, naturally suggested the name “Basic Colors.”
+This means that they are substances with strong affinity
+for all sorts of acids, with which they form
+more or less stable salts, while they can be liberated
+from these salts by the action of stronger bases, such
+as ammonia, or the fixed alkalies, soda and potash.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Application.</b>—These facts were discovered by Perkin
+while trying to introduce his Mauveine into the dyeing
+industry, and he discovered the methods, used<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span>
+to this day, for applying these dyes to the different
+textile materials. He found that the dyes of this
+class have a strong affinity for the different animal
+fibres, such as wool, silk, leather, etc., all of which
+seem to possess some acid properties of their own;
+but pure vegetable materials, like cotton, linen, and
+paper, from which all impurities such as vegetable
+acids, gums, etc., have been removed, have no affinity
+at all for even the most powerful of the Basic dyes.
+A cotton handkerchief, boiled for hours in a strong
+solution of Methyl Violet, can be washed in a few
+minutes clear of every particle of color, while a piece
+of silk or wool, soaked for an instant in the same dye-bath,
+will be permanently stained, deep and full.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Cotton, Linen, etc.</i>—In order to fasten these dyes to
+vegetable fibre it is necessary to give the latter a distinctly
+acid character, and this was done by Perkin
+in a manner still used. He steeped the material for
+several hours in a hot bath of the acid vegetable compound,
+tannic acid or tannin, found so largely in
+hemlock and chestnut bark, sumac leaves, nut-galls,
+and the like; and then loosely fixed the tannin, thus
+absorbed, by a weak bath of tartar emetic. Cotton or
+linen fabrics, thus “mordanted,” will combine with
+the Basic dyes as readily and as firmly as any animal
+fibre, and the resulting colors, while not, as a rule,
+fast to light, are extremely fast to washing.</p>
+
+<p>Since the introduction of the direct cotton dyes,
+both Salt colors and Sulphur colors, this method of
+dyeing, for skeins or piece goods, has been largely discontinued;
+but, by using a modification of this process,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span>
+enormous quantities of Basic colors are still employed,
+on cotton and linen, in the manufacture of
+calicoes, organdies, and other printed fabrics.</p>
+
+<p>Curiously enough the Salt and the Sulphur colors,
+in almost every instance, possess sufficient acid properties
+of their own to act as very fair mordants for
+the Basic colors. Accordingly, it is not uncommon
+for dyers to “top,” with Basic colors, cotton or
+linen goods dyed directly. In the case of the Salt colors,
+this increases their fastness to washing, and with
+Sulphur colors it makes the shades more brilliant.</p>
+
+<p>Most vegetable materials that are used in a more
+or less natural condition, like straw, raffia, grass,
+wood-shavings, jute, and the like, contain enough
+of this natural tannic acid to act as a mordant for the
+Basic colors, which may in this direction be used as
+direct dyes.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Wool, Silk, etc.</i>—For animal fibres, such as wool, silk,
+furs, feathers, etc., the Basic colors have been almost
+entirely superseded, in commerce, by the class of dyestuffs
+known as the Acid colors. These occur in
+much greater abundance and variety, and can be applied
+with less danger of spoiling the goods by uneven
+results. For leather, on the other hand, the Basic
+colors are still largely used, especially for dark
+shades, or when fastness to light is not particularly
+desired. On bark-tanned leather, which is full of tannic
+acid, they take hold particularly well, and are
+often more convenient to work with than the Acid
+colors, although they do not, as a rule, give such even
+results.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span></p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Uses.</b>—On a small scale it is hardly worth while for
+the amateur to try to use these Basic colors for dyeing
+either cotton or linen. The difficulty of correctly
+and evenly mordanting the goods is quite as great as
+that of applying the dyes afterward. And the Sulphur
+colors and Vat colors will be found quite as
+fast to washing as the best mordanted Basic colors,
+with the additional advantage of being very much
+faster to light, as well as easier of application.</p>
+
+<p>By using some of the methods of the calico printer,
+it is possible to employ these dyes, with some success,
+for stencilling. But even for this purpose, excepting,
+perhaps, on silk, the modern Vat colors are
+more convenient, as well as being infinitely more
+permanent to light.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Disadvantages.</i>—The chief drawback to the use of
+these dyes is that they are not fast to light. Several
+of them—Methylene Blue, for instance, and Methylene
+Heliotrope O (<i>Metz</i>)—are fairly fast, but the
+rest, especially in light shades, and on transparent or
+translucent fabrics, are liable, when exposed to sunlight
+for any length of time, to alter their shade to a
+very marked degree.</p>
+
+<p>For dark shades this is not so noticeable, for, when
+goods are strongly colored, the effect of the sunlight
+on at least the deeper portions of the fibre is
+largely counteracted by the color of the goods themselves.
+So, too, an opaque material, like leather, will
+hold the same shade of color distinctly longer than
+silk or, especially, artificial silk, where the sunlight
+strikes through and through the fibre, without any<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span>
+protection at all. But, generally speaking, these dyes
+will not stand strong sunlight.</p>
+
+<p>Nor are the shades of these Basic dyes, as a rule,
+as attractive as those of other classes. The strong
+and brilliant, not to say coarse, shades of Methyl Violet,
+Malachite Green, Aniline Red, and the rest, which
+created such a sensation when they first appeared in
+the early sixties, were the particular colors which provoked
+John Ruskin to vehement, if not unparliamentary
+remarks. When unmixed they certainly do harrow
+the feelings of those artistically inclined, as much
+now as then. They are rarely seen now, for the
+taste of the public has been sufficiently educated to
+make a demand for softer shades. As before explained,
+nothing is easier than to soften these fierce,
+harsh colors to most beautiful and harmonious tints
+by mixing into them a mere trace of their complementaries.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Advantages.</i>—In spite of all that can be said against
+them, these cheap, brilliant, and very powerful dyes
+are not to be despised, and should still be found in the
+outfit of a well-equipped dyer. For straw, raffia, chips,
+willow, and other materials used so largely for hats
+and for basket-work, these dyes are distinctly valuable,
+and, if supplemented by fast Acid colors for light
+shades, or for particularly fast effects, will be found
+satisfactory enough. So, too, for leather they will be
+found extremely useful, excepting where delicate
+shades, fast to light, are required.</p>
+
+<p>Some kinds of artificial silk, also, especially those
+made from nitro-cellulose and hence possessed of acid<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[114]</span>
+properties, dye far better with these than with any
+other dyes, although, as explained above, the colors
+will be far from permanent.</p>
+
+<p>For the craftsman, the fastness to washing of these
+dyes is a matter of very little importance, because
+they are used by him so exclusively upon materials
+such as basketry, leather, and artificial silk, which are
+never exposed to rough handling in boiling soap and
+water.</p>
+
+<p>As regards their fastness to light, the greater number
+of these must be classed as belonging to the fourth
+class, i.e., distinctly fugitive in character. On the
+other hand, some special ones can be selected from
+the group which are not only distinctly faster than
+the rest, but are fast enough to be well up in the
+third class, or can at a stretch, be placed in the second
+class, i.e., can be considered as satisfactory, at any
+rate, against any but very severe exposure.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>The Fastest Basic Colors.</b>—Among these may be
+placed the well-known dyestuff, Methylene Blue, perhaps
+the most satisfactory of the whole class. A
+very good color also is Methylene Heliotrope O
+(<i>Metz</i>), which, while less brilliant, is far faster than
+the many brands of Methyl Violet, Hofmann’s Violet,
+and the rest, which to most dyers are the characteristic
+basic violets.</p>
+
+<p>For blacks, many composite dyes are on the market,
+made by the different color houses, known as Leather
+Blacks. These are fast enough, for deep shades, but
+not to be trusted when thinned down to form greys.
+The fastest individual basic black is Diazine Black,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span>
+(<i>Kalle</i>), and this should be used for the lighter
+shades.</p>
+
+<p>The Red and Yellow colors are distinctly less satisfactory.
+None of them can really be considered
+better much than third class. Of the Reds the best
+is probably the color known as Safranine, different
+brands of which, giving as a rule the yellow shades,
+are manufactured by the various color houses; one
+brand being about as fast as another. For the bluish
+shades of red, probably the fastest is Diazine Red,
+(<i>Kalle</i>).</p>
+
+<p>As regards Yellow, the list is even more unsatisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>There is a very beautiful golden yellow, known
+as Auramine O, manufactured by most of the color
+houses, which, however, is hardly fast enough to be
+in the third class. This dyestuff, by the way, is
+injured by boiling, and therefore should never be
+used in a dye-bath heated to over 130° or 140°
+Fahrenheit. Less pleasing in shade, but somewhat
+faster to sunlight, are the rather orange or brownish
+yellows known as New Phosphine G (<i>Cassella</i>), and
+Methylene Yellow (<i>Metz</i>). Somewhat brighter colors,
+though less fast to light, are produced by Thio flavine
+T. None of these, however, compares in fastness to
+the selected colors of any other class in this book.</p>
+
+<p>The various brands of the common dyestuff, Bismarck
+Brown, are largely used for leather, and while
+probably inferior in fastness to any of the colors
+mentioned above, are not found in commercial practice
+too fugitive to be pretty satisfactory. When, however,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[116]</span>
+materials are liable to be exposed for any length
+of time, two or three weeks in succession, to direct
+powerful sunlight, it will generally be advisable to
+use mixed browns made from fast Acid colors.</p>
+
+<p>Upon the whole, although we are still frequently
+called upon to employ them, they must, from the
+craftsman’s standpoint, always be considered as untrustworthy.
+They should, therefore, never be used
+where dyestuffs of any other class can be made to
+take their place.</p>
+
+
+<h3>DYEING DIRECTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>The application of Basic colors to leather dyeing
+will be discussed later. We shall now discuss their
+application to basketry materials, such as straw, raffia,
+willow, and the like, where they will be found useful.</p>
+
+<p>It will at once be noticed that these dyestuffs are
+far more powerful than any thus far met with in
+these lessons. Indeed, while there will be needed, for
+full shades of the Vat colors, pastes from about 15%
+to 20% of the total weight of the dry materials, of the
+Sulphur colors from 7% to 10%, of the Salt colors
+from 4% to 6%, and of the Acid colors from 1½% to
+about 3%, most of these Basic colors will give very
+full shades with from ½% to 1% of the total weight
+of dry material.</p>
+
+<p>These Basic colors do not dissolve readily in water,
+but are easily soluble in alcohol, and also in even
+very dilute acids. Acids form salts with the dyestuffs
+and these salts dissolve when the free coloring matters<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[117]</span>
+do not. Accordingly the Basic colors should always
+be dissolved carefully in a separate cup or vessel, using
+hot water, and adding, for each spoonful of dyestuff,
+two or three spoonfuls of acetic acid or, if more convenient,
+of strong vinegar.</p>
+
+<p>The color, thus dissolved, should be added to warm
+water in the dye-pot, preferably through a fine strainer
+or piece of cheesecloth, to avoid any undissolved particles
+which would cause spots. The well-wetted goods
+are immersed in this dye-bath, and turned, either in the
+cold or with gentle heat, until the desired shade is
+reached, or the bath is exhausted. The material is
+then taken out, rinsed once or twice in water, cold
+or warm, carefully dried, and, if necessary, straightened
+and pressed or ironed out.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Straw.</i>—Care must be taken when dyeing these materials
+to have them quite free from grease and dirt,
+before dyeing them. If they do not wet readily and
+evenly, after being soaked in warm water for a couple
+of hours, they should be carefully washed in warm
+soapsuds, and thoroughly rinsed. The soap, however,
+should be of good quality and, especially with straw,
+either in the form of straw braid or made up into
+hats, no soda or other free alkali should be allowed
+in the bath, for fear of injuring the surface and destroying
+the gloss. This last is sometimes improved
+by dipping the straw, after dyeing and rinsing, into
+a weak bath of Castile (olive oil) soap, or of Turkey
+red oil (about one tablespoonful to the gallon), before
+it is dried.</p>
+
+<p>In dyeing straw, the greatest pains must be taken<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[118]</span>
+to dye it evenly. Braid should be tied up in loose
+hanks or bundles, so that the dyestuff can penetrate
+readily into every part; and with a loop of tape or
+string, by which it can be raised or lowered in the dye-bath.
+It should be kept in motion sufficiently to cause
+uniform circulation of the liquid. The dye-bath
+should not be too strong, especially at the beginning,
+and should be heated slowly to the boiling point, where
+it should be kept for half an hour or so, to insure
+penetration. It is best to add the dyestuff in small
+portions, from time to time, as the bath becomes exhausted,
+lifting the goods out of the bath each time,
+and stirring in the new color before putting the goods
+back again. If the goods once become uneven it is
+very hard, if not impossible, to get them level again,
+or to strip them fully, without spoiling the materials.
+The best thing to do, if this misfortune overtakes
+them, is to dye them some dark color, where minor
+irregularities will be covered up and pass unnoticed.
+In other words, “Dump it in the black,” as the dyers
+say.</p>
+
+<p>Ladies’ straw hats are dyed in just the same way as
+the loose braid, the same care being taken to clean and
+wet the goods thoroughly, and to dye evenly. It is
+often of interest to experiment with old hats of good
+material, but faded, and to dye them up some pleasant
+new shade, and the ribbons and trimmings to match.
+Sometimes the remains of the old coloring will strip
+well by washing in hot soapsuds, and sometimes by
+soaking in warm water containing about one tablespoonful
+to the gallon of<i lang="la">sodium hydrosulphite</i>—the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[119]</span>
+same salt that was used as a reducing agent for the
+Vat colors in the last chapter.</p>
+
+<p>If the color comes out well, it is then easy enough,
+after thoroughly rinsing, to dye them any desired
+shade. Otherwise they can be dyed Navy Blue, with
+a good shade of Methylene Blue and a trace of red,
+or Seal Brown, using a large amount of red and a
+little yellow and blue; or they can be dyed black with
+a black dye, such as one of the so-called Leather
+Blacks, usually made by mixing a deep purple with
+a yellow, or one of the strong, powerful Basic greens
+with red.</p>
+
+<p>In general, a well dyed piece of braid is supposed
+to show smooth, even coloring, good gloss, and good
+penetration of the dyestuff into the folds of the straw.
+There are, however, decided possibilities for the intelligent
+worker to obtain more interesting effects
+with but little trouble. It is very easy to use the
+principles, already explained, of rainbow dyeing, for
+straw braid, and beautiful effects can be obtained in
+this way, though it would need an artistic as well as
+an experienced milliner to fully utilize the same in
+making hats. But it frequently happens, when dyeing
+coarse braid without boiling, that the dye penetrates
+unevenly, from the edge towards the centre.
+Very pretty shaded effects can be produced in this
+way, the general color being uniform, and yet the
+straw, when looked at closely, showing tints instead
+of one flat, uniform shade. By dyeing the straw a
+solid color first, and then shading it in this manner<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span>
+with a different color, very interesting effects can be
+produced.</p>
+
+<p>It may be worth while to mention here that, when
+bought at wholesale places, it is astonishing how cheap
+the raw materials are. Bodies of straw, chip, etc.,
+framing wire, white satin ribbon, artificial flowers,
+wing feathers, etc., from which not only pretty but
+even handsome and elegant head coverings can be
+created, and cost next to nothing at wholesale. The
+mechanical part of dyeing all these things can be
+learned in a very short time; after that the possibilities
+for a skilled worker, who has a good eye for color and
+can dye to the desired shades herself without having
+to hunt them far and near, are very large.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Raffia.</i>—This is a material so widely used in the public
+schools, as well as by craftsmen, for weaving baskets,
+that it is well worth while to pay more attention to
+the dyeing of it. It is quite cheap, and very bulky,
+and takes these colors extremely well. So that it is
+one of the most satisfactory of all raw materials to
+experiment with, especially if there is a school or
+workshop at hand, where the dyed goods can be
+utilized.</p>
+
+<p>The raffia should be shaken out thoroughly, and
+soaked in soft water over night, or at least for several
+hours, to thoroughly wet and soften it. If even
+shades are desired it can then be dyed, just like straw
+braid, in a warm dye-bath containing the dyestuff,
+previously dissolved in diluted acetic acid or vinegar.</p>
+
+<p>It is much more interesting, however, to dye it rainbow
+shades from the start. If red, blue, and yellow<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[121]</span>
+dyestuffs are dissolved separately, in different cups or
+pitchers, these solutions can be used to replenish the
+large dye-pots of the same colors. To keep the colors
+reasonably clear, and prevent them from speedily degenerating
+into “mud,” it is well to keep on hand one
+or two rinsing-pots, full of warm water, or to have a
+sink near at hand, where each hank or bundle of raffia
+should be rinsed after being taken out of one dye-pot
+and before going into the next.</p>
+
+<p>The raffia, when thoroughly wetted out, should, for
+convenience’ sake, be made up into separate loosely-tied
+bundles, with a loop on each by which to handle it
+in the dye-bath without staining the hands. It is
+well, too, to have some oil-cloth around, for these
+bundles drip a good deal, and the dye-liquor will
+stain anything of an animal or vegetable nature with
+which it comes in contact. After a little experimenting
+with dipping these bundles first into the first dye-pot
+and then—rinsing each time—into the other two,
+it will be easy to get the general effect of any particular
+shade, although, when examined closely, the
+fibre will show the presence of all three colors.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to notice, here, as previously with
+the Salt colors, how easy it is to modify and soften
+the harsh shades of the individual unmixed dyestuffs.
+And, as before, it is very interesting as well as very
+useful to dye some bundles even shades of some important
+compound color, such as brown, for instance,
+or olive green, or steel grey, and to notice how the
+color is changed on the fibre by adding a little more
+red, or yellow, or blue to the bath.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span></p>
+
+<p>The “eye for color” obtained in this way is of the
+greatest possible advantage to a dyer, whether amateur
+or professional; and where, as in this case, the
+materials are cheap, easy to dye, and possible to utilize,
+every advantage should be taken of the opportunity.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Permanent Colors on Basketry.</b>—While for most purposes
+the straw, raffia chips, willows, etc., dyed with
+Basic colors will be found satisfactory enough, it is
+best for craftsmen who are making a specialty of very
+high-grade baskets, to use some of the fast Acid
+colors, described and listed in the next chapter, for
+their reds and yellows, and for all mixed shades in
+which these two colors play an important part. The
+Acid dyes are applied in a boiling bath, with the addition
+of a little acetic acid, and, while not fast to washing,
+and not imparting their colors as readily as the
+Basic dyes, can be thoroughly depended upon, even
+in light and delicate shades, against the action of sunlight.
+Salt dyes can also be used, in a boiling bath
+with the addition of some salt, but, excepting in some
+special cases, are not superior to the Acid dyes, although
+somewhat faster to washing.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_VIII">Chapter VIII<br>
+<span class="chapt_sub">THE ACID COLORS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> discovery and introduction into commerce
+of Mauveine and the other Basic dyes, focussed
+the attention of chemists, all over the
+world, upon this new and important application of
+their science. And it was soon noticed that certain
+organic bodies, of a decidedly<em>acid</em> character, had
+the power of dyeing wool and silk. These early dyes
+were so-called “nitro” compounds, formed by the
+action of strong nitric acid upon derivatives of coal
+tar, and in most cases they gave strong and brilliant,
+but rather fugitive, shades of yellow. The most
+interesting of these, perhaps, was the compound
+known as “picric acid,” which at one time was considerably
+used for dyeing silk yellow. Now it has
+been abandoned for that purpose but is manufactured
+on an enormous scale for use as an explosive.</p>
+
+<p>These original acid dyes were of little importance.
+But in the early seventies chemists began to make
+use of a reaction—known as “diazotizing”—for
+making new organic compounds by the coupling of
+aniline or bodies similar to aniline, with all sorts and
+kinds of other compounds derived from coal tar.
+The number of derivatives of this sort proved enormous,
+and many of them had more or less valuable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span>
+dyeing properties. And in a very short time new
+dyestuffs had been discovered, good, bad, and indifferent,
+numbering not hundreds, but thousands.</p>
+
+<p>A very few of these so-called “Azo” dyes were
+of the Basic class, like Bismarck Brown, mentioned
+in the last chapter. Others, discovered ten or fifteen
+years later, constituted the class of Direct Cotton
+colors or Salt colors. But the great bulk of these
+colors belonged to the so-called “Acid” class, forming
+salts with bases and alkalies, and being liberated
+from the salts by strong acids.</p>
+
+<p>The number of Acid Azo colors is very large. In
+the catalogues of commercial coal-tar colors there are
+some two hundred and fifty of these dyes which have
+been picked out of the rest as having sufficient value
+to be carefully described, and to have been placed
+on the market by the great dye houses. Most of
+these are red and orange colors, with a few yellows.
+As a rule they are brilliant and clear, but, with a
+few exceptions, not particularly fast to light.</p>
+
+<p>When these were introduced it was soon recognized
+that they were of practically no value for cotton and
+linen. They are as a rule much more soluble than
+the Basic dyes of the foregoing chapter, and hence
+are occasionally used as stains for wood, rattan, and
+other vegetable materials where considerable penetration
+is needed, without fastness to washing. But
+such use is of little importance.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Properties.</b>—Acid dyes are almost exclusively employed
+for dyeing wool, silk, feathers, and other animal
+fibres, and for this they are extremely valuable.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[125]</span>
+The introduction of the Acid Azo colors so simplified
+and improved the dyeing of wool and silk,
+that every effort was made to increase the range of
+colors. And when it was found that the Azo colors
+were weak on the line of blue, purple, and green, efforts
+were made, which after several years proved
+successful, to change the various powerful Basic dyes,
+the Methyl Violets, Fuchsin or Aniline Red, Aniline
+Blue, Malachite Green, and the rest, into Acid dyes,
+so that they could all be used in the same dye-baths.
+This has resulted in a very wide range of colors indeed,
+for the Acid Azo colors cover fully all the
+shades of yellow, orange, and especially of red, from
+scarlets of all sorts and kinds to deep full crimsons.
+And then the remaining shades are covered by the
+acidified or sulphonated Basic colors.</p>
+
+<p>These latter, by the way, though very brilliant and
+strong and rich, are no faster to light than the original
+Basic colors from which they are derived. Of late
+years the Acid colors have held their own, and still
+monopolize the commercial, as well as the special, dyeing
+of wool and silk excepting under unusual circumstances,
+when considerable fastness to washing is required.</p>
+
+<p>With these dyes, as in the case of the Basic dyes,
+the fastness to washing is of little or no consequence
+to the craftsman. Nobody expects to scrub hand-dyed
+leather; and woollen and silk goods, unless specially
+prepared, are not supposed to be turned over to the
+tender mercies of the family laundress. However, it
+may be well to emphasize here the fact that these dyes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span>
+are as a rule “stripped” quite readily by boiling in
+a neutral soap bath. And when the craftsman wishes
+to dye wool or silk fast to washing, he must either
+use the Salt dyes, in a boiling bath, or must dye, with
+special precautions against tendering, with either the
+Sulphur or the Vat Dyes.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to light-fastness, however, the case is
+different. A great many hundreds, possibly even
+thousands, of Acid dyes have been discovered, and
+scores of them, covering every shade, can be obtained
+in the open market. Most of these are of but little
+permanence, but a few products, from each of the great
+color houses, can be selected, whose fastness to light
+is extremely satisfactory. The dyes in the following
+list can hardly be considered as fast as the Vat dyes,
+previously described, but are probably faster, as a
+class, than any other class mentioned in this book.
+They would rank at the very top of the second class,
+and some at least would fairly enter the first class, being
+absolutely satisfactory against even the strongest
+sunlight.</p>
+
+<p>A series of skeins, dyed all colors of the rainbow,
+including many delicate light shades, with a red, yellow,
+and blue dye of those mentioned below, withstood
+an exposure test which quite ruined a similar
+set of skeins dyed with the very best natural dyestuffs.
+And a large hand-woven rug, made of wool
+dyed light shades with the same dyes, was placed for
+two weeks on a roof in New York, half of it being
+covered with boards and the rest exposed to the direct
+action of the July sunlight, and at the end of this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[127]</span>
+time it was impossible to notice any difference in
+shade.</p>
+
+<p>The colors in the following list are to be used, principally,
+for wool. They will all dye silk, leather, and
+feathers, but in the chapters dealing with those materials
+some additional dyes may be mentioned, which
+are specially suited for them.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>List of Selected Dyes.</i>—</p>
+
+<table class="listtable">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Badische—</td>
+<td class="tdl">Palatine Scarlet A, 3 R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Palatine Light Yellow, R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Tartrazine (yellow)</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Wool Fast Blue, B L</td>
+</tr>
+<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Cassella—</td>
+<td class="tdl">Brilliant Cochineal, R R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Acid Yellow, A T, conc.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Tetracyanol, S F</td>
+</tr>
+<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Elberfeld—</td>
+<td class="tdl">Azo Crimson, S</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Fast Red, A</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Fast Yellow, 3 G</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Alizarine Blue, S A P</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Cashmere Black, 3 B N</td>
+</tr>
+<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Kalle—</td>
+<td class="tdl">Biebrich Acid Red, 2 B</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Wool Yellow, T A</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Nero cyanine Blue, B</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Nero cyanine Black, D</td>
+</tr>
+<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Metz—</td>
+<td class="tdl">Fast Acid Red, M</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Fast Acid Orange, G</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Fast Acid Yellow, 3 G</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Fast Acid Blue, B B</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+
+<h3>DYEING DIRECTIONS</h3>
+
+<p>The Acid dyes, like the Basic, are used in an acid
+bath, but for a different reason. With the Basic dyes
+acetic acid or some other weak acid is added, for the
+purpose of readily dissolving the color. In the case
+of the Acid dyes, however, the dyestuffs are almost<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span>
+always put on the market in the form of the potassium
+or ammonium salts of the color acid. And the presence
+of some acid is always necessary, to liberate the
+color acid, and allow it to combine with the basic principles
+existing in the animal fibres.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>For Wool.</i>—The goods, well washed and soaked,
+are warmed gently in a bath containing, besides the
+dyestuff dissolved in plenty of water, a little sulphuric
+acid and a good deal of Glauber’s salt. Both
+acid and salt should be free from iron, or the shade
+will be dulled.</p>
+
+<p>The amount of acid to be used may vary between
+considerable limits without affecting the results. If
+too much is present, there is danger of injuring the
+feel and the lustre of the fibre. If there is not enough
+acid in the bath, the color will wash right out of the
+wool, as soon as it is rinsed. In general it is well to
+start with about one tablespoonful of dilute (30%) sulphuric
+acid for each gallon of dye-liquor and about
+twice that amount of Glauber’s salt.</p>
+
+<p>It is hard to tell just what is the function of the
+Glauber’s salt. It seems, however, to open up the
+pores of the wool in some way, and to make it dye
+more evenly and deeply. The bath is gently heated,
+with constant stirring of the goods, until the right
+shade is produced, or, if it is desired to exhaust the
+bath and so waste no color, until near the boiling
+point.</p>
+
+<p>The goods when taken out of the dye-bath must be
+washed very thoroughly, to remove the last trace of
+acid, which otherwise on drying would ruin the wool.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span></p>
+
+<p>It must be remembered that these Acid dyes hardly
+affect cotton in the least, and so the goods dyed in
+this way must be free from vegetable fibres, if level
+dyeings are to be obtained.</p>
+
+<p>In dyeing wool skeins commercially it is, of course,
+of the utmost importance to have the colors perfectly
+level and uniform. This uniformity is obtained easily
+enough, when using these Acid dyes, by having the
+wool thoroughly wet before placing it in the dye-bath;
+by having it well loosened out and well stirred
+so that the color will penetrate evenly every part of
+the material; and, finally, by starting the bath at a
+moderate temperature, and heating it gradually, until
+the proper shade is obtained.</p>
+
+<p>For handicraft dyeing the student is strongly advised
+to practise shaded and irregular effects, the so-called
+Rainbow dyeing, with wool in skeins, just as,
+in previous lessons, with raffia and with cotton. By
+using coarse heavy yarns, very beautiful two and
+three color effects can be produced, which, when used
+for embroidery or weaving, will prove most interesting.</p>
+
+<p>Great care must always be taken, in wool dyeing,
+to preserve the lustre and the soft effect of the wool,
+and to avoid felting. This can best be done by using
+moderate amounts of acid, by dyeing at moderate temperature
+and never raising the dye-bath quite to the
+boil; and finally, by handling the goods as little as
+possible in the acid dye-bath, consistent of course with
+exposing every portion equally to the action of the
+dyestuff. Cotton skeins can be worked and rubbed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span>
+and pulled, and thrown up and down in the hot dye-bath,
+without fear of injuring them. But wool should
+be handled carefully, and worked in the dye-pot
+quietly and gently, just sufficiently to accomplish two
+results. First, the wool at the bottom of the pot
+should be raised by a lifting and turning motion and
+replaced by fresh material; and second, when the
+wool is lowered back into the liquor it should be
+loosened, so as to allow the dye-liquor to penetrate the
+mass.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_IX">Chapter IX<br>
+<span class="chapt_sub">DYEING FEATHERS</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> use of feathers and, especially, of ostrich
+feathers for millinery has, during the past few
+years, increased to enormous proportions.
+Besides the home product, from California and the
+Western States, which, however, is but small, the
+importation of raw feathers from abroad has averaged,
+during the past two or three years, nearly eight
+millions of dollars. As yet, the dyeing of these feathers
+is almost entirely confined to professionals—their
+processes, although simple, not being generally
+known or published.</p>
+
+<p>As before mentioned, feathers, like other animal
+products, can be colored with ease by either the Basic
+or the Acid dyestuffs. In practice, as with wool and
+silk, the Acid dyes are universally used, because of
+their greater variety, their greater fastness to light,
+and their better levelling properties. To use the Acid
+colors with success the following points must be carefully
+considered. First, the baths must be such as
+not to ruin or “burn” the feathers, i.e., they must
+leave intact the tiny barbules upon the barbs or
+“flues,” as the dyers call them, which make the
+feather look soft and full and not stringy.</p>
+
+<p>Second, the quill must be fully dyed, and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span>
+shaft, or stem of the feather, must also be colored
+just as well as the flues. This is a very common defect
+in feather dyeing. The quill, being hard and stiff and
+horny, is much more difficult to penetrate with the
+dyestuff than the soft, delicate fibres. If the feather,
+therefore, is dyed hurriedly or carelessly, the latter
+may be colored dark and full, long before the quill or
+the lower part of the stem has been dyed at all. This
+necessitates painting the stem after the finishing
+process, with oil colors, to match the rest of the
+feather.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, after dyeing, the feather must be properly
+finished so that the flues will not look woolly on the
+one hand, nor stringy on the other hand, but soft and
+full.</p>
+
+<p>The whole secret of feather dyeing lies in the
+proper attainment of these three requirements, success
+in which depends respectively upon (a) the composition
+of the dye-bath, (b) the method of dyeing,
+and (c) the finishing process.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>(a) The Dye-bath.</b>—As is universally the case when
+using Acid dyes on animal fibres, the bath must be
+distinctly acid, in order to release the free color
+acid from the dyestuff, which, in its commercial form,
+is a salt. A very little experimenting with ostrich
+feathers will show that the presence, not only of
+mineral acids like sulphuric or hydrochloric, but even
+of the much milder organic acids, like acetic or citric,
+is liable to “burn” the feather badly and convert
+a well barbuled flue into a bare fibre which, under
+no conditions, can look other than stringy. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span>
+acid commonly used by the professionals is oxalic acid,
+but, of late years, dyeing chemists have been introducing
+into the dyeing industry the use of the volatile
+and pungent formic acid, and in the dyeing of ostrich
+feathers this acid has been found particularly advantageous.
+Excepting when a large number of
+feathers, strung together on a line, are to be dyed
+the same color, it is customary to dye feathers in an
+agateware pan or flat dish, and about two-thirds of
+a teaspoonful of formic or oxalic acid in a pint of
+water, is about the right proportion for one or two
+feathers at a time.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>(b) Method of Dyeing.</b>—</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Softening the Feathers.</i>—Before immersing the
+feathers in the dye-bath the greatest pains should be
+taken, first, to thoroughly cleanse them, and, second,
+to thoroughly soften them. As a rule, the feathers
+are bleached before dyeing and in this process they
+generally lose all of their original grease. But if they
+show signs of wetting unevenly when plunged into hot
+water, they should be carefully scrubbed with Castile
+soap and hot water, and well rinsed till the last trace
+of soap has been removed.</p>
+
+<p>The clean feathers should then be thoroughly softened
+by immersing them in hot water. This is especially
+important as regards the quills and the stems,
+which may have to soak for half an hour or more
+before they are soft enough to take the dyestuff.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Dyeing the Feathers.</i>—After softening, each feather
+is held by the tip, and laid, butt first, in the dye-bath.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[134]</span>
+For light shades the dye-liquor may remain cold, but
+for darker shades it is best to enter the feathers at a
+low temperature, and raise the latter very gently till
+the right shade is reached, or the bath is decidedly hot,
+although still far below the boiling point.</p>
+
+<p>Above all, care must be taken to dye the quill and
+butt first, and to keep them in the bath very much
+longer than the flues and tip. The latter will dye in
+a minute or two, but to thoroughly stain the former
+may take twenty minutes or half an hour.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>(c) Finishing.</b>—When the desired shade has been
+reached, the feather is taken from the bath and rinsed
+thoroughly in warm water, to get rid of the loose
+color. Then it must be “starched.” This is the
+technical name for the drying process, and is very
+different from the laundryman’s idea of “starching,”
+although the two processes have occasionally been confused,
+with most disastrous results, as far as the
+feathers were concerned.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Dry-starching.</i>—After the dyed feathers have been
+thoroughly rinsed, they should be partially dried, by
+wiping with a soft piece of cloth, like a handkerchief
+or piece of cheesecloth, and then laid flat on a piece
+of stiff paper and covered with a heaping tablespoonful
+or so of dry, finely powdered starch (on a small scale
+the quality known as “Electric Starch” is eminently
+satisfactory). The starch is thoroughly rubbed into
+the feather with the fingers, and then the feather, full
+of starch, is beaten and dusted against the edge of the
+table or the back of the hand until the starch has all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[135]</span>
+been shaken out. After one or two repetitions of this
+process, the feather will be found not only dry but
+with the barbules properly filled out. Sometimes the
+feather, thus treated, has a woolly look, the starching
+process having gone too far. In this case it should be
+dampened in cold water, and restarched.</p>
+
+<p>Under no circumstances should any starch paste be
+allowed to touch or form on the flues. The starching
+must be done in the cold and with the unbroken starch
+grains.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Wet-starching.</i>—Some dyers prefer wet-starching to
+the dry process just described. In this process, the
+feathers, after dyeing and rinsing, are worked for a
+minute or two in a thick milk (not paste) made by
+stirring one or two large tablespoonfuls of dry starch
+in half a pint or so of cold water, till all the lumps
+have been broken up. After this milk has been thoroughly
+rubbed into every part of the feather, the latter
+is taken out, dried roughly by wiping with cheesecloth,
+and then by wrapping between blotting paper or folded
+cheesecloth and running carefully through a not too
+tight wringer. The feather is then taken out and thoroughly
+dried, either by laying it on the table in the
+sunlight or in a warm room for some time, or, if very
+great care is taken, by holding and moving it over a
+hot-air register, or high over the stove or gas flame.
+Of course, if this is done carelessly and too great
+heat is applied, some of the starch grains will be converted
+into paste, and the feather probably ruined.
+When thoroughly dry, “bone dry,” as the dyers call
+it, the feather is beaten against the back of the hand,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[136]</span>
+or edge of the table until all the starch is shaken out.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Dyeing in the Starch.</b>—When dyeing light shades
+time may be saved by dyeing and wet-starching at the
+same time, in the same bath. The feather, thoroughly
+soaked in hot water, is placed in the starch milk, to
+which a quarter teaspoonful or so of formic acid and
+a little dyestuff have been added, and then worked, in
+the cold, until the proper shade has been reached, the
+starch being taken up at the same time. Then on drying
+and beating, the feather will come out both dyed
+and finished. This has the disadvantage of leaving a
+little acid in the finished feather, but when using small
+quantities of oxalic acid, this is of little, if any importance.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Suggestions as to Feather Dyeing.</b>—These processes
+should enable any intelligent craftsman to dye even the
+most costly and most delicate feathers without danger
+of spoiling them. Shade effects in one, two, or more
+colors can be easily obtained by the use of a little
+ingenuity, remembering always that the quill and the
+stem are very much more difficult to dye than the
+flues or tip. It will be remembered that comparatively
+few ostrich feathers are now used, singly; the plumes
+so abundantly in use, nowadays, being almost invariably
+built up by sewing two or usually three feathers
+together, one underneath the other, the stem being
+carefully shaved down so as not to make them too
+clumsy.</p>
+
+<p>Very charming effects can be obtained by dyeing
+the individual feathers different but harmonious
+colors, and then combining them into one plume later.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span>
+But, usually, the plume is made first, and then dyed
+afterwards. It may be suggested, here, that very
+beautiful effects can be produced by taking large,
+handsome, single feathers, before they are bleached,
+and dyeing them a pleasant shade of red or blue or of
+some mixed color. The natural black of the feather,
+with its irregular markings, often gives very interesting
+results, and the expense is much less than that of
+a built-up feather.</p>
+
+<p>After the starching process, the dried feather is
+usually finished by “curling,” a process simple enough
+in itself, but which had best be left to the professional,
+for fear of injury. The bleaching of feathers, also,
+is a process which is hardly to be attempted by the
+amateur, unless he is prepared to spend a good deal of
+his time and money in experimenting. The process,
+however, is well understood by dyeing chemists and
+can be learned without much difficulty, by a careful
+student with some knowledge of chemistry.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Stripping Feathers.</i>—By soaking in warm water,
+containing a teaspoonful or so of ammonia water to
+the pint, and then carefully washing with soap and hot
+water, these Acid colors can be, as a rule, stripped from
+feathers almost entirely. This does not, to be sure,
+improve the original quality of the goods, but, carefully
+done, its bad effects are hardly, if at all, perceptible,
+and it enables the dyer to remedy a bad piece
+of dyeing, or to dye an old feather that has become
+faded or discolored by exposure. This, of course,
+does not apply to<em>black</em> dyed feathers.</p>
+
+<p>After white feathers have been worn for some<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[138]</span>
+time they generally become soiled and yellow. If the
+stock was good to start with they can be immensely
+improved in appearance, if not made quite equal to
+new, by simply scrubbing them with a piece of Castile
+soap, in hot water, and then, after thorough rinsing,
+by dyeing them, in the starch-bath, with a very faint
+trace of blue or bluish violet.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Black Dyeing of Feathers.</i>—This is the most difficult
+process in feather dyeing, and, as a rule, should
+be avoided by the amateur. It is impossible, so far, to
+get a thoroughly good black by the use of any artificial
+dyestuff, or any simple process. The best Acid blacks
+on the market, dyed with the greatest care, give a color
+to feathers that by themselves may look pretty well,
+but, when compared with first-class products, show
+dull and grey.</p>
+
+<p>The only satisfactory blacks, so far, are produced
+by a long and tedious series of operations, depending
+on mordanting for, and dyeing with, logwood. As a
+rule, the professional black dyer—and really good ones
+are few and far between—allows at least five or six
+days for the process, the different steps of which he
+usually guards as a valuable secret, which indeed it is.
+The writer possesses one or two of these formulas,
+obtained, as special marks of favor, from first-class
+dyers, but has never had occasion to test them thoroughly,
+and therefore is unwilling to publish them
+here. Good dyeing chemists have tried again and
+again to shorten and simplify the process, and have
+had some success. But to this day no color has been
+found to replace logwood, and this black dyeing of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span>
+feathers is perhaps the only dyeing problem that has
+not as yet been satisfactorily solved with the aid of
+modern dyestuffs.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Painting Feathers.</i>—Some dyers, instead of dyeing
+feathers, paint them. They dip the cleansed and
+carefully dried feather, for a moment, into a bath
+of oil paint, thinned greatly with gasolene. The
+feather is then taken from the bath, dried by waving
+in the air, and, when thoroughly dry, finished by beating
+and, if necessary, with a light dry-starching.</p>
+
+<p>The results, for colors, are fairly satisfactory but
+are not so permanent as the dyeing process. In an
+oil paint the solid coloring matter, or pigment, is
+ground up finely in boiled linseed oil, an oil which
+has the property of drying to a firm varnish when
+exposed to the air. This mixture is thinned with
+turpentine or gasolene to the desired consistency before
+using.</p>
+
+<p>It is evident that, in coloring feathers, if enough
+oil is applied to fasten the pigment very firmly to the
+flues, there is danger at the same time of plastering
+the fine barbules so that they will never get back to
+their proper places, and the product will be hopelessly
+stringy. On the other hand, if the amount of oil is
+so small, thanks to the abundant thinning with gasolene,
+that there is no fear of its sticking the barbules
+together, there will hardly be enough oil left to firmly
+fasten the pigment to the flues, on drying, and the
+color is apt to rub, and to wear off quickly.</p>
+
+<p>Paint, thinned with gasolene, has been applied to
+feathers occasionally by means of stencils, some of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[140]</span>
+the so-called “barred” effects, looking like the feathers
+from a barred Plymouth Rock hen, being made in
+this way—the color, black paint or varnish, greatly
+thinned, being applied by means of an “air brush” or
+atomizer. Occasionally very large, wide, and handsome
+feathers have appeared decorated with flowers
+and other figures, in bright colors, applied in the same
+way with an air brush, sometimes with the help of
+stencils, but generally free-hand. These effects are
+often rather crude and inartistic, but there is no reason
+why, skilfully used, this method of decorating the
+backs of feathers might not produce interesting effects.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_X">Chapter X<br>
+<span class="chapt_sub">LEATHER AND LEATHER DYEING</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">So</span> far as can be learned, in every part of the
+world, the first materials used by man for clothing
+and coverings were the skins of animals.
+In its natural condition, however, the hide stripped
+from a dead animal has certain properties which
+greatly interfere with such use. When dry it is
+stiff and hard; when moist it rapidly decomposes,
+and when exposed to hot water it swells and in time
+dissolves. These difficulties had to be overcome before
+skins and furs could be properly utilized. And,
+accordingly, in the history of every nation and race,
+one of the very earliest of all developing industries
+was the art of leather making; that is, of converting
+the hard and easily decomposed rawhide into a soft,
+pliable, and comparatively permanent substance, well
+suited for the use of man.</p>
+
+<p>In most uncivilized nations this conversion was
+accomplished by rubbing and working some oily or
+greasy substance into the hide, until it was thoroughly
+soft and flexible. Thus, in our Indian tribes, the old
+squaws would turn the deer skins and the pelts of
+various fur-bearing animals into beautifully soft and
+strong leather, by rubbing and working into them the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[142]</span>
+brains of the animals. The Esquimaux and other
+Northern tribes from time immemorial, too, have
+worked out this method with great perfection. Indeed
+without it they would have been unable to survive
+at all.</p>
+
+<p>In other parts of the world it was discovered that
+rawhide could be made more durable by treatment with
+metallic salts, especially with alum, and then, by softening
+this product by rubbing in some oily material, a
+very fair leather could be produced. On the other
+hand, in warmer climates, as for instance among the
+Egyptians, the very earliest records show the use of
+vegetable extracts, containing the substances now
+known as tannins, for softening and preserving skins;
+and these races understood the art of dyeing, painting,
+gilding, and embossing the leather thus made, and used
+it for shoes, straps, aprons, and harness.</p>
+
+<p>The Romans and Babylonians were famous for
+their leather industry, and the ancient Romans not
+only imported but manufactured it themselves, and
+used it freely. In the Middle Ages the greatest developments
+in the art were made by the Moors
+in Spain, whose leather, commonly called Cordovan
+leather, from the city which was the centre
+of the industry, has probably never been equalled for
+beauty and importance. This Cordovan leather, of
+which fine specimens are still to be found in museums
+and private collections, was made of sheepskin, tanned
+with bark. It was ornamented with silver foil, laid
+on a backing of size, and covered with a yellow varnish
+or lacquer, sometimes tinted with bitumen. This<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span>
+protected both the leather and design very perfectly
+from injury by air or moderate moisture, and, being
+done on a large scale with splendid designs, was used
+largely for handsome wall coverings, competing
+favorably with tapestries manufactured in France
+and elsewhere for the same purposes.</p>
+
+
+<h3>PREPARATION OF LEATHER.</h3>
+
+<p>In general, we may say that at the present day there
+are the same three classes of leather as in the days of
+the ancients, according to whether the hide is treated
+with oil or fatty materials, with alum or other metallic
+salts, or with the bark of trees or other vegetable substances
+containing the compound known as tannin.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>1. Oil Tanning.</b>—This, while of less importance than
+the other two methods, is still used in considerable
+quantities for lighter and cheaper qualities of leather.
+The process most commonly used is often called
+chamoising, or “shamoying,” because it is used principally
+for the production of “chamois leather” or
+wash leather. The hides used for this form are usually
+thin and light, the flesh sides of split sheepskins being
+the commonest, and the resultant leather is not only
+soft and flexible and strong, but is also unaffected by
+water. For this reason it is more difficult to dye than
+other varieties.</p>
+
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>2. Mineral Tanning or Tawing.</b></p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Alum.</i>—For thousands of years it has been known
+that if a solution of alum is rubbed or soaked into a
+raw hide the fibres of the leather become changed to an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span>
+insoluble and permanent condition, and by afterwards
+rubbing and rolling, and working in some greasy material,
+like the yolk of eggs, a useful variety of leather
+can be produced. The alum in this case does not form
+a permanent compound with the animal fibres, but can
+be washed out by working in warm water. Chemists
+have agreed, therefore, to call this temporary reaction
+by the name “tawing” as opposed to “tanning”
+where the chemical action is a permanent one. The
+“kid” leathers used for gloves are commonly made by
+this process.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Chrome.</i>—During the last few years a new process has
+been introduced, based upon the use of chromium salts,
+which are absorbed by the hide in the form of the
+yellow or orange-colored salts, chromate and bichromate
+of sodium, and then are reduced in the fibres
+to a green compound by the use of hydrosulphite of
+sodium, or some other strong but harmless reducing
+agent.</p>
+
+<p>This chrome leather is extremely valuable, and is
+freely used, especially for the “uppers” of good quality
+in the boot and shoe trade. This leather is very
+strong, and is water-proof, but possesses a serious
+disadvantage for the dyer, in that when it is once dry
+it can never be again wetted, and therefore it must be
+dyed fresh from the tannery wash tanks, or not at all.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>3. Vegetable, or Bark Tanning.</b>—At some very early
+period in the world’s history it was discovered that
+certain vegetable extracts, possessing in general a peculiar
+“puckery” taste, also possessed valuable properties
+in the treatment of raw hide. This process was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span>
+certainly well known to the Romans, for Pliny mentions,
+as tanning materials, the three great sources of
+tannin to-day, namely, gall nuts, the bark of trees, and
+sumach. These and many other vegetable materials,
+used for tanning, all contain a peculiar substance,
+known as “tannin” or tannic acid, which gives them
+their useful properties.</p>
+
+<p>The tannins from different plants are not identical,
+although closely related to each other. They all have a
+strong astringent taste, and dissolve readily in water,
+forming weak acid solutions. They make dark-colored
+compounds with iron salts, and convert the hide tissue
+of animals into a tough, insoluble, and comparatively
+indestructible material which, when loosened and softened
+by some mechanical action, is known as leather.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Tannin.</i>—Pure tannin can best be obtained from gall
+nuts—small excrescences on the leaves and twigs of
+certain plants caused by the puncture of some insect
+preparing to deposit its eggs there. The best varieties,
+called Aleppo galls, come from Turkey and Austria,
+where they are found on oak trees, and contain from
+60 to 70 per cent. of tannic acid. From these it can be
+extracted in a very pure form, and it comes to market
+as an extremely light, fine, grey or light tan-colored
+powder, which dissolves in very little water to an almost
+colorless solution. Tannin in this form is largely
+used for dyeing, especially in the dyeing of cotton or
+linen goods with the Basic colors.</p>
+
+<p>For tanning purposes it is customary to use the bark
+of various trees, oak bark being the most esteemed in
+Europe and, in this country, hemlock bark being the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span>
+most used. These contain from 12 to 15 per cent. of
+tannin, as a rule, with a moderate amount of brown
+coloring matter. Pine bark is also frequently used,
+and the bark of fir, spruce, and larch, while, in Russia
+especially, much willow bark and birch bark is used
+for light grades, the so-called Russia leather.</p>
+
+<p>The next most valuable source of tannin is known as
+sumach, consisting of the finely-ground twigs and
+leaves of several species of that plant. The American
+sumach contains more tannin—18 to 25 per cent—than
+other varieties, but it is less valuable than the Sicilian
+sumach, which contains less coloring matter, and therefore
+can be used for tanning light shades of leather.
+All the materials can be used in the tannery either directly,
+or in the form of previously prepared extracts.
+From the Far East come some very important sources
+of tannin, used for dyeing as well as for leathermaking,
+in the form of dried extracts of various plants.
+One of these is Catechu or Cutch, now of value only
+for its tannin contents, but in former years used as a
+brown dyestuff as well. A similar product, known as
+Gambier, is still imported on a large scale from Singapore
+and other Eastern ports. It contains less tannin
+than Cutch, but less coloring matter as well. It is used
+not only for leather but for black silk dyeing with logwood.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>The Tanning Process.</b>—Without going too much into
+detail, the conversion of raw hide into leather by
+means of tannin is a very lengthy and mechanical
+process. The hides are first softened by soaking in
+water, and then are dehaired, usually by steeping in a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span>
+bath of slaked lime until the hair is loosened and can
+be scraped off with a blunt knife.</p>
+
+<p>This lime must then be extracted by steeping in an
+acid bath, preferably containing some organic acid like
+lactic or acetic acid; some manufacturers, for the sake
+of cheapness, use dilute sulphuric acid for this purpose,
+with the invariable result of making the leather
+brittle and rotten when it is fully dried.</p>
+
+<p>After the acid has been rinsed off, the hides are
+placed in the tan liquor, made either by dissolving one
+of the extracts in water, or by mixing the finely-ground
+bark or sumach with water and placing the hides in the
+mixture. The tanning process is a very slow one,
+especially for heavy hides, and it may take several
+months before the tannin penetrates to the center of
+the goods. When that time has come, the hides are
+taken out, brushed off, rinsed with cold water, drained
+off on horses, and then hung up in a drying shed to
+slowly dry.</p>
+
+<p>When in the proper condition they are thoroughly
+rolled by hand or machinery, to break up any adhesions,
+and to make the leather soft and flexible.
+Then they are ready to be finished, are dyed to the
+required shade, rubbed down and polished with wax
+or varnish, grained by being run through rollers with
+engraved patterns, and otherwise prepared for the
+trade.</p>
+
+
+<h3>DYEING AND STAINING OF LEATHER.</h3>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>General.</i>—It has been mentioned, in previous chapters,
+that animal fibres of all sorts, such as wool, silk,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span>
+feathers, etc., seem to possess at the same time both
+acid and basic properties, and therefore they combine
+readily with dyestuffs belonging to the Basic and also
+to the Acid class. This at once distinguishes animal
+fibres from vegetable fibres such as cotton, linen, and
+paper, which, being practically neutral in composition,
+will not combine with either Basic or Acid dyestuffs
+without the assistance of mordants.</p>
+
+<p>This same rule applies to leather, and we are therefore
+able to dye leather successfully with either Acid
+or Basic dyestuffs, using a dye-liquor made acid with,
+preferably, a volatile organic acid such as acetic or
+formic acid.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Acids.</i>—For Basic colors acetic acid is generally used,
+as being cheaper than the other, and quite as good for
+dissolving the dyes for the dye-bath. For Acid colors
+it is generally best to use formic acid, for acetic acid
+in many cases fails to liberate the color-acids from the
+dyes, and then the colors fail to “bite.”</p>
+
+<p>Professional leather dyers, for the sake of economy,
+often use a little sulphuric acid in the dye-bath, a
+practice which is one of the chief causes of the short
+life of modern leathers.</p>
+
+<p>With other animal fibres, such as wool and silk, the
+Acid colors take quite as readily as the Basic; but
+with leather, there is some little difference, according
+to the way in which the leather has been prepared.</p>
+
+<p>For our purposes it is hardly worth while to discuss
+the dyeing of chrome leather or of chamois leather.
+The leather almost universally employed for hand
+work has been bark tanned, excepting where very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[149]</span>
+white goods are used, of rather light quality. These
+are generally tawed with alum, and for this reason
+have a greater affinity for the Acid colors than when
+the fibres have already been fully charged with
+tannic acid, which at the same time, it will be remembered,
+acts as an excellent mordant for the Basic
+colors.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Dyestuffs.</i>—Accordingly, while Acid colors may be
+used, they do not act nearly so readily as the Basic
+colors. For this reason, except for special shades such
+as a clear sky-blue or a pure scarlet, which can hardly
+be obtained excepting by the use of Acid dyes, or where
+special fastness to sunlight is required, the best Basic
+colors, such as Methylene Blue, Methylene Heliotrope,
+Thioflavine T (for yellow) and Safranine (for red)
+are usually employed. For black, it is well to use one
+of the many Leather blacks, made by mixing together
+powerful Basic dyes. For brown, the standard leather
+color, used in enormous quantities for gloves and the
+like, is the well-known Bismarck Brown, or for more
+orange shades, the closely related dyestuff, Chrysoidine.
+And, although neither of these colors is as fast to light
+as the Basic dyes mentioned above, they give very
+satisfactory results. These colors should be dissolved
+in water acidified with a little acetic acid.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest pains must be taken in each case to
+see that the color is all in solution, and that no specks
+of undissolved color are allowed to come in contact
+with the leather. The leather must be very carefully
+and thoroughly moistened by soaking, if necessary
+over night, in lukewarm water softened, if the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span>
+surface of the leather seems to demand it, with a few
+drops of ammonia water.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Dyeing Leather and Staining Leather.</b>—As regards
+the application of the color; dyers generally make a
+distinction between leather that is<em>dyed</em> and leather
+that is<em>stained</em>.</p>
+
+<p>In<em>dyeing</em> leather the moistened goods are placed
+in a tray or pan (agateware is most convenient for
+small pieces) and floated backwards and forwards in
+the dye-liquor, which should be deep enough to fully
+cover them. The liquor is usually about lukewarm
+on starting, and may be heated very gradually and
+gently to about 120° or 130°, if desired. For light
+shades, however, this is not at all necessary, and
+indeed the color, as a rule, penetrates deeper and is
+laid on more evenly when the bath is kept cold. The
+leather is kept in the dye-bath until the desired shade
+is reached, which should be at the end of half an
+hour or so.</p>
+
+<p>When dyed in this manner, the dyestuff has a
+chance to soak into the leather, and so, when finished,
+the color is not so liable to be affected by rubbing or
+by wear. The leather should come out evenly coated
+on both sides, shaded effects if desired being produced
+later, by the staining process.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Stained Leather.</i>—In staining leather, on the other
+hand, the color solution is applied directly to the surface
+of the damp—not wet—goods by means of a
+brush or soft sponge, or a little pad of cloth. Accordingly,
+no matter how carefully the leather has
+been softened and moistened beforehand, the color<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[151]</span>
+does not penetrate far, and is found only on the particular
+surface where it has been applied.</p>
+
+<p>For flat, even shades, the dyeing process is usually
+preferable, but by staining, it is possible for the
+craftsman to work on the surface of the leather, as
+an artist does on paper with water colors, and beautiful
+effects can be produced. Oil paint is often used
+for decorating leather, and when applied skilfully
+in thin layers, the effects are good. But staining
+with dyestuffs is usually preferable, as showing more
+of the grain of the leather, and being more transparent.</p>
+
+<p>The staining of leather may either be done free-hand,
+or else by the filling in of set designs, marked
+out previously by tooling or some other method; or,
+as will be discussed later, by the use of stencils. In
+any case success chiefly depends upon the condition
+of the surface that is to receive the dye. The surface
+of the leather should be dampened, thoroughly
+and evenly, so that the dye will adhere, and even
+penetrate a little; but it must not be so wet that the
+colors will run.</p>
+
+<p>To get this exactly right requires considerable
+practice. As a rule, the leather is, first, carefully and
+evenly soaked in water or, if it is at all greasy, in
+water with a little ammonia in it. When this has been
+thoroughly done, the leather is taken out and dried off,
+first on one side and then on the other, with pieces
+of cloth and then later with blotting paper. After
+this it is exposed to the air for a little time until the
+exact point of dryness has been reached.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[152]</span></p>
+
+<p>The color solution should be applied with a camel’s
+hair brush or a small, soft pad of cotton, and any
+excess of liquid wiped off, or soaked up with blotting
+paper, and the color rubbed in with the fingers or
+pad, as soon as possible.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Acid Dyes for Leather.</b>—As above mentioned, certain
+shades are hard to obtain without the use of Acid
+colors. This is particularly true in the case of blue.
+For the lighter and brighter shades it is necessary to
+use one of the Acid blues such as Cyanole FF. (<i>Cassella</i>),
+or Patent Blue (<i>Metz</i>). These are applied
+in exactly the same way as the Basic colors. Some of
+the Acid reds, too, will be found valuable for certain
+shades of scarlet, etc., that can hardly be reached with
+Safranine. Among the best of the fast Acid colors
+for leather may be mentioned:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+
+<p><i>Red.</i>—Fast Scarlet, BXG, <i>Badische</i>; Biebrich Acid
+Red, 2B, <i>Kalle</i>, and Fast Acid Red, M, <i>Metz</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Yellow.</i>—Tartrazine, <i>Badische</i>; Wool Yellow, 1A,
+<i>Kalle</i>, and Fast Acid Yellow, 3G, <i>Metz</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Blue.</i>—Wool Fast Blue, BL, <i>Badische</i>; Nerocyannic
+Blue, B, <i>Kalle</i>, and Fast Acid Blue, BB, <i>Metz</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When using these Acid dyes side by side with the
+Basic colors, it will be noticed that the latter, as a
+rule, are far more powerful, and color the leather
+much more rapidly than the Acid dyes. Accordingly
+for<em>staining</em> leather the Basic dyes are the most satisfactory.
+On the other hand in<em>dyeing</em> leather, where
+the dye-liquor is allowed to act longer on the goods,
+the Acid colors are more valuable, not only because<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[153]</span>
+they are fast to light, but also because they will
+penetrate more deeply and more evenly.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Finishing Leather.</b>—After coloring the leather it is
+necessary to finish it carefully, to get a smooth surface
+and to protect it from injury by rubbing or
+moisture. Some workers simply let the leather dry
+and then rub down the surface (without using any
+wax or oil) with the finger or the palm of the hands.
+Usually the grain or hair side of the leather is rubbed
+down with a little wax, the white or yellow wax, used
+largely as a finishing polish for tan shoes, being frequently
+employed for this purpose. It can be readily
+obtained from almost any good shoe store or, if desired,
+can be made by mixing together equal quantities
+of beeswax and carnauba wax in a molten condition,
+and thinning the mixture with a little turpentine.</p>
+
+<p>A recipe used with success by many leather workers
+calls for a mixture of beeswax, turpentine, and neatsfoot
+oil. The wax is carefully melted, mixed with a
+small amount of turpentine, and then enough oil is
+stirred in to make it soft. When used upon embossed
+or figured leather this wax is never applied directly,
+but is placed inside a little bag of soft muslin, and
+rubbed on and into the leather with a circular motion—the
+palm of the hand being often used to finish the
+waxed surface.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Bronze Effects.</b>—An interesting point in connection
+with the use of the Basic dyes, and some of the Acid
+dyes, too, for staining leather is that, when applied
+in a strong solution, as is very likely to be the case<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[154]</span>
+when one is trying to get dark shades with an application
+of the brush or pad, they quite frequently, on
+drying, show a very marked metallic lustre. This is
+due to the formation of minute, bright-colored crystals,
+which reflect the light, thus imparting to the
+fabric colors which have nothing to do with the shade
+produced by the dyestuff itself. Thus, Cyanole FF,
+<i>Cassella</i>, when dissolved, or when dyed on leather
+or any other material, gives a rather greenish shade
+of blue. But it gives a very brilliant old gold effect,
+almost as bright as gold leaf, when applied in a strong
+solution and allowed to dry quickly.</p>
+
+<p>When this effect is not desired it can be avoided
+by building up the dark shades by successive applications
+of weak solution, and by rubbing down the little
+crystals with, if necessary, a little moisture, whenever
+they appear to be forming.</p>
+
+<p>In some cases, however, this bronzing property is
+of some value, and enables the skilful craftsman to
+obtain interesting and effective results with a minimum
+of trouble and expense. By painting on a strong
+solution of dyestuff, and letting it dry quickly, the
+bronze effect will be produced, and then by rubbing
+in portions, the true coloring of the dyestuff will be
+brought out in strong contrast to the crystal-covered
+surface. Unfortunately, these bronze effects are not
+fast to either rubbing or moisture, and even dry rubbing
+will break down the crystals, while rubbing with
+a damp cloth or a moist finger will dissolve the color
+off in blotches. To render this bronze effect more
+durable, it is possible to make a regular bronze<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[155]</span>
+lacquer, by adding varnish or gum like orange shellac
+or gum benzoin to a strong alcoholic solution of a
+Basic dye. The bronze varnish thus produced will,
+when dry, stand light finishing with wax in the usual
+way. The addition of a little benzoic acid to the
+solution increases the lustre of the crystals.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[156]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_XI">Chapter XI<br>
+<span class="chapt_sub">SILK—I</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">So</span> far as we can tell, silk was first discovered and
+manufactured in China about 1700 <span class="allsmcap">B.C.</span>, a date
+corresponding in Biblical history to the time
+of the patriarch Joseph. From China it was exported
+to the great and wealthy empire of Persia, and from
+there was first brought into Europe by Alexander the
+Great after his defeat of the Persian king. Its origin,
+although known and described by Aristotle, was for
+several hundred years a mystery. During the Roman
+Empire, silken garments, woven in Europe, from Chinese
+silk imported by way of Persia, were important
+and very highly prized articles of luxury.</p>
+
+<p>About 555 <span class="allsmcap">A.D.</span>, while commerce with Persia was
+interrupted by warfare, two monks in the pay of the
+Emperor Justinian smuggled eggs of the silkworm
+and seeds of mulberry trees from China to Constantinople.
+This was the origin of the European silk industry.
+It spread rapidly to the various countries
+bordering on the Mediterranean, and by the seventeenth
+century was firmly established not only in Spain
+and Italy, but also in France.</p>
+
+<p>Efforts were made to introduce it, at this time, into
+England, but without success. In 1622 King James I<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[157]</span>
+started the industry, for the first time, in the colony
+of Virginia in this country. Since that time numerous
+attempts have been made to develop the American
+silkworm industry, but with very little success, owing
+to the large amount of hand labor necessary to produce
+the material.</p>
+
+<p>At the present time the very finest raw silk in the
+world is produced in the south of France, and next
+to that come certain brands of Italian silk. The Japanese
+silk is more variable in quality, although steadily
+improving, while the Chinese silk, as a rule, is less
+satisfactory and more apt to be light and fluffy.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the consumption, it was estimated
+that in 1907 Europe used some twenty-five million
+pounds, and the United States fifteen million pounds
+of raw silk, which, at an average price of nearly $5.50
+per pound, amounted to over two hundred and eighteen
+million dollars.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Origin and Varieties of Silk.</b>—Silk has been defined as
+a “smooth, lustrous, elastic fibre of small diameter and
+of animal origin.” As is well known, ordinary commercial
+silk is secreted or “spun” by the silkworm,
+the caterpillar form of a moth known as<i lang="la">Bombyx
+Mori</i>, the moth of the mulberry tree. These silkworms
+have been cultivated for thousands of years,
+but there exist in different parts of the world, notably
+in India and Japan, wild or uncultivated silkworms,
+derived from nearly related, but not identical, families
+of moths, and whose silk is collected in the forests
+by the natives, forming what is known in commerce
+as wild or tussah silk.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[158]</span></p>
+
+<p>Of course, the silk from silkworms, cultivated and
+wild, is the only one yet produced on a commercial
+scale. But silk can also be obtained from other animals,
+notably from spiders and from a peculiar shellfish,
+the pinna, found in the waters of the Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<p>Silk from the silkworm can be divided into two
+classes, according to whether the silkworms are the
+cultivated or the wild varieties. In each case the silk
+is produced by the caterpillar spinning a covering or
+shroud, the so-called cocoon, around itself to protect
+it when in the form of the chrysalis or pupa,
+awaiting its transformation into the moth.</p>
+
+<p>The ordinary or cultivated silk of commerce comes
+from worms fed almost exclusively upon the leaves of
+the white mulberry tree, and cannot be produced successfully
+without that particular plant. The somewhat
+similar worms that produce the wild or tussah
+silks live upon the leaves of the oak, elm, ailanthus,
+castor oil plant, and others. While the two varieties
+resemble each other greatly in their chemical properties,
+they can always be distinguished, because cultivated
+silk is much more lustrous than the other, but is
+decidedly less strong.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Tussah Silk, Pongee, Shantung.</i>—The tussah silks,
+when woven, are commonly known under the general
+name of pongee. Of late years this name has been
+applied to imitation goods possessing the characteristic
+dull color, and even the feel of the real article, but far
+less strong. These are generally made out of spun silk,
+derived from “Shappe,” i.e., the by-products of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[159]</span>
+silk industry, spoilt cocoons, waste from the spinning
+machines and the dyehouses, and the like—silk, to be
+sure, but silk of very inferior quality. Accordingly, it
+is now customary to call real pongee by the name
+Shantung, after the Chinese province from which much
+of the wild silk is brought.</p>
+
+<p>Shantung, or true pongee, can be readily distinguished
+from the imitation by examination of the
+threads, both warp and filling. These should be very
+long, and loosely spun or rather “thrown,” whereas
+the imitation threads are spun together tightly, from
+fibres of many different lengths, generally quite short.</p>
+
+
+<h4>Preparing Silk for Dyeing.</h4>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Reeling.</i>—All silk, whether cultivated or wild, comes
+originally from the cocoons, which are, as a rule, each
+formed out of a continuous strand or thread woven by
+the silkworm round and round its own body before it
+passes into the chrysalis state. These cocoons are collected,
+carefully dried to kill the quiescent animal inside,
+and then, in due course of time, they are placed in
+basins of warm water which softens the gum which
+binds the cocoon threads together, and the separate fine
+threads from several cocoons are picked up by brushing,
+and are combined into one which is reeled off on
+machines. The silk thus obtained is made up into
+hanks and bundles, and constitutes the raw silk of commerce.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Raw Silk.</i>—The raw silk is very different in appearance
+and texture to the finished silk that we are accustomed
+to. It is without lustre, white, yellow, or
+even, in the case of some Italian silks, orange in color,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[160]</span>
+and quite stiff when handled. These qualities are due
+to the presence of from 25 to 35 per cent. of gum,
+which is insoluble in cold water, but is softened by hot
+water and dissolves readily in a hot soap bath.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Throwing.</i>—The threads of this raw silk are far too
+fine and delicate to be fit for the weaving processes or
+even for dyeing. So they are combined into coarser
+and stronger threads by being “thrown,” a process
+equivalent to the spinning process of cotton, linen or
+wool. In throwing, the raw silk fibres are again softened
+in hot water, and are loosely spun or twisted
+together while still sticky. Three, four, or five threads
+of raw silk are usually combined to form one strand
+of thrown silk, varying, of course, with the quality of
+the original silk and the objects for which the thrown
+silk is to be used, when woven. For instance, silk
+used for filling—“tram,” as it is called in the trade—is
+usually thicker and softer, and less strong than the
+warp, or “organzine,” and therefore is usually built
+up, by the “throwster,” from many threads of less
+valuable raw silk, loosely twisted, while the organzine,
+used for warp, is generally of the best and
+strongest available material, thrown in finer strands
+out of fewer threads of raw silk, twisted more tightly.</p>
+
+<p>It must always be remembered that the skein silk is
+thrown from very long continuous threads of raw
+silk, full of gum, whereas spun silk, which is being
+used more and more every year, is made from short
+lengths of waste and scrap silk, held together not by
+gum, but by tight twisting and spinning, just like cotton
+or linen.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[161]</span></p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Stripping or Degumming.</i>—This thrown silk must
+then be prepared for the dyeing by getting rid of the
+gum, which not only makes the silk stiff and destroys
+its lustre, but which also would interfere with the
+smooth, even dyeing of the fibres themselves. For this
+purpose the silk, in skeins, is thoroughly washed, or
+“stripped,” by soaking in two or three successive baths
+of hot, strong, neutral soap solutions. In the dyehouses
+Castile (olive oil) soap is invariably used for
+this purpose, and, while made of cheap grades of olive
+oil, it is always, in good dyehouses, of excellent quality,
+for the presence of even minute amounts of free alkali
+in these baths is liable to greatly injure and “tender”
+the silk.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Boiled-off Liquor.</i>—The soap solution from these
+stripping baths is not thrown away in the dyehouses,
+but is carefully stored as a valuable reagent. Under
+the name of “boiled-off liquor” it is almost exclusively
+used, by the dyers, for color dyeing. It is
+not often used in black dyeing, and therefore, in a
+dyehouse, the presence of a large and well-patronized
+black department is considered of great importance as
+providing the color dyer with an abundant supply of
+boiled-off liquor.</p>
+
+<p>The stripped or degummed silk is now ready for
+weaving directly, the resulting white cloth being sometimes
+finished and sold as such, and sometimes “dyed
+in the piece.” In most cases, however, the stripped
+silk is weighted, dyed, and finished “in the skeins,”
+before weaving.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Piece Dyeing.</b>—In dyeing by the piece, the stripped<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[162]</span>
+silk is passed through a weak acid bath, usually acetic,
+and then woven into goods of the desired quality.
+These goods are then dyed in the piece by being run
+through the dye-bath until they are of the proper shade.
+The dye-bath (for colors) is made by stirring the
+proper quantity of Acid dyestuffs into a hot bath of
+boiled-off liquor (the bath in which the silk has been
+stripped), which is faintly acidified, or “broken,” as
+the technical phrase goes, by the addition of some sulphuric
+acid. This boiled-off liquor has the property of
+laying the dyes on the silk evenly and thoroughly, and
+is better for that purpose than any other medium. For
+amateur work, or where boiled-off liquor cannot be
+obtained, very fair results can be obtained with a
+strong bath of olive oil soap (Castile or Marseilles),
+“broken” with weak acid, generally dilute sulphuric
+acid.</p>
+
+<p>The term “breaking” the soap bath is very significant.
+The acid should be added drop by drop to
+the frothing soap bath until the bubbles disappear and
+a thin iridescent film of fatty acid rises to the top of
+the liquid.</p>
+
+<p>After the piece goods are brought to the proper
+shade, they are finished, usually by carefully rinsing
+in water to take away all traces of free acid, then by
+passing through a cold soap bath, often with a little
+olive oil emulsified in it, to increase the lustre; finally,
+through a bath of weak organic acid, like acetic acid,
+to develop the so-called “scroop” or “feel” of the
+silk. When silk is washed in soap, or is dipped in
+even a weak bath of alkali, it becomes soft and clammy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[163]</span>
+to the touch, and has no “life” or “snap” to it when
+dry. The passage through a bath of weak acid develops
+the characteristic stiffness of the silk fibre, and
+causes it to give its peculiar rustling sound when
+pressed.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Skein Dyeing.</b>—When weighting or adulteration is not
+employed, i.e., in the so-called “pure dye” process, the
+dyeing of skein silk resembles the piece dyeing described.
+The degummed silk is immersed in a dye-bath
+containing the dyestuffs (Acid colors) dissolved
+in boiled-off liquor, broken with dilute sulphuric acid.
+The bath is heated nearly to the boiling point, and the
+silk turned in it until the desired shade is produced. It
+is then taken out, washed thoroughly in water to remove
+the last traces of acid, and then brightened by
+passing through a soap bath with some oil, and later
+through a bath of acetic acid to develop the “scroop.”</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Drying.</i>—An important part of the process is the final
+drying and finishing. The drying should be done
+slowly and carefully, and not proceed too far, or the
+silk will be brittle. As is well known to dyers, silk
+has the power of absorbing 25% or 30% of its weight
+of water without becoming perceptibly damp to the
+hand, and this moisture, when not carried too far, is
+of actual benefit to the material, making it stronger
+and more elastic. This property is often made use
+of by the honest (?) dyer when, in case some of the
+silk in a lot has been spoiled by accident or carelessness,
+he makes up the difference in weight by the liberal
+use of the watering pot.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Finishing.</i>—This process is perhaps the most difficult<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[164]</span>
+and technical of all, for the value of the finished product
+depends very largely on it, and it is almost impossible
+for an amateur to accomplish it. The skeins,
+after drying, are hung on a heavy polished wooden
+bar and, with a smooth wooden stick, are shaken out,
+straightened, pulled, twisted, and worked until the
+fibres are all parallel, the kinks taken out, any weak
+or injured portion cut out, and the whole skein has
+acquired the proper amount of lustre.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes, for specially brilliant fabrics, the skeins
+are “lustred” by machinery; this is the so-called
+“metallic lustring” when the silk, generally enveloped
+in steam so as to be both hot and damp, is pulled out
+between two steel arms until it has been stretched a
+considerable percentage of its original length. This
+undoubtedly lessens the strength of the fibre considerably
+and diminishes its elasticity, but under this
+strain each fibre is stretched out perfectly smooth and
+thus becomes much more brilliant and lustrous.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent" id="wildsilk"><b>Dyeing Wild Silks.</b>—It has been found difficult to
+handle satisfactorily the different sorts of wild silks in
+the factory. The bleaching of them has been very
+troublesome, although of late years the problem has
+been solved pretty well. And the ordinary process
+for dyeing silk with Acid dyes in a broken soap, or
+boiled-off liquor, bath is, for full deep shades at any
+rate, not always satisfactory. In consequence most
+of the genuine pongee or Shantung cloth is sold in
+the natural unbleached color, a pleasant shade of tan,
+or else in light shades.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the best results in dyeing pongee silk full,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[165]</span>
+deep, even shades are obtained by mordanting the
+material with tannin and tartar emetic, just as cotton
+is mordanted before dyeing it with Basic colors, and
+then using in the dye-bath one or the other of the
+so-called “Janus” colors,—a group of colors on the
+border line between Basic and Acid, of which the best
+are Janus Yellow G, Janus Yellow R, Janus Red B,
+and Janus Black 1 (<i>Metz</i>).</p>
+
+<p>This process, however, is too complicated for the
+unprofessional dyer to use with much success.</p>
+
+<p>For all but the very full shades the craftsman is
+advised to use the Acid colors, as, for instance, some
+of the selected colors of the different houses, listed
+in Chapter VII, in a bath acidified with acetic acid,
+and without the use of soap.</p>
+
+<p>For dark dull shades the Sulphur colors can be used,
+especially if some care is taken to reduce the alkalinity
+of the bath by neutralizing or nearly neutralizing
+the sodium sulphide with a little acid sodium sulphite.
+If the desired shade is so dark as to necessitate heating
+and dye-bath, it is also advisable to add a little
+gelatin.</p>
+
+<p>For full shades of rather brighter quality the Vat
+dyes may be employed, also with precautions against
+the tendering action of the caustic alkali upon the
+fibre.</p>
+
+<p>Before, however, starting in to dye a piece of
+pongee on the assumption that it is made from tussah
+silk, it is very advisable to examine it carefully, picking
+out the individual threads and untwisting them,
+and to make a few dyeing tests upon small samples.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[166]</span>
+For a large proportion of so-called pongee, which in
+color, lustre, feel, and general appearance resembles
+the genuine Shantung very closely, is simply made
+from spun or waste silk, and can be dyed like ordinary
+silk.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Acid Dyes, to be used on Silk.</i>—Any of the dyestuffs
+mentioned in the lists on page 127, as suitable
+for wool, can be used successfully for silk dyeing.
+These colors have all been selected as unusually fast
+to light and, in this respect, are to be classified as
+“practically all of the first class,” i.e., as absolutely
+satisfactory against the action of sunlight.</p>
+
+<p>But, for a valuable and comparatively fragile material
+like silk, it is quite allowable to use colors for
+special shades which are less fast to sunlight, if they
+possess other valuable qualities. Such, for instance,
+are the two red dyestuffs, Fast Acid Eosine G
+(<i>Metz</i>) and Fast Acid Phloxine (<i>Metz</i>), which
+belong to the group of so-called Eosine or Fluoresceïn
+dyestuffs most of which, while very beautiful, are extremely
+fugitive. These two dyes, which give shades
+of pink and red with yellow and blue fluorescence, respectively,
+are considerably more fast than the rest of
+their group, and will rank in the third class, if not at
+the foot of the second class, as regards light-fastness.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to fastness to washing, it must be
+remembered that these Acid dyes are not fast at all,
+when dyed on silk in a broken soap bath. They may
+stand very light washing in a cold soap bath, but in
+boiling soapsuds will strip completely. This is important
+for the amateur, and indeed, for the professional<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[167]</span>
+dyer, for whom a dyed silk, either skein or in the
+piece, has come out unsatisfactorily—uneven or
+spotted, or too dark in shade—for it is possible, if
+the silk is of good quality, to clean off the color completely
+by boiling soapsuds, without injuring the
+goods.</p>
+
+<p>If the trouble is unevenness, while the shade is satisfactory,
+the color can be dissolved off in the boiling
+soap bath and then, on breaking the bath with a little
+acid, the same dye can be laid right on again, it is
+to be hoped this time in a satisfactory manner. The
+question of dyeing silk fast to washing, and also of
+dyeing silk black, will be dealt with in the next
+chapter.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[168]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_XII">Chapter XII<br>
+<span class="chapt_sub">SILK—II</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center noindent fs110">BLACK DYEING OF SILK. WEIGHTING AND ADULTERATION<br>
+OF SILK. DYEING SILK WITH COLORS<br>
+FAST TO WASHING</p>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> dyeing process described in the last chapter,
+while well suited for dyeing silk bright and
+lustrous colors, is not so well adapted to dyeing
+it black. To be sure, there are several good fast
+acid blacks, such as Silk Patent Black, 2R, <i>Kalle</i>, or
+Neutral Wool Black, B, <i>Cassella</i>, or Cashmere Black,
+3BN, <i>Elberfeld</i>, or Amido Black, 4024, <i>Metz</i>, which,
+dyed in full shades in a broken bath of soap or
+boiled-off liquor, will give fairly good results. But
+the best of these are not always quite satisfactory,
+the resulting color generally showing a tendency to
+be a deep full grey rather than a perfectly true lustrous
+black.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Salt Colors.</i>—Silk may also be dyed black with some
+of the good Salt colors—but unless the dyer takes
+the trouble to after-treat the goods by the troublesome
+process of diazotizing and developing, the results are
+no better, if indeed as good as those resulting from the
+Acid blacks mentioned above.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[169]</span></p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Sulphur Colors.</i>—These have very often been tried on
+silk without much success, because for dark colors like
+blacks, it is necessary to boil the goods in the dye-liquor
+for some time and to have the latter very concentrated.
+Unfortunately the sodium sulphide, necessary
+for dissolving the sulphur dyes, is a powerful
+alkali, and hence readily attacks an animal fibre, like
+silk. It is possible, however, by the abundant use of
+glucose (Karo syrup, etc.) to greatly protect the silk
+from this tendering action. It is also possible for a
+dyer fairly well trained in chemistry, to very carefully
+neutralize the dye-bath by the cautious addition of
+acid sodium sulphite, until the dye-liquor is no
+longer alkaline and yet the dyestuff is not precipitated.
+This process, however, is hardly fitted for an
+amateur, and has not proved very successful even
+among the professionals.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Logwood Blacks.</i>—Nearly all professional dyers continue
+to use the old vegetable dyestuff, logwood, about
+which some information was given in the first chapter.</p>
+
+<p>To dye with this it is customary to use one of the
+many good logwood extracts on the market. Great
+care must be taken in the proper mordanting of the
+silk before it goes into the bath. For this purpose the
+silk is impregnated first with iron salts, and later with
+tannin, and in some processes, with salts of chromium
+or of tin, before entering the logwood bath. In all
+cases, therefore, silk dyed black with logwood contains
+a certain amount, say 15% to 20% of its weight,
+or 2-3 ounces to the pound, of foreign ingredients.
+When carefully done this does not injure the material<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[170]</span>
+at all, and the “pure dyed” logwood blacks are perfectly
+satisfactory both for shade, lustre, and durability.</p>
+
+
+<h3>WEIGHTING OF SILK</h3>
+
+<p>This moderate increase of weight, however, which
+is hardly enough to replace the weight of the gum
+lost in the stripping process, was far from satisfying
+the demands of the manufacturer for a cheaper raw
+material. And accordingly both dyer and dyeing
+chemist have exhausted all their energies and skill in
+trying to increase this percentage of cheap foreign
+matter in the finished silk, to the utmost limit of what
+the market will stand.</p>
+
+<p>The first efforts in this direction were based upon
+the saving of some or, indeed, nearly all, of the gum
+which is wasted in the stripping or degumming process
+previously described. This gum, which amounts to
+from 20 to 35 per cent. of the raw silk, makes the silk
+stiff in texture and dull in color and more difficult to
+dye. Accordingly, in former years, it was invariably
+washed out of the silk with the greatest care before
+any attempt was made to dye it. But by modifying the
+dyeing, and especially the finishing process, it was
+found possible to produce the so-called “souples”—i.e.,
+silks with little or no lustre, but with the characteristic
+“scroop” or “feel”—capable of replacing
+bright silk as a filling in many fabrics and yet containing
+almost all the natural gum left in the fibre.</p>
+
+<p>The black silks were then attacked and an elaborate
+system of mordanting was introduced before the dyeing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[171]</span>
+proper began. For instance, the silk can be steeped
+alternately in one solution after another, first of iron
+salts and then of ferrocyanide of potash, thus forming
+Prussian blue in the fibre. Then the excess of iron can
+be converted by immersion in tannin solutions, such
+as Gambier or Cutch, into black tannate of iron, or ink,
+and finally, after perhaps a light bath in chromium
+salts, the real black color is brought out by boiling in
+logwood extract. The silk is then brightened by boiling
+with good neutral Castile soap, is shaded, if necessary,
+by dyeing with either an Acid or Basic dye in a
+weak bath, and, after drying and finishing, the finished
+product may easily weigh two or even three times as
+much as the original raw silk, and still retain its
+strength, lustre, and elasticity.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Tin Weighting.</i>—The weighting of colored and bright
+silks did not proceed so rapidly, and it was not much
+more than ten years ago that, by accident, some French
+dyers discovered that by immersion in a strong bath of
+tin chloride (stannic chloride acidified with some
+hydrochloric acid) the silk fibre would absorb a large
+percentage of tin salts without necessarily losing lustre,
+dyeing capacity, or even strength. This at first was
+kept a secret, but its use gradually spread, until now
+it is a very poor silk dyer who cannot weight his silk
+100 or 150 per cent. without spoiling its immediate
+commercial value.</p>
+
+<p>Without going into unnecessary details, the process
+is somewhat as follows: The silk, after being degummed
+and thoroughly washed free of soap, is
+plunged into a bath of tin chloride and kept there for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[172]</span>
+some hours. It is then taken out and the loose tin
+salts are washed off in a tank of water (technically
+called a box), or in a washing machine. To further
+“set” the tin, the silk is then placed for a short time
+in a solution of phosphate of soda and again washed
+thoroughly. It has now gained from 15 to 25 per cent
+of its original weight (2½ to 4 ounces to the pound
+of raw silk).</p>
+
+<p>If further weighting is desired, this treatment, first
+in tin chloride and then in phosphate of soda, can be
+repeated three or four up to five or even six times,
+increasing the weight with each immersion. Then a
+bath is usually given of silicate of soda, which adds a
+little weight, ½ to ¾ of an ounce, and, it is claimed,
+benefits the lustre and strength of the goods. Then,
+after a final washing, the silk is ready for the dye-bath.</p>
+
+<p>The weighted goods are dyed, dried, and finished
+about the same as with the “pure dye” process, and
+the proud dyer can rejoice at returning to the honest
+manufacturer from 150 to 250 pounds of finished silk
+for every 100 pounds of raw silk (containing, by the
+way, 25 to 30 pounds of gum) which was sent in to
+the dyehouse! This “tin-weighing” process is also
+applied to black dyeing, and enables the black dyer to
+build up his weight with tin salts instead of limiting
+him to iron, chromium, ferrocyanide of potash, tannin,
+and logwood.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Properties of Weighted Silk.</i>—It is scarcely necessary
+to point out that silk, weighted to the extreme limit,
+is hardly to be considered as the most durable and
+trustworthy of fabrics, even when dyed by the most<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[173]</span>
+expert workmen. And when carelessly prepared
+heavily weighted silk is an abomination, liable to crack
+and wear away with the least provocation.</p>
+
+<p>It may be worth reminding some of my fair readers
+that the old test of a silk taffeta, “so thick and stiff
+that it will stand of itself,” is nowadays anything but
+a proof of good quality. One or two manufacturers
+in this country a few years ago tried to revive the
+almost forgotten art of making and selling pure-dyed
+goods, and one trouble they experienced in disposing
+of their products, outside the high price, was the criticism
+that their silk felt so light and thin.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Prevalence of Weighted Silk.</i>—At present it is almost
+impossible, at least in New York, to buy pure-dyed
+heavy silks. The writer, at any rate, has tried
+diligently, during the last year or two, to find for some
+special experiments a piece of white taffeta which was
+not markedly weighted. After visiting department
+stores and the very best dry-goods stores in the city,
+at all of which he was informed that no such material
+now existed, the best that could be obtained was one
+make of silk where the organzine or warp was fairly
+pure, the tram being well weighted. Light-weight
+Japanese and Chinese silks, however, undyed or dyed
+in the piece, can still be procured with little or no
+weighting.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Tests for Weighted Silk.</i>—This silk may be identified
+by a very simple test. Pure-dyed silk, when dry, is
+easily inflammable. When touched with a lighted
+match it catches fire at once, “carries the flame” well,
+especially if in the form of thread; and, if followed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[174]</span>
+up with a flame, it will before long burn away completely,
+leaving little or no ash or residue.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, weighted silk, especially when
+the added mineral matter amounts to 25% or over, is
+quite hard to burn. If it catches fire at all, it just
+flashes up for a moment and then the flame dies right
+out. And when persistently heated, until the organic
+matter is all burnt away, it still leaves a very considerable
+residue of ash.</p>
+
+<p>When this test is to be made on unwoven or skein
+silk, it is enough to take two or three threads, five or
+six inches long, and to light them in the flame of a
+match. For piece goods it is best to pick out the
+threads carefully, with a pin or fine knife blade, separating
+the tram from the organzine, and then, with
+a match, to test each of these in turn. A very little
+practice will enable the most inexperienced student to
+make this test satisfactorily.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, for an accurate determination of the
+percentage of weighting contained in a given sample
+of silk, it is necessary to resort to delicate chemical
+analyses. But for all ordinary purposes this simple
+flame test is quite sufficient.</p>
+
+
+<h3>DYEING SILK WITH COLORS FAST TO WASHING</h3>
+
+<p>As a rule the method previously described of dyeing
+silk with Acid dyes in a broken bath of soap, or better,
+of boiled-off liquor, will be found perfectly satisfactory.
+The shades are easily obtained, the colors are
+brilliant, and, if the right dyes are used, exceedingly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[175]</span>
+fast to light, and the material, if properly rinsed,
+suffers no deterioration.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand these colors are not, in the slightest
+degree, fast to washing.</p>
+
+<p>The dyed goods can be cleaned with gasoline and
+the like, but when passed through a lukewarm bath
+of soap and water they bleed badly, and in boiling
+soapsuds the color can be completely stripped from
+them.</p>
+
+<p>In most cases this is not a serious objection, for a
+person who will send a handsome hand-dyed silk scarf
+or piece of embroidery to the family washtub is entitled
+to scant sympathy if the results are disastrous.
+But occasionally it is important to have colors on silk
+which can be guaranteed against moderate or even
+against, severe, washing.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Fast Colors on Silk.</i>—There are two grades of fastness
+known to the dyers—“fast” and “embroidery
+fast.”</p>
+
+<p>“Fast” means simply that the silk is to be dyed
+fast to ordinary, careful handling so that the colors
+will not bleed or run in a warm or even hot soap bath,
+but does not guarantee them against every possible
+maltreatment.</p>
+
+<p>The best way of doing this is by the use of the
+Direct Cotton or Salt dyes, described in Chapter III,
+which, it will be remembered, only dye wool or silk at
+a high temperature, at or near the boiling point and,
+preferably, in an acid bath, but, when once on, are very
+hard to dislodge. The selected ones are very fast to
+light and present a great range of bright, attractive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[176]</span>
+colors, which are nearly, if not quite, as brilliant as
+those produced by the Acid dyes.</p>
+
+<p>They are applied in a boiling bath containing a little
+acetic acid, and a good deal of salt, especially for full
+shades. For lighter shades, the presence of salt is
+hardly necessary. The goods are to be finished just as
+with the Acid dyes, with a soap bath followed, if the
+scroop is desired, by a weak bath of acetic acid.</p>
+
+<p>The results, when carefully done, are very good.
+They possess, however, one disadvantage for the
+amateur dyer. These colors are quite hard to strip,
+and so, the desired effect must be produced the first
+time, or not at all. It is not possible to strip an unsatisfactory
+shade in a hot soap bath, and dye it over
+and over again without injury, as in the case with
+Acid dyes. They are best stripped by soaking in a
+bath of sodium hydrosulphite, and then washing.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Embroidery Fast Colors.</i>—While the above process
+gives shades fast enough against all ordinary washing,
+it sometimes happens that silk must be dyed fast
+enough to withstand exactly the same treatment that
+coarse cotton or linen goods are subjected to, without
+bleeding or staining. The salt dyes are not quite fast
+enough for this, particularly because, not having been
+converted in the dyeing process into a special insoluble
+condition, if they should be detached from the fibre
+by strong or hot soaping, they would be liable to stain
+the neighboring tissues and not wash off quite clear.</p>
+
+<p>One of the hardest tests that colored silk is called
+upon to stand is when, in small quantities, it is used
+with a large amount of white linen or cotton goods.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[177]</span>
+Thus, for instance, when monograms are embroidered
+in red or blue silk upon white towels or napkins, and
+the latter are scrubbed, week after week, in the regular
+wash, the color must be fast, indeed, not to show some
+evidences of running. Hence the term “embroidery
+fastness” as applied to this class of dyes. Thanks,
+also, to the amiable practice of the modern laundress of
+lightening her labors by the addition of bleaching powder
+and other strong chemicals to the washtub, it is
+very important that a silk dyed “embroidery fast”
+should be able to withstand the action of these agents
+as well as of soap. Up to the last few years these
+colors were only obtained by the use of the Alizarine
+dyestuffs, the full rich scarlet so often used for this
+purpose being the modern form of the old, madder-dyed,
+Turkey red of our forefathers.</p>
+
+<p>But, during the last few years, the troublesome and
+tedious mordanting processes necessary for the proper
+development of color by the Alizarine dyes, have been
+replaced, for craftsmen, and, indeed, by most professional
+dyers, by the much simpler and shorter processes
+of vat dyeing. As long as Indigo was the sole representative
+of the class, it was of very little use for silk
+dyeing. But since the introduction of the splendid
+series of new vat dyes, the Algol, Ciba, Helindone,
+Indanthrene, and Thio Indigo colors, which, dyed in a
+single bath, give a whole range of brilliant shades,
+wonderfully fast to light and to washing, the necessity
+for mordant colors has very largely disappeared.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[178]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3>DYEING SILK WITH VAT DYES</h3>
+
+<p>It must always be remembered when working with
+silk, wool, leather, or any other animal material, that
+such materials are extremely sensitive to the action
+of alkalies, especially when hot or caustic, while they
+are but slightly injured, if at all, by the action of
+dilute acids. For this reason it is always better, whenever
+possible, to dye silk with the Acid dyes or the
+Salt dyes, in an acid or neutral bath, rather than to
+use dyestuffs like the Vat dyes or the Sulphur colors,
+which need an alkaline dye-liquor. Furthermore, the
+silk is likely to have a more brilliant lustre when dyed
+with a color which fastens to it by chemical affinity,
+from a solution, rather than one where the color is
+fixed because the oxygen of the atmosphere changes
+it into an insoluble powder, while in the pores of the
+silk. It is, however, perfectly possible to dye silk
+full shades with the Vat dyes and even—though this
+is not often advisable—with the Sulphur dyes, by
+using some simple precautions.</p>
+
+<p>The best Vat dyes for silk are Indigo itself, and its
+substitution products, like Brom-Indigo, <i>Elberfeld</i>, or
+the Thio Indigo dyes, <i>Kalle</i>, or else the rather closely
+related colors like the Helindones, <i>Metz</i>, and the Ciba
+colors, <i>Klipstein</i>. It is of importance to use only
+those which are shown in the table on page 102, as
+dyeing in a cold, or at most, a lukewarm bath.</p>
+
+<p>The dye-bath should be made with a considerable
+amount of dyestuff, so as to avoid the necessity of
+keeping the goods in it long. And the amount of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[179]</span>
+caustic alkali should be kept as low as possible, consistent
+of course with dissolving the reduced dyestuff.
+It has been found in practice that the presence of glue
+or gelatine in the bath, or even of glucose (molasses,
+corn syrup, Karo syrup, etc.), protects the silk, wool,
+and other animal fibres greatly from the action of
+alkalies. It should, therefore, be added in quantities
+of two or three large tablespoonfuls to the gallon of
+dye-liquor.</p>
+
+<p>The wet goods should be immersed in the cold or
+lukewarm bath, and turned constantly for a few minutes
+only, before taking them out, wringing them,
+and hanging them up to oxidize. As soon as the
+color sets, which is shown generally, by the change
+of shade and which never takes more than, say,
+twenty minutes if the materials are well opened up,
+the goods should be brightened in a hot bath of good,
+neutral, olive oil soap, and then finished as previously
+described. It will be remembered that several, indeed
+most of the best Vat colors do not develop their final
+shade at all, until after the soaping process.</p>
+
+<p>When carefully done, this process will give exceedingly
+fast and quite brilliant colors, without injury to
+the strength of the goods.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Comparative Results of Vat Dyes and Sulphur Dyes
+on Silk.</i>—It is hard to get full shades with Sulphur
+colors because it is generally necessary to heat the dye-bath,
+and this, owing to the powerful alkaline properties
+of the sodium sulphide, is very injurious to the
+silk. Besides this, the sulphur dyes are much less
+brilliant than the Vat dyes, and have no good red or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[180]</span>
+orange shades in the whole class. They accordingly
+should not be used, excepting where no other are available,
+or, as will be described in a later chapter, when
+doing “resist stencilling” on silk.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, such very unusual advantages
+do some of these new Vat dyes possess, for the dyeing
+of silk for special purposes, that large quantities
+of Helindones, Thio Indigoes, and other good specimens
+of this class are being sold, at comparatively
+very high prices, to manufacturers of fine shirtings
+where the patterns are made by weaving fine lines or
+figures of brightly dyed silk into the linen or cotton
+fabric. Until the introduction of these dyes in the
+last two or three years these shades could not have
+been produced fast enough for this purpose.</p>
+
+<p>Sulphur dyes can also be used on silk without injuring
+the goods, by taking the precautions described
+earlier in this chapter. The shades, however, are
+quiet and dull, as compared to those produced by other
+classes of dyestuffs; and it is almost, if not quite, impossible
+to get a good full red and, especially, a good
+scarlet, by using these colors.</p>
+
+<p>Silk properly dyed with Sulphur colors is extremely
+fast to washing. But these dyes, unlike the best Vat
+colors, are as a rule quite sensitive to bleaching agents,
+and therefore are not so well adapted for general use
+on “embroidery fast” silk.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[181]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_XIII">Chapter XIII<br>
+<span class="chapt_sub">IMITATION AND ARTIFICIAL SILK</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Owing</span> to the high price of pure silk and the
+bad wearing qualities of the highly adulterated
+silks, described in the last chapter, there has
+been for a long time a strong demand for a fabric
+which would combine as far as possible the strength
+and wearing power of the one, with the cheap price of
+the other, while still retaining the lustre and “scroop”
+and characteristic appearance of both.</p>
+
+<p>The demand at present is met, and not so unsuccessfully,
+first by imitation silk, of which mercerized
+cotton is the best example, and second, by the various
+forms of artificial silk which during the last few years
+have been introduced widely in both Europe and our
+own country. The competition of these two classes of
+products is not at all to be despised. Their quality
+is constantly improving, their price diminishing, and
+their production increasing rapidly from year to year.
+And if the silk manufacturers continue to produce such
+poor material in the line of weighted silk fabrics as
+they have in the past, it will be but a short time before
+they will find the market almost entirely divided between
+pure-dyed silks, on the one hand, for expensive
+goods, and some of these new products for cheap
+materials.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[182]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3>MERCERIZED COTTON</h3>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>History and Preparation.</i>—This material was first introduced
+as a substitute for silk some ten or twelve
+years ago, although the process for making it was
+invented about 1840, by a celebrated English dyer,
+John Mercer. He discovered that when cotton, either
+in cloth or yarn, was subjected for a short time to the
+action of strong caustic alkali, and then thoroughly
+washed, the resulting material was much stronger than
+before, had shrunk very considerably, and had a much
+greater affinity for dyestuffs. For instance, dyes like
+the Basic colors, which give but a temporary stain on
+ordinary cotton, will dye with some degree of fastness
+cotton thus treated with alkali, without the use of
+mordants. Mercer patented his discovery and made
+some use of it in calico printing; as, for instance, in the
+making of “crinkled” goods. But the process was
+nearly forgotten until, in 1889, it was discovered that,
+by proper treatment, cotton could by this means be
+made so lustrous as to compare not unfavorably with
+silk.</p>
+
+<p>To make the cotton lustrous, the goods, after dipping
+into the strong alkali, are kept firmly stretched,
+and their strong tendency to shrink resisted, until the
+alkali has been thoroughly rinsed off and the last traces
+neutralized with a little acid. If this is done carefully,
+when finally dried the cotton fibres will be found drawn
+out smooth and lustrous, while still retaining their new
+qualities of strength and increased dyeing power. To
+get good results in this process the materials treated,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[183]</span>
+whether in yarn or cloth, must be made of the very
+best and longest stapled cotton, preferably Egyptian,
+and when well done the results are extremely satisfactory.
+The lustre is not as good as the very best
+silk, but it is quite well marked, and for replacing the
+cheap grades of heavily weighted silks, as, for instance,
+for underwear, linings, etc., the mercerized
+goods are of very great value, owing to their strength
+and durability, as well as their cheapness.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Dyeing of Mercerized Cotton.</i>—Cotton, thus treated,
+is dyed in the same way that ordinary cotton is, with
+the exception that it takes the dyes more rapidly, and,
+as a rule, gives deeper and more brilliant shades with
+the same amount of coloring matter.</p>
+
+<p>For special purposes it may be best to use the Sulphur
+or the Vat dyes, but in general this material is
+best dyed with the Salt dyes, which are not only easy
+to apply, but are fast to light, very brilliant, and on
+these goods, at any rate, very fairly fast to washing.
+As before mentioned, the fastness to both light and
+washing may be considerably improved by after treatment
+of the dyed goods, i.e., by passing them through
+a hot bath containing a tablespoonful each of copper
+sulphate, potassium bichromate, and acetic acid to the
+gallon of water.</p>
+
+<p>This, however, will rarely be found necessary, provided
+the selected colors are used, and the color has
+been applied at the boil in a bath containing considerable
+salt.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[184]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3>ARTIFICIAL SILK</h3>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>History.</b>—The famous old French chemist, Réaumur,
+in the year 1734, suggested, after a study of the silk
+worm, and of the method by which it “spins” the natural
+thread, that it might be possible to make a jelly-like
+substance which could be drawn out into a fine
+thread and, coagulating, form an artificial silk.</p>
+
+<p>This suggestion was first acted on, in a practical
+way, in the year 1855, when Andermars obtained some
+curious results by dipping a needle or fine metal rod
+into a thin viscous solution known as collodion, and
+then drawing it out rapidly, made fine, smooth threads
+as the material solidified. This collodion, which for
+many years has been in common use in minor surgery
+to paint on wounds and cuts, because it leaves a film
+of artificial skin, and in more recent times has been
+much used in photography, is a solution of gun cotton
+or nitro-cellulose in a mixture of alcohol and ether.
+In 1885 Count Hilary de Chardonnet made improvements
+in this last process, and produced successfully
+the first real artificial silk threads on a commercial
+scale.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Chardonnet Silk.</i>—He also used a thick collodion solution,
+but instead of<em>drawing</em> it out he<em>pressed</em> it out
+through fine holes by using very great pressure. As
+fast as the gummy thread exuded it was picked up,
+carried along into a drying room, where the alcohol
+and ether could escape (to be condensed later and used
+over again), and then the solid fibre was passed into a
+solution of some suitable reducing agent, such as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[185]</span>
+ammonium or sodium sulphydrate, which converts the
+inflammable gun cotton into its original condition of
+cellulose. These resulting threads, being smooth and
+uniform when properly made, have very great lustre.
+Indeed, they are often far more brilliant than the very
+best and finest natural silk, and can be dyed and woven
+into beautiful fabrics.</p>
+
+<p>This discovery of Chardonnet’s was at once utilized,
+and large and flourishing factories of Chardonnet silk
+sprang up all over Europe. The first large factory,
+which is still doing a very profitable business, was at
+Besançon, in France, and later a large factory was
+established at Frankfort, Germany.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Pauly Silk.</i>—The success of this process aroused the
+interest of other chemists, and before long several
+rival processes came into existence, also based on the
+use of a viscous solution of a cellulose compound. One
+company, making the so-called Pauly silk, utilized the
+solvent action of an ammoniacal copper solution upon
+cellulose for their starting point.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Elberfeld Silk, Glanzstoff.</i>—The Farbenfabriken von
+Elberfeld, famous manufacturers of dyestuffs, took
+up the manufacture of silk from a solution of a compound
+of cellulose with acetic acid; and the Elberfeld
+silk, or, as it is widely known in Germany, Glanzstoff,
+is every year becoming a more and more important
+factor in the silk business.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Viscose Silk.</i>—A still different process, which during
+the past two or three years has been successfully introduced
+into the United States, depends upon the curious
+substance called Viscose, a thick, sticky solution of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[186]</span>
+cellulose made by first treating wood pulp, cotton or
+other vegetable fibre with strong caustic soda and then
+dissolving the resulting product in carbon disulphide.</p>
+
+<p>This Viscose was first introduced for many different
+purposes. The solvent, carbon disulphide, is very volatile,
+and flies off readily, leaving the cellulose behind
+in the form of a stiff jelly which, on drying, becomes
+solid and strong. So Viscose was used for water-proofing
+paper, etc., for making solid articles like
+piano keys and billiard balls, and even for making
+opaque patterns in calico printing. But its most valuable
+application is for artificial silk. It is pressed out
+through fine holes, and the thread resulting quickly
+solidifies as the solvent evaporates, and can be dried
+carefully and worked up on reels or bobbins, to be
+dyed later.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Properties.</i>—Artificial silk, as a rule, is a little stiffer
+than natural silk, but has an exceedingly fine lustre.
+It cannot be spun in as fine threads as fine, natural
+silk, but, on the other hand, can be produced in thick,
+smooth threads which, stained as a rule black or dark
+colors, quite replace horsehair for furniture coverings,
+etc. Similar products are made, too, by coating cotton
+with a layer of artificial silk.</p>
+
+<p>Another curious use of this artificial silk process is
+when it is formed into still larger threads, very lustrous
+and quite stiff, and used for plumes and aigrettes.
+They can be dyed any color, have excellent lustre, and
+are extremely useful for millinery.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Precautions Necessary in Dyeing.</i>—One great drawback
+is common to all these different varieties of artificial<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[187]</span>
+silk. They are quite strong, although not particularly
+elastic, when dry, but when wet lose their
+strength very markedly. Indeed, at one time it was
+found extremely troublesome to dye them, as the silk
+skein dyers, accustomed to work and wring and
+stretch their silk, with impunity, in and out of the hot
+dye-baths, would try the same treatment with this new
+product, and in consequence ruin every skein. When
+thoroughly wet through in a hot bath the thread will
+soften until a skein may hardly bear its own weight.
+Accordingly, the dyeing is always done as quickly as
+possible, and generally at a lukewarm or only moderately
+high temperature. The skeins should be
+handled as little as possible in the dye-bath, and, when
+taken out to wring, should be rinsed slightly to get rid
+of extra color, acid, etc., and then carefully dried, not
+by twisting on two sticks, as is customary with other
+materials, but by wrapping in cheese cloth or blotting
+paper and then running the skeins backward and forward
+through the clothes wringer.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Tests for Artificial Silk.</b>—It has been ascertained that
+all varieties of artificial silk now on the market are
+made from some form of cellulose. Efforts have been
+made to take thick jellies made from gelatine or similar
+animal compounds, and make threads from them,
+coagulating them later by treatment with formaldehyde
+or similar chemicals.</p>
+
+<p>These experiments have, however, not as yet proved
+successful. Accordingly, any test that will distinguish
+between a vegetable and an animal fibre will
+show whether a brilliant thread or piece of textiles<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[188]</span>
+contains natural silk or not. The simplest of tests is,
+of course, to burn a little with a match or at a flame
+and see if there results the characteristic “burnt
+feather smell” of charring animal tissues. This odor
+accompanies the natural silk. The chemist would
+probably make the same test more accurately by heating
+a wad of the material in the bottom of a small test
+tube and noticing whether ammonia was being evolved,
+and whether the distillate was alkaline in reaction.
+The ammonia and alkali resulting from the nitrogenous
+organic matter is a certain indication of animal
+matter.</p>
+
+<p>To distinguish between mercerized cotton and artificial
+silk, it is generally enough to soak the samples
+for a short time, say a quarter of an hour, in boiling
+water and test their strength. Mercerized cotton properly
+made would be just as strong afterward as before,
+while the artificial silk would be soft and weak, if it
+would not, indeed, break down completely. Besides
+this, it must be remembered that the mercerized cotton,
+in spite of its lustre, is made up of threads tightly
+spun together from a large number of short fibres,
+none of which are over two inches or so in length,
+while the artificial silks are made up, like the natural
+silk, of long, continuous fibres twisted together to
+form the yarn.</p>
+
+<p>In general, these artificial silks, manufactured as
+they are from wood pulp and other vegetable materials,
+are to be dyed with the Salt, Sulphur, or Vat
+dyes, care always being taken to expose them to the
+action of hot dye-liquors as short a time as possible.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[189]</span>
+The Salt dyes are less apt to interfere with the brilliant
+lustre, but the Sulphur and Vat dyes have the great
+advantage of dyeing in a cold or lukewarm bath, without
+any loss in fastness.</p>
+
+<p>The Chardonnet silk has a special affinity for the
+Basic dyes, and in the trade is usually dyed both light
+and dark shades with these coloring matters, without
+previous mordanting, in a slightly acid bath. This
+practice, however, while simple and easy, is not to be
+recommended. For the Basic dyes, with but few exceptions,
+fugitive under all circumstances, are particularly
+sensitive to light, when dyed in light shades,
+upon such a brilliant and almost transparent medium
+as this is. On the other hand, articles made of artificial
+silk, being easily injured by rain, are not so liable
+to be exposed to the open weather as some other less
+delicate materials.</p>
+
+<p>The Viscose and Elberfeld silks (Glanzstoff) have
+less affinity for the Basic dyes, and dye more readily
+with the Salt and Sulphur colors than the Chardonnet
+silk, made from gun cotton. But it is perfectly possible
+to dye the latter also with fast colors of the Salt,
+Sulphur, or Vat classes, providing large amounts of
+dyestuff are used to bring up the shade. Indeed it is
+poor economy to be sparing of the coloring matter,
+when working with any kind of artificial silk. For
+speed is essential, and the dyer who lets his material
+remain long in the dye-bath is liable to get into difficulties.</p>
+
+<p>The artificial silk, after dyeing, should be finished
+much like natural silk, by rinsing and then passing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[190]</span>
+through a bath containing some olive oil, emulsified
+in a weak bath of soda ash. This increases the lustre.
+It should also be dried at a fairly low temperature and,
+while drying, kept stretched out by hanging a wooden
+or glass rod in the loop of the hanging skein, or some
+similar device, taking care to avoid strain great enough
+to pull apart the weakened fibre.</p>
+
+<p>When dyeing this material great care should also
+be taken in tying up the individual skeins and in
+handling them. Turn them in the dye-bath as little
+as possible consistent with even dyeing. The threads,
+unless very tightly spun, are constantly liable to come
+untwisted, and the knots to untie, causing much annoyance.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, when carefully made and dyed these
+artificial silks furnish beautiful, brilliant, lustrous
+fibres, which can be used to great effect in many kinds
+of handicraft work. They can easily be procured
+with more lustre than the very best natural silk, but
+even when dry are deficient in elasticity, and to some
+extent in strength, and when wet are very fragile.
+The price is kept at a rather high figure, as a rule
+only from 25 to 50 cents a pound less than that of
+good natural silk. But every year the production is
+increasing, new factories are springing up in every
+country, and as there is no limit to the production
+excepting the demand, it is probable that in a few
+years, thanks to competition, the price will be dropped
+very considerably and the whole silk business will be
+revolutionized. At present it is estimated that the production
+of the artificial silk is not far from one-fifth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[191]</span>
+that of natural silk, and this fraction is getting larger
+every month.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, the rise of this particular industry may
+fairly be considered as one of the most interesting,
+most useful, and most valuable contributions of the
+manufacturing chemist during the last quarter century.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[192]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_XIV">Chapter XIV<br>
+<span class="chapt_sub">TIED AND DYED WORK</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Hitherto,</span> in this book, the student has been
+instructed in the general art of dyeing and
+coloring the various fabrics, both in the yarn
+and in piece, without any attention to the subject of
+coloring them in patterns or designs. The remaining
+chapters will be devoted to various methods, suitable
+for craftsmen, by which the dyestuffs can be applied
+so as to give more or less definite patterns to the objects
+to be colored.</p>
+
+<p>This art, in its general principles, was worked out
+in various parts of the world at very early periods in
+their civilization. In a great many cases colored designs
+in textiles were formed, in the process of weaving,
+by incorporating yarns of different colors in certain
+portions of the fabric.</p>
+
+<p>But along with this, at a very early stage in the
+textile industry, there was developed the art of making
+patterns, regular or irregular, by the action of dyestuffs
+upon previously woven goods. In general there
+are three methods for doing this which, it is claimed,
+were known to the ancient Egyptians just as well as
+they are to the modern calico printer. These three
+methods are known as Direct Coloring, Discharge,
+and Resist dyeing.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="fig2" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p192a.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 2—TIED AND DYED HEADDRESS FROM AN
+INCA TOMB IN PERU</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[193]</span></p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Direct Coloring.</b>—This means the application of the
+dyestuff or coloring matter to different special portions
+of the textile or fabric, so as to give a colored
+design, upon a lighter background. The dye may be
+applied by dipping special portions of the fabric into
+it, in which case the pattern is apt to be a very loose
+and irregular one. Or, if the material will take the
+dye readily enough, as for instance in the staining of
+leather, it may be applied with a brush, or a small pad.</p>
+
+<p>More formal and intricate designs can be made by
+applying the color in the form of a paste, through
+the help of stencils, as worked out by the Japanese
+so beautifully, or by means of wooden or metallic
+blocks, as in the block printing in the East, which in
+Europe and America has developed into the art of
+calico printing, by rolls run by machinery.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Discharge.</b>—This process is the exact reverse of the
+preceding one, in that the cloth or other material is
+dyed first, and later the color is either entirely removed
+or, it may be, very decidedly altered in shade,
+in certain special parts, by the application of some
+chemical.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest examples of this are where cloths
+stained with Iron buff, have had patterns made in
+them by washing out certain portions with acid. Just
+as some of the earliest forms of “direct coloring”
+are shown in the dark patterns of leaves, formed by
+the same Iron buff dye, upon cloth against which
+moist fresh leaves have been crushed.</p>
+
+<p>The discharge process is not as commonly used by
+craftsmen as the other two methods, because it has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[194]</span>
+not always been easy to find or to use a chemical that
+will properly destroy or change any particular color,
+without at the same time, if fast dyes are used, destroying
+or at least injuring the fabric. The professional
+dyer, working in conjunction with the chemist,
+carefully weighing the reagents, and using steam chests
+and drying chambers with definite and carefully regulated
+temperatures, can fully discharge even the fastest
+dyes without danger. But this is difficult, if not impossible
+for the craftsman, and while the process will
+be discussed and described under the subject of stencilling,
+it will be found, comparatively, of but little
+practical importance.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Resist.</b>—The third and last method for getting colored
+patterns is one which has been used in different
+ways, by the most widely scattered nations,
+and which, to this day, furnishes one of the most
+interesting and important processes at the disposal of
+the craftsman, as opposed to the professional dyer.</p>
+
+<p>It consists of applying to certain portions of the
+fabric, before dyeing, some agent which, acting either
+chemically or mechanically, will “resist” the action of
+the dyestuff at the places where it is applied. These
+parts accordingly will remain in their original color,
+or at any rate will be but slightly colored, while other
+portions, not so protected, will be dyed full shades.
+This, in many respects, is the most advantageous way
+of obtaining patterns for the craftsman, because no
+action has taken place tending to injure the strength
+or durability of either material or dyestuff, and as the
+color is applied in a regular dye-bath there is generally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[195]</span>
+an opportunity to apply the dyestuffs in the most approved
+manner.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Variations in Resist Work.</i>—The resist method has
+been discovered in many parts of the world, and has
+been carried out in many ways. In Java, for instance,
+a beautiful art was developed known as Batik,
+to be described later, in more detail. These people
+used, as a resisting medium, molten beeswax, which
+could be poured or painted on to the cloth wherever
+desired, and, according to whether it was applied hot
+or only just warm enough to be liquid, would protect
+the material covered, either wholly or partially, against
+the action of dyestuffs in a cold bath.</p>
+
+<p>Less elaborate, but still very interesting processes
+are reported from many other quarters. As will be
+described in the next chapter the Japanese have long
+used a resist paste, to make white patterns against
+dark backgrounds with their stencils. In some of the
+Pacific Islands natives have learnt to make patterns by
+pressing pieces of cloth tightly between shells, as for
+instance the two halves of a clam shell, and then dyeing
+or staining around them. Other tribes learnt the
+trick of tying or sewing flat thin pieces of wood together,
+tightly compressing the cloth between them
+and thus preventing the dyestuff from reaching those
+parts of the goods when dyed later.</p>
+
+<p>But the most common process, and one which is
+not only the simplest and easiest to carry out, but also
+offers to the skilful dyer an almost unlimited range
+of interesting and effective results, in color and design,
+is the so-called “Tied and Dyed Work.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[196]</span></p>
+
+
+<h3>TIED AND DYED WORK</h3>
+
+<p>In this process, Tied and Dyed Work, the pattern
+is made by tying string or cord, more or less
+tightly, around certain selected portions of the material.
+When the goods, thus treated, are subsequently
+dyed, these tied portions will be kept from the action
+of the dyestuff, and after the operation is finished
+and the strings cut or untied, they will be lighter in
+color than the adjacent parts of the fabric.</p>
+
+<p>This process has been known and widely used in
+many different parts of the world. Some interesting
+examples of it are found among the textiles from the
+so-called Inca graves, in Peru and Bolivia, dating
+from before the Spanish conquest in the sixteenth century
+(see Fig. <a href="#fig2">2</a>). Some extremely interesting specimens
+of tied work can be seen in the Philippine collection
+in the New York Museum of Natural History,
+brought from the Bagobo tribe in Mindanao (see
+Fig. <a href="#fig5">5</a>). While perhaps the most extraordinary development
+of this process can be found in the so-called
+chundries or chunaries, imported from Central Hindustan,
+and sold by traders in Eastern goods and textiles
+at very moderate prices.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig3" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p196a.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 3—SHIKAR CHUNDRI, FROM RAJPUTANA, WITH KNOTS STILL UNTIED</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Chundries.</b>—These are chiefly manufactured in the
+native State of Kotah, in Rajputana, and have been
+produced there from time immemorial, for use as
+clothing and hangings. Those that are imported to
+this country (see Figs. <a href="#fig3">3</a> and <a href="#fig4">4</a>) are generally made
+of extremely thin, flimsy muslin, most elaborately
+decorated in three or four colors, with patterns made<span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[197]</span>
+up of an infinite number of small round or rectangular
+rings of white or light colors, against a darker background.
+They can be obtained in the same condition
+that they left the dyer’s hands, folded tightly
+together, colored red or brown or black from the final
+dye-bath, and covered over with hundreds of little
+hard knots or lumps. These, on examination, prove
+to be the tied places, each tied by hand, by winding
+round and round the base of the projecting loop of
+cloth, a very fine thread, closely laid and knotted
+extremely firm and tight.</p>
+
+<p>When unwound, which must be done with much
+care on account of the thin, fragile nature of the cloth,
+the knotted portions often show most beautiful and
+interesting designs—done in different colors, put on
+before tying, and protected from the final bath by the
+close tight layer of thread. Among the most interesting
+of them are the so-called “Shikar” chundries,
+where the design, repeated over and over again, illustrates
+some hunting scene, as, for instance, a tiger
+hunt, with the animal springing at a man armed with
+a sword, and a horse or elephant with howdah. When
+fully opened one of these chundries makes a strip of
+cloth some five or six yards long, and in Rajputana is
+used as the full-dress costume of a young lady of
+fashion, being folded round and round the body and
+over the head in most graceful and charming lines.</p>
+
+<p>On studying one of these chundries one is struck
+by the immense amount of labor expended in the tying
+process. The knots which form the pattern make,
+frequently, as many as twenty-five or thirty to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[198]</span>
+running inch, and each one is tied so tightly around
+the cloth, folded so as to form four thicknesses, and
+drawn or pressed out into loops, that it completely
+protects the part it covers from the dyestuff, only the
+tip of the loop remaining exposed. Hence, when it is
+untied, there results a small circular or rectangular
+ring not over three-quarters of an inch in diameter.
+To obtain a surface around which the string can be
+thus tightly tied, the folded cloth is evidently pressed
+out from the back by a thin pin or spike (the effect
+can be produced by tying a thin piece of cloth tightly
+around a wooden toothpick) around which the thread
+can be tightly drawn and knotted, and which usually
+is left in during the dyeing process and taken out
+afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>The patterns are so elaborate, and yet are repeated
+over and over again, on the same chundries, with such
+regularity, that it is probable that some simple apparatus
+is used to press out the cloth in exactly the
+proper places. This could be done by using a little
+frame with holes in it, into which pins of wood or
+ivory could be set, like the markers in a cribbage board,
+for instance, forming definite figures on which piece
+after piece of cloth could be placed and pressed out
+into shape.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig4" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p198a.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 4—SAME CHUNDRI AS IN FIG. <a href="#fig3">3</a>, UNTIED AND SHAKEN OUT</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The most interesting thing, after all, about these
+extraordinarily elaborate pieces of handicraft work is
+the fact that this vast amount of time and labor is
+expended upon such poor materials. The muslin of
+which they are made is so thin and poor that considerable
+pains must be taken in opening them, to prevent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[199]</span>
+their tearing from the strain of pulling off the
+knots of fine thread. Then, too, the colors as a rule not
+only are fugitive to sunlight, but are easily affected
+by washing. Two minutes scrubbing in hot soapsuds
+will almost completely efface the pattern and color
+from some of the most elaborate and beautiful of them
+all. And this is not, as is claimed frequently by
+modern writers upon Eastern handicrafts, due to the
+introduction of cheap and fugitive “aniline” dyestuffs.
+The dyes, used for generations by the Rajput
+craftsmen, for their most elaborate chundries,
+were principally tumeric, safflower, and other inferior
+vegetable colors, applied so loosely as to be
+merely stains rather than dyes—and it would be hard
+to get modern dyestuffs which, applied with any care,
+would be as fugitive as those commonly used for the
+very best examples of these beautiful textiles.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Tied Work in the Philippines.</b>—Of different quality is
+the work of the Bagobo tribe in Mindanao, interesting
+specimens of which are to be seen in the Philippine
+collection of the New York Museum of Natural
+History. As shown in Fig. <a href="#fig5">5</a>, a headdress belonging
+to Miss Laura Benedict, the work is not unlike that
+done by the ancient Peruvians, and the patterns, although
+often exceedingly complex, are invariably
+geometrical, and do not approach in variety or in interest
+those from India. The coloring, too, is far simpler—practically
+all the examples showing light patterns
+on a dull purplish background. But the dyeing is most
+carefully and thoroughly made—taking about thirty
+days to complete, dyeing each night and washing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[200]</span>
+thoroughly each morning during all that time, until
+the final product is exceedingly permanent to both
+light and washing.</p>
+
+<p>Miss Benedict, who was the first white person to
+enter the Bagobo country and study and report on
+their handicrafts, states that the patterns are made
+in a curious manner. The pattern is first outlined
+upon the cloth by a series of basting stitches, the intersection
+of two stitches being the mark for the centre
+of one of the tied places. Then the operator, seated,
+puts over her big toe a ring attached to a line some
+three feet long, on the end of which is a simple hook
+made from a bent and sharpened piece of copper or
+brass wire. Holding the cloth in one hand, she then
+fastens the hook into one of the marked places, pulls
+the part out with her foot, and ties up the loop thus
+formed, rapidly and tightly, with waxed thread. This
+she winds round and round the loop, beginning with
+the bottom first, and knots it tight, using the free
+hand, assisted, except with very expert workers, with
+the thumb and forefinger of the other.</p>
+
+<p>Specimens of textiles thus tied, and not yet dyed or
+opened, and also of the toe-ring, line, and hook used
+in the process, can be seen at the Museum, along with
+a great variety of beautiful specimens of the finished
+work.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp75" id="fig5">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p200a.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 5—BAGOBO HEADDRESS FROM THE ISLAND
+OF MINDANAO</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>It is rare that, in our present surroundings, any
+craftsman can spare the time and patience to copy
+the elaborate patterns made in these ways by the Eastern
+dyers. But equally beautiful and interesting results
+can be produced with very little expenditure of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[201]</span>
+time and labor, by the skilful dyer, who knows something
+of the fundamental principles of design and can
+use his dyes so as to get soft and beautiful as well as
+permanent color effects. It is impossible, in a work
+like this, to do more than suggest some of the many
+ways in which this process can be used. The rest
+depends entirely upon practice—and more can be
+learned about its possibilities in a couple of hours’
+work with muslin or cheesecloth, and a ball of twine
+or tape, in connection with a dye-pot of a good Sulphur
+dye, than by weeks of listening or reading about it.</p>
+
+
+<h3>VARIETIES OF TIED WORK</h3>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Tied on Itself.</b>—Interesting effects may often be produced
+on long pieces of cloth, scarfs, and the like, by
+folding them over and tying them into knots at one
+or two selected places, before dyeing. Fig. <a href="#fig6">6</a> shows
+an example of this, (a) Tied and ready for dyeing;
+(b) Dyed and opened out. This when worked out
+in different colors, dyeing first, with some light color,
+then tying and dyeing with another color, or else
+coloring the tied and dyed piece with a second light
+bath of another color, gives very pleasant results as
+applied to draperies—as, for instance, simple costumes
+for pageants and out-of-doors plays. It is, however,
+almost, if not quite, impossible to obtain definite designs
+in this way, and it is hardly possible to duplicate
+results. But occasionally the process is useful.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Tied with String or Tape.</b>—Far more important is
+the process generally meant by the term “tied and
+dyed work,” where the pattern is made by tying either<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[202]</span>
+thread, string, cord, or even tape, more or less tightly
+around special portions of the cloth. These portions
+are usually drawn out, or pressed out, or folded, so
+as to form a sort of loop around which the string
+can be tied. But occasionally the whole cloth, laid
+flat and with but little folding, is tied tightly across,
+so that the reserved part forms, when untied, a more
+or less straight band.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Tied in Bands.</i>—It is often desirable to separate one
+part of a design from another by means of a broad
+line or band of white or light color. This can be
+readily done by tying a piece of strong twine or
+tape, tightly, right across the goods at the desired
+place before dyeing it. Quite elaborate and interesting
+effects can be produced in this way by first folding
+the cloth lengthways, and then tying a width of
+several inches with a broad piece of tape. If it is not
+tied too tight some of the color will work up and
+down the folds, under the tape, and give, when finished,
+curious wavy effects. (See Fig. <a href="#fig7">7</a>.)</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Tied in Small Loops.</i>—This banding, though interesting
+and useful, differs from the sharp little round or
+diamond-shaped rings forming the patterns in the
+Rajput or Bagobo textiles. These are produced by
+pressing or pulling out the cloth into loops or bunches
+which are then tied tightly round and round with
+string or thread, the middle of the loop being usually
+left exposed to the dyestuff, so as to form a colored
+centre.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100"  id="fig6">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p202a_1.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">(<i>a</i>)—<i>Tied and Ready for Dyeing</i>
+</figcaption>
+</figure>
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p202a.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">(<i>b</i>)—<i>Dyed, Untied and Shaken Out</i><br>
+
+FIG. 6—SAMPLE OF TIED AND DYED WORK,
+“TIED ON ITSELF”</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>Very small loops can be made, as mentioned above,
+by pressing out the cloth with a wooden pin (or toothpick)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[203]</span>
+and tying tightly around this, leaving in the pin
+until after the dyeing is completed.</p>
+
+<p>Skilful workers can tie quite small loops by placing
+a bead, or dried pea, or piece of gravel in the cloth
+and tying the cloth tightly around this. It is best,
+always, to have something of the sort, pin or bead, to
+act as a centre, or else the knot, after tying, is very apt
+to slip off, and spoil the pattern.</p>
+
+<p>The design for this sort of work should be carefully
+planned beforehand, and marked out on the
+cloth with pencil or chalk. For, with small loops like
+this, the interest is more in the pattern formed by
+them than in the changes and contrasts in color between
+the different tied parts and the rest of the
+cloth.</p>
+
+<p>A very interesting specimen of work done in
+this way by Miss Mary Grey is shown in Fig. <a href="#fig7">7</a>.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Tied in Large Knots and Loops.</i>—It is hard for a
+Western craftsman to obtain sharp, well-defined
+knots by this method, of a diameter of less than
+half an inch or so. Usually, indeed, it is too
+much of a bother and nuisance to try any knots
+covering less than an inch and a half. From this
+size, up to fifteen and twenty inches in diameter, will
+be found the vast majority of all American work. The
+reason is very simple. The trouble of tying a knot
+covering five inches is very little more than that for
+a half-inch knot, indeed far less for most people,
+while the large knot produces an immediate effect not
+equalled by a dozen of the latter. Furthermore, with
+large knots, big bold designs can be produced, which,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[204]</span>
+with pleasant and skilfully selected colors, give results
+far more striking and effective than can be shown
+by the small knots, no matter how carefully carried
+out. On the other hand, intricate and carefully
+planned designs can be worked out with small knots,
+which cannot be attempted with the large ones.</p>
+
+<p>For designs with large knots, beside the cloth,
+which should be soft and free from dressing, and a
+ball of soft thick twine or better, of cheap cotton
+binding tape, half to three-quarters of an inch wide,
+it is well to have a supply of large glass beads, of
+marbles of different sizes, and, if these are not easy
+to get, of pebbles, beans, hazelnuts, and the like.
+These are not always to be used, but in most cases
+it makes a more interesting contrast to have the centre
+of the tied spot come out dark, with the lighter parts,
+more or less shaded, around it. That means that the
+centre must be exposed to the dyestuff by being
+stretched out over a marble or pebble, while the parts
+around it are tied up. And the tying, too, is greatly
+facilitated by having a hard centre to work against.</p>
+
+<p>By tying around one marble first, and then putting
+in another and tying round that, a series of concentric
+rings will be formed, the black rings showing where
+the cloth, covering the marble, has been exposed, and
+the light-colored part showing where it has been covered
+by the tape or string.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp70"  id="fig7">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p204a.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+
+<p class="hang1">FIG. 7—SAMPLE OF TIED AND DYED WORK, “TIED IN
+BANDS,” WITH INCIDENTAL KNOTS. BY MISS MARY
+GREY</p>
+
+</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<p>As before, the design, if at all elaborate, should be
+marked out beforehand on the open cloth, and the
+parts tied in accordingly. Much experience is required
+to know just how tight to tie the tape so as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[205]</span>
+to get a desired effect with each particular kind of
+cloth, and each class of dyestuffs. In general, with
+small knots the string should be tied very tight, or
+otherwise no effect is produced at all. The larger
+the tied parts, however, the more pains should be
+taken to have the cloth folded before tying, so that
+some of the color may work down through the folds
+past the tape, and thus produce shaded effects, which
+may be of great beauty (see Plate IV, Fig. <a href="#plate4a">a</a>). Of
+course, in this, much depends on the cloth; a thick
+heavy calico tying with difficulty, but not letting the
+dyestuff soak through; while soft open materials like
+scrim or cheesecloth, for instance, must be tied much
+tighter, or the color will work through so much as to
+spoil the design.</p>
+
+<p>The student is advised to practise, from the start,
+tying his tape with a slip loop, or at any rate a bow
+knot, and not with a fast square knot each time, so
+as to save trouble and bother when untying later. A
+skilful craftsman will tie quite a large piece of cloth,
+in an interesting and fairly complicated design, in a
+few minutes. But after dyeing, while the cloth is
+still wet, and the tape or string has shrunk, and the
+knots have tightened, it is often more trouble to untie,
+or cut it open, than it was to make it, and there is
+always the danger of cutting holes in it. A little pains
+in laying down one end of the tape, before starting
+to tie, so that, when the whole loop is tied up, the
+other end will come out alongside of the first so that
+it can be joined to it by a bow knot, will save any
+amount of time and vexation.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[206]</span></p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Sewed and Dyed Work.</b>—Besides protecting the
+cloth from the action of the dyestuff by tying string
+or tape around it, the same effect can be produced
+by sewing up certain parts of it, before dyeing, and
+then, after the rest has been colored, and the loose
+dye-liquor washed off, the sewed-up parts can be
+opened and pressed into shape.</p>
+
+<p>This modification of the process, so far as I can
+learn, is not practised by the Rajputs with their
+chundries, but in the Benedict collection can be seen
+some most extraordinary and elaborate pieces of dyed
+work made just in this way. The Japanese, also, have
+been in the habit of using this method, and sometimes
+they produce curious zigzag lines by taking coarse
+stitches across the cloth, alternately, first to one side
+and then to the other side of the centre line, and then
+drawing the thread tight. The needle is often used
+for borders—for straight lines can easily be made in
+soft materials (and such only should be used for tied
+work) by hemming the cloth with strong thread, and
+then drawing it up close and tight before putting it in
+the dye-bath. The development of this branch of the
+process, however, belongs properly to the fair sex.</p>
+
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="fig8" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p206a_1.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 8—FOLDING THE CLOTH</figcaption>
+</figure>
+<table class="autotable">
+<tr><td class="tdct wd50">
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig9" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p206a_2.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 9—STARTING TO TIE</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</td><td class="tdct" >
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig10" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p206a_3.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 10—CENTRE PORTION TIED</figcaption>
+</figure>
+</td></tr></table>
+<p class="center noindent">TIED AND DYED WORK</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Dyeing Process.</b>—Now for the dyeing process. Of
+course, for practise, the craftsman will use cotton as
+his raw material, in the form of muslin, cheesecloth,
+scrim, or best of all, light grades of mercerized cotton,
+and hence will use the various cotton dyestuffs. The
+Salt colors are hardly advisable, because though fast
+to light they are not all fast to washing unless well
+boiled on, and that means that, unless tied extremely<span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[207]</span>
+fast and tight, the color would be bound to penetrate,
+and wipe out the design. The Sulphur colors and the
+Vat colors are the best for the purpose—for they can
+be dyed cold or lukewarm, without injuring the fastness
+of the dye, and give colors fast both to light and
+to washing. In general, it is easier to get even shades
+with the Sulphur colors, and their shades are soft and
+pleasing, but while fast, they are not as fast as the
+Vat dyes, and it is impossible to get a decent scarlet
+with them. The skilful dyer will, of course, select his
+class to suit the shade he is trying to get and also to
+meet the requirements about fastness. But, in general,
+he will use the Salt colors for covering and shading the
+patterns produced with either the Sulphur or the Vat
+dyes. When using the oxidation dyes, like the Sulphur
+or Vat colors, plenty of time must be given for the
+dyestuffs to oxidize and set before they are untied.
+But, on the other hand, directly they are once untied
+it is important to wash off the loose dye-liquor from
+the cloth, and especially from the tied-in portions, as
+soon as possible after untying, otherwise some dye-liquors
+that may have soaked in without having had
+a chance to oxidize, will, when exposed to air, suddenly
+fix themselves and obscure or ruin the pattern.</p>
+
+<p>After attaining some skill in this process the craftsman
+is urged to try it on more important materials
+like silk. Most beautiful effects can be, and are being
+produced by this means, on soft delicate scarfs made
+of Chinese or Indian silks. The Acid colors are, of
+course, used for this, and as they take so readily on
+silk, the possibilities of shading and over-shading different<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[208]</span>
+portions of the design, or of adding a touch
+of color here and there where it seems desirable, offer
+infinite possibilities to an artistic workman. The combinations
+of color that can be produced are infinite,
+and the curious blending of regularity and irregularity,
+in the designs and figures, renders it a most attractive
+process to practise with.</p>
+
+<p>One great attraction about it is the sense of suspense,
+and the impossibility of telling just what effect
+is being produced, until the knots are all untied, and
+the cloth washed off and opened out.</p>
+
+<p>Another attraction is the feeling of working all the
+time in an unexplored or very partially explored country.
+There is the constant chance of obtaining at any
+moment effects never thought of before. The experimenter
+is always trying some new little trick in tying,
+or in folding, or in dyeing, the results of which can
+never be foreseen accurately, and which are always
+interesting and often very beautiful.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Tied and Discharged Work.</b>—One day, in our laboratory,
+some experiments were made which resulted
+in a modification of this process which, so far as we
+know, was entirely new, and which presents very interesting
+possibilities, to say the least. We made the
+experiment of dyeing the cloth first, and then tying
+it up, and putting it in a bleaching solution, so as to
+discharge the color everywhere excepting where it was
+protected by the tying. The experiment was successful,
+resulting (see Plate IV, Fig. <a href="#plate4b">b</a>), in a series of
+dark patterns on a light background. All kinds of
+modifications of this can be made. For instance, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[209]</span>
+cloth can be dyed with a mixture of two or three
+dyes, some of which are fast and the other or others
+can be discharged by the chemical used. The pattern
+thus will be the full mixed color, say brown, against a
+background of red or yellow or blue as the case may be.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_p208a" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p208a.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+
+
+<table class="autotable">
+<tr><td class="tdct wd30" id="fig11">
+FIG. 11—CENTRE
+AND CORNERS
+TIED
+</td><td class="tdct" id="fig12">
+
+ FIG. 12—DYED, UNTIED AND SHAKEN OUT
+</td></tr></table>
+TIED AND DYED WORK-CONTINUED</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p>The important thing about this modification is to
+select the proper bleaching agent to act on the particular
+colors, and the particular kind of material,
+used. Our first experiments were with bleaching
+powder (chloride of lime), dissolved in water, say two
+tablespoonfuls to the gallon, with, if necessary, a few
+drops of acetic acid or weak sulphuric acid stirred
+into it. This powerful bleaching agent is very apt
+to attack the cloth, and only heavy materials, such as
+scrim or heavy calico should be used with it. But
+although so strong, it does not act at all readily on
+a large number of the dyestuffs, including many of
+the Vat colors. Some of these, like the Indanthrene
+colors, are not affected at all, Indigo is changed
+from blue to a brilliant shade of yellow. And Thio
+Indigo Red B produces curious shades of purple, settling,
+where exposed to the full action of the bleaching
+agent, to orange.</p>
+
+<p>Later we repeated the experiments, using hydrosulphite
+of soda, say two tablespoonfuls to the gallon
+of warm water, as a discharge, with much better success.
+The cloth was not injured, even when delicate
+materials like silk and light poplins were used. And
+the great majority of colors, including nearly all the
+best Salt, Sulphur, and Acid dyes, reduced rapidly
+and well. The Vat dyes will reduce, and, in the presence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[210]</span>
+of caustic soda, will dissolve out of the exposed
+cloth almost entirely, but it is hard to reduce them to
+white in this way. In every case the color, after reduction,
+must be washed at once in warm soap and
+water, or else, on exposure to the air, the color may
+come back to some extent, owing to oxidation.</p>
+
+<p>A weak bath of hydrosulphite of soda, also, should
+always be on hand, in the former bleaching process;
+for, when bleaching powder (chloride of lime) or
+other chlorine compounds, such as Javelle water or
+Labarraque’s solution, are used for destroying the
+color, their further action can be stopped, and also
+the offensive smell removed, by dipping the bleached
+material into a so-called antichlor, like this hydrosulphite.</p>
+
+<p>This subject of discharge is dealt with more at
+length in a future chapter.</p>
+
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="plate4a" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p210a_a.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">(a) <span class="allsmcap">EXAMPLE OF TIED AND DYED WORK</span></figcaption>
+</figure>
+<figure class="figcenter illowp90" id="plate4b" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p210a_b.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">(b) <span class="allsmcap">EXAMPLE OF TIED AND DISCHARGED WORK</span><br>
+
+PLATE IV.</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[211]</span></p>
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_XV">Chapter XV<br>
+<span class="chapt_sub">STENCILS AND STENCILLING</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<h3>DIRECT APPLICATION OF COLORS</h3>
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap"><b>History.</b></span>—During the last few years a great
+deal of attention has been paid to the manufacture
+and use of stencils for decorating textiles,
+not only by craft workers of different kinds, but
+also by art teachers in private and public schools.</p>
+
+<p>The art is not a modern one, even in this country,
+for I have seen and worked with a series of very interesting
+stencils cut in brass, which were owned in
+Philadelphia by the famous old physician, Dr. Benjamin
+Rush, over a hundred years ago, and were used
+in his family for marking linen, as well as for decorating
+homespuns and paper.</p>
+
+<p>The real home of the art, however, is Japan, where,
+for over three hundred years, stencils have been in
+common use, largely replacing the wood blocks used
+in other countries, for decorating the common cotton
+goods, towels, head coverings, and the like of the lower
+classes, and also for ornamenting, where embroidery
+was not desired, the beautiful silks and satins of the
+wealthy.</p>
+
+<p>Ever since Japan has been opened to the world
+travelers have been telling wonderful stories of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[212]</span>
+the great skill of the natives in this beautiful art. According
+to some writers, as soon as a child is born
+it is given a nickname, and with it, as a sort of totem,
+a design—a flower, for instance, for a girl—a tree
+or an animal for a boy—and the like. This design,
+worked out carefully, after due criticism from all the
+family elders, is drawn on brown paper and then carefully
+cut out with a sharp knife by some member or
+friend of the family. And this stencil is then sent to
+the local dyer to be used in dyeing the infant’s clothes.
+This same design, or a modification of it, is attached
+to the person through life, as his or her own private
+pattern, and whenever new clothes are needed they
+are dyed after this same pattern.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Japanese Stencils.</b>—<i>Paper.</i>—It is a common fact that
+the very first thing noticeable about Japanese stencils,
+whether brought from some dyehouse in the interior,
+or whether made more or less mechanically, for
+the American market, to be sold to students or craftsmen,
+is the quality of the paper. It is thin, hardly
+heavier than ordinary writing paper, but exceedingly
+tough and strong, and cuts very easily, without tearing.
+It can occasionally be obtained from importers
+in sheets, and even better qualities can be secured, from
+among a mass of old stencils, by finding some which
+have been only partially cut or used up, and carefully
+cutting out from them the unused portions where
+these are large enough for the purpose.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="fig13" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p212a_1.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 13—JAPANESE STENCIL KNIFE</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="fig14" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p212a_2.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 14—JAPANESE STENCIL BRUSHES</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Knives.</i>—In cutting stencil designs our American
+practice is to use a sharp penknife, or a Sloyd knife,
+or, as happens occasionally with some of my friends<span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[213]</span>
+with amiable professional husbands, a surgeon’s
+scalpel. None of these, however, compare for neatness,
+accuracy, and ease and comfort of manipulation,
+with the very simple but extremely effective little Japanese
+knives shown in Fig. <a href="#fig13">13</a>. The knife blade, of
+very highly tempered steel, is two or three inches long
+and fits between two flattened plates of wood, tied together
+tightly at the bottom but springing apart a
+little toward the top, as a handle. This little spring of
+the handle is most satisfactory. And as the blade,
+which is triangular and sharply pointed, is worn away
+gradually by the constant grinding and sharpening
+it must receive, the steel can be pushed forward from
+between the two halves of the handle, until the proper
+length is reached.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Cutting.</i>—The Japanese draw their designs on
+paper with India ink, and then, with incredible swiftness
+and accuracy, the lines are cut, by pushing the
+knife blade, held with the back downwards, away
+from the workman, and through the paper which is
+placed flat on a piece of wood or small tray, with
+depressions in it half an inch or so deep, to avoid the
+danger and bother of running the knife point into the
+wood.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>American Practice.</b>—Our way differs somewhat. The
+design is usually drawn on a separate piece of white
+paper, and filled in—in black—with India ink. This is
+then placed underneath the stencil paper which, especially
+if it has been oiled or paraffined, is translucent
+enough to show the pattern through, so that the outline
+can be drawn with a sharp pencil. The outline<span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[214]</span>
+can also be made by tracing the design down on the
+stencil paper with the help of a piece of carbon copying
+paper. This is laid between the design and the stencil
+paper and then the outline of the design is carefully
+traced with a sharp-pointed pencil. From these outlines
+it is easy, with a sharp stencil knife, to cut out
+the design, although it is customary with us to cut
+toward the body with the point of the knife down,
+upon a piece of blotting paper or soft wood so as
+not to dull it too rapidly.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Ties and Stops.</i>—When stencilling is taught in
+America great pains are taken to show how the pattern
+must be planned and cut out, so as to have plenty of
+“ties” or “stops” in the right places, so as to hold
+the stencil together. For instance, in making a stencil
+of a large capital O, the student should be warned that,
+if the paper was cut all the way around, it would leave
+a big hole; for the central piece, which would form
+the centre of the finished letter, would drop out, and
+could not be kept in place. Accordingly, the stencil
+would have to be cut carefully, leaving at least two
+“bridges” or little “tie pieces” of paper, one probably
+at the top, and the other at the bottom of the O,
+these being the narrowest points, which would hold the
+centre in place, and thus complete the figure. Indeed,
+if these little “steps” or “bridges” of paper should
+be left out, or become torn or broken, the stencil
+would be useless. But a situation like this has little
+or no terror for the Japanese, at any rate when working
+for their home trade. Their stencils cut for the
+American market while always interesting, and often<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[215]</span>
+charming, are cut, as ours are, from one piece of
+paper, with stops in the exposed places. But the stencils
+that have been used, or cut for use, over there,
+show a very different state of affairs. All of the
+large, handsome ones, and a large proportion of the
+smaller, less artistic, and less valuable ones are made,
+with almost inconceivable skill and patience, in duplicate.
+And the two parts are afterwards pasted together
+with absolute accuracy, but with a layer of fine
+hair, supposedly human hair, between them. These
+hairs, laid irregularly but evenly, make a sort of network
+which ties together all portions of the stencil,
+no matter how disconnected with the rest, or, as we
+would say, “in the air,” it might be.</p>
+
+<p>So, too, they are in the habit of sewing in, with the
+finest of hair or of single threads of fine silk, loose
+pieces or broken pieces, and thus holding them in
+shape.</p>
+
+<p>It is interesting to study some of them closely and
+see how neatly this tying is done and how little the
+time of these unknown workmen must be valued at.
+For apart from the large picture stencils which, of
+course, would be worth taking a great deal of pains
+with, some of the simplest and most ordinary of their
+native stencils are not only cut but tied in, with extraordinary
+skill. One of these, valued here at but
+a few cents, consisted of a background of small figures
+in shape and size very much like a capital O of the
+type of this page. The stencil measures some eighteen
+by ten inches, and there must be between fifteen hundred
+and two thousand of these O figures on it.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[216]</span>
+Some few of these are now imperfect, but with the
+exception of a dozen or two, every single one of all
+these has had the centre cut out, and then sewed into
+place again, from the sides, so as to be in the exact
+centre, without a single “stop” or “tie” on the whole
+paper.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Brushes.</i>—With stencils so very delicately made, it is
+evident that our crude American style of rubbing in the
+color, with heavy hands and stiff bristle brushes, would
+not be much of a success! About one good rub with
+a brush like that, and every hair in sight would be
+torn and broken, and what was a minute before a
+work of art would be a torn mass of brown paper.</p>
+
+<p>Whether any of our American craftsmen have light
+enough hands to use, successfully, a fine Japanese stencil
+is doubtful. Personally, I could no more stencil
+six inches with any of them without ruining it or
+making a mess of the cloth than I could in a year cut,
+without tearing, six square inches of any one of a
+score of cheap and ordinary Japanese stencils which I
+own, either presented to me or sold at a very low
+price, as being really too insignificant in value to
+amount to anything.</p>
+
+<p>But at any rate, the Japanese do not use a stiff
+bristle brush. Their brushes, in general, are of two
+sorts, as shown in Fig. <a href="#fig14">14</a>. One is a sort of pad, often
+quite large, five or six inches in diameter, made of
+rabbit’s fur, tightly bound together with cord or wire,
+and with a bundle of small sticks spreading out to
+enclose the pad, and drawn together and tied above,
+at the upper end, in a sort of pyramid.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig15" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p216a_1.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 15—JAPANESE STENCIL, SHOWING HOLES PUNCHED
+BY HAND TOOL</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp100" id="i_p216a_2" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p216a_2.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">
+
+<table class="autotable">
+<tr><td class="wd50 tdct" id="fig16">
+FIG. 16—JAPANESE
+STENCIL, EXACT SIZE,
+SHOWING USE OF
+STOPS
+</td><td class="tdct" id="fig17">
+FIG. 17—JAPANESE
+STENCIL, EXACT SIZE,
+SHOWING USE OF
+SEWING INSTEAD OF
+STOPS
+</td></tr></table>
+</figcaption>
+</figure>
+<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[217]</span>
+
+<p>The other variety is a true brush, of a more ordinary
+shape, like a flat paint brush, but also made of
+the very softest and finest, most velvety hairs imaginable,
+laid extremely close together, and compressed
+tightly between the two halves of the handle. These
+can be obtained occasionally from the dealers at reasonable
+prices, and are delightful to work with. Only,
+being meant for the soft, light touches of their native
+workmen, they do not last long when rubbed down on
+the cloth as is our practise. Their life is considerably
+increased by pouring some molten beeswax into the
+back of both goods and brushes with a batik pot, or
+Tjanting, which prevents the fine hairs from pulling
+out until the brush is all worn to pieces.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>The Care of Stencils.</i>—A word may here be said about
+taking care of stencils, after they have been cut or
+purchased. They should always be used on one side,
+and carefully wiped off with a damp cloth, directly
+after using. They should always be kept flat, never
+folded. And, when using them, it must always be remembered
+that the ties or bridges are the weak spots,
+and that breaking or tearing them, as a rule, will spoil
+the stencil. It is, of course, possible to mend them by
+sewing, or sometimes by patching with tape. But this
+is always troublesome, and with well paraffined stencils
+is rarely satisfactory.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>The Different Methods of Using Stencils.</i>—In this
+country, so far as can be ascertained, the common way
+in which stencils have been used is by brushing through
+them, on to the cloth, oil paints thinned with turpentine
+or gasoline. As previously explained, in the chapter on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[218]</span>
+feather dyeing, this is not very satisfactory. For when
+paint is sufficiently thick to adhere well to the cloth,
+it is apt to look stiff and shiny. And when it is applied
+so thin that the structure of the cloth shows
+through, it is, as a rule, not fast to washing or even
+to rubbing. Various varnishes are on the market
+which help considerably to make the paint fast, but
+even then the results are not nearly so durable as when
+the proper dyestuffs are used.</p>
+
+<p>The Japanese practice is exclusively with dyes, and
+they have worked out processes which are perfectly
+satisfactory, so that their simple, cheap, stencilled towels
+can stand washing indefinitely without loss of
+color. And by the use of modern dyestuffs there is
+no insuperable obstacle to our doing just as well as
+they.</p>
+
+<p>The use of stencils gives an excellent opportunity
+to illustrate the three general methods of coloring
+fabrics, which, as mentioned in the last chapter, consist
+of:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">
+<p class="noindent">
+Direct application of color.<br>
+Resist, and<br>
+Discharge.<br>
+</p>
+</div>
+<p>The last two of these will be reserved for the next
+chapter.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="fig18" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p218a.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 18—JAPANESE STENCILS, EXACT SIZE, SHOWING
+USE OF BOTH STOPS AND NET</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Direct Application of Color.</b>—In this intricate work
+it will generally be found almost a necessity to
+apply colors through a stencil in the form of a paste,
+for when the coloring liquid is thin it is very apt to
+run under the edges of the paper and spoil the design.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[219]</span>
+It is best to thicken it with a little “gum dragon,”
+a carefully prepared paste of gum tragacanth, to
+which the coloring matter, and any reagents that are
+needed, can be added. The nature of the reagents
+and the class of dyestuffs used depends, of course,
+upon the kind of material to be stencilled.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>(a) Leather.</b>—While not very often used, students
+interested in leather work will find a carefully designed
+and neatly cut stencil a most useful medium
+for obtaining interesting and beautiful effects. The
+leather, whether bark- or alum-tanned, should be carefully
+dampened, and then stencilled with a paste containing
+Basic colors dissolved with a drop of acetic
+acid. On drying, the leather should be finished as
+usual. The Acid colors are not nearly so satisfactory
+for stencilling, although, as already mentioned, they
+are often advantageous for dyeing, rather than staining,
+leather fast colors.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>(b) Silk.</b>—Silk may easily be stencilled provided the
+pattern is not expected to be fast to washing.</p>
+
+<p>1.<em>Acid Colors.</em>—These dyes, mixed with a few
+drops of formic or acetic acid, will color it well, but
+to make the dyestuff penetrate it is advisable to steam
+the goods. This can be done with a teakettle provided
+with a wing tip for the spout, made of tin, or by heating
+a flatiron or iron plate very hot, and pressing the
+stencilled goods back down against it, with a damp
+cloth in between. The hot steam thus produced, passing
+through the goods, melts the paste and drives the
+color down into the fibres and sets it there, so that,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[220]</span>
+later, the stencilled goods will stand light rinsing in
+lukewarm soap and water without running.</p>
+
+<p>2.<em>Salt Colors.</em>—Faster results can be obtained, on
+silk, with a paste containing salt dyes, with a drop or
+two of acetic acid, provided the silk is thoroughly
+steamed afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>3.<em>Basic Colors.</em>—Basic dyes may be used on silk as on
+wool, leather, or any other animal fibres for direct
+application, the dyestuff dissolved with a drop of acetic
+acid, being added to the paste, and then brushed in
+and, preferably, lightly steamed to sink the paste down
+into the fibres. These dyes, however, with but few
+exceptions, are not fast to light, and applied in this
+way are not fast, either, to washing. By adding some
+reagents to the paste, however, a Basic stencil paste can
+be formed which gives colors on silk which will stand
+active scrubbing excellently.</p>
+
+<p>The Basic Stencil Paste is prepared by mixing with
+the paste a solution containing the Basic color, dissolved
+in acetic acid, and also containing a considerable
+quantity of tannic acid. As long as there is
+free acetic acid present in this mixture the color remains
+in solution, but directly the acid is driven off,
+an insoluble compound remains, formed by the combination
+of the tannic acid with the color base. This
+happens on steaming, and the insolubility of the product
+is still further increased by passing it through a
+weak bath or wetting it with a weak solution (half a
+teaspoonful to the quart) of tartar emetic.</p>
+
+<p>Accordingly, to use this stencil paste on silk or,
+indeed, on cotton, the slightly dampened goods are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[221]</span>
+stencilled with the paste, thinned if desired with water
+and a little acetic acid. Then directly they are dry
+enough so as not to run they are well steamed, then
+the gum rinsed off with a little warm water, and the
+goods moistened with the tartar emetic. After this
+they can be washed with soap with little or no danger
+of running.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>(c) Wool.</b>—Wool is rarely stencilled, although stencil
+patterns can be produced very well on it by using
+acid colors with a little oxalate of ammonia (about the
+same amount as the dyestuff), dissolved in a drop or
+two of water, and thickened with a little gum tragacanth.
+When this paste is applied with a brush, and
+then dried, the result is not fast at all, merely a distinct
+stain; but if steamed at once the oxalate of
+ammonia decomposes, leaving oxalic acid, which, combining
+with the color and melting down with it in the
+fibres, makes the dyestuff adhere quite firmly.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>(d) Cotton and Linen.</b>—It is much more difficult to
+stencil satisfactorily on vegetable goods, such as cotton
+and linen, than on the animal fibres above mentioned,
+because they are expected to stand very much more
+severe treatment. The fastness to washing needed for
+a handsome silk scarf is far less than for a cotton
+shirtwaist, or linen table-cover, and unless the results
+on the latter are at least as fast as the average calico
+print, the result is considered a failure.</p>
+
+<p>There are three classes of dyes which can be used
+in this connection, the Basic dyes, the Sulphur dyes,
+and the Indigo or Vat dyes. The Basic stencil pastes
+have just been described, in connection with silk stencilling,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[222]</span>
+and when carefully used they will give very
+fair results on cotton, and even on linen, provided it
+is free from dressing, and is not too coarse and thick.
+It is hardly worth while trying to fasten Basic dyes,
+by hand stencilling, upon such materials as heavy,
+coarse Russian crash, for instance, such as friends
+and students have frequently brought in to experiment
+with. But for light, thin materials, and especially for
+mercerized goods, poplins and the like, it is possible,
+with a little practice, to get effects that are fast to
+ordinary washing.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, this method of stencilling has
+certain disadvantages. It is rather complicated, needing
+the use of a fixing bath of tartar emetic, a very
+active poison, by the way, although more uncomfortable
+than actually dangerous when taken by mistake
+in one dose, because of the severe vomiting it produces
+almost immediately. And then, too, the results
+at best are not really fast to light, and in the case of
+light pinks and yellows are distinctly fugitive.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Vat Color Stencil Pastes.</i>—Many experiments have
+been made in our laboratory to work out a satisfactory
+stencil paste, so that Indigo and other Vat dyes
+could be applied, simply and easily, with no more difficulty
+than the usual one of brushing the paste in carefully,
+and then steaming as soon as possible. In these
+stencil pastes the Indigo and the other Vat dyes are reduced
+with the aid of caustic alkali and hydrosulphite
+before being mixed with the paste, and some special
+precautions are taken to prevent, as far as possible, the
+oxidation of the dyestuff before it gets well into the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[223]</span>
+fibre. But, as the ordinary hydrosulphite is apt to
+decompose on standing, especially when it is wet, it is
+always best, just before using, to mix well with the
+paste a little fresh reducing agent, dissolved in a drop
+of hot water. The reducing agent that should be used
+for this purpose is not the ordinary hydrosulphite of
+soda, used for vat dyeing, but a compound of sodium
+hydrosulphite, “Stencil Salt,” which has the property
+of keeping better than the other, and also of not acting
+as a reducing agent until it is heated. This, then, is
+stirred into the Vat color stencil paste, just before
+using, and then, when the goods are steamed, the heat
+and moisture combined will enable it to reduce the
+color, which will be carried into the fibres in a reduced
+and dissolved condition. After steaming well for five
+minutes the color should be developed by a bath in
+hot soapsuds, after which the goods should be rinsed
+and dried. With care this process will give very satisfactory
+results, perfectly fast to both light and washing,
+after the first loose color has been washed off.</p>
+
+<p>The indigo stencil paste, as prepared, will keep well
+reduced for quite a long time, and it is frequently
+quite unnecessary to add any fresh reducing agent to
+it. If, when taken from the tube or bottle, it looks
+yellow or yellowish green, it can be applied at once
+to the cloth, and, if steamed just as soon as possible,
+it will generally penetrate quite satisfactorily. With
+the other colors of the series, however, it is hard to
+tell by the color whether they are reduced or not, and
+hence the fresh reducing agent, Stencil Salt, should
+always be added to them. The cloth for stencilling<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[224]</span>
+with these pastes, as with the Basic pastes, should not
+be too thick or heavy, and must be washed quite free
+from dressing, or the result will not be satisfactory.
+It should also be slightly dampened, if only by holding
+over boiling water for a moment or two, so as to help
+the color to penetrate.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Sulphur Stencil Paste.</i>—We have also found very
+satisfactory results from pastes made with one of the
+Sulphur colors, dissolved in a little sodium sulphide
+and sodium carbonate, and stiffened with a little
+gum. The presence of a reducing agent helps to keep
+the color reduced; and, when quickly applied and rapidly
+steamed, the colors will sink into the fibre and
+adhere firmly.</p>
+
+<p>The chief drawback with these pastes is the lack
+of a good red.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Black Stencil Paste.</b>—So far as can be learned, the
+Japanese use for their stencilling an Indigo paste made
+on the same general principles as the one just described.
+Besides this, which is a very favorite color
+of theirs, they use a red and also a very full black
+dye, both of which are fast to washing and to light.</p>
+
+<p>What the composition of these last pastes may be
+it is hard to tell. In our laboratory we have made
+careful experiments on the subject of stencilling black,
+and have worked out a method that we consider satisfactory
+by the use of a modification of the well-known
+Aniline Black process.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="fig19" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p224a.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 19—LARGE AND HANDSOME JAPANESE
+STENCIL, SHOWING USE OF NET</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Aniline Black.</i>—It was noticed, early in the history of
+dyestuffs, that if aniline was mixed with strong oxidizing
+agents, and carefully heated, it would undergo<span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[225]</span>
+a series of color changes resulting, finally, in black.
+This color, so-called “Aniline Black,” was at one
+time manufactured and used for a black pigment; but
+it was soon recognized that its real value would only
+be developed when it could be formed, in the fibre
+itself, by the oxidation of aniline or some compound
+of aniline upon the fibres. After many years of experimenting
+this problem was solved, and for fifteen
+or twenty years the blacks most used on cotton and
+linen by the calico printers, as well as by the dyers,
+have been one or another of the forms of Aniline
+Black.</p>
+
+<p>The principle on which these processes are based
+is as follows: The aniline, usually in the form of
+aniline salt (aniline hydrochloride), is mixed with an
+oxidizing agent like chlorate of soda, and also with
+a small amount of a third substance which, on steaming,
+acts as a carrier of oxygen between the aniline
+and the chlorate. This substance, often called a catalytic
+agent, because at the end of the operation it remains
+unchanged, although it has accomplished a large
+amount of work, may be one of a number of compounds
+as, for instance, a salt of the metal vanadium,
+prussiate of potash, a salt of copper, etc., each one
+having special advantages and disadvantages of its
+own.</p>
+
+<p>Now, almost any printing paste properly composed
+so as to give a good clear Aniline Black on steaming,
+(the formulæ can be obtained from any good book
+on calico printing, or from any competent dyeing
+chemist), will generally work fairly well as a stencil<span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[226]</span>
+paste—as long as it is fresh. But even when kept
+from the air as far as possible, in a tight tube, it
+decomposes on standing and becomes very unsatisfactory.
+Besides this, there is always a difficulty with
+these regular pastes on account of the irregular and
+uncertain steaming process that can be used by the
+average craftsman. In a calico print works, the temperature
+of the steam chest, the proportion of steam
+in it, and the length of passage of the cloth through
+it, are all accurately determined, and kept at the exact
+points necessary for the best results with any given
+formula. But with irregular steaming, unless very
+great care is taken with the formula, there is always
+a danger of “tendering” and burning the fibre, if
+too much oxidizing agent is present, or of not developing
+a full black, but a dark green color, if the
+oxidizing agent is not active enough.</p>
+
+<p>We have, after a great deal of experimenting,
+worked out a formula which, with reasonable care in
+steaming, will give a good full black, absolutely fast
+to light and washing, upon cotton, linen, and silk,
+without any tendering of the cloth. And, by dividing
+up the component parts into two separate pastes, which
+are kept in separate tubes or bottles, and are mixed
+together only when about to be used, we have gone
+far to solve the important problem of keeping.</p>
+
+<p>The use of this Black stencil paste is very simple.
+It comes in two tubes or bottles marked A and B.</p>
+
+<p>When the cloth, free from dressing and slightly
+dampened, is all ready, equal amounts are taken from
+each of the two tubes, and mixed together in a watch-glass<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[227]</span>
+or small glass or porcelain dish with, if necessary,
+a drop of water to soften them if they have dried
+up at all. This mixed paste is then brushed on to, and
+into, the cloth, and, as soon as dry, is steamed as before
+described. The black color will develop almost immediately,
+and, after a few minutes’ steaming, will be
+found fast to hard washing as well as to light.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[228]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_XVI">Chapter XVI<br>
+<span class="chapt_sub">RESIST AND DISCHARGE STENCILLING</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">Travelers</span> in Japan inform us that, with
+their customary ingenuity, the natives there
+have developed the use of stencils to a point
+which quite matches the best achievements of our modern
+calico printers, even though backed by good dyeing
+chemists. When a young lady there wishes a new
+dress, she will draw, perhaps with the help of her
+best young man, and certainly with the advice and
+criticism of her family, her favorite design on a piece
+of brown paper, cut it out in stencil form, and send
+it to the local dyer, with the proper amount of calico
+or silk or what not, to be properly applied.</p>
+
+<p>Now, in most cases the dyer is instructed to put the
+pattern on the cloth in colors, blue, black, red, yellow,
+or mixed shades, and this he does, much as my readers
+were taught to do in the last chapter, by painting on
+a stencil paste, to be fixed later by steaming.</p>
+
+<p>The Japanese dyer, by the way, has a great advantage
+over the American craftsman in his steaming apparatus.
+No matter how small his place, or how poor
+his equipment, he always is provided with a neat and
+satisfactory steam chest, consisting of a copper pot<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[229]</span>
+set in a brick or stone fireplace, to hold the boiling
+water, and above it, a close-fitting box with sides made
+of lacquered paper, double jacketed to avoid condensation
+in cold weather, which can be kept full of
+dry steam for hours at a time, and in which the stencilled
+goods can be steamed thoroughly and well without
+fear of spoiling them.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes, however, the color is to be applied in
+another way; the cloth itself is to be colored blue or
+red or black, and the pattern is to be light, either pure
+white or some light color on a dark background.</p>
+
+<p>The Japanese dyer, from time immemorial, has
+known how to do this properly, by means of a
+“Resist.” He prepares a resist paste which he carefully
+applies to the cloth through the stencil. This is
+allowed to dry, the cloth is then dyed, and, after the
+color is properly fixed, it is all thoroughly scrubbed,
+and the paste, washing off, leaves the cloth, underneath,
+in its original color.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Resist Stencil Paste.</i>—This process of resist, ancient
+as it is, is used in Japan to this day,
+and many, indeed most, of the stencilled towels and
+piece goods that come from there are done in this
+way. It has the advantages, especially for the craftsman,
+over the Direct Color process, in that the color,
+being applied in a dye-bath, can be fixed readily and
+uniformly, without the bother and uncertainty of a
+steaming process. Through a friend, a well-known
+dyeing chemist, who has travelled in Japan, I learned
+the composition of the Japanese Resist Paste. They
+mix rice flour, wheat bran, and a little quicklime (the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[230]</span>
+calcium oxide of the chemist) with water and boil
+it to make a paste. This they strain, and then they
+stir in some powdered carbonate of lime (powdered
+chalk), which thickens and gives some body to the
+mixture. The paste thus formed is applied, as a rule,
+not with a brush but with a flat wooden instrument
+or spatula, with which the paste is laid on as with
+a trowel, and further, to get the dead white effects
+so commonly noticed, the paste is put on the back
+of the cloth as well as on the front.</p>
+
+<p>My friend also explained to me how the Japanese
+were able to get irregular shaded effects with their
+stencil work, and at the same time to furnish such
+beautiful and intricate hand-made work, at such absurdly
+low prices. These goods are made of very thin
+porous materials, and the dyer applies with his trowel
+the thick resist paste, through the stencil, to one piece
+after another, laying each one, as fast as it is stencilled,
+carefully on top of the previous one, until a pile has
+been formed of ten or more separate pieces. This pile
+is pressed very tightly together, and then the dyestuff,
+as, for instance, Indigo in solution and thoroughly
+reduced, is poured on to this mass of goods, soaking
+through from one to the other, but always kept out of
+the white parts by the double coating of thick paste.</p>
+
+<p>After a few minutes these pieces are carefully taken
+off, one by one, exposed to the air until oxidized, and
+then thoroughly washed until the paste and loose color
+have all disappeared. For an example of Japanese resist
+stencil work, dyed in an iron spring, see Plate <a href="#plate3">III</a>.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp60" id="plate5" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p230a.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">PLATE V. JAPANESE TOWELLING DYED BY
+IMMERSION IN IRON SPRING. THE WHITE
+PATTERN IS CAUSED BY RESIST STENCILLING</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Resist Stencilling with Sulphur Dyes.</i>—Without lavishly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[231]</span>
+copying the Japanese practice it is possible to get
+very interesting results by using suitable dyestuffs with
+a simpler paste.</p>
+
+<p>The most useful dyes for this purpose are the Sulphur
+dyes, which, as the student will remember, can
+be applied in the cold, with very short exposure to
+the dye-liquor, and are fixed firmly by exposure to
+the air, giving results fast to light and extremely fast
+to washing. A paste made from wheat flour, thickened
+a little with an inert powder, like powdered chalk
+or zinc oxide, will work fairly well, acting as a purely
+mechanical protection to the fibre. But much better
+results can be obtained by adding to the paste as much
+as it will absorb of the easily soluble chemical, zinc
+sulphate, which acts chemically in resisting the action
+of these particular dyestuffs.</p>
+
+<p>The Sulphur colors, as before explained, are kept in
+solution in the dye-bath, by the presence of sodium
+sulphide, and when this is absent or is destroyed by
+any cause, the dyestuff is precipitated as an insoluble,
+inert powder. Now, when zinc sulphate comes in contact
+with sodium sulphide it at once decomposes the
+latter, forming a white precipitate, zinc sulphide,
+which has no action at all on either dyestuff or cloth.
+Accordingly a paste containing zinc sulphate has far
+greater efficiency as a resist than any mixture that
+acts purely mechanically.</p>
+
+<p>Resist stencil pastes can be obtained, in tubes, at
+moderate prices, but can also be readily prepared by
+making not too stiff a paste, with wheat flour thoroughly
+boiled with a saturated solution of zinc sulphate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[232]</span>
+instead of with water, and then stirring into
+this paste some powdered chalk or zinc oxide, until
+of the proper consistency for stencilling.</p>
+
+<p>To use this paste, the cloth, as usual, should be
+washed free from dressing, and after being smoothed
+with a hot iron, should be slightly dampened. The
+paste is then brushed through the stencil on to, and
+into, the cloth, which is then allowed to dry. The
+dye-bath should then be prepared of Sulphur dyes carefully
+dissolved, in a separate cup or saucepan, in a
+hot solution of sodium sulphide and sodium carbonate
+(soda), and added to cold water in the dye-bath.</p>
+
+<p>A few drops of “Turkey red oil” added to the dye-bath
+helps to prevent a thick scum from forming on
+top of the liquor, while the addition of a tablespoonful
+of salt dissolved in a little hot water helps the
+rapidity and depth of the dyeing.</p>
+
+<p>Plenty of color should be used excepting for very
+light shades, for the dyeing should be done just as
+quickly as possible. For silk some syrup should be
+added.</p>
+
+<p>The stencilled cloth is then quickly moistened in
+cold water, placed in the dye-bath, kept there two or
+three minutes, below the level of the liquid; it is then
+taken out, the liquor drained off, and after a minute
+or two, wrung off; the cloth is then shaken out, and
+exposed to the air, for some ten minutes, to set the
+color. After this it is well washed in a boiling soap
+bath, and, as the paste washes out, the stencilled pattern
+will show light against the dark background.</p>
+
+<p>The whiteness of the pattern depends, of course,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[233]</span>
+upon the skill with which the paste has been applied,
+and the care taken to prevent it from washing off
+before or during the dyeing process. It is difficult,
+though not absolutely impossible, to get as sharp and
+clear-cut results as those of the Japanese, for instance.
+But, on the other hand, with a dark background it is
+often, indeed generally, more pleasing to have the
+white patterns softened and not standing out too
+vividly.</p>
+
+<p>In our laboratory we have had considerable success
+with this process. And some of our friends and
+students have used it with very good results upon articles
+of clothing, which, made of linen, calico, etc.,
+must be fast to severe washing as well as to light.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, it is perfectly easy to alter the color
+of the background, as in other classes of resist work,
+such as Tied and Dyed work, for instance, or Batik,
+by either starting off with colored cloth which is protected
+all through by the resist paste, or else by covering
+the stencilled and dyed goods, afterwards, with
+some shade which will soften and harmonize both pattern
+and background. For this covering shade, which
+need not be very fast to washing, but must be distributed
+uniformly over the whole cloth, the student
+will find the Salt colors very useful.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Discharge Stencilling.</i>—Though it is not certain
+whether this process is known to, and used by, the
+Japanese, it is not a difficult matter, with modern dyes
+and modern chemicals, to get interesting results with
+it. There are two distinct and separate ways open to
+the dyer for discharging, i.e., destroying his dyestuffs,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[234]</span>
+whether they are dyed on cloth, or whether, as is not
+infrequently the case with amateurs, they are present
+as a stain on his hands and fingers. In each case, however,
+care must be taken, as may easily be imagined,
+to use such chemicals as will spare the materials,
+whether cotton and linen, or nails and skin, while attacking
+the coloring matter.</p>
+
+<p>(a)<em>Discharge by Oxidation. Chlorine Compounds,
+Bleaching Powder, etc.</em>—In the first place, chemists
+have long known that certain chemicals, more particularly
+the powerful gaseous element known as
+chlorine and certain of its compounds, have the power
+of permanently destroying coloring matters by oxidizing
+or burning them.</p>
+
+<p>At first this was done by using chlorine itself, or a
+water solution of chlorine. Later, however, it was
+found that on passing chlorine into some caustic alkali,
+like quicklime, or caustic soda, or caustic potash, these
+would absorb immense quantities of chlorine which
+would be again given out, as desired, on the addition
+of acid, or even, though very slowly and gradually,
+by the action of the carbonic acid gas in the air.</p>
+
+<p>The lime compound, which contains more chlorine
+than the others, and has the great advantage of being
+dry, has long been known as chloride of lime or as
+bleaching powder, and has been, and is, commonly
+used from one end of the world to the other as a quick,
+ready, cheap source of chlorine either for bleaching
+or for disinfection. The potash and soda compounds,
+known respectively as Labarraque’s solution and Javelle<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[235]</span>
+water, are less active and powerful than bleaching
+powder, but have the same general properties.</p>
+
+<p>Over a hundred years ago, very soon after the discovery
+of the bleaching properties of these compounds,
+chemists began to use them, not only for decolorizing
+and whitening raw cotton and linen cloth, but also for
+discharging the color in patterns from dyed goods.
+The process was not a difficult one, and is used to this
+day to some extent in the calico printing mills. The
+cloth is first dyed to shade, fixed, and dried. The pattern
+is then printed on with a paste containing some
+solid organic acid, like citric acid or tartaric acid, dissolved
+in it. After drying, the printed cloth is passed
+through a bath of bleaching powder in water, possibly
+with a little weak alkali added, to be sure that no free
+chlorine is present; and wherever the bleaching powder
+meets the acid the cloth is decolorized, but the rest
+of the cloth comes out of the bath without being much,
+if at all, altered in color. Of course, on coming out
+of this bath the cloth must be thoroughly washed to
+get rid of any traces of chloride of lime, which otherwise,
+on exposure to the air, would play havoc with
+the rest of the colors.</p>
+
+<p>This process worked very well with the old vegetable
+dyes, and, every now and then, some craftsman,
+of an experimental turn of mind, revives it for stencil
+work. The dyed cloth is stencilled with a paste made
+of wheat flour boiled with a saturated solution of
+citric acid, it is dried, and then passed through a bath
+of bleaching powder in water, say two or three tablespoonfuls
+to the gallon. It is generally best to stir<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[236]</span>
+in a few drops of a soda solution to the bath, till all
+smell of chlorine has gone, or else the background may
+be affected. The stencilled cloth is dipped in this bath,
+and kept there for a few minutes, until the bleaching
+process is well under way, and then taken out, and
+washed in hot soap and water, and rinsed well.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Advantages and Disadvantages of Bleaching Powder
+Discharge.</i>—The chief advantage of this process is that
+it is very cheap and the materials can be bought at almost
+any grocery. The disadvantages are, however,
+important. As long as it is confined to easily discharged,
+comparatively fugitive, colors, it will destroy
+the color all right in the stencilled parts, although the
+bleaching powder bath is apt to attack the color in the
+body of the cloth, and the outlines of the pattern are
+apt to be soft and irregular because of the escaping
+chlorine, where the citric acid is acting.</p>
+
+<p>When, however, very fast dyes are being used, as
+for instance, the Vat colors or, indeed, a great many of
+the best dyes in all the classes, the action of chlorine
+is very slow, and slight, and, in order to really destroy
+the color both the acid and the bleaching powder will
+often have to be so strong that the chlorine set free will
+destroy the fibre as well. For the term “fastness to
+light” implies, as a rule, fastness also to oxidation in
+general, and dyes like the best modern ones which will
+let the cloth rot away from under them, when long
+exposed to the weather without changing color, are
+very apt also to keep their color, even when the cloth
+is<em>burnt</em> away from under them by the action of
+chlorine.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[237]</span></p>
+
+<p>Accordingly, this process is distinctly one that needs
+careful experimentation before it is tried on any important
+piece of work. There are plenty of dyestuffs
+among the Salt colors, and also among the Sulphur
+colors, which discharge well with chlorine. And the
+calico printer, working, as he generally does to this
+day, with comparatively fugitive dyes, and weighing
+accurately both acid and bleaching powder, can generally
+get good results with it. But there is always the
+disadvantage, that the least excess of chlorine will
+attack and tender the cloth, and the better the dyestuff,
+as a rule, the stronger the oxidizing agent must be to
+discharge it.</p>
+
+<p>(b)<em>Discharge by Reduction, Hydrosulphite, etc.</em>—The
+wary craftsman will find the process much less
+dangerous to the cloth, and not much more difficult, if
+instead of trying to<em>oxidize</em> the dyestuff, he attempts
+to discharge it by<em>reducing</em> it; or, in other words, if
+instead of trying to burn it out, he tries to take the
+oxygen away from it.</p>
+
+<p>It so happens that in a vast majority of cases a dyestuff
+becomes decolorized by reducing it, just as well
+as by oxidizing it. There is, however, a difference.
+When the color is oxidized, it is burnt up and destroyed
+forever. When it is reduced, however, it is,
+in many cases, only decolorized and not destroyed; and
+on standing in the air it is apt to take up oxygen again,
+and to regain some, at least, of the original color.
+On the other hand, while any oxidation process is liable
+to attack the cloth as well as the color, the reducing
+agents now in use have no effect upon the materials,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[238]</span>
+even when powerful enough to act on the very fastest
+dyestuffs.</p>
+
+<p>As before mentioned, the most satisfactory reducing
+agent at present known to dyers is hydrosulphite
+of soda, and this can be incorporated in a paste, and
+used for discharge stencilling. It is, however, as a
+rule, more satisfactory to use the more expensive, but
+more permanent hydrosulphite compound, described,
+in the last chapter, as acting only when heated.</p>
+
+<p>The reducing stencil paste can be easily made by
+mixing with some “gum dragon” or flour paste, as
+much as it will hold of a saturated solution of the
+“Stencil Salt.”</p>
+
+<p>The student should experiment with the different
+dyes and classes of dyes before attempting a serious
+piece of work; but in general, all the Salt colors and
+the Acid colors will discharge readily with this paste,
+and remain colorless. The Vat colors and the Sulphur
+colors can also be reduced to colorless compounds,
+but it is not always easy to wash them out of the cloth
+after the reduction, and, if they remain in it, they are
+apt to regain their color, on standing in the air.</p>
+
+<p>The dyed cloth, carefully washed and pressed and
+dampened, is stencilled with the above paste and allowed
+to dry. When dry it is steamed, as described
+in the last chapter, and it will be noticed that when a
+certain temperature is reached the color will be discharged.
+As soon as possible afterwards the cloth
+is to be washed in a hot soap bath to remove the reduced
+color compound (which, as a rule, has little<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[239]</span>
+affinity for the cloth) and to get rid of the paste.
+Then the cloth is dried and finished.</p>
+
+<p>When trying this process with the Vat dyes it is
+best to soak the cloth directly after steaming, and
+before soaping, in a warm bath containing a little free
+caustic soda (remember this is apt to burn the fingers)
+because the reduced colors of this class are not, as a
+rule, soluble in water, and are apt to oxidize again in
+a soap bath.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Results.</i>—In following up these various experiments
+in our laboratory we have not used this process in
+much as the Resist stencilling, but there is no reason
+why it should not give just as good results. Indeed,
+the craftsman will probably find, after a little practice,
+that it is easier to get clear white patterns with
+this than with the other. It has the disadvantage of
+requiring the rather bothersome steaming process,
+which reduces its value for many purposes. Still it
+will often be found that simply ironing the dried stencilled
+cloth with a hot flatiron, with a damp cloth between,
+will cause the reduction to take place quite satisfactorily.</p>
+
+<p>The chief advantage of this process over the other
+is that, as the dyeing is done before and not after the
+stencilling, it is possible to get the exact shade of background
+required. While, in the resist stencilling every
+minute, almost indeed every second that the stencilled
+goods are left in the dye-bath, is liable to obscure
+the pattern. And it is hard to get first-class results,
+as regards fastness to rubbing and washing, and it<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">[240]</span>
+is impossible to match shades, when working so
+hurriedly.</p>
+
+<p>Then, too, this discharge process permits the use
+of almost every color on the list, while the resist
+process practically confines the craftsman to the use of
+the Sulphur dyes only.</p>
+
+<p>Those who are interested in this line of work are
+advised to try these two processes upon silk, where
+very beautiful and interesting effects can be produced
+with but little difficulty. The resist process, using
+Sulphur colors, gives quiet soft tones on silk, fast to
+the hardest kind of washing. But brighter shades,
+equally fast to light, and fairly fast to washing, can be
+made with the discharge process by using Salt colors.</p>
+
+<p>For ordinary work the Acid dyes, of course, would
+be used, and these, too, as a rule, discharge readily.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">[241]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_XVII">Chapter XVII<br>
+<span class="chapt_sub">BATIK</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">The</span> last and perhaps the most interesting and
+most important process to which we shall call
+our reader’s attention is one which, after being
+practised in the East for many centuries, has been
+brought quite recently to the attention of European
+and American craftsmen.</p>
+
+<p>The term “Batik” is a Javanese word, signifying
+painting in wax, and the process, somewhat modified,
+is known to professional dyers and calico-printers by
+the name of “wax resist.” When in the hands of a
+trained draughtsman the process has a charm and character
+of its own, which will warrant the interest now
+manifested in it, wherever it has been introduced.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>History.</b>—Batik was first introduced by the Dutch
+discoverers of Java, who, in 1648, sent home descriptions,
+with drawings, of the wonderfully beautiful textiles
+worn by the people, especially by the chiefs of
+that country. The art was known and practised in the
+East long before that time, for in Madras goods were
+made, by a combination of block printing and Batik,
+at least as early as the fifteenth century. And in the
+interior of Java there are some famous old ruins in
+which are found stone statues of Buddha, supposed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[242]</span>
+to be at least 1,200 or 1,300 years old, clothed in garments
+the same as those used at the present day; and
+showing, from their decorations, that they were ornamented
+by Batik in the same general style of patterns
+that are still popular there.</p>
+
+<p>During the last few years very careful studies have
+been made, especially by the Dutch Government, upon
+this Javanese process, and they have endeavored to
+introduce it into Europe. It was amusing to notice
+that in one of the reports issued by the Dutch Government
+on this subject it was stated that none of the
+modern dyestuffs could be utilized for this purpose, and
+that the only colors that could be recommended as
+fast to light were the old vegetable dyestuffs, applied
+in the complicated and troublesome methods of past
+ages. This curiously unscientific attitude has seriously
+interfered with the success of the process in
+Western lands, and is only now being abandoned.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Javanese Practice.</b>—Detailed information about the
+history, technique, and designs of the Javanese process
+has been set down in a monumental work: “Die Batikkunst
+in Niederlandisch Indien,” published in Harlem
+under the auspices of the Dutch Government in 1899.
+Perhaps of more interest to the non-scientific reader
+is a short but well-written account of “Battack Printing
+in Java,” read before the Manchester Literary
+and Philosophical Society in 1906 by an English chemist,
+John Allan, who spent several months among the
+natives, studying the process at first-hand.</p>
+
+<p>According to these authorities the Javanese and,
+indeed, most of the natives of Malaysia, wear garments<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">[243]</span>
+simple enough in style and cut, but elaborately
+decorated with great variety of both color and design.
+The principal garment, common to both men and
+women, is the <i>sarong</i>, in shape not unlike a large and
+elongated bath towel, which, according to the desire
+and sex of the owner, may be made to serve as trousers
+or skirt, overcoat or blanket, and is the universal bathing
+costume. It is made of calico, rarely homespun,
+almost always imported from Lancashire or Holland,
+and as the natives, both men and women, are exceedingly
+fond of bathing, the colors must be fast enough
+to stand constant exposure to water as well as to the
+fierce tropical sun.</p>
+
+<p>They also wear head-dresses made from squares of
+calico, dyed with square centres of plain color and
+elaborately decorated at the sides; and <i>slendangs</i>, a
+kind of girdle or shawl, usually made of silk and less
+elaborately decorated. The costume is completed, for
+full-dress occasions, by a thin shirt or chemise and a
+light jacket.</p>
+
+<p>For producing the designs on the sarongs, the process
+of wax resist is almost always employed by the
+natives. Unfortunately of late years the Javanese
+market has been flooded with an immense quantity of
+cheap and, generally, neatly printed goods made in
+Manchester and in Holland in rough imitation of the
+native styles. So it is not an easy matter, nowadays,
+even in Java, to get genuine specimens of Batik work.
+These can always be recognized, however, on careful
+examination by the peculiar and characteristic odor
+and “feel” of the wax left behind in the cloth, and,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[244]</span>
+better, by the fine irregular “crackle” formed in the
+dye-pot.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Variations in the Process.</i>—Although there are different
+methods, the Batik process, as usually meant, is
+a means of dyeing in which, before immersing the
+goods in the dye-pot, the patterns are carefully drawn
+in molten beeswax, applied from a little copper cup
+with a fine spout called a <i>tjanting</i>. Frequently, however,
+to save time, the Javanese apply the wax by
+means of a metal die or block, made by inserting thin
+strips of sheet brass in a wooden frame, so that the
+edges of the brass form the desired pattern. These
+blocks, provided with a handle covered with cloth, are
+first dipped into the molten wax, and then the excess is
+removed by pressing against a pad, which is kept warm
+by being near the fire of the melting pot. The pattern
+is thus stamped onto the cloth instead of being poured
+onto it, through a small spout, out of a cup.</p>
+
+<p>This Batik process is sometimes used by native
+craftsmen in other parts of the Far East. Plate <a href="#plate1">I</a>, for
+instance, shows a specimen of East Indian work, part
+of a long piece of stout cotton bought, years ago, at
+Liberty’s in London, with an elaborate design made
+with molten wax, applied by brush or tjanting. Even
+in the plate the characteristic ‘crackle’ shows plainly.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Wax.</i>—In Java, the wax used for pouring is a
+mixture of paraffin and beeswax, or an impure wax
+imported from Japan for this purpose. For stamping
+the patterns it is necessary to use a stiffer wax made
+from rosin and paraffin, sometimes mixed with
+varnish gums.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">[245]</span></p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Dyes.</i>—The principal colors used are indigo and
+a beautiful golden-brown dye made from the bark of
+the mango tree. The combination of these gives a
+black, so that the fine old sarongs usually contain
+white, blue, brown, and black. Indigo is dyed first,
+and, before dyeing, all the cloth, excepting that which
+is to come out blue or black, is carefully covered with
+the wax. After the indigo bath (the Javanese use a
+fermentation vat) the color is set by oxidation. The
+old wax is then all washed off with boiling soap and
+water, and after drying, the wax is again applied to all
+parts, whether white or blue, which are not to receive
+the brown dye. The latter is made from a strong,
+syrupy extract of bark, and is used without mordanting,
+the color being set by exposure to air. As the
+dyes must be used cold, to avoid melting and obliterating
+the pattern, the goods are usually dipped in
+each dye-bath and exposed, several times, before
+reaching the desired shade. After the final dyeing,
+the wax is removed by a hot bath of wood ashes or
+soap, and the garment is pressed out ready to wear.</p>
+
+<p>When a red color is desired, the natives use a variation
+of the old Turkey red process, dyeing with madder
+or munjeet upon cloth mordanted with alum and oil.
+The wax in this case acts as a resist against the alum
+mordant, which is applied cold, and thus prevents the
+dyestuff, which is applied at the boil, from coloring the
+cloth in the protected portions.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Cloth.</i>—The cloth used for this Batik process is
+strong common calico, but, before beginning to
+wax it, they give it a careful treatment, to improve<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[246]</span>
+both its texture and its ground color. For
+a period of several days they alternately soak it in
+castor oil, wring it out, boil out the oil with soda
+lye, and expose it to the blazing sun; until finally it
+becomes soft and smooth, and has a pleasant tan color
+which goes excellently with the brown, blue, and black
+dyes.</p>
+
+<p>The peculiarity of all these Batik goods, whether
+from the East or made at home or in Europe, is the
+characteristic “crackle” effect, due to the breaking
+of the wax upon the cloth in the process of dyeing,
+thereby admitting the color to the protected cloth in
+fine lines and streaks. This distinguishes the wax
+resist work from the previously described paste resist,
+which if desired will leave a smooth, clean, white background,
+or if applied more lightly will give backgrounds
+shaded more uniformly and without so many
+irregular lines of color.</p>
+
+<p>This crackle effect, so generally admired in the
+West, is often by the Javanese considered a defect,
+and a sign of poor workmanship. It can be largely, if
+not wholly, avoided by adding a large proportion of
+rosin to the wax, by batiking the cloth on both sides,
+and by dyeing the goods with as little crumpling as
+possible.</p>
+
+
+<h3>MODERN BATIK</h3>
+
+<p>The application of the artificial dyestuffs to this
+ancient process has simplified it greatly, and has
+brought it within the scope of craftsmen in general.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">[247]</span></p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Apparatus—Brushes.</b>—You will soon find that for a
+good deal of the work, such as covering large
+surfaces with wax, or filling in large and bold designs,
+a small-sized paint brush is all that is necessary. The
+wax is melted in a cup or casserole, and painted on the
+cloth wherever the design calls for it. It will be
+found, however, no easy matter to get sharp and clear
+outlines in this way, and intricate or delicate patterns
+cannot be worked out by the brush only. When the
+wax is hot, it is hard to prevent it from spreading and
+running too far over the cloth, and, on the other hand,
+it cools so rapidly on the brush that, unless applied at
+once, it is hard to spread it at all, and the wax is liable
+not to stick to the cloth.</p>
+
+<p>Much is saved both in time and in accuracy and
+clearness of outline, by using the brush in combination
+with the tjanting, drawing the outlines with the latter,
+and filling in with the brush.</p>
+
+<p>When large surfaces have been covered with the
+wax, and the characteristic “crackle” effect is desired,
+it is often well to cool the goods, by placing
+them in the ice box or out of doors for a few minutes,
+and then to crumple them in the hands, before dyeing
+them. The composition of the wax, also, has much
+to do with this part of the work, as will be explained
+later.</p>
+
+<p>The brush can also be employed for painting
+molten wax on to the goods through a stencil, in
+resist stencil work. This, however, is not satisfactory,
+even with metallic stencils, and fails completely with
+paper stencils, because the wax, on cooling, fastens<span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">[248]</span>
+stencil and cloth together so that they cannot be separated
+without injury.</p>
+
+<p>It is much better practice, where a stencil design is
+to be worked with wax resist, to make an outline of
+the design on the goods with a sharp pencil, and then,
+removing the stencil, to fill in the pattern with tjanting
+and brush. This same practice of drawing the outline
+on the goods with pencil, or tracing paper, or by transferring
+from a charcoal drawing, by rubbing, is always
+to be recommended: except for those craftsmen who
+are such thoroughly trained draughtsmen that they can
+draw their designs free-hand, with the tjanting, without
+danger of slip or mistake. A pencil or crayon line,
+if not quite true, can be erased without spoiling the
+whole design, but it is quite a troublesome matter to
+correct a mistake made in molten wax.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Tjantings.</b>—The real interest in this Batik process
+lies in the use of some form of pouring instrument by
+which the molten wax can be applied to the material
+in a fine stream, with much the same freedom that a
+drawing can be made with soft pencil or crayon. This
+practice has been developed in Java to its fullest extent,
+and a fine sarong, containing two or three yards
+of calico, will be completely covered, from one end to
+the other, with wonderfully intricate and elaborate
+designs in two or three colors, all produced, perfectly
+free-hand, by curious little tjantings, in the light fingers
+of the little Javanese women.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="fig20" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p248a_1.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 20—“TEAPOT” MODEL OF TJANTING</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="fig21" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p248a_2.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 21—WALTHER GLASS TJANTING</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="fig22" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p248a_3.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 22—“WAX PENCIL” MODEL OF TJANTING</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p><i>Teapots.</i>—When we began experimenting with
+Batik, in our laboratory, we had no model of the Javanese
+tools to work with, and, from the drawings, we<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[249]</span>
+could not see how they could be used without constant
+dripping. So we designed a little brass apparatus,
+which we and our friends nicknamed a “teapot,”
+which, with some modification, is shown in Fig. <a href="#fig20">20</a>, in
+which the molten wax remains in the cup until it is
+poured out. This, with practice, works fairly well,
+and some very interesting work has been done with it.</p>
+
+<p>It is hard, however, to draw with it on a horizontal
+surface, such as we are accustomed to work on. And
+to follow Javanese practice, and have the cloth hanging
+over a frame, and to press it out with the left hand
+while the wax is applied with the instrument in the
+right, is oftentimes a nuisance.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Walther Glass Tjanting.</i>—It is evident that
+we were not alone in our fear of the Javanese
+models with spouts at the bottom, because, in
+Germany, Dr. C. Walther of Crefeld has designed
+and introduced a glass tjanting, shown in Fig. <a href="#fig21">21</a>,
+which also delivers only on tipping the instrument
+forward. This we have experimented with but
+without much success. For we have found it difficult
+and awkward to draw with it on a horizontal surface,
+and also, being made of glass, while it is cheaper than
+the metal models, it is at the same time more fragile.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Wax Pencil.</i>—An entirely new idea has recently been
+applied to the art of Batik by the introduction of a
+(patented) “wax pencil” (see Fig. <a href="#fig22">22</a>), made on the
+principle of the early stylographic pens.</p>
+
+<p>This tool is made of heavy brass, with a removable
+wooden holder, and the wax, in cylinders, is shoved
+into it from the top after removing a cap. To melt<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">[250]</span>
+the wax the wooden holder is slipped off, and the pencil
+is heated over a flame or on a hot electric plate, while
+the liquid wax is prevented from flowing out by a
+“needle valve” held in place by a small spiral spring.
+To use the tool, the holder is slipped over the pencil,
+taking care not to burn the fingers in so doing, and
+the pattern is traced in just the same way that it would
+be in ink, pressure on the projecting needle, by raising
+the valve, permitting a greater or lesser flow of wax.</p>
+
+<p>These instruments are certainly more convenient
+to draw with than any of the forms previously mentioned,
+and, on hard smooth surfaces, such as leather,
+wood, bone, metal, etc., are satisfactory enough. But
+it is no easy matter to make them so that they will
+work well. For the valve which regulates the flow of
+wax works with a spiral spring. Now, if this spring
+is, or becomes, lax, the wax drips incessantly. If on
+the other hand it is too stiff, it is quite troublesome to
+press down the pin, at the tip, just hard enough to
+deliver a fine stream, without opening it too wide.</p>
+
+<p>In our experience these instruments, which are quite
+expensive, do not work well with cloth and, especially,
+with rough weaves of cloth, like crash, scrim, pongee,
+coarse calico, and the like. For the pin is liable to
+catch and jump on the threads, and then it delivers
+the wax very unevenly.</p>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="fig23" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p250a_1.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 23—JAVANESE TJANTINGS</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<figure class="figcenter illowp80" id="fig24" >
+  <img class="w100" src="images/i_p250a_2.jpg" alt="">
+  <figcaption class="caption">FIG. 24—AMERICAN MODIFICATION OF
+JAVANESE TJANTING</figcaption>
+</figure>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>The Javanese Tjanting.</i>—After much experimenting
+one of our friends finally brought us, from Holland, a
+real tjanting copied directly from the Javanese, and
+five minutes’ practice with it satisfied us that it was superior
+to any of the “improved” models that we had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[251]</span>
+been working with. Since then we have seen, and
+studied, several different styles of Javanese tjantings,
+and have learned how they must be used to get the
+best results.</p>
+
+<p>The secret of these instruments is two-fold. First,
+the size of the delivery tube, and second, the temperature
+of the wax.</p>
+
+<p>The genuine Javanese tjanting (see Fig. <a href="#fig23">23</a>) is a
+little bit of a tool, holding only about 15 or 20 cubic
+centimeters of wax, made of very thin hammered
+copper, and fastened into a little bamboo handle, some
+four or five inches long. At the lowest part of the
+cup, which is drawn out at that point into a spout, is
+fastened the delivery tube, which is of<em>exceedingly</em>
+small calibre, what chemists would call, in fact, a
+“capillary” tube. It will be noticed that the wooden
+handle extends forward, under the bowl, making it
+impossible to heat the bowl itself, or melt the wax in
+it, by a direct flame.</p>
+
+<p>The wax is melted in a separate pot or large cup,
+and kept at a high temperature throughout; and the
+operator scoops out the wax from this pot with the
+bowl of the tjanting, wipes off the drip with a rag,
+and then proceeds to draw on the cloth. In Java, or
+wherever the cloth is kept upright, by hanging from
+a frame, the drip from the outside of the cup and
+the end of the handle is not so important, for it will
+fall in front of the cloth. When, however, the cloth
+is laid flat, for drawing, it is of the utmost importance
+to avoid all unnecessary dripping, and so it is probably
+advisable to ladle the wax from the pot into the tjanting,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[252]</span>
+with a small casserole or ladle, rather than to dip
+it out directly.</p>
+
+<p>Now, if the size of the delivery hole is right, and
+the wax is neither too hot nor too cold, it will form
+a little globule on the end of the tube, and stay there;
+and when this drop is wiped off and the tube at once
+applied to the cloth or other material, the wax will
+flow out in a fine thin stream, as long as it is drawn
+along in contact with the cloth, and when lifted up
+it will stop flowing until again applied to it. If the
+wax is too hot, so that it runs too freely, it is easy to
+cool it to the proper temperature by blowing on it.
+If it is too cool, so that it begins to chill in the tube,
+and to flow slowly and unevenly, it must be warmed
+by being again dipped into the hot wax for a new
+supply. Great pains must be taken to have the wax
+free from dust or grit, or else the delivery tube will
+be constantly stopping up. A fine but stiff bristle or
+a very thin whisk of broom corn should be always
+on hand for cleaning the tube. And after using the
+tjanting pains must be taken to clean out all the wax
+thoroughly before laying it aside, so that the tube will
+be clear for the melted wax, when it is next filled.
+The whole tjanting, tube and cup, should be gently
+warmed before filling, for fear of the wax chilling in
+the capillary tube before it can be applied. But the
+arrangement of the handle is such as to call for the
+use of an outside melting pot for the wax, while the
+small size of the cup is evidently so that the melted
+wax can be all poured out before it has time to chill.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><i>Modification of the Javanese Tjanting.</i>—We have with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[253]</span>
+much trouble had some tjantings made here (see Fig.
+<a href="#fig24">24</a>), following closely the Javanese principles, which
+have proved extremely satisfactory. The delivery
+tube is equally fine, and the general action is the
+same. But the cup has been made somewhat larger,
+and very considerably heavier, so that it will hold more
+wax, and will hold the heat better. While, for
+economy’s sake, instead of hammered copper, the cup
+is made of spun brass, and the wooden handle is attached
+to its side, and not to the bottom of it. This
+enables the worker to heat the cup directly over the
+alcohol lamp, without danger of scorching the handle.
+Of course, when this is done carelessly, it is liable to
+char some of the wax in and near the tube, and so to
+cause stoppages. And also, it is hard to draw a series
+of fine lines of exactly the same thickness, unless the
+wax in the tjanting is always of practically the same
+temperature.</p>
+
+<p>But there is no difficulty in filling these modified
+tjantings, just as the Javanese do, by scooping up the
+melted wax from a pot, or by pouring the melted wax
+into them from a casserole or ladle. While, in case
+the wax gets chilled in the tjanting, it is very convenient
+to be able to warm the cup quickly over a low
+clean flame, or by setting it upon the corner of a hot
+plate.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Composition of the Wax.</b>—As a general rule we have
+found that ordinary unrefined beeswax, carefully
+melted and strained, or poured off, free from dust and
+sediment, is fairly satisfactory. It is, however, pretty
+expensive, and so can be replaced, without disadvantage,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[254]</span>
+by the cheaper mineral wax, known in a crude
+state as<i lang="la">Ozocerite</i>, and in its refined form, which alone
+should be employed, as<i lang="la">Ceresine</i>. To make the wax
+more brittle, and thus to improve the “crackle,” it is
+well to add more or less paraffin. And it is well, too,
+to add considerable rosin, to make the wax adhere better
+to the goods, and not be so liable to rub or peel off.
+On the Continent, it is customary to use Japanese
+vegetable wax instead of beeswax, but we have not
+found this to be advantageous.</p>
+
+<p>Where economy is desirable, or where it is hard to
+replace supplies, it is well to save the once used wax
+and use it over again, by extracting the wax from the
+goods, after dyeing, with boiling water, and then,
+when this cools, collecting the wax as a cake floating
+on the top.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Dyeing Batiked Goods.</b>—In Holland and, to some
+extent, elsewhere on the Continent, where this process
+has been introduced, great stress has been laid upon
+the importance of using the old vegetable colors of
+the Javanese, along with their tjantings. It is hardly
+necessary to tell my readers that this practice is both
+unscientific and, in a true sense, uncraftsmanlike. The
+object of any intelligent craftsworker should be to
+produce beautiful and interesting and characteristic
+results in the most durable and effective manner possible,
+with the minimum expenditure of energy upon
+the mechanical, as opposed to the artistic, details.
+Why, after carefully batiking a good design on a
+piece of silk or calico, must the craftsman spend hour
+after hour of valuable time in some tedious, complicated,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">[255]</span>
+and expensive dyeing process, simply because
+“That is the way they do things in Java,” especially
+when, by using modern dyestuffs, he can get results
+quite as beautiful and far more permanent, in a few
+minutes’ time, and with far less danger of spoiling
+his work. Even the clever and skilful little Javanese
+could learn something from modern dyeing chemists.</p>
+
+<p>The class of dyestuffs to use depends, of course,
+on the kind of materials that are being worked on.
+One of the great charms of this process is that it can
+be applied to all sorts and kinds of textiles and, indeed,
+of a host of things never included under that
+name.</p>
+
+<p>Batik can be applied to cotton, linen, wool, silk,
+and other woven goods. It can also, if desired, be
+used upon basketry. And charming effects can be produced,
+by its aid, upon leather, pasteboard, parchment,
+vellum, and other bookbinding materials, as well
+as upon wood, bone, or indeed anything that possesses
+a smooth surface, and will hold a dyestuff.</p>
+
+<p>On copper, brass, and other metals it can also be
+used, not, indeed, for dyeing, but for etching, with
+acids and other chemicals, with great success.</p>
+
+<p>(a)<em>Calico and Linen.</em>—There is no doubt that for
+vegetable fabrics in general Batik is very well fitted,
+especially since the introduction of modern dyes, which
+are applied in a cold bath and are set by oxidation.
+The Sulphur dyes work extremely well, in cold or
+lukewarm baths, especially if used in a strong dye-bath.
+But they, it will be remembered, are not very
+bright colors, and are very short on the red side. For<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">[256]</span>
+soft, quiet colorings, however, extremely fast to washing,
+and quite fast to light, which can be applied easily
+and readily, they will be found very useful.</p>
+
+<p>But the fastest colors known, both for light and
+for washing, are the modern Vat colors, many of
+which, once reduced, will dye in a lukewarm or even
+a cold dye-bath. While indigo, the type of these
+colors, and still most useful, gives a soft rather greyish
+shade of blue, more effective by itself than when
+mixed, there can be found among the Helindones,
+Thio indigoes, and the rest, a full palette of dyes which,
+properly mixed, will furnish any shade that may be
+desired.</p>
+
+<p>The dyeing directions for batiked goods are the
+same as for ordinary calico. The materials, well
+wetted, are immersed, drained, wrung, and oxidized
+as usual. The wax is usually removed in one or more
+boiling soap baths, which help as well to set the color
+and to remove unattached dyestuff.</p>
+
+<p>(b)<em>Silk.</em>—Silk, as in other processes, can be dyed
+in several different ways, according to the fastness to
+light and washing desired.</p>
+
+<p>The easiest way, especially when trying to match
+shades, is to dye, with the Acid dyes, in a soap bath
+acidified with a little sulphuric, or, preferably, with
+acetic acid. These shades, however, while brilliant
+and fast to light, are not at all fast to washing, and
+so the wax must be removed later, with benzine or
+gasoline, and not with a hot soap bath.</p>
+
+<p>The sulphur dyes, with a little glucose in the bath,
+and plenty of dyestuff, will give extremely fast colors<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[257]</span>
+on silk, but in most cases these shades will be too
+dull for proper effect. They can be greatly improved
+in color, though with some sacrifice of fastness, by
+topping them, without removing the wax, in a cold
+bath of Basic dyes, dissolved with a little acetic acid.</p>
+
+<p>For extremely fast colors the Vat dyes can be used.
+Easier to apply, especially for rather light shades, are
+some of the Salt colors which, though they do not
+take as well on silk, in the cold, as they do on cotton
+will, nevertheless, color it well, with prolonged immersion,
+in a strong bath, in the presence of formic
+acid, and once on, will stand a very considerable
+amount of washing.</p>
+
+<p>(c)<em>Wool.</em>—In case it is necessary to apply this process
+to wool, the latter will probably be dyed in the cold
+with Acid dyes, in the presence of some sodium sulphate
+(Glauber’s salt) and dilute sulphuric acid.</p>
+
+<p>To make this color faster to washing, steaming,
+and the like, it is best, after dyeing, drying, and removing
+the wax with benzine, to boil the dyed goods
+for half an hour or more in a bath containing a little
+Glauber’s salt and dilute sulphuric acid, but no dyestuff.</p>
+
+<p>(d)<em>Leather.</em>—As a rule, the Batiked leather should
+be dyed with Acid colors, acidified with acetic or
+formic acid, though they can be shaded afterwards, if
+desired, by staining with Basic colors.</p>
+
+<p>After dyeing, the wax can be removed by benzine
+or, softened carefully by the cautious approach of a
+hot iron, can be incorporated with the polishing wax,
+used for rubbing down and finishing the surface.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[258]</span></p>
+
+<p>(e)<em>Wood.</em>—Batiked wood can be stained by soaking
+it in, or by brushing it with, a solution of an acid color,
+acidified with a little acetic acid. These dyes are more
+soluble than most of the other classes, and hence soak
+into and penetrate the fibres better. They may bleed,
+however, if exposed to warm water.</p>
+
+<p>The Basic colors or even the Salt colors can be used,
+but, while they are apt to adhere more firmly, they
+do not soak in as well.</p>
+
+<p>The wax is either used for polishing, or is removed
+by benzine.</p>
+
+<p>(f)<em>Baskets.</em>—Basketry can be decorated by Batik, although
+it is but rarely done. The baskets would be
+dyed with Basic colors and acetic acid, excepting where
+yellows and reds were needed, fast to light, in which
+case the Acid colors would be used.</p>
+
+<p>(g)<em>Bone.</em>—Very pretty effects can be produced with
+Batik upon polished surface of bone or ivory. These
+are dyed carefully with Acid colors in a bath containing
+acetic acid.</p>
+
+<p>This process is a combination of dyeing and etching,
+for the acid attacks the exposed surfaces, removing
+the polish and opening the way for the action of the
+dyestuff later.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Batik Used for Etching.</b>—The talents of Batik are numerous,
+for the usefulness of the Batik tjanting and
+brush are not confined to the dyer, but can be readily
+availed of by any metal or wood worker who happens
+to be a skilled draughtsman as well. Wax is a good
+resist, not only against dyes and the weak chemicals
+used in connection with them, but also against many<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[259]</span>
+of the most powerful reagents known to the chemist,
+such as sulphuric acid, for instance, or strong caustic
+alkali.</p>
+
+<p>Accordingly, if a piece of smooth wood is carefully
+batiked and then, instead of being painted with dyestuff
+in solution, it has some strong sulphuric acid,
+or a concentrated solution of caustic potash poured
+and spread upon it, in a few minutes, after the reagent
+is washed off and the wax removed with gasoline or
+otherwise, the exposed surfaces of the wood will be
+found softened and corroded, so that on scrubbing
+with a stiff brush, they can be readily rubbed away,
+and the waxed portions will stand out in relief.</p>
+
+<p>Metal work, like copper or brass plates and dishes,
+can be etched readily in the same way, the pattern of
+the relief being drawn in wax, and the metal exposed
+for a greater or less time to the action of dilute nitric
+acid.</p>
+
+<p>Without going further into details it is hoped that
+enough has been stated here to impress on the student
+the possibilities of this beautiful process in a large
+number of different directions.</p>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">[260]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="Chapter_XVIII">Chapter XVIII<br>
+<span class="chapt_sub">THE INFLUENCE OF THE WAR UPON
+THE DYESTUFF INDUSTRY</span></h2>
+</div>
+
+
+<p class="drop-cap"><span class="smcap">In</span> Chapter II of this book it has been explained
+how the dyeing industry of the whole world was
+changed by the discovery and commercial preparation
+of the first aniline dyestuff, mauveine, in 1856, by
+the English chemist Perkin. Under his leadership the
+supremacy in this new industry was kept in England;
+but when he retired from the field the manufacture of
+dyestuffs was soon concentrated in Germany. For
+over forty years before the beginning of the Great
+War, the Germans had almost complete and absolute
+control over the whole color business, including many
+allied industries like the manufacture of organic chemicals,
+drugs, perfumes, flavoring matters and the like,
+derived originally from coal tar. In Germany were
+four or five great and splendidly equipped factories,
+and some ten or fifteen others of less importance, all
+thoroughly organized and working together most harmoniously
+under what would, in the United States, be
+called a most perfect specimen of a Trust. Opposed to
+them all over the world there could be found but a
+handful of comparatively small and unimportant firms
+in Switzerland, France, England and the United<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">[261]</span>
+States—producing altogether not over about ten per
+cent of the output of their German competitors.</p>
+
+<p>Compared to other industries the output of dyestuffs
+needed for the whole world’s consumption is not a very
+large one—some sixty or seventy million dollars a year
+all told; and it was freely boasted, and more or less
+accepted by the rest of the world, that “the dyestuff
+industry is a one-nation industry, and that nation is
+Germany!”</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Rise of the German Dyestuff Monopoly.</b>—The story
+of how this came about was once told the writer by
+Sir William Perkin, when he was in New York, in
+1896, at the time of the “Coal Tar Color Jubilee,” the
+fiftieth anniversary of his famous discovery.</p>
+
+<p>He said that in the early days, when he was running
+his plant near Manchester, the most dangerous
+competitors he had to face were the French. He
+described them as excellent chemists and keen, but fair-fighting
+business men; and the Germans, in those days,
+were far inferior to them in every way—in ability, in
+originality, and, above all, in honesty.</p>
+
+<p>He went so far as to say that, for years before he
+left the business, he and other English chemists had
+entirely abandoned attempts to patent their discoveries
+in Berlin. He had found, by sad experience, that
+whenever he sent over an application for a patent on a
+new dyestuff, or new chemical compound of importance,
+the German Patent Office would at once call in,
+for consultation, the leading German chemists who
+were interested in that line of work. He would get
+request after request for more and more detailed information<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[262]</span>
+about every part of the process; and then,
+when they had got from him every bit of information
+that they could, they would grant the patent to some
+one of his German competitors, who, in many cases
+at least, had never even dreamed of the thing, until
+Perkin had sent his application to Berlin. In fact, he
+said the English and French chemists considered them
+as rank, bare-faced pirates, and none too successful
+pirates at that.</p>
+
+<p>Two Germans however, in 1869, did work out the
+composition of alizarine, the dyestuff of madder, and
+published their discovery in the chemical journals. But
+while they discovered and patented one method for
+preparing this Alizarine from coal tar on a commercial
+scale, Perkin in England, and some dyestuff chemists
+in France discovered other methods equally good
+or perhaps better for producing the same identical
+color at less expense. So they still kept well ahead of
+the Germans even in that.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after this, in 1870, the Franco-Prussian war
+broke out. At once the French and German factories
+closed, at any rate for any foreign trade, and as the
+cultivation of madder had by that time been abandoned,
+Perkin found that all the Turkey red for the
+whole Eastern market must be dyed with his Manchester
+alizarine. Orders came pouring in, and in
+order to keep up with the demand, it would be necessary
+for him to greatly increase the size of his plant,
+and to put back into it all his savings of the past fourteen
+or fifteen very profitable years.</p>
+
+<p>This, he told me, he was unwilling to do. But, just<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[263]</span>
+at that moment, he was approached by a firm of Manchester
+business men, who had been supplying his
+works with some of the raw materials from coal tar
+(crudes and intermediates as they call them now), with
+an offer to buy his works and his interest in the business.
+He was perfectly frank and open with them,
+showed them his books, his profits for the past few
+years, his present orders and the rest, and after a little
+bargaining he sold out to them for a very fair
+price, which he immediately invested in the best of securities
+and on which he lived in comfort for the rest
+of his long and extremely happy life.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Ruin of the English Dyestuff Industry.</b>—As soon as
+they had gained possession of his factory, the Manchester
+people began to pass word around among their
+friends, that they were going to show the whole world
+how to run a chemical industry. Perkin, they agreed,
+was indeed a clever fellow in his way, and undoubtedly
+a good chemist, but he was no<em>business</em> man.
+They were going to run those works on good, practical,
+common-sense business lines, and they and their
+few friends whom they allowed to join them, boasted
+loudly and deeply of their expected profits. Their
+motto was the well-established one “Manufacture
+cheap and sell dear”—and they proceeded to follow it
+implicitly.</p>
+
+<p>They went over all the details of the business with
+the greatest care, and soon found what seemed to them
+a willful piece of extravagance. Perkin himself, and
+three or four other chemists, were drawing salaries, not
+for the actual making of the dyestuffs but for<em>experimental</em><span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">[264]</span>
+purposes, and they had quite an expensive
+laboratory used for that purpose alone!</p>
+
+<p>Of course this was at once eliminated—and great
+was their satisfaction when they found that they had
+thereby cut down the price of making their dyes two
+or three cents a pound.</p>
+
+<p>Then it came to the “selling dear” part of it.
+Perkin told me that the last few years that he ran his
+factory, he kept the price of his dyestuffs at a reasonable
+figure, so that, indeed, he would get a good profit
+from them, but that, on the other hand, it would be
+no easy matter for competitors to break into his field
+with success. His alizarine, in particular, he had kept
+at a price just below what it would pay to grow madder
+in opposition to it, and he had not raised the price to
+any great extent since the war had given him a
+monopoly. These Manchester people, however, fully
+recognized that they were the only manufacturers of
+alizarine, anywhere, and were over-flooded with orders—so
+they instantly jumped up the price of their
+alizarine to four or five times its former figures.</p>
+
+<p>Barely had they completed their “business” reorganization
+of the plant when the war came to an
+end, and the Germans marched back to their own country,
+with “five milliards” of French money, full of
+self-confidence (to use a very mild term) and looking
+around for new fields to conquer in peace, now that
+they had won all that they could at that time by war.
+Instantly every German with any knowledge of the textile
+or dyestuff industries turned his eyes at once in
+that direction. “What! Alizarine at five dollars a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">[265]</span>
+pound instead of a dollar; why, any fool can make a
+profit on colors at that price!” And immediately, in
+different parts of the country, factory after factory
+was started, each one centered around some first-class
+chemist, of national if not international reputation,
+with instructions to gather around himself a staff of
+the most brilliant and best trained organic chemists he
+could find, to be used first of all in experimental and
+investigating work as well as for the mere preparation
+of dyestuffs.</p>
+
+<p>As a result, in a very short time, these new German
+firms were supplying alizarine and other dyestuffs to
+the Manchester Turkey red manufacturers at lower
+prices than they could be made for in Perkin’s old factory
+in the immediate neighborhood; and, before the
+end of the year, those clever business men were complaining
+bitterly to Perkin that he had cheated them in
+the sale of his works, and were wanting him to give
+them their money back, which, as the old gentleman
+told me with a chuckle, he very positively and decidedly
+refused to do.</p>
+
+<p>From that time until the beginning of the Great War
+the great English textile industry, with its enormous
+trade all over the world, was obliged to buy practically
+all its dyestuffs from Germany.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Dyestuff Industry in the United States.</b>—The manufacture
+of dyestuffs in this country was a little better
+than in England, because of the tariff protection
+granted it by the Government for many years. Four
+or five factories of very moderate size kept up a rather
+precarious existence, because their chief raw materials,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">[266]</span>
+the so-called “intermediates,” organic chemicals made
+from coal tar and from which the principal products,
+dyes, drugs, perfumes and the like are made in turn,
+all had to be imported from Europe, and, in most
+cases, from their German rivals who naturally kept
+a tight rein upon the quantity and quality of their
+output.</p>
+
+<p>In 1913 even this industry was destroyed by the
+abolition of the duties on dyestuffs in the new tariff,
+thanks to the pressure for free raw materials brought
+by the great textile industries, probably at the instigation
+of the foreign color houses.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent"><b>Changed Conditions Due to the War.</b>—Since 1914 this
+whole situation has been radically and completely
+changed all over the world. Appreciating the great
+danger to their textile trades from the lack of dyestuffs,
+and also the vast military importance of a large
+and highly developed coal tar products industry, for
+the manufacture of high explosives, smokeless powder
+and the like, nation after nation has given government
+assistance not only in the line of money, but also
+with patent legislation and new tariff. England with
+its British Dye Works, Ltd., France with the St.
+Denis Works, now greatly enlarged and strengthened,
+Italy, Japan, all have made arrangements for supplying
+their trade with home-made dyestuffs, of excellent
+quality, not only during but after the temporary disturbance
+due to the actual fighting.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States there soon were made many
+more or less independent and spasmodic efforts to
+supply at least the principal and most generally used<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">[267]</span>
+colors, notably the Basic dyes, Methylene Blue, Methyl
+Violet and the like, so much used in calico printing, silk
+and wool dyeing, leather and other lines, and the
+simpler Sulphur colors, like Sulphur Black, Blues, and
+Browns. These were selling, before the end of 1914,
+at comparatively huge prices, and until the peace will
+probably still command from five to ten times their
+usual values.</p>
+
+<p>But out of these scores of generally quite small and
+isolated factories, there have sprung, by the fourth
+year of hostilities, a few large, well equipped and
+fully financed organizations which will be able, within
+a very short time, indeed probably before these lines
+appear in print, to fully provide this country with the
+main standard dyes, quite as good in every respect as
+the same dyes made by the best German color houses.
+And, unless very adverse tariff legislation should be
+introduced, they should be in a position, after the close
+of the war, to hold their trade against any foreign
+competition. It will, of course, take several years before
+they can supply in this country the very finest
+special dyestuffs, of which but small quantities are ever
+needed or used, and which in most cases are fully protected
+by patents, as well as by secret methods of manufacture.
+But, with the exception of the vat colors, of
+which artificial Indigo and the closely allied Brom-indigo
+are at present the only ones made in this country,
+the dyeing trade will be, in a short time, well
+supplied with excellent standard colors “made in
+America.”</p>
+
+<p>The three important American dyestuff houses<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">[268]</span>
+already started with the addresses of their New York
+offices are as follows:—</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot2">
+<p class="noindent">
+<i>American</i>—American Aniline Products. Inc.,<br>
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;">80 Fifth Avenue.</span><br>
+<br>
+<i>Marden</i>—Marden, Orth and Hastings,<br>
+<span style="margin-left: 7em;">61 Broadway.</span><br>
+<br>
+<i>National</i>—National Aniline and Chemical Co.,<br>
+<span style="margin-left: 8em;">244 Madison Avenue.</span><br>
+</p>
+</div>
+<p>And also, soon to engage in the manufacture of dyestuffs
+on a large scale:—</p>
+
+<p class="center">
+The Dupont de Nemours Chemical Co.,<br>
+of Wilmington, Del.<br>
+</p>
+
+
+<p>Lists of the Best Dyestuffs, in the Different Classes,
+Made Thus Far by the American Manufacturers</p>
+
+<p>At the present moment, November, 1917, but few of
+the home-made colors are as fast to light as the specially
+selected dyes of the great German houses, listed
+on pages 66, 89, 103 and 127. Those in the following
+lists are the best made at present, in the United States,
+and will be steadily improved upon as time goes on.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Direct Cotton or Salt Dyes.</i>—</p>
+
+<table class="listtable wd70">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl wd25">American—</td>
+<td class="tdl">Benzo Fast Yellow, A</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Direct Sky Blue</td>
+</tr>
+<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Marden—</td>
+<td class="tdl">Stilbene Yellow</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Direct Blue</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Direct Brown</td>
+</tr>
+<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">National—</td>
+<td class="tdl">Delta Red, 2 B</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Niagara Fast Yellow, F</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Niagara Blue, 2 B</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Erie Black, G X OO</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><i>Sulphur Colors.</i>—</p>
+
+<table class="listtable wd70">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl wd25">Marden—</td>
+<td class="tdl">Sulphur Black</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Sulphur Brown</td>
+</tr>
+<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">National—</td>
+<td class="tdl">Sulphur Brown, W F</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Sulphur Yellow, B W</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Sulphur Direct Navy Blue</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Sulphur Black, F conc.</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><i>Vat Colors.</i>—</p>
+
+<table class="listtable wd70">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl wd25"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Dibrom Indigo, powder and paste</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Synthetic Indigo, 20% paste</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><i>Made by the Dow Chemical Company of Midland,
+Michigan. New York Agents, Geisenheimer &amp; Co.,
+134 Cedar Street.</i></p>
+
+<p>Synthetic Indigo and Sodium hydrosulphite can also
+be obtained from <i>Klipstein, 634 Greenwich Street,
+New York</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Basic Colors.</i>—</p>
+
+<p>Many of these such as Methylene Blue, Methyl
+Violet, Phosphine, Bismarck Brown and others, including
+leather Black, are being made by <i>American</i>, <i>Marden</i>
+and <i>National</i>, as well as by many firms that so
+far have not gone into the general color business. One
+of the most important of these last, who, besides the
+above, make a brilliant basic Green, called by them
+Methylene Green, is the <i>Meth-O-Lene Co., Inc., 81-83
+Fulton Street, New York</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Auramine, at present, can best be obtained from
+<i>Klipstein</i>. Nigrosine soluble in water, in jet black and
+bluish shades, is made by <i>Marden</i>, <i>Meth-O-Lene</i> and
+other firms, and is largely used for dyeing leather fast
+brilliant shades of black.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[270]</span></p>
+
+<p>
+<i>Acid Colors.</i>—
+</p>
+<table class="listtable wd70">
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl wd25">American—</td>
+<td class="tdl">Fast Yellow, H Ex.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Brilliant Blue, conc.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Cloth Red, H</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Acid Black, L conc.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">Marden—</td>
+<td class="tdl">Metanril Yellow</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Orange, No. 2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Fast Acid Red</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Croceine Scarlet</td>
+</tr>
+<tr style="height:.7em"><td class="tdl"></td><td class="tdl"></td></tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl">National—</td>
+<td class="tdl">Azo Yellow, A S W</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Scarlet, B R</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+<td class="tdl"></td>
+<td class="tdl">Acid Black, 4 A B</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p>Also Tartrazine, a fast acid yellow much used for
+wool, not for silk.</p>
+
+
+<h3>SPECIAL NOTE</h3>
+
+<div class="fs90">
+
+<p>Further information concerning dyestuffs, apparatus, textiles,
+chemicals, etc., connected with this work, may be obtained on
+writing to the author at 7 West 43rd Street, New York.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="INDEX">INDEX</h2>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is no mention either of the Plate illustrations or of
+the Figure illustrations in the index; these may be found in a
+list of the illustrations in the front of the book.</p>
+
+
+<ul class="index">
+<li class="ifrst">Acid Azo Colors, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Acid Colors, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123-131</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131-136</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148-150</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165-168</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">After-treatment, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alizarine and Alizarine Dyestuffs, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Alizarine Assistant or Turkey Red Oil, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aniline, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aniline Black—for Stencilling, <a href="#Page_224">224-228</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aniline Colors, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>. Also see <a href="#Basic">Basic Colors</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aniline Red or Fuchsine, Magenta, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Animal Dyes, <a href="#Page_11">11-14</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Also see <a href="#Cochineal">Cochineal</a>,
+<a href="#Kermes">Kermes</a>, <a href="#Lac">Lac</a>,
+<a href="#Tyrian">Tyrian purple</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Artificial Silk, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184-192</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Artificial or Synthetic Indigo, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Bagobo Tied Work, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Basic"></a>Basic Colors, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108-123</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148-153</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220-223</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Basketry, Dyeing of, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_116">116-123</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="batik"><a id="Batik"></a>Batik or Wax Resist, <a href="#Page_241">241-260</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Benedict, Miss Laura (Tied Work from Philippines), <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bismarck Brown, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">[271]</span>Bistre or Permanganate Bronze, <a href="#Page_32">32-35</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Black Dyeing—with Coal-Tar Colors, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Black Dyeing—with Logwood, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169-172</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Black Stencilling, <a href="#Page_224">224-228</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="bp"><a id="Bleaching"></a>Bleaching Powder, <a href="#Page_208">208-211</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234-236</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Boiled-off Liquor, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bone-colored by Batik Process, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">British uniforms, dyed with cochineal, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bronze on Leather, <a href="#Page_153">153-155</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bronze (Permanganate) or Bistre, <a href="#Page_32">32-35</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brown (Bismarck), <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brown, dyed with Permanganate of Potash, <a href="#Page_32">32-35</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Cachou de Laval, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Catechu. See <a href="#Cutch">Cutch</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chardonnet Silk, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chloride of Lime. See <a href="#Bleaching">Bleaching Powder</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chrome Orange, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chrome Yellow, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chrome Tanning, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chundries or Chunaries (Indian Tied Work), <a href="#Page_196">196-199</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Classification of Coal-Tar Colors, for Craftsmen, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Cochineal"></a>Cochineal, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Congo Red, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cordovan Leather, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cotton Colors. See <a href="#Salt">Salt Colors</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="cottondye"><a id="Cotton"></a>Cotton Dyeing, <a href="#Page_59">59-64</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88-90</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Covering,” <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Crackle Effect—in Batik, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="Cutch">Cutch, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Direct Coloring, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Direct Cotton Dyeing. See <a href="#Salt">Salt Colors</a>
+and <a href="#Sulphur">Sulphur Colors</a>. Also <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Discharge Stencilling, <a href="#Page_233">233-241</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Discharge work, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208-211</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Discovery of Acid Colors, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Aniline or Coal-Tar Colors, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Basic Colors, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Indigo, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1" id="salt_co">Salt Colors, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1" id="sulpher_co">Sulphur Colors, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Vat Colors, modern, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Discovery"></a>Discovery (Perkin’s), <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Dyeing Directions—for Acid Colors, <a href="#Page_127">127-131</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132-137</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148-153</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_163">163</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Artificial Silk, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1" >Basic Colors, <a href="#Page_117">117-123</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148-150</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Basketry, <a href="#Page_117">117-123</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Batik, <a href="#Page_254">254-258</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Cotton and Linen, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59-64</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87-89</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105-108</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Feathers, <a href="#Page_132">132-137</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Imitation Silk, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Indigo, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Iron Buff (Iron Rust), <a href="#Page_27">27-29</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Iron Grey, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Leather, <a href="#Page_148">148-150</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Permanganate Bronze, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Raffia, <a href="#Page_120">120-123</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Resist Stencilling, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Salt Colors, <a href="#Page_59">59-64</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Silk, <a href="#Page_162">162-165</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174-181</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Straw, <a href="#Page_117">117-120</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Sulphur Colors, <a href="#Page_87">87-89</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Tied and Dyed Work, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Vat Colors, <a href="#Page_105">105-108</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177-181</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a id="Wild"></a>Wild Silk, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Wool, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127-131</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Eastern Dyes, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17-21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_245">245</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">[272]</span>Elberfeld Silk, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Embroidery-fast Silk, <a href="#Page_175">175-181</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Equipment needed for Dyeing, <a href="#Page_35">35-39</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Fastness to Light, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63-66</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fastness to Washing, <a href="#Page_64">64-67</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174-181</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Feathers and Feather-dyeing, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_131">131-141</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fermentation Method of Vat dyeing, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Finishing—Artificial Silk, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Feathers, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Leather, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Silk, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fustic, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Gambier, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Gelatin or Glue, used as Reagent, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Glanzstoff (Elberfeld Silk), <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Glucose, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grain Colors (Cochineal, Kermes, Lac), <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grey, Miss Mary—Tied Work, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grey, from mixture of colors, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grey, from Iron Salts and Tannin, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Heating devices, used in Dyeing, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">History. See <a href="#Discovery">Discovery</a>.</li>
+<li class="isub1">Also Ancient Dyestuffs, <a href="#Page_8">8-16</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Artificial Silk, <a href="#Page_184">184-187</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Batik, <a href="#Page_241">241-245</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dyes of our Ancestors, <a href="#Page_17">17-24</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Imitation Silk, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Leather, <a href="#Page_141">141-144</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Silk, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Stencils and Stencilling, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Tied and Dyed Work, <a href="#Page_192">192-200</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Horses, dyed Brown with Permanganate, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hydrosulphite of Sodium, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237-241</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Imitation Silk, <a href="#Page_181">181-184</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Indian Dyes, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Indian Tied and Dyed Work, <a href="#Page_196">196-199</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Indigo"></a>Indigo and Vat Colors, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91-108</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222-225</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Indigo, Application of, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98-100</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Introduction, <a href="#Page_5">5-8</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Iron Buff (Iron Rust), <a href="#Page_25">25-29</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Iron Grey, <a href="#Page_29">29-31</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Japanese Practice, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211-219</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228-231</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Javanese Practice (Batik), <a href="#Page_242">242-256</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst"><a id="Kermes"></a>Kermes, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Khaki, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst"><a id="Lac"></a>Lac Dye, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Leather, <a href="#Page_141">141-156</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dyeing and Staining of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148-153</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Finishing of, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">History of, <a href="#Page_141">141-144</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Preparation of, <a href="#Page_143">143-148</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Stencilling of, <a href="#Page_219">219</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Linen—Dyeing of. See <a href="#Cotton">Cotton Dyeing</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59-64</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88-90</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Local Dyeing Formulæ, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Logwood, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169-172</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Madder, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Manufacturers of Coal-Tar Colors, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Matching Shades, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Matching Shades by Night, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mauvine (Perkin’s Violet), <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Metal, Etching of by Batik Process, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Methyl Violet. See <a href="#Basic">Basic Colors</a>, also <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Methylene Blue. See <a href="#Basic">Basic Colors</a>, also <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mineral Dyes, <a href="#Page_25">25-35</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">[273]</span>Mixed Shades, with Diagram, <a href="#Page_78">78-84</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Modern and Ancient Dyestuffs, compared, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mordants and Mordanting, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18-25</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Murex Brandaris (Tyrian Purple Fish), <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Murex Trunculus, <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Night, Matching Shades by, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">North Carolina Practice, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst" id="perkin"><a id="Perkin"></a>Perkin, Sir Wm. Henry, <a href="#Page_40">40-43</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Perkin’s Discovery. See <a href="#Perkin">Perkin</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Permanganate Bronze (Permanganate Brown, Bistre), <a href="#Page_32">32-35</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Peruvian Tied Work, <a href="#Page_196">196</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Philippine Tied Work, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199-201</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Primary Colors, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Purpura Lapillus (Tyrian Purple Fish), <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Raffia, Dyeing of, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rainbow Dyeing, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119-122</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rajput Tied Work (Chundries), <a href="#Page_196">196-199</a>, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Resist Stencil Paste, <a href="#Page_229">229-234</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Resist Work, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, also 196-209, <a href="#Page_229">229-234</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241-260</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rubber Gloves—Useful for Dyeing, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Rubbing,” <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rush, Dr. Benjamin, <a href="#Page_211">211</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ruskin, John, Opinion on Modern Dyestuffs, <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Safflower, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Saffron, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Saffron, Indian (Turmeric), <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Salt—used in Dyeing, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Salt"></a>Salt Colors (Direct Cotton Colors), <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_55">55-71</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238-240</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">List of Properties and Uses, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sarongs, <a href="#Page_243">243</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Selected Dyestuffs, Lists of—</li>
+<li class="isub1">Acid Colors, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Basic Colors, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Salt Colors, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1"><a id="Sulphur"></a>Sulphur Colors, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Vat Colors, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shades, Matching of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shikar, Chundries (Tied Work from India), <a href="#Page_197">197</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Silk, Artificial, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184-192</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Silk, <a href="#Page_156">156-181</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Dyeing, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161-164</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174-181</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Imitation, <a href="#Page_181">181-184</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Preparation of for Dyeing, <a href="#Page_159">159-162</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Stencilling of, <a href="#Page_219">219-223</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Tests for Weighted, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Varieties of, <a href="#Page_157">157-160</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Weighting of, <a href="#Page_169">169-175</a>;</li>
+<li class="isub1">Wild, <a href="#Page_157">157-159</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164-167</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Skein Dyeing <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Soap, uses of, in Dyeing, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161-166</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx" id="sodaash"><a id="Soda"></a>Soda Ash (Sodium Carbonate), <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sodium Bicarbonate, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sodium Carbonate. See <a href="#Soda">Soda Ash</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sodium Hydrosulphite, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237-241</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sodium Hydroxide (Caustic Soda), <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sodium Sulphate (Glauber’s Salt), <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sodium Sulphide, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Starching (for Feathers), <a href="#Page_134">134-136</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stencils and Stencilling, <a href="#Page_211">211-228</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228-241</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">[274]</span>Stencil Salt, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stripping, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sulphur Colors, <a href="#Page_85">85-90</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>, <a href="#Page_238">238</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Tannin (Tannic Acid), <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tanning, <a href="#Page_143">143-148</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Three-Color Shades, <a href="#Page_79">79-81</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tied and Discharged Work, <a href="#Page_208">208-211</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tied and Dyed Work, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192-211</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ties and Stops, <a href="#Page_214">214-217</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tin salts as Mordants, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tin Weighting of Silk, <a href="#Page_171">171-175</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tjantings. See <a href="#Batik">Batik</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244-254</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">“Topping,” <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Turkey Red, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Turkey Red Oil (Alizarine Assistant), <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Turmeric (Indian Saffron), <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tussah Silk. See <a href="#Wild">Wild Silk</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><a id="Tyrian"></a>Tyrian Purple, <a href="#Page_12">12-16</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Vat Colors. See <a href="#Indigo">Indigo</a>, also <a href="#Page_102">102-108</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222-225</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vat Dyeing, <a href="#Page_94">94-100</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178-180</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Vegetable Colors, <a href="#Page_8">8-11</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17-19</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20-25</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Viscose (in Artificial Silk), <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li>
+
+
+<li class="ifrst">Washing, Fastness to, <a href="#Page_64">64-67</a>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,
+    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174-181</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Weighting of Silk, <a href="#Page_170">170-175</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Woad, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wood, Dyeing of, <a href="#Page_258">258</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wood, Etching of, by Batik Process, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wool, Dyeing of, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128-131</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wool, Stencilling on, <a href="#Page_221">221</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Wringers, Use of in Dyeing, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+</ul>
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+
+<div class="chapter">
+<div class="transnote" id="ENDNOTE">
+<strong>
+TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE<br>
+</strong>
+
+<p class="noindent">Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between paragraphs
+and outside quotations. In versions of this eBook that support
+hyperlinks, the page references in the List of Illustrations lead to
+the corresponding illustrations.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Illustrations without captions have had a description added, this is denoted
+with parentheses.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">The index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page
+references.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been
+corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within
+the text and consultation of external sources.
+</p>
+<p class="noindent">Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added,
+when a predominant preference was found in the original book.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text,
+and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">
+Pg <a href="#corr_to">101</a>: removed duplicate ‘to’ in ‘are apt to to “rub.”’.</p>
+
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<div style='text-align:center'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75302 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
+
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@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
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+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
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+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #75302 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/75302)