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diff --git a/75302-0.txt b/75302-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fa57c46 --- /dev/null +++ b/75302-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,8178 @@ + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75302 *** + + TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE + + Italic text is denoted by _underscores_. + + Bold text is denoted by =equal signs=. + + Footnote anchors are denoted by [number], and the footnotes have been + placed at the end of the paragraph. + + Some minor changes to the text are noted at the end of the book. + + + + +[Illustration: PLATE I. INDIGO DYED BATIK FROM MADRAS] + + + + + DYES _and_ DYEING + + BY + + CHARLES E. PELLEW + + _Formerly Adjunct Professor of Chemistry + at Columbia University_ + + [Illustration: (colophon)] + + NEW YORK + ROBERT M. McBRIDE & COMPANY + 1918 + + + + + COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY + McBRIDE, NAST & COMPANY + + COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY + ROBERT M. McBRIDE & COMPANY + + New and enlarged edition + Published, January, 1918 + + + + + CONTENTS + + + PAGE + + CHAPTER I—INTRODUCTION 5 + + Dyes of the Ancients—Dyes of Our Ancestors—Animal, Vegetable and + Mineral Dyes—Outfit for Practical Dyeing. + + CHAPTER II—MODERN DYESTUFFS 40 + + Discovery of the Aniline or Coal-Tar Colors—Their Properties and + Uses—How Obtained—How Named—Classification of Coal-Tar Colors for + Craftsmen. + + CHAPTER III—THE DIRECT COTTON OR SALT COLORS 53 + + Discovery, Properties and Uses of the Salt Colors; with Lists of + Selected Dyestuffs, and Dying Directions for Cotton and Linen— + Fastness to Light and Washing—After-treatment. + + CHAPTER IV—THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COLOR DYEING 71 + + Even and Shaded Dyeing with the Primary Colors—Experiments with + Secondary Colors—Matching Shades. + + CHAPTER V—THE SULPHUR COLORS 85 + + Discovery—Properties and Uses of the Sulphur Colors—List of + Selected Dyestuffs, and Dyeing Directions for Cotton and Linen. + + CHAPTER VI—THE INDIGO OR VAT COLORS 91 + + Natural and Synthetic Indigo—Properties and Application—Vat Dyeing, + Old and Modern—Dyeing Directions—The Modern Vat Colors—Their + Properties and Uses—Selected Dyestuffs—Fastness to Light and + Washing—Dyeing Directions for Cotton, Linen and Silk. + + CHAPTER VII—THE BASIC COLORS 108 + + History, Properties, and Application to Cotton, Wool, Silk, + etc.—Disadvantages—Not Fast to Light—Dyeing Directions for Straw, + Raffia, etc. + + CHAPTER VIII—THE ACID COLORS 123 + + History, Properties, Uses, and List of Selected Dyestuffs—Dyeing + Directions for Wool. + + CHAPTER IX—DYEING FEATHERS 131 + + The Dye-bath—The Dyeing Method—The Finishing Process—Dry and + Wet Starching—Dyeing in the Starch—Black Dyeing of Feathers— + Painting Feathers. + + CHAPTER X—LEATHER AND LEATHER DYEING 141 + + History—Preparation of Leather—Oil, Mineral and Bark Tanning— + Dyeing, Staining and Finishing Leather. + + CHAPTER XI—SILK I 156 + + History, Origin and Varieties of Silk—Preparing Silk for Dyeing— + Piece Dyeing—Skein Dyeing—Dyeing Wild Silks. + + CHAPTER XII—SILK II 168 + + Black Dyeing of Silk—Coal-Tar Colors—Logwood—Weighting of Silk— + Properties and Tests for Weighted Silk—Dyeing Silk with Colors + Fast to Washing. + + CHAPTER XIII—IMITATION AND ARTIFICIAL SILK 181 + + History, Preparation and Properties of Mercerized Cotton—History, + Preparation and Properties of Artificial Silk—Precautions to be + Taken in Dyeing and Finishing. + + CHAPTER XIV—TIED AND DYED WORK 192 + + As Used in South America, India, Philippines and U.S.—Variations + in Tying Process—How Dyed—Tied and Discharged Work. + + CHAPTER XV—STENCILS AND STENCILLING 211 + + Japanese Practice—U.S. Practice—Knives, Brushes, Paper, etc.— + Colors for Leather, Silk, and Cotton—Stencilling with Aniline + Black Paste. + + CHAPTER XVI—RESIST AND DISCHARGE STENCILLING 228 + + Japanese Practice—Resist Paste and the Sulphur Colors—Discharge + Stencilling with Bleaching Powder and Hydrosulphite. + + CHAPTER XVII—BATIK OR WAX RESIST 241 + + Javanese Practice—Modern Practice and Apparatus—Dyeing of Batiked + Goods—Use of Batik Process on Cotton, Linen, Silk, Leather, Wood, + Bone, etc. + + CHAPTER XVIII—THE INFLUENCE OF THE WAR UPON THE DYESTUFF + INDUSTRY 260 + + Rise of the German Dyestuff Monopoly—Ruin of the English Dyestuff + Industry—Dyestuff Industry in the United States—Changed + Conditions Due to the War—Lists of Best Dyestuffs. + + + + +THE ILLUSTRATIONS + + + PLATES IN COLOR + + PLATE + + I Indigo dyed batik from Madras _Frontispiece_ + + FACING PAGE + + II Japanese towelling, showing impression of fresh damp leaves 26 + + III Same towelling after immersion in iron spring 30 + + IV (_a_) Example of tied and dyed work } 210 + (_b_) Example of tied and discharged work } + + V Japanese towelling stencilled in resist and dyed by + immersion in iron spring 230 + + + ILLUSTRATIONS IN HALF-TONE + + FIG. + + 1 Shellfish used by the ancients for Tyrian purple 12 + + Sir W. H. Perkin 42 + + 2 Tied and dyed headdress from an Inca tomb in Peru 192 + + 3 Shikar chundri, from Rajputana, with knots still untied 196 + + 4 Same chundri untied and shaken out 198 + + 5 Bagobo headdress from the Island of Mindanao 200 + + 6 Sample of tied and dyed work, “tied on itself” 202 + + 7 Sample of tied and dyed work, “tied in bands” 204 + + 8 Tied and dyed work—Folding the cloth 206 + + 9 Starting to tie 206 + + 10 Centre portion tied 206 + + 11 Centre and corners tied 208 + + 12 Dyed, untied and shaken out 208 + + 13 Japanese stencil knife 212 + + 14 Japanese stencil brushes 212 + + 15 Japanese stencil, showing holes punched by hand tool 216 + + 16 Japanese stencil, showing use of stops 216 + + 17 Japanese stencil, showing use of sewing instead of stops 216 + + 18 Japanese stencils, showing use of both stops and net 218 + + 19 Large and handsome Japanese stencil, showing use + of net 224 + + 20 “Teapot” model of tjanting 248 + + 21 Walther glass tjanting 248 + + 22 “Wax pencil” model of tjanting 248 + + 23 Javanese tjantings 250 + + 24 American modification of Javanese tjanting 250 + + + DIAGRAMS IN THE LETTERPRESS + + Primary Colors 73 + + Mixed Colors 79 + + + + + PREFACE + + +When a new text-book is offered to an innocent and long-suffering +public about such an ancient subject as Dyes and Dyeing, it is, +perhaps, the very least that the author can do, to explain briefly +his reasons for hoping that his particular book may prove of some +special usefulness. + +As a matter of fact this book is intended for the use of craftsmen +and others who are trying to dye and stain textiles by hand and on a +small scale, rather than for professional dyers or dyeing chemists +who are interested in factory dyeing, conducted on a large scale. +For the latter there is little or no difficulty in getting any +information that they desire, either from the large and carefully +written text-books or, still better, from the many excellent dyeing +manuals and books of directions issued at frequent intervals by the +great color houses. + +But for craftsmen and their like, the amateur dyers as opposed to +the regular professionals, the required information is not easy to +obtain. Their leaders and teachers, as a rule, profess a scorn of +the wonderful discoveries which, in the last half century, have +revolutionized the art of dyeing more, perhaps, than any other branch +of handicraft. And the dyeing chemists and writers have devoted +themselves almost exclusively to the far larger and more important +and more profitable field of commercial or professional dyeing, and +only here and there is one found who has given any special attention +to the dyes and processes needed by those working only on a small +scale. + +For my own part, after teaching the principles and practice of modern +dyeing to class after class of chemical students at Columbia, my +attention was called to this particular branch of the subject by +finding, one spring, that some friends had started a hand-weaving +industry at a settlement house in which I was interested, but had +not made any arrangement for a dyehouse at the same time. This was a +serious omission because it is almost impossible to buy in the market +raw materials for hand-woven rugs, table-covers, and the like, that +are dyed just the right shade and, at the same time, are fast to both +light and washing; and, unless this last is guaranteed, there is +little or no excuse for charging the large prices necessary to pay +for the extra expense of the hand labor. + +Wishing, therefore, to help out my friends, I offered to assist as +far as possible in this part of the work. That summer was spent on +the St. Lawrence, where it was possible to study some of the textile +work of the French _habitants_ whose dyeing processes, designs, and +looms had descended from mother to daughter since the old Colonial +days; and in the autumn I fitted up a little dyehouse and started +with a small but intelligent class of neighbors who were working at +the looms. + +Of course, it was foolish to attempt to teach them the scientific +chemical formulæ used by my students uptown. The processes must +be short and simple—must give the desired shades on cotton, linen, +wool, and silk in the course of an hour or an hour and a half at +the outside, counting from the time when the class was called to +order. And the colors must be absolutely fast to light, and, wherever +possible, to washing also. + +The work was very interesting and proved successful enough, at least +as far as the dyeing went. After a few months some visiting reporter, +in an article on Greenwich House and its industries, mentioned the +dyeing, in a magazine, and stated that the colors resulting were not +only beautiful but fast. Immediately I was bombarded with letters +from all over the country, begging for information about permanent +dyestuffs to be used for hand-woven textiles. Requests came from +friends and acquaintances to help them in various side branches of +the subject, such as feather dyeing, leather dyeing and staining, +stencilling, tied and dyed work, and, above all, Batik. And it soon +became a source of much interest to look up some old process of +dyeing, originating perhaps in the East, perhaps among the ancient +Egyptians, and to work it out with the best modern dyestuffs. + +Finally, my correspondence grew so burdensome that I arranged with +the well-known New York magazine, _The Craftsman_, for a series of +articles upon “Modern Dyestuffs and Dyeing Processes for the Use of +Craftsmen”; and from these articles the present book is a natural +result. + +It is hoped that it will prove useful, not only for individuals who +are trying, under considerable difficulties, to get satisfactory +results, by means of long-abandoned processes, upon textile materials +of many sorts and kinds, but also for teachers of art in our public +as well as private schools. Much attention is being given now to +training the hands of children in various drawing and decorating +and weaving processes. But the modern dyestuffs give a much greater +opportunity to train their eyes to a sense of color and to its +beauties, as well as giving them an introduction into an art which +can be used at home for most useful as well as beautiful purposes. + +My hearty thanks are due to many friends, notably, to Mr. Philip +Clarkson, head chemist of H. A. Metz & Co., to Dr. Ludwig, of the +Cassella Color Co., and to many other expert dyeing chemists, +who have most kindly helped me with advice and information about +many widely varying branches of the subject. Also to many of my +craftsman friends, notably Mrs. C. L. Banks, of Bridgeport, Conn., +and Mrs. Charlotte Busck, of this city, who have been of the +greatest assistance in working out many of the problems involved in +stencilling and Batik; and to Miss Mary Grey, of Hackettstown, N. J., +who has kindly allowed me to insert an illustration of some of her +interesting and well-designed tied work (Fig. 7). It is my earnest +hope that the information contained in this book may encourage and +assist other craftsmen throughout the country to come up to the high +standard of these skilled textile workers. + + C. E. P. + + + + + CHAPTER I + + INTRODUCTION + + +There has been so much said and written about the beauty and value +of the old-fashioned dyestuffs and dyeing processes and their +superiority to the modern coloring matters, that many well-meaning +people of artistic tastes have never ceased to deplore the discovery +and introduction of the so-called aniline or coal-tar dyes, and to +regard them as a serious detriment to the art of dyeing. + +Some, indeed, have gone so far as to decry the discoveries not +only of the last fifty years, but also of the last nineteen or +twenty centuries. These quote with approval the great John Ruskin, +founder and original leader of the whole Arts and Crafts movement in +England, if not in the world, as having said, “There has been nothing +discovered of the slightest interest in the tinctorial art” (the art +of dyeing) “since the days of the ancient Greeks and Romans.” + +To suppose for an instant that this important and highly specialized +art has not advanced during nearly two thousand years is, on the +face of it, absurd. A very little knowledge of dyestuffs forces +recognition of the fact that many of the very best, fastest, and most +beautiful of the dyes of our ancestors—such as cochineal, with which +they dyed practically all of their fast pinks and scarlets; logwood, +with which silk as well as wool was, and is still dyed black; fustic, +which was used for fast yellows on wool and cotton, and several +others—were natives of America, and therefore only known to the world +at large since the seventeenth century. + +Indeed, as we shall see, the art of dyeing, based as it is on +chemical processes, discovered one by one, but never properly +explained or understood until the last sixty or seventy years, is, +perhaps, the one art above all others in which not only the ancient +world, but the world of comparatively a few years ago, was very +distinctly inferior to that of the present day. + +In drawing, sculpture, painting, architecture, ceramics, +wood-carving, lacemaking, metal working, and almost every other art +that can be mentioned, the craftsman of the Middle Ages, if not +indeed of ancient Rome or Greece, could still hold his place against +modern competitors. Even in such a modern art as book printing, the +lover of books will claim, with considerable reason, that no more +beautiful or more nearly perfect specimen of the printer’s art has +ever been produced than the Gutenberg Bible, the first product of the +European printing press. + +The art of dyeing, however, has been changing and developing so much +from century to century, that, even before the wonderful discoveries +of the last fifty years, the effects produced by any one generation +of dyers would have been totally impossible for their ancestors of a +few generations before them. + +It would seem hardly worth while to dwell further upon this subject, +were not the idea so fixed in the minds of craftsmen in general that +to get permanent and artistic effects in dyeing we must go back to +the colors of our ancestors, if not to those of the ancient world. +To this day we hear of new industries being started in the lines of +hand-made tapestries, hand-woven linens, homespun cloths, and the +like, where, as a great inducement to prospective purchasers, the +goods are loudly proclaimed as dyed with “pure vegetable colors”; and +the first question commonly asked about a pretty piece of dyed work +is, “Are you sure that it is fast? Did you use the vegetable dyes?” + +As a result of this ignoring and scorning of the wonderful results of +modern science in its application to this most important industry, +the work of textile craftsmen all over the world is far behind the +times, and comparatively far behind other lines of craftwork. + +Nobody expects a modern sculptor to do his carving with the bronze +tools used by the old Athenians; nor do we consider that the present +day worker in metals should refrain from using the modern gas +furnace, or limit his products to the few metals and alloys known in +the Middle Ages, ignoring those which modern chemistry has developed. +And yet, all over the world, craftsmen are still pottering with long +since obsolete dyestuffs and obscure and antiquated formulæ, instead +of spending their energies in getting, with the minimum expenditure +of time and trouble, results of a quality never dreamed of by the +most skilful dyers of half a century ago. + +As a matter of fact, so far from Mr. Ruskin’s estimate of the value +of ancient dyes being correct, it is actually no more than fair to +say that hardly a single dyeing process, known and used more than +fifty years ago, is of the slightest practical importance now to any +one. + + +DYES OF THE ANCIENTS + +So far as we can tell, the art of dyeing is an extremely ancient +one. It seems to have developed in every country and to have been +practised by every race of mankind, as soon as that race ceased to +rely exclusively upon the skins of fur-bearing animals for clothing +and coverings. Wherever we find people using woven goods, whether +vegetable, like cotton or linen, or animal, like wool or silk—or +wherever, as in the case of the North American Indians, they +have learned the art of dressing skins so as to make them soft, +pliable, and with a comparatively smooth surface, we find at least +the rudiments of the process of dyeing, in the staining of these +materials to add to their beauty and interest. + +_Vegetable Dyes._—The earliest dyes were probably of vegetable +origin, discovered by accidentally staining garments with juices +of fruits or plants. Thus, for instance, in the Bible we read of +“garments dyed in the blood of grapes”; and we can all call to mind +fruits in common use—blackberries, huckleberries, peaches, and the +like, whose juice could be used, if nothing better presented itself, +to dye or stain light-colored fabrics. + +In most cases, as in those just mentioned, the colors would be +fugitive, and after a short time become dull and uninteresting. But +in the process of time vegetable dyes were discovered, in one part +and another of the world, which, in the hands of those who knew how +to work with them, gave colors both fast and beautiful. And thus grew +and developed the art of the professional dyer. + +For instance, in many widely separated countries, such as India, +Java, South and Central America, plants are found, known as +_indigoferae_, whose juices, yellow when fresh, rapidly turn blue +when exposed to the air. These juices impart a rich and permanent +blue stain to objects moistened with them while they are still +yellow; and this blue is the coloring matter known as indigo. The +plants bearing it have been cultivated for hundreds, if not, indeed, +thousands of years, and used for dyeing. + +Garments and blankets found in the so-called Inca graves in Peru and +Chili, dating from long before the Spanish conquest, as well as the +oldest specimens of Hindoo workmanship, and even some of the textiles +found in the tombs of Egypt, all show examples of this same dyestuff. +It was so valuable that, in small quantities and at vast expense, it +was imported by the Romans from India, as is shown by its Latin name, +Indicum (Indian), from which its present name, indigo, is directly +derived. + +But, curiously enough, exactly the same dyestuff, but in a very +impure form, and derived from an entirely different plant, the +_isatis tinctoria_, commonly known as _woad_, has been discovered +and used in Western Europe from time immemorial. And when Julius +Cæsar, nearly two thousand years ago, led a Roman army for the first +time across the channel into England, he found the native Britons +adorning themselves by smearing their bodies with a dirty blue +dyestuff obtained from this source. + +So, little by little, the knowledge of these natural dyestuffs and +their application grew and expanded. But as a matter of fact, so +far at least as can be gathered from the old writers, those known +and used by the ancient Greeks and Romans were few in number and of +comparatively little interest. + +For blues they were obliged to use the inferior color derived, as +above mentioned, from the native woad, excepting when, for some +special purposes, a little indigo was imported from the East at +enormous expense. + +Their principal yellow dyestuff was saffron, which is derived from +the flowers of the common yellow crocus. This gives pleasant, warm +shades of golden yellow, not fast, however, to either light or +washing. This same saffron, though long since entirely abandoned as +a dyestuff, is still used in small quantities for staining candy and +foodstuffs, and occasionally for medicinal purposes. + +The ancients are believed to have discovered the dyeing properties +of the roots of madder—_rubia tinctorum_—(the dyer’s root), and to +have used it in small quantities for producing purple and brown and, +possibly, even red shades, on cotton and wool. Whether, however, +the art of dyeing the brilliant crimson and scarlet shades known as +Turkey red was ever worked out before the Middle Ages, is extremely +doubtful. + +=Animal Dyes.=—Unquestionably the best red dyes known to the people +of those early times were of animal origin, and were used for various +shades of red and of purple. + +_Kermes._—One of these, called kermes, is very closely related to the +more important and, up to a few years ago, the very generally used, +cochineal, and to the lac dye. + +These three dyestuffs—kermes, cochineal, and lac—come to the market +in the form of little dark colored grains, which, when ground up with +hot water, give a bright red solution called carmine, which contains +a considerable amount of a coloring known as carminic acid. When wool +or silk that has been previously _mordanted_—that is, impregnated +with chemical agents; in this case salts of tin, aluminium, iron, +or copper—is boiled in one of these solutions, it becomes scarlet, +crimson, purple, or claret color, according to the mordant employed. +From the appearance and form, as they come to market, of these +dyestuffs, the shades thus derived are commonly known as the “grain +colors.” + +When these granules are soaked for some time in warm water they +swell, and their true character becomes apparent. They consist of +the dried bodies of small insects, known as “cocci” (berries), which +are carefully cultivated on particular kinds of trees or shrubs and +when full grown are brushed off and dried for market. They are very +small—the cochineal grains, which are the most important, running +about 70,000 to the pound. + +Kermes, which was the only one of the three known to the old Greeks +and Romans, consists of the dried bodies of the “_coccus ilicis_,” +a variety of the insect which lives on a species of oak, and which, +it is said, is still occasionally used in Southern Europe, and in +Morocco, for dyeing leather and wool. + +_Tyrian Purple._—The most highly prized ancient dyestuff, and +one concerning which much interest has always been felt, was the +so-called “Tyrian purple.” This was obtained from the juices of +certain species of snails found in the waters of the Mediterranean +Sea, and, indeed, in the ocean waters of many other warm climates. +Two species of this class—the _murex Brandaris_ and the _murex +trunculus_—were used extensively by the ancients, and great mounds of +their shells, such for instance as the so-called Monte Testaccio at +Tarentum, are still found along the shores at places famous, in old +days, for their dyeing establishments. + +Other shellfish of the same general type, known as _purpura +lapillus_, are found quite abundantly, not only in the Mediterranean, +but also on our own coast and along the shores of Central and +South America. They have been used by the natives in Nicaragua and +elsewhere, from time immemorial, for obtaining a similar color. + +[Illustration: + + _Purpura lapillus_ _Murex trunculus_ _Murex Brandaris_ + +FIG. 1—SHELLFISH USED BY THE ANCIENTS FOR TYRIAN PURPLE] + +These shellfish were so much sought after in the old days that, by +the time of the early Middle Ages, they were almost exterminated, +and the dye disappeared from commerce entirely. But, long before +that, in the early days of the Roman Empire, the coloring matter +was so expensive that fabulous sums were paid for cloth or +yarns dyed with it, and its use was practically confined to the +imperial family. In fact one of the imperial titles in the Eastern +empire—_purpureogenitus_, “born to the purple”—was due to this fact. + +Some interesting information upon the value set on this dyestuff +by the ancients is afforded by the so-called Edict of Diocletian, +fragments of which, engraved on stone tablets, have been found in +different parts of the old Roman Empire, ranging from Egypt to Asia +Minor. By this edict, issued in A.D. 301, the emperor Diocletian +attempted to fix the market price of the principal articles of +commerce, for the Eastern empire. According to this, the price of +wool, heavily dyed with this color, was worth about $350 a pound, in +gold. + +The dyestuff, as we learn from the description of the process by +ancient writers, was obtained from a whitish or yellowish liquid +found, two or three drops at a time, in a particular vein in the body +of these animals. This juice, when exposed to air and especially to +sunshine, forms the purple or violet color, much in the some manner +that the blue color of indigo is formed from the yellow juice of the +indigo plant. + +The shellfish in question, having for many centuries been left +undisturbed, are now quite common in the waters of the Mediterranean, +and are occasionally to be found in the poorer quarters of Venice +and other Italian seaports, exposed for sale as food. + +A year or two ago a German color chemist, famous for his discovery of +the brilliant and extremely permanent reddish violet dyestuff, known +as Thio Indigo red B., made a careful investigation to see whether, +by any chance, this color of his might happen to be the same as the +famous old Tyrian purple. + +He managed to secure some twelve thousand specimens of _murex +Brandaris_, and, with an immense amount of labor, obtained from these +twelve thousand specimens about twenty-one grains of pure dyestuff. +This he carefully analyzed and experimented with, until finally he +was able to prove that, while it was not identical with his own Thio +Indigo red dyestuff—which, as the name shows, is a compound of indigo +and sulphur—the Tyrian purple was a similar compound of the same +indigo dyestuff, with the comparatively rare acid element, bromine. +In fact it is what the chemists would call a brom-indigo; and this +same famous chemist, Dr. Friedlaender, of Biebrich on the Rhine, +after discovering its composition, amused himself by manufacturing +some of it artificially; and, with the artificial reproduction +of the ancient Tyrian purple, he dyed some skeins of silk, as an +illustration to his article detailing his discovery. + +Now, if there were any truth in the theory of the superlative value +and beauty of these ancient dyestuffs, it is evident that this +rediscovery of the true and genuine Tyrian purple would have been a +matter of great practical importance. On the assumption that one +pound of dyestuff would color at least twenty pounds of wool, this +would put the price of the dye itself, in Diocletian’s day, at a +pretty high figure. + +It can now be manufactured, at a profit, for not over one +one-thousandth of what it cost in those days, not allowing, either, +for the difference in value of money between then and now. And yet +this famous dye, which was so highly esteemed and of which so much +has been written, is so inferior in color and tone to several of +the modern dyestuffs that it probably would not pay to put it on +the market. Dr. Friedlaender’s samples were, indeed, fast to both +light and washing, but their color showed dull and, to modern eyes, +distinctly uninteresting shades of violet. And there are already on +the market several violet, red and blue dyes of the same general +class—the indigo or vat dyes—which are quite as fast to light and +washing, and far superior in beauty and brilliancy of shade. + +It is only proper, however, to state that Dr. Friedlaender’s +investigation did not completely clear up the subject, though there +is no question but that he really discovered the true Tyrian purple; +and the color of the specimens dyed and exhibited by him corresponded +very closely to some still surviving from antiquity. + +Among the fine collections of textiles from the Egyptian tombs that +are in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, are some +excellent examples of Tyrian purple. These are what the Greeks used +to call “di-bapha,” or double dyed—i.e., dyed very deep, full shades +of dark purple. While a wonderful example of the lighter, violet, +shades of the same dye can be seen in a famous manuscript, known as +“The Golden Gospels,” now in Mr. J. Pierpont Morgan’s collection in +the same city, but which was given about 1520, by Pope Leo X to King +Henry VIII. This was written, in golden characters, upon vellum dyed +with Tyrian purple, and the shades of the latter correspond quite +closely with the violet of the artificial brom-indigo compound. + +On the other hand there is evidence to show that the ancients were +also able to obtain, with the same Tyrian purple dye, perhaps from +the shellfish _purpura lapillus_, fast and brilliant shades of +scarlet, as well as these rather dull tones of violet and purple. In +the days of the Roman Empire, as above mentioned, the use of “purple” +garments was denied to all but the imperial family; but later, after +the rise of the Christian Church, the ecclesiastics gained sufficient +power to obtain this privilege for themselves. And to this day the +cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church are called “porporati” on +account of the “purple” or, as we would say, scarlet, color of their +characteristic robes. So, whenever we see the red robes of a high +dignitary of the church we are probably looking at one of the tints +of the real old Tyrian purple, although the art of actually producing +it has long since been lost; and, if rediscovered, would probably +be of as little practical value as Dr. Friedlaender’s remarkable +investigation. + + +THE DYES OF OUR ANCESTORS + +Between the days of the ancient Greeks and Romans, and the discovery +of the first aniline dye in 1856, many and important additions were +made to the list of available dyestuffs, some of which have continued +in use, for special purposes, up to the present day. + +=Indian Dyes.=—The opening of trade to the Far East, due to the +discovery of the sea route round the Cape of Good Hope, brought +to Europe the free use of some of the Indian dyestuffs. Indigo, +for instance, was introduced for the first time in considerable +quantities, and, after much opposition, completely took the place of +the much inferior native dyestuff, woad. + +For yellow, the old saffron dye was superseded by the more powerful, +but still rather fugitive, turmeric, or Indian saffron. This came +from the root of the _curcuma tinctoria_, a plant freely grown to +this day in both India and China. The safflower was also imported +from India; this is a kind of thistle, _carthamus tinctorum_, +the dried heads of flowers of which were largely used for dyeing +pretty shades of pink upon cotton, _directly_—that is, without any +mordanting process. This color, too, is comparatively fugitive to +light, and has almost disappeared from sight. + +Of more importance were the so-called red woods, which came partly +from India and partly from the east and west coasts of Africa; and +of which the most important are the sandal wood, bar wood, and cam +wood. The wood of each of these trees probably contains the same +coloring matter. The color is not very easy to extract, but when +used with mordants of chromium, aluminium, or tin salts, it dyes +wool various shades of red and reddish-brown. These colors are very +fast to milling—in other words to the action of alkalies when the +wool is finished in the manufacture of broadcloth; but they are not +particularly fast to light, and for this reason, as well as because +of their greater expense, they have been for the most part abandoned. + +From India, too, were introduced the well-known brown dyes known as +cutch (catechu) and gambier. These come to the market in the form of +dark colored pastes, formed by evaporating infusions of leaves, seed +pods, nuts, and sometimes the wood of various species of acacia and +areca trees. They contain large amounts of a peculiar variety of the +substance known as tannin or tannic acid, which is widely distributed +among many plants, and which is very useful in dyeing, as will be +described later. The brown coloring matter has been isolated, and is +called catechin. Both cutch and gambier will dye cotton and wool rich +shades of brown, which are quite fast to light when after-treated +with copper or chromium salts. + +=Dyes from the New World.=—The discovery of America, and the +colonizing and opening to trade of South America and the West Indies, +in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, still further enlarged +the field for dyers. + +_Cochineal._—One of the first dyes introduced from there was +cochineal, a “grain color,” similar to kermes, already described, +consisting of the dried bodies of an insect known as _coccus cacti_, +because it lives upon certain kind of cactus which are native to +Mexico and Central America. + +This dyestuff was largely used for dyeing wool and silk goods, and +produced fairly fast shades of crimson or of scarlet, according to +the mordant employed. But it has been replaced almost entirely now by +the various acid dyes, to be described later, which are cheaper, are +much easier to apply, and are of equal and, in many cases, of much +greater, fastness to light. + +One of the few cases where cochineal is still used on a large scale +is in England, where the scarlet coats of the British regulars are +dyed with this color, on a tin mordant. It is believed, however, that +this is not due to any real or fancied superiority of the old dye +over many of the modern colors, but simply to the terms of an old +“perpetual” contract, which, a hundred and fifty years or more ago, +gave the privilege of dyeing the English “redcoats” to one particular +firm and their successors, on condition that they use this dye and +none other. Although both dyers and government would profit by the +use of modern dyes, the terms of the old contract are still rigidly +adhered to for fear of losing the monopoly. + +_Lac Dye._—The similar dyestuff called lac dye, which had been known +and used in India for hundreds of years, was introduced into Europe +towards the end of the eighteenth century. It also is the body of a +small insect, the _coccus laccae_, which lives on the twigs of the +banyan tree, and other varieties of fig trees. When these twigs are +broken off and dried to kill the insect, there is found present on +them, along with the coloring matter, a large amount of a peculiar +resinous or gummy substance, which, when extracted and purified, is +known and widely used, as “shellac.” + +Lac dye was used in practically the same way as cochineal, and +produced, upon wool, scarlet, orange, and crimson shades, which +were faster and more solid, but not as brilliant, as the cochineal. +It is now used but rarely, even in the East, having been largely +superseded, there, by brilliant but, unfortunately, in many cases, +cheap and worthless modern dyestuffs. + +_Fustic._—From America, also, came the excellent yellow dyestuff, +“fustic,” yielded by the tree commonly called yellow wood, Cuba wood, +etc. Its true botanical name, however, is _chlorophora tinctoria_, +and it was largely used for dyeing, either directly in the form of +chips, or as a solid or liquid extract made from the wood. + +It was principally used with mordants of aluminium or tin salts, +for dyeing wool bright, fast shades of yellow, or, with the aid of +bichromate of potash as a mordant, for obtaining mixed shades, in +conjunction with indigo, cutch, madder, and logwood. It has been +almost entirely replaced now by fast modern dyestuffs. + +_Logwood._—The most important of all these dyestuffs, and the only +one still used on a large scale, is logwood, a dye extracted from +the wood of quite a large tree, the _haematoxylon Campechianum_ (the +“blood-red wood from Campeachy”), which grows freely in the West +Indies and Central American states. + +It was discovered and used by the Spaniards early in the sixteenth +century, and in Queen Elizabeth’s reign was introduced into England, +much against the wishes of the older school of dyers who furiously +denounced it as producing fugitive colors, and had its use prohibited +by Act of Parliament. It was over a hundred years before the real +value of the dyestuff was appreciated, and this law was repealed. + +The operation of extracting the coloring matter from the wood +itself, of which it forms only some three per cent. by weight, is +a troublesome and delicate one. The logs are chipped or rasped +into fine pieces, then moistened and piled in heaps and the color +developed by a process of fermentation. Accordingly, extracts +of logwood have been put on the market by various large firms, +especially of late years, and, while the use of the wood itself by +dyers has for the most part been abandoned, these extracts are widely +used for dyeing blacks upon silk, in spite of there now being many +excellent acid blacks. + +The dyeing process, too, is rather complicated, for the goods must +be carefully mordanted before dyeing, with salts of iron, chromium, +or tin. For this reason wool is rarely dyed with logwood. It is, +however, still used for silk dyeing, partly because it gives very +full, deep, permanent shades of black, but principally because, by +using one mordant after another before dyeing, it is possible to +increase enormously the weight of the dyed silk, at very moderate +expense. + +_Turkey Red._—The use of madder which, as before mentioned, was +probably known to the ancients, was greatly developed during the +sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, owing to the introduction from +the near East of the so-called Turkey red process for obtaining, upon +cotton and wool, very fast and very brilliant shades of scarlet. + +The process took some three months, and consisted of an elaborate +series of mordanting operations, before the dyeing proper began. The +goods were first soaked in a bath of some fatty material, such as +milk or, later, rancid olive oil, and then dried carefully. After +this they were soaked in a bath of alum and then in limewater, or a +chalk bath—and these operations were repeated over and over, with +various manipulations in between. + +Finally, the mordanted material was dyed by boiling it in a bath +containing the finely-ground madder root, and then “brightened” by +washing out, in a boiling soap bath, all the loose color and the +unfixed mordant. This process was repeated until the proper shade was +reached. + +During the early part of the nineteenth century, various extracts +of madder were made, by treating the ground root with strong +sulphuric acid and other agents, which destroyed the woody tissues +and other inert matter, without injuring the coloring matter. The +dyeing process also was greatly simplified and shortened. Later the +real active principles of the madder root were investigated, and +found to be two crystalline bodies named alizarine and purpurine, +respectively. And finally, several years after aniline dyestuffs +had been discovered and manufactured, two German chemists, Graebe +and Liebermann, discovered a method for making these very identical +substances out of coal tar. + +Since that time the cultivation and use of madder has disappeared +almost entirely. But real Turkey red is manufactured to-day, and +in very large quantities—and, though freely imitated by inferior +products, the modern Turkey red is just as fast to light and to +washing as it ever was in the past, and possesses a brilliance and a +lustre which never could have been obtained formerly. The process, +however, is completed now in hours, not days, and instead of yielding +a few shades of red and purple, the alizarine colors have been added +to until they cover a large range of blues, purples, reds, oranges, +yellows, and browns, all of them as fast as the original Eastern +products, and all of them made from coal tar. + +The dyes already mentioned were the ones which, after hundreds of +years of experiment, proved to be of distinct value. Many of them +were expensive in themselves and, in almost every case, the process +of dyeing with them was a quite complicated one, worked out by +generations of practical dyers, and passed down from father to son as +a precious trade secret. + +Besides these there were, in almost every community, certain special +formulæ and recipes for obtaining, by comparatively simple methods, +dyes of varying degrees of value from more or less common vegetable +materials. Some of these are occasionally met with to this day. +Thus, in the province of Quebec, well down on the St. Lawrence, the +French Canadian women still dye their homespun worsteds an orange +shade of yellow, of very moderate fastness to light, by boiling them +with the skins of the yellow or brown onions. And they get a pretty, +but fugitive, shade of golden yellow by using the dried flowers of +the goldenrod. + +Some recipes from the mountain districts of North Carolina, where +the sheep are raised and sheared, and the wool carded, spun, dyed, +and woven into homespun, are unique, and wool dyed with them shows +extremely good color. Thus, for green, we are told to “Git blackjack +or black oak bark, and bile it right good, and put in a li’l piece of +alum. This makes the pur’tiest green, mighty nigh, that ever was.” +And for purple and black the instructions are to “git maple bark and +bile it. Throw in a grain of copperas and put in your wool. Bile it +just so long if you want purple, and longer if you want black. The +longer you bile it the darker it gits.” + +Recipes like these can be picked up in country districts all over the +land to this day, and where no other coloring agents can be obtained, +they may still be of some use. They are to be compared, however, to +the somewhat similar recipes of the herb or “yarb” doctor, now almost +extinct, who concocted various brews and teas and messes from roots +and leaves, and administered them as valuable remedies. + +Useful these brews undoubtedly were in their day, when it was +impossible to get better medicines at any price, and the available +drugs, even in large cities, were few and costly and but little +understood. But who of us would now prefer to treat a serious illness +with herb tea when within reach of even a third-class drug store? + +And so to-day, when modern dyestuffs, even if not of the very best +varieties, can be bought in packages at the nearest grocery or +druggist, who has time to waste upon the laborious processes and +messy, uncertain formulæ of former and unscientific ages? + + +MINERAL DYES + +Tribes and nations in different parts of the world seem, at a +comparatively early date, to have found out the art of coloring and +staining textiles with mineral compounds. Iron springs, containing +iron salts in solution, are found in many countries; and such springs +are always noteworthy from the taste of the waters, and the color of +the sediments left when the water stands exposed to the air. + +Therefore discovery of the fact that those waters would impart +a permanent and quite pleasing orange or reddish-brown color to +textiles was perfectly natural. + +=Iron Buff.=—Accordingly, in different parts of the world, people +learned to dip cloths in these springs and then expose them to the +air, thus dyeing them this iron rust color, commonly called by dyers +“iron buff.” When iron became a common metal, it was found that any +soluble salt of iron would act as a dyeing solution, just as well +as a natural iron spring; and hence we find use made, in widely +separated countries, of iron salts for dyeing. + +This iron buff is used to this day, though of course it has lost the +importance it had in the past. The red sails of the fishermen in the +Mediterranean show this color; and it is a useful and interesting +dye for weavers of hand-made rugs, curtains, and the like, because +of its pleasing tone and great permanence. On the other hand, it is +very likely to rub; and it fills the fibre of the cloth with mineral +matter, thereby making the material stiff and hard to sew or cut. + +_Preparation._—Our colonial ancestors made this color cheaply enough. +They carefully saved all the scraps of iron and steel that they could +find—old horseshoes, broken knife blades, etc., etc.—and placed them +in a barrel half filled with vinegar and water. Little by little +the iron dissolved in the acid and, when it was strong enough, the +housewife would soak her homespun cloth, or other material, in the +solution, warming and stirring it, and making it absorb as much +of the liquor as possible. Then she would take it out, wring it +thoroughly, rinse it slightly, and dip it for a minute or two in +another barrel half filled with a water extract of wood ashes. + +[Illustration: PLATE II. JAPANESE TOWELLING, SHOWING IMPRESSION OF +FRESH DAMP LEAVES] + +After removing from the solution and wringing again, the goods were +shaken out and exposed to the air for some minutes, during which time +the color would develop—in other words, would make its final change +to yellow or orange, or even to brownish-red, according to the amount +of iron absorbed by the fibre. + +The process, nowadays, is much the same, excepting that, for the +first or iron bath, it is cheaper and easier to use a solution of +the green crystalline iron salt, known as copperas, or as _ferrous_ +(iron) _sulphate_. This can be obtained at, or through, any drug +store at a very low price, as it is not necessary to buy a chemically +pure product. The ordinary commercial salt is as pure as the work +requires; this dissolves quite readily in warm water. + +The amount of copperas to be used, to dye a particular lot of +material a particular shade, can only be determined by experience and +experiment. It is always easy to build up a color, i.e., to deepen +its shade if it is too light, by dipping the fabric over again in +the same dye-bath. Indeed there is a general rule to be observed in +dyeing all colors like this iron buff or the manganese brown—as well +as the sulphur and indigo colors, which will be described later—that +are developed, or fixed, by exposure to the air. Whenever dark shades +of these colors are desired, they should be produced by successive +dippings in weak baths, rather than by one or two dippings in strong +baths. This avoids rubbing, as far as possible, and lessens the +injury to the cloth fibre. In general, it is best to start with a +dye-bath containing some three or four tablespoonfuls of copperas to +one gallon of hot water. + +For the second, or fixing, bath—that is, the alkali bath—it is now +customary to use a solution of soda instead of the extract made +from wood ashes. Either cooking soda (bicarbonate of soda) or the +stronger washing soda or soda crystals, known to the chemist as +carbonate of soda, will be satisfactory, and instead of soda the +corresponding potash salts may be used, though these are usually +more expensive. It is possible, too, to use a bath of the so-called +caustic soda, or caustic potash, known to the chemist as hydroxide of +soda and hydroxide of potash. But these, as the name implies, must +be handled with care because, when strong, they are likely to burn +the hands and clothes. Careful analyses of dyed mummy cloths show +that the ancient Egyptians were accustomed to use for their second or +fixing bath, a solution of slaked lime, or lime water. + +_Khaki._—By mixing in the first bath of copperas or other iron salt +an equal quantity of chrome alum, and then fixing and developing as +above, a certain amount of greenish chromium oxide is deposited in +the fibre along with the oxide of iron. This gives rise to the shade +known as “khaki.” Sometimes shaded a little with manganese brown, +this was the regular dye for the army uniforms, until the recent +introduction of the extremely fast and very satisfactory vat dyes. + +_Uses._—Iron buff is chiefly used for cotton, linen, and other +vegetable fabrics; on them it gives pleasant, warm shades of orange +and reddish-brown. But on wool, and especially on silk, it is not so +satisfactory, owing to its tendency to roughen and injure the fibre. +Indeed, in the case of silk, it is likely to greatly diminish, or +even to destroy, the lustre. On cotton and linen, however, it has +great fastness to light and to washing. Indeed, every one who has +tried to get rust stains out of a garment or a piece of table linen +knows how hard a matter it is to get rid of the color. + +Another important reason for using this dye is that the coloring +agents are very cheap, and are easily obtained in any quantities. +It has, however, some serious disadvantages, one of which is that +the color, especially in dark shades, is very liable to rub. This +can best be obviated by building up the shades with successive +dippings; and by thoroughly washing the finished goods in a hot soap +bath. The dyed goods are pretty certain to be a little stiff, and +therefore hard to sew or cut, owing to the fact that the final color +is composed of iron rust. When vegetable fibres are filled with a +mineral matter they are naturally stiffer and harder than they were +originally. + +Then there is the final objection on the part of professional dyers +to this color, as well as to all the other developed colors, i.e., +those colors fixed by exposure to the air. It is not easy to get a +smooth, even color with them, and it is very difficult to dye to +shade. For handicraft work, where these two points are of minor +importance as compared with the beauty of the color, this objection +is not so serious, but where it is necessary to dye large amounts of +yarn or cloth to a definite shade with this, or similar, dyes, it is, +as a rule, far easier to use a dyestuff which does not materially +change its shade after the goods leave the dye-bath. + +_Iron Grey._—Soon after the discovery, in different localities, of +the iron buff color, it was discovered that by the action of various +vegetable extracts upon the iron salts, dark grey stains could be +produced which, under certain conditions, would be fairly fast to +light and washing. + +This color was, later, found to be due to the combination with iron +of the peculiar vegetable acid called tannic acid or tannin. This +is found in small quantities in the juices of twigs and leaves of +many varieties of plants, and, until the introduction of the modern +dyestuffs, this process offered the chief method of obtaining grey +or black shades upon cotton. At present it is rarely, if ever, used +for that purpose, but the compound is still the basis of most of the +writing inks on the market. + +To make this color, the cloth is soaked for some time in a solution +of an iron salt—nitrate of iron, formed by boiling a solution of +copperas for a minute or two with a few drops of nitric acid, is +preferable to the untreated copperas—and then, after being wrung and +slightly rinsed, it is plunged into a bath containing tannic acid. +This can be made by dissolving a few tablespoonfuls of the dry tannic +acid in some water, or by making a hot infusion of the leaves, twigs, +or bark of any plant or tree containing it. Tea leaves contain much +tannin, and so do unripe English walnuts and butternuts. Acorns, +oak leaves with nut galls on them, the green twigs of alders, and +hazelnut bushes, have all been used to form this color. + +[Illustration: PLATE III. SAME TOWELLING AS IN PLATE II, AFTER +IMMERSION IN IRON SPRING. THE ROUND WHITE PATTERNS ARE MADE BY TIEING] + +The grey color quickly develops and, after rinsing, the material can +be dried and pressed, or dipped again to obtain a deeper shade, first +into the iron and then into the tannin bath. The color is a pleasant, +soft shade of grey or, if dyed deeply, a black. It is fast to +washing, and fairly so to light, though it may become rusty on +standing; like the iron buff, it is not fast to acids. + +Some interesting examples of the dyeing of cotton cloth with iron +buff and iron grey are shown in Plate I. They came from the mineral +springs at Arima, near Kobe in Japan, where the waters are so +saturated with iron salts, that comparatively short immersion, and +exposure to air, will bring out a deep orange shade. The Japanese, +not content with dyeing their goods plain colors, have for many +generations utilized these springs in the production of figures and +designs on the cloth. Plate V is an example of stencil work, where +the white patterns are made by covering parts of the cloth with a +“resist paste” which protects whatever it is in contact with from the +action of the coloring agent. + +Plate II shows a piece of soft calico on which impressions of leaves +have been made by placing fresh juicy leaves between two pieces of +cloth, and beating them with wooden mallets. + +Plate III shows the same piece of cloth as in Plate II, after +immersion in the iron spring, and exposure to air. The tannin from +the leaf juice converts some of the iron oxide into iron grey; while +the white figures are made by tying the cloth with string or tape +(Tied and Dyed work) before dyeing it. + +So far as we can tell, these two were the only mineral colors +known to the ancients. Several other mineral colors, however, +were in common use by the cotton dyers in the days preceding the +introduction of modern dyestuffs, but it is hardly worth while to +dwell here on many of them. Yellow and orange shades were obtained by +impregnating cloth with lead salts, and then developing with a bath +of chromate or bichromate of potash, with more or less caustic alkali +added for the darker shades. + +Prussian blue, too, was used as a substitute for the more expensive +indigo. This was formed by using the nitrate of iron for the first +bath, and then developing the color with a bath of yellow prussiate +(_ferrocyanide_) of potash. These colors, however, are so far +inferior in their application, and in fastness to light and to +rubbing, to the colors now at our command, that they have disappeared +entirely for textile work, though they are still widely used for +pigments. + +=Manganese Bronze (Manganese Brown, Bistre).=—There is one good +mineral color, however, which came into use early in the last +century and which, while hardly ever used by professional dyers, is +of interest to craftsmen. This color, in its chemical composition, +greatly resembles the iron buff. It is quite cheaply produced +by first impregnating the cloth to be dyed with a solution of a +manganese salt (_manganese chloride_ is the cheapest), and then, by +means of a second bath of alkali, forming a deposit on the fibre of +pink _manganese hydroxide_—corresponding to the greenish _ferrous +hydroxide_—which, on exposure to the air, absorbs oxygen and forms +the final brown color. + +Unfortunately the alkali used in this case must be caustic +alkali—_potassium hydroxide_ or _sodium hydroxide_—and not one of the +mild alkalies like the carbonates or bicarbonates, which will do for +the iron color. And, therefore, although it is rather more expensive, +and is somewhat liable to weaken the fabric, it is generally more +convenient to obtain this color by a one-bath process. A purple +solution of the salt known as _permanganate of potash_, is prepared +and the cloth dipped. After being immersed it is wrung carefully and +shaken out, and the red or purplish color gradually changes into the +final brown. As soon as this change has taken place the goods should +be plunged into a hot soap bath and thoroughly scoured, both to +remove any loosely adhering particles of color which cause rubbing, +and to prevent tendering of the cloth. + +The latter danger, however, is always present with this process and, +therefore, full shades should not be dyed excepting on heavy, strong +goods like rugs or very coarse yarns or cloth. Even then it should be +done carefully and by successive dippings, with a careful washing, +after the color has been developed in the air, between each bath. + +This injury to the cloth which, hitherto, has been the great drawback +to the permanganate process, can be avoided by dipping the goods, +as soon as possible after leaving the dye-baths, into a solution +containing glucose, as, for instance, two or three spoonfuls of +Karo (corn syrup) or molasses in each gallon of hot water. Directly +the purple-stained cloth touches this solution the color changes to +brown, without affecting the strength of the materials. + +This color, like the other mineral colors, is rarely, if ever, to be +used on silk, being altogether too likely to injure the texture and +the lustre of the material. + +In at least one instance, however, it has been used on animal +fibres with considerable success. During the critical part of the +Boer war, it was at one time necessary for England to put as many +of her troops as possible—especially her mounted troops—into the +field. Among others the Scots Greys, distinguished at Waterloo and +made famous in many other bloody campaigns as a fine old fighting +regiment, were ordered to the front. There is a tradition, dating +back over two hundred years, that the horses of this regiment must +all be either white or grey in color. Some heaven-sent genius at the +Horse Guards—the English War Department—hinted quite forcibly to +the authorities that to send out a cavalry regiment on white horses +to face the Boer sharpshooters, was rather a dangerous experiment. +The authorities, therefore, consulted a well-known dyeing chemist. +He advised them to send down, on the troopship, some kegs of +permanganate; and to instruct the officers and men to sponge each +horse with a weak solution of the salt, every day at “Stables.” This +was done, and, in consequence, long before reaching Cape Town, the +skin and hair of every horse was thoroughly colored a soft, quiet +shade of brown. + +The color produced by permanganate varies, according to the strength +of the solution, or rather with the number of dips in comparatively +weak solutions, from a light brownish tan to a full, rich, soft, seal +brown. Pleasant shades, too, can be obtained by dyeing first with +the iron rust dye and then covering with the permanganate. This color +is discharged, not only from textiles but from the hands, by soaking +in a solution of _sodium hydrosulphite_ (commonly used in dyeing +indigo) and then washing. + + +PRACTICAL DYEING + +Before proceeding to the practical dyeing instruction it is well to +say a few words about the equipment needed for the work. + +Fortunately no elaborate or expensive outfit is necessary, even +for the beginner. And after one has had a little experience, it is +astonishing what an amount of interesting, and even important work +can be turned out with a few of the very simplest utensils. The +essentials may be set down as follows: + + Dye-pots. + Heating devices. + Stirring rods, or dye-sticks. + Wringers. + Drying arrangements. + +_Dye-pots._—For this purpose, common agateware vessels are best +and most convenient. There should be varying sizes to accommodate +different amounts of material to be dyed. The so-called “miner’s +cups,” which are agateware cups holding a pint or more, are large +enough for practical work, when single skeins are being dyed. For +large pieces use the wash boilers which vary in capacity from one to +five gallons. It is always best, especially for amateurs, to dye in +one batch enough material to complete the work on hand, whether rug, +portière, or piece of tapestry. This avoids the necessity of exactly +matching the shade afterward. + +For three and a half to four pounds of cotton rags, such as are used +in making rag carpets, three and one-half gallon pots are about the +right size. This amount of material will be about enough for the +filling for one rug about 6×4 feet, woven on a hand loom. + +_Heating Devices._—Work may be done over any flat-topped stove that +burns wood or coal; gas is, of course, an advantage and so is an oil +stove, as with these the heat may be regulated very exactly and much +time saved. For actual work, a stove with space for four or five pots +is the most convenient type to use. + +There should always be one large pot set aside for heating water, +another for boiling out the raw goods, and still a third for boiling +out and brightening the finished materials with soap, when very fast +colors are used on cotton or linen; and each of these pots should be +reserved for its special purpose and _not used_ for dyeing. This will +avoid the danger of staining the goods. + +The top of a kitchen range will do for heating, but whenever +possible, it is best to have a separate stove, so placed that the top +of it will not be more than about twenty-four inches from the ground +or floor. This enables the operator to look down into the dye-pot +and so avoid strain, and the consequent excessive fatigue while +stirring the goods. + +_Stirring Rods._—While the material is being dyed, it should be kept +in constant motion. When working with small amounts of material, or +with goods such as straw, raffia, muslin, or silk in skeins, which +are delicate and easily spoiled, it is far more satisfactory in every +way to use heavy glass rods for stirring. These are rather expensive. +They are about fifteen inches in length and well rounded at the ends. +If carefully handled and thoroughly washed, they are always clean +and smooth. Care must, of course, be exercised in their use, as +sudden variations of heat and cold may cause them to crack or chip, +and lifting or stirring large quantities of heavy materials—anything +above five pounds—is liable to break them. In these cases, it is +best to use wooden dye-sticks. Broomsticks or dowel sticks, cut into +two-foot lengths, with the ends rounded carefully by whittling with +a sharp penknife, are excellent substitutes. For careful work it is +necessary to have several sets of wooden dye-sticks—two for each main +color at least—and these must be carefully washed each time after +using, or they will stain cloth that is being dyed light shades. They +are bound to get soft and rotten before very long, from the action of +the alkali in the dye-baths, but they are easily replaced. + +Good rubber gloves are extremely useful while dyeing, to protect the +hands not only from being stained and discolored by the dyes, but +also from the action of the chemicals—especially while dyeing with +indigo and other dyes wherein the caustic alkalies are employed. + +After some experience in the use of dye-sticks, however, it will be +found comparatively easy to handle the materials, in and out of the +dye-baths, with the sticks, without at any time taking hold of them +with the hand. Nothing demonstrates more clearly the skill of the +dyer than the ability to carry, immerse in the dye-bath, stir, take +out, wring, and rinse the materials without getting stains on either +clothes or fingers. On the other hand, the amount of slopping that +can be accomplished by a careless, but enthusiastic, amateur must be +lived with to be thoroughly appreciated. + +_Wringers._—Both before and after dyeing it is very important to have +at hand a good clothes wringer, preferably with metal frame. In fact, +for very careful work there should be two wringers; one to wring out +the raw materials after boiling them in soap and water, or, if clean, +in plain water, to insure that they are thoroughly and evenly wet; +and the other to wring out the excess of dye-liquor from the goods +before rinsing, or, as in some cases, before hanging up to oxidize. +The rubber rolls of these wringers should be kept clean by scouring +with soap and sapolio immediately after finishing the day’s work, and +by carefully rinsing free from dye-liquor. + +It is always well to keep on hand near the wringer a supply of clean +blotting paper, or cheap filter paper, or even soft, dry cheesecloth +or muslin. For by wrapping the materials that have just been dyed, in +any of these, and then running them backwards and forwards through +the wringer, it is possible to dry them with a minimum of time and +exposure. This is particularly important in the case of natural and +artificial silks, either in skeins or scarfs, of ostrich feathers, +and of other light and fragile materials. + +_Drying Arrangements._—Sufficient room should be provided for +hanging up the cloth to dry. An ordinary clothes-line, conveniently +fastened, is the best means of support. For special purposes, where +the material handled is very delicate or where the work is done in +a classroom, a simple clothes-horse made of thick glass tubing, one +inch or so in diameter and supported on a wooden frame, will occupy +the least possible space and give the best support. + + + + + CHAPTER II + + MODERN DYESTUFFS + + +The whole art and practice of dyeing was completely revolutionized +once and forever, by the discovery in 1856 of the artificial dyestuff +named mauveine, or, more commonly, mauve, a name, by the way, derived +from the French name of the violet-colored mallow flower. + +The discovery was made accidentally, by a young chemical student, +William Henry Perkin, while experimenting in a very crude and simple +way, with a view to forming artificial quinine from a curious oily +body known as aniline. This aniline was originally prepared by +distilling indigo in a dry retort, and it had received its name from +the native Javanese word “anil,” meaning indigo. While thus prepared +it was, of course, very expensive. But about this time methods were +invented for obtaining this same compound in practically unlimited +quantities from coal tar—that heavy, foul-smelling refuse of gas +works—which, up to that time, had been not only useless but actually +a source of annoyance and expense to the gas companies. + +Perkin conceived the idea that, by partially burning or oxidizing +it, this aniline might be changed into quinine. He made the +experiment and there resulted a black molasses-like mass, very far +removed from the white crystals he was hoping for. But by testing +this with various chemicals, he found that hot alcohol dissolved +part of it, and turned it into a violet liquid which had the power +to dye silk and wool the same bright color. Finding that the color +was fairly fast to light, and that it could be produced without too +much expense, he took out a patent and, with the aid of his father +and brother, set up near Manchester, England, the first factory for +artificial dyestuffs. + +His discoveries were at once published, and chemists all over the +world began to manufacture and experiment with the new dyestuffs. +Great factories were started all over Europe. From this beginning the +manufacture of coal-tar dyestuffs, and more recently all their allied +compounds, has become one of the most important and most profitable +of all chemical industries. + +The dyes first discovered, the so-called “Basic dyes,” were of great +brilliancy and strength; but they were not of any particular beauty +when used individually. Compared with the vegetable colors which +preceded them, and especially the same shades we are accustomed +to see in nature, these dyes were hard, coarse, crude, and very +inartistic. This could be remedied, however, by mixing two or three +of them together, such mixture tending to soften the different colors +and blend all into pleasant and delicate shades. + +A more serious difficulty was the fact that those early dyestuffs +were usually quite fugitive to light or, at any rate, far less fast +than the best of the vegetable dyes that preceded them. Besides, they +did not fade true. In other words, a piece of cloth might to-day be +a bright red, and after a few days of exposure to the sunlight, the +exposed portions might turn a yellow, a white, or even some dark +color; and, in any case, the change would entirely spoil the original +color scheme. + +By 1868, however, the artificial manufacture of alizarine, first by +two German chemists, and then by Perkin himself, served to open up +another whole class of new dyestuffs, which, when submitted to the +proper tests, proved to be exceedingly fast both to light and to +washing. In consequence, within a few years after this discovery, the +commercial use of madder was everywhere abandoned. Chemists could now +produce on cotton, linen, wool, and silk, practically the whole range +of colors, brilliant and dull, hard and soft, light and dark, not +only of a beauty, but of a fastness to light and to washing, never +before surpassed, if indeed equalled. + +[Illustration: AT THE AGE OF 14] + +[Illustration: AT THE AGE OF 22] + +[Illustration: + + AT THE TIME OF THE COAL-TAR COLOR JUBILEE—50 YEARS AFTER HIS + DISCOVERY OF MAUVEINE + +SIR W. H. PERKIN] + +Since that time, not a year has gone by without scores of new +dyestuffs being put on the market by some of the great color houses. +Of late years special efforts have been made to simplify dyeing +processes, and at the same time to insure the fastness as well as +the beauty of the colors. At the present time it is possible for the +veriest amateur, with practically no previous knowledge of chemistry +or of dyeing, and with only intelligence enough to follow some simple +directions, to get, in one bath, with very little expenditure of +time, an immense variety of shades that are exceedingly fast to light +and to washing. A very few years ago this result could not possibly +have been obtained, except by some expert dyer, and then only after +long and tedious, as well as difficult, processes. + +We are all familiar with the constant complaint that it is now +impossible to get goods dyed or printed in good, fast colors. For +instance, take the brilliant scarlet calico commonly known as Turkey +red. In the days of our grandfathers a piece of cloth dyed Turkey +red would stand rain and sun, washing and scouring, and the _fibre_ +would wear out before the _color_ would fade. But nowadays, if you +buy Turkey red cloth for the purpose of covering cushions for a +piazza-lounge, you will be fortunate if the color does not begin to +change after three or four days in the open air. + +The reason is simple. In the old days the _only_ way to get that +particular shade was by dyeing the cloth with ground-up madder root, +through a series of operations lasting the best part of two months. +Now any capable dyer would be able to dye cotton that exact shade +with any of, say, twenty different colors, most of which would not +require more than one or two hours to dye. Out of these twenty +dyestuffs, four or five, rather more expensive than the rest, would +give just as fast, just as brilliant, and just as strong color as the +good old madder color. But the rest, which are distinctly cheaper and +easier to apply, would furnish goods which would _look_ exactly the +same to the average purchaser, but which might not _last_ any time at +all. + +Naturally, the average manufacturer carefully instructs his dyer to +furnish him with the “cheap and nasty” goods, not only because it +costs less money, but also, unfortunately, because he reasons that +“it will be good for business.” The manufacturer has the greatest +sympathy with the inclination of the fastidious housewife to throw +away anything that looks faded, and to buy in its place something +new and fresh. Curtains or portières that hold their original shade +indefinitely, he has little or no patience with. A calico dress that +keeps its color so that it can be worn for a second summer, is an +abomination not to be endured. And in every case, when complaint is +made, it is always said to be the fault of the chemist who produced +and put on the market such “horrid, fugitive dyes.” + +As a matter of fact, it is simply a case of picking and choosing. +There have been discovered, so far, several thousand different +coal-tar dyestuffs of all sorts and kinds. Out of these, probably +one hundred, or less, can be considered really fast to both light +and washing. The remaining ones, most of which never were considered +valuable enough to put on the market, vary in degrees of fastness, +the poorest being simply stains which will “bleed” indefinitely with +moderate washing, and which will turn almost any color after exposure +for a few hours to sun and weather. + +In the following pages, considerable pains will be taken to emphasize +the names and properties of the very best and fastest dyestuffs in +the different classes,[1] so that the results of work done with them +can be depended upon. + +[1] In some classes there are no absolutely fast dyestuffs. + + +Perhaps the most interesting thing, in connection with the whole +subject of the artificial dyestuffs, is the enormous influence that +they have had upon the life of the whole human race. This influence +was but slightly appreciated, even by the chemists themselves, +until a few years ago. The awakening dates from the time of the +fiftieth anniversary of the discovery of mauveine, when from one end +of the world to the other, honors were showered upon Sir William +Henry Perkin, then grown old and nearing the end of his useful and +prosperous life. It was then announced, and was for the first time +generally recognized as true, that no one of the great discoveries +of the nineteenth century—the steam locomotive, the steamship, the +telephone, the telegraph, the gas light, the electric light, and the +rest—had been more important to the world at large than the discovery +of the first coal-tar dye. And probably never in the history of +the world have such enormous results been produced from a single +discovery, during the lifetime of the discoverer himself. + + +THE ARTIFICIAL DYESTUFFS + +The artificial dyestuffs form such a large body of complicated +chemical compounds, that at first glance it would seem hopeless for +any one who is not a trained chemist, to attempt to get any clear +or definite ideas about them. This, indeed, would be the case if any +attempt were made to study them chemically, i.e., with reference to +their composition, or their method of manufacture; but when it comes +to the application of them to the various textile fabrics and other +materials, for which dyes are valuable, we soon find that the problem +is not so very difficult after all. + +To be sure there are many hundreds of different dyes on the market +now, great numbers of which are known under three or four different +trade names, according to the trade-mark of each particular +manufacturer. But besides the great manufacturers, and their +accredited agents, there are numerous retail agencies all over the +country, large and small, which make a business of distributing dyes +made by the great concerns. Some of these are very energetic, and +have pushed the sale of artificial dyestuffs in ten- and fifteen-cent +packages, until in almost every village, large enough to boast of a +decent country store, these dyes can be obtained. + +It is common to hear these dyes sneered at and abused. They are +frequently referred to, especially by those of “artistic tastes,” +as harsh and crude in color, fugitive to light and washing, and, in +short, generally inferior and worthless products. This is not the +case. They are, in some cases, individual dyestuffs, and in other +cases, mixtures, generally belonging to the class of colors next to +be described, the Salt dyes; and very good, if not indeed the very +best specimens of that class. These Salt dyes, until the last few +years, were far from fast, either to light or washing; but the more +recent members of the class are much more satisfactory, and these +colors, too, are found in the fifteen-cent packages. + +Nor, too, can objection be fairly taken to the shades as being crude +and harsh. That is all a matter of taste and skill on the part of the +dyer. There is no better practice in dyeing than to take the very +hardest, clearest, most brilliant red, blue, and yellow colors that +can be found at the corner grocery and, following the directions on +the packages, proceed to dye yarn or cheesecloth with them, at first +using the individual dyes, and afterwards modifying the shade of one +dye with traces of each of the other two. The softness and richness +of the tones that can be thus obtained will satisfy the most critical. + +The real objection to these widely distributed popular dyes is a +very different one. They are not sold under their own names, and +therefore it is almost impossible to identify them. To be sure, from +the accompanying directions it is possible for a trained dyer to +recognize at once the class to which the dyestuff belongs. But it is +impossible for him, excepting after a long, tedious and often very +troublesome analysis, to tell just what member or members of that +particular class is contained in any given package. For this reason +the dyer who has to depend on them for an important piece of work is +in much the same position as a doctor would be who had to treat a +difficult case with patent medicines compounded after secret formulæ. + +In the following chapters, a discussion of each class of dyestuffs, +and an explanation of their application and general properties will +be followed by lists of three or four of the very best colors, sold +by the New York agents of six of the largest and most reliable color +manufacturers. + +Workers wishing to obtain these dyes in comparatively large +quantities, say one pound and upwards, can get them by writing +directly to the addresses in the following table: + + _Badische_— The Badische Anilin & Soda Fabrik, + 128 Duane St., + N. Y. City. + + _Cassella_— The Cassella Co., + 184 Front St., + N. Y. City. + + _Elberfeld_—The Farbenfabriken of Elberfeld Co., + 117 Hudson St., + N. Y. City. + + _Kalle_— Kalle & Co., + 530 Canal St., + N. Y. City. + + _Klipstein_—A. Klipstein & Co., + Agent for Society of Chemical Industry of Basle, + 654 Greenwich St., + N. Y. City. + + _Metz_— Farbwerke-Hoechst Co., formerly H. A. Metz & Co., + Agent for the Meister Lucius & Bruning Co., + 122 Hudson St., + N. Y. City. + +N. B. Further information concerning dyestuffs, apparatus, textiles, +chemicals, etc., connected with this work may be obtained on writing +to the author at 7 West 43rd St., New York. + + +THE NAMING OF MODERN DYESTUFFS + +It is important to remember that, in order to identify a color +by name, it is necessary to know three things: first, the trade +name; second, the shade, or distinguishing, letter; and third, the +manufacturer or agent. The trade name sometimes bears a reference +to the class, properties, or color of the dye, as “fast acid blue”; +or to its chemical composition, as “methylene blue,” or “diamine +red”; but in most cases it is simply an arbitrary name, given by the +original discoverer when the patents were issued, or assigned later +by the manufacturer or his local agents. + +The letter or letters, following the name, refer generally to the +shade, as for instance, B for blue, R for red, Y or G for yellow +(German _gelb_), and so on. Thus “methyl violet” is sold in brands +running all the way from 6 B to 6 R—that is, from full purple shades +that are very close to blue, to bright violet shades, very close to +red. Sometimes, however, the letter refers to the composition of +the dye or its class, as “fuchsine S” (German _sauer_) often called +acid fuchsine or acid magenta; or “alizarine blue, D,” when the D +indicates a “direct” cotton color. And sometimes the letter F is used +to indicate fastness to light, in which case “F F” would signify a +brand of very unusual fastness, for that particular class of colors +at any rate. + +But not infrequently the letter is merely a mark applied for purposes +of identification, whose significance cannot easily be learned by +those not in the business of color selling, even when it is not a +secret closely guarded by the particular firm supplying the dyestuff. + +For this reason, the name of the manufacturer or agent should +_always_ be added to the color name and letter, if it is important +to get a particular color in any case. The best of the older dyes +are manufactured by all of the larger firms, of substantially the +same strength and shades, although often not under the same names. +The later colors, whose patents have not expired, are of course the +individual property of the different manufacturers, and can be, +and are, marketed by them under any name they like to give them. +Accordingly it frequently happens that two different firms may sell, +under the same name, two entirely different colors; it would be +impossible to tell which dyestuff was intended unless the firm name +were attached. + +But with these three essentials correctly given—name, brand, and +maker—a color can be identified and obtained true in composition and +shade, even after the lapse of many years. + + +CLASSIFICATION OF THE COAL-TAR COLORS AVAILABLE FOR CRAFTSMEN. + + _Class Name._ + | _Materials on which to be used._ + | | _How applied._ + | | | _How developed._ + | | | | _How finished._ + | | | | + I. Direct Cotton or Salt Colors: + | Cotton, linen, and artificial silk. Rarely wool and silk. + | | In boiling water, with addition of salt. + | | | | By rinsing in water. + | | | | + II. Sulphur Colors: + | Cotton and linen. Rarely silk. + | | In hot or lukewarm water, with addition of soda, sodium + | | sulphide, salt, and Turkey red oil. + | | | By exposure to air after wringing. + | | | | By washing in a hot soap bath, and rinsing. + | | | | + III. Indigo or Vat Colors: + | Cotton and linen. Rarely silk. Also as stencil pastes on cotton + | and linen. + | | In hot or warm water, with addition of caustic soda and + | | sodium hydrosulphite. + | | | By exposure to air after wringing. Some colors must be + | | | developed by boiling in a soap bath. + | | | | By washing in a hot soap bath, and rinsing. + | | | | Stencilled work, by steaming and washing in hot + | | | | soap bath. + | | | | + IV. Basic Colors: + | Raffia, straw, rattan, and basketry in general. Artificial silk. + | Leather. Rarely wool and silk. Also as stencil pastes on cotton, + | linen, and silk. + | | In hot or warm water, with addition of a little acetic acid + | | (vinegar). + | | | | Raffia, etc., finished by rinsing in water. + | | | | Leather by rubbing with wax when dry. Stencilled + | | | | work, by steaming and passing through a weak bath + | | | | of Tartar Emetic. + | | | | + V. Acid Colors: + | Wool, silk, and feathers. Sometimes leather. Rarely rattan and + | basketry. + | | In hot or cold water with addition (for wool) of sulphuric + | | acid and Glauber’s salt. For silk add soap and acid. For + | | leather add a little acetic acid. For feathers add oxalic + | | acid or formic acid. + | | | | Wool needs very careful rinsing in water, to + | | | | remove every trace of acid. Silk finished by + | | | | a cold soap bath, followed by a weak bath of + | | | | acetic acid. Leather finished with wax. Feathers + | | | | finished with starch. + | | | | + + + + + CHAPTER III + + DIRECT COTTON OR SALT COLORS + + +Among the many changes made in the art of dyeing since the +introduction of the coal-tar dyestuffs, perhaps the most important +has been the gradual overcoming of the necessity for mordanting the +textiles before coloring them in the dye-bath. Almost all of the old +vegetable dyes were mordant dyes; that is, the color could not be +fastened to the fibre, whether wool, cotton, linen, or even silk, +unless the latter had been impregnated with some chemical which would +act as a _mordant_ to—(i.e., would combine with and hold) the color. +These mordants were, in general, the salts of some metal, aluminium, +tin, chromium, and iron salts being the ones in common use; and the +processes involved in properly mordanting the goods were in many +cases—notably in the case of madder and the Turkey red process—far +more difficult and tedious and expensive than the actual dyeing. + +The first dyestuffs discovered, the true aniline dyes, which were +manufactured directly from aniline and from substances strongly +resembling aniline in chemical composition, were at once found to +act in a different manner on textile fibres. Animal fibres like wool +and silk, fur and leather, were dyed by them directly, without the +use of any mordant at all. If the dyestuff were dissolved in water +(the addition of a little acid makes the color dissolve more readily, +but is without other effect) and a wet skein of wool or silk were +immersed in it, and a little heat applied, the color would leave the +liquid, and fasten itself firmly on to the goods. + +But with cotton and linen and other vegetable fibres, these dyes +would not work so well. When these materials are warmed in such a +dye-bath, the color does not adhere to the fibres, but washes off +directly in a hot soap bath, if not, indeed, under a stream of clear +hot water. This was noticed by Perkin very soon after his famous +discovery, and, wishing to use his new color for dyeing cotton and +linen as well as silk and wool, he set to work to discover how to +prepare these materials; in short, how to mordant them so that they +too would take firm hold of the color. As will be described later +in the chapter on Basic colors, his experiments soon led to the +introduction and the use of tannic acid and tartar emetic combined, +in a process widely used to this day. + +The next class of dyestuffs discovered were the so-called acid +colors, thus named because they all exhibited distinctly acid +properties—that is, they would form salts with the substances known +as bases (of which last, by the way, aniline is an important member). +These colors, like the earlier ones, would dye the animal fibres +directly, but would not color the vegetable fibres, unless the +latter were carefully mordanted with alumina, or iron oxide, or some +similar metallic base. And even this treatment does not give colors +that are fast to washing, so these acid colors are never used on +cotton or linen. + +After this came the discovery of alizarine, and an important series +of very fast and very valuable dyes, all of which were characteristic +mordant colors. Even wool and silk, as well as every other textile, +must be carefully mordanted with aluminium, chromium, or iron +salts, in order to have any coloring effect produced by these +dyestuffs. This is the chief reason why, in spite of their beauty +and great permanence, the alizarine and other mordant colors are +being less used every year. At the end of some twelve or thirteen +years after the discovery of the aniline colors, therefore, it was +still impossible to dye cotton with them without a more or less +elaborate mordanting process. And yet the problem did not seem to be +an impossible one. One of the natural dyes, the safflower, already +mentioned, has the property of dyeing cotton pretty, and not very +fugitive, shades of pink and rose colors, directly, without the +necessity for any mordant; and if a natural dyestuff could do that +why could not some artificial ones? + +Some thirty years ago, a chemist (one story says that it was a +laboratory boy) while experimenting with a dyestuff which was then +a recent discovery—Congo red, a very brilliant but fugitive and +unstable scarlet color—noticed that while filtering a hot solution +of it through filter paper, the paper was stained deeply, and, which +was more important, the color was not easily washed out with hot +water. This excited his curiosity, and after following the matter +up a little, he found that not only this Congo red, but a whole +series of dyestuffs formed in the same general way, had the power of +dyeing cotton directly. This discovery has practically revolutionized +the whole art of cotton dyeing. From these few bright and pretty, +but distinctly untrustworthy dyes, which were at once named and +advertised as “direct cotton colors,” have sprung great numbers of +dyestuffs—several hundreds at least—of every conceivable shade, and +of late years of every conceivable degree of fastness to light. +All resemble the original Congo red in that they will dye cotton +and linen, if not absolutely fast, at any rate very fairly fast to +washing, in one bath, without the need of any mordants. + +This, of course, means that the cost of dyeing cloth with these +dyes is very much less than with the other classes mentioned. And, +by the way, it also explains why, under the name of Turkey red, +so many extremely bad colors have been sold. To dye Turkey red on +cotton, using alizarine, and with the most improved and simplified +methods, necessitates at least six or seven different steps, each +of which requires not only time and expense, but great skill and +care; and any one of them, if carelessly performed, may spoil the +goods. On the other hand, a mere beginner, by using one of the +early, bright, direct colors (quite cheap in itself, because the +patents have expired) can, by boiling the goods for half an hour in a +dye-bath with a little soap and salt in it, produce a piece of cloth +dyed almost the exact shade of the old Turkey red, for probably +one-third, or one-quarter of the price. It will look the same on the +shop counter; will probably sell just as well to the average, or even +to the painstaking customer; but when exposed to air and light for a +few weeks, perhaps even for a few days, will lose its brilliancy, and +turn some queer, dull shade, probably of purple. + +Indeed this particular substitution has been going on for some +years on a large scale; and at one time promised to be of some +international importance. The Turkey red dyers in Manchester, a few +years ago, complained bitterly to the English Government that their +market in India was falling off very seriously; and they demanded an +investigation, to know what was the matter. + +After careful inquiry by the local officials, word came back that +there was no difference in the taste of the people for bright scarlet +clothes and headgear. Just as much red was worn as ever before. But +active agents of the large German color houses had been going through +the country, introducing some of these cheap direct cotton scarlets +and showing the natives how to use them. And in consequence, up and +down India in all the little towns, even in the villages, local dyers +were at work who, for a few cents, would dye up an old piece of +calico bright red. When it became faded again in a few weeks, they +would dye it over again for a very small sum, thus renewing the same +piece whenever it was desirable to appear in bright, new clothes. + +_Names._—These dyes have long been made by all of the great firms, +although two or three have made more of a specialty of them than the +rest. It was soon found that the presence of common (table) salt in +the dyestuffs was valuable, as lessening the waste of dyestuff in the +dye-liquor, and also increasing the fastness to washing of the dyed +goods. For this reason the common name given to this class is that of +“Salt Colors.” Owing, however, to the fact that Congo red, the first +discovered of the whole class, was derived from the chemical known as +benzidine, these salt colors are sometimes referred to, in general, +as the “Congo,” or as the “benzidine” dyes. Besides this they are +frequently known as “cotton colors,” or “direct cotton colors.” The +different manufacturers, however, have assigned certain class names +to their own dyestuffs, as follows: + + Benzo (_Elberfeld_); Diamine (_Cassella_); Dianil (_Metz_); + Mikado (_Elberfeld_); Naphthamine (_Kalle_); + Oxamine (_Badische_); Phenamine (_Badische_). + +_Uses._—These colors are chiefly used for dyeing cotton, linen, +and paper. They take particularly well on mercerized cotton, and +on some varieties of artificial silk. They can also be used to dye +wool and silk, and, indeed, in many cases give colors faster, both +to light and to washing, on these fibres than on cotton. As a rule +they will not dye animal fibres excepting at a high temperature—near +the boiling point—and in an acid bath. Whereas cotton and linen are +preferably dyed in an alkaline or at least a neutral bath, and, while +they must be boiled in the dye-bath for at all permanent results, +will take the color as a stain at quite low temperatures. + +For this reason these dyes are often used for dyeing even shades in +one bath, upon mixed goods—that is, wool and cotton, cotton and silk, +etc. The goods are first dyed in a lukewarm bath till the cotton is +nearly the proper shade, and then, on heating, the wool or silk will +take up the color and, before long, catch up with the cotton. It +must, however, be remembered that on cotton and linen these dyes are +not, as a rule, at all fast to washing, unless they have been well +boiled with the goods. When dyed on silk at a boil, they are fast to +hot soap and water, a fact which, sometimes, is of much importance. + + +DYEING DIRECTIONS + +=Dye-bath.=—The color must first be dissolved in water, care being +taken not to leave any undissolved lumps or specks of color floating +around in, or settled at the bottom of, the dye-bath. For this +reason it is generally best, in all dyeing operations, first of all +to make a decidedly strong solution of the color, by dissolving a +considerable quantity of it (depending of course on the amount of +goods to be dyed) in hot water, in a pitcher or saucepan. In the +dyehouse this would be called a “stock solution,” and would always be +made of a definite strength,—say five parts of color to one hundred +of water—and kept well covered up. Sometimes in hot weather it would +be treated with a little preservative like benzoate of soda, so that +it could be used at any time it was needed. When this color solution +is added to the dye-bath, it should always be carefully strained +through a piece of cheesecloth or any other fine medium that will +catch the specks and undissolved lumps. Otherwise spots are liable +to appear, on the finished goods, which it is almost impossible to +eradicate without stripping off every trace of color from the dyed +material. + +_Water._—The dye-bath is prepared with plain water. The amount +necessary for each lot of goods can only be told by experience. For +some classes of dyes, like the Acid colors and the Basic colors, +to be described later, the quantity of water makes but little +difference. But for dark shades with these Salt colors it is best not +to have more than enough water to thoroughly soak, and comfortably +cover, the wetted goods, with enough room to stir and turn them +easily. The dye-bath is now set on the stove to warm up and, when +dyeing light or medium shades, some soap is usually dissolved in it. +This is not absolutely necessary but helps to make the color go on +more evenly, and penetrate the fibres better. + +_Soap._—For dyeing purposes in general, any pure, carefully made +soap acts satisfactorily. For silk dyeing, and especially for silk +finishing, it is said that greater lustre can be gained with olive +oil (Castile) soap. But when this cannot be obtained, Ivory soap or +Pears’ soap or, in fact, any good brand of bath or toilet soap will +do almost as well. For the washing and finishing of wool and silk the +use of strong laundry soaps should be avoided if possible, because +they usually contain alkali, in the form of borax or of carbonate +of soda, which is liable to “tender the goods.” For cotton and linen +dyeing and finishing, this does not make any difference. The easiest +way to add the soap to the dye-bath is to use it in one of the wire +soap-shakers, which has a convenient handle, and holds half a cake or +even a whole cake of soap at one time. + +=Even Dyeing.=—The goods should be well washed, rinsed, and wrung +out, so as to be sure that they are free from dirt and grease, and +have been thoroughly and evenly wet. They are then placed in the +dye-bath, completely under the liquid, and stirred round and round +and turned over and over with the dye-sticks. The chief objects in +stirring are, first, to prevent part of the goods from resting on +the bottom and then getting more heat than the rest of the material, +in which case, naturally, it will become darker when finished; and +second, to prevent the outside portion of the goods from getting more +color than the inner portions. Accordingly the goods, when placed in +the dye-bath, must be well opened up and, excepting when deliberately +making patterns by the method described later under the name of +“Tied and Dyed Work,” they should not be tied or entangled in knots +or bunches. Every part must be equally exposed, by the turning and +lifting and stirring, to the action of the color solution. + +If only light shades are desired, the goods are heated and turned +until the proper shade has been reached—remembering always that, +unless the color has been boiled on, it is likely to be only a stain +which will wash off easily. + +_Salt._—For full and indeed for medium shades, it is customary to +add to the dye-bath some agent—usually table salt or, when the shade +is not very dark, phosphate of soda—which will make the color less +soluble in the dye-liquor and will tend to throw it on the fibre. +For, after all, there is comparatively little affinity between the +cotton fibre and the dyestuff (far less than between silk or wool +and the Acid or Basic colors), and when a skein is warmed or even +boiled in the dye-bath a large proportion of the color remains in the +liquid. The bath is not “exhausted” as the dyers say. Hence, if we +try to dye full shades with these colors dissolved in water only, or +in soap and water, it can only be done by using large quantities of +the dyestuff, most of which will be wasted in the spent dye-liquor. + +For dark shades, then, where there is little danger of uneven dyeing, +the goods are usually dyed for a short time with the color dissolved +in hot water. And then, to deepen the shade, the goods are lifted, +and common salt added in considerable quantities, three or four +tablespoonfuls to the gallon, and stirred round till it is dissolved. +Then the goods are put back and well boiled for half an hour or so, +before the dyeing is considered complete. The presence of salt, by +increasing the temperature of the boiling bath, also helps to make +the dyed goods fast to washing. + +Soap cannot be used in the presence of so much salt for fear of its +depositing on the fibre in spots and so causing trouble. For medium +shades, however, where it is well to use soap in the dye-bath so +as to have the color go on the fibre evenly, a little phosphate of +soda is often employed instead of salt, one or two tablespoonfuls to +the gallon, to diminish the waste of color, without making the soap +insoluble. + +For the darker shades it is particularly important to thoroughly boil +the goods for half an hour or more, before taking them out of the +dye-bath. Otherwise the dyestuff will not penetrate the fibre, but +will simply stain the surface, and will not only be easily washed +off, with very mild soaping, but, when dry, will be apt to crack and +rub. + +_Finishing._—After the materials have been dyed as just described, +they should be taken out of the dye-bath, rinsed with water to wash +off the excess of dye-liquor, and then shaken out and dried. + +When used in this way the best dyes of this class, such as those +listed a little further on, will give, on cotton and linen, shades +that are very fast to light, and fairly fast to washing. On wool and +silk the shades are fast to both light and washing. For purposes of +comparison it may be stated here what is generally meant by these +terms. + +_Fastness to Light._—The test for light-fastness is usually made by +partially covering a dyed skein with a piece of wood, or heavy piece +of blotting paper, and exposing it to direct sunlight, back of a +window with southern exposure. At intervals the skein is taken out +and the color studied, and it is then easy to see whether any change +has taken place in the portion of the goods exposed to the light. +If the goods have faded appreciably in the space of one week, the +dyestuff is considered _not fast_. + +If the color changes after two weeks’ exposure, but not after one +week, it is to be considered _fairly fast_. + +If it stands for two weeks but fades in four weeks it is to be called +_fast_. + +And if it resists, without appreciable change, the action of the +summer sunlight for full four weeks, it is called _very fast_. + +It should be remembered, in this connection, that the comparative +fastness to light depends largely (a) upon the materials to be dyed, +and (b) upon the depth and shade of color used in the test. For +instance, if a skein of heavy cotton yarn, and one of very fine, +brilliant, artificial silk are dyed the same color, and exposed to +light under the same conditions, the cotton skein will hold its +color longer than the silk. The latter, being semi-transparent, +allows the sunlight to pierce it through and through, while the more +opaque cotton gives some distinct protection to the color that has +penetrated beneath the surface. So, too, a dark shade of any given +color will stand the light much better than a very light or delicate +shade, for the same general reason. The color beneath the surface is +protected from the direct action of the sun’s rays by the surface +color. + +_Fastness to Washing._—The test for washing-fastness is made somewhat +differently. A skein dyed a full shade with the color is twisted up +with two white skeins, one of wool and the other of cotton, and +the three are thoroughly scoured for ten minutes in a strong bath +of good quality laundry soap, heated to 140°F. This temperature is +uncomfortably hot for the hands and yet is well below the boiling +point. A _fast_ color is one where, with this treatment, neither the +soap liquor nor either one of the skeins becomes colored. + +If the soap liquor is colored but neither one of the skeins, the dye +is called _fairly fast_. + +If the soap bath is tinged, and one or the other of the skeins +becomes colored at the same time, the dye is considered _not fast_. + +It must, however, be borne in mind that before making this +washing-test, all excess of dye-liquor must first be removed by +thorough rinsing. And it should be remembered that even the fastest +of the Salt colors, as well as of the Acid and Basic colors described +later, when applied directly to the fibre, without mordanting or +after-treating, are never as fast to washing as those where the +dyestuff is fixed or developed in an insoluble form in the fibre, +by the action of the air, as are the Sulphur and Vat colors—or +by the action of mordants, as with the Alizarine colors—or by +after-treatment with certain special chemicals, as with the Salt +colors in the process described below. All dyes can, sooner or later, +be dissociated from the fibres to which they are attached. But if +they are in an insoluble condition they drop off in the form of a +powder, and are washed clean off, and leave sharp, clear outlines +on the dyed goods. If, however, they have gone on in solution +they will go off in solution, and are liable to _bleed_, and stain +light-colored fibres near them. + +The earlier dyestuffs of this class were deservedly criticised as +being, even when carefully applied, much given to bleeding, and also +distinctly fugitive to the action of sunlight. + +Of late years the quality of these dyestuffs has greatly improved, +and the best of them, like those mentioned below, when carefully dyed +on cotton, are fast, if not very fast to light, although for washing +the very best can hardly be classed even as fairly fast, without +after-treatment. + +_List of Selected Dyestuffs._— + + Badische— Oxamine Fast Red, F + Cotton, Yellow, G I + Stilbene Yellow, G K + Oxamine Blue, B + Cotton Black, E, extra + + Cassella— Diamine Fast Red, F + Diamine Fast Yellow, G G + Diamine Fast Blue, F F G + Diamine Fast Black, F + + Elberfeld— Benzo Fast Red, 8 B L + Benzo Fast Yellow, 4 B + Brilliant Fast Black, 4 B + Pluto Black, F, extra + + Kalle— Naphthamine Fast Red, H + Naphthamine Fast Yellow, 2 G L + Naphthamine Fast Blue, 4 B L + Naphthamine Fast Violet, R L + Naphthamine Direct Black + + Metz— Dianil Fast Scarlet, 4 B S + Dianil Orange, G + Dianil Yellow, O O + Dianil Fast Blue, 3 B + Dianil Fast Black, conc. + +As above mentioned, even the very best dyes belonging to this class +of Salt colors, give on cotton and linen results only “fairly fast” +to washing. As the modern laundress is not averse to using stronger +agents than good laundry soap in her washtub, and not infrequently +indulges in considerable amounts of washing soda (sodium carbonate) +and even of bleaching powder, to clean quickly a dirty piece of +goods, dyes that are “fairly fast” according to the regular standard, +will, in practice, need some care spent on them if they are to hold +their color for long periods. Against light the best ones are almost +as fast as any dyes known, but none of them are a match for the +Sulphur colors, or especially the Vat colors, when exposed to severe +washing. + +_After-treatment._—The professional dyer, who is occasionally +called upon to produce fast colors with these dyes, and even with +the inferior members of this class, has found various methods of +after-treatment, by which the colors are rendered more permanent. + +A favorite process, where the dyer is enough of a chemist to carry +it out, consists of making an entirely new dyestuff in the fibre, +generally of an entirely different shade, and with much greater power +of resistance to washing and to light, by treating the dyed goods +first with a mixture of sodium nitrite and of sulphuric acid, and, +after this, passing them through a solution of some organic chemical +such as carbolic acid, alpha- or beta-naphthol, or others known as +developers. + +This process, known as “diazotizing and developing,” is considerably +used in the trade, especially for various shades of black, but is too +complicated and delicate for craftsmen in general. + +A simpler process is to warm the dyed goods for five or ten minutes +in a weak solution of the orange-colored salt, bichromate of potash, +acidified with a little acetic acid—or of the not uncommon chemical, +sulphate of copper, long known to chemists as blue vitriol. + +When the best dyes are used, like those in the preceding list, it +is not often necessary to use either of these reagents. But when, +as sometimes happens, one is obliged to use dyes of this general +class, bought at the country store without a chance of knowing how +fast they are, it is well to know about it. For a piece of goods the +size of an ordinary linen skirt, the after-treating bath would be +made as follows: In two and a half gallons of hot water, dissolve two +tablespoonfuls of sulphate of copper, one tablespoonful of bichromate +of potash, and two teaspoonfuls of ordinary acetic acid (equivalent, +say, to three or four teaspoonfuls of strong vinegar). The goods, +after dyeing and rinsing, but before drying, should be soaked in this +bath and heated for ten minutes until not far from the boiling point. +They should then be taken out, rinsed carefully, and dried. This +after-treatment does not benefit every single color of this class, +but it helps greatly the fastness to light and to washing of almost +all of them. The chief objection to it, besides the time and expense, +is that the shade of the finished goods is often considerably +changed by the process. + +_Properties and Uses of the Salt Colors._—Generally speaking, the +shades produced by the individual members of this group cover all +the colors of the rainbow and include several good greys. It is +hard, however, to get a full deep black on cotton or linen with +these dyes, without using the “diazotizing and developing” process +of after-treatment. The dyes go on the fibre in a soluble form, and +unless a developing process like this is used they combine directly +with the fibre, and do not form a coating or layer upon it, as do +some of the “developed” dyestuffs. Accordingly, no matter how fully +or how deeply we dye a piece of yarn or cloth with a black dye of +this class, the finished goods will show _grey_, a very dark grey, +to be sure, but still grey, and not a flat, heavy, true black. The +color of most of the salt blacks is greatly improved, however—as well +as their fastness to light and washing—by soaking the dyed goods, +after rinsing, in a solution containing four or five spoonfuls of +formaldehyde to the gallon. + +This same property, however, of combining directly with the fibre, +makes the colors brighter and more brilliant than many of the other +classes, especially in the lighter shades. Accordingly for bright, +pretty shades of pinks, blues, yellows, and of mixed shades, fast to +light, but not very fast to washing, very easily and simply applied, +these colors are extremely valuable. For instance, in dyeing large +quantities of bright colors on calico or cheesecloth, for some +special occasion, as a pageant or spectacle, these are the colors to +use. + +Another great advantage they possess is that they dye true; that is, +they do not alter their color when exposed to the air, and the color +of the finished goods can be fairly estimated from the color of the +dye-bath. + +Accordingly, the student is strongly urged to practise the art +of dyeing with these colors. They are cheap and can be readily +obtained, although not always of the very best quality, under the +name of Diamond Dyes for cotton, ezy dyes, etc., from druggists and +grocerymen all over the country. + +They can be easily applied to cheesecloth, muslin, and other +inexpensive materials, and if care is taken to soak and boil the +goods thoroughly, to linens and heavy cottons. In case of necessity +they can be used on wool and silk, but, as a rule, their use is +limited to vegetable fibres. They are particularly valuable to +amateur dyers and to beginners in the art, because they have great +“levelling” power; that is, it is easy to dye evenly with them. + +On the other hand, it is a nuisance, oftentimes, to have to boil the +goods, and even then the colors are not really fast to washing. At +any rate, before proceeding to the study of the more permanent but +more complicated Sulphur and Vat colors, the art of dyeing even and +rainbow shades and at least the beginnings of the art of combining +and matching shades should be carefully and conscientiously worked +out with these often despised, but really very useful and valuable, +Salt colors. + + + + + CHAPTER IV + + THEORY AND PRACTICE OF COLOR DYEING + + +Directly the student has mastered the instruction contained in the +three previous chapters, and can use the dyeing apparatus and the +unmixed dyestuffs so as to get reasonably fast colors on cotton and +linen goods, it is time to attack the more difficult subject of +dyeing to shade. This art is not an easy one, by any means, and only +a few fundamental principles can be learned from a book. To make any +real progress in it, constant and continuous practice is necessary; +even then, unless the student is naturally gifted with an eye capable +of readily detecting any changes of color, and has trained it to +distinguish and identify the causes of such changes, little success +in the matching of colors can be hoped for. + +This does not mean, however, that unless a dyer can match shades +perfectly, he cannot turn out very interesting and, indeed, beautiful +results. But it does mean that he will find it difficult, if not +impossible, to reproduce such results, and will be frequently +handicapped in trying to utilize his dyeing skill and knowledge +commercially. + +The beginner thinks—not unnaturally perhaps—that in order to get +any considerable variety of shades it is necessary to have on hand a +large and varied assortment of dyestuffs; and it is consequently a +surprise to find that skilled workers keep in stock chiefly a good +supply of blue, yellow, and red only. Black is convenient and useful, +but not essential, excepting for special purposes. By mixing these +three “primary” colors it is possible to get every conceivable shade +needed. And another point, which will be emphasized below and which +is also likely to be a surprise, is that practically every pretty and +agreeable shade, no matter how delicate, is composed of all three of +these primary colors. Blue and yellow produce green, blue and red +produce violet, and yellow and red produce orange, while the addition +of the third or “complementary” color to any of these combinations of +two makes _grey_, when all three colors are perfectly balanced, and +when one color or another predominates, it is greyed and softened by +the presence of small quantities of the other two. + + +Experiments with Single Colors + +The way to study color dyeing is, first of all, to get a clear idea +of the effect of different strengths of each of these three primary +colors in producing both light and dark shades of a single color. +This can be easily accomplished with the red, blue, and yellow of +the Salt dyes described in the last chapter. Dissolve each color +separately and keep them in separate dye-pots so that you can readily +dye pieces of cheesecloth or other cheap, easy-dyeing materials +any light, medium, or dark shade, to serve as a basis for future +comparisons. + +[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF PRIMARY COLORS + + Two color shades—Red + Blue = Violet + Red + Yellow = Orange + Yellow + Blue = Green + + Complementary colors—Red + Blue + Yellow = Grey + Red + Green = } + Blue + Orange = } Grey + Yellow + Violet = }] + +_Even Dyeing._—First wet the cloth or yarn thoroughly by soaking +in hot water, then rinse well and wring it dry—if necessary, using +a wringer. The dyestuff should already be carefully dissolved in a +little boiling water. Pour some of this solution (not too much, for +the shades should all be pretty light) into the dye-pot half full of +lukewarm water. Then quickly and wholly immerse the wet material, +stirring and working about with the dye-sticks, and let the whole +heat steadily until it boils. After a few minutes’ boiling take out +the material and rinse in cold water until it stops bleeding. When +this is carefully done, good, even, and smooth shades will result. + +_Shaded Effects._—Of more real interest, although an abomination +to most professional dyers, are the shaded effects. Instead of +trying to get even, smooth colors, the cloth is intentionally dyed +unevenly to get effects of light and shade in the color, otherwise +impossible. This does not mean that a skein or piece of cloth badly +dyed or discolored by some accident or carelessness should be +proudly exhibited as a piece of really artistic dyeing, as is done +occasionally, by some workers, with painful results. It is only when +the work is done carefully and thoughtfully that shaded or so-called +“rainbow” effects may be obtained upon skeins, basket materials, and +cloth, which are distinctly interesting and beautiful, though very +different from the regular work of the professional dyers. + +Many methods of obtaining unique results in this work will occur to +the student, after some practical experience. Perhaps the best way +to begin is to take a piece of cheesecloth, cut in the form of a +scarf—say two yards or so in length—and hemmed on both ends, if it +is to be kept for exhibition or future use. Before it is wet, tie +it in a rather tight knot in the middle, or, if the scarf is long +enough, two knots about six or eight inches from each end. For this +first piece tie a very simple knot by merely folding the scarf over +on itself and pulling the goods tight. Then wet the cloth thoroughly +and dye quickly in the boiling dye-liquor; rinse off, and untie +the knots. The open part of the cloth will be found dyed the full +strength, and where there were knots there will be shaded places +varying from the full color down to white. + +Another method is to take the wetted scarf in the middle and +gradually lower the ends into the hot dye-liquor, stopping just +before the middle reaches the dye. If carefully done this will give +regularly shaded effects running from white or very light at the +centre, to heavy, full shades at the ends. Of course, if preferred, +the ends can be kept out of the dye-liquor and the middle portions +immersed. This will give a scarf that is dark in the centre and light +at each end—which is not so good a color arrangement, ordinarily, as +the light centre and dark ends. + +The same can be done with a square piece of cloth, well wetted: this +will shade in an interesting manner, if held in the middle and dipped +slowly and gradually. Further developments of this work, known as +“Tied and Dyed Work,” are described in a following chapter. + + +Experiments with the Secondary Colors + +After the above methods have been fairly mastered, the student +should make some experiments in which two of the primary colors are +mixed together, or better, superimposed one on the other to show the +“secondary” shades produced by these combinations. This can be done +by mixing the colors two by two, until three baths of green, violet, +and orange respectively are formed as before. Then try dyeing first +for even colors and later for the shaded effects. + +The most interesting experiments in this line are made by the +so-called “double shading” method. Here the same baths of straight +primary colors—red and blue and yellow—should be used as in the +earlier experiments; but the goods are first dyed in one bath, and +then after-dyed or “topped” in a second color. + +A scarf of cheesecloth is good for a first attempt. This, well wet, +is held at one end and very slowly lowered into the hot bath, until +all but about six inches of the entire length is immersed in the dye. +This much is left free from color. Try a blue dye color for this +series of shades, fading evenly and smoothly from the deepest full +blue at one end to a pure white at the other. + +After rinsing with water till the bleeding is over, reverse the +scarf, holding it by the opposite end, and lower it slowly and +gradually into a bath of, let us say, yellow, keeping about six +inches out of the dye as before. This will produce a scarf shaded +from clear blue at one end to clear yellow at the other end and +showing the whole range of green shades produced by mixing these two +colors, along its length. + +Similar tests made with red and blue, and then with red and yellow, +will emphasize to the student’s mind the fact that green is formed +from blue and yellow; violet from red and blue; and orange from red +and yellow; and that each combination gives an infinite variety of +intermediate shades, according to the comparative strength of the +individual dyes. + + +Matching Colors + +The next step is to dye some pieces evenly with green, violet, and +orange, made by two of the primary colors, and then to try matching +these with fresh, newly-mixed baths of the same dyes. It will be +found here that success depends upon going slowly; and upon beginning +with light shades and building the color up to the desired strength +carefully, by means of successive dippings. Note that the color of +cloth when wet is much darker than when dry. Some dyers hold the +wet cloth to the bright sky and look through it, to get an idea of +what the finished color will be like; but positively certain and +satisfactory results are arrived at only by wetting the sample to be +matched or drying the piece that is being dyed, so that both sample +and piece are equally wet or dry, while their color is being compared. + +The real difficulty of color dyeing is not met with until the student +tries to obtain shades embodying all three of the primary colors. +A very few experiments will quickly show that with most modern +dyestuffs it is hard to get soft, pleasant tones with the use of +only two colors. Natural colors, as we find them in the sky, water, +meadow, and woodlands, are never pure; they are invariably mixed. +And our eyes are so accustomed to them that shades dyed with simple +or pure colors look hard, cold, and inharmonious. Mixtures of two +colors are better and softer than single colors, but still rather +hard. But when the secondary shade resulting from the combination of +two primary colors is mixed with even a small quantity of the third +primary color, the result is invariably a soft and pleasing tone. + +The above statements presuppose that it is possible, in practice, to +obtain good dyestuffs in each class, which are absolutely pure, clean +shades of blue, yellow, and red without any admixture whatever. As a +matter of fact, while the artificial dyestuffs are much more pure, +and hence much more hard and brilliant than the best natural colors, +they still in many, if not indeed, in most cases, when carefully +studied, show shades that are mixed and not pure. It is very rare to +find a blue that does not incline a little to the yellow (a Blue G as +it would probably be labelled) or else contain a trace of violet or +red (Blue R, or RR). The reds are almost invariably either scarlets, +containing a trace of yellow, or crimsons containing blue. And the +yellows, also, are very apt to tend towards orange or occasionally +show a trace of green. + +This, of course, complicates the problem for the practical dyer +greatly, and means that instead of being able to cover the whole +range of shades with a red, blue, and yellow, it is frequently, if +not always, necessary to have some mixed colors, giving sharp, clear +shades of violet, green, and orange respectively, to obtain certain +effects. + +The following diagram will perhaps make this more clear. In this +the three primary colors have been divided, each into two shades as +indicated by the shade letters, R meaning red, B blue, and G yellow +(German _gelb_) shades of the colors. By combining these colors as +shown in the table, clean, clear shades will be given, whereas other +combinations would be likely to spoil the shades. + +[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF MIXED COLORS + + Red B + Blue R = Violet + Blue R + Red B = Violet + Yellow R + Red G = Orange + + Red B + Orange = Red G + Blue R + Green = Blue G + Yellow R + Green = Yellow G + + Red G + Yellow R = Orange + Blue G + Violet = Blue R + Yellow B + Orange = Yellow R + + Red G + Violet = Red B + Blue G + Yellow B = Green + Yellow B + Blue G = Green] + +Take, for example, a special case, namely to turn a piece of crimson +calico into a full rich scarlet. The crimson color contains a great +deal of red, mixed with a little blue. If the piece were after-dyed, +or “topped,” with yellow, even in small quantities, the result would +probably be “muddy,” the yellow and blue together being in such +strength as to seriously diminish the strength of the red, and make +it more or less brown in shade. + +If, however, a reddish shade of orange were used for shading, instead +of yellow, the red of the mixture would be constantly increased, +while the yellow was “killing” the blue, i.e., turning it, with a +little red, into grey; and before long the crimson, or bluish shade +of red, would turn first into a true but softened red, with neither +blue nor yellow predominating, and finally into a scarlet, with +distinct traces of yellow. + +In making these Three-color Shades, therefore, the component parts +of each dyestuff used must be studied; and in every case care must +be taken to have the third color, whatever it is, added in such +minute quantities as only to _soften_ and not to spoil the first +shade. A teaspoonful, sometimes even a few drops of a solution of +one strong color, will generally be enough to soften, and take the +edge off, some gallons of dye-liquor containing a hard, clear mixture +of the other two. A cupful, on the other hand, or even two or three +tablespoonfuls might utterly spoil the bath and turn it into “mud,” +as a dyer would say. + +It is worth mentioning here that, as a general thing, it is +distinctly more interesting to build up shades by dipping first in +one bath, and then topping with the second and the third color than +it is to mix the different colors to the desired shade first and then +dye the material in the single bath. On a small scale there is the +same difference, although not so marked and less easily noticed, as +that between even dyeing and rainbow dyeing. There is often a loss +in regularity and evenness, but the gain in life and light when one +color shines through another which covers it more than compensates. +This overlaying is not so perceptible in the even dyeing of fine, +thin materials, whether yarn or cloth; but with coarse, heavy yarns +and thick textiles, effects can be obtained by after-dyeing which +cannot be approached when the goods are dyed in one bath. + +_Matching Shades._—Some people, I believe, go so far as to say that, +in order to be really expert at true shade matching when using the +three colors in dyeing, a dyer must have begun to learn the art in +the person of his grandfather, ninety or a hundred years ago, and +kept in practise ever since. + +It certainly is true that heredity and early training both have +a great deal to do with skill in this art, and a good color dyer +will show an almost uncanny instinct, as he instantly picks out +differences in shade which an untrained eye would never notice, and +without any hesitation prescribes the exact remedy for the defect. +Still there are plenty of good, even first-class dyers, nowadays, who +have learned their art quite late in life, with the aid of a good eye +and intelligent perseverance. + +The chief rule to remember is this: Red, blue, and yellow, when +mixed in equal strength, make a neutral grey or black. Accordingly +any one color will form grey or, as we may say, will _neutralize_, +or be _complementary_ to a mixture of the other two. Thus red will +form grey with green; blue with orange, and yellow with violet. +Accordingly if there is too much red in the dye-bath, it can be +killed by the addition of a little green; and vice versa. The same +is true with the other complementary colors. If this simple rule be +kept clearly in mind, most of the problems of matching colors and of +getting pleasant and harmonious shades can be worked out easily. It +is chiefly a matter of practice, and perseverance. + +The student is strongly advised to attack this study in three ways: + +First, mix the three primary colors together in one bath, to form +definite shades—grey, brown, olive green, steel blue, etc.; then +dye the cloth in the bath to see how the colors look when on the +materials and dried. + +Second, to dye a piece of cloth one mixed shade and by topping with +other colors, to alter that shade to match some shade previously +selected. For instance, dye a piece a good shade of reddish or copper +brown, and then try to “kill” the red in it without materially +deepening the shade, i.e., change it from a copper brown to a greyish +or dirt brown of about the same depth of color. + +Very pretty and instructive experiments can be made along this line +of building up soft grey shades, by dyeing the cloth successively +in weak baths of the three primary colors. As fast as one color +predominates, it can be killed by dipping into successive baths of +the other two. + +Attractive scarfs and table covers can be made with a little care, +by knotting the material and dyeing light rainbow shades of the +three colors, one after the other, changing the knots or tied +portions after each bath. Properly done, this will produce remarkably +interesting, opalescent effects, each color being toned and softened +by the other two, although predominating in different parts of the +material. + +When, in the operation of rainbow dyeing, strongly contrasting colors +have been used with unhappy results (such as the red, yellow, and +blue tri-color effects that some students will produce) try the +effects of toning, or “covering,” as it is often called, with some +soft, neutral color which combines in itself all the contrasting +tones, or else with a color that is complementary to the most +obnoxious one, softening that one and strengthening the weaker +shades. Grey, of course, can be used for this; but in general, a soft +shade of brown will be found very valuable for taking the edge off +of too violent contrasts. The permanganate brown (Manganese bronze), +described in the first chapter, can be used with advantage for this +purpose. + +It is not difficult for a skilful dyer to match any desired shade by +using three complementary colors, red, blue, and yellow, provided, of +course, that these are pure and unmixed. It often happens, however, +that after matching carefully a soft mixed shade by daylight, the +colors appear entirely different when viewed by artificial light, +and especially by ordinary gaslight. Daylight, as we are accustomed +to it, is comparatively evenly balanced in color, is in fact a white +light. But artificial light as a rule is distinctly colored, and +it is difficult, though now not impossible, to find a light that so +closely resembles daylight that colors can be matched at night. + +If the light, for instance, has a bluish tinge, like some kinds of +electric light, it will kill the corresponding orange in a shade, +while yellow light, such as commonly results from the use of oil, +candles, or gas (less marked when incandescent mantles are used), +dulls and even blackens lavender, violet, and purple shades, while +having little or no effect upon yellow, orange, and green. + +It is therefore advisable when matching shades that are to be used at +night not to use three-color shades wherever that is possible, but to +get the desired soft effects by covering directly with grey (i.e., +light shades of black) on top of a single or two-color shade. + + + + + CHAPTER V + + THE SULPHUR COLORS + + +Nearly thirty years ago one of the French color houses put on the +market a new dyestuff which it named “Cachou de Laval”; Cachou being +the same as catechu or “cutch,” the natural brown dyestuff long known +and used in the East, and Laval being the name of the town in France +where one of its discoverers was born. + +This dyestuff was made by heating sawdust, bran, turf, leaves, or +other vegetable substances with the strongly reducing alkaline salt, +_sodium sulphide_, in the absence of air. The product, dissolved in +water, makes a dark green solution which, after standing in the air a +short time, turns brown and deposits a fine brownish powder. Cotton +or linen, heated in a fresh solution of this dyestuff, is colored +green, but, when wrung out and exposed to air, the green color, which +easily washes out, changes into a very permanent, though dull and +uninteresting, shade of greyish brown. + +This Cachou de Laval was not a success, commercially, because of its +poor color. It existed, however, as a chemical curiosity for some +twelve or fourteen years; then suddenly, within a few months or even +weeks of one another, all the great color houses put out a whole +series of colors—chiefly browns, blues, yellows, and blacks—all +formed, like this old “Cachou de Laval,” by the action of sodium +sulphide or, which amounts to the same thing, of sulphur and caustic +alkali, upon organic material, and all capable of dyeing cotton and +linen, in one bath, colors extremely fast to washing and generally +quite fast to light, after they have been “set” by exposure to the +air. + +While in general these are known and identified as the Sulphur +colors, the different manufacturers have given special class names to +their own series thus: + + Immedial (_Cassella_), Katigene (_Elberfeld_), + Kyrogene (_Badische_), Pyrogene (_Klipstein_), + Thiogene (_Metz_), Thion (_Kalle_). + +These colors are used almost exclusively for dyeing cotton and linen, +when shades fast to washing are required, without first putting them +through a mordanting process. The dyeing is done in one bath, with +little more difficulty than in the case of the Salt colors described +in the last chapter; and, while not faster to light than the best of +that class, they are not nearly so liable to bleed. + +On wool they are rarely, if ever, used. Wool is almost always dyed +with the acid colors in an acid bath; and nowadays the range of these +colors is so great and the best of them are so very satisfactory, +that there is hardly ever a necessity for using colors of another +class. + +Neither are these Sulphur colors often used on silk, although methods +have been devised for employing them in special cases. All the animal +fibres, however, and silk especially, are very easily “tendered,” +and indeed destroyed, by heating in an alkaline solution. And so +it is very easy to spoil a skein or piece of silk by dyeing it, in +the usual manner, with these dyes, dissolved as they must be in the +strongly alkaline sodium sulphide. + +The presence in the bath of glucose (corn syrup, molasses, etc.), or +of glue or gelatine, helps greatly to protect these fibres from the +action of the chemicals. But even when dyed with great care, using +glucose, and dyeing the goods for but a short time in a bath strong +in color but weak in alkali, the results are not very satisfactory, +so far as shade and lustre are concerned. They have the advantage, +however, of being extremely fast to washing, more so, even, than the +Salt colors. In general, however, silk should be dyed with the Acid +colors for ordinary work, and with the Salt colors when fastness to +washing is required. The Sulphur colors should be reserved for cotton +and linen. + +On mercerized cotton and artificial silk these dyestuffs take easily +and well, when dyed in cold or lukewarm baths. The lustre, however, +of the finished goods is apt to be less than when Salt colors or +Basic colors are used. + + +DYEING DIRECTIONS + +For cotton and linen, measure out the color and dissolve it in hot +water to which has been added twice its amount of sodium sulphide +(crystals) and a quarter or third the amount of soda ash. (In all +these formulæ washing soda may be used in place of soda ash—only +in quantities almost twice as large.) It is advisable, though +not absolutely necessary, to add also to the dye-bath one or two +tablespoonfuls of Turkey red oil—a kind of liquid soap made by +treating castor oil first with sulphuric acid and then with soda. +This prevents the formation of a dark scum on the surface of the +dye-liquor, which is likely to cause streaks in the finished goods, +hard to wash out. + +Into the dye-liquor immerse the well-wetted goods, and heat them, +turning them constantly, and keeping them as far as possible away +from the air and under the level of the liquid. Just before the +boiling point is reached take out the goods, and add salt in the +proportion of, say, two spoonfuls of salt for every teaspoonful of +dyestuff used. Stir till the salt is all dissolved, put the goods +back, and continue to turn them as before, keeping the goods down +under the liquor and not allowing it to boil. + +After dyeing just below the boiling point for fifteen minutes, +remove the heat, take out the goods, and—as quickly as possible—run +them carefully backward and forward through the wringer (changing +the folds of the goods each time) until the excess of dye liquor is +entirely squeezed out. Then shake them out, hang them up for fifteen +or twenty minutes in the air to oxidize and “set,” and after this +wash them thoroughly in a bath of boiling soapsuds until all the +loose color has been removed. Finally, rinse them free from soap, and +hang up to dry. + +When light shades are desired, or when the goods are tender, the +dyeing can be done at lukewarm temperature, and without the addition +of salt, with no detriment to the fastness of the color. In this +case, however, much of the dyestuff will be wasted in the unexhausted +dye-liquor. + +_List of Selected Dyestuffs._— + + Badische— Kyrogene Brown, R R O + Kyrogene Yellow, G G, extra + Kyrogene Direct Blue, 3 B, extra + Kyrogene Black, T G O + + Cassella— Immedial Bordeaux, G + Immedial Yellow Olive, 5 G + Immedial Direct Blue, B + + Elberfeld—Katigen Yellow, G F, extra + Katigen Indigo, C L G, extra + Katigen Deep Black, B + + Kalle— Thio Indigo Red, B + Thion Yellow, 3 G, extra + Thion Blue, B, conc. + Thion Black, G, conc. + + Metz— Thiogene Brown, G R + Thiogene Gold Yellow, A + Thiogene Green, G + Thiogene Cyanine, G + Thiogene Black, M A, extra strong + +These Sulphur colors are particularly strong in various shades of +black, blue, and brown. Some of the yellow shades, also, are very +fast and good. The class is deficient, however, in reds—the only one +so far discovered being Thio Indigo Red B (_Kalle_), which really +belongs to the Indigo or Vat colors, described in the next chapter, +and which does not give very powerful shades when used as a Sulphur +color. As a rule, these dyes produce shades that are softer, deeper, +and much less brilliant than those of the Direct Cotton or Salt +colors. Being usually mixed, and not simple primary, colors, they are +not very easy to dye to shade, especially as the color of the freshly +dyed goods changes considerably while it is being oxidized. On the +other hand, they give, without mixing, extremely pleasant tones, and +are all very fast to washing and, at any rate as regards the selected +colors, are fast to light. + +When exposed to strong direct sunlight some even of the best of them +are liable to change their shade somewhat; but even then they will +be found to fade to nice, soft shades not out of harmony with the +original. When very great fastness to light is necessary, it may +be worth while to after-treat them as described in Chapter III, by +keeping the dyed goods for twenty or thirty minutes in a hot bath +(not boiling) containing small amounts of copper sulphate, bichromate +of potash, and acetic acid. + + + + + CHAPTER VI + + THE INDIGO OR VAT COLORS + + +=History.=—Most of the colors of this group have been discovered +and put on the market within the last two years. Thus they form the +most recent as well as, in many respects, the most interesting and, +perhaps, the most important class of modern dyestuffs. On the other +hand, to this same group belong not only indigo itself, which has +been known and valued in the East from the earliest ages, but also +that most famous of all the ancient dyestuffs, Tyrian Purple. + +Indigo itself does not exist as such in nature; but it is +easily formed by oxidation, or the exposure to air, of a +substance—Indican—which occurs as such, or can be produced by +a simple process of fermentation, in the juices of many widely +distributed plants. Accordingly, even quite barbarous races in +different parts of the world noticed the deep permanent blue stains +formed on their bodies and clothing when they crushed, accidentally +or on purpose, the leaves and stems of the various _Indigoferæ_. +Gradually they learned to extract the color in a solid and permanent +form so that they could dye with it, instead of using the juice of +the fresh plant itself—and then they took to cultivating the plants. + +These plants—_Indigofera Anil_, _I. tinctoria_, and others originally +found wild have been, up to the last four or five years, extensively +cultivated in many tropical countries, notably in India (some of +the best qualities came from the province of Bengal, and hence the +common name for the natural dyestuff—Bengal Indigo), Japan, China, +Java, South and Central America, and Africa. From these plants the +indigo of commerce, in the form of dark blue granular lumps with a +characteristic coppery lustre, was prepared by a comparatively simple +process of fermentation, extraction, and oxidation. + +Indigo may also be obtained, although in small quantities only, and +in an impure condition, from other plants. Notably among these is +_Isatis tinctoria_, or woad, which in early days was extensively +cultivated in England and the Continent, and which, even now, is used +in small quantities in some processes of indigo dyeing. + +_Artificial Indigo._—The exact composition of indigo was first +determined some sixty years ago, and from that time on some of the +greatest chemists of the world have been attempting to prepare it, +artificially, from some comparatively inexpensive source, obtained +from coal tar or elsewhere. As early as 1875 the problem was solved, +at least from a scientific standpoint, but the process proved too +expensive for commercial purposes. During the last five years, +however, at least two of the great German firms have discovered +methods for making, in any desired quantities and at very reasonable +expense, absolutely pure indigo from some of the important coal-tar +derivatives. And since that time the cultivation of the indigo +plant has proved so unprofitable that it has been almost entirely +abandoned, and the land formerly used for this crop is being turned +over to other and, at present, more useful purposes. + +This synthesis—i.e., chemical formation—of indigo from coal-tar +products has been justly regarded as one of the great triumphs of +modern science. Right here let me impress upon my readers this fact: +the real dyestuff, indigo, is absolutely the same material, whether +it comes mixed with a great mass of impurities, as in the woad; or +whether it contains from 5 to 25 per cent. of foreign matter of +little or no value, as in the Bengal or natural indigo; or whether we +get it from Metz or the Badische Company, chemically pure, either in +the dry state or, thinned with water, in the form of a 20 per cent. +paste. It is positively the same dye; and being absolutely without +contamination of any kind, the artificial or synthetic dyestuff +presents advantages in the matter of purity of shade, ease and surety +of manipulation, and permanence of the color produced, which could +never be obtained before its introduction. + +=Application of Indigo.=—The principles of indigo dyeing are the same +now as with the Egyptians, the only difference being in the means +used to bring about the chemical changes involved. Indigo itself is a +blue solid, insoluble in water, acids, and alkalies, and practically +unaffected by sunlight. If, however, the element hydrogen be added to +it, or, as the chemist would say, if it is “reduced” by the action +of any one of numerous deoxidizing or reducing agents, the indigo +blue is changed to a new substance, indigo white, which is almost +colorless, and which dissolves, in the presence of alkalies, to a +bright yellow liquid. If cotton, wool, paper, wood, or indeed almost +any solid materials (noticeably the fingers and nails, as some of my +readers may find out), are immersed in the solution, they will absorb +some of this indigo white, and then, on exposure to the air, the +white indigo will rapidly take up oxygen, and become converted into +the insoluble blue coloring matter. + +_Fermentation Method._—Until recently the methods used for reducing +the indigo—i.e., changing the solid blue into the soluble white—were +just about the same as those used by the ancients, and were based +upon some kind of fermentation, usually alcoholic. It was found +out at a very early date that if indigo, ground up with water to a +paste and rendered alkaline by the addition of wood ashes, lime, or +other simple alkali, were mixed with grape juice or any other sugary +liquid, and then kept warm and allowed to ferment, the resulting +fluid would contain the dyestuff dissolved in a form suitable for +dyeing. The vessel in which this process was conducted was known as a +vat, and the process of indigo dyeing is still called “Vat Dyeing.” + +_Disadvantages._—At the very best this method is slow, uncertain, +and difficult to manage, especially on a small scale. In wool +dyeing, to this day, a few vats are still to be found where syrup, +ground madder root or, in some instances, woad, wheat bran, and +other materials which ferment readily in the presence of alkali, are +stirred up with warm water and soda, and then allowed to stand. In +two or three days they are in active fermentation, and the indigo, in +the form of paste, is added and well stirred in. After much further +delay, if all goes well, the indigo is finally “reduced,” and, if +the amount of alkali, the temperature, the concentration of the vat, +and various other factors are carefully attended to, the bath can be +used for several days, or even weeks, without being made over again; +fresh indigo and other ingredients being added, from time to time, +as needed. Cotton, linen, wool, and even silk can be dipped in this +bath, which should be light greenish yellow in color, with a blue or +bluish-green scum or coating, where the indigo is oxidized on the +surface. Goods immersed in this bath turn yellow, and then, when +taken out, wrung free from loose liquor, and exposed to the air, the +yellow color quickly changes to a permanent blue. + +A serious drawback to all these various fermentation vats is that +a good deal of the dyestuff is always spoilt—i.e., decomposed into +colorless compounds which can never be regenerated or made useful. +Indeed, the loss from this cause frequently amounts to 20% or 25% of +all the dye used, and occasionally, especially in hot weather, and on +a small scale, to far more. + +But, apart from the actual loss in valuable dyestuff, there is a much +more serious drawback to this method of indigo dyeing, namely, the +waste of time and energy involved. There is always a considerable +delay in getting a fermentation vat fairly started, even where all +the conditions are favorable; and when it is running smoothly, +the reducing process is a very slow one. Furthermore, the indigo, +not being dissolved in the liquid but only suspended in it, has +a constant tendency to sink to the bottom in the form of a blue +mud, and thus escape the chemical action of the fermentation gases +entirely. + +A short time ago a teacher of handicraft dyeing was expatiating, in +my presence, upon the impropriety of using any of the new chemical +processes for dyeing, and insisted that the only way to dye indigo +was to set up a vat, and feed it, and work with it as our ancestors +used to. It was suggested to her that it would be at least two or +three days before cloth could be dyed in such a vat. “Eight or ten +days at the earliest,” was the reply. And when it was hinted that +the vat would have to be frequently stirred during all that time, +she proudly answered, “Stirred regularly and thoroughly every single +half-hour, night and day, during the whole period.” + +“H—m,” remarked a bystander, “that’s a little worse than sitting up +with a baby sick of the croup.” + +Somehow the great advantage of this particular process over the +modern ones, by which a proper bath can be prepared in perhaps five +minutes, failed to impress itself on some of her listeners. + +_Modern Chemical Vats._—As soon as it was understood just what +chemical action was going on in the vats, and the object of it, +chemists began to find out methods for reducing the indigo without +the necessity of a long, tedious, and even nasty fermentation +process. They first introduced the “copperas-lime” vat, where the +reduction was done by the use of ferrous sulphate (green vitriol or +copperas), and slaked lime was the alkali used to keep the indigo +white dissolved. + +Later they introduced zinc dust, a very powerful reducing agent, +in place of the copperas, avoiding in this way the large amount of +precipitated iron oxide which always forms in the copperas vat, +and leads to the loss of dye, and muddiness and dulness of color, +necessitating a special clearing bath of dilute mineral acid. + +At present the most satisfactory method is to use the chemical known +as _sodium hydrosulphite_, as a reducing agent, in a bath made +strongly alkaline with caustic soda. Hydrosulphite is not expensive; +it acts very rapidly, leaving no sediment; it causes no loss or +waste of the indigo; and it does its work perfectly. Hence, with its +introduction, the dyeing of indigo has become extremely simple. + +To still further shorten and simplify the process, the large +manufacturers not only furnish indigo already ground up to a fine +paste with water, but also supply it already reduced by hydrosulphite +or some other reducing agent, so that it is almost ready to dye with +as it is, and will dissolve almost instantaneously in an alkaline +bath with the addition of just a little more reducing agent. Such +products are the Indigo Vat III (_Metz_), and the Indigo Solution 20% +(_Badische_). By using either of these, the preparation of a vat +large enough to dye 3 or 3½ pounds of cotton is the task of but a +few moments. These special preparations, however, are more expensive +than the regular 20% pastes, and the hydrosulphite vat is so easy to +prepare that the saving of time is hardly worth the extra cost. + + +DYEING DIRECTIONS + +For dyeing by the Vat method the dye-pot is two-thirds filled with +warm water, at about 120° F. (when the finger can hardly bear the +heat), and one or two tablespoonfuls of caustic soda are added—enough +to make the bath decidedly alkaline. The dyestuff, preferably first +mixed up with some hot water, to thin the paste, is stirred into the +liquid, and then to this is added sodium hydrosulphite, in powder, or +preferably dissolved in water, until the color of the bath changes +from blue, first to green, and then to greenish yellow, with a +bluish-green coppery scum. If the bath is bright yellow, too much +hydrosulphite has been used, and some more indigo should be added; +or, if this is not desirable for fear of getting too dark shades, the +bath should be exposed to the air and stirred frequently until the +color is right. If the bath, on scraping aside the scum, looks blue, +or even markedly green, it needs a little more hydrosulphite. If, +after reduction, the bath looks yellow but turbid, it probably needs +more alkali. + +Into this bath the material is placed, and stirred around until +thoroughly saturated—the temperature being kept about 120° F. for +heavy goods, to assist penetration. Light goods can be dyed equally +well in a lukewarm, or even a cold bath. The goods are then taken +out, wrung lightly by hand, and are carefully passed two or three +times through the wringer, to get the color evenly distributed. They +are then shaken out and hung up in the air to oxidize. In fifteen or +twenty minutes, after the color has changed, they should be rinsed +well in two or three waters, to get rid of all traces of the caustic +alkali, and then boiled for several minutes in a soap bath, to wash +off the loose dyestuff and prevent rubbing. This after-treatment with +boiling soapsuds is of even more importance in the case of the other +Vat dyes than it is with indigo, for with most of them the oxidation +is not completed in the air—and so the color is developed as well as +brightened by the soap bath. + +It is very important, when working with these Vat colors, to remember +that hot solutions of caustic alkali are very hard on the hands +and that, therefore, rubber gloves are extremely useful, if not +essential. Stains left on hands, clothes, and utensils, although +difficult to remove by washing, are almost instantly dissolved by +warm solutions of hydrosulphite with a little soda or other alkali in +them. + +_Results._—Colors produced by synthetic indigo are clear and clean, +but not brilliant. If the slightly purplish shades of natural indigo +are desired, they can be obtained with special brands—Indigo R, or +Indigo RR, _Metz_—or by mixing small quantities of Algol Red B, +_Elberfeld_, or Thio Indigo Red B, _Kalle_, with the indigo before +reducing it. It is generally supposed that the characteristic shade, +the so-called “bloom” of natural indigo, was due to the presence of +small quantities of a reddish dyestuff, known as indigo red. As a +matter of fact, however, the method of dyeing has more to do with +this than the composition of the dyestuff. + +For instance, if the indigo is very thoroughly reduced in the vat +before the goods are immersed, as is generally the case in the modern +hydrosulphite method, and the bath is made up with fresh reducing +agent for each dyeing, the resultant color will be a very clear, +rather greyish, shade of blue without any purple lustre. If, however, +the dyestuff is not very perfectly reduced, as was generally the case +with the old fermentation vats, and the bath, from standing in the +air, has a heavy scum on the top, and is greenish rather than clear +yellow in color below the surface, then the dyed fabrics will be apt +to show the marked purplish tone which is so characteristic of the +older indigo dyeings. + +_Uses._—While of less importance than it used to be before the +discoveries of the last few years, the use of indigo for dyeing +cotton, especially for the craftsman, is not to be neglected. It +furnishes, easily and rapidly, in one bath, without either boiling, +mordanting, or after-treatment, exceedingly pleasant, soft shades +which are fast to both light and washing. For resist dyeing, such as +Tied and Dyed work, Resist Stencil work, and Batik, it will be found +particularly useful, because the fabric can be dyed in the cold. + +Indigo possesses, however, certain disadvantages, especially for the +professional dyer, which it shares with the other Vat dyes described +below, and which prevent it, and the other Vat dyes, from being used +as widely as the Salt colors or even the Sulphur colors. In the first +place these dyes are all of them expensive. They cost more than most +others, pound for pound of the dry color, and full shades need much +larger proportions of them in the bath. + +Then it is difficult to dye to shade with them, because the color, +as a rule, alters so much when exposed to the air. In practice, when +dyeing large quantities of goods to the same shade, it is customary +to divide the materials into several lots of the same weight; and +to make a strong “stock solution” of the dyestuff, properly reduced +with alkali and hydrosulphite. By making up a fresh vat for each +lot of goods, using exactly the same volume of water and of “stock +solution,” and working each lot for the same length of time and at +the same temperature, even results can be produced with much less +trouble than by dyeing to shade by the eye. + +Another drawback is that indigo-dyed goods, especially of the heavy +full shades, are apt to “rub.” This can best be avoided by always +using a well-reduced bath; by washing with boiling soap after each +dip; and by building up the deep shades by successive dippings in +moderately weak vats, rather than by obtaining the shade, once for +all, by using a very strong, concentrated dye-liquor. + +For many hundreds, and even thousands, of years, indigo has been +universally recognized as the most permanent and most valuable blue +dyestuff for cotton and indeed for woolen goods. For the latter +purpose it is now but little used, thanks to the introduction of the +exceedingly fast dyestuffs of the Acid and Mordant classes. But for +cotton it is still considerably used, for fast shades. + + +THE MODERN VAT COLORS + +Up to a very recent date indigo was the only dyestuff, of any +importance at any rate, that was used in the manner just described, +and produced colors fast to light and to washing. During the past +three or four years, however, the attention of the dyeing chemists +has been directed to this question, and at least five of the great +dye houses have introduced dyestuffs covering a great range of colors +which, when dyed in the same way as indigo, not only rival but +distinctly surpass that color in permanence as well as beauty. + +=Names.=—These dyestuffs, while known generally as the Vat colors, +have been given special class names by their manufacturers, as +follows: Algol (_Elberfeld_); Ciba (_Klipstein_); Helindone (_Metz_); +Indanthrene (_Badische_), and Thio Indigo (_Kalle_). The Cassella +Company are just introducing the first members of their series, to be +known as Hydrons. + +=List of Selected Dyestuffs=:— + + Badische— Indanthrene Claret, B, Extra + Indanthrene Yellow, G + Indanthrene Blue, G C D + *Indigo pure + + Cassella— *Hydrone Blue, R + *Hydrone Blue, G + + Elberfeld— Algol Red, 5 G + Algol Yellow, 3 G + Algol Blue, 3 G + + Kalle— *Thio Indigo Red, B G + *Thio Indigo Scarlet, S + Thio Indigo Brown, G + *Indigo, K G + + Klipstein— Ciba Red, G + Cibanone Yellow, R + Ciba Green, G + Ciba Blue, 2 B + Ciba Violet, R + + Metz— Helindone Red, 3 B + Helindone Fast Scarlet, R + *Helindone Yellow, 3 G N + *Indigo M L B, 6 B + + N.B.—The dyestuffs marked * will dye in a lukewarm or even cold bath. + +=Properties and Uses.=—These Vat dyes are not all of equal value, +but as a class they are, distinctly, the fastest of any as yet +introduced; and the best of them may properly be considered as the +most permanent coloring agents of any sort or kind that have ever +yet appeared on the earth. They not only far surpass in this respect +the best of the vegetable dyestuffs, with the possible exception +of the very best qualities of Turkey red, but in resistance to +chemicals and outside agencies of various sorts, are much better +than the best mineral colors. This is so much the case that the +modern specifications for dyed cloth for Government purposes, as for +instance the khaki uniforms for soldiers in active service, which up +to a year or two ago were dyed with iron buff modified with oxide of +chromium, have been raised, in one country after another, until they +exclude every class of dyestuffs except these new Vat colors. + +During the last year or two these dyes have been introduced, though +with some difficulty, into commerce, and it is possible to obtain +shirtings and other printed goods, dyed in permanent colors, so +permanent indeed that the cloth will wear completely out before the +color changes in the slightest. The extra cost of the dyestuffs, and +the comparative difficulty of dyeing to shade, furnish an excuse for +increasing the price of the goods. And the perhaps not unnatural +disinclination of the shopkeepers to push the sale of materials +which, in their opinion, are quite unnecessarily fast, has combined +with the cost to delay the general adoption of these remarkably +valuable coloring agents. + +For craftsmen, however, where the price of the dyestuffs constitutes +such a small percentage of the cost of the finished article, +and where the absolute permanence of the color is of the utmost +importance, these colors are most useful. They are not to be used, +excepting under special circumstances, for animal fibres—wool, +silk, leather, feathers, etc.—for fear of injuring the materials by +the action of the caustic alkali. But on cotton and linen, both in +direct or resist dyeing, and for stencil work, there are no colors to +compare with them in fastness, not excepting even the very best of +the Sulphur colors. + + +DYEING DIRECTIONS + +These dyes are all applied, just like indigo, in an alkaline +hydrosulphite vat. The colors are applied in paste form, usually 20% +strong, or at any rate equivalent in strength to a 20% paste of pure +indigo. Care must be taken to thoroughly mix and stir up this paste +with a glass rod, in the original package, each time it is used, so +as to keep its composition uniform. + +The proper amount, to be determined only by experience, is first +thinned with a little hot water, and then stirred into the dye-pot, +two-thirds full of hot water, about 140° F. (This is well below a +boil, and yet hot enough to slightly scald the tips of the fingers.) +To this is added caustic soda, in the proportion of two to three +spoonfuls to each one of the color, the amount of soda being +proportionately greater for light shades than where large amounts of +color are used. + +After this has been dissolved the dyestuff is reduced by adding +slowly, with constant stirring, spoonful after spoonful of the +powdered sodium hydrosulphite until the bath clears and generally the +color changes. In most cases, as with indigo, the completion of the +reducing change can be told by a marked alteration in the shade of +the bath. + +Thus, in general, the blue dyes, like indigo, turn yellow or +orange when the proper amount of hydrosulphite is added. For the +other colors there is no general rule. Thus Indanthrene Yellow +(_Badische_), when reduced, is blue—while the Helindone Yellow +(_Metz_) is blood red. Helindone Scarlets (_Metz_), when reduced, +appear green, while the Thio Indigo Red and Scarlet have about the +same color, when reduced, that they have when oxidized. + +The best way to tell whether the bath is in proper condition is to +dip a piece of white blotting paper into it, and notice, on taking +it out, whether the color is in specks or is dissolved. On standing +in the air for a few minutes the color should become oxidized, and +firmly fixed to the paper. As a rule these Vat colors should be +reduced warm, because, in many cases at least, the reduced color does +not dissolve in a bath of cold alkali. In most cases, however, after +having been reduced at a temperature of about 140° F, the bath may be +allowed to cool considerably, before it loses its dyeing value. This +enables these colors to be used for Batik, or other processes where +the temperature must be kept below 80° or 90° F. The dyestuffs which +can be thus used will be found marked with an asterisk in the list of +selected dyestuffs above. + +The well-wetted materials are placed in the reduced dye-bath, and +stirred and worked for five or ten minutes, or longer, according to +the depth of shade experienced. For full shades, however, as in the +case of indigo, it is much better to build up the color by successive +dippings than to try to put it all on in one bath. For heavy goods +the addition of a little Turkey red oil, about half a tablespoonful +to the gallon, is an advantage, though not absolutely necessary. When +thoroughly impregnated with the dye-liquor, the goods are taken out, +wrung carefully, two or three times, to remove the waste liquor as +evenly as possible, and then shaken out and exposed to the air for +fifteen or twenty minutes. They are then boiled in a soap bath for +about twenty minutes, and then well rinsed, and dried. This hot soap +bath, as before mentioned, is of great importance in most of these +colors, not only for getting rid of loosely fixed dyestuff, but for +oxidizing and fixing the color itself. + +For dark shades it is well, as in the case of the Sulphur colors, to +add salt—three or four tablespoonfuls per gallon of dye-liquor—to +the bath, taking care to have it well dissolved before the goods are +entered. This is always done when dyeing with Helindone Yellow 3GN, +_Metz_. + +The shades of these new Vat colors are extremely bright and clear, +and, by combining these properly, any desired effects may be +produced. The splendid series of reds and scarlets for the first +time allow the characteristic shades of Turkey red to be obtained, +in one bath, and of at least equal, if not of superior fastness +to the original. One peculiarity of these colors is their extreme +fastness, not only to light and washing, acids and alkalies, but also +to various oxidizing agents, such as chloride of lime or bleaching +powder. Accordingly goods properly dyed and finished with these +dyestuffs can be entrusted with safety, so far as the color goes, to +agencies which would speedily ruin fabrics dyed in any other manner. + + + + + CHAPTER VII + + THE BASIC COLORS + + +In an earlier chapter it was mentioned that the modern dyestuffs +originated with the discovery by Perkin, in 1856, of the violet +coloring matter known as Mauveine. This dye was made by the oxidation +of the then rare chemical, aniline. Following this discovery, other +chemists, especially in France and Germany, soon obtained from the +same chemical or from substances very closely resembling it, a +considerable quantity of powerful and brilliant dyestuffs of the same +general character. + +The original Mauveine was before long superseded, first by Hofmann’s +Violet, and then by a very important series of violet and purple +dyes known as Methyl Violet, with shades ranging from 6 or 7B for +the deep, full purples, to the 6 or 7R for the very red shades. +These violet colors have never been surpassed, or even equalled by +any other dyes for brilliancy and richness, although, in common +with almost all the other dyes of this class, they are not fast to +sunlight. + +Another extremely powerful and brilliant color of this class, used +considerably to this day although discovered nearly fifty years +ago, is the dye often called, from its origin, Aniline Red. It was, +however, named by the German manufacturers, Fuchsine, from its +rich, full, crimson shades, resembling the deep tints of the flower, +fuchsia, while the French, who discovered and manufactured it soon +after the close of Louis Napoleon’s Italian campaign, called it +Magenta, after the famous victory of that name. + +About this time some German chemists discovered and introduced a +full, rich, brown dye, still largely used for dyeing leather (kid +gloves and the like), and, naturally enough, gave it the name of +Bismarck Brown. And at approximately the same date was discovered the +very valuable blue dyestuff, perhaps the best of the whole class, +with quite a range of full, deep shades, and with considerable +fastness to light, called Methylene Blue. + +=General Properties.=—The early colors of this group are the +dyestuffs properly known as the “Aniline Colors” because of their +origin; although this name has been applied, loosely, to all of +the thousands of artificial dyestuffs without regard to their +source of composition. To the chemist, their chemical structure +and their behavior toward reagents, such as acids and alkalies, +naturally suggested the name “Basic Colors.” This means that they are +substances with strong affinity for all sorts of acids, with which +they form more or less stable salts, while they can be liberated from +these salts by the action of stronger bases, such as ammonia, or the +fixed alkalies, soda and potash. + +=Application.=—These facts were discovered by Perkin while trying to +introduce his Mauveine into the dyeing industry, and he discovered +the methods, used to this day, for applying these dyes to the +different textile materials. He found that the dyes of this class +have a strong affinity for the different animal fibres, such as +wool, silk, leather, etc., all of which seem to possess some acid +properties of their own; but pure vegetable materials, like cotton, +linen, and paper, from which all impurities such as vegetable acids, +gums, etc., have been removed, have no affinity at all for even the +most powerful of the Basic dyes. A cotton handkerchief, boiled for +hours in a strong solution of Methyl Violet, can be washed in a few +minutes clear of every particle of color, while a piece of silk or +wool, soaked for an instant in the same dye-bath, will be permanently +stained, deep and full. + +_Cotton, Linen, etc._—In order to fasten these dyes to vegetable +fibre it is necessary to give the latter a distinctly acid character, +and this was done by Perkin in a manner still used. He steeped the +material for several hours in a hot bath of the acid vegetable +compound, tannic acid or tannin, found so largely in hemlock and +chestnut bark, sumac leaves, nut-galls, and the like; and then +loosely fixed the tannin, thus absorbed, by a weak bath of tartar +emetic. Cotton or linen fabrics, thus “mordanted,” will combine with +the Basic dyes as readily and as firmly as any animal fibre, and the +resulting colors, while not, as a rule, fast to light, are extremely +fast to washing. + +Since the introduction of the direct cotton dyes, both Salt colors +and Sulphur colors, this method of dyeing, for skeins or piece goods, +has been largely discontinued; but, by using a modification of this +process, enormous quantities of Basic colors are still employed, +on cotton and linen, in the manufacture of calicoes, organdies, and +other printed fabrics. + +Curiously enough the Salt and the Sulphur colors, in almost every +instance, possess sufficient acid properties of their own to act +as very fair mordants for the Basic colors. Accordingly, it is not +uncommon for dyers to “top,” with Basic colors, cotton or linen goods +dyed directly. In the case of the Salt colors, this increases their +fastness to washing, and with Sulphur colors it makes the shades more +brilliant. + +Most vegetable materials that are used in a more or less natural +condition, like straw, raffia, grass, wood-shavings, jute, and the +like, contain enough of this natural tannic acid to act as a mordant +for the Basic colors, which may in this direction be used as direct +dyes. + +_Wool, Silk, etc._—For animal fibres, such as wool, silk, furs, +feathers, etc., the Basic colors have been almost entirely +superseded, in commerce, by the class of dyestuffs known as the Acid +colors. These occur in much greater abundance and variety, and can +be applied with less danger of spoiling the goods by uneven results. +For leather, on the other hand, the Basic colors are still largely +used, especially for dark shades, or when fastness to light is not +particularly desired. On bark-tanned leather, which is full of tannic +acid, they take hold particularly well, and are often more convenient +to work with than the Acid colors, although they do not, as a rule, +give such even results. + +=Uses.=—On a small scale it is hardly worth while for the amateur to +try to use these Basic colors for dyeing either cotton or linen. The +difficulty of correctly and evenly mordanting the goods is quite as +great as that of applying the dyes afterward. And the Sulphur colors +and Vat colors will be found quite as fast to washing as the best +mordanted Basic colors, with the additional advantage of being very +much faster to light, as well as easier of application. + +By using some of the methods of the calico printer, it is possible to +employ these dyes, with some success, for stencilling. But even for +this purpose, excepting, perhaps, on silk, the modern Vat colors are +more convenient, as well as being infinitely more permanent to light. + +_Disadvantages._—The chief drawback to the use of these dyes is +that they are not fast to light. Several of them—Methylene Blue, +for instance, and Methylene Heliotrope O (_Metz_)—are fairly fast, +but the rest, especially in light shades, and on transparent or +translucent fabrics, are liable, when exposed to sunlight for any +length of time, to alter their shade to a very marked degree. + +For dark shades this is not so noticeable, for, when goods are +strongly colored, the effect of the sunlight on at least the deeper +portions of the fibre is largely counteracted by the color of +the goods themselves. So, too, an opaque material, like leather, +will hold the same shade of color distinctly longer than silk or, +especially, artificial silk, where the sunlight strikes through and +through the fibre, without any protection at all. But, generally +speaking, these dyes will not stand strong sunlight. + +Nor are the shades of these Basic dyes, as a rule, as attractive as +those of other classes. The strong and brilliant, not to say coarse, +shades of Methyl Violet, Malachite Green, Aniline Red, and the rest, +which created such a sensation when they first appeared in the early +sixties, were the particular colors which provoked John Ruskin to +vehement, if not unparliamentary remarks. When unmixed they certainly +do harrow the feelings of those artistically inclined, as much now as +then. They are rarely seen now, for the taste of the public has been +sufficiently educated to make a demand for softer shades. As before +explained, nothing is easier than to soften these fierce, harsh +colors to most beautiful and harmonious tints by mixing into them a +mere trace of their complementaries. + +_Advantages._—In spite of all that can be said against them, these +cheap, brilliant, and very powerful dyes are not to be despised, and +should still be found in the outfit of a well-equipped dyer. For +straw, raffia, chips, willow, and other materials used so largely +for hats and for basket-work, these dyes are distinctly valuable, +and, if supplemented by fast Acid colors for light shades, or for +particularly fast effects, will be found satisfactory enough. So, +too, for leather they will be found extremely useful, excepting where +delicate shades, fast to light, are required. + +Some kinds of artificial silk, also, especially those made from +nitro-cellulose and hence possessed of acid properties, dye far +better with these than with any other dyes, although, as explained +above, the colors will be far from permanent. + +For the craftsman, the fastness to washing of these dyes is a +matter of very little importance, because they are used by him so +exclusively upon materials such as basketry, leather, and artificial +silk, which are never exposed to rough handling in boiling soap and +water. + +As regards their fastness to light, the greater number of these +must be classed as belonging to the fourth class, i.e., distinctly +fugitive in character. On the other hand, some special ones can be +selected from the group which are not only distinctly faster than the +rest, but are fast enough to be well up in the third class, or can at +a stretch, be placed in the second class, i.e., can be considered as +satisfactory, at any rate, against any but very severe exposure. + +=The Fastest Basic Colors.=—Among these may be placed the well-known +dyestuff, Methylene Blue, perhaps the most satisfactory of the whole +class. A very good color also is Methylene Heliotrope O (_Metz_), +which, while less brilliant, is far faster than the many brands of +Methyl Violet, Hofmann’s Violet, and the rest, which to most dyers +are the characteristic basic violets. + +For blacks, many composite dyes are on the market, made by the +different color houses, known as Leather Blacks. These are fast +enough, for deep shades, but not to be trusted when thinned down to +form greys. The fastest individual basic black is Diazine Black, +(_Kalle_), and this should be used for the lighter shades. + +The Red and Yellow colors are distinctly less satisfactory. None of +them can really be considered better much than third class. Of the +Reds the best is probably the color known as Safranine, different +brands of which, giving as a rule the yellow shades, are manufactured +by the various color houses; one brand being about as fast as +another. For the bluish shades of red, probably the fastest is +Diazine Red, (_Kalle_). + +As regards Yellow, the list is even more unsatisfactory. + +There is a very beautiful golden yellow, known as Auramine O, +manufactured by most of the color houses, which, however, is hardly +fast enough to be in the third class. This dyestuff, by the way, is +injured by boiling, and therefore should never be used in a dye-bath +heated to over 130° or 140° Fahrenheit. Less pleasing in shade, +but somewhat faster to sunlight, are the rather orange or brownish +yellows known as New Phosphine G (_Cassella_), and Methylene Yellow +(_Metz_). Somewhat brighter colors, though less fast to light, are +produced by Thio flavine T. None of these, however, compares in +fastness to the selected colors of any other class in this book. + +The various brands of the common dyestuff, Bismarck Brown, are +largely used for leather, and while probably inferior in fastness +to any of the colors mentioned above, are not found in commercial +practice too fugitive to be pretty satisfactory. When, however, +materials are liable to be exposed for any length of time, two or +three weeks in succession, to direct powerful sunlight, it will +generally be advisable to use mixed browns made from fast Acid colors. + +Upon the whole, although we are still frequently called upon to +employ them, they must, from the craftsman’s standpoint, always be +considered as untrustworthy. They should, therefore, never be used +where dyestuffs of any other class can be made to take their place. + + +DYEING DIRECTIONS + +The application of Basic colors to leather dyeing will be discussed +later. We shall now discuss their application to basketry materials, +such as straw, raffia, willow, and the like, where they will be found +useful. + +It will at once be noticed that these dyestuffs are far more powerful +than any thus far met with in these lessons. Indeed, while there +will be needed, for full shades of the Vat colors, pastes from about +15% to 20% of the total weight of the dry materials, of the Sulphur +colors from 7% to 10%, of the Salt colors from 4% to 6%, and of the +Acid colors from 1½% to about 3%, most of these Basic colors will +give very full shades with from ½% to 1% of the total weight of dry +material. + +These Basic colors do not dissolve readily in water, but are easily +soluble in alcohol, and also in even very dilute acids. Acids form +salts with the dyestuffs and these salts dissolve when the free +coloring matters do not. Accordingly the Basic colors should always +be dissolved carefully in a separate cup or vessel, using hot water, +and adding, for each spoonful of dyestuff, two or three spoonfuls of +acetic acid or, if more convenient, of strong vinegar. + +The color, thus dissolved, should be added to warm water in the +dye-pot, preferably through a fine strainer or piece of cheesecloth, +to avoid any undissolved particles which would cause spots. The +well-wetted goods are immersed in this dye-bath, and turned, either +in the cold or with gentle heat, until the desired shade is reached, +or the bath is exhausted. The material is then taken out, rinsed once +or twice in water, cold or warm, carefully dried, and, if necessary, +straightened and pressed or ironed out. + +_Straw._—Care must be taken when dyeing these materials to have them +quite free from grease and dirt, before dyeing them. If they do +not wet readily and evenly, after being soaked in warm water for a +couple of hours, they should be carefully washed in warm soapsuds, +and thoroughly rinsed. The soap, however, should be of good quality +and, especially with straw, either in the form of straw braid or made +up into hats, no soda or other free alkali should be allowed in the +bath, for fear of injuring the surface and destroying the gloss. This +last is sometimes improved by dipping the straw, after dyeing and +rinsing, into a weak bath of Castile (olive oil) soap, or of Turkey +red oil (about one tablespoonful to the gallon), before it is dried. + +In dyeing straw, the greatest pains must be taken to dye it evenly. +Braid should be tied up in loose hanks or bundles, so that the +dyestuff can penetrate readily into every part; and with a loop +of tape or string, by which it can be raised or lowered in the +dye-bath. It should be kept in motion sufficiently to cause uniform +circulation of the liquid. The dye-bath should not be too strong, +especially at the beginning, and should be heated slowly to the +boiling point, where it should be kept for half an hour or so, to +insure penetration. It is best to add the dyestuff in small portions, +from time to time, as the bath becomes exhausted, lifting the goods +out of the bath each time, and stirring in the new color before +putting the goods back again. If the goods once become uneven it is +very hard, if not impossible, to get them level again, or to strip +them fully, without spoiling the materials. The best thing to do, if +this misfortune overtakes them, is to dye them some dark color, where +minor irregularities will be covered up and pass unnoticed. In other +words, “Dump it in the black,” as the dyers say. + +Ladies’ straw hats are dyed in just the same way as the loose braid, +the same care being taken to clean and wet the goods thoroughly, and +to dye evenly. It is often of interest to experiment with old hats +of good material, but faded, and to dye them up some pleasant new +shade, and the ribbons and trimmings to match. Sometimes the remains +of the old coloring will strip well by washing in hot soapsuds, and +sometimes by soaking in warm water containing about one tablespoonful +to the gallon of _sodium hydrosulphite_—the same salt that was used +as a reducing agent for the Vat colors in the last chapter. + +If the color comes out well, it is then easy enough, after thoroughly +rinsing, to dye them any desired shade. Otherwise they can be dyed +Navy Blue, with a good shade of Methylene Blue and a trace of red, +or Seal Brown, using a large amount of red and a little yellow and +blue; or they can be dyed black with a black dye, such as one of the +so-called Leather Blacks, usually made by mixing a deep purple with a +yellow, or one of the strong, powerful Basic greens with red. + +In general, a well dyed piece of braid is supposed to show smooth, +even coloring, good gloss, and good penetration of the dyestuff into +the folds of the straw. There are, however, decided possibilities +for the intelligent worker to obtain more interesting effects with +but little trouble. It is very easy to use the principles, already +explained, of rainbow dyeing, for straw braid, and beautiful effects +can be obtained in this way, though it would need an artistic as well +as an experienced milliner to fully utilize the same in making hats. +But it frequently happens, when dyeing coarse braid without boiling, +that the dye penetrates unevenly, from the edge towards the centre. +Very pretty shaded effects can be produced in this way, the general +color being uniform, and yet the straw, when looked at closely, +showing tints instead of one flat, uniform shade. By dyeing the straw +a solid color first, and then shading it in this manner with a +different color, very interesting effects can be produced. + +It may be worth while to mention here that, when bought at wholesale +places, it is astonishing how cheap the raw materials are. Bodies +of straw, chip, etc., framing wire, white satin ribbon, artificial +flowers, wing feathers, etc., from which not only pretty but even +handsome and elegant head coverings can be created, and cost next to +nothing at wholesale. The mechanical part of dyeing all these things +can be learned in a very short time; after that the possibilities for +a skilled worker, who has a good eye for color and can dye to the +desired shades herself without having to hunt them far and near, are +very large. + +_Raffia._—This is a material so widely used in the public schools, +as well as by craftsmen, for weaving baskets, that it is well worth +while to pay more attention to the dyeing of it. It is quite cheap, +and very bulky, and takes these colors extremely well. So that it is +one of the most satisfactory of all raw materials to experiment with, +especially if there is a school or workshop at hand, where the dyed +goods can be utilized. + +The raffia should be shaken out thoroughly, and soaked in soft water +over night, or at least for several hours, to thoroughly wet and +soften it. If even shades are desired it can then be dyed, just like +straw braid, in a warm dye-bath containing the dyestuff, previously +dissolved in diluted acetic acid or vinegar. + +It is much more interesting, however, to dye it rainbow shades +from the start. If red, blue, and yellow dyestuffs are dissolved +separately, in different cups or pitchers, these solutions can be +used to replenish the large dye-pots of the same colors. To keep the +colors reasonably clear, and prevent them from speedily degenerating +into “mud,” it is well to keep on hand one or two rinsing-pots, +full of warm water, or to have a sink near at hand, where each hank +or bundle of raffia should be rinsed after being taken out of one +dye-pot and before going into the next. + +The raffia, when thoroughly wetted out, should, for convenience’ +sake, be made up into separate loosely-tied bundles, with a loop +on each by which to handle it in the dye-bath without staining the +hands. It is well, too, to have some oil-cloth around, for these +bundles drip a good deal, and the dye-liquor will stain anything of +an animal or vegetable nature with which it comes in contact. After +a little experimenting with dipping these bundles first into the +first dye-pot and then—rinsing each time—into the other two, it will +be easy to get the general effect of any particular shade, although, +when examined closely, the fibre will show the presence of all three +colors. + +It is interesting to notice, here, as previously with the Salt +colors, how easy it is to modify and soften the harsh shades of the +individual unmixed dyestuffs. And, as before, it is very interesting +as well as very useful to dye some bundles even shades of some +important compound color, such as brown, for instance, or olive +green, or steel grey, and to notice how the color is changed on the +fibre by adding a little more red, or yellow, or blue to the bath. + +The “eye for color” obtained in this way is of the greatest possible +advantage to a dyer, whether amateur or professional; and where, as +in this case, the materials are cheap, easy to dye, and possible to +utilize, every advantage should be taken of the opportunity. + +=Permanent Colors on Basketry.=—While for most purposes the straw, +raffia chips, willows, etc., dyed with Basic colors will be found +satisfactory enough, it is best for craftsmen who are making a +specialty of very high-grade baskets, to use some of the fast Acid +colors, described and listed in the next chapter, for their reds and +yellows, and for all mixed shades in which these two colors play an +important part. The Acid dyes are applied in a boiling bath, with the +addition of a little acetic acid, and, while not fast to washing, +and not imparting their colors as readily as the Basic dyes, can be +thoroughly depended upon, even in light and delicate shades, against +the action of sunlight. Salt dyes can also be used, in a boiling +bath with the addition of some salt, but, excepting in some special +cases, are not superior to the Acid dyes, although somewhat faster to +washing. + + + + + CHAPTER VIII + + THE ACID COLORS + + +The discovery and introduction into commerce of Mauveine and the +other Basic dyes, focussed the attention of chemists, all over the +world, upon this new and important application of their science. +And it was soon noticed that certain organic bodies, of a decidedly +_acid_ character, had the power of dyeing wool and silk. These early +dyes were so-called “nitro” compounds, formed by the action of strong +nitric acid upon derivatives of coal tar, and in most cases they +gave strong and brilliant, but rather fugitive, shades of yellow. +The most interesting of these, perhaps, was the compound known as +“picric acid,” which at one time was considerably used for dyeing +silk yellow. Now it has been abandoned for that purpose but is +manufactured on an enormous scale for use as an explosive. + +These original acid dyes were of little importance. But in the +early seventies chemists began to make use of a reaction—known as +“diazotizing”—for making new organic compounds by the coupling of +aniline or bodies similar to aniline, with all sorts and kinds of +other compounds derived from coal tar. The number of derivatives +of this sort proved enormous, and many of them had more or less +valuable dyeing properties. And in a very short time new dyestuffs +had been discovered, good, bad, and indifferent, numbering not +hundreds, but thousands. + +A very few of these so-called “Azo” dyes were of the Basic class, +like Bismarck Brown, mentioned in the last chapter. Others, +discovered ten or fifteen years later, constituted the class of +Direct Cotton colors or Salt colors. But the great bulk of these +colors belonged to the so-called “Acid” class, forming salts with +bases and alkalies, and being liberated from the salts by strong +acids. + +The number of Acid Azo colors is very large. In the catalogues of +commercial coal-tar colors there are some two hundred and fifty +of these dyes which have been picked out of the rest as having +sufficient value to be carefully described, and to have been placed +on the market by the great dye houses. Most of these are red and +orange colors, with a few yellows. As a rule they are brilliant and +clear, but, with a few exceptions, not particularly fast to light. + +When these were introduced it was soon recognized that they were of +practically no value for cotton and linen. They are as a rule much +more soluble than the Basic dyes of the foregoing chapter, and hence +are occasionally used as stains for wood, rattan, and other vegetable +materials where considerable penetration is needed, without fastness +to washing. But such use is of little importance. + +=Properties.=—Acid dyes are almost exclusively employed for dyeing +wool, silk, feathers, and other animal fibres, and for this they +are extremely valuable. The introduction of the Acid Azo colors +so simplified and improved the dyeing of wool and silk, that every +effort was made to increase the range of colors. And when it was +found that the Azo colors were weak on the line of blue, purple, +and green, efforts were made, which after several years proved +successful, to change the various powerful Basic dyes, the Methyl +Violets, Fuchsin or Aniline Red, Aniline Blue, Malachite Green, and +the rest, into Acid dyes, so that they could all be used in the same +dye-baths. This has resulted in a very wide range of colors indeed, +for the Acid Azo colors cover fully all the shades of yellow, orange, +and especially of red, from scarlets of all sorts and kinds to deep +full crimsons. And then the remaining shades are covered by the +acidified or sulphonated Basic colors. + +These latter, by the way, though very brilliant and strong and rich, +are no faster to light than the original Basic colors from which +they are derived. Of late years the Acid colors have held their +own, and still monopolize the commercial, as well as the special, +dyeing of wool and silk excepting under unusual circumstances, when +considerable fastness to washing is required. + +With these dyes, as in the case of the Basic dyes, the fastness to +washing is of little or no consequence to the craftsman. Nobody +expects to scrub hand-dyed leather; and woollen and silk goods, +unless specially prepared, are not supposed to be turned over to the +tender mercies of the family laundress. However, it may be well to +emphasize here the fact that these dyes are as a rule “stripped” +quite readily by boiling in a neutral soap bath. And when the +craftsman wishes to dye wool or silk fast to washing, he must either +use the Salt dyes, in a boiling bath, or must dye, with special +precautions against tendering, with either the Sulphur or the Vat +Dyes. + +With regard to light-fastness, however, the case is different. A +great many hundreds, possibly even thousands, of Acid dyes have been +discovered, and scores of them, covering every shade, can be obtained +in the open market. Most of these are of but little permanence, but a +few products, from each of the great color houses, can be selected, +whose fastness to light is extremely satisfactory. The dyes in the +following list can hardly be considered as fast as the Vat dyes, +previously described, but are probably faster, as a class, than any +other class mentioned in this book. They would rank at the very top +of the second class, and some at least would fairly enter the first +class, being absolutely satisfactory against even the strongest +sunlight. + +A series of skeins, dyed all colors of the rainbow, including many +delicate light shades, with a red, yellow, and blue dye of those +mentioned below, withstood an exposure test which quite ruined a +similar set of skeins dyed with the very best natural dyestuffs. And +a large hand-woven rug, made of wool dyed light shades with the same +dyes, was placed for two weeks on a roof in New York, half of it +being covered with boards and the rest exposed to the direct action +of the July sunlight, and at the end of this time it was impossible +to notice any difference in shade. + +The colors in the following list are to be used, principally, for +wool. They will all dye silk, leather, and feathers, but in the +chapters dealing with those materials some additional dyes may be +mentioned, which are specially suited for them. + + +_List of Selected Dyes._— + + Badische— Palatine Scarlet A, 3 R + Palatine Light Yellow, R + Tartrazine (yellow) + Wool Fast Blue, B L + + Cassella— Brilliant Cochineal, R R + Acid Yellow, A T, conc. + Tetracyanol, S F + + Elberfeld—Azo Crimson, S + Fast Red, A + Fast Yellow, 3 G + Alizarine Blue, S A P + Cashmere Black, 3 B N + + Kalle— Biebrich Acid Red, 2 B + Wool Yellow, T A + Nero cyanine Blue, B + Nero cyanine Black, D + + Metz— Fast Acid Red, M + Fast Acid Orange, G + Fast Acid Yellow, 3 G + Fast Acid Blue, B B + + +DYEING DIRECTIONS + +The Acid dyes, like the Basic, are used in an acid bath, but for a +different reason. With the Basic dyes acetic acid or some other weak +acid is added, for the purpose of readily dissolving the color. In +the case of the Acid dyes, however, the dyestuffs are almost always +put on the market in the form of the potassium or ammonium salts of +the color acid. And the presence of some acid is always necessary, +to liberate the color acid, and allow it to combine with the basic +principles existing in the animal fibres. + +_For Wool._—The goods, well washed and soaked, are warmed gently in a +bath containing, besides the dyestuff dissolved in plenty of water, +a little sulphuric acid and a good deal of Glauber’s salt. Both acid +and salt should be free from iron, or the shade will be dulled. + +The amount of acid to be used may vary between considerable limits +without affecting the results. If too much is present, there is +danger of injuring the feel and the lustre of the fibre. If there +is not enough acid in the bath, the color will wash right out of +the wool, as soon as it is rinsed. In general it is well to start +with about one tablespoonful of dilute (30%) sulphuric acid for each +gallon of dye-liquor and about twice that amount of Glauber’s salt. + +It is hard to tell just what is the function of the Glauber’s salt. +It seems, however, to open up the pores of the wool in some way, and +to make it dye more evenly and deeply. The bath is gently heated, +with constant stirring of the goods, until the right shade is +produced, or, if it is desired to exhaust the bath and so waste no +color, until near the boiling point. + +The goods when taken out of the dye-bath must be washed very +thoroughly, to remove the last trace of acid, which otherwise on +drying would ruin the wool. + +It must be remembered that these Acid dyes hardly affect cotton +in the least, and so the goods dyed in this way must be free from +vegetable fibres, if level dyeings are to be obtained. + +In dyeing wool skeins commercially it is, of course, of the utmost +importance to have the colors perfectly level and uniform. This +uniformity is obtained easily enough, when using these Acid dyes, by +having the wool thoroughly wet before placing it in the dye-bath; +by having it well loosened out and well stirred so that the color +will penetrate evenly every part of the material; and, finally, +by starting the bath at a moderate temperature, and heating it +gradually, until the proper shade is obtained. + +For handicraft dyeing the student is strongly advised to practise +shaded and irregular effects, the so-called Rainbow dyeing, with wool +in skeins, just as, in previous lessons, with raffia and with cotton. +By using coarse heavy yarns, very beautiful two and three color +effects can be produced, which, when used for embroidery or weaving, +will prove most interesting. + +Great care must always be taken, in wool dyeing, to preserve the +lustre and the soft effect of the wool, and to avoid felting. This +can best be done by using moderate amounts of acid, by dyeing at +moderate temperature and never raising the dye-bath quite to the +boil; and finally, by handling the goods as little as possible in +the acid dye-bath, consistent of course with exposing every portion +equally to the action of the dyestuff. Cotton skeins can be worked +and rubbed, and pulled, and thrown up and down in the hot dye-bath, +without fear of injuring them. But wool should be handled carefully, +and worked in the dye-pot quietly and gently, just sufficiently +to accomplish two results. First, the wool at the bottom of the +pot should be raised by a lifting and turning motion and replaced +by fresh material; and second, when the wool is lowered back into +the liquor it should be loosened, so as to allow the dye-liquor to +penetrate the mass. + + + + + CHAPTER IX + + DYEING FEATHERS + + +The use of feathers and, especially, of ostrich feathers for +millinery has, during the past few years, increased to enormous +proportions. Besides the home product, from California and the +Western States, which, however, is but small, the importation of +raw feathers from abroad has averaged, during the past two or three +years, nearly eight millions of dollars. As yet, the dyeing of +these feathers is almost entirely confined to professionals—their +processes, although simple, not being generally known or published. + +As before mentioned, feathers, like other animal products, can be +colored with ease by either the Basic or the Acid dyestuffs. In +practice, as with wool and silk, the Acid dyes are universally used, +because of their greater variety, their greater fastness to light, +and their better levelling properties. To use the Acid colors with +success the following points must be carefully considered. First, the +baths must be such as not to ruin or “burn” the feathers, i.e., they +must leave intact the tiny barbules upon the barbs or “flues,” as the +dyers call them, which make the feather look soft and full and not +stringy. + +Second, the quill must be fully dyed, and the shaft, or stem of the +feather, must also be colored just as well as the flues. This is a +very common defect in feather dyeing. The quill, being hard and stiff +and horny, is much more difficult to penetrate with the dyestuff +than the soft, delicate fibres. If the feather, therefore, is dyed +hurriedly or carelessly, the latter may be colored dark and full, +long before the quill or the lower part of the stem has been dyed at +all. This necessitates painting the stem after the finishing process, +with oil colors, to match the rest of the feather. + +Finally, after dyeing, the feather must be properly finished so that +the flues will not look woolly on the one hand, nor stringy on the +other hand, but soft and full. + +The whole secret of feather dyeing lies in the proper attainment of +these three requirements, success in which depends respectively upon +(a) the composition of the dye-bath, (b) the method of dyeing, and +(c) the finishing process. + +=(a) The Dye-bath.=—As is universally the case when using Acid +dyes on animal fibres, the bath must be distinctly acid, in order +to release the free color acid from the dyestuff, which, in its +commercial form, is a salt. A very little experimenting with ostrich +feathers will show that the presence, not only of mineral acids +like sulphuric or hydrochloric, but even of the much milder organic +acids, like acetic or citric, is liable to “burn” the feather badly +and convert a well barbuled flue into a bare fibre which, under no +conditions, can look other than stringy. The acid commonly used +by the professionals is oxalic acid, but, of late years, dyeing +chemists have been introducing into the dyeing industry the use of +the volatile and pungent formic acid, and in the dyeing of ostrich +feathers this acid has been found particularly advantageous. +Excepting when a large number of feathers, strung together on a line, +are to be dyed the same color, it is customary to dye feathers in an +agateware pan or flat dish, and about two-thirds of a teaspoonful +of formic or oxalic acid in a pint of water, is about the right +proportion for one or two feathers at a time. + + +=(b) Method of Dyeing.=— + +_Softening the Feathers._—Before immersing the feathers in the +dye-bath the greatest pains should be taken, first, to thoroughly +cleanse them, and, second, to thoroughly soften them. As a rule, +the feathers are bleached before dyeing and in this process they +generally lose all of their original grease. But if they show signs +of wetting unevenly when plunged into hot water, they should be +carefully scrubbed with Castile soap and hot water, and well rinsed +till the last trace of soap has been removed. + +The clean feathers should then be thoroughly softened by immersing +them in hot water. This is especially important as regards the quills +and the stems, which may have to soak for half an hour or more before +they are soft enough to take the dyestuff. + +_Dyeing the Feathers._—After softening, each feather is held by the +tip, and laid, butt first, in the dye-bath. For light shades the +dye-liquor may remain cold, but for darker shades it is best to +enter the feathers at a low temperature, and raise the latter very +gently till the right shade is reached, or the bath is decidedly hot, +although still far below the boiling point. + +Above all, care must be taken to dye the quill and butt first, and +to keep them in the bath very much longer than the flues and tip. +The latter will dye in a minute or two, but to thoroughly stain the +former may take twenty minutes or half an hour. + +=(c) Finishing.=—When the desired shade has been reached, the feather +is taken from the bath and rinsed thoroughly in warm water, to get +rid of the loose color. Then it must be “starched.” This is the +technical name for the drying process, and is very different from the +laundryman’s idea of “starching,” although the two processes have +occasionally been confused, with most disastrous results, as far as +the feathers were concerned. + +_Dry-starching._—After the dyed feathers have been thoroughly rinsed, +they should be partially dried, by wiping with a soft piece of cloth, +like a handkerchief or piece of cheesecloth, and then laid flat on +a piece of stiff paper and covered with a heaping tablespoonful or +so of dry, finely powdered starch (on a small scale the quality +known as “Electric Starch” is eminently satisfactory). The starch is +thoroughly rubbed into the feather with the fingers, and then the +feather, full of starch, is beaten and dusted against the edge of the +table or the back of the hand until the starch has all been shaken +out. After one or two repetitions of this process, the feather will +be found not only dry but with the barbules properly filled out. +Sometimes the feather, thus treated, has a woolly look, the starching +process having gone too far. In this case it should be dampened in +cold water, and restarched. + +Under no circumstances should any starch paste be allowed to touch or +form on the flues. The starching must be done in the cold and with +the unbroken starch grains. + +_Wet-starching._—Some dyers prefer wet-starching to the dry process +just described. In this process, the feathers, after dyeing and +rinsing, are worked for a minute or two in a thick milk (not paste) +made by stirring one or two large tablespoonfuls of dry starch in +half a pint or so of cold water, till all the lumps have been broken +up. After this milk has been thoroughly rubbed into every part of +the feather, the latter is taken out, dried roughly by wiping with +cheesecloth, and then by wrapping between blotting paper or folded +cheesecloth and running carefully through a not too tight wringer. +The feather is then taken out and thoroughly dried, either by laying +it on the table in the sunlight or in a warm room for some time, or, +if very great care is taken, by holding and moving it over a hot-air +register, or high over the stove or gas flame. Of course, if this is +done carelessly and too great heat is applied, some of the starch +grains will be converted into paste, and the feather probably ruined. +When thoroughly dry, “bone dry,” as the dyers call it, the feather is +beaten against the back of the hand, or edge of the table until all +the starch is shaken out. + +=Dyeing in the Starch.=—When dyeing light shades time may be saved +by dyeing and wet-starching at the same time, in the same bath. The +feather, thoroughly soaked in hot water, is placed in the starch +milk, to which a quarter teaspoonful or so of formic acid and a +little dyestuff have been added, and then worked, in the cold, until +the proper shade has been reached, the starch being taken up at the +same time. Then on drying and beating, the feather will come out both +dyed and finished. This has the disadvantage of leaving a little acid +in the finished feather, but when using small quantities of oxalic +acid, this is of little, if any importance. + +=Suggestions as to Feather Dyeing.=—These processes should enable +any intelligent craftsman to dye even the most costly and most +delicate feathers without danger of spoiling them. Shade effects +in one, two, or more colors can be easily obtained by the use of a +little ingenuity, remembering always that the quill and the stem +are very much more difficult to dye than the flues or tip. It will +be remembered that comparatively few ostrich feathers are now used, +singly; the plumes so abundantly in use, nowadays, being almost +invariably built up by sewing two or usually three feathers together, +one underneath the other, the stem being carefully shaved down so as +not to make them too clumsy. + +Very charming effects can be obtained by dyeing the individual +feathers different but harmonious colors, and then combining them +into one plume later. But, usually, the plume is made first, and +then dyed afterwards. It may be suggested, here, that very beautiful +effects can be produced by taking large, handsome, single feathers, +before they are bleached, and dyeing them a pleasant shade of red or +blue or of some mixed color. The natural black of the feather, with +its irregular markings, often gives very interesting results, and the +expense is much less than that of a built-up feather. + +After the starching process, the dried feather is usually finished +by “curling,” a process simple enough in itself, but which had best +be left to the professional, for fear of injury. The bleaching of +feathers, also, is a process which is hardly to be attempted by the +amateur, unless he is prepared to spend a good deal of his time and +money in experimenting. The process, however, is well understood by +dyeing chemists and can be learned without much difficulty, by a +careful student with some knowledge of chemistry. + +_Stripping Feathers._—By soaking in warm water, containing a +teaspoonful or so of ammonia water to the pint, and then carefully +washing with soap and hot water, these Acid colors can be, as a rule, +stripped from feathers almost entirely. This does not, to be sure, +improve the original quality of the goods, but, carefully done, its +bad effects are hardly, if at all, perceptible, and it enables the +dyer to remedy a bad piece of dyeing, or to dye an old feather that +has become faded or discolored by exposure. This, of course, does not +apply to _black_ dyed feathers. + +After white feathers have been worn for some time they generally +become soiled and yellow. If the stock was good to start with they +can be immensely improved in appearance, if not made quite equal +to new, by simply scrubbing them with a piece of Castile soap, in +hot water, and then, after thorough rinsing, by dyeing them, in the +starch-bath, with a very faint trace of blue or bluish violet. + +_Black Dyeing of Feathers._—This is the most difficult process in +feather dyeing, and, as a rule, should be avoided by the amateur. It +is impossible, so far, to get a thoroughly good black by the use of +any artificial dyestuff, or any simple process. The best Acid blacks +on the market, dyed with the greatest care, give a color to feathers +that by themselves may look pretty well, but, when compared with +first-class products, show dull and grey. + +The only satisfactory blacks, so far, are produced by a long and +tedious series of operations, depending on mordanting for, and dyeing +with, logwood. As a rule, the professional black dyer—and really good +ones are few and far between—allows at least five or six days for the +process, the different steps of which he usually guards as a valuable +secret, which indeed it is. The writer possesses one or two of these +formulas, obtained, as special marks of favor, from first-class +dyers, but has never had occasion to test them thoroughly, and +therefore is unwilling to publish them here. Good dyeing chemists +have tried again and again to shorten and simplify the process, and +have had some success. But to this day no color has been found to +replace logwood, and this black dyeing of feathers is perhaps the +only dyeing problem that has not as yet been satisfactorily solved +with the aid of modern dyestuffs. + +_Painting Feathers._—Some dyers, instead of dyeing feathers, paint +them. They dip the cleansed and carefully dried feather, for a +moment, into a bath of oil paint, thinned greatly with gasolene. The +feather is then taken from the bath, dried by waving in the air, and, +when thoroughly dry, finished by beating and, if necessary, with a +light dry-starching. + +The results, for colors, are fairly satisfactory but are not so +permanent as the dyeing process. In an oil paint the solid coloring +matter, or pigment, is ground up finely in boiled linseed oil, an oil +which has the property of drying to a firm varnish when exposed to +the air. This mixture is thinned with turpentine or gasolene to the +desired consistency before using. + +It is evident that, in coloring feathers, if enough oil is applied +to fasten the pigment very firmly to the flues, there is danger at +the same time of plastering the fine barbules so that they will never +get back to their proper places, and the product will be hopelessly +stringy. On the other hand, if the amount of oil is so small, thanks +to the abundant thinning with gasolene, that there is no fear of its +sticking the barbules together, there will hardly be enough oil left +to firmly fasten the pigment to the flues, on drying, and the color +is apt to rub, and to wear off quickly. + +Paint, thinned with gasolene, has been applied to feathers +occasionally by means of stencils, some of the so-called “barred” +effects, looking like the feathers from a barred Plymouth Rock hen, +being made in this way—the color, black paint or varnish, greatly +thinned, being applied by means of an “air brush” or atomizer. +Occasionally very large, wide, and handsome feathers have appeared +decorated with flowers and other figures, in bright colors, applied +in the same way with an air brush, sometimes with the help of +stencils, but generally free-hand. These effects are often rather +crude and inartistic, but there is no reason why, skilfully used, +this method of decorating the backs of feathers might not produce +interesting effects. + + + + + CHAPTER X + + LEATHER AND LEATHER DYEING + + +So far as can be learned, in every part of the world, the first +materials used by man for clothing and coverings were the skins of +animals. In its natural condition, however, the hide stripped from a +dead animal has certain properties which greatly interfere with such +use. When dry it is stiff and hard; when moist it rapidly decomposes, +and when exposed to hot water it swells and in time dissolves. These +difficulties had to be overcome before skins and furs could be +properly utilized. And, accordingly, in the history of every nation +and race, one of the very earliest of all developing industries was +the art of leather making; that is, of converting the hard and easily +decomposed rawhide into a soft, pliable, and comparatively permanent +substance, well suited for the use of man. + +In most uncivilized nations this conversion was accomplished by +rubbing and working some oily or greasy substance into the hide, +until it was thoroughly soft and flexible. Thus, in our Indian +tribes, the old squaws would turn the deer skins and the pelts of +various fur-bearing animals into beautifully soft and strong leather, +by rubbing and working into them the brains of the animals. The +Esquimaux and other Northern tribes from time immemorial, too, have +worked out this method with great perfection. Indeed without it they +would have been unable to survive at all. + +In other parts of the world it was discovered that rawhide could be +made more durable by treatment with metallic salts, especially with +alum, and then, by softening this product by rubbing in some oily +material, a very fair leather could be produced. On the other hand, +in warmer climates, as for instance among the Egyptians, the very +earliest records show the use of vegetable extracts, containing the +substances now known as tannins, for softening and preserving skins; +and these races understood the art of dyeing, painting, gilding, +and embossing the leather thus made, and used it for shoes, straps, +aprons, and harness. + +The Romans and Babylonians were famous for their leather industry, +and the ancient Romans not only imported but manufactured it +themselves, and used it freely. In the Middle Ages the greatest +developments in the art were made by the Moors in Spain, whose +leather, commonly called Cordovan leather, from the city which was +the centre of the industry, has probably never been equalled for +beauty and importance. This Cordovan leather, of which fine specimens +are still to be found in museums and private collections, was made of +sheepskin, tanned with bark. It was ornamented with silver foil, laid +on a backing of size, and covered with a yellow varnish or lacquer, +sometimes tinted with bitumen. This protected both the leather and +design very perfectly from injury by air or moderate moisture, and, +being done on a large scale with splendid designs, was used largely +for handsome wall coverings, competing favorably with tapestries +manufactured in France and elsewhere for the same purposes. + + +PREPARATION OF LEATHER. + +In general, we may say that at the present day there are the same +three classes of leather as in the days of the ancients, according to +whether the hide is treated with oil or fatty materials, with alum or +other metallic salts, or with the bark of trees or other vegetable +substances containing the compound known as tannin. + +=1. Oil Tanning.=—This, while of less importance than the other two +methods, is still used in considerable quantities for lighter and +cheaper qualities of leather. The process most commonly used is often +called chamoising, or “shamoying,” because it is used principally for +the production of “chamois leather” or wash leather. The hides used +for this form are usually thin and light, the flesh sides of split +sheepskins being the commonest, and the resultant leather is not only +soft and flexible and strong, but is also unaffected by water. For +this reason it is more difficult to dye than other varieties. + + +=2. Mineral Tanning or Tawing.= + +_Alum._—For thousands of years it has been known that if a solution +of alum is rubbed or soaked into a raw hide the fibres of the leather +become changed to an insoluble and permanent condition, and by +afterwards rubbing and rolling, and working in some greasy material, +like the yolk of eggs, a useful variety of leather can be produced. +The alum in this case does not form a permanent compound with the +animal fibres, but can be washed out by working in warm water. +Chemists have agreed, therefore, to call this temporary reaction by +the name “tawing” as opposed to “tanning” where the chemical action +is a permanent one. The “kid” leathers used for gloves are commonly +made by this process. + +_Chrome._—During the last few years a new process has been +introduced, based upon the use of chromium salts, which are absorbed +by the hide in the form of the yellow or orange-colored salts, +chromate and bichromate of sodium, and then are reduced in the fibres +to a green compound by the use of hydrosulphite of sodium, or some +other strong but harmless reducing agent. + +This chrome leather is extremely valuable, and is freely used, +especially for the “uppers” of good quality in the boot and shoe +trade. This leather is very strong, and is water-proof, but possesses +a serious disadvantage for the dyer, in that when it is once dry it +can never be again wetted, and therefore it must be dyed fresh from +the tannery wash tanks, or not at all. + +=3. Vegetable, or Bark Tanning.=—At some very early period in the +world’s history it was discovered that certain vegetable extracts, +possessing in general a peculiar “puckery” taste, also possessed +valuable properties in the treatment of raw hide. This process was +certainly well known to the Romans, for Pliny mentions, as tanning +materials, the three great sources of tannin to-day, namely, gall +nuts, the bark of trees, and sumach. These and many other vegetable +materials, used for tanning, all contain a peculiar substance, known +as “tannin” or tannic acid, which gives them their useful properties. + +The tannins from different plants are not identical, although closely +related to each other. They all have a strong astringent taste, and +dissolve readily in water, forming weak acid solutions. They make +dark-colored compounds with iron salts, and convert the hide tissue +of animals into a tough, insoluble, and comparatively indestructible +material which, when loosened and softened by some mechanical action, +is known as leather. + +_Tannin._—Pure tannin can best be obtained from gall nuts—small +excrescences on the leaves and twigs of certain plants caused by the +puncture of some insect preparing to deposit its eggs there. The best +varieties, called Aleppo galls, come from Turkey and Austria, where +they are found on oak trees, and contain from 60 to 70 per cent. of +tannic acid. From these it can be extracted in a very pure form, +and it comes to market as an extremely light, fine, grey or light +tan-colored powder, which dissolves in very little water to an almost +colorless solution. Tannin in this form is largely used for dyeing, +especially in the dyeing of cotton or linen goods with the Basic +colors. + +For tanning purposes it is customary to use the bark of various +trees, oak bark being the most esteemed in Europe and, in this +country, hemlock bark being the most used. These contain from 12 to +15 per cent. of tannin, as a rule, with a moderate amount of brown +coloring matter. Pine bark is also frequently used, and the bark of +fir, spruce, and larch, while, in Russia especially, much willow bark +and birch bark is used for light grades, the so-called Russia leather. + +The next most valuable source of tannin is known as sumach, +consisting of the finely-ground twigs and leaves of several species +of that plant. The American sumach contains more tannin—18 to 25 per +cent—than other varieties, but it is less valuable than the Sicilian +sumach, which contains less coloring matter, and therefore can be +used for tanning light shades of leather. All the materials can be +used in the tannery either directly, or in the form of previously +prepared extracts. From the Far East come some very important sources +of tannin, used for dyeing as well as for leathermaking, in the +form of dried extracts of various plants. One of these is Catechu +or Cutch, now of value only for its tannin contents, but in former +years used as a brown dyestuff as well. A similar product, known as +Gambier, is still imported on a large scale from Singapore and other +Eastern ports. It contains less tannin than Cutch, but less coloring +matter as well. It is used not only for leather but for black silk +dyeing with logwood. + +=The Tanning Process.=—Without going too much into detail, the +conversion of raw hide into leather by means of tannin is a very +lengthy and mechanical process. The hides are first softened by +soaking in water, and then are dehaired, usually by steeping in a +bath of slaked lime until the hair is loosened and can be scraped off +with a blunt knife. + +This lime must then be extracted by steeping in an acid bath, +preferably containing some organic acid like lactic or acetic acid; +some manufacturers, for the sake of cheapness, use dilute sulphuric +acid for this purpose, with the invariable result of making the +leather brittle and rotten when it is fully dried. + +After the acid has been rinsed off, the hides are placed in the tan +liquor, made either by dissolving one of the extracts in water, or +by mixing the finely-ground bark or sumach with water and placing +the hides in the mixture. The tanning process is a very slow one, +especially for heavy hides, and it may take several months before +the tannin penetrates to the center of the goods. When that time has +come, the hides are taken out, brushed off, rinsed with cold water, +drained off on horses, and then hung up in a drying shed to slowly +dry. + +When in the proper condition they are thoroughly rolled by hand or +machinery, to break up any adhesions, and to make the leather soft +and flexible. Then they are ready to be finished, are dyed to the +required shade, rubbed down and polished with wax or varnish, grained +by being run through rollers with engraved patterns, and otherwise +prepared for the trade. + + +DYEING AND STAINING OF LEATHER. + +_General._—It has been mentioned, in previous chapters, that animal +fibres of all sorts, such as wool, silk, feathers, etc., seem +to possess at the same time both acid and basic properties, and +therefore they combine readily with dyestuffs belonging to the Basic +and also to the Acid class. This at once distinguishes animal fibres +from vegetable fibres such as cotton, linen, and paper, which, being +practically neutral in composition, will not combine with either +Basic or Acid dyestuffs without the assistance of mordants. + +This same rule applies to leather, and we are therefore able to dye +leather successfully with either Acid or Basic dyestuffs, using a +dye-liquor made acid with, preferably, a volatile organic acid such +as acetic or formic acid. + +_Acids._—For Basic colors acetic acid is generally used, as being +cheaper than the other, and quite as good for dissolving the dyes +for the dye-bath. For Acid colors it is generally best to use formic +acid, for acetic acid in many cases fails to liberate the color-acids +from the dyes, and then the colors fail to “bite.” + +Professional leather dyers, for the sake of economy, often use a +little sulphuric acid in the dye-bath, a practice which is one of the +chief causes of the short life of modern leathers. + +With other animal fibres, such as wool and silk, the Acid colors +take quite as readily as the Basic; but with leather, there is some +little difference, according to the way in which the leather has been +prepared. + +For our purposes it is hardly worth while to discuss the dyeing of +chrome leather or of chamois leather. The leather almost universally +employed for hand work has been bark tanned, excepting where very +white goods are used, of rather light quality. These are generally +tawed with alum, and for this reason have a greater affinity for the +Acid colors than when the fibres have already been fully charged with +tannic acid, which at the same time, it will be remembered, acts as +an excellent mordant for the Basic colors. + +_Dyestuffs._—Accordingly, while Acid colors may be used, they do not +act nearly so readily as the Basic colors. For this reason, except +for special shades such as a clear sky-blue or a pure scarlet, +which can hardly be obtained excepting by the use of Acid dyes, +or where special fastness to sunlight is required, the best Basic +colors, such as Methylene Blue, Methylene Heliotrope, Thioflavine +T (for yellow) and Safranine (for red) are usually employed. For +black, it is well to use one of the many Leather blacks, made by +mixing together powerful Basic dyes. For brown, the standard leather +color, used in enormous quantities for gloves and the like, is the +well-known Bismarck Brown, or for more orange shades, the closely +related dyestuff, Chrysoidine. And, although neither of these colors +is as fast to light as the Basic dyes mentioned above, they give +very satisfactory results. These colors should be dissolved in water +acidified with a little acetic acid. + +The greatest pains must be taken in each case to see that the color +is all in solution, and that no specks of undissolved color are +allowed to come in contact with the leather. The leather must be very +carefully and thoroughly moistened by soaking, if necessary over +night, in lukewarm water softened, if the surface of the leather +seems to demand it, with a few drops of ammonia water. + +=Dyeing Leather and Staining Leather.=—As regards the application of +the color; dyers generally make a distinction between leather that is +_dyed_ and leather that is _stained_. + +In _dyeing_ leather the moistened goods are placed in a tray or pan +(agateware is most convenient for small pieces) and floated backwards +and forwards in the dye-liquor, which should be deep enough to fully +cover them. The liquor is usually about lukewarm on starting, and +may be heated very gradually and gently to about 120° or 130°, if +desired. For light shades, however, this is not at all necessary, +and indeed the color, as a rule, penetrates deeper and is laid on +more evenly when the bath is kept cold. The leather is kept in the +dye-bath until the desired shade is reached, which should be at the +end of half an hour or so. + +When dyed in this manner, the dyestuff has a chance to soak into the +leather, and so, when finished, the color is not so liable to be +affected by rubbing or by wear. The leather should come out evenly +coated on both sides, shaded effects if desired being produced later, +by the staining process. + +_Stained Leather._—In staining leather, on the other hand, the color +solution is applied directly to the surface of the damp—not wet—goods +by means of a brush or soft sponge, or a little pad of cloth. +Accordingly, no matter how carefully the leather has been softened +and moistened beforehand, the color does not penetrate far, and is +found only on the particular surface where it has been applied. + +For flat, even shades, the dyeing process is usually preferable, +but by staining, it is possible for the craftsman to work on the +surface of the leather, as an artist does on paper with water colors, +and beautiful effects can be produced. Oil paint is often used for +decorating leather, and when applied skilfully in thin layers, the +effects are good. But staining with dyestuffs is usually preferable, +as showing more of the grain of the leather, and being more +transparent. + +The staining of leather may either be done free-hand, or else by the +filling in of set designs, marked out previously by tooling or some +other method; or, as will be discussed later, by the use of stencils. +In any case success chiefly depends upon the condition of the surface +that is to receive the dye. The surface of the leather should be +dampened, thoroughly and evenly, so that the dye will adhere, and +even penetrate a little; but it must not be so wet that the colors +will run. + +To get this exactly right requires considerable practice. As a rule, +the leather is, first, carefully and evenly soaked in water or, if it +is at all greasy, in water with a little ammonia in it. When this has +been thoroughly done, the leather is taken out and dried off, first +on one side and then on the other, with pieces of cloth and then +later with blotting paper. After this it is exposed to the air for a +little time until the exact point of dryness has been reached. + +The color solution should be applied with a camel’s hair brush or +a small, soft pad of cotton, and any excess of liquid wiped off, +or soaked up with blotting paper, and the color rubbed in with the +fingers or pad, as soon as possible. + +=Acid Dyes for Leather.=—As above mentioned, certain shades are +hard to obtain without the use of Acid colors. This is particularly +true in the case of blue. For the lighter and brighter shades it +is necessary to use one of the Acid blues such as Cyanole FF. +(_Cassella_), or Patent Blue (_Metz_). These are applied in exactly +the same way as the Basic colors. Some of the Acid reds, too, will be +found valuable for certain shades of scarlet, etc., that can hardly +be reached with Safranine. Among the best of the fast Acid colors for +leather may be mentioned: + + _Red._—Fast Scarlet, BXG, _Badische_; Biebrich Acid Red, 2B, + _Kalle_, and Fast Acid Red, M, _Metz_. + + _Yellow._—Tartrazine, _Badische_; Wool Yellow, 1A, _Kalle_, and + Fast Acid Yellow, 3G, _Metz_. + + _Blue._—Wool Fast Blue, BL, _Badische_; Nerocyannic Blue, B, + _Kalle_, and Fast Acid Blue, BB, _Metz_. + +When using these Acid dyes side by side with the Basic colors, it +will be noticed that the latter, as a rule, are far more powerful, +and color the leather much more rapidly than the Acid dyes. +Accordingly for _staining_ leather the Basic dyes are the most +satisfactory. On the other hand in _dyeing_ leather, where the +dye-liquor is allowed to act longer on the goods, the Acid colors are +more valuable, not only because they are fast to light, but also +because they will penetrate more deeply and more evenly. + +=Finishing Leather.=—After coloring the leather it is necessary to +finish it carefully, to get a smooth surface and to protect it from +injury by rubbing or moisture. Some workers simply let the leather +dry and then rub down the surface (without using any wax or oil) +with the finger or the palm of the hands. Usually the grain or hair +side of the leather is rubbed down with a little wax, the white or +yellow wax, used largely as a finishing polish for tan shoes, being +frequently employed for this purpose. It can be readily obtained from +almost any good shoe store or, if desired, can be made by mixing +together equal quantities of beeswax and carnauba wax in a molten +condition, and thinning the mixture with a little turpentine. + +A recipe used with success by many leather workers calls for a +mixture of beeswax, turpentine, and neatsfoot oil. The wax is +carefully melted, mixed with a small amount of turpentine, and then +enough oil is stirred in to make it soft. When used upon embossed or +figured leather this wax is never applied directly, but is placed +inside a little bag of soft muslin, and rubbed on and into the +leather with a circular motion—the palm of the hand being often used +to finish the waxed surface. + +=Bronze Effects.=—An interesting point in connection with the use of +the Basic dyes, and some of the Acid dyes, too, for staining leather +is that, when applied in a strong solution, as is very likely to be +the case when one is trying to get dark shades with an application +of the brush or pad, they quite frequently, on drying, show a very +marked metallic lustre. This is due to the formation of minute, +bright-colored crystals, which reflect the light, thus imparting to +the fabric colors which have nothing to do with the shade produced by +the dyestuff itself. Thus, Cyanole FF, _Cassella_, when dissolved, or +when dyed on leather or any other material, gives a rather greenish +shade of blue. But it gives a very brilliant old gold effect, almost +as bright as gold leaf, when applied in a strong solution and allowed +to dry quickly. + +When this effect is not desired it can be avoided by building up +the dark shades by successive applications of weak solution, and +by rubbing down the little crystals with, if necessary, a little +moisture, whenever they appear to be forming. + +In some cases, however, this bronzing property is of some value, and +enables the skilful craftsman to obtain interesting and effective +results with a minimum of trouble and expense. By painting on a +strong solution of dyestuff, and letting it dry quickly, the bronze +effect will be produced, and then by rubbing in portions, the true +coloring of the dyestuff will be brought out in strong contrast to +the crystal-covered surface. Unfortunately, these bronze effects +are not fast to either rubbing or moisture, and even dry rubbing +will break down the crystals, while rubbing with a damp cloth or a +moist finger will dissolve the color off in blotches. To render this +bronze effect more durable, it is possible to make a regular bronze +lacquer, by adding varnish or gum like orange shellac or gum benzoin +to a strong alcoholic solution of a Basic dye. The bronze varnish +thus produced will, when dry, stand light finishing with wax in the +usual way. The addition of a little benzoic acid to the solution +increases the lustre of the crystals. + + + + + CHAPTER XI + + SILK—I + + +So far as we can tell, silk was first discovered and manufactured in +China about 1700 B.C., a date corresponding in Biblical history to +the time of the patriarch Joseph. From China it was exported to the +great and wealthy empire of Persia, and from there was first brought +into Europe by Alexander the Great after his defeat of the Persian +king. Its origin, although known and described by Aristotle, was for +several hundred years a mystery. During the Roman Empire, silken +garments, woven in Europe, from Chinese silk imported by way of +Persia, were important and very highly prized articles of luxury. + +About 555 A.D., while commerce with Persia was interrupted by +warfare, two monks in the pay of the Emperor Justinian smuggled +eggs of the silkworm and seeds of mulberry trees from China to +Constantinople. This was the origin of the European silk industry. +It spread rapidly to the various countries bordering on the +Mediterranean, and by the seventeenth century was firmly established +not only in Spain and Italy, but also in France. + +Efforts were made to introduce it, at this time, into England, but +without success. In 1622 King James I started the industry, for +the first time, in the colony of Virginia in this country. Since +that time numerous attempts have been made to develop the American +silkworm industry, but with very little success, owing to the large +amount of hand labor necessary to produce the material. + +At the present time the very finest raw silk in the world is produced +in the south of France, and next to that come certain brands of +Italian silk. The Japanese silk is more variable in quality, although +steadily improving, while the Chinese silk, as a rule, is less +satisfactory and more apt to be light and fluffy. + +With regard to the consumption, it was estimated that in 1907 Europe +used some twenty-five million pounds, and the United States fifteen +million pounds of raw silk, which, at an average price of nearly +$5.50 per pound, amounted to over two hundred and eighteen million +dollars. + +=Origin and Varieties of Silk.=—Silk has been defined as a “smooth, +lustrous, elastic fibre of small diameter and of animal origin.” As +is well known, ordinary commercial silk is secreted or “spun” by the +silkworm, the caterpillar form of a moth known as _Bombyx Mori_, the +moth of the mulberry tree. These silkworms have been cultivated for +thousands of years, but there exist in different parts of the world, +notably in India and Japan, wild or uncultivated silkworms, derived +from nearly related, but not identical, families of moths, and whose +silk is collected in the forests by the natives, forming what is +known in commerce as wild or tussah silk. + +Of course, the silk from silkworms, cultivated and wild, is the +only one yet produced on a commercial scale. But silk can also be +obtained from other animals, notably from spiders and from a peculiar +shellfish, the pinna, found in the waters of the Mediterranean. + +Silk from the silkworm can be divided into two classes, according to +whether the silkworms are the cultivated or the wild varieties. In +each case the silk is produced by the caterpillar spinning a covering +or shroud, the so-called cocoon, around itself to protect it when in +the form of the chrysalis or pupa, awaiting its transformation into +the moth. + +The ordinary or cultivated silk of commerce comes from worms fed +almost exclusively upon the leaves of the white mulberry tree, and +cannot be produced successfully without that particular plant. +The somewhat similar worms that produce the wild or tussah silks +live upon the leaves of the oak, elm, ailanthus, castor oil plant, +and others. While the two varieties resemble each other greatly +in their chemical properties, they can always be distinguished, +because cultivated silk is much more lustrous than the other, but is +decidedly less strong. + +_Tussah Silk, Pongee, Shantung._—The tussah silks, when woven, are +commonly known under the general name of pongee. Of late years +this name has been applied to imitation goods possessing the +characteristic dull color, and even the feel of the real article, +but far less strong. These are generally made out of spun silk, +derived from “Shappe,” i.e., the by-products of the silk industry, +spoilt cocoons, waste from the spinning machines and the dyehouses, +and the like—silk, to be sure, but silk of very inferior quality. +Accordingly, it is now customary to call real pongee by the name +Shantung, after the Chinese province from which much of the wild silk +is brought. + +Shantung, or true pongee, can be readily distinguished from the +imitation by examination of the threads, both warp and filling. These +should be very long, and loosely spun or rather “thrown,” whereas +the imitation threads are spun together tightly, from fibres of many +different lengths, generally quite short. + + +Preparing Silk for Dyeing. + +_Reeling._—All silk, whether cultivated or wild, comes originally +from the cocoons, which are, as a rule, each formed out of a +continuous strand or thread woven by the silkworm round and round its +own body before it passes into the chrysalis state. These cocoons +are collected, carefully dried to kill the quiescent animal inside, +and then, in due course of time, they are placed in basins of warm +water which softens the gum which binds the cocoon threads together, +and the separate fine threads from several cocoons are picked up by +brushing, and are combined into one which is reeled off on machines. +The silk thus obtained is made up into hanks and bundles, and +constitutes the raw silk of commerce. + +_Raw Silk._—The raw silk is very different in appearance and texture +to the finished silk that we are accustomed to. It is without lustre, +white, yellow, or even, in the case of some Italian silks, orange in +color, and quite stiff when handled. These qualities are due to the +presence of from 25 to 35 per cent. of gum, which is insoluble in +cold water, but is softened by hot water and dissolves readily in a +hot soap bath. + +_Throwing._—The threads of this raw silk are far too fine and +delicate to be fit for the weaving processes or even for dyeing. +So they are combined into coarser and stronger threads by being +“thrown,” a process equivalent to the spinning process of cotton, +linen or wool. In throwing, the raw silk fibres are again softened +in hot water, and are loosely spun or twisted together while still +sticky. Three, four, or five threads of raw silk are usually +combined to form one strand of thrown silk, varying, of course, +with the quality of the original silk and the objects for which the +thrown silk is to be used, when woven. For instance, silk used for +filling—“tram,” as it is called in the trade—is usually thicker and +softer, and less strong than the warp, or “organzine,” and therefore +is usually built up, by the “throwster,” from many threads of less +valuable raw silk, loosely twisted, while the organzine, used for +warp, is generally of the best and strongest available material, +thrown in finer strands out of fewer threads of raw silk, twisted +more tightly. + +It must always be remembered that the skein silk is thrown from very +long continuous threads of raw silk, full of gum, whereas spun silk, +which is being used more and more every year, is made from short +lengths of waste and scrap silk, held together not by gum, but by +tight twisting and spinning, just like cotton or linen. + +_Stripping or Degumming._—This thrown silk must then be prepared +for the dyeing by getting rid of the gum, which not only makes the +silk stiff and destroys its lustre, but which also would interfere +with the smooth, even dyeing of the fibres themselves. For this +purpose the silk, in skeins, is thoroughly washed, or “stripped,” by +soaking in two or three successive baths of hot, strong, neutral soap +solutions. In the dyehouses Castile (olive oil) soap is invariably +used for this purpose, and, while made of cheap grades of olive +oil, it is always, in good dyehouses, of excellent quality, for the +presence of even minute amounts of free alkali in these baths is +liable to greatly injure and “tender” the silk. + +_Boiled-off Liquor._—The soap solution from these stripping baths +is not thrown away in the dyehouses, but is carefully stored as a +valuable reagent. Under the name of “boiled-off liquor” it is almost +exclusively used, by the dyers, for color dyeing. It is not often +used in black dyeing, and therefore, in a dyehouse, the presence of +a large and well-patronized black department is considered of great +importance as providing the color dyer with an abundant supply of +boiled-off liquor. + +The stripped or degummed silk is now ready for weaving directly, the +resulting white cloth being sometimes finished and sold as such, and +sometimes “dyed in the piece.” In most cases, however, the stripped +silk is weighted, dyed, and finished “in the skeins,” before weaving. + +=Piece Dyeing.=—In dyeing by the piece, the stripped silk is passed +through a weak acid bath, usually acetic, and then woven into goods +of the desired quality. These goods are then dyed in the piece by +being run through the dye-bath until they are of the proper shade. +The dye-bath (for colors) is made by stirring the proper quantity +of Acid dyestuffs into a hot bath of boiled-off liquor (the bath +in which the silk has been stripped), which is faintly acidified, +or “broken,” as the technical phrase goes, by the addition of some +sulphuric acid. This boiled-off liquor has the property of laying +the dyes on the silk evenly and thoroughly, and is better for that +purpose than any other medium. For amateur work, or where boiled-off +liquor cannot be obtained, very fair results can be obtained with a +strong bath of olive oil soap (Castile or Marseilles), “broken” with +weak acid, generally dilute sulphuric acid. + +The term “breaking” the soap bath is very significant. The acid +should be added drop by drop to the frothing soap bath until the +bubbles disappear and a thin iridescent film of fatty acid rises to +the top of the liquid. + +After the piece goods are brought to the proper shade, they are +finished, usually by carefully rinsing in water to take away all +traces of free acid, then by passing through a cold soap bath, often +with a little olive oil emulsified in it, to increase the lustre; +finally, through a bath of weak organic acid, like acetic acid, to +develop the so-called “scroop” or “feel” of the silk. When silk +is washed in soap, or is dipped in even a weak bath of alkali, it +becomes soft and clammy to the touch, and has no “life” or “snap” +to it when dry. The passage through a bath of weak acid develops the +characteristic stiffness of the silk fibre, and causes it to give its +peculiar rustling sound when pressed. + +=Skein Dyeing.=—When weighting or adulteration is not employed, +i.e., in the so-called “pure dye” process, the dyeing of skein silk +resembles the piece dyeing described. The degummed silk is immersed +in a dye-bath containing the dyestuffs (Acid colors) dissolved in +boiled-off liquor, broken with dilute sulphuric acid. The bath +is heated nearly to the boiling point, and the silk turned in it +until the desired shade is produced. It is then taken out, washed +thoroughly in water to remove the last traces of acid, and then +brightened by passing through a soap bath with some oil, and later +through a bath of acetic acid to develop the “scroop.” + +_Drying._—An important part of the process is the final drying and +finishing. The drying should be done slowly and carefully, and not +proceed too far, or the silk will be brittle. As is well known to +dyers, silk has the power of absorbing 25% or 30% of its weight +of water without becoming perceptibly damp to the hand, and this +moisture, when not carried too far, is of actual benefit to the +material, making it stronger and more elastic. This property is often +made use of by the honest (?) dyer when, in case some of the silk in +a lot has been spoiled by accident or carelessness, he makes up the +difference in weight by the liberal use of the watering pot. + +_Finishing._—This process is perhaps the most difficult and +technical of all, for the value of the finished product depends +very largely on it, and it is almost impossible for an amateur +to accomplish it. The skeins, after drying, are hung on a heavy +polished wooden bar and, with a smooth wooden stick, are shaken out, +straightened, pulled, twisted, and worked until the fibres are all +parallel, the kinks taken out, any weak or injured portion cut out, +and the whole skein has acquired the proper amount of lustre. + +Sometimes, for specially brilliant fabrics, the skeins are “lustred” +by machinery; this is the so-called “metallic lustring” when the +silk, generally enveloped in steam so as to be both hot and damp, +is pulled out between two steel arms until it has been stretched a +considerable percentage of its original length. This undoubtedly +lessens the strength of the fibre considerably and diminishes its +elasticity, but under this strain each fibre is stretched out +perfectly smooth and thus becomes much more brilliant and lustrous. + +=Dyeing Wild Silks.=—It has been found difficult to handle +satisfactorily the different sorts of wild silks in the factory. The +bleaching of them has been very troublesome, although of late years +the problem has been solved pretty well. And the ordinary process for +dyeing silk with Acid dyes in a broken soap, or boiled-off liquor, +bath is, for full deep shades at any rate, not always satisfactory. +In consequence most of the genuine pongee or Shantung cloth is sold +in the natural unbleached color, a pleasant shade of tan, or else in +light shades. + +Perhaps the best results in dyeing pongee silk full, deep, even +shades are obtained by mordanting the material with tannin and +tartar emetic, just as cotton is mordanted before dyeing it with +Basic colors, and then using in the dye-bath one or the other of +the so-called “Janus” colors,—a group of colors on the border line +between Basic and Acid, of which the best are Janus Yellow G, Janus +Yellow R, Janus Red B, and Janus Black 1 (_Metz_). + +This process, however, is too complicated for the unprofessional dyer +to use with much success. + +For all but the very full shades the craftsman is advised to use the +Acid colors, as, for instance, some of the selected colors of the +different houses, listed in Chapter VII, in a bath acidified with +acetic acid, and without the use of soap. + +For dark dull shades the Sulphur colors can be used, especially +if some care is taken to reduce the alkalinity of the bath by +neutralizing or nearly neutralizing the sodium sulphide with a +little acid sodium sulphite. If the desired shade is so dark as to +necessitate heating and dye-bath, it is also advisable to add a +little gelatin. + +For full shades of rather brighter quality the Vat dyes may be +employed, also with precautions against the tendering action of the +caustic alkali upon the fibre. + +Before, however, starting in to dye a piece of pongee on the +assumption that it is made from tussah silk, it is very advisable +to examine it carefully, picking out the individual threads and +untwisting them, and to make a few dyeing tests upon small samples. +For a large proportion of so-called pongee, which in color, lustre, +feel, and general appearance resembles the genuine Shantung very +closely, is simply made from spun or waste silk, and can be dyed like +ordinary silk. + +_Acid Dyes, to be used on Silk._—Any of the dyestuffs mentioned +in the lists on page 127, as suitable for wool, can be used +successfully for silk dyeing. These colors have all been selected as +unusually fast to light and, in this respect, are to be classified +as “practically all of the first class,” i.e., as absolutely +satisfactory against the action of sunlight. + +But, for a valuable and comparatively fragile material like silk, it +is quite allowable to use colors for special shades which are less +fast to sunlight, if they possess other valuable qualities. Such, +for instance, are the two red dyestuffs, Fast Acid Eosine G (_Metz_) +and Fast Acid Phloxine (_Metz_), which belong to the group of +so-called Eosine or Fluoresceïn dyestuffs most of which, while very +beautiful, are extremely fugitive. These two dyes, which give shades +of pink and red with yellow and blue fluorescence, respectively, are +considerably more fast than the rest of their group, and will rank in +the third class, if not at the foot of the second class, as regards +light-fastness. + +With regard to fastness to washing, it must be remembered that +these Acid dyes are not fast at all, when dyed on silk in a broken +soap bath. They may stand very light washing in a cold soap bath, +but in boiling soapsuds will strip completely. This is important +for the amateur, and indeed, for the professional dyer, for +whom a dyed silk, either skein or in the piece, has come out +unsatisfactorily—uneven or spotted, or too dark in shade—for it is +possible, if the silk is of good quality, to clean off the color +completely by boiling soapsuds, without injuring the goods. + +If the trouble is unevenness, while the shade is satisfactory, the +color can be dissolved off in the boiling soap bath and then, on +breaking the bath with a little acid, the same dye can be laid right +on again, it is to be hoped this time in a satisfactory manner. The +question of dyeing silk fast to washing, and also of dyeing silk +black, will be dealt with in the next chapter. + + + + + CHAPTER XII + + SILK—II + +BLACK DYEING OF SILK. WEIGHTING AND ADULTERATION OF SILK. DYEING SILK +WITH COLORS FAST TO WASHING + + +The dyeing process described in the last chapter, while well suited +for dyeing silk bright and lustrous colors, is not so well adapted +to dyeing it black. To be sure, there are several good fast acid +blacks, such as Silk Patent Black, 2R, _Kalle_, or Neutral Wool +Black, B, _Cassella_, or Cashmere Black, 3BN, _Elberfeld_, or Amido +Black, 4024, _Metz_, which, dyed in full shades in a broken bath of +soap or boiled-off liquor, will give fairly good results. But the +best of these are not always quite satisfactory, the resulting color +generally showing a tendency to be a deep full grey rather than a +perfectly true lustrous black. + +_Salt Colors._—Silk may also be dyed black with some of the good Salt +colors—but unless the dyer takes the trouble to after-treat the goods +by the troublesome process of diazotizing and developing, the results +are no better, if indeed as good as those resulting from the Acid +blacks mentioned above. + +_Sulphur Colors._—These have very often been tried on silk without +much success, because for dark colors like blacks, it is necessary to +boil the goods in the dye-liquor for some time and to have the latter +very concentrated. Unfortunately the sodium sulphide, necessary for +dissolving the sulphur dyes, is a powerful alkali, and hence readily +attacks an animal fibre, like silk. It is possible, however, by the +abundant use of glucose (Karo syrup, etc.) to greatly protect the +silk from this tendering action. It is also possible for a dyer +fairly well trained in chemistry, to very carefully neutralize the +dye-bath by the cautious addition of acid sodium sulphite, until +the dye-liquor is no longer alkaline and yet the dyestuff is not +precipitated. This process, however, is hardly fitted for an amateur, +and has not proved very successful even among the professionals. + +_Logwood Blacks._—Nearly all professional dyers continue to use the +old vegetable dyestuff, logwood, about which some information was +given in the first chapter. + +To dye with this it is customary to use one of the many good logwood +extracts on the market. Great care must be taken in the proper +mordanting of the silk before it goes into the bath. For this purpose +the silk is impregnated first with iron salts, and later with tannin, +and in some processes, with salts of chromium or of tin, before +entering the logwood bath. In all cases, therefore, silk dyed black +with logwood contains a certain amount, say 15% to 20% of its weight, +or 2-3 ounces to the pound, of foreign ingredients. When carefully +done this does not injure the material at all, and the “pure dyed” +logwood blacks are perfectly satisfactory both for shade, lustre, and +durability. + + +WEIGHTING OF SILK + +This moderate increase of weight, however, which is hardly enough to +replace the weight of the gum lost in the stripping process, was far +from satisfying the demands of the manufacturer for a cheaper raw +material. And accordingly both dyer and dyeing chemist have exhausted +all their energies and skill in trying to increase this percentage +of cheap foreign matter in the finished silk, to the utmost limit of +what the market will stand. + +The first efforts in this direction were based upon the saving of +some or, indeed, nearly all, of the gum which is wasted in the +stripping or degumming process previously described. This gum, +which amounts to from 20 to 35 per cent. of the raw silk, makes the +silk stiff in texture and dull in color and more difficult to dye. +Accordingly, in former years, it was invariably washed out of the +silk with the greatest care before any attempt was made to dye it. +But by modifying the dyeing, and especially the finishing process, +it was found possible to produce the so-called “souples”—i.e., silks +with little or no lustre, but with the characteristic “scroop” or +“feel”—capable of replacing bright silk as a filling in many fabrics +and yet containing almost all the natural gum left in the fibre. + +The black silks were then attacked and an elaborate system of +mordanting was introduced before the dyeing proper began. For +instance, the silk can be steeped alternately in one solution after +another, first of iron salts and then of ferrocyanide of potash, thus +forming Prussian blue in the fibre. Then the excess of iron can be +converted by immersion in tannin solutions, such as Gambier or Cutch, +into black tannate of iron, or ink, and finally, after perhaps a +light bath in chromium salts, the real black color is brought out by +boiling in logwood extract. The silk is then brightened by boiling +with good neutral Castile soap, is shaded, if necessary, by dyeing +with either an Acid or Basic dye in a weak bath, and, after drying +and finishing, the finished product may easily weigh two or even +three times as much as the original raw silk, and still retain its +strength, lustre, and elasticity. + +_Tin Weighting._—The weighting of colored and bright silks did not +proceed so rapidly, and it was not much more than ten years ago that, +by accident, some French dyers discovered that by immersion in a +strong bath of tin chloride (stannic chloride acidified with some +hydrochloric acid) the silk fibre would absorb a large percentage +of tin salts without necessarily losing lustre, dyeing capacity, or +even strength. This at first was kept a secret, but its use gradually +spread, until now it is a very poor silk dyer who cannot weight his +silk 100 or 150 per cent. without spoiling its immediate commercial +value. + +Without going into unnecessary details, the process is somewhat as +follows: The silk, after being degummed and thoroughly washed free of +soap, is plunged into a bath of tin chloride and kept there for some +hours. It is then taken out and the loose tin salts are washed off in +a tank of water (technically called a box), or in a washing machine. +To further “set” the tin, the silk is then placed for a short time +in a solution of phosphate of soda and again washed thoroughly. It +has now gained from 15 to 25 per cent of its original weight (2½ to 4 +ounces to the pound of raw silk). + +If further weighting is desired, this treatment, first in tin +chloride and then in phosphate of soda, can be repeated three or +four up to five or even six times, increasing the weight with each +immersion. Then a bath is usually given of silicate of soda, which +adds a little weight, ½ to ¾ of an ounce, and, it is claimed, +benefits the lustre and strength of the goods. Then, after a final +washing, the silk is ready for the dye-bath. + +The weighted goods are dyed, dried, and finished about the same +as with the “pure dye” process, and the proud dyer can rejoice at +returning to the honest manufacturer from 150 to 250 pounds of +finished silk for every 100 pounds of raw silk (containing, by the +way, 25 to 30 pounds of gum) which was sent in to the dyehouse! This +“tin-weighing” process is also applied to black dyeing, and enables +the black dyer to build up his weight with tin salts instead of +limiting him to iron, chromium, ferrocyanide of potash, tannin, and +logwood. + +_Properties of Weighted Silk._—It is scarcely necessary to point out +that silk, weighted to the extreme limit, is hardly to be considered +as the most durable and trustworthy of fabrics, even when dyed by the +most expert workmen. And when carelessly prepared heavily weighted +silk is an abomination, liable to crack and wear away with the least +provocation. + +It may be worth reminding some of my fair readers that the old +test of a silk taffeta, “so thick and stiff that it will stand of +itself,” is nowadays anything but a proof of good quality. One or two +manufacturers in this country a few years ago tried to revive the +almost forgotten art of making and selling pure-dyed goods, and one +trouble they experienced in disposing of their products, outside the +high price, was the criticism that their silk felt so light and thin. + +_Prevalence of Weighted Silk._—At present it is almost impossible, +at least in New York, to buy pure-dyed heavy silks. The writer, at +any rate, has tried diligently, during the last year or two, to find +for some special experiments a piece of white taffeta which was not +markedly weighted. After visiting department stores and the very best +dry-goods stores in the city, at all of which he was informed that +no such material now existed, the best that could be obtained was +one make of silk where the organzine or warp was fairly pure, the +tram being well weighted. Light-weight Japanese and Chinese silks, +however, undyed or dyed in the piece, can still be procured with +little or no weighting. + +_Tests for Weighted Silk._—This silk may be identified by a very +simple test. Pure-dyed silk, when dry, is easily inflammable. When +touched with a lighted match it catches fire at once, “carries the +flame” well, especially if in the form of thread; and, if followed +up with a flame, it will before long burn away completely, leaving +little or no ash or residue. + +On the other hand, weighted silk, especially when the added mineral +matter amounts to 25% or over, is quite hard to burn. If it catches +fire at all, it just flashes up for a moment and then the flame dies +right out. And when persistently heated, until the organic matter is +all burnt away, it still leaves a very considerable residue of ash. + +When this test is to be made on unwoven or skein silk, it is enough +to take two or three threads, five or six inches long, and to light +them in the flame of a match. For piece goods it is best to pick out +the threads carefully, with a pin or fine knife blade, separating +the tram from the organzine, and then, with a match, to test each +of these in turn. A very little practice will enable the most +inexperienced student to make this test satisfactorily. + +Of course, for an accurate determination of the percentage of +weighting contained in a given sample of silk, it is necessary to +resort to delicate chemical analyses. But for all ordinary purposes +this simple flame test is quite sufficient. + + +DYEING SILK WITH COLORS FAST TO WASHING + +As a rule the method previously described of dyeing silk with Acid +dyes in a broken bath of soap, or better, of boiled-off liquor, will +be found perfectly satisfactory. The shades are easily obtained, the +colors are brilliant, and, if the right dyes are used, exceedingly +fast to light, and the material, if properly rinsed, suffers no +deterioration. + +On the other hand these colors are not, in the slightest degree, fast +to washing. + +The dyed goods can be cleaned with gasoline and the like, but when +passed through a lukewarm bath of soap and water they bleed badly, +and in boiling soapsuds the color can be completely stripped from +them. + +In most cases this is not a serious objection, for a person who +will send a handsome hand-dyed silk scarf or piece of embroidery to +the family washtub is entitled to scant sympathy if the results are +disastrous. But occasionally it is important to have colors on silk +which can be guaranteed against moderate or even against, severe, +washing. + +_Fast Colors on Silk._—There are two grades of fastness known to the +dyers—“fast” and “embroidery fast.” + +“Fast” means simply that the silk is to be dyed fast to ordinary, +careful handling so that the colors will not bleed or run in a warm +or even hot soap bath, but does not guarantee them against every +possible maltreatment. + +The best way of doing this is by the use of the Direct Cotton or Salt +dyes, described in Chapter III, which, it will be remembered, only +dye wool or silk at a high temperature, at or near the boiling point +and, preferably, in an acid bath, but, when once on, are very hard +to dislodge. The selected ones are very fast to light and present a +great range of bright, attractive colors, which are nearly, if not +quite, as brilliant as those produced by the Acid dyes. + +They are applied in a boiling bath containing a little acetic acid, +and a good deal of salt, especially for full shades. For lighter +shades, the presence of salt is hardly necessary. The goods are to be +finished just as with the Acid dyes, with a soap bath followed, if +the scroop is desired, by a weak bath of acetic acid. + +The results, when carefully done, are very good. They possess, +however, one disadvantage for the amateur dyer. These colors are +quite hard to strip, and so, the desired effect must be produced +the first time, or not at all. It is not possible to strip an +unsatisfactory shade in a hot soap bath, and dye it over and over +again without injury, as in the case with Acid dyes. They are best +stripped by soaking in a bath of sodium hydrosulphite, and then +washing. + +_Embroidery Fast Colors._—While the above process gives shades fast +enough against all ordinary washing, it sometimes happens that silk +must be dyed fast enough to withstand exactly the same treatment +that coarse cotton or linen goods are subjected to, without bleeding +or staining. The salt dyes are not quite fast enough for this, +particularly because, not having been converted in the dyeing process +into a special insoluble condition, if they should be detached from +the fibre by strong or hot soaping, they would be liable to stain the +neighboring tissues and not wash off quite clear. + +One of the hardest tests that colored silk is called upon to stand +is when, in small quantities, it is used with a large amount of +white linen or cotton goods. Thus, for instance, when monograms are +embroidered in red or blue silk upon white towels or napkins, and +the latter are scrubbed, week after week, in the regular wash, the +color must be fast, indeed, not to show some evidences of running. +Hence the term “embroidery fastness” as applied to this class of +dyes. Thanks, also, to the amiable practice of the modern laundress +of lightening her labors by the addition of bleaching powder and +other strong chemicals to the washtub, it is very important that a +silk dyed “embroidery fast” should be able to withstand the action +of these agents as well as of soap. Up to the last few years these +colors were only obtained by the use of the Alizarine dyestuffs, the +full rich scarlet so often used for this purpose being the modern +form of the old, madder-dyed, Turkey red of our forefathers. + +But, during the last few years, the troublesome and tedious +mordanting processes necessary for the proper development of color by +the Alizarine dyes, have been replaced, for craftsmen, and, indeed, +by most professional dyers, by the much simpler and shorter processes +of vat dyeing. As long as Indigo was the sole representative of the +class, it was of very little use for silk dyeing. But since the +introduction of the splendid series of new vat dyes, the Algol, Ciba, +Helindone, Indanthrene, and Thio Indigo colors, which, dyed in a +single bath, give a whole range of brilliant shades, wonderfully fast +to light and to washing, the necessity for mordant colors has very +largely disappeared. + + +DYEING SILK WITH VAT DYES + +It must always be remembered when working with silk, wool, leather, +or any other animal material, that such materials are extremely +sensitive to the action of alkalies, especially when hot or caustic, +while they are but slightly injured, if at all, by the action of +dilute acids. For this reason it is always better, whenever possible, +to dye silk with the Acid dyes or the Salt dyes, in an acid or +neutral bath, rather than to use dyestuffs like the Vat dyes or the +Sulphur colors, which need an alkaline dye-liquor. Furthermore, +the silk is likely to have a more brilliant lustre when dyed with +a color which fastens to it by chemical affinity, from a solution, +rather than one where the color is fixed because the oxygen of the +atmosphere changes it into an insoluble powder, while in the pores of +the silk. It is, however, perfectly possible to dye silk full shades +with the Vat dyes and even—though this is not often advisable—with +the Sulphur dyes, by using some simple precautions. + +The best Vat dyes for silk are Indigo itself, and its substitution +products, like Brom-Indigo, _Elberfeld_, or the Thio Indigo dyes, +_Kalle_, or else the rather closely related colors like the +Helindones, _Metz_, and the Ciba colors, _Klipstein_. It is of +importance to use only those which are shown in the table on page +102, as dyeing in a cold, or at most, a lukewarm bath. + +The dye-bath should be made with a considerable amount of dyestuff, +so as to avoid the necessity of keeping the goods in it long. And +the amount of caustic alkali should be kept as low as possible, +consistent of course with dissolving the reduced dyestuff. It has +been found in practice that the presence of glue or gelatine in the +bath, or even of glucose (molasses, corn syrup, Karo syrup, etc.), +protects the silk, wool, and other animal fibres greatly from the +action of alkalies. It should, therefore, be added in quantities of +two or three large tablespoonfuls to the gallon of dye-liquor. + +The wet goods should be immersed in the cold or lukewarm bath, and +turned constantly for a few minutes only, before taking them out, +wringing them, and hanging them up to oxidize. As soon as the color +sets, which is shown generally, by the change of shade and which +never takes more than, say, twenty minutes if the materials are well +opened up, the goods should be brightened in a hot bath of good, +neutral, olive oil soap, and then finished as previously described. +It will be remembered that several, indeed most of the best Vat +colors do not develop their final shade at all, until after the +soaping process. + +When carefully done, this process will give exceedingly fast and +quite brilliant colors, without injury to the strength of the goods. + +_Comparative Results of Vat Dyes and Sulphur Dyes on Silk._—It is +hard to get full shades with Sulphur colors because it is generally +necessary to heat the dye-bath, and this, owing to the powerful +alkaline properties of the sodium sulphide, is very injurious to the +silk. Besides this, the sulphur dyes are much less brilliant than the +Vat dyes, and have no good red or orange shades in the whole class. +They accordingly should not be used, excepting where no other are +available, or, as will be described in a later chapter, when doing +“resist stencilling” on silk. + +On the other hand, such very unusual advantages do some of these +new Vat dyes possess, for the dyeing of silk for special purposes, +that large quantities of Helindones, Thio Indigoes, and other good +specimens of this class are being sold, at comparatively very high +prices, to manufacturers of fine shirtings where the patterns are +made by weaving fine lines or figures of brightly dyed silk into the +linen or cotton fabric. Until the introduction of these dyes in the +last two or three years these shades could not have been produced +fast enough for this purpose. + +Sulphur dyes can also be used on silk without injuring the goods, by +taking the precautions described earlier in this chapter. The shades, +however, are quiet and dull, as compared to those produced by other +classes of dyestuffs; and it is almost, if not quite, impossible to +get a good full red and, especially, a good scarlet, by using these +colors. + +Silk properly dyed with Sulphur colors is extremely fast to washing. +But these dyes, unlike the best Vat colors, are as a rule quite +sensitive to bleaching agents, and therefore are not so well adapted +for general use on “embroidery fast” silk. + + + + + CHAPTER XIII + + IMITATION AND ARTIFICIAL SILK + + +Owing to the high price of pure silk and the bad wearing qualities of +the highly adulterated silks, described in the last chapter, there +has been for a long time a strong demand for a fabric which would +combine as far as possible the strength and wearing power of the one, +with the cheap price of the other, while still retaining the lustre +and “scroop” and characteristic appearance of both. + +The demand at present is met, and not so unsuccessfully, first by +imitation silk, of which mercerized cotton is the best example, and +second, by the various forms of artificial silk which during the +last few years have been introduced widely in both Europe and our +own country. The competition of these two classes of products is not +at all to be despised. Their quality is constantly improving, their +price diminishing, and their production increasing rapidly from year +to year. And if the silk manufacturers continue to produce such poor +material in the line of weighted silk fabrics as they have in the +past, it will be but a short time before they will find the market +almost entirely divided between pure-dyed silks, on the one hand, for +expensive goods, and some of these new products for cheap materials. + + +MERCERIZED COTTON + +_History and Preparation._—This material was first introduced as +a substitute for silk some ten or twelve years ago, although the +process for making it was invented about 1840, by a celebrated +English dyer, John Mercer. He discovered that when cotton, either in +cloth or yarn, was subjected for a short time to the action of strong +caustic alkali, and then thoroughly washed, the resulting material +was much stronger than before, had shrunk very considerably, and had +a much greater affinity for dyestuffs. For instance, dyes like the +Basic colors, which give but a temporary stain on ordinary cotton, +will dye with some degree of fastness cotton thus treated with +alkali, without the use of mordants. Mercer patented his discovery +and made some use of it in calico printing; as, for instance, in the +making of “crinkled” goods. But the process was nearly forgotten +until, in 1889, it was discovered that, by proper treatment, cotton +could by this means be made so lustrous as to compare not unfavorably +with silk. + +To make the cotton lustrous, the goods, after dipping into the +strong alkali, are kept firmly stretched, and their strong tendency +to shrink resisted, until the alkali has been thoroughly rinsed off +and the last traces neutralized with a little acid. If this is done +carefully, when finally dried the cotton fibres will be found drawn +out smooth and lustrous, while still retaining their new qualities +of strength and increased dyeing power. To get good results in this +process the materials treated, whether in yarn or cloth, must +be made of the very best and longest stapled cotton, preferably +Egyptian, and when well done the results are extremely satisfactory. +The lustre is not as good as the very best silk, but it is quite well +marked, and for replacing the cheap grades of heavily weighted silks, +as, for instance, for underwear, linings, etc., the mercerized goods +are of very great value, owing to their strength and durability, as +well as their cheapness. + +_Dyeing of Mercerized Cotton._—Cotton, thus treated, is dyed in +the same way that ordinary cotton is, with the exception that it +takes the dyes more rapidly, and, as a rule, gives deeper and more +brilliant shades with the same amount of coloring matter. + +For special purposes it may be best to use the Sulphur or the Vat +dyes, but in general this material is best dyed with the Salt dyes, +which are not only easy to apply, but are fast to light, very +brilliant, and on these goods, at any rate, very fairly fast to +washing. As before mentioned, the fastness to both light and washing +may be considerably improved by after treatment of the dyed goods, +i.e., by passing them through a hot bath containing a tablespoonful +each of copper sulphate, potassium bichromate, and acetic acid to the +gallon of water. + +This, however, will rarely be found necessary, provided the selected +colors are used, and the color has been applied at the boil in a bath +containing considerable salt. + + +ARTIFICIAL SILK + +=History.=—The famous old French chemist, Réaumur, in the year 1734, +suggested, after a study of the silk worm, and of the method by which +it “spins” the natural thread, that it might be possible to make a +jelly-like substance which could be drawn out into a fine thread and, +coagulating, form an artificial silk. + +This suggestion was first acted on, in a practical way, in the +year 1855, when Andermars obtained some curious results by dipping +a needle or fine metal rod into a thin viscous solution known as +collodion, and then drawing it out rapidly, made fine, smooth threads +as the material solidified. This collodion, which for many years has +been in common use in minor surgery to paint on wounds and cuts, +because it leaves a film of artificial skin, and in more recent times +has been much used in photography, is a solution of gun cotton or +nitro-cellulose in a mixture of alcohol and ether. In 1885 Count +Hilary de Chardonnet made improvements in this last process, and +produced successfully the first real artificial silk threads on a +commercial scale. + +_Chardonnet Silk._—He also used a thick collodion solution, but +instead of _drawing_ it out he _pressed_ it out through fine holes +by using very great pressure. As fast as the gummy thread exuded it +was picked up, carried along into a drying room, where the alcohol +and ether could escape (to be condensed later and used over again), +and then the solid fibre was passed into a solution of some suitable +reducing agent, such as ammonium or sodium sulphydrate, which +converts the inflammable gun cotton into its original condition of +cellulose. These resulting threads, being smooth and uniform when +properly made, have very great lustre. Indeed, they are often far +more brilliant than the very best and finest natural silk, and can be +dyed and woven into beautiful fabrics. + +This discovery of Chardonnet’s was at once utilized, and large and +flourishing factories of Chardonnet silk sprang up all over Europe. +The first large factory, which is still doing a very profitable +business, was at Besançon, in France, and later a large factory was +established at Frankfort, Germany. + +_Pauly Silk._—The success of this process aroused the interest of +other chemists, and before long several rival processes came into +existence, also based on the use of a viscous solution of a cellulose +compound. One company, making the so-called Pauly silk, utilized the +solvent action of an ammoniacal copper solution upon cellulose for +their starting point. + +_Elberfeld Silk, Glanzstoff._—The Farbenfabriken von Elberfeld, +famous manufacturers of dyestuffs, took up the manufacture of silk +from a solution of a compound of cellulose with acetic acid; and the +Elberfeld silk, or, as it is widely known in Germany, Glanzstoff, +is every year becoming a more and more important factor in the silk +business. + +_Viscose Silk._—A still different process, which during the past +two or three years has been successfully introduced into the United +States, depends upon the curious substance called Viscose, a thick, +sticky solution of cellulose made by first treating wood pulp, +cotton or other vegetable fibre with strong caustic soda and then +dissolving the resulting product in carbon disulphide. + +This Viscose was first introduced for many different purposes. +The solvent, carbon disulphide, is very volatile, and flies off +readily, leaving the cellulose behind in the form of a stiff jelly +which, on drying, becomes solid and strong. So Viscose was used for +water-proofing paper, etc., for making solid articles like piano +keys and billiard balls, and even for making opaque patterns in +calico printing. But its most valuable application is for artificial +silk. It is pressed out through fine holes, and the thread resulting +quickly solidifies as the solvent evaporates, and can be dried +carefully and worked up on reels or bobbins, to be dyed later. + +_Properties._—Artificial silk, as a rule, is a little stiffer than +natural silk, but has an exceedingly fine lustre. It cannot be spun +in as fine threads as fine, natural silk, but, on the other hand, can +be produced in thick, smooth threads which, stained as a rule black +or dark colors, quite replace horsehair for furniture coverings, etc. +Similar products are made, too, by coating cotton with a layer of +artificial silk. + +Another curious use of this artificial silk process is when it is +formed into still larger threads, very lustrous and quite stiff, +and used for plumes and aigrettes. They can be dyed any color, have +excellent lustre, and are extremely useful for millinery. + +_Precautions Necessary in Dyeing._—One great drawback is common to +all these different varieties of artificial silk. They are quite +strong, although not particularly elastic, when dry, but when wet +lose their strength very markedly. Indeed, at one time it was +found extremely troublesome to dye them, as the silk skein dyers, +accustomed to work and wring and stretch their silk, with impunity, +in and out of the hot dye-baths, would try the same treatment +with this new product, and in consequence ruin every skein. When +thoroughly wet through in a hot bath the thread will soften until +a skein may hardly bear its own weight. Accordingly, the dyeing is +always done as quickly as possible, and generally at a lukewarm or +only moderately high temperature. The skeins should be handled as +little as possible in the dye-bath, and, when taken out to wring, +should be rinsed slightly to get rid of extra color, acid, etc., and +then carefully dried, not by twisting on two sticks, as is customary +with other materials, but by wrapping in cheese cloth or blotting +paper and then running the skeins backward and forward through the +clothes wringer. + +=Tests for Artificial Silk.=—It has been ascertained that all +varieties of artificial silk now on the market are made from some +form of cellulose. Efforts have been made to take thick jellies +made from gelatine or similar animal compounds, and make threads +from them, coagulating them later by treatment with formaldehyde or +similar chemicals. + +These experiments have, however, not as yet proved successful. +Accordingly, any test that will distinguish between a vegetable and +an animal fibre will show whether a brilliant thread or piece of +textiles contains natural silk or not. The simplest of tests is, of +course, to burn a little with a match or at a flame and see if there +results the characteristic “burnt feather smell” of charring animal +tissues. This odor accompanies the natural silk. The chemist would +probably make the same test more accurately by heating a wad of the +material in the bottom of a small test tube and noticing whether +ammonia was being evolved, and whether the distillate was alkaline +in reaction. The ammonia and alkali resulting from the nitrogenous +organic matter is a certain indication of animal matter. + +To distinguish between mercerized cotton and artificial silk, it +is generally enough to soak the samples for a short time, say a +quarter of an hour, in boiling water and test their strength. +Mercerized cotton properly made would be just as strong afterward +as before, while the artificial silk would be soft and weak, if it +would not, indeed, break down completely. Besides this, it must be +remembered that the mercerized cotton, in spite of its lustre, is +made up of threads tightly spun together from a large number of short +fibres, none of which are over two inches or so in length, while +the artificial silks are made up, like the natural silk, of long, +continuous fibres twisted together to form the yarn. + +In general, these artificial silks, manufactured as they are from +wood pulp and other vegetable materials, are to be dyed with the +Salt, Sulphur, or Vat dyes, care always being taken to expose them to +the action of hot dye-liquors as short a time as possible. The Salt +dyes are less apt to interfere with the brilliant lustre, but the +Sulphur and Vat dyes have the great advantage of dyeing in a cold or +lukewarm bath, without any loss in fastness. + +The Chardonnet silk has a special affinity for the Basic dyes, and +in the trade is usually dyed both light and dark shades with these +coloring matters, without previous mordanting, in a slightly acid +bath. This practice, however, while simple and easy, is not to be +recommended. For the Basic dyes, with but few exceptions, fugitive +under all circumstances, are particularly sensitive to light, when +dyed in light shades, upon such a brilliant and almost transparent +medium as this is. On the other hand, articles made of artificial +silk, being easily injured by rain, are not so liable to be exposed +to the open weather as some other less delicate materials. + +The Viscose and Elberfeld silks (Glanzstoff) have less affinity for +the Basic dyes, and dye more readily with the Salt and Sulphur colors +than the Chardonnet silk, made from gun cotton. But it is perfectly +possible to dye the latter also with fast colors of the Salt, +Sulphur, or Vat classes, providing large amounts of dyestuff are used +to bring up the shade. Indeed it is poor economy to be sparing of the +coloring matter, when working with any kind of artificial silk. For +speed is essential, and the dyer who lets his material remain long in +the dye-bath is liable to get into difficulties. + +The artificial silk, after dyeing, should be finished much like +natural silk, by rinsing and then passing through a bath containing +some olive oil, emulsified in a weak bath of soda ash. This increases +the lustre. It should also be dried at a fairly low temperature and, +while drying, kept stretched out by hanging a wooden or glass rod in +the loop of the hanging skein, or some similar device, taking care to +avoid strain great enough to pull apart the weakened fibre. + +When dyeing this material great care should also be taken in tying up +the individual skeins and in handling them. Turn them in the dye-bath +as little as possible consistent with even dyeing. The threads, +unless very tightly spun, are constantly liable to come untwisted, +and the knots to untie, causing much annoyance. + +In conclusion, when carefully made and dyed these artificial silks +furnish beautiful, brilliant, lustrous fibres, which can be used to +great effect in many kinds of handicraft work. They can easily be +procured with more lustre than the very best natural silk, but even +when dry are deficient in elasticity, and to some extent in strength, +and when wet are very fragile. The price is kept at a rather high +figure, as a rule only from 25 to 50 cents a pound less than that +of good natural silk. But every year the production is increasing, +new factories are springing up in every country, and as there is no +limit to the production excepting the demand, it is probable that in +a few years, thanks to competition, the price will be dropped very +considerably and the whole silk business will be revolutionized. At +present it is estimated that the production of the artificial silk is +not far from one-fifth that of natural silk, and this fraction is +getting larger every month. + +Indeed, the rise of this particular industry may fairly be considered +as one of the most interesting, most useful, and most valuable +contributions of the manufacturing chemist during the last quarter +century. + + + + + CHAPTER XIV + + TIED AND DYED WORK + + +Hitherto, in this book, the student has been instructed in the +general art of dyeing and coloring the various fabrics, both in the +yarn and in piece, without any attention to the subject of coloring +them in patterns or designs. The remaining chapters will be devoted +to various methods, suitable for craftsmen, by which the dyestuffs +can be applied so as to give more or less definite patterns to the +objects to be colored. + +This art, in its general principles, was worked out in various parts +of the world at very early periods in their civilization. In a great +many cases colored designs in textiles were formed, in the process +of weaving, by incorporating yarns of different colors in certain +portions of the fabric. + +But along with this, at a very early stage in the textile industry, +there was developed the art of making patterns, regular or irregular, +by the action of dyestuffs upon previously woven goods. In general +there are three methods for doing this which, it is claimed, were +known to the ancient Egyptians just as well as they are to the modern +calico printer. These three methods are known as Direct Coloring, +Discharge, and Resist dyeing. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2—TIED AND DYED HEADDRESS FROM AN INCA TOMB IN +PERU] + +=Direct Coloring.=—This means the application of the dyestuff or +coloring matter to different special portions of the textile or +fabric, so as to give a colored design, upon a lighter background. +The dye may be applied by dipping special portions of the fabric into +it, in which case the pattern is apt to be a very loose and irregular +one. Or, if the material will take the dye readily enough, as for +instance in the staining of leather, it may be applied with a brush, +or a small pad. + +More formal and intricate designs can be made by applying the color +in the form of a paste, through the help of stencils, as worked out +by the Japanese so beautifully, or by means of wooden or metallic +blocks, as in the block printing in the East, which in Europe and +America has developed into the art of calico printing, by rolls run +by machinery. + +=Discharge.=—This process is the exact reverse of the preceding +one, in that the cloth or other material is dyed first, and later +the color is either entirely removed or, it may be, very decidedly +altered in shade, in certain special parts, by the application of +some chemical. + +The earliest examples of this are where cloths stained with Iron +buff, have had patterns made in them by washing out certain portions +with acid. Just as some of the earliest forms of “direct coloring” +are shown in the dark patterns of leaves, formed by the same Iron +buff dye, upon cloth against which moist fresh leaves have been +crushed. + +The discharge process is not as commonly used by craftsmen as the +other two methods, because it has not always been easy to find or to +use a chemical that will properly destroy or change any particular +color, without at the same time, if fast dyes are used, destroying +or at least injuring the fabric. The professional dyer, working in +conjunction with the chemist, carefully weighing the reagents, and +using steam chests and drying chambers with definite and carefully +regulated temperatures, can fully discharge even the fastest dyes +without danger. But this is difficult, if not impossible for the +craftsman, and while the process will be discussed and described +under the subject of stencilling, it will be found, comparatively, of +but little practical importance. + +=Resist.=—The third and last method for getting colored patterns +is one which has been used in different ways, by the most widely +scattered nations, and which, to this day, furnishes one of the most +interesting and important processes at the disposal of the craftsman, +as opposed to the professional dyer. + +It consists of applying to certain portions of the fabric, before +dyeing, some agent which, acting either chemically or mechanically, +will “resist” the action of the dyestuff at the places where it is +applied. These parts accordingly will remain in their original color, +or at any rate will be but slightly colored, while other portions, +not so protected, will be dyed full shades. This, in many respects, +is the most advantageous way of obtaining patterns for the craftsman, +because no action has taken place tending to injure the strength +or durability of either material or dyestuff, and as the color is +applied in a regular dye-bath there is generally an opportunity to +apply the dyestuffs in the most approved manner. + +_Variations in Resist Work._—The resist method has been discovered in +many parts of the world, and has been carried out in many ways. In +Java, for instance, a beautiful art was developed known as Batik, to +be described later, in more detail. These people used, as a resisting +medium, molten beeswax, which could be poured or painted on to the +cloth wherever desired, and, according to whether it was applied hot +or only just warm enough to be liquid, would protect the material +covered, either wholly or partially, against the action of dyestuffs +in a cold bath. + +Less elaborate, but still very interesting processes are reported +from many other quarters. As will be described in the next chapter +the Japanese have long used a resist paste, to make white patterns +against dark backgrounds with their stencils. In some of the Pacific +Islands natives have learnt to make patterns by pressing pieces +of cloth tightly between shells, as for instance the two halves +of a clam shell, and then dyeing or staining around them. Other +tribes learnt the trick of tying or sewing flat thin pieces of +wood together, tightly compressing the cloth between them and thus +preventing the dyestuff from reaching those parts of the goods when +dyed later. + +But the most common process, and one which is not only the simplest +and easiest to carry out, but also offers to the skilful dyer an +almost unlimited range of interesting and effective results, in color +and design, is the so-called “Tied and Dyed Work.” + + +TIED AND DYED WORK + +In this process, Tied and Dyed Work, the pattern is made by tying +string or cord, more or less tightly, around certain selected +portions of the material. When the goods, thus treated, are +subsequently dyed, these tied portions will be kept from the action +of the dyestuff, and after the operation is finished and the strings +cut or untied, they will be lighter in color than the adjacent parts +of the fabric. + +This process has been known and widely used in many different parts +of the world. Some interesting examples of it are found among the +textiles from the so-called Inca graves, in Peru and Bolivia, dating +from before the Spanish conquest in the sixteenth century (see Fig. +2). Some extremely interesting specimens of tied work can be seen in +the Philippine collection in the New York Museum of Natural History, +brought from the Bagobo tribe in Mindanao (see Fig. 5). While +perhaps the most extraordinary development of this process can be +found in the so-called chundries or chunaries, imported from Central +Hindustan, and sold by traders in Eastern goods and textiles at very +moderate prices. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3—SHIKAR CHUNDRI, FROM RAJPUTANA, WITH KNOTS +STILL UNTIED] + +=Chundries.=—These are chiefly manufactured in the native State +of Kotah, in Rajputana, and have been produced there from time +immemorial, for use as clothing and hangings. Those that are imported +to this country (see Figs. 3 and 4) are generally made of extremely +thin, flimsy muslin, most elaborately decorated in three or four +colors, with patterns made up of an infinite number of small round +or rectangular rings of white or light colors, against a darker +background. They can be obtained in the same condition that they +left the dyer’s hands, folded tightly together, colored red or brown +or black from the final dye-bath, and covered over with hundreds of +little hard knots or lumps. These, on examination, prove to be the +tied places, each tied by hand, by winding round and round the base +of the projecting loop of cloth, a very fine thread, closely laid and +knotted extremely firm and tight. + +When unwound, which must be done with much care on account of the +thin, fragile nature of the cloth, the knotted portions often show +most beautiful and interesting designs—done in different colors, put +on before tying, and protected from the final bath by the close tight +layer of thread. Among the most interesting of them are the so-called +“Shikar” chundries, where the design, repeated over and over again, +illustrates some hunting scene, as, for instance, a tiger hunt, +with the animal springing at a man armed with a sword, and a horse +or elephant with howdah. When fully opened one of these chundries +makes a strip of cloth some five or six yards long, and in Rajputana +is used as the full-dress costume of a young lady of fashion, being +folded round and round the body and over the head in most graceful +and charming lines. + +On studying one of these chundries one is struck by the immense +amount of labor expended in the tying process. The knots which form +the pattern make, frequently, as many as twenty-five or thirty to +the running inch, and each one is tied so tightly around the cloth, +folded so as to form four thicknesses, and drawn or pressed out +into loops, that it completely protects the part it covers from the +dyestuff, only the tip of the loop remaining exposed. Hence, when +it is untied, there results a small circular or rectangular ring +not over three-quarters of an inch in diameter. To obtain a surface +around which the string can be thus tightly tied, the folded cloth +is evidently pressed out from the back by a thin pin or spike (the +effect can be produced by tying a thin piece of cloth tightly around +a wooden toothpick) around which the thread can be tightly drawn and +knotted, and which usually is left in during the dyeing process and +taken out afterwards. + +The patterns are so elaborate, and yet are repeated over and over +again, on the same chundries, with such regularity, that it is +probable that some simple apparatus is used to press out the cloth +in exactly the proper places. This could be done by using a little +frame with holes in it, into which pins of wood or ivory could be +set, like the markers in a cribbage board, for instance, forming +definite figures on which piece after piece of cloth could be placed +and pressed out into shape. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4—SAME CHUNDRI AS IN FIG. 3, UNTIED AND SHAKEN +OUT] + +The most interesting thing, after all, about these extraordinarily +elaborate pieces of handicraft work is the fact that this vast amount +of time and labor is expended upon such poor materials. The muslin +of which they are made is so thin and poor that considerable pains +must be taken in opening them, to prevent their tearing from +the strain of pulling off the knots of fine thread. Then, too, the +colors as a rule not only are fugitive to sunlight, but are easily +affected by washing. Two minutes scrubbing in hot soapsuds will +almost completely efface the pattern and color from some of the +most elaborate and beautiful of them all. And this is not, as is +claimed frequently by modern writers upon Eastern handicrafts, due +to the introduction of cheap and fugitive “aniline” dyestuffs. The +dyes, used for generations by the Rajput craftsmen, for their most +elaborate chundries, were principally tumeric, safflower, and other +inferior vegetable colors, applied so loosely as to be merely stains +rather than dyes—and it would be hard to get modern dyestuffs which, +applied with any care, would be as fugitive as those commonly used +for the very best examples of these beautiful textiles. + +=Tied Work in the Philippines.=—Of different quality is the work of +the Bagobo tribe in Mindanao, interesting specimens of which are +to be seen in the Philippine collection of the New York Museum of +Natural History. As shown in Fig. 5, a headdress belonging to Miss +Laura Benedict, the work is not unlike that done by the ancient +Peruvians, and the patterns, although often exceedingly complex, are +invariably geometrical, and do not approach in variety or in interest +those from India. The coloring, too, is far simpler—practically all +the examples showing light patterns on a dull purplish background. +But the dyeing is most carefully and thoroughly made—taking about +thirty days to complete, dyeing each night and washing thoroughly +each morning during all that time, until the final product is +exceedingly permanent to both light and washing. + +Miss Benedict, who was the first white person to enter the Bagobo +country and study and report on their handicrafts, states that the +patterns are made in a curious manner. The pattern is first outlined +upon the cloth by a series of basting stitches, the intersection of +two stitches being the mark for the centre of one of the tied places. +Then the operator, seated, puts over her big toe a ring attached to +a line some three feet long, on the end of which is a simple hook +made from a bent and sharpened piece of copper or brass wire. Holding +the cloth in one hand, she then fastens the hook into one of the +marked places, pulls the part out with her foot, and ties up the loop +thus formed, rapidly and tightly, with waxed thread. This she winds +round and round the loop, beginning with the bottom first, and knots +it tight, using the free hand, assisted, except with very expert +workers, with the thumb and forefinger of the other. + +Specimens of textiles thus tied, and not yet dyed or opened, and also +of the toe-ring, line, and hook used in the process, can be seen at +the Museum, along with a great variety of beautiful specimens of the +finished work. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5—BAGOBO HEADDRESS FROM THE ISLAND OF MINDANAO] + +It is rare that, in our present surroundings, any craftsman can spare +the time and patience to copy the elaborate patterns made in these +ways by the Eastern dyers. But equally beautiful and interesting +results can be produced with very little expenditure of time and +labor, by the skilful dyer, who knows something of the fundamental +principles of design and can use his dyes so as to get soft and +beautiful as well as permanent color effects. It is impossible, in +a work like this, to do more than suggest some of the many ways +in which this process can be used. The rest depends entirely upon +practice—and more can be learned about its possibilities in a couple +of hours’ work with muslin or cheesecloth, and a ball of twine or +tape, in connection with a dye-pot of a good Sulphur dye, than by +weeks of listening or reading about it. + + +VARIETIES OF TIED WORK + +=Tied on Itself.=—Interesting effects may often be produced on long +pieces of cloth, scarfs, and the like, by folding them over and +tying them into knots at one or two selected places, before dyeing. +Fig. 6 shows an example of this, (a) Tied and ready for dyeing; +(b) Dyed and opened out. This when worked out in different colors, +dyeing first, with some light color, then tying and dyeing with +another color, or else coloring the tied and dyed piece with a second +light bath of another color, gives very pleasant results as applied +to draperies—as, for instance, simple costumes for pageants and +out-of-doors plays. It is, however, almost, if not quite, impossible +to obtain definite designs in this way, and it is hardly possible to +duplicate results. But occasionally the process is useful. + +=Tied with String or Tape.=—Far more important is the process +generally meant by the term “tied and dyed work,” where the pattern +is made by tying either thread, string, cord, or even tape, more or +less tightly around special portions of the cloth. These portions are +usually drawn out, or pressed out, or folded, so as to form a sort of +loop around which the string can be tied. But occasionally the whole +cloth, laid flat and with but little folding, is tied tightly across, +so that the reserved part forms, when untied, a more or less straight +band. + +_Tied in Bands._—It is often desirable to separate one part of a +design from another by means of a broad line or band of white or +light color. This can be readily done by tying a piece of strong +twine or tape, tightly, right across the goods at the desired place +before dyeing it. Quite elaborate and interesting effects can be +produced in this way by first folding the cloth lengthways, and then +tying a width of several inches with a broad piece of tape. If it is +not tied too tight some of the color will work up and down the folds, +under the tape, and give, when finished, curious wavy effects. (See +Fig. 7.) + +_Tied in Small Loops._—This banding, though interesting and useful, +differs from the sharp little round or diamond-shaped rings forming +the patterns in the Rajput or Bagobo textiles. These are produced by +pressing or pulling out the cloth into loops or bunches which are +then tied tightly round and round with string or thread, the middle +of the loop being usually left exposed to the dyestuff, so as to form +a colored centre. + +[Illustration: (_a_)—_Tied and Ready for Dyeing_ + +(_b_)—_Dyed, Untied and Shaken Out_ + +FIG. 6—SAMPLE OF TIED AND DYED WORK, “TIED ON ITSELF”] + +Very small loops can be made, as mentioned above, by pressing out the +cloth with a wooden pin (or toothpick) and tying tightly around +this, leaving in the pin until after the dyeing is completed. + +Skilful workers can tie quite small loops by placing a bead, or dried +pea, or piece of gravel in the cloth and tying the cloth tightly +around this. It is best, always, to have something of the sort, pin +or bead, to act as a centre, or else the knot, after tying, is very +apt to slip off, and spoil the pattern. + +The design for this sort of work should be carefully planned +beforehand, and marked out on the cloth with pencil or chalk. For, +with small loops like this, the interest is more in the pattern +formed by them than in the changes and contrasts in color between the +different tied parts and the rest of the cloth. + +A very interesting specimen of work done in this way by Miss Mary +Grey is shown in Fig. 7. + +_Tied in Large Knots and Loops._—It is hard for a Western craftsman +to obtain sharp, well-defined knots by this method, of a diameter of +less than half an inch or so. Usually, indeed, it is too much of a +bother and nuisance to try any knots covering less than an inch and +a half. From this size, up to fifteen and twenty inches in diameter, +will be found the vast majority of all American work. The reason is +very simple. The trouble of tying a knot covering five inches is +very little more than that for a half-inch knot, indeed far less for +most people, while the large knot produces an immediate effect not +equalled by a dozen of the latter. Furthermore, with large knots, big +bold designs can be produced, which, with pleasant and skilfully +selected colors, give results far more striking and effective than +can be shown by the small knots, no matter how carefully carried out. +On the other hand, intricate and carefully planned designs can be +worked out with small knots, which cannot be attempted with the large +ones. + +For designs with large knots, beside the cloth, which should be soft +and free from dressing, and a ball of soft thick twine or better, +of cheap cotton binding tape, half to three-quarters of an inch +wide, it is well to have a supply of large glass beads, of marbles +of different sizes, and, if these are not easy to get, of pebbles, +beans, hazelnuts, and the like. These are not always to be used, but +in most cases it makes a more interesting contrast to have the centre +of the tied spot come out dark, with the lighter parts, more or less +shaded, around it. That means that the centre must be exposed to +the dyestuff by being stretched out over a marble or pebble, while +the parts around it are tied up. And the tying, too, is greatly +facilitated by having a hard centre to work against. + +By tying around one marble first, and then putting in another and +tying round that, a series of concentric rings will be formed, the +black rings showing where the cloth, covering the marble, has been +exposed, and the light-colored part showing where it has been covered +by the tape or string. + +[Illustration: + + FIG. 7—SAMPLE OF TIED AND DYED WORK, “TIED IN BANDS,” WITH + INCIDENTAL KNOTS. BY MISS MARY GREY] + +As before, the design, if at all elaborate, should be marked out +beforehand on the open cloth, and the parts tied in accordingly. +Much experience is required to know just how tight to tie the tape +so as to get a desired effect with each particular kind of cloth, +and each class of dyestuffs. In general, with small knots the string +should be tied very tight, or otherwise no effect is produced at all. +The larger the tied parts, however, the more pains should be taken +to have the cloth folded before tying, so that some of the color may +work down through the folds past the tape, and thus produce shaded +effects, which may be of great beauty (see Plate IV, Fig. a). Of +course, in this, much depends on the cloth; a thick heavy calico +tying with difficulty, but not letting the dyestuff soak through; +while soft open materials like scrim or cheesecloth, for instance, +must be tied much tighter, or the color will work through so much as +to spoil the design. + +The student is advised to practise, from the start, tying his tape +with a slip loop, or at any rate a bow knot, and not with a fast +square knot each time, so as to save trouble and bother when untying +later. A skilful craftsman will tie quite a large piece of cloth, in +an interesting and fairly complicated design, in a few minutes. But +after dyeing, while the cloth is still wet, and the tape or string +has shrunk, and the knots have tightened, it is often more trouble to +untie, or cut it open, than it was to make it, and there is always +the danger of cutting holes in it. A little pains in laying down one +end of the tape, before starting to tie, so that, when the whole loop +is tied up, the other end will come out alongside of the first so +that it can be joined to it by a bow knot, will save any amount of +time and vexation. + +=Sewed and Dyed Work.=—Besides protecting the cloth from the action +of the dyestuff by tying string or tape around it, the same effect +can be produced by sewing up certain parts of it, before dyeing, +and then, after the rest has been colored, and the loose dye-liquor +washed off, the sewed-up parts can be opened and pressed into shape. + +This modification of the process, so far as I can learn, is not +practised by the Rajputs with their chundries, but in the Benedict +collection can be seen some most extraordinary and elaborate pieces +of dyed work made just in this way. The Japanese, also, have been in +the habit of using this method, and sometimes they produce curious +zigzag lines by taking coarse stitches across the cloth, alternately, +first to one side and then to the other side of the centre line, +and then drawing the thread tight. The needle is often used for +borders—for straight lines can easily be made in soft materials (and +such only should be used for tied work) by hemming the cloth with +strong thread, and then drawing it up close and tight before putting +it in the dye-bath. The development of this branch of the process, +however, belongs properly to the fair sex. + + +[Illustration: FIG. 8—FOLDING THE CLOTH + +FIG. 9—STARTING TO TIE + +FIG. 10—CENTRE PORTION TIED + +TIED AND DYED WORK] + +=Dyeing Process.=—Now for the dyeing process. Of course, for +practise, the craftsman will use cotton as his raw material, in the +form of muslin, cheesecloth, scrim, or best of all, light grades of +mercerized cotton, and hence will use the various cotton dyestuffs. +The Salt colors are hardly advisable, because though fast to light +they are not all fast to washing unless well boiled on, and that +means that, unless tied extremely fast and tight, the color would +be bound to penetrate, and wipe out the design. The Sulphur colors +and the Vat colors are the best for the purpose—for they can be dyed +cold or lukewarm, without injuring the fastness of the dye, and give +colors fast both to light and to washing. In general, it is easier +to get even shades with the Sulphur colors, and their shades are +soft and pleasing, but while fast, they are not as fast as the Vat +dyes, and it is impossible to get a decent scarlet with them. The +skilful dyer will, of course, select his class to suit the shade he +is trying to get and also to meet the requirements about fastness. +But, in general, he will use the Salt colors for covering and shading +the patterns produced with either the Sulphur or the Vat dyes. When +using the oxidation dyes, like the Sulphur or Vat colors, plenty of +time must be given for the dyestuffs to oxidize and set before they +are untied. But, on the other hand, directly they are once untied +it is important to wash off the loose dye-liquor from the cloth, +and especially from the tied-in portions, as soon as possible after +untying, otherwise some dye-liquors that may have soaked in without +having had a chance to oxidize, will, when exposed to air, suddenly +fix themselves and obscure or ruin the pattern. + +After attaining some skill in this process the craftsman is urged to +try it on more important materials like silk. Most beautiful effects +can be, and are being produced by this means, on soft delicate scarfs +made of Chinese or Indian silks. The Acid colors are, of course, used +for this, and as they take so readily on silk, the possibilities of +shading and over-shading different portions of the design, or of +adding a touch of color here and there where it seems desirable, +offer infinite possibilities to an artistic workman. The combinations +of color that can be produced are infinite, and the curious blending +of regularity and irregularity, in the designs and figures, renders +it a most attractive process to practise with. + +One great attraction about it is the sense of suspense, and the +impossibility of telling just what effect is being produced, until +the knots are all untied, and the cloth washed off and opened out. + +Another attraction is the feeling of working all the time in an +unexplored or very partially explored country. There is the constant +chance of obtaining at any moment effects never thought of before. +The experimenter is always trying some new little trick in tying, or +in folding, or in dyeing, the results of which can never be foreseen +accurately, and which are always interesting and often very beautiful. + +=Tied and Discharged Work.=—One day, in our laboratory, some +experiments were made which resulted in a modification of this +process which, so far as we know, was entirely new, and which +presents very interesting possibilities, to say the least. We made +the experiment of dyeing the cloth first, and then tying it up, +and putting it in a bleaching solution, so as to discharge the +color everywhere excepting where it was protected by the tying. +The experiment was successful, resulting (see Plate IV, Fig. b), +in a series of dark patterns on a light background. All kinds of +modifications of this can be made. For instance, the cloth can +be dyed with a mixture of two or three dyes, some of which are fast +and the other or others can be discharged by the chemical used. The +pattern thus will be the full mixed color, say brown, against a +background of red or yellow or blue as the case may be. + +[Illustration: FIG. 11—CENTRE AND CORNERS TIED + +FIG. 12—DYED, UNTIED AND SHAKEN OUT + +TIED AND DYED WORK-CONTINUED] + +The important thing about this modification is to select the proper +bleaching agent to act on the particular colors, and the particular +kind of material, used. Our first experiments were with bleaching +powder (chloride of lime), dissolved in water, say two tablespoonfuls +to the gallon, with, if necessary, a few drops of acetic acid or weak +sulphuric acid stirred into it. This powerful bleaching agent is very +apt to attack the cloth, and only heavy materials, such as scrim or +heavy calico should be used with it. But although so strong, it does +not act at all readily on a large number of the dyestuffs, including +many of the Vat colors. Some of these, like the Indanthrene colors, +are not affected at all, Indigo is changed from blue to a brilliant +shade of yellow. And Thio Indigo Red B produces curious shades of +purple, settling, where exposed to the full action of the bleaching +agent, to orange. + +Later we repeated the experiments, using hydrosulphite of soda, say +two tablespoonfuls to the gallon of warm water, as a discharge, with +much better success. The cloth was not injured, even when delicate +materials like silk and light poplins were used. And the great +majority of colors, including nearly all the best Salt, Sulphur, and +Acid dyes, reduced rapidly and well. The Vat dyes will reduce, and, +in the presence of caustic soda, will dissolve out of the exposed +cloth almost entirely, but it is hard to reduce them to white in this +way. In every case the color, after reduction, must be washed at once +in warm soap and water, or else, on exposure to the air, the color +may come back to some extent, owing to oxidation. + +A weak bath of hydrosulphite of soda, also, should always be on +hand, in the former bleaching process; for, when bleaching powder +(chloride of lime) or other chlorine compounds, such as Javelle water +or Labarraque’s solution, are used for destroying the color, their +further action can be stopped, and also the offensive smell removed, +by dipping the bleached material into a so-called antichlor, like +this hydrosulphite. + +This subject of discharge is dealt with more at length in a future +chapter. + +[Illustration: + +(a) EXAMPLE OF TIED AND DYED WORK + +(b) EXAMPLE OF TIED AND DISCHARGED WORK + +PLATE IV.] + + + + + CHAPTER XV + + STENCILS AND STENCILLING + + +DIRECT APPLICATION OF COLORS + +=History.=—During the last few years a great deal of attention has +been paid to the manufacture and use of stencils for decorating +textiles, not only by craft workers of different kinds, but also by +art teachers in private and public schools. + +The art is not a modern one, even in this country, for I have seen +and worked with a series of very interesting stencils cut in brass, +which were owned in Philadelphia by the famous old physician, Dr. +Benjamin Rush, over a hundred years ago, and were used in his family +for marking linen, as well as for decorating homespuns and paper. + +The real home of the art, however, is Japan, where, for over three +hundred years, stencils have been in common use, largely replacing +the wood blocks used in other countries, for decorating the common +cotton goods, towels, head coverings, and the like of the lower +classes, and also for ornamenting, where embroidery was not desired, +the beautiful silks and satins of the wealthy. + +Ever since Japan has been opened to the world travelers have been +telling wonderful stories of the great skill of the natives in this +beautiful art. According to some writers, as soon as a child is born +it is given a nickname, and with it, as a sort of totem, a design—a +flower, for instance, for a girl—a tree or an animal for a boy—and +the like. This design, worked out carefully, after due criticism from +all the family elders, is drawn on brown paper and then carefully +cut out with a sharp knife by some member or friend of the family. +And this stencil is then sent to the local dyer to be used in dyeing +the infant’s clothes. This same design, or a modification of it, +is attached to the person through life, as his or her own private +pattern, and whenever new clothes are needed they are dyed after this +same pattern. + +=Japanese Stencils.=—_Paper._—It is a common fact that the very +first thing noticeable about Japanese stencils, whether brought +from some dyehouse in the interior, or whether made more or less +mechanically, for the American market, to be sold to students or +craftsmen, is the quality of the paper. It is thin, hardly heavier +than ordinary writing paper, but exceedingly tough and strong, and +cuts very easily, without tearing. It can occasionally be obtained +from importers in sheets, and even better qualities can be secured, +from among a mass of old stencils, by finding some which have been +only partially cut or used up, and carefully cutting out from them +the unused portions where these are large enough for the purpose. + +[Illustration: FIG. 13—JAPANESE STENCIL KNIFE] + +[Illustration: FIG. 14—JAPANESE STENCIL BRUSHES] + +_Knives._—In cutting stencil designs our American practice is to use +a sharp penknife, or a Sloyd knife, or, as happens occasionally with +some of my friends with amiable professional husbands, a surgeon’s +scalpel. None of these, however, compare for neatness, accuracy, and +ease and comfort of manipulation, with the very simple but extremely +effective little Japanese knives shown in Fig. 13. The knife blade, +of very highly tempered steel, is two or three inches long and fits +between two flattened plates of wood, tied together tightly at the +bottom but springing apart a little toward the top, as a handle. This +little spring of the handle is most satisfactory. And as the blade, +which is triangular and sharply pointed, is worn away gradually by +the constant grinding and sharpening it must receive, the steel can +be pushed forward from between the two halves of the handle, until +the proper length is reached. + +_Cutting._—The Japanese draw their designs on paper with India ink, +and then, with incredible swiftness and accuracy, the lines are cut, +by pushing the knife blade, held with the back downwards, away from +the workman, and through the paper which is placed flat on a piece of +wood or small tray, with depressions in it half an inch or so deep, +to avoid the danger and bother of running the knife point into the +wood. + +=American Practice.=—Our way differs somewhat. The design is usually +drawn on a separate piece of white paper, and filled in—in black—with +India ink. This is then placed underneath the stencil paper which, +especially if it has been oiled or paraffined, is translucent enough +to show the pattern through, so that the outline can be drawn with +a sharp pencil. The outline can also be made by tracing the design +down on the stencil paper with the help of a piece of carbon copying +paper. This is laid between the design and the stencil paper and then +the outline of the design is carefully traced with a sharp-pointed +pencil. From these outlines it is easy, with a sharp stencil knife, +to cut out the design, although it is customary with us to cut toward +the body with the point of the knife down, upon a piece of blotting +paper or soft wood so as not to dull it too rapidly. + +_Ties and Stops._—When stencilling is taught in America great pains +are taken to show how the pattern must be planned and cut out, so as +to have plenty of “ties” or “stops” in the right places, so as to +hold the stencil together. For instance, in making a stencil of a +large capital O, the student should be warned that, if the paper was +cut all the way around, it would leave a big hole; for the central +piece, which would form the centre of the finished letter, would drop +out, and could not be kept in place. Accordingly, the stencil would +have to be cut carefully, leaving at least two “bridges” or little +“tie pieces” of paper, one probably at the top, and the other at +the bottom of the O, these being the narrowest points, which would +hold the centre in place, and thus complete the figure. Indeed, if +these little “steps” or “bridges” of paper should be left out, or +become torn or broken, the stencil would be useless. But a situation +like this has little or no terror for the Japanese, at any rate when +working for their home trade. Their stencils cut for the American +market while always interesting, and often charming, are cut, as +ours are, from one piece of paper, with stops in the exposed places. +But the stencils that have been used, or cut for use, over there, +show a very different state of affairs. All of the large, handsome +ones, and a large proportion of the smaller, less artistic, and less +valuable ones are made, with almost inconceivable skill and patience, +in duplicate. And the two parts are afterwards pasted together with +absolute accuracy, but with a layer of fine hair, supposedly human +hair, between them. These hairs, laid irregularly but evenly, make a +sort of network which ties together all portions of the stencil, no +matter how disconnected with the rest, or, as we would say, “in the +air,” it might be. + +So, too, they are in the habit of sewing in, with the finest of hair +or of single threads of fine silk, loose pieces or broken pieces, and +thus holding them in shape. + +It is interesting to study some of them closely and see how neatly +this tying is done and how little the time of these unknown workmen +must be valued at. For apart from the large picture stencils which, +of course, would be worth taking a great deal of pains with, some of +the simplest and most ordinary of their native stencils are not only +cut but tied in, with extraordinary skill. One of these, valued here +at but a few cents, consisted of a background of small figures in +shape and size very much like a capital O of the type of this page. +The stencil measures some eighteen by ten inches, and there must be +between fifteen hundred and two thousand of these O figures on it. +Some few of these are now imperfect, but with the exception of a +dozen or two, every single one of all these has had the centre cut +out, and then sewed into place again, from the sides, so as to be in +the exact centre, without a single “stop” or “tie” on the whole paper. + +_Brushes._—With stencils so very delicately made, it is evident that +our crude American style of rubbing in the color, with heavy hands +and stiff bristle brushes, would not be much of a success! About one +good rub with a brush like that, and every hair in sight would be +torn and broken, and what was a minute before a work of art would be +a torn mass of brown paper. + +Whether any of our American craftsmen have light enough hands to +use, successfully, a fine Japanese stencil is doubtful. Personally, +I could no more stencil six inches with any of them without ruining +it or making a mess of the cloth than I could in a year cut, without +tearing, six square inches of any one of a score of cheap and +ordinary Japanese stencils which I own, either presented to me or +sold at a very low price, as being really too insignificant in value +to amount to anything. + +But at any rate, the Japanese do not use a stiff bristle brush. Their +brushes, in general, are of two sorts, as shown in Fig. 14. One is a +sort of pad, often quite large, five or six inches in diameter, made +of rabbit’s fur, tightly bound together with cord or wire, and with +a bundle of small sticks spreading out to enclose the pad, and drawn +together and tied above, at the upper end, in a sort of pyramid. + +[Illustration: FIG. 15—JAPANESE STENCIL, SHOWING HOLES PUNCHED BY +HAND TOOL] + +[Illustration: FIG. 16—JAPANESE STENCIL, EXACT SIZE, SHOWING USE OF +STOPS] + +[Illustration: FIG. 17—JAPANESE STENCIL, EXACT SIZE, SHOWING USE OF +SEWING INSTEAD OF STOPS] + +The other variety is a true brush, of a more ordinary shape, like +a flat paint brush, but also made of the very softest and finest, +most velvety hairs imaginable, laid extremely close together, and +compressed tightly between the two halves of the handle. These can +be obtained occasionally from the dealers at reasonable prices, and +are delightful to work with. Only, being meant for the soft, light +touches of their native workmen, they do not last long when rubbed +down on the cloth as is our practise. Their life is considerably +increased by pouring some molten beeswax into the back of both goods +and brushes with a batik pot, or Tjanting, which prevents the fine +hairs from pulling out until the brush is all worn to pieces. + +_The Care of Stencils._—A word may here be said about taking care of +stencils, after they have been cut or purchased. They should always +be used on one side, and carefully wiped off with a damp cloth, +directly after using. They should always be kept flat, never folded. +And, when using them, it must always be remembered that the ties or +bridges are the weak spots, and that breaking or tearing them, as a +rule, will spoil the stencil. It is, of course, possible to mend them +by sewing, or sometimes by patching with tape. But this is always +troublesome, and with well paraffined stencils is rarely satisfactory. + +_The Different Methods of Using Stencils._—In this country, so far +as can be ascertained, the common way in which stencils have been +used is by brushing through them, on to the cloth, oil paints thinned +with turpentine or gasoline. As previously explained, in the chapter +on feather dyeing, this is not very satisfactory. For when paint is +sufficiently thick to adhere well to the cloth, it is apt to look +stiff and shiny. And when it is applied so thin that the structure +of the cloth shows through, it is, as a rule, not fast to washing +or even to rubbing. Various varnishes are on the market which help +considerably to make the paint fast, but even then the results are +not nearly so durable as when the proper dyestuffs are used. + +The Japanese practice is exclusively with dyes, and they have worked +out processes which are perfectly satisfactory, so that their simple, +cheap, stencilled towels can stand washing indefinitely without loss +of color. And by the use of modern dyestuffs there is no insuperable +obstacle to our doing just as well as they. + +The use of stencils gives an excellent opportunity to illustrate the +three general methods of coloring fabrics, which, as mentioned in the +last chapter, consist of: + + Direct application of color. + Resist, and + Discharge. + +The last two of these will be reserved for the next chapter. + +[Illustration: FIG. 18—JAPANESE STENCILS, EXACT SIZE, SHOWING USE OF +BOTH STOPS AND NET] + +=Direct Application of Color.=—In this intricate work it will +generally be found almost a necessity to apply colors through a +stencil in the form of a paste, for when the coloring liquid is thin +it is very apt to run under the edges of the paper and spoil the +design. It is best to thicken it with a little “gum dragon,” a +carefully prepared paste of gum tragacanth, to which the coloring +matter, and any reagents that are needed, can be added. The nature of +the reagents and the class of dyestuffs used depends, of course, upon +the kind of material to be stencilled. + +=(a) Leather.=—While not very often used, students interested in +leather work will find a carefully designed and neatly cut stencil a +most useful medium for obtaining interesting and beautiful effects. +The leather, whether bark- or alum-tanned, should be carefully +dampened, and then stencilled with a paste containing Basic colors +dissolved with a drop of acetic acid. On drying, the leather should +be finished as usual. The Acid colors are not nearly so satisfactory +for stencilling, although, as already mentioned, they are often +advantageous for dyeing, rather than staining, leather fast colors. + +=(b) Silk.=—Silk may easily be stencilled provided the pattern is not +expected to be fast to washing. + +1. _Acid Colors._—These dyes, mixed with a few drops of formic or +acetic acid, will color it well, but to make the dyestuff penetrate +it is advisable to steam the goods. This can be done with a teakettle +provided with a wing tip for the spout, made of tin, or by heating a +flatiron or iron plate very hot, and pressing the stencilled goods +back down against it, with a damp cloth in between. The hot steam +thus produced, passing through the goods, melts the paste and drives +the color down into the fibres and sets it there, so that, later, +the stencilled goods will stand light rinsing in lukewarm soap and +water without running. + +2. _Salt Colors._—Faster results can be obtained, on silk, with +a paste containing salt dyes, with a drop or two of acetic acid, +provided the silk is thoroughly steamed afterwards. + +3. _Basic Colors._—Basic dyes may be used on silk as on wool, +leather, or any other animal fibres for direct application, the +dyestuff dissolved with a drop of acetic acid, being added to the +paste, and then brushed in and, preferably, lightly steamed to sink +the paste down into the fibres. These dyes, however, with but few +exceptions, are not fast to light, and applied in this way are not +fast, either, to washing. By adding some reagents to the paste, +however, a Basic stencil paste can be formed which gives colors on +silk which will stand active scrubbing excellently. + +The Basic Stencil Paste is prepared by mixing with the paste a +solution containing the Basic color, dissolved in acetic acid, and +also containing a considerable quantity of tannic acid. As long as +there is free acetic acid present in this mixture the color remains +in solution, but directly the acid is driven off, an insoluble +compound remains, formed by the combination of the tannic acid with +the color base. This happens on steaming, and the insolubility of the +product is still further increased by passing it through a weak bath +or wetting it with a weak solution (half a teaspoonful to the quart) +of tartar emetic. + +Accordingly, to use this stencil paste on silk or, indeed, on cotton, +the slightly dampened goods are stencilled with the paste, thinned +if desired with water and a little acetic acid. Then directly they +are dry enough so as not to run they are well steamed, then the gum +rinsed off with a little warm water, and the goods moistened with the +tartar emetic. After this they can be washed with soap with little or +no danger of running. + +=(c) Wool.=—Wool is rarely stencilled, although stencil patterns +can be produced very well on it by using acid colors with a little +oxalate of ammonia (about the same amount as the dyestuff), +dissolved in a drop or two of water, and thickened with a little +gum tragacanth. When this paste is applied with a brush, and then +dried, the result is not fast at all, merely a distinct stain; but +if steamed at once the oxalate of ammonia decomposes, leaving oxalic +acid, which, combining with the color and melting down with it in the +fibres, makes the dyestuff adhere quite firmly. + +=(d) Cotton and Linen.=—It is much more difficult to stencil +satisfactorily on vegetable goods, such as cotton and linen, than +on the animal fibres above mentioned, because they are expected to +stand very much more severe treatment. The fastness to washing needed +for a handsome silk scarf is far less than for a cotton shirtwaist, +or linen table-cover, and unless the results on the latter are at +least as fast as the average calico print, the result is considered a +failure. + +There are three classes of dyes which can be used in this connection, +the Basic dyes, the Sulphur dyes, and the Indigo or Vat dyes. The +Basic stencil pastes have just been described, in connection with +silk stencilling, and when carefully used they will give very fair +results on cotton, and even on linen, provided it is free from +dressing, and is not too coarse and thick. It is hardly worth while +trying to fasten Basic dyes, by hand stencilling, upon such materials +as heavy, coarse Russian crash, for instance, such as friends and +students have frequently brought in to experiment with. But for +light, thin materials, and especially for mercerized goods, poplins +and the like, it is possible, with a little practice, to get effects +that are fast to ordinary washing. + +On the other hand, this method of stencilling has certain +disadvantages. It is rather complicated, needing the use of a fixing +bath of tartar emetic, a very active poison, by the way, although +more uncomfortable than actually dangerous when taken by mistake +in one dose, because of the severe vomiting it produces almost +immediately. And then, too, the results at best are not really fast +to light, and in the case of light pinks and yellows are distinctly +fugitive. + +_Vat Color Stencil Pastes._—Many experiments have been made in our +laboratory to work out a satisfactory stencil paste, so that Indigo +and other Vat dyes could be applied, simply and easily, with no more +difficulty than the usual one of brushing the paste in carefully, and +then steaming as soon as possible. In these stencil pastes the Indigo +and the other Vat dyes are reduced with the aid of caustic alkali and +hydrosulphite before being mixed with the paste, and some special +precautions are taken to prevent, as far as possible, the oxidation +of the dyestuff before it gets well into the fibre. But, as the +ordinary hydrosulphite is apt to decompose on standing, especially +when it is wet, it is always best, just before using, to mix well +with the paste a little fresh reducing agent, dissolved in a drop of +hot water. The reducing agent that should be used for this purpose +is not the ordinary hydrosulphite of soda, used for vat dyeing, but +a compound of sodium hydrosulphite, “Stencil Salt,” which has the +property of keeping better than the other, and also of not acting as +a reducing agent until it is heated. This, then, is stirred into the +Vat color stencil paste, just before using, and then, when the goods +are steamed, the heat and moisture combined will enable it to reduce +the color, which will be carried into the fibres in a reduced and +dissolved condition. After steaming well for five minutes the color +should be developed by a bath in hot soapsuds, after which the goods +should be rinsed and dried. With care this process will give very +satisfactory results, perfectly fast to both light and washing, after +the first loose color has been washed off. + +The indigo stencil paste, as prepared, will keep well reduced for +quite a long time, and it is frequently quite unnecessary to add any +fresh reducing agent to it. If, when taken from the tube or bottle, +it looks yellow or yellowish green, it can be applied at once to the +cloth, and, if steamed just as soon as possible, it will generally +penetrate quite satisfactorily. With the other colors of the series, +however, it is hard to tell by the color whether they are reduced or +not, and hence the fresh reducing agent, Stencil Salt, should always +be added to them. The cloth for stencilling with these pastes, +as with the Basic pastes, should not be too thick or heavy, and +must be washed quite free from dressing, or the result will not be +satisfactory. It should also be slightly dampened, if only by holding +over boiling water for a moment or two, so as to help the color to +penetrate. + +_Sulphur Stencil Paste._—We have also found very satisfactory results +from pastes made with one of the Sulphur colors, dissolved in a +little sodium sulphide and sodium carbonate, and stiffened with a +little gum. The presence of a reducing agent helps to keep the color +reduced; and, when quickly applied and rapidly steamed, the colors +will sink into the fibre and adhere firmly. + +The chief drawback with these pastes is the lack of a good red. + +=Black Stencil Paste.=—So far as can be learned, the Japanese use for +their stencilling an Indigo paste made on the same general principles +as the one just described. Besides this, which is a very favorite +color of theirs, they use a red and also a very full black dye, both +of which are fast to washing and to light. + +What the composition of these last pastes may be it is hard to tell. +In our laboratory we have made careful experiments on the subject +of stencilling black, and have worked out a method that we consider +satisfactory by the use of a modification of the well-known Aniline +Black process. + +[Illustration: FIG. 19—LARGE AND HANDSOME JAPANESE STENCIL, SHOWING +USE OF NET] + +_Aniline Black._—It was noticed, early in the history of dyestuffs, +that if aniline was mixed with strong oxidizing agents, and carefully +heated, it would undergo a series of color changes resulting, +finally, in black. This color, so-called “Aniline Black,” was at +one time manufactured and used for a black pigment; but it was soon +recognized that its real value would only be developed when it +could be formed, in the fibre itself, by the oxidation of aniline +or some compound of aniline upon the fibres. After many years of +experimenting this problem was solved, and for fifteen or twenty +years the blacks most used on cotton and linen by the calico +printers, as well as by the dyers, have been one or another of the +forms of Aniline Black. + +The principle on which these processes are based is as follows: The +aniline, usually in the form of aniline salt (aniline hydrochloride), +is mixed with an oxidizing agent like chlorate of soda, and also +with a small amount of a third substance which, on steaming, acts +as a carrier of oxygen between the aniline and the chlorate. This +substance, often called a catalytic agent, because at the end of the +operation it remains unchanged, although it has accomplished a large +amount of work, may be one of a number of compounds as, for instance, +a salt of the metal vanadium, prussiate of potash, a salt of copper, +etc., each one having special advantages and disadvantages of its own. + +Now, almost any printing paste properly composed so as to give a +good clear Aniline Black on steaming, (the formulæ can be obtained +from any good book on calico printing, or from any competent dyeing +chemist), will generally work fairly well as a stencil paste—as +long as it is fresh. But even when kept from the air as far as +possible, in a tight tube, it decomposes on standing and becomes very +unsatisfactory. Besides this, there is always a difficulty with these +regular pastes on account of the irregular and uncertain steaming +process that can be used by the average craftsman. In a calico print +works, the temperature of the steam chest, the proportion of steam +in it, and the length of passage of the cloth through it, are all +accurately determined, and kept at the exact points necessary for the +best results with any given formula. But with irregular steaming, +unless very great care is taken with the formula, there is always a +danger of “tendering” and burning the fibre, if too much oxidizing +agent is present, or of not developing a full black, but a dark green +color, if the oxidizing agent is not active enough. + +We have, after a great deal of experimenting, worked out a formula +which, with reasonable care in steaming, will give a good full black, +absolutely fast to light and washing, upon cotton, linen, and silk, +without any tendering of the cloth. And, by dividing up the component +parts into two separate pastes, which are kept in separate tubes or +bottles, and are mixed together only when about to be used, we have +gone far to solve the important problem of keeping. + +The use of this Black stencil paste is very simple. It comes in two +tubes or bottles marked A and B. + +When the cloth, free from dressing and slightly dampened, is all +ready, equal amounts are taken from each of the two tubes, and mixed +together in a watch-glass or small glass or porcelain dish with, if +necessary, a drop of water to soften them if they have dried up at +all. This mixed paste is then brushed on to, and into, the cloth, +and, as soon as dry, is steamed as before described. The black color +will develop almost immediately, and, after a few minutes’ steaming, +will be found fast to hard washing as well as to light. + + + + + CHAPTER XVI + + RESIST AND DISCHARGE STENCILLING + + +Travelers in Japan inform us that, with their customary ingenuity, +the natives there have developed the use of stencils to a point which +quite matches the best achievements of our modern calico printers, +even though backed by good dyeing chemists. When a young lady there +wishes a new dress, she will draw, perhaps with the help of her best +young man, and certainly with the advice and criticism of her family, +her favorite design on a piece of brown paper, cut it out in stencil +form, and send it to the local dyer, with the proper amount of calico +or silk or what not, to be properly applied. + +Now, in most cases the dyer is instructed to put the pattern on the +cloth in colors, blue, black, red, yellow, or mixed shades, and this +he does, much as my readers were taught to do in the last chapter, by +painting on a stencil paste, to be fixed later by steaming. + +The Japanese dyer, by the way, has a great advantage over the +American craftsman in his steaming apparatus. No matter how small his +place, or how poor his equipment, he always is provided with a neat +and satisfactory steam chest, consisting of a copper pot set in a +brick or stone fireplace, to hold the boiling water, and above it, a +close-fitting box with sides made of lacquered paper, double jacketed +to avoid condensation in cold weather, which can be kept full of dry +steam for hours at a time, and in which the stencilled goods can be +steamed thoroughly and well without fear of spoiling them. + +Sometimes, however, the color is to be applied in another way; the +cloth itself is to be colored blue or red or black, and the pattern +is to be light, either pure white or some light color on a dark +background. + +The Japanese dyer, from time immemorial, has known how to do this +properly, by means of a “Resist.” He prepares a resist paste which he +carefully applies to the cloth through the stencil. This is allowed +to dry, the cloth is then dyed, and, after the color is properly +fixed, it is all thoroughly scrubbed, and the paste, washing off, +leaves the cloth, underneath, in its original color. + +_Resist Stencil Paste._—This process of resist, ancient as it is, is +used in Japan to this day, and many, indeed most, of the stencilled +towels and piece goods that come from there are done in this way. It +has the advantages, especially for the craftsman, over the Direct +Color process, in that the color, being applied in a dye-bath, can be +fixed readily and uniformly, without the bother and uncertainty of a +steaming process. Through a friend, a well-known dyeing chemist, who +has travelled in Japan, I learned the composition of the Japanese +Resist Paste. They mix rice flour, wheat bran, and a little quicklime +(the calcium oxide of the chemist) with water and boil it to make +a paste. This they strain, and then they stir in some powdered +carbonate of lime (powdered chalk), which thickens and gives some +body to the mixture. The paste thus formed is applied, as a rule, not +with a brush but with a flat wooden instrument or spatula, with which +the paste is laid on as with a trowel, and further, to get the dead +white effects so commonly noticed, the paste is put on the back of +the cloth as well as on the front. + +My friend also explained to me how the Japanese were able to get +irregular shaded effects with their stencil work, and at the same +time to furnish such beautiful and intricate hand-made work, at +such absurdly low prices. These goods are made of very thin porous +materials, and the dyer applies with his trowel the thick resist +paste, through the stencil, to one piece after another, laying each +one, as fast as it is stencilled, carefully on top of the previous +one, until a pile has been formed of ten or more separate pieces. +This pile is pressed very tightly together, and then the dyestuff, +as, for instance, Indigo in solution and thoroughly reduced, is +poured on to this mass of goods, soaking through from one to the +other, but always kept out of the white parts by the double coating +of thick paste. + +After a few minutes these pieces are carefully taken off, one by one, +exposed to the air until oxidized, and then thoroughly washed until +the paste and loose color have all disappeared. For an example of +Japanese resist stencil work, dyed in an iron spring, see Plate III. + +[Illustration: PLATE V. JAPANESE TOWELLING DYED BY IMMERSION IN IRON +SPRING. THE WHITE PATTERN IS CAUSED BY RESIST STENCILLING] + +_Resist Stencilling with Sulphur Dyes._—Without lavishly copying +the Japanese practice it is possible to get very interesting results +by using suitable dyestuffs with a simpler paste. + +The most useful dyes for this purpose are the Sulphur dyes, which, +as the student will remember, can be applied in the cold, with very +short exposure to the dye-liquor, and are fixed firmly by exposure +to the air, giving results fast to light and extremely fast to +washing. A paste made from wheat flour, thickened a little with an +inert powder, like powdered chalk or zinc oxide, will work fairly +well, acting as a purely mechanical protection to the fibre. But much +better results can be obtained by adding to the paste as much as it +will absorb of the easily soluble chemical, zinc sulphate, which acts +chemically in resisting the action of these particular dyestuffs. + +The Sulphur colors, as before explained, are kept in solution in +the dye-bath, by the presence of sodium sulphide, and when this is +absent or is destroyed by any cause, the dyestuff is precipitated +as an insoluble, inert powder. Now, when zinc sulphate comes in +contact with sodium sulphide it at once decomposes the latter, +forming a white precipitate, zinc sulphide, which has no action at +all on either dyestuff or cloth. Accordingly a paste containing zinc +sulphate has far greater efficiency as a resist than any mixture that +acts purely mechanically. + +Resist stencil pastes can be obtained, in tubes, at moderate prices, +but can also be readily prepared by making not too stiff a paste, +with wheat flour thoroughly boiled with a saturated solution of zinc +sulphate instead of with water, and then stirring into this paste +some powdered chalk or zinc oxide, until of the proper consistency +for stencilling. + +To use this paste, the cloth, as usual, should be washed free from +dressing, and after being smoothed with a hot iron, should be +slightly dampened. The paste is then brushed through the stencil on +to, and into, the cloth, which is then allowed to dry. The dye-bath +should then be prepared of Sulphur dyes carefully dissolved, in a +separate cup or saucepan, in a hot solution of sodium sulphide and +sodium carbonate (soda), and added to cold water in the dye-bath. + +A few drops of “Turkey red oil” added to the dye-bath helps to +prevent a thick scum from forming on top of the liquor, while the +addition of a tablespoonful of salt dissolved in a little hot water +helps the rapidity and depth of the dyeing. + +Plenty of color should be used excepting for very light shades, for +the dyeing should be done just as quickly as possible. For silk some +syrup should be added. + +The stencilled cloth is then quickly moistened in cold water, placed +in the dye-bath, kept there two or three minutes, below the level of +the liquid; it is then taken out, the liquor drained off, and after a +minute or two, wrung off; the cloth is then shaken out, and exposed +to the air, for some ten minutes, to set the color. After this it is +well washed in a boiling soap bath, and, as the paste washes out, the +stencilled pattern will show light against the dark background. + +The whiteness of the pattern depends, of course, upon the skill +with which the paste has been applied, and the care taken to prevent +it from washing off before or during the dyeing process. It is +difficult, though not absolutely impossible, to get as sharp and +clear-cut results as those of the Japanese, for instance. But, on the +other hand, with a dark background it is often, indeed generally, +more pleasing to have the white patterns softened and not standing +out too vividly. + +In our laboratory we have had considerable success with this process. +And some of our friends and students have used it with very good +results upon articles of clothing, which, made of linen, calico, +etc., must be fast to severe washing as well as to light. + +Of course, it is perfectly easy to alter the color of the background, +as in other classes of resist work, such as Tied and Dyed work, for +instance, or Batik, by either starting off with colored cloth which +is protected all through by the resist paste, or else by covering +the stencilled and dyed goods, afterwards, with some shade which +will soften and harmonize both pattern and background. For this +covering shade, which need not be very fast to washing, but must be +distributed uniformly over the whole cloth, the student will find the +Salt colors very useful. + +_Discharge Stencilling._—Though it is not certain whether this +process is known to, and used by, the Japanese, it is not a difficult +matter, with modern dyes and modern chemicals, to get interesting +results with it. There are two distinct and separate ways open to the +dyer for discharging, i.e., destroying his dyestuffs, whether they +are dyed on cloth, or whether, as is not infrequently the case with +amateurs, they are present as a stain on his hands and fingers. In +each case, however, care must be taken, as may easily be imagined, to +use such chemicals as will spare the materials, whether cotton and +linen, or nails and skin, while attacking the coloring matter. + +(a) _Discharge by Oxidation. Chlorine Compounds, Bleaching Powder, +etc._—In the first place, chemists have long known that certain +chemicals, more particularly the powerful gaseous element known as +chlorine and certain of its compounds, have the power of permanently +destroying coloring matters by oxidizing or burning them. + +At first this was done by using chlorine itself, or a water solution +of chlorine. Later, however, it was found that on passing chlorine +into some caustic alkali, like quicklime, or caustic soda, or caustic +potash, these would absorb immense quantities of chlorine which would +be again given out, as desired, on the addition of acid, or even, +though very slowly and gradually, by the action of the carbonic acid +gas in the air. + +The lime compound, which contains more chlorine than the others, and +has the great advantage of being dry, has long been known as chloride +of lime or as bleaching powder, and has been, and is, commonly +used from one end of the world to the other as a quick, ready, +cheap source of chlorine either for bleaching or for disinfection. +The potash and soda compounds, known respectively as Labarraque’s +solution and Javelle water, are less active and powerful than +bleaching powder, but have the same general properties. + +Over a hundred years ago, very soon after the discovery of the +bleaching properties of these compounds, chemists began to use them, +not only for decolorizing and whitening raw cotton and linen cloth, +but also for discharging the color in patterns from dyed goods. The +process was not a difficult one, and is used to this day to some +extent in the calico printing mills. The cloth is first dyed to +shade, fixed, and dried. The pattern is then printed on with a paste +containing some solid organic acid, like citric acid or tartaric +acid, dissolved in it. After drying, the printed cloth is passed +through a bath of bleaching powder in water, possibly with a little +weak alkali added, to be sure that no free chlorine is present; +and wherever the bleaching powder meets the acid the cloth is +decolorized, but the rest of the cloth comes out of the bath without +being much, if at all, altered in color. Of course, on coming out +of this bath the cloth must be thoroughly washed to get rid of any +traces of chloride of lime, which otherwise, on exposure to the air, +would play havoc with the rest of the colors. + +This process worked very well with the old vegetable dyes, and, +every now and then, some craftsman, of an experimental turn of mind, +revives it for stencil work. The dyed cloth is stencilled with a +paste made of wheat flour boiled with a saturated solution of citric +acid, it is dried, and then passed through a bath of bleaching +powder in water, say two or three tablespoonfuls to the gallon. It +is generally best to stir in a few drops of a soda solution to the +bath, till all smell of chlorine has gone, or else the background may +be affected. The stencilled cloth is dipped in this bath, and kept +there for a few minutes, until the bleaching process is well under +way, and then taken out, and washed in hot soap and water, and rinsed +well. + +_Advantages and Disadvantages of Bleaching Powder Discharge._—The +chief advantage of this process is that it is very cheap and the +materials can be bought at almost any grocery. The disadvantages are, +however, important. As long as it is confined to easily discharged, +comparatively fugitive, colors, it will destroy the color all right +in the stencilled parts, although the bleaching powder bath is apt +to attack the color in the body of the cloth, and the outlines of +the pattern are apt to be soft and irregular because of the escaping +chlorine, where the citric acid is acting. + +When, however, very fast dyes are being used, as for instance, the +Vat colors or, indeed, a great many of the best dyes in all the +classes, the action of chlorine is very slow, and slight, and, in +order to really destroy the color both the acid and the bleaching +powder will often have to be so strong that the chlorine set free +will destroy the fibre as well. For the term “fastness to light” +implies, as a rule, fastness also to oxidation in general, and dyes +like the best modern ones which will let the cloth rot away from +under them, when long exposed to the weather without changing color, +are very apt also to keep their color, even when the cloth is _burnt_ +away from under them by the action of chlorine. + +Accordingly, this process is distinctly one that needs careful +experimentation before it is tried on any important piece of work. +There are plenty of dyestuffs among the Salt colors, and also among +the Sulphur colors, which discharge well with chlorine. And the +calico printer, working, as he generally does to this day, with +comparatively fugitive dyes, and weighing accurately both acid and +bleaching powder, can generally get good results with it. But there +is always the disadvantage, that the least excess of chlorine will +attack and tender the cloth, and the better the dyestuff, as a rule, +the stronger the oxidizing agent must be to discharge it. + +(b) _Discharge by Reduction, Hydrosulphite, etc._—The wary craftsman +will find the process much less dangerous to the cloth, and not much +more difficult, if instead of trying to _oxidize_ the dyestuff, he +attempts to discharge it by _reducing_ it; or, in other words, if +instead of trying to burn it out, he tries to take the oxygen away +from it. + +It so happens that in a vast majority of cases a dyestuff becomes +decolorized by reducing it, just as well as by oxidizing it. There +is, however, a difference. When the color is oxidized, it is burnt up +and destroyed forever. When it is reduced, however, it is, in many +cases, only decolorized and not destroyed; and on standing in the air +it is apt to take up oxygen again, and to regain some, at least, of +the original color. On the other hand, while any oxidation process is +liable to attack the cloth as well as the color, the reducing agents +now in use have no effect upon the materials, even when powerful +enough to act on the very fastest dyestuffs. + +As before mentioned, the most satisfactory reducing agent at present +known to dyers is hydrosulphite of soda, and this can be incorporated +in a paste, and used for discharge stencilling. It is, however, as a +rule, more satisfactory to use the more expensive, but more permanent +hydrosulphite compound, described, in the last chapter, as acting +only when heated. + +The reducing stencil paste can be easily made by mixing with some +“gum dragon” or flour paste, as much as it will hold of a saturated +solution of the “Stencil Salt.” + +The student should experiment with the different dyes and classes of +dyes before attempting a serious piece of work; but in general, all +the Salt colors and the Acid colors will discharge readily with this +paste, and remain colorless. The Vat colors and the Sulphur colors +can also be reduced to colorless compounds, but it is not always +easy to wash them out of the cloth after the reduction, and, if they +remain in it, they are apt to regain their color, on standing in the +air. + +The dyed cloth, carefully washed and pressed and dampened, is +stencilled with the above paste and allowed to dry. When dry it is +steamed, as described in the last chapter, and it will be noticed +that when a certain temperature is reached the color will be +discharged. As soon as possible afterwards the cloth is to be washed +in a hot soap bath to remove the reduced color compound (which, as +a rule, has little affinity for the cloth) and to get rid of the +paste. Then the cloth is dried and finished. + +When trying this process with the Vat dyes it is best to soak the +cloth directly after steaming, and before soaping, in a warm bath +containing a little free caustic soda (remember this is apt to burn +the fingers) because the reduced colors of this class are not, as a +rule, soluble in water, and are apt to oxidize again in a soap bath. + +_Results._—In following up these various experiments in our +laboratory we have not used this process in much as the Resist +stencilling, but there is no reason why it should not give just as +good results. Indeed, the craftsman will probably find, after a +little practice, that it is easier to get clear white patterns with +this than with the other. It has the disadvantage of requiring the +rather bothersome steaming process, which reduces its value for many +purposes. Still it will often be found that simply ironing the dried +stencilled cloth with a hot flatiron, with a damp cloth between, will +cause the reduction to take place quite satisfactorily. + +The chief advantage of this process over the other is that, as the +dyeing is done before and not after the stencilling, it is possible +to get the exact shade of background required. While, in the resist +stencilling every minute, almost indeed every second that the +stencilled goods are left in the dye-bath, is liable to obscure +the pattern. And it is hard to get first-class results, as regards +fastness to rubbing and washing, and it is impossible to match +shades, when working so hurriedly. + +Then, too, this discharge process permits the use of almost every +color on the list, while the resist process practically confines the +craftsman to the use of the Sulphur dyes only. + +Those who are interested in this line of work are advised to try +these two processes upon silk, where very beautiful and interesting +effects can be produced with but little difficulty. The resist +process, using Sulphur colors, gives quiet soft tones on silk, fast +to the hardest kind of washing. But brighter shades, equally fast to +light, and fairly fast to washing, can be made with the discharge +process by using Salt colors. + +For ordinary work the Acid dyes, of course, would be used, and these, +too, as a rule, discharge readily. + + + + + CHAPTER XVII + + BATIK + + +The last and perhaps the most interesting and most important process +to which we shall call our reader’s attention is one which, after +being practised in the East for many centuries, has been brought +quite recently to the attention of European and American craftsmen. + +The term “Batik” is a Javanese word, signifying painting in wax, and +the process, somewhat modified, is known to professional dyers and +calico-printers by the name of “wax resist.” When in the hands of a +trained draughtsman the process has a charm and character of its own, +which will warrant the interest now manifested in it, wherever it has +been introduced. + +=History.=—Batik was first introduced by the Dutch discoverers of +Java, who, in 1648, sent home descriptions, with drawings, of the +wonderfully beautiful textiles worn by the people, especially by +the chiefs of that country. The art was known and practised in the +East long before that time, for in Madras goods were made, by a +combination of block printing and Batik, at least as early as the +fifteenth century. And in the interior of Java there are some famous +old ruins in which are found stone statues of Buddha, supposed to be +at least 1,200 or 1,300 years old, clothed in garments the same as +those used at the present day; and showing, from their decorations, +that they were ornamented by Batik in the same general style of +patterns that are still popular there. + +During the last few years very careful studies have been made, +especially by the Dutch Government, upon this Javanese process, and +they have endeavored to introduce it into Europe. It was amusing to +notice that in one of the reports issued by the Dutch Government on +this subject it was stated that none of the modern dyestuffs could +be utilized for this purpose, and that the only colors that could +be recommended as fast to light were the old vegetable dyestuffs, +applied in the complicated and troublesome methods of past ages. +This curiously unscientific attitude has seriously interfered with +the success of the process in Western lands, and is only now being +abandoned. + +=Javanese Practice.=—Detailed information about the history, +technique, and designs of the Javanese process has been set down in a +monumental work: “Die Batikkunst in Niederlandisch Indien,” published +in Harlem under the auspices of the Dutch Government in 1899. +Perhaps of more interest to the non-scientific reader is a short but +well-written account of “Battack Printing in Java,” read before the +Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society in 1906 by an English +chemist, John Allan, who spent several months among the natives, +studying the process at first-hand. + +According to these authorities the Javanese and, indeed, most of +the natives of Malaysia, wear garments simple enough in style and +cut, but elaborately decorated with great variety of both color and +design. The principal garment, common to both men and women, is the +_sarong_, in shape not unlike a large and elongated bath towel, +which, according to the desire and sex of the owner, may be made to +serve as trousers or skirt, overcoat or blanket, and is the universal +bathing costume. It is made of calico, rarely homespun, almost always +imported from Lancashire or Holland, and as the natives, both men +and women, are exceedingly fond of bathing, the colors must be fast +enough to stand constant exposure to water as well as to the fierce +tropical sun. + +They also wear head-dresses made from squares of calico, dyed with +square centres of plain color and elaborately decorated at the sides; +and _slendangs_, a kind of girdle or shawl, usually made of silk and +less elaborately decorated. The costume is completed, for full-dress +occasions, by a thin shirt or chemise and a light jacket. + +For producing the designs on the sarongs, the process of wax resist +is almost always employed by the natives. Unfortunately of late years +the Javanese market has been flooded with an immense quantity of +cheap and, generally, neatly printed goods made in Manchester and in +Holland in rough imitation of the native styles. So it is not an easy +matter, nowadays, even in Java, to get genuine specimens of Batik +work. These can always be recognized, however, on careful examination +by the peculiar and characteristic odor and “feel” of the wax left +behind in the cloth, and, better, by the fine irregular “crackle” +formed in the dye-pot. + +_Variations in the Process._—Although there are different methods, +the Batik process, as usually meant, is a means of dyeing in which, +before immersing the goods in the dye-pot, the patterns are carefully +drawn in molten beeswax, applied from a little copper cup with a +fine spout called a _tjanting_. Frequently, however, to save time, +the Javanese apply the wax by means of a metal die or block, made by +inserting thin strips of sheet brass in a wooden frame, so that the +edges of the brass form the desired pattern. These blocks, provided +with a handle covered with cloth, are first dipped into the molten +wax, and then the excess is removed by pressing against a pad, which +is kept warm by being near the fire of the melting pot. The pattern +is thus stamped onto the cloth instead of being poured onto it, +through a small spout, out of a cup. + +This Batik process is sometimes used by native craftsmen in other +parts of the Far East. Plate I, for instance, shows a specimen of +East Indian work, part of a long piece of stout cotton bought, years +ago, at Liberty’s in London, with an elaborate design made with +molten wax, applied by brush or tjanting. Even in the plate the +characteristic ‘crackle’ shows plainly. + +_Wax._—In Java, the wax used for pouring is a mixture of paraffin and +beeswax, or an impure wax imported from Japan for this purpose. For +stamping the patterns it is necessary to use a stiffer wax made from +rosin and paraffin, sometimes mixed with varnish gums. + +_Dyes._—The principal colors used are indigo and a beautiful +golden-brown dye made from the bark of the mango tree. The +combination of these gives a black, so that the fine old sarongs +usually contain white, blue, brown, and black. Indigo is dyed first, +and, before dyeing, all the cloth, excepting that which is to come +out blue or black, is carefully covered with the wax. After the +indigo bath (the Javanese use a fermentation vat) the color is set +by oxidation. The old wax is then all washed off with boiling soap +and water, and after drying, the wax is again applied to all parts, +whether white or blue, which are not to receive the brown dye. The +latter is made from a strong, syrupy extract of bark, and is used +without mordanting, the color being set by exposure to air. As +the dyes must be used cold, to avoid melting and obliterating the +pattern, the goods are usually dipped in each dye-bath and exposed, +several times, before reaching the desired shade. After the final +dyeing, the wax is removed by a hot bath of wood ashes or soap, and +the garment is pressed out ready to wear. + +When a red color is desired, the natives use a variation of the +old Turkey red process, dyeing with madder or munjeet upon cloth +mordanted with alum and oil. The wax in this case acts as a resist +against the alum mordant, which is applied cold, and thus prevents +the dyestuff, which is applied at the boil, from coloring the cloth +in the protected portions. + +_Cloth._—The cloth used for this Batik process is strong common +calico, but, before beginning to wax it, they give it a careful +treatment, to improve both its texture and its ground color. For a +period of several days they alternately soak it in castor oil, wring +it out, boil out the oil with soda lye, and expose it to the blazing +sun; until finally it becomes soft and smooth, and has a pleasant tan +color which goes excellently with the brown, blue, and black dyes. + +The peculiarity of all these Batik goods, whether from the East or +made at home or in Europe, is the characteristic “crackle” effect, +due to the breaking of the wax upon the cloth in the process of +dyeing, thereby admitting the color to the protected cloth in fine +lines and streaks. This distinguishes the wax resist work from the +previously described paste resist, which if desired will leave a +smooth, clean, white background, or if applied more lightly will give +backgrounds shaded more uniformly and without so many irregular lines +of color. + +This crackle effect, so generally admired in the West, is often by +the Javanese considered a defect, and a sign of poor workmanship. It +can be largely, if not wholly, avoided by adding a large proportion +of rosin to the wax, by batiking the cloth on both sides, and by +dyeing the goods with as little crumpling as possible. + + +MODERN BATIK + +The application of the artificial dyestuffs to this ancient process +has simplified it greatly, and has brought it within the scope of +craftsmen in general. + +=Apparatus—Brushes.=—You will soon find that for a good deal of the +work, such as covering large surfaces with wax, or filling in large +and bold designs, a small-sized paint brush is all that is necessary. +The wax is melted in a cup or casserole, and painted on the cloth +wherever the design calls for it. It will be found, however, no easy +matter to get sharp and clear outlines in this way, and intricate or +delicate patterns cannot be worked out by the brush only. When the +wax is hot, it is hard to prevent it from spreading and running too +far over the cloth, and, on the other hand, it cools so rapidly on +the brush that, unless applied at once, it is hard to spread it at +all, and the wax is liable not to stick to the cloth. + +Much is saved both in time and in accuracy and clearness of outline, +by using the brush in combination with the tjanting, drawing the +outlines with the latter, and filling in with the brush. + +When large surfaces have been covered with the wax, and the +characteristic “crackle” effect is desired, it is often well to cool +the goods, by placing them in the ice box or out of doors for a few +minutes, and then to crumple them in the hands, before dyeing them. +The composition of the wax, also, has much to do with this part of +the work, as will be explained later. + +The brush can also be employed for painting molten wax on to the +goods through a stencil, in resist stencil work. This, however, is +not satisfactory, even with metallic stencils, and fails completely +with paper stencils, because the wax, on cooling, fastens stencil +and cloth together so that they cannot be separated without injury. + +It is much better practice, where a stencil design is to be worked +with wax resist, to make an outline of the design on the goods with a +sharp pencil, and then, removing the stencil, to fill in the pattern +with tjanting and brush. This same practice of drawing the outline on +the goods with pencil, or tracing paper, or by transferring from a +charcoal drawing, by rubbing, is always to be recommended: except for +those craftsmen who are such thoroughly trained draughtsmen that they +can draw their designs free-hand, with the tjanting, without danger +of slip or mistake. A pencil or crayon line, if not quite true, +can be erased without spoiling the whole design, but it is quite a +troublesome matter to correct a mistake made in molten wax. + +=Tjantings.=—The real interest in this Batik process lies in the use +of some form of pouring instrument by which the molten wax can be +applied to the material in a fine stream, with much the same freedom +that a drawing can be made with soft pencil or crayon. This practice +has been developed in Java to its fullest extent, and a fine sarong, +containing two or three yards of calico, will be completely covered, +from one end to the other, with wonderfully intricate and elaborate +designs in two or three colors, all produced, perfectly free-hand, by +curious little tjantings, in the light fingers of the little Javanese +women. + +[Illustration: FIG. 20—“TEAPOT” MODEL OF TJANTING] + +[Illustration: FIG. 21—WALTHER GLASS TJANTING] + +[Illustration: FIG. 22—“WAX PENCIL” MODEL OF TJANTING] + +_Teapots._—When we began experimenting with Batik, in our laboratory, +we had no model of the Javanese tools to work with, and, from the +drawings, we could not see how they could be used without constant +dripping. So we designed a little brass apparatus, which we and our +friends nicknamed a “teapot,” which, with some modification, is shown +in Fig. 20, in which the molten wax remains in the cup until it is +poured out. This, with practice, works fairly well, and some very +interesting work has been done with it. + +It is hard, however, to draw with it on a horizontal surface, such as +we are accustomed to work on. And to follow Javanese practice, and +have the cloth hanging over a frame, and to press it out with the +left hand while the wax is applied with the instrument in the right, +is oftentimes a nuisance. + +_The Walther Glass Tjanting._—It is evident that we were not alone in +our fear of the Javanese models with spouts at the bottom, because, +in Germany, Dr. C. Walther of Crefeld has designed and introduced a +glass tjanting, shown in Fig. 21, which also delivers only on tipping +the instrument forward. This we have experimented with but without +much success. For we have found it difficult and awkward to draw with +it on a horizontal surface, and also, being made of glass, while it +is cheaper than the metal models, it is at the same time more fragile. + +_Wax Pencil._—An entirely new idea has recently been applied to the +art of Batik by the introduction of a (patented) “wax pencil” (see +Fig. 22), made on the principle of the early stylographic pens. + +This tool is made of heavy brass, with a removable wooden holder, and +the wax, in cylinders, is shoved into it from the top after removing +a cap. To melt the wax the wooden holder is slipped off, and the +pencil is heated over a flame or on a hot electric plate, while the +liquid wax is prevented from flowing out by a “needle valve” held +in place by a small spiral spring. To use the tool, the holder is +slipped over the pencil, taking care not to burn the fingers in so +doing, and the pattern is traced in just the same way that it would +be in ink, pressure on the projecting needle, by raising the valve, +permitting a greater or lesser flow of wax. + +These instruments are certainly more convenient to draw with than any +of the forms previously mentioned, and, on hard smooth surfaces, such +as leather, wood, bone, metal, etc., are satisfactory enough. But it +is no easy matter to make them so that they will work well. For the +valve which regulates the flow of wax works with a spiral spring. +Now, if this spring is, or becomes, lax, the wax drips incessantly. +If on the other hand it is too stiff, it is quite troublesome to +press down the pin, at the tip, just hard enough to deliver a fine +stream, without opening it too wide. + +In our experience these instruments, which are quite expensive, do +not work well with cloth and, especially, with rough weaves of cloth, +like crash, scrim, pongee, coarse calico, and the like. For the pin +is liable to catch and jump on the threads, and then it delivers the +wax very unevenly. + +[Illustration: FIG. 23—JAVANESE TJANTINGS] + +[Illustration: FIG. 24—AMERICAN MODIFICATION OF JAVANESE TJANTING] + +_The Javanese Tjanting._—After much experimenting one of our friends +finally brought us, from Holland, a real tjanting copied directly +from the Javanese, and five minutes’ practice with it satisfied us +that it was superior to any of the “improved” models that we had +been working with. Since then we have seen, and studied, several +different styles of Javanese tjantings, and have learned how they +must be used to get the best results. + +The secret of these instruments is two-fold. First, the size of the +delivery tube, and second, the temperature of the wax. + +The genuine Javanese tjanting (see Fig. 23) is a little bit of a +tool, holding only about 15 or 20 cubic centimeters of wax, made of +very thin hammered copper, and fastened into a little bamboo handle, +some four or five inches long. At the lowest part of the cup, which +is drawn out at that point into a spout, is fastened the delivery +tube, which is of _exceedingly_ small calibre, what chemists would +call, in fact, a “capillary” tube. It will be noticed that the wooden +handle extends forward, under the bowl, making it impossible to heat +the bowl itself, or melt the wax in it, by a direct flame. + +The wax is melted in a separate pot or large cup, and kept at a high +temperature throughout; and the operator scoops out the wax from this +pot with the bowl of the tjanting, wipes off the drip with a rag, and +then proceeds to draw on the cloth. In Java, or wherever the cloth is +kept upright, by hanging from a frame, the drip from the outside of +the cup and the end of the handle is not so important, for it will +fall in front of the cloth. When, however, the cloth is laid flat, +for drawing, it is of the utmost importance to avoid all unnecessary +dripping, and so it is probably advisable to ladle the wax from the +pot into the tjanting, with a small casserole or ladle, rather than +to dip it out directly. + +Now, if the size of the delivery hole is right, and the wax is +neither too hot nor too cold, it will form a little globule on the +end of the tube, and stay there; and when this drop is wiped off and +the tube at once applied to the cloth or other material, the wax +will flow out in a fine thin stream, as long as it is drawn along +in contact with the cloth, and when lifted up it will stop flowing +until again applied to it. If the wax is too hot, so that it runs too +freely, it is easy to cool it to the proper temperature by blowing on +it. If it is too cool, so that it begins to chill in the tube, and +to flow slowly and unevenly, it must be warmed by being again dipped +into the hot wax for a new supply. Great pains must be taken to +have the wax free from dust or grit, or else the delivery tube will +be constantly stopping up. A fine but stiff bristle or a very thin +whisk of broom corn should be always on hand for cleaning the tube. +And after using the tjanting pains must be taken to clean out all +the wax thoroughly before laying it aside, so that the tube will be +clear for the melted wax, when it is next filled. The whole tjanting, +tube and cup, should be gently warmed before filling, for fear of +the wax chilling in the capillary tube before it can be applied. But +the arrangement of the handle is such as to call for the use of an +outside melting pot for the wax, while the small size of the cup is +evidently so that the melted wax can be all poured out before it has +time to chill. + +_Modification of the Javanese Tjanting._—We have with much trouble +had some tjantings made here (see Fig. 24), following closely the +Javanese principles, which have proved extremely satisfactory. The +delivery tube is equally fine, and the general action is the same. +But the cup has been made somewhat larger, and very considerably +heavier, so that it will hold more wax, and will hold the heat +better. While, for economy’s sake, instead of hammered copper, the +cup is made of spun brass, and the wooden handle is attached to its +side, and not to the bottom of it. This enables the worker to heat +the cup directly over the alcohol lamp, without danger of scorching +the handle. Of course, when this is done carelessly, it is liable to +char some of the wax in and near the tube, and so to cause stoppages. +And also, it is hard to draw a series of fine lines of exactly +the same thickness, unless the wax in the tjanting is always of +practically the same temperature. + +But there is no difficulty in filling these modified tjantings, just +as the Javanese do, by scooping up the melted wax from a pot, or by +pouring the melted wax into them from a casserole or ladle. While, in +case the wax gets chilled in the tjanting, it is very convenient to +be able to warm the cup quickly over a low clean flame, or by setting +it upon the corner of a hot plate. + +=Composition of the Wax.=—As a general rule we have found that +ordinary unrefined beeswax, carefully melted and strained, or +poured off, free from dust and sediment, is fairly satisfactory. +It is, however, pretty expensive, and so can be replaced, without +disadvantage, by the cheaper mineral wax, known in a crude state as +_Ozocerite_, and in its refined form, which alone should be employed, +as _Ceresine_. To make the wax more brittle, and thus to improve the +“crackle,” it is well to add more or less paraffin. And it is well, +too, to add considerable rosin, to make the wax adhere better to the +goods, and not be so liable to rub or peel off. On the Continent, it +is customary to use Japanese vegetable wax instead of beeswax, but we +have not found this to be advantageous. + +Where economy is desirable, or where it is hard to replace supplies, +it is well to save the once used wax and use it over again, by +extracting the wax from the goods, after dyeing, with boiling water, +and then, when this cools, collecting the wax as a cake floating on +the top. + +=Dyeing Batiked Goods.=—In Holland and, to some extent, elsewhere +on the Continent, where this process has been introduced, great +stress has been laid upon the importance of using the old vegetable +colors of the Javanese, along with their tjantings. It is hardly +necessary to tell my readers that this practice is both unscientific +and, in a true sense, uncraftsmanlike. The object of any intelligent +craftsworker should be to produce beautiful and interesting and +characteristic results in the most durable and effective manner +possible, with the minimum expenditure of energy upon the mechanical, +as opposed to the artistic, details. Why, after carefully batiking a +good design on a piece of silk or calico, must the craftsman spend +hour after hour of valuable time in some tedious, complicated, +and expensive dyeing process, simply because “That is the way they +do things in Java,” especially when, by using modern dyestuffs, he +can get results quite as beautiful and far more permanent, in a few +minutes’ time, and with far less danger of spoiling his work. Even +the clever and skilful little Javanese could learn something from +modern dyeing chemists. + +The class of dyestuffs to use depends, of course, on the kind of +materials that are being worked on. One of the great charms of this +process is that it can be applied to all sorts and kinds of textiles +and, indeed, of a host of things never included under that name. + +Batik can be applied to cotton, linen, wool, silk, and other woven +goods. It can also, if desired, be used upon basketry. And charming +effects can be produced, by its aid, upon leather, pasteboard, +parchment, vellum, and other bookbinding materials, as well as upon +wood, bone, or indeed anything that possesses a smooth surface, and +will hold a dyestuff. + +On copper, brass, and other metals it can also be used, not, indeed, +for dyeing, but for etching, with acids and other chemicals, with +great success. + +(a) _Calico and Linen._—There is no doubt that for vegetable +fabrics in general Batik is very well fitted, especially since the +introduction of modern dyes, which are applied in a cold bath and are +set by oxidation. The Sulphur dyes work extremely well, in cold or +lukewarm baths, especially if used in a strong dye-bath. But they, it +will be remembered, are not very bright colors, and are very short +on the red side. For soft, quiet colorings, however, extremely fast +to washing, and quite fast to light, which can be applied easily and +readily, they will be found very useful. + +But the fastest colors known, both for light and for washing, are +the modern Vat colors, many of which, once reduced, will dye in a +lukewarm or even a cold dye-bath. While indigo, the type of these +colors, and still most useful, gives a soft rather greyish shade of +blue, more effective by itself than when mixed, there can be found +among the Helindones, Thio indigoes, and the rest, a full palette +of dyes which, properly mixed, will furnish any shade that may be +desired. + +The dyeing directions for batiked goods are the same as for ordinary +calico. The materials, well wetted, are immersed, drained, wrung, +and oxidized as usual. The wax is usually removed in one or more +boiling soap baths, which help as well to set the color and to remove +unattached dyestuff. + +(b) _Silk._—Silk, as in other processes, can be dyed in several +different ways, according to the fastness to light and washing +desired. + +The easiest way, especially when trying to match shades, is to dye, +with the Acid dyes, in a soap bath acidified with a little sulphuric, +or, preferably, with acetic acid. These shades, however, while +brilliant and fast to light, are not at all fast to washing, and so +the wax must be removed later, with benzine or gasoline, and not with +a hot soap bath. + +The sulphur dyes, with a little glucose in the bath, and plenty of +dyestuff, will give extremely fast colors on silk, but in most +cases these shades will be too dull for proper effect. They can be +greatly improved in color, though with some sacrifice of fastness, by +topping them, without removing the wax, in a cold bath of Basic dyes, +dissolved with a little acetic acid. + +For extremely fast colors the Vat dyes can be used. Easier to apply, +especially for rather light shades, are some of the Salt colors +which, though they do not take as well on silk, in the cold, as +they do on cotton will, nevertheless, color it well, with prolonged +immersion, in a strong bath, in the presence of formic acid, and once +on, will stand a very considerable amount of washing. + +(c) _Wool._—In case it is necessary to apply this process to wool, +the latter will probably be dyed in the cold with Acid dyes, in +the presence of some sodium sulphate (Glauber’s salt) and dilute +sulphuric acid. + +To make this color faster to washing, steaming, and the like, it is +best, after dyeing, drying, and removing the wax with benzine, to +boil the dyed goods for half an hour or more in a bath containing a +little Glauber’s salt and dilute sulphuric acid, but no dyestuff. + +(d) _Leather._—As a rule, the Batiked leather should be dyed with +Acid colors, acidified with acetic or formic acid, though they can be +shaded afterwards, if desired, by staining with Basic colors. + +After dyeing, the wax can be removed by benzine or, softened +carefully by the cautious approach of a hot iron, can be incorporated +with the polishing wax, used for rubbing down and finishing the +surface. + +(e) _Wood._—Batiked wood can be stained by soaking it in, or by +brushing it with, a solution of an acid color, acidified with a +little acetic acid. These dyes are more soluble than most of the +other classes, and hence soak into and penetrate the fibres better. +They may bleed, however, if exposed to warm water. + +The Basic colors or even the Salt colors can be used, but, while they +are apt to adhere more firmly, they do not soak in as well. + +The wax is either used for polishing, or is removed by benzine. + +(f) _Baskets._—Basketry can be decorated by Batik, although it is but +rarely done. The baskets would be dyed with Basic colors and acetic +acid, excepting where yellows and reds were needed, fast to light, in +which case the Acid colors would be used. + +(g) _Bone._—Very pretty effects can be produced with Batik upon +polished surface of bone or ivory. These are dyed carefully with Acid +colors in a bath containing acetic acid. + +This process is a combination of dyeing and etching, for the acid +attacks the exposed surfaces, removing the polish and opening the way +for the action of the dyestuff later. + +=Batik Used for Etching.=—The talents of Batik are numerous, for the +usefulness of the Batik tjanting and brush are not confined to the +dyer, but can be readily availed of by any metal or wood worker who +happens to be a skilled draughtsman as well. Wax is a good resist, +not only against dyes and the weak chemicals used in connection with +them, but also against many of the most powerful reagents known to +the chemist, such as sulphuric acid, for instance, or strong caustic +alkali. + +Accordingly, if a piece of smooth wood is carefully batiked and +then, instead of being painted with dyestuff in solution, it has +some strong sulphuric acid, or a concentrated solution of caustic +potash poured and spread upon it, in a few minutes, after the reagent +is washed off and the wax removed with gasoline or otherwise, the +exposed surfaces of the wood will be found softened and corroded, +so that on scrubbing with a stiff brush, they can be readily rubbed +away, and the waxed portions will stand out in relief. + +Metal work, like copper or brass plates and dishes, can be etched +readily in the same way, the pattern of the relief being drawn in +wax, and the metal exposed for a greater or less time to the action +of dilute nitric acid. + +Without going further into details it is hoped that enough has been +stated here to impress on the student the possibilities of this +beautiful process in a large number of different directions. + + + + + CHAPTER XVIII + + THE INFLUENCE OF THE WAR UPON THE DYESTUFF INDUSTRY + + +In Chapter II of this book it has been explained how the dyeing +industry of the whole world was changed by the discovery and +commercial preparation of the first aniline dyestuff, mauveine, +in 1856, by the English chemist Perkin. Under his leadership the +supremacy in this new industry was kept in England; but when he +retired from the field the manufacture of dyestuffs was soon +concentrated in Germany. For over forty years before the beginning of +the Great War, the Germans had almost complete and absolute control +over the whole color business, including many allied industries like +the manufacture of organic chemicals, drugs, perfumes, flavoring +matters and the like, derived originally from coal tar. In Germany +were four or five great and splendidly equipped factories, and some +ten or fifteen others of less importance, all thoroughly organized +and working together most harmoniously under what would, in the +United States, be called a most perfect specimen of a Trust. Opposed +to them all over the world there could be found but a handful of +comparatively small and unimportant firms in Switzerland, France, +England and the United States—producing altogether not over about +ten per cent of the output of their German competitors. + +Compared to other industries the output of dyestuffs needed for +the whole world’s consumption is not a very large one—some sixty +or seventy million dollars a year all told; and it was freely +boasted, and more or less accepted by the rest of the world, that +“the dyestuff industry is a one-nation industry, and that nation is +Germany!” + +=Rise of the German Dyestuff Monopoly.=—The story of how this came +about was once told the writer by Sir William Perkin, when he was in +New York, in 1896, at the time of the “Coal Tar Color Jubilee,” the +fiftieth anniversary of his famous discovery. + +He said that in the early days, when he was running his plant near +Manchester, the most dangerous competitors he had to face were +the French. He described them as excellent chemists and keen, but +fair-fighting business men; and the Germans, in those days, were far +inferior to them in every way—in ability, in originality, and, above +all, in honesty. + +He went so far as to say that, for years before he left the business, +he and other English chemists had entirely abandoned attempts to +patent their discoveries in Berlin. He had found, by sad experience, +that whenever he sent over an application for a patent on a new +dyestuff, or new chemical compound of importance, the German Patent +Office would at once call in, for consultation, the leading German +chemists who were interested in that line of work. He would get +request after request for more and more detailed information about +every part of the process; and then, when they had got from him +every bit of information that they could, they would grant the +patent to some one of his German competitors, who, in many cases at +least, had never even dreamed of the thing, until Perkin had sent +his application to Berlin. In fact, he said the English and French +chemists considered them as rank, bare-faced pirates, and none too +successful pirates at that. + +Two Germans however, in 1869, did work out the composition of +alizarine, the dyestuff of madder, and published their discovery in +the chemical journals. But while they discovered and patented one +method for preparing this Alizarine from coal tar on a commercial +scale, Perkin in England, and some dyestuff chemists in France +discovered other methods equally good or perhaps better for producing +the same identical color at less expense. So they still kept well +ahead of the Germans even in that. + +Soon after this, in 1870, the Franco-Prussian war broke out. At +once the French and German factories closed, at any rate for any +foreign trade, and as the cultivation of madder had by that time +been abandoned, Perkin found that all the Turkey red for the whole +Eastern market must be dyed with his Manchester alizarine. Orders +came pouring in, and in order to keep up with the demand, it would be +necessary for him to greatly increase the size of his plant, and to +put back into it all his savings of the past fourteen or fifteen very +profitable years. + +This, he told me, he was unwilling to do. But, just at that moment, +he was approached by a firm of Manchester business men, who had been +supplying his works with some of the raw materials from coal tar +(crudes and intermediates as they call them now), with an offer to +buy his works and his interest in the business. He was perfectly +frank and open with them, showed them his books, his profits for +the past few years, his present orders and the rest, and after a +little bargaining he sold out to them for a very fair price, which he +immediately invested in the best of securities and on which he lived +in comfort for the rest of his long and extremely happy life. + +=Ruin of the English Dyestuff Industry.=—As soon as they had gained +possession of his factory, the Manchester people began to pass word +around among their friends, that they were going to show the whole +world how to run a chemical industry. Perkin, they agreed, was +indeed a clever fellow in his way, and undoubtedly a good chemist, +but he was no _business_ man. They were going to run those works on +good, practical, common-sense business lines, and they and their few +friends whom they allowed to join them, boasted loudly and deeply +of their expected profits. Their motto was the well-established one +“Manufacture cheap and sell dear”—and they proceeded to follow it +implicitly. + +They went over all the details of the business with the greatest +care, and soon found what seemed to them a willful piece of +extravagance. Perkin himself, and three or four other chemists, were +drawing salaries, not for the actual making of the dyestuffs but for +_experimental_ purposes, and they had quite an expensive laboratory +used for that purpose alone! + +Of course this was at once eliminated—and great was their +satisfaction when they found that they had thereby cut down the price +of making their dyes two or three cents a pound. + +Then it came to the “selling dear” part of it. Perkin told me that +the last few years that he ran his factory, he kept the price of his +dyestuffs at a reasonable figure, so that, indeed, he would get a +good profit from them, but that, on the other hand, it would be no +easy matter for competitors to break into his field with success. His +alizarine, in particular, he had kept at a price just below what it +would pay to grow madder in opposition to it, and he had not raised +the price to any great extent since the war had given him a monopoly. +These Manchester people, however, fully recognized that they were the +only manufacturers of alizarine, anywhere, and were over-flooded with +orders—so they instantly jumped up the price of their alizarine to +four or five times its former figures. + +Barely had they completed their “business” reorganization of the +plant when the war came to an end, and the Germans marched back to +their own country, with “five milliards” of French money, full of +self-confidence (to use a very mild term) and looking around for new +fields to conquer in peace, now that they had won all that they could +at that time by war. Instantly every German with any knowledge of +the textile or dyestuff industries turned his eyes at once in that +direction. “What! Alizarine at five dollars a pound instead of a +dollar; why, any fool can make a profit on colors at that price!” And +immediately, in different parts of the country, factory after factory +was started, each one centered around some first-class chemist, of +national if not international reputation, with instructions to gather +around himself a staff of the most brilliant and best trained organic +chemists he could find, to be used first of all in experimental and +investigating work as well as for the mere preparation of dyestuffs. + +As a result, in a very short time, these new German firms were +supplying alizarine and other dyestuffs to the Manchester Turkey red +manufacturers at lower prices than they could be made for in Perkin’s +old factory in the immediate neighborhood; and, before the end of the +year, those clever business men were complaining bitterly to Perkin +that he had cheated them in the sale of his works, and were wanting +him to give them their money back, which, as the old gentleman told +me with a chuckle, he very positively and decidedly refused to do. + +From that time until the beginning of the Great War the great English +textile industry, with its enormous trade all over the world, was +obliged to buy practically all its dyestuffs from Germany. + +=Dyestuff Industry in the United States.=—The manufacture of +dyestuffs in this country was a little better than in England, +because of the tariff protection granted it by the Government for +many years. Four or five factories of very moderate size kept up a +rather precarious existence, because their chief raw materials, the +so-called “intermediates,” organic chemicals made from coal tar and +from which the principal products, dyes, drugs, perfumes and the like +are made in turn, all had to be imported from Europe, and, in most +cases, from their German rivals who naturally kept a tight rein upon +the quantity and quality of their output. + +In 1913 even this industry was destroyed by the abolition of the +duties on dyestuffs in the new tariff, thanks to the pressure for +free raw materials brought by the great textile industries, probably +at the instigation of the foreign color houses. + +=Changed Conditions Due to the War.=—Since 1914 this whole situation +has been radically and completely changed all over the world. +Appreciating the great danger to their textile trades from the lack +of dyestuffs, and also the vast military importance of a large and +highly developed coal tar products industry, for the manufacture of +high explosives, smokeless powder and the like, nation after nation +has given government assistance not only in the line of money, +but also with patent legislation and new tariff. England with its +British Dye Works, Ltd., France with the St. Denis Works, now greatly +enlarged and strengthened, Italy, Japan, all have made arrangements +for supplying their trade with home-made dyestuffs, of excellent +quality, not only during but after the temporary disturbance due to +the actual fighting. + +In the United States there soon were made many more or less +independent and spasmodic efforts to supply at least the principal +and most generally used colors, notably the Basic dyes, Methylene +Blue, Methyl Violet and the like, so much used in calico printing, +silk and wool dyeing, leather and other lines, and the simpler +Sulphur colors, like Sulphur Black, Blues, and Browns. These were +selling, before the end of 1914, at comparatively huge prices, and +until the peace will probably still command from five to ten times +their usual values. + +But out of these scores of generally quite small and isolated +factories, there have sprung, by the fourth year of hostilities, a +few large, well equipped and fully financed organizations which will +be able, within a very short time, indeed probably before these lines +appear in print, to fully provide this country with the main standard +dyes, quite as good in every respect as the same dyes made by the +best German color houses. And, unless very adverse tariff legislation +should be introduced, they should be in a position, after the close +of the war, to hold their trade against any foreign competition. +It will, of course, take several years before they can supply in +this country the very finest special dyestuffs, of which but small +quantities are ever needed or used, and which in most cases are fully +protected by patents, as well as by secret methods of manufacture. +But, with the exception of the vat colors, of which artificial Indigo +and the closely allied Brom-indigo are at present the only ones made +in this country, the dyeing trade will be, in a short time, well +supplied with excellent standard colors “made in America.” + +The three important American dyestuff houses already started with +the addresses of their New York offices are as follows:— + + _American_—American Aniline Products. Inc., + 80 Fifth Avenue. + + _Marden_—Marden, Orth and Hastings, + 61 Broadway. + + _National_—National Aniline and Chemical Co., + 244 Madison Avenue. + +And also, soon to engage in the manufacture of dyestuffs on a large +scale:— + + The Dupont de Nemours Chemical Co., + of Wilmington, Del. + + +Lists of the Best Dyestuffs, in the Different Classes, Made Thus Far +by the American Manufacturers + +At the present moment, November, 1917, but few of the home-made +colors are as fast to light as the specially selected dyes of the +great German houses, listed on pages 66, 89, 103 and 127. Those in +the following lists are the best made at present, in the United +States, and will be steadily improved upon as time goes on. + + _Direct Cotton or Salt Dyes._— + + American—Benzo Fast Yellow, A + Direct Sky Blue + + Marden— Stilbene Yellow + Direct Blue + Direct Brown + + National—Delta Red, 2 B + Niagara Fast Yellow, F + Niagara Blue, 2 B + Erie Black, G X OO + + _Sulphur Colors._— + + Marden— Sulphur Black + Sulphur Brown + + National—Sulphur Brown, W F + Sulphur Yellow, B W + Sulphur Direct Navy Blue + Sulphur Black, F conc. + + _Vat Colors._— + + Dibrom Indigo, powder and paste + Synthetic Indigo, 20% paste + +_Made by the Dow Chemical Company of Midland, Michigan. New York +Agents, Geisenheimer & Co., 134 Cedar Street._ + +Synthetic Indigo and Sodium hydrosulphite can also be obtained from +_Klipstein, 634 Greenwich Street, New York_. + +_Basic Colors._— + +Many of these such as Methylene Blue, Methyl Violet, Phosphine, +Bismarck Brown and others, including leather Black, are being made by +_American_, _Marden_ and _National_, as well as by many firms that so +far have not gone into the general color business. One of the most +important of these last, who, besides the above, make a brilliant +basic Green, called by them Methylene Green, is the _Meth-O-Lene Co., +Inc., 81-83 Fulton Street, New York_. + +Auramine, at present, can best be obtained from _Klipstein_. +Nigrosine soluble in water, in jet black and bluish shades, is made +by _Marden_, _Meth-O-Lene_ and other firms, and is largely used for +dyeing leather fast brilliant shades of black. + + + _Acid Colors._— + + American—Fast Yellow, H Ex. + Brilliant Blue, conc. + Cloth Red, H + Acid Black, L conc. + + Marden— Metanril Yellow + Orange, No. 2 + Fast Acid Red + Croceine Scarlet + + National—Azo Yellow, A S W + Scarlet, B R + Acid Black, 4 A B + +Also Tartrazine, a fast acid yellow much used for wool, not for silk. + + +SPECIAL NOTE + + Further information concerning dyestuffs, apparatus, textiles, + chemicals, etc., connected with this work, may be obtained on + writing to the author at 7 West 43rd Street, New York. + + + + +INDEX + +There is no mention either of the Plate illustrations or of the +Figure illustrations in the index; these may be found in a list of +the illustrations in the front of the book. + + + Acid Azo Colors, 123, 124 + + Acid Colors, 52, 54, 123-131, 131-136, 148-150, 152, 165-168, 219, + 258 + + After-treatment, 18, 67, 68, 89 + + Alizarine and Alizarine Dyestuffs, 22, 23, 42 + + Alizarine Assistant or Turkey Red Oil, 88, 106, 232 + + Aniline, 40, 41 + + Aniline Black—for Stencilling, 224-228 + + Aniline Colors, 109. Also see Basic Colors + + Aniline Red or Fuchsine, Magenta, 40, 109 + + Animal Dyes, 11-14. + Also see Cochineal, Kermes, Lac, Tyrian purple + + Artificial Silk, 39, 87, 112, 181, 184-192 + + Artificial or Synthetic Indigo, 92, 93 + + + Bagobo Tied Work, 196, 199, 200, 202, 206 + + Basic Colors, 52, 54, 108-123, 148-153, 220-223, 258 + + Basketry, Dyeing of, 113, 114, 116-123, 258 + + Batik or Wax Resist, 241-260 + + Benedict, Miss Laura (Tied Work from Philippines), 199, 200, 206 + + Bismarck Brown, 109, 115, 124 + + Bistre or Permanganate Bronze, 32-35 + + Black Dyeing—with Coal-Tar Colors, 69, 86, 89, 114, 168, 169 + + Black Dyeing—with Logwood, 21, 138, 169-172 + + Black Stencilling, 224-228 + + Bleaching Powder, 208-211, 234-236 + + Boiled-off Liquor, 161, 162, 164, 168, 174 + + Bone-colored by Batik Process, 258 + + British uniforms, dyed with cochineal, 19 + + Bronze on Leather, 153-155 + + Bronze (Permanganate) or Bistre, 32-35 + + Brown (Bismarck), 109, 115, 124 + + Brown, dyed with Permanganate of Potash, 32-35 + + + Cachou de Laval, 85 + + Catechu. See Cutch + + Chardonnet Silk, 184, 185, 189 + + Chloride of Lime. See Bleaching Powder + + Chrome Orange, 32 + + Chrome Yellow, 32 + + Chrome Tanning, 144 + + Chundries or Chunaries (Indian Tied Work), 196-199 + + Classification of Coal-Tar Colors, for Craftsmen, 51, 52 + + Cochineal, 11, 18, 19 + + Congo Red, 55, 56, 57 + + Cordovan Leather, 142 + + Cotton Colors. See Salt Colors + + Cotton Dyeing, 59-64, 86, 88-90, 98, 99 + + “Covering,” 83 + + Crackle Effect—in Batik, 244, 246, 247 + + Cutch, 18, 85, 146, 171 + + + Direct Coloring, 193 + + Direct Cotton Dyeing. See Salt Colors and Sulphur Colors. Also 17, + 53, 55, 85 + + Discharge Stencilling, 233-241 + + Discharge work, 193, 208-211 + + Discovery of Acid Colors, 123, 124; + Aniline or Coal-Tar Colors, 40, 41, 46; + Basic Colors, 108, 109; + Indigo, 9, 10, 91, 92; + Salt Colors, 55, 56; + Sulphur Colors, 85, 86; + Vat Colors, modern, 103 + + Discovery (Perkin’s), 40, 41, 46, 54, 108, 109 + + Dyeing Directions—for Acid Colors, 127-131, 132-137, 148-153, 162, + 163; + Artificial Silk, 187, 189, 190; + Basic Colors, 117-123, 148-150; + Basketry, 117-123; + Batik, 254-258; + Cotton and Linen, 27, 30, 33, 59-64, 87-89, 98, 99, 105-108; + Feathers, 132-137; + Imitation Silk, 183; + Indigo, 98, 99; + Iron Buff (Iron Rust), 27-29; + Iron Grey, 30; + Leather, 148-150; + Permanganate Bronze, 33; + Raffia, 120-123; + Resist Stencilling, 232; + Salt Colors, 59-64, 175, 176, 233; + Silk, 162-165, 174-181, 207; + Straw, 117-120; + Sulphur Colors, 87-89, 180, 207, 232; + Tied and Dyed Work, 206, 207; + Vat Colors, 105-108, 177-181; + Wild Silk, 164, 165; + Wool, 24, 127-131 + + + Eastern Dyes, 10, 13, 17-21, 22, 199, 200, 245 + + Elberfeld Silk, 185, 189 + + Embroidery-fast Silk, 175-181 + + Equipment needed for Dyeing, 35-39 + + + Fastness to Light, 42, 49, 63-66, 89, 100, 102, 103, 112, 114, 126, + 153 + + Fastness to Washing, 64-67, 89, 100, 103, 124, 137, 174-181 + + Feathers and Feather-dyeing, 39, 131-141 + + Fermentation Method of Vat dyeing, 94 + + Finishing—Artificial Silk, 39, 189, 190; + Feathers, 39, 134, 135; + Leather, 153; + Silk, 39, 163, 164 + + Fustic, 20 + + + Gambier, 146, 171 + + Gelatin or Glue, used as Reagent, 87 + + Glanzstoff (Elberfeld Silk), 185, 189 + + Glucose, 33, 87, 179 + + Grain Colors (Cochineal, Kermes, Lac), 11, 12, 19 + + Grey, Miss Mary—Tied Work, 203 + + Grey, from mixture of colors, 72, 73, 82, 83 + + Grey, from Iron Salts and Tannin, 29, 31 + + + Heating devices, used in Dyeing, 36 + + History. See Discovery. + Also Ancient Dyestuffs, 8-16; + Artificial Silk, 184-187; + Batik, 241-245; + Dyes of our Ancestors, 17-24; + Imitation Silk, 182, 183; + Leather, 141-144; + Silk, 156, 157; + Stencils and Stencilling, 211, 212; + Tied and Dyed Work, 192-200 + + Horses, dyed Brown with Permanganate, 34 + + Hydrosulphite of Sodium, 35, 97, 98, 104, 105, 118, 209, 210, 237-241 + + + Imitation Silk, 181-184 + + Indian Dyes, 17, 18, 199 + + Indian Tied and Dyed Work, 196-199, 202, 206 + + Indigo and Vat Colors, 9, 10, 14, 91-108, 222-225 + + Indigo, Application of, 93, 98-100 + + Introduction, 5-8 + + Iron Buff (Iron Rust), 25-29, 103 + + Iron Grey, 29-31 + + + Japanese Practice, 31, 211-219, 228-231 + + Javanese Practice (Batik), 242-256 + + + Kermes, 12 + + Khaki, 28 + + + Lac Dye, 11, 19, 20 + + Leather, 141-156; + Dyeing and Staining of, 111, 148-153; + Finishing of, 153; + History of, 141-144; + Preparation of, 143-148; + Stencilling of, 219 + + Linen—Dyeing of. See Cotton Dyeing, 59-64, 86, 88-90, 98, 99 + + Local Dyeing Formulæ, 24 + + Logwood, 21, 138, 169-172 + + + Madder, 10 + + Manufacturers of Coal-Tar Colors, 48 + + Matching Shades, 77, 78, 101 + + Matching Shades by Night, 84 + + Mauvine (Perkin’s Violet), 40, 41, 108, 109 + + Metal, Etching of by Batik Process, 259 + + Methyl Violet. See Basic Colors, also 49, 108 + + Methylene Blue. See Basic Colors, also 109, 112, 114, 149 + + Mineral Dyes, 25-35 + + Mixed Shades, with Diagram, 78-84 + + Modern and Ancient Dyestuffs, compared, 5, 6 + + Mordants and Mordanting, 11, 18-25, 53, 55, 110 + + Murex Brandaris (Tyrian Purple Fish), 12 + + Murex Trunculus, 12 + + + Night, Matching Shades by, 84 + + North Carolina Practice, 24 + + + Perkin, Sir Wm. Henry, 40-43, 46, 108, 109 + + Perkin’s Discovery. See Perkin + + Permanganate Bronze (Permanganate Brown, Bistre), 32-35 + + Peruvian Tied Work, 196 + + Philippine Tied Work, 196, 199-201 + + Primary Colors, 72, 73 + + Purpura Lapillus (Tyrian Purple Fish), 12 + + + Raffia, Dyeing of, 120, 121 + + Rainbow Dyeing, 74, 75, 82, 83, 119-122, 129, 136 + + Rajput Tied Work (Chundries), 196-199, 202, 206 + + Resist Stencil Paste, 229-234 + + Resist Work, 194, 195, also 196-209, 229-234, 241-260 + + Rubber Gloves—Useful for Dyeing, 37 + + “Rubbing,” 101, 102 + + Rush, Dr. Benjamin, 211 + + Ruskin, John, Opinion on Modern Dyestuffs, 5 + + + Safflower, 17, 55 + + Saffron, 10 + + Saffron, Indian (Turmeric), 17 + + Salt—used in Dyeing, 62, 87, 88, 107 + + Salt Colors (Direct Cotton Colors), 51, 55-71, 111, 175, 220, 237, + 238-240; + List of Properties and Uses, 69 + + Sarongs, 243 + + Selected Dyestuffs, Lists of— + Acid Colors, 127, 152, 166; + Basic Colors, 114, 115, 149; + Salt Colors, 66; + Sulphur Colors, 90; + Vat Colors, 103, 179 + + Shades, Matching of, 81 + + Shikar, Chundries (Tied Work from India), 197 + + Silk, Artificial, 39, 87, 112, 181, 184-192 + + Silk, 156-181; + Dyeing, 58, 86, 87, 161-164, 174-181; + Imitation, 181-184; + Preparation of for Dyeing, 159-162; + Stencilling of, 219-223, 240; + Tests for Weighted, 173, 174; + Varieties of, 157-160; + Weighting of, 169-175; + Wild, 157-159, 164-167 + + Skein Dyeing 129, 130, 163 + + Soap, uses of, in Dyeing, 60, 61, 161-166, 171 + + Soda Ash (Sodium Carbonate), 27, 28, 88 + + Sodium Bicarbonate, 27, 28 + + Sodium Carbonate. See Soda Ash + + Sodium Hydrosulphite, 35, 97, 98, 104, 105, 118, 209, 210, 237-241 + + Sodium Hydroxide (Caustic Soda), 97, 105 + + Sodium Sulphate (Glauber’s Salt), 128 + + Sodium Sulphide, 85, 86, 88 + + Starching (for Feathers), 134-136 + + Stencils and Stencilling, 211-228, 228-241 + + Stencil Salt, 223, 224, 239 + + Stripping, 126, 137, 166, 167 + + Sulphur Colors, 85-90, 102, 111, 179, 180, 224, 237, 238 + + + Tannin (Tannic Acid), 18, 30, 31, 145, 146, 171 + + Tanning, 143-148 + + Three-Color Shades, 79-81 + + Tied and Discharged Work, 208-211 + + Tied and Dyed Work, 31, 192-211 + + Ties and Stops, 214-217 + + Tin salts as Mordants, 11, 19 + + Tin Weighting of Silk, 171-175 + + Tjantings. See Batik, 244-254 + + “Topping,” 111 + + Turkey Red, 11, 22, 56, 57 + + Turkey Red Oil (Alizarine Assistant), 88, 106, 232 + + Turmeric (Indian Saffron), 17 + + Tussah Silk. See Wild Silk + + Tyrian Purple, 12-16, 91 + + + Vat Colors. See Indigo, also 102-108, 222-225 + + Vat Dyeing, 94-100, 178-180 + + Vegetable Colors, 8-11, 17-19, 20-25 + + Viscose (in Artificial Silk), 185, 186 + + + Washing, Fastness to, 64-67, 89, 100, 103, 124, 125, 137, 166, 174-181 + + Weighting of Silk, 170-175 + + Woad, 9, 10 + + Wood, Dyeing of, 258 + + Wood, Etching of, by Batik Process, 259 + + Wool, Dyeing of, 58, 86, 128-131 + + Wool, Stencilling on, 221 + + Wringers, Use of in Dyeing, 38 + + + + + TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE + + + Illustrations in this eBook have been positioned between paragraphs + and outside quotations. In versions of this eBook that support + hyperlinks, the page references in the List of Illustrations lead to + the corresponding illustrations. + + Illustrations without captions have had a description added, this is + denoted with parentheses. + + The index was not checked for proper alphabetization or correct page + references. + + Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been + corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within + the text and consultation of external sources. + + Some hyphens in words have been silently removed, some added, + when a predominant preference was found in the original book. + + Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, + and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. + + + Pg 101: removed duplicate ‘to’ in ‘are apt to to “rub.”’. + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 75302 *** |