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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/7010.txt b/7010.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6f3b68b --- /dev/null +++ b/7010.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9651 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Graded Lessons in English +by Alonzo Reed and Brainerd Kellogg + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Graded Lessons in English + An Elementary English Grammar Consisting of One Hundred Practical + Lessons, Carefully Graded and Adapted to the Class-Room + +Author: Alonzo Reed and Brainerd Kellogg + +Release Date: December, 2004 [EBook #7010] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on February 22, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GRADED LESSONS IN ENGLISH *** + + + + +This eBook was produced by Karl Hagen, Charles Franks, +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + +** Transcriber's Notes ** + +Underscores mark italics; words enclosed in +pluses+ represent boldface; +words enclosed in /slashes/ represent underlined words. Words enclosed in +~tildes~ represent a wavy underline. + +To represent the sentence diagrams in ASCII, the following conventions are +used: + +- The heavy horizontal line (for the main clause) is formed with equals + signs (==). +- Other solid vertical lines are formed with minus signs (--). +- Diagonal lines are formed with backslashes (\). +- Words printed on a diagonal line are preceded by a backslash, with no + horizontal line under them. +- Dotted horizontal lines are formed with periods (..) +- Dotted vertical lines are formed with straight apostrophes (') +- Dotted diagonal lines are formed with slanted apostrophes (`) +- Words printed over a horizontally broken line are shown like this: + + ----, helping + '--------- + +- Words printed bending around a diagonal-horizontal line are broken like + this: + + \wai + \ ting + --------- +** End Transcriber's Notes ** + +GRADED LESSONS IN ENGLISH. + +AN + +ELEMENTARY + +ENGLISH GRAMMAR, + +CONSISTING OF + +ONE HUNDRED PRACTICAL LESSONS, + +CAREFULLY GRADED AND ADAPTED TO THE CLASS-ROOM, + +BY + +ALONZO REED, A.M., + +FORMERLY INSTRUCTOR OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN THE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, +BROOKLYN + +AND + +BRAINERD KELLOGG, LL.D., +PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN THE +POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN + +REVISED EDITION, 1896. + + + +A COMPLETE COURSE IN ENGLISH. +BY +ALONZO REED, A.M., AND BRAINERD KELLOGG, LL.D. + +REED'S WORD LESSONS, A COMPLETE SPELLER. Designed to teach the correct +spelling, pronunciation, and use of such words only as are most common in +current literature, and as are most likely to be misspelled, mispronounced, +or misused, and to awaken new interest in the study of synonyms and of +word-analysis. 188 pages, 12mo. + +REED'S INTRODUCTORY LANGUAGE WORK. A simple, varied, and pleasing, but +methodical series of exercises in English to precede the study of technical +grammar. 253 pages, 16mo, linen. + +REED & KELLOGG'S GRADED LESSONS IN ENGLISH. An elementary English grammar, +consisting of one hundred practical lessons, carefully graded and adapted, +to the class-room. 215 pages, 16mo, linen. + +REED & KELLOGG'S HIGHER LESSONS IN ENGLISH. A work on English grammar and +composition, in which the science of the language is made tributary to the +art of expression. A course of practical lessons carefully graded, and +adapted to every-day use in the school-room. 386 pages, 16mo, cloth. + +REED & KELLOGG'S ONE-BOOK COURSE IN ENGLISH. A carefully graded and +complete series of lessons in English grammar and composition based on the +natural development of the sentence. For schools that have not time to +complete more than one book on grammar. 328 pages, 16mo, cloth. + +KELLOGG & REED'S WORD-BUILDING. Fifty lessons, combining Latin, Greek, and +Anglo-Saxon roots, prefixes, and suffixes, into about fifty-five hundred +common derivative words in English; with a brief history of the English +language. 122 pages, 16mo, cloth. + +KELLOGG & REED'S THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. A brief history of the grammatical +changes of the language and its vocabulary, with exercises on synonyms, +prefixes, suffixes, word-analysis, and word-building. A text-book for high +schools and colleges. 226 pages, 16mo, cloth. + +KELLOGG'S TEXT-BOOK ON RHETORIC. Revised and enlarged edition. +Supplementing the development of the science with exhaustive practice in +composition. A course of practical lessons adapted for use in high schools, +academies, and lower classes of colleges. 345 pages, 12mo, cloth. + +KELLOGG'S TEXT-BOOK ON ENGLISH LITERATURE. with copious extracts from the +leading authors, English and American, and full instructions as to the +method in which these books are to be studied. 485 pages, 12mo, cloth. + + + + +PREFACE. + +The plan of "Graded and Higher Lessons in English" will perhaps be better +understood if we first speak of two classes of text-books with which this +course is brought into competition. + ++Method of One Class of Text-books+.--In one class are those that aim +chiefly to present a course of technical grammar in the order of +Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. These books give large space +to grammatical Etymology, and demand much memorizing of definitions, rules, +declensions, and conjugations, and much formal word parsing,--work of which +a considerable portion is merely the invention of grammarians, and has +little value in determining the pupil's use of language or in developing +his reasoning faculties. This is a revival of the long-endured, unfruitful, +old-time method. + ++Method of Another Class of Text-books+.--In another class are those that +present a miscellaneous collection of lessons in Composition, Spelling, +Pronunciation, Sentence-analysis, Technical Grammar, and General +Information, without unity or continuity. The pupil who completes these +books will have gained something by practice and will have picked up some +scraps of knowledge; but his information will be vague and disconnected, +and he will have missed that mental training which it is the aim of a good +text-book to afford. A text-book is of value just so far as it presents a +clear, logical development of its subject. It must present its science or +its art as a natural growth, otherwise there is no apology for its being. + ++The Study of the Sentence for the Proper Use of Words+.--It is the plan of +this course to trace with easy steps the natural development of the +sentence, to consider the leading facts first and then to descend to the +details. To begin with the parts of speech is to begin with details and to +disregard the higher unities, without which the details are scarcely +intelligible. The part of speech to which a word belongs is determined only +by its function in the sentence, and inflections simply mark the offices +and relations of words. Unless the pupil has been systematically trained to +discover the functions and relations of words as elements of an organic +whole, his knowledge of the parts of speech is of little value. It is not +because he cannot conjugate the verb or decline the pronoun that he falls +into such errors as "How many sounds _have_ each of the vowels?" "Five +years' interest _are_ due." "She is older than _me_." He probably would not +say "each _have_," "interest _are_," "_me_ am." One thoroughly familiar +with the structure of the sentence will find little trouble in using +correctly the few inflectional forms in English. + ++The Study of the Sentence for the Laws of Discourse+.--Through the study +of the sentence we not only arrive at an intelligent knowledge of the parts +of speech and a correct use of grammatical forms, but we discover the laws +of discourse in general. In the sentence the student should find the law of +unity, of continuity, of proportion, of order. All good writing consists of +good sentences properly joined. Since the sentence is the foundation or +unit of discourse, it is all-important that the pupil should know the +sentence. He should be able to put the principal and the subordinate parts +in their proper relation; he should know the exact function of every +element, its relation to other elements and its relation to the whole. He +should know the sentence as the skillful engineer knows his engine, that, +when there is a disorganization of parts, he may at once find the +difficulty and the remedy for it. + ++The Study of the Sentence for the Sake of Translation+.--The laws of +thought being the same for all nations, the logical analysis of the +sentence is the same for all languages. When a student who has acquired a +knowledge of the English sentence comes to the translation of a foreign +language, he finds his work greatly simplified. If in a sentence of his own +language he sees only a mass of unorganized words, how much greater must be +his confusion when this mass of words is in a foreign tongue! A study of +the parts of speech is a far less important preparation for translation, +since the declensions and conjugations in English do not conform to those +of other languages. Teachers of the classics and of modern languages are +beginning to appreciate these facts. + ++The Study of the Sentence for Discipline+.--As a means of discipline +nothing can compare with a training in the logical analysis of the +sentence. To study thought through its outward form, the sentence, and to +discover the fitness of the different parts of the expression to the parts +of the thought, is to learn to think. It has been noticed that pupils +thoroughly trained in the analysis and the construction of sentences come +to their other studies with a decided advantage in mental power. These +results can be obtained only by systematic and persistent work. Experienced +teachers understand that a few weak lessons on the sentence at the +beginning of a course and a few at the end can afford little discipline and +little knowledge that will endure, nor can a knowledge of the sentence be +gained by memorizing complicated rules and labored forms of analysis. To +compel a pupil to wade through a page or two of such bewildering terms as +"complex adverbial element of the second class" and "compound prepositional +adjective phrase," in order to comprehend a few simple functions, is +grossly unjust; it is a substitution of form for content, of words for +ideas. + ++Subdivisions and Modifications after the Sentence+.--Teachers familiar +with text books that group all grammatical instruction around the eight +parts of speech, making eight independent units, will not, in the following +lessons, find everything in its accustomed place. But, when it is +remembered that the thread of connection unifying this work is the +sentence, it will be seen that the lessons fall into their natural order of +sequence. When, through the development of the sentence, all the offices of +the different parts of speech are mastered, the most natural thing is to +continue the work of classification and subdivide the parts of speech. The +inflection of words, being distinct from their classification, makes a +separate division of the work. If the chief end of grammar were to enable +one to parse, we should not here depart from long-established precedent. + ++Sentences in Groups--Paragraphs+.--In tracing the growth of the sentence +from the simplest to the most complex form, each element, as it is +introduced, is illustrated by a large number of detached sentences, chosen +with the utmost care as to thought and expression. These compel the pupil +to confine his attention to one thing till he gets it well in hand. +Paragraphs from literature are then selected to be used at intervals, with +questions and suggestions to enforce principles already presented, and to +prepare the way informally for the regular lessons that follow. The lessons +on these selections are, however, made to take a much wider scope. They +lead the pupil to discover how and why sentences are grouped into +paragraphs, and how paragraphs are related to each other; they also lead +him on to discover whatever is most worthy of imitation in the style of the +several models presented. + ++The Use of the Diagram+.--In written analysis, the simple map, or diagram, +found in the following lessons, will enable the pupil to present directly +and vividly to the eye the exact function of every clause in the sentence, +of every phrase in the clause, and of every word in the phrase--to picture +the complete analysis of the sentence, with principal and subordinate parts +in their proper relations. It is only by the aid of such a map, or picture, +that the pupil can, at a single view, see the sentence as an organic whole +made up of many parts performing various functions and standing in various +relations. Without such map he must labor under the disadvantage of seeing +all these things by piecemeal or in succession. + +But, if for any reason the teacher prefers not to use these diagrams, they +may be omitted without causing the slightest break in the work. The plan of +this book is in no way dependent on the use of the diagrams. + ++The Objections to the Diagram+.--The fact that the pictorial diagram +groups the parts of a sentence according to their offices and relations, +and not in the order of speech, has been spoken of as a fault. It is on the +contrary, a merit, for it teaches the pupil to look through the literary +order and discover the logical order. He thus learns what the literary +order really is, and sees that this may be varied indefinitely, so long as +the logical relations are kept clear. + +The assertion that correct diagrams can be made mechanically is not borne +out by the facts. It is easier to avoid precision in oral analysis than in +written. The diagram drives the pupil to a most searching examination of +the sentence, brings him face to face with every difficulty, and compels a +decision on every point. + ++The Abuse of the Diagram+.--Analysis by diagram often becomes so +interesting and so helpful that, like other good things, it is liable to be +overdone. There is danger of requiring too much written analysis. When the +ordinary constructions have been made clear, diagrams should be used only +for the more difficult sentences, or, if the sentences are long, only for +the more difficult parts of them. In both oral and written analysis there +is danger of repeating what needs no repetition. When the diagram has +served its purpose, it should be dropped. + +SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITION EXERCISES + +The exercises in composition found in the numbered Lessons of this book are +generally confined to the illustration and the practical application of the +principles of the science as these principles are developed step by step. +To break up the continuity of the text by thrusting unrelated composition +work between lessons closely related and mutually dependent is exceedingly +unwise. + +The Composition Exercises suggested in this revision of "Graded Lessons" +are designed to review the regular Lessons and to prepare in a broad, +informal way for text work that follows. But since these Exercises go much +farther, and teach the pupil how to construct paragraphs and how to observe +and imitate what is good in different authors, they are placed in a +supplement, and not between consecutive Lessons of the text. + +To let such general composition work take the place of the regular grammar +lesson, say once a week, will be profitable. We suggest that the sentence +work on the selections in the Supplement be made to follow Lessons 30, 40, +50, 60, 70, 77; but each teacher must determine for himself when these and +the other outlined lessons can best be used. We advise that other +selections from literature be made and these exercises continued with the +treatment of the parts of speech. + +For composition work to precede Lesson 30 we suggest that the teacher break +up a short story of one or two paragraphs into simple sentences, making +some of these transposed, some interrogative, and some exclamatory. The +pupils may be required to copy these, to underline the subject and the +predicate, and to tell, in answer to suggestive questions, what some of the +other words and groups of words do (the questions on the selections in the +Supplement may aid the teacher). The pupils may then write out the story in +full form. To vary the exercise, the teacher might read the story and let +the pupils write out the short sentences. + + + + +A TALK ON LANGUAGE. + + +The teacher is recommended, before assigning any lesson, to occupy the time +of at least two or three recitations, in talking with his pupils about +language, always remembering that, in order to secure the interest of his +class, he must allow his pupils to take an active part in the exercise. The +teacher should guide the thought of his class; but, if he attempt to do +_all the talking_, he will find, when he concludes, that he has been +left to do _all the thinking_. + +We give below a few hints in conducting this talk on language, but the +teacher is not expected to confine himself to them. He will, of course, be +compelled, in some instances, to resort to various devices in order to +obtain from the pupils answers equivalent to those here suggested. + + + + +LESSON 1. + ++Teacher+.--I will pronounce these three sounds very slowly and distinctly, +thus: _b-u-d_. Notice, it is the _power_, or _sound_, of the letter, and +not its name, that I give. What did you hear? + ++Pupil+.--I heard three sounds. + ++T.--+Give them. I will write on the board, so that you can see them, three +letters--_b-u-d_. Are these letters, taken separately, signs to you of +anything? + ++P.--+Yes, they are signs to me of the three sounds that I have just heard. + ++T.--+What then do these letters, taken separately, picture to your eye? + ++P.--+They picture the sounds that came to my ear. + ++T+.--Letters then are the signs of what? + ++P.--Letters are the signs of sounds+. + ++T+.--I will pronounce the same three sounds more rapidly, uniting them +more closely--_bud_. These sounds, so united, form a spoken word. Of what +do you think when you hear the word _bud_? + ++P+.--I think of a little round thing that grows to be a leafy branch or a +flower. + ++T+.--Did you see the thing when you were thinking of it? + ++P+.--No. + ++T+.--Then you must have had a picture of it in your mind. We call this ++mental picture+ an +idea+. What called up this idea? + ++P+.--It was called up by the word _bud_, which I heard. + ++T+.--A _spoken word_ then is the sign of what? + ++P.--A spoken word is the sign of an idea+. + ++T+.--I will call up the same idea in another way. I will _write_ three +_letters_ and unite them thus: _bud_. What do you see? + ++P+.--I see the word _bud_. + ++T+.--If we call the other word _bud_ a _spoken_ word, what shall we call +this? + ++P+.--This is a _written_ word. + ++T+.--If they stand for the same idea, how do they differ? + ++P+.--I _see_ this, and I _heard_ that. + ++T+.--You will observe that we have called attention to _four_ different +things; viz., the +real bud+; your _mental picture_ of the bud, which we +have called an +idea+; and the +two words+, which we have called signs of +this idea, the one addressed to the ear, and the other to the eye. + +If the pupil be brought to see these distinctions, it may aid him to +observe more closely and express himself more clearly. + + + + +LESSON 2. + ++Teacher+.--What did you learn in the previous Lesson? + ++Pupil+.--I learned that a spoken word is composed of certain sounds, and +that letters are signs of sounds, and that spoken and written words are the +signs of ideas. + +This question should be passed from one pupil to another till all of these +answers are elicited. + +All the written words in all the English books ever made, are formed of +twenty-six letters, representing about forty sounds. These letters and +these sounds make up what is called artificial language. + +Of these twenty-six letters, +a, e, i, o, u+, and sometimes +w+ and +y+, +are called +vowels+, and the remainder are called +consonants+. + +In order that you may understand what kind of sounds the vowels stand for, +and what kinds the consonants represent, I will tell you something about +the _human voice_. + +The air breathed out from your lungs beats against two flat muscles, +stretched like strings across the top of the windpipe, and causes them to +vibrate. This vibrating makes sound. Take a thread, put one end between +your teeth, hold the other in your fingers, draw it tight and strike it, +and you will understand how voice is made. + +If the voice thus produced comes out through the mouth held well open, a +class of sounds is formed which we call _vowel_ sounds. + +But, if the voice is held back by your palate, tongue, teeth, or lips, +_one_ kind of _consonant_ sounds is made. If the _breath_ is driven out +_without voice_, and is held back by these same parts of the mouth, the +_other_ kind of _consonant_ sounds is formed. Ex. of both: _b, d, g; p, t, +k_. + +The teacher and pupils should practice on these sounds till the three kinds +can easily be distinguished. + +You are now prepared to understand what I mean when I say that the +vowels+ +are the +letters+ which stand for the +open sounds of the voice+, and that +the +consonants+ are the +letters+ which stand for the sounds made by the ++obstructed voice+ and the +obstructed breath+. + +The teacher can here profitably spend a few minutes in showing how ideas +may be communicated by _Natural Language_, the language of _sighs, groans, +gestures_ of the hands, _attitudes_ of the body, _expressions_ of the face, +_tones_ of the voice, etc. He can show that, in conversation, we sometimes +couple this _Natural Language_ of _tone_ and _gesture_ with our language of +words, in order to make a stronger impression. Let the pupil be told that, +if the passage contain feeling, he should do the same in _Reading_ and +_Declaiming_. + +Let the following definitions be learned, and given at the next recitation. + ++DEFINITION.--Artificial Language, or _Language Proper_, consists of the +spoken and written words used to communicate ideas and thoughts+. + ++DEFINITION.--_English Grammar_ is the science which teaches the forms, +uses, and relations of the words of the English Language+. + + + + +LESSON 3 + +Let the pupils be required to tell what they learned in the previous +lessons. + ++Teacher+.--When I pronounce the two words _star_ and _bud_ thus: _star +bud_, how many ideas, or mental pictures, do I call up to you? + ++Pupil+.--Two. + ++T+.--Do you see any connection between these ideas? + ++P+.--No. + ++T+.--When I utter the two words _bud_ and _swelling_, thus: _bud +swelling_, do you see any connection in the ideas they stand for? + ++P+.--Yes, I imagine that I see a bud expanding, or growing larger. + ++T+.--I will connect two words more closely, so as to express a thought: +_Buds swell_. A thought has been formed in my mind when I say, _Buds +swell_; and these two words, in which something is said of something else, +express that thought, and make what we call a _sentence_. In the former +expression, _bud swelling_ it is assumed, or taken for granted, that buds +perform the act; in the latter, the swelling is asserted as a fact. + +_Leaves falling_. Do these two words express two ideas merely associated, +or do they express a thought? + ++P+.--They express ideas merely associated. + ++T+.--_Leaves fall_. + +Same question. + ++P+.--A thought. + ++T+.--Why? + ++P+.--Because, in these words, there is something _said_ or _asserted_ of +leaves. + ++T+.--When I say, _Falling leaves rustle_, does _falling_ tell what is +thought of leaves? + ++P+.--No. + ++T+.--What does _falling_ do? + ++P+.--It tells the _kind_ of leaves you are thinking and speaking of. + ++T+.--What word _does_ tell what is thought of leaves? + ++P+.--_Rustle_. + ++T+.--You see then that in the thought there are two parts; something of +which we think, and that which we think about it. + +Let the pupils give other examples. + + + + +LESSON 4. + +Commit to memory all definitions. + ++DEFINITION.--A _Sentence_ is the expression of a thought in words+. + +Which of the following expressions contain words that have _no connection_, +which contain words _merely associated_, and which are _sentences_? + +1. Flowers bloom. +2. Ice melts. +3. Bloom ice. +4. Grass grows. +5. Brooks babble. +6. Babbling brooks. +7. Grass soar. +8. Doors open. +9. Open doors. +10. Cows graze. +11. Curling smoke. +12. Sugar graze. +13. Dew sparkles. +14. Hissing serpents. +15. Smoke curls. +16. Serpents hiss. +17. Smoke curling. +18. Serpents sparkles. +19. Melting babble. +20. Eagles soar. +21. Birds chirping. +22. Birds are chirping. +23. Birds chirp. +24. Gentle cows. +25. Eagles are soaring. +26. Bees ice. +27. Working bees. +28. Bees work. +29. Crawling serpents. +30. Landscape piano. +31. Serpents crawl. +32. Eagles clock. +33. Serpents crawling. + + + + +LESSON 5. + +REVIEW QUESTIONS. + +Illustrate, by the use of _a_, _b_, and _p_, the difference between the +_sounds_ of letters and their _names_. Letters are the signs of what? What +is an idea? A _spoken_ word is the sign of what? A _written_ word is the +sign of what? How do they differ? To what four different things did we call +attention in Lesson 1? + +How are _vowel_ sounds made? How are the two kinds of _consonant_ sounds +made? What are vowels? Name them. What are consonants? What is artificial +language, or language proper? What do you understand by natural language? +What is English grammar? + +What three kinds of expressions are spoken of in Lessons 3 and 4? Give +examples of each. What is a sentence? + + + + +LESSON 6. + +ANALYSIS. + +On the following sentences, let the pupils be exercised according to the +model. + ++Model+.--_Intemperance degrades_. Why is this a _sentence?_ Ans.--Because +it expresses a thought. Of what is something thought? Ans.--Intemperance. +Which word tells what is thought? Ans.--_Degrades_. + +1. Magnets attract. +2. Horses neigh. +3. Frogs leap. +4. Cold contracts. +5. Sunbeams dance. +6. Heat expands. +7. Sunlight gleams. +8. Banners wave. +9. Grass withers. +10. Sailors climb. +11. Rabbits burrow. +12. Spring advances. + +You see that in these sentences there are two parts. The parts are the +_+Subject+_ and the _+Predicate+_. + ++DEFINITION.--The _Subject of a sentence_ names that of which something is +thought+. + ++DEFINITION.--The _Predicate of a sentence_ tells what is thought+. + ++DEFINITION.--The _Analysis of a sentence_ is the separation of it into its +parts+. + +Analyze, according to the model, the following sentences. + ++Model+.--_Stars twinkle_. This is a _sentence_, because it expresses a +thought. _Stars_ is the _subject_, because it names that of which something +is thought; _twinkle_ is the _predicate_, because it tells what is thought. + ++To the Teacher+.--After the pupils become familiar with the definitions, +the "Models" may be varied, and some of the reasons maybe made specific; +as, "_Plants_ names the things we tell about; _droop_ tells what plants +do," etc. + +Guard against needless repetition. + +1. Plants droop. +2. Books help. +3. Clouds float. +4. Exercise strengthens. +5. Rain falls. +6. Time flies. +7. Rowdies fight. +8. Bread nourishes. +9. Boats capsize. +10. Water flows. +11. Students learn. +12. Horses gallop. + + + + +LESSON 7. + +ANALYSIS AND THE DIAGRAM. + ++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--I will draw on the board a heavy, or shaded, +line, and divide it into two parts, thus: + + | +===========|============ + | + +We will consider the first part as the sign of the _subject_ of a +sentence, and the second part as the sign of the _predicate_ of a +sentence. + +Now, if I write a word over the first line, thus--(doing it)--you will +understand that that word is the subject of a sentence. If I write a word +over the second line, thus--you will understand that that word is the +predicate of a sentence. + + Planets | revolve +============|=========== + | + +The class can see by this picture that _Planets revolve_ is a sentence, +that _planets_ is the subject, and that _revolve_ is the predicate. + +These signs, or illustrations, made up of straight lines, we call ++Diagrams+. + ++DEFINITION.--A _Diagram_ is a picture of the offices and relations of the +different parts of a sentence+. + +_Analyze_ and _diagram_ the following sentences. + +1. Waves dash. +2. Kings reign. +3. Fruit ripens. +4. Stars shine. +5. Steel tarnishes. +6. Insects buzz. +7. Paul preached. +8. Poets sing. +9. Nero fiddled. +10. Larks sing. +11. Water ripples. +12. Lambs frisk. +13. Lions roar. +14. Tigers growl. +15. Breezes sigh. +16. Carthage fell. +17. Morning dawns. +18. Showers descended. +19. Diamonds sparkle. +20. Alexander conquered. +21. Jupiter thunders. +22. Columbus sailed, +23. Grammarians differ. +24. Cornwallis surrendered. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 8. + +SENTENCE-BUILDING. + +You have now learned to analyze sentences, that is, to separate them into +their parts. You must next learn to put these parts together, that is, to +_build sentences_. + +We will find one part, and you must find the other and do the building. + ++To the Teacher+.--Let some of the pupils write their sentences on the +board, while others are reading theirs. Then let the work on the board be +corrected. + +Correct any expression that does not make _good sense_, or that asserts +something not strictly true; for the pupil should early be taught to _think +accurately_, as well as to write and speak grammatically. + +Correct all mistakes in _spelling_, and in the use of _capital letters_ and +the _period_. + +Call attention to the agreement in form of the predicate with the subject. +See Notes, p. 163. + +Insist on neatness. Collect the papers before the recitation closes. + ++CAPITAL LETTER-RULE.--The first word of every sentence must begin with a +_capital letter_+. + ++PERIOD--RULE.--A _period_ must be placed after every sentence that simply +affirms, denies, or expresses a command+. + +Construct sentences by supplying a _subject_ to each of the following +_predicates_. + +Ask yourself the question, What swim, sink, hunt, etc.? + +1. ---- swim. +2. ---- sinks. +3. ---- hunt. +4. ---- skate. +5. ---- jingle. +6. ---- decay. +7. ---- climb. +8. ---- creep. +9. ---- run. +10. ---- walk. +11. ---- snort. +12. ---- kick. +13. ---- flashes. +14. ---- flutters. +15. ---- paddle. +16. ---- toil. +17. ---- terrifies. +18. ---- rages. +19. ---- expand. +20. ---- jump. +21. ---- hop. +22. ---- bellow. +23. ---- burns. +24. ---- evaporates. + +This exercise may profitably be extended by requiring the pupils to supply +_several_ subjects to each predicate. + + + + +LESSON 9. + +SENTENCE-BUILDING--Continued. + +Construct sentences by supplying a _predicate_ to each of the following +_subjects_. + +Ask yourself the question, Artists do what? + +1. Artists ----. +2. Sailors ----. +3. Tides ----. +4. Whales ----. +5. Gentlemen ----. +6. Swine ----. +7. Clouds ----. +8. Girls ----. +9. Fruit ----. +10. Powder ----. +11. Hail ----. +12. Foxes ----. +13. Water ----. +14. Frost ----. +15. Man ----. +16. Blood ----. +17. Kings ----. +18. Lilies ----. +19. Roses ----. +20. Wheels ----. +21. Waves ----. +22. Dew ----. +23. Boys ----. +24. Volcanoes ----. +25. Storms ----. +26. Politicians ----. +27. Serpents ----. +28. Chimneys ----. +29. Owls ----. +30. Rivers ----. +31. Nations ----. +32. Indians ----. +33. Grain ----. +34. Rogues ----. +34. Volcanoes ----. +35. Rome ----. +36. Briars ----. + +This exercise may be extended by requiring the pupils to supply several +predicates to each subject. + + + + +LESSON 10. + +REVIEW QUESTIONS. + +Of what two parts does a sentence consist? What is the subject of a +sentence? What is the predicate of a sentence? What is the analysis of a +sentence? + +What is a diagram? What rule for the use of capital letters have you +learned? What rule for the period? + +Impromptu Exercise. + +Let the pupils "choose sides," as in a spelling match. Let the teacher +select _predicates_ from Lesson 8, and give them alternately to the pupils +thus arranged. The first pupil prefixes to his word whatever suitable +subjects he can think of, the teacher judging of their fitness and keeping +the count. This pupil now rises and remains standing until some one else, +on his side or the other, shall have prefixed to his word a greater number +of apt subjects. The strife is to see who shall be standing at the close of +the match, and which side shall have furnished the greater number of +subjects. The exercise may be continued with the _subjects_ of Lesson 9. +Each pupil is to be limited to the same time--one or two minutes. + + + + +LESSON 11. + +ANALYSIS. + +The +_predicate_+ sometimes contains +_more than one word_+. + +_Analyze_ and _diagram_ according to the model. + ++Model+.--_Socrates was poisoned_. + + Socrates | was poisoned +============|================ + | + +This is a sentence, because it expresses a thought. _Socrates_ is the +subject, because ----; _was poisoned_ is the predicate, because ----. +[Footnote: The word _because_--suggesting a reason--should be dropped from +these "+Models+" whenever it may lead to mere mechanical repetition.] + +1. Napoleon was banished. +2. Andre was captured. +3. Money is circulated. +4. Columbus was imprisoned. +5. Acorns are sprouting. +6. Bells are tolled. +7. Summer has come. +8. Sentences may be analyzed. +9. Clouds are reddening. +10. Air may be weighed. +11. Jehovah shall reign. +12. Corn is planted. +13. Grammarians will differ. +14. Snow is falling. +15. Leaves are rustling. +16. Children will prattle. +17. Crickets are chirping. +18. Eclipses have been foretold. +19. Storms may abate. +20. Deception may have been practiced. +21. Esau was hated. +22. Treason should have been punished. +23. Bees are humming. +24. Sodom might have been spared. + + + + +LESSON 12. + +SENTENCE-BUILDING. + ++To the Teacher+.--Continue oral and written exercises in agreement. See +Notes, pp. 163,164. + +Prefix the little helping words in the _second column_ to such of the more +important words in the _third column_ as with them will make complete +predicates, and join these predicates to all subjects in the _first column_ +with which they will unite to make good sense. + + 1 | 2 | 3 +-------------|-----------------|------------ +Burgoyne | are | woven. +Henry Hudson | was | defeated. +Sparrows | can be | condensed. +Comets | is | inhaled. +Time | have been | worn. +Turbans | may be | slacked. +Lime | has been | wasted. +Steam | could have been | seen. +Air | must have been | deceived. +Carpets | were | quarreling. + + + + +LESSON 13. + +Point out the _subject_ and the predicate of each sentence in Lessons 28, +31, 34. + +Look first for the word that asserts, and then, by putting _who_ or _what_ +before this _predicate_, the _subject_ may easily be found. + ++To the Teacher+.--Most violations of the rules of concord come from a +failure to recognize the relation of subject and predicate when these parts +are transposed or are separated by other words. Such constructions should +therefore receive special attention. See Notes, pp. 164, 165. + +Introduce the class to the Parts of Speech before the close of this +recitation. See "Hints for Oral Instruction." + +See "Suggestions for COMPOSITION EXERCISES," p. 8, last paragraph. + + + + +LESSON 14. + +CLASSES OF WORDS. + ++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--By the assistance of the few hints here +given, the ingenious teacher may render this usually dry subject +interesting and highly attractive. By questioning the pupil as to what he +has seen and heard, his interest may be excited and his curiosity awakened. + +Suppose that we make an imaginary excursion to some pleasant field or +grove, where we may study the habits, the plumage, and the songs of the +little birds. + +If we attempt to make the acquaintance of every little feathered singer we +meet, we shall never get to the end of our pleasant task: but we find that +some resemble one another in size, shape, color, habits, and song. These we +associate together and call them sparrows. + +We find others differing essentially from the sparrows, but resembling one +another. These we call robins. + +We thus find that, although we were unable to become acquainted with each +_individual_ bird, they all belong to a few _classes_, with which we may +soon become familiar. + +It is so with the words of our language. There are many thousand words, all +of which belong to eight classes. + +These classes of words are called +Parts of Speech+. + +We classify birds according to their form, color, etc., but we group words +into _classes_, called +Parts of Speech+, with respect to their use in the +_sentence_. + +We find that many words are names. These we put in one class and call them ++Nouns+. + +Each pupil may give the name of something in the room; the name of a +distinguished person; a name that may be applied to a class of persons; the +name of an animal; the name of a place: the name of a river; the name of a +mountain; the name of something which we cannot see or touch, but of which +we can think; as, _beauty_, _mind_. + +Remind the pupils frequently that these _names_ are all _nouns_. + +NOUNS. + ++DEFINITION.--A _Noun_ is the name of anything+. + +Write in columns, headed _nouns_, the names of domestic animals, of garden +vegetables, of flowers, of trees, of articles sold in a dry goods store, +and of things that cannot be seen or touched; as, _virtue_, _time_, _life_. + +Write and arrange, according to the following model, the names of things +that can _float_, _fly_, _walk_, _work_, _sit_, or _sing_. + + _Nouns_. + Cork | + Clouds | ++Model+.--Wood + floats or float. + Ships | + Boys | + +Such expressions as _Cork floats_ are _sentences_, and the nouns _cork_, +_ship_, etc., are the subjects. You will find that _+every subject+ is a ++noun+ or some word or words used for a noun_. + +Be prepared to analyze and parse the sentences which you have made. _Naming +the class to which a word belongs is the first step in parsing_. + ++Model for Analysis+.--This is a sentence, because -----; _cork_ is the +subject, because -----; _floats_ is the predicate, because -----. + ++Parsing+.--_Cork_ is a _noun_, because it is the name of a thing--the bark +of a tree. + + + + +LESSON 15. + +Select and write all the nouns in the sentences given in Lessons 28, 31, +34. + +Tell why they are nouns. + +In writing the nouns, observe the following rule. + ++CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--Every proper or individual name must begin with a +capital letter+. + ++To the Teacher+.--See Notes, pp. 167-169. + +REVIEW QUESTIONS. + +With respect to what, do we classify words (Lesson 14)? What are such +classes called? Can you illustrate this classification? What are all names? +What is a noun? What is the first step in parsing? What is the rule for +writing individual names? + + + + +LESSON 16. + +VERBS. + ++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--We propose to introduce you now to another +class of words. (The teacher may here refer to the talk about birds.) + +You have learned that one very large class of words consists of _names of +things_. There is another very important class of words used to tell what +these things _do_, or used to _express_ their _existence_. + +When I say, _Plants grow_, is _grow_ the name of anything? +P+.--No. ++T+.--What does it do? +P+.--It tells what plants _do_. It _expresses +action_. + ++T+.--When I say, _God is_, what does _is_ express? +P+.--It expresses +_existence_, or _being_. + ++T+.--When I say, _George sleeps_, _sleeps_ expresses _being_ and something +more; it tells the condition, or _state_ in which George is, or exists, +that is, it expresses _state of being_. + +All the words that assert _action, being_, or _state of being_, we call ++Verbs+. + +Let the teacher write nouns on the board, and require the pupils to give +all the words of which they can think, telling what the things named can +do. They may be arranged thus:-- + +_Noun_. _Verbs_. + | grow, + | droop, +Plants + decay, + | flourish, + | revive. + +Each pupil may give a verb that expresses an action of the body; as _weep, +sing_; an action of the mind; as, _study, love_; one that expresses being +or state of being. + ++DEFINITION.--A _Verb_ is a word that asserts action, being, or state of +being+. + +The office of the verb in all its forms, except two (the participle and the +infinitive, see Lessons 48 and 49), is to +_assert_+. This it does whether +the sentence affirms, denies, or asks a question. + ++To the Teacher+.--In the exercises of this and the next two Lessons, let +the pupils note the agreement of the verb with its subject. See Notes, pp. +163-165. + +Supply, to each of the following _nouns_, as many appropriate _verbs_ as +you can think of. + +Let some express _being_ or _state of being_. + +Water ----. +Wind ----. +Pens ----. +Parrots ----. +Vines ----. +Farmers ----. +Trees ----. +Ministers ----. + +One verb may consist of _two, three_, or _four_ words; as, _is singing, +will be sung, might have been sung_. + +Form _verbs_ by combining the words in columns 2 and 3, and add these verbs +to all the _nouns_ in column 1 with which they appropriately combine. + + 1 | 2 | 3 +-------|------------------|------------ +Laws | has been | published. +Clouds | have been | paid. +Food | will be | restored. +Health | should have been | preserved. +Taxes | may be | collected. +Books | are | obeyed. + +The examples you have written are sentences; the _nouns_ are _subjects_, +and the _verbs_ are _predicates_. + +As verbs are the only words that assert, _+every predicate+ must be a ++verb+, or must contain a verb_. + +Be prepared to _analyze and parse five of the sentences_ that you have +written. + ++Model+.--_Laws are obeyed_. Diagram and analyze as in Lesson 11. + ++Parsing+.--_Laws_ is a noun, because----; _are obeyed_ is a _verb_, +because it asserts action. + + + + +LESSON 17. + +Select and write all the verbs in the sentences given in Lessons 28, 31, +34, and tell why they are verbs. + + + + +LESSON 18. + +SENTENCE-BUILDING. + +From the following nouns and verbs, build as many sentences as possible, +taking care that every one makes good sense. + +Poems, was conquered, lambs, rebellion, stars, forests, shone, were seen, +were written, treason, patriots, meteors, fought, were discovered, frisk, +Cain, have fallen, fled, stream, have crumbled, day, ages, deer, are +flickering, are bounding, gleamed, voices, lamps, rays, were heard, are +gathering, time, death, friends, is coming, will come. + ++To the Teacher+.--Before this recitation closes, let the teacher open up +the subject of Lesson 19. See "Hints for Oral Instruction." + + + + +LESSON 19. + +PRONOUNS. + ++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--We propose to introduce you now to the +_third part of speech_. +T.--+If I should ask who whispered, and some boy +should promptly confess, what would he say? +P.--+_I_ whispered. ++T.--+Would he mention his own name? +P.--+No. +T.--+What word would he use +instead? +P.--+_I_. + ++T.--+Suppose that I had _spoken to_ that boy and had accused him of +whispering, how should I have addressed him without mentioning his name? ++P.--+_You_ whispered. +T.--+What word would be used instead of the name of +the boy _to_ whom I spoke? +P.--+_You_. + ++T.--+Suppose that, without using his name, I had told you what he did, +what should I have said? +P.--+_He_ whispered. +T.--+What word would have +been used instead of the name of the boy _of_ whom I spoke? +P.--+_He_. + +(Repeat these questions and suppose the pupil to be a girl.) + ++T.--+If I should tell that boy to close his book, when his book was +already closed, what would he say without mentioning the word book? ++P.--+_It_ is closed. + ++T.--+If I should accuse several of you of whispering, and one should speak +for himself and for the others whispering with him, what would he say? _We_ +whispered. + ++T--+Suppose that a boy should inform me that all of the boys on that seat +had whispered, what would he say? +P.--+_They_ whispered. + +_I, you, he, she, it, we_, and _they_ are not names, but they are used +instead of names. We call such words +Pronouns+. + ++DEFINITION.--A _Pronoun_ is a word used for a noun+. + ++CAPITAL LETTERS--RULE.--The words _I_ and _O_ should be written in capital +letters+. + +Analysis and Parsing. + ++Model.--+_You will be rewarded_. + ++Oral Analysis--+This is a sentence, because----; _you_ is the subject, +because----; _will be rewarded_ is the predicate, because----. + ++Parsing.--+_You_ is a _pronoun_, because it stands for the name of the +person spoken to; _will be rewarded_ is a verb, because----. + +1. We think. +2. She prattles. +3. We have recited. +4. I study. +5. You have been seen. +6. It has been decided. +7. He was punished. +8. They are conquered. +9. Thou art adored. + +Compose nine similar sentences, using a pronoun for the subject of each, +and diagram them. + ++To the Teacher.--+Call special attention to the agreement of the verb with +_I_ and _you_. See Notes, p. 164. + +Before this recitation closes, explain "Modified Subject." See "Hints for +Oral Instruction." + + + + +LESSON 20. + +MODIFIED SUBJECT. + ++Hints for Oral Instruction.--+The _Subject_ and the _Predicate_ may be +considered as the foundation on which every sentence is built. No sentence +can be constructed without them. + +You have already learned that these parts _alone_, sometimes make a +complete structure; but we are about to show you that they are often used +as the foundation of a structure, which is completed by adding _other_ +parts. + +I hold in my hand several pieces of metal, with letters and other +characters stamped on them. What do you say I have in my hand? +P+.--Money. ++T.--+Yes. What other word can you use? +P.--+_Coin_. +T.--+Yes. I will +write on the board this sentence: _Coin is stamped_. + +The subject _coin_ is a general name for all such pieces of metal. I will +write the word _the_ before this sentence. _The coin is stamped_. I have +now made an assertion about one particular coin, so the meaning of the +subject is limited by joining the word _the_. + +I can again limit the meaning of the subject by putting the word _a_ before +it. The assertion is now about one coin, but no particular one. I point to +the piece near me and say, _This coin is stamped_. I point to the one +farther from me and say, _That coin is stamped_. + +When words are joined to the subject to limit its meaning, we say that the +subject is _modified_. + +The words _the, a, this_, and _that_ modify the subject by limiting the +word to one coin, or to one particular coin. + +We can modify the subject by joining some word which will tell what _kind_ +of coin is meant. + +Here is a coin dated 18--. We can say, _The new coin is stamped_. Here the +word _new_ tells what kind of coin is meant. What other words can I use to +modify _coin_? +P.--+_Beautiful, bright, new, round, silver_. +T.--+These +words _beautiful, bright, new, round_, and _silver_ modify the subject by +telling the qualities of the coin. + +We call the words _the, beautiful_, etc., +Modifiers+. + + ++DEFINITION.--A _Modifier_ is a word or group of words joined to some part +of the sentence to qualify or limit the meaning+. + +The +_Subject_+ with its +_Modifiers_+ is called the +_Modified Subject_+. + +ANALYSIS. + +Analyze and diagram the following sentences. + ++Model.--+_The genial summer days have come_. + + days | have come +=====================|============= +\The \genial \summer | + ++Explanation of the Diagram.--+The lighter lines, joined to the subject +line, stand for the _modifiers_, the less important parts. + ++Oral Analysis.--+This is a sentence, because----; _days_ is the subject, +because----; _have come_ is the predicate, because----; _The, genial_, and +_summer_ are _modifiers_ of the subject, because they are words joined to +the subject to modify its meaning. _The genial summer days_ is the +_modified subject_. + ++To the Teacher.--+To excite thought and guard against mere routine, pupils +may, so far as they are able, make the reasons specific. For example, +"_The_ points out some particular clouds, _dark_ tells their color," etc. + +Here and elsewhere the teacher must determine how far it is profitable to +follow "Models." There is great danger of wasting time in repeating forms +that require no mental effort. + +1. The angry wind is howling. +2. The dead leaves fall. +3. The dark clouds lower. +4. The tall elm bends. +5. All men must die. +6. The lusty bellows roared. +7. A boding silence reigned. +8. Little Arthur was murdered. +9. The mighty oak was uprooted. +10. The fragile violet was crushed. +11. The beautiful marble statue was carved. +12. The turbid torrent roared. +13. The affrighted shepherds fled. +14. The vivid lightning flashes. +15. Those elegant Etruscan vases are broken. + +REVIEW QUESTIONS. + +What is a verb? Give examples of verbs of action. Of being. Of state of +being. May a verb consist of more than one word? Illustrate. Verbs are the +only words that do what? What must every predicate contain? + +What parts of speech are explained in the preceding Lessons? What is a +pronoun? Give the rule for writing the words _I_ and _0_. + +What is the foundation on which every sentence is built? May the subject be +modified? What is a modifier? What is the modified subject? + + + + +LESSON 21. + +SENTENCE-BUILDING. + +We have here prepared the foundations of sentences which you are to +complete by writing two or more suitable modifiers to each subject. Be +careful to choose and arrange your material so as to make a neat and +appropriate structure. + ++Model+.---------- eminence was reached. + _That lofty_ eminence was reached. + +1. ---- speaker was applauded. +2. ---- difficulties were overcome. +3. ---- leaf trembles. +4. ---- accident happened. +5. ---- books should be read. +6. ---- houses are built. +7. ---- soldiers perished. +8. ---- opinions prevailed. +9. ---- leader fell. +10. ---- task is completed. + +For other subjects and predicates, the teacher is referred to Lessons 7 and +11. + +Build sentences by prefixing _modified subjects_ to the following +predicates. + +1. ---- frolic. +2. ---- crawl. +3. ---- are dashing. +4. ---- was caught. +5. ---- escaped. +6. ---- chatter. +7. ---- flourished. +8. ---- whistles. + +Build, on each of the following subjects, three sentences similar to those +in the model. + ++Model+ ------------- sun --------------- + + _The bright_ sun _is shining_. + _The glorious_ sun _has risen_. + _The unclouded_ sun _is sinking_. + +1. ---- snow ----. +2. ---- dew ----. +3. ---- wind ----. +4. ---- landscape ----. + ++To the Teacher+.--Please take notice that the next Lesson begins with +"Hints for Oral Instruction." + + + + +LESSON 22. + +ADJECTIVES. + ++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--You are now prepared to consider the _fourth +part of speech_. Those words that are added to the subject to modify its +meaning are called +Adjectives+. + +Some grammarians have formed a separate class of the little words _the_, +and _an_ or _a_, calling them _articles_. + +I will write the word _boys_ on the board, and you may name adjectives that +will appropriately modify it. As you give them, _I_ will write these +adjectives in a column. + +_Adjectives_. + +small | +large | +white | +black | +straight + boys. +crooked | +five | +some | +all | + +What words here modify _boys_ by adding the idea of size? What by adding +the idea of color? What by adding the idea of form? What by adding the idea +of number? What are such words called? Why? + +Let the teacher name familiar objects and require the pupils to join +appropriate adjectives to the names till their stock is exhausted. + + ++DEFINITION.--An _Adjective_ is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun+. + +Analysis and Parsing. + ++Model+.--_A fearful storm was raging_. Diagram and analyze as in Lesson +20. + ++Written Parsing+. + +_Nouns_. | _Pronouns_. | _Adjectives_. | _Verbs_. +storm | ---- | A fearful | was raging. + ++Oral Parsing+.--_A_ is an _adjective_, because it is joined to the noun +_storm_, to modify its meaning; _fearful_ is an _adjective_, because +------; _storm_ is a noun, because ------; _was raging_ is a verb, because +-----. + +1. The rosy morn advances. +2. The humble boon was obtained. +3. An unyielding firmness was displayed. +4. The whole earth smiles. +5. Several subsequent voyages were made. +6. That burly mastiff must be secured. +7. The slender greyhound was released. +8. The cold November rain is falling. +9. That valuable English watch has been sold. +10. I alone have escaped. +11. Both positions can be defended. +12. All such discussions should have been avoided. +13. That dilapidated old wooden building has fallen. + ++To the Teacher+.--See Notes, pp. 169, 170. + + + + +LESSON 23. + +SENTENCE-BUILDING. + +Prefix five adjectives to each of the following nouns. + +Shrubs, wilderness, beggar, cattle, cloud. + +Write ten sentences with modified subjects, using in each two or more of +the following adjectives. + +A, an, the, heroic, one, all, many, every, either, first, tenth, frugal, +great, good, wise, honest, immense, square, circular, oblong, oval, mild, +virtuous, universal, sweet, careless, fragrant. + +Write five sentences with modified subjects, each of which shall contain +one of the following words as a subject. + +Chimney, hay, coach, robber, horizon. + +_An_ and _a_ are forms of the same word, once spelled _an_, and meaning +_one_. After losing something of this force, _an_ was still used before +vowels and consonants alike; as, _an eagle, an ball, an hair, an use_. +Still later, and for the sake of ease in speaking, the word came to have +the two forms mentioned above; and an was retained before letters having +vowel sounds, but it dropped its _n_ and became _a_ before letters having +consonant sounds. This is the present usage. + +CORRECT THESE ERRORS. + +A apple; a obedient child; an brickbat; an busy boy. + +CORRECT THESE ERRORS. + +A heir; a hour; a honor. + +Notice, the first letter of these words is _silent_. + +CORRECT THESE ERRORS. + +An unit; an utensil; an university; an ewe; an ewer; an union; an use; an +history; an one. + +_Unit_ begins with the sound of the consonant _y_; and _one_, with that of +_w_. + ++To the Teacher+.--See "Suggestions for COMPOSITION EXERCISES," p. 8, last +paragraph. + + + + +LESSON 24. + +MODIFIED PREDICATES. + ++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--I will now show you how the _predicate_ of a +sentence may be modified. + +_The ship sails gracefully_. What word is here joined to _sails_ to tell +the _manner_ of sailing? +P+.--_Gracefully_. + ++T+.--_The ship sails immediately_. What word is here joined to _sails_ to +tell the _time_ of sailing? +P+.--_Immediately_. + ++T+.--_The, ship sails homeward_. What word is here joined to _sails_ to +tell the _direction_ of sailing? +P+.--_Homeward_. + ++T+.--These words _gracefully, immediately_, and _homeward_ are modifiers +of the predicate. In the first sentence, _sails gracefully_ is the ++_Modified Predicate_+. + +Let the following modifiers be written on the board as the pupil suggests +them. + + | instantly. + | soon. + | daily. + | hither. +The ship sails + hence. + | there. + | rapidly. + | smoothly. + | well. + +Which words indicate the time of sailing? Which, the place? Which, the +manner? + +The teacher may suggest predicates, and require the pupils to find as many +appropriate modifiers as they can. + + +The Predicate with its modifiers is called the +_Modified Predicate_+. + +Analysis and Parsing. + +Analyze and diagram the following sentences, and parse the nouns, pronouns, +verbs, and adjectives. + ++Model+.--_The letters were rudely carved_. + + letters | were carved +=========|=============== + \The | \rudely + ++Written Parsing+.--See _Model_, Lesson 22. + ++Oral Analysis+.--This is a sentence, because----; _letters_ is the +subject, because----; _were carved_ is the predicate, because----; _The_ is +a modifier of the subject, because----; _rudely_ is a modifier of the +predicate, because----; _The letters_ is the modified subject, _were rudely +carved_ is the _modified predicate_. + +1. He spoke eloquently. +2. She chattered incessantly. +3. They searched everywhere. +4. I shall know presently. +5. The bobolink sings joyously. +6. The crowd cheered heartily. +7. A great victory was finally won. +8. Threatening clouds are moving slowly. +9. The deafening waves dash angrily. +10. These questions may be settled peaceably. +11. The wounded soldier fought bravely. +12. The ranks were quickly broken. +13. The south wind blows softly. +14. Times will surely change. +15. An hour stole on. + + + + +LESSON 25. + +ANALYSIS AND PARSING. + +ONE MODIFIER JOINED TO ANOTHER. + +Analyze and diagram the following sentences, and parse the nouns, pronouns, +adjectives, and verbs. + ++Model+.--_The frightened animal fled still more rapidly_. + + animal | fled +===================|===================== + \The \frightened | \rapidly + \more + \still + ++Explanation of the Diagram+.--Notice that the three lines forming this +group all slant the same way to show that each stands for a modifying word. +The line standing for the principal word of the group is joined to the +predicate line. The end of each of the other two lines is broken, and +turned to touch its principal at an angle. + ++Oral Analysis+.--This is a sentence, because----; _animal_ is the subject, +because----; _fled_ is the predicate, because----; _The_ and _frightened_ +are modifiers of the subject, because----; _still more rapidly_ is a +modifier of the predicate, because it is a group of words joined to it to +limit its meaning; _rapidly_ is the principal word of the group; _more_ +modifies _rapidly_, and _still_ modifies _more_, _The frightened animal_ is +the modified subject; _fled still more rapidly_ is the modified predicate. + +1. The crocus flowers very early. +2. A violet bed is budding near. +3. The Quakers were most shamefully persecuted. +4. Perhaps he will return. +5. We laughed very heartily. +6. The yellow poplar leaves floated down. +7. The wind sighs so mournfully. +8. Few men have ever fought so stubbornly. +9. The debt will probably be paid. +10. The visitor will soon be here. +11. That humane project was quite generously sustained. +12. A perfectly innocent man was very cruelly persecuted. + +REVIEW QUESTIONS. + +What is an adjective? What are the words _an_ or _a_, and _the_ called by +some grammarians? When is _a_ used, and when _an?_ Give examples of their +misuse. + +What is the modified predicate? Give an example. Give an example of one +modifier joined to another. + + + + +LESSON 26. + +Select your subjects from Lesson 9, and construct twenty sentences having +modified subjects and modified predicates. + +Impromptu Exercise. + +Select sentences from Lessons 6, 7, and 11, and conduct the exercise as +directed in Lesson 10. Let the strife be to see who can supply the greatest +number of modifiers to the subject and to the predicate. The teacher can +vary this exercise. + + + + +LESSON 27. + +ADVERBS. + ++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--You have learned, in the preceding Lessons, +that the meaning of the predicate may be limited by modifiers, and that one +modifier may be joined to another. Words used to modify the predicate of a +sentence and those used to modify modifiers belong to one class, or one +_part of speech_, and are called +Adverbs+. + ++T+.--_She decided too hastily_. What word tells how she decided? ++P+.---_Hastily_. +T+.--What word tells how hastily? +P+.--_Too_. ++T+.--What then are the words _too_ and _hastily?_ +P+.--Adverbs. + ++T+.--_Too much time has been wasted_. What word modifies _much_ by telling +how much? +P+.--_Too_. +T+.--What _part of speech_ is _much?_ +P+.--An +adjective. +T+.--What then is _too?_ +P+.--An adverb. + ++T+.--Why is _too_ in the first sentence an adverb? Why is _too_ in the +second sentence an adverb? Why is _hastily_ an adverb? + +Let the teacher use the following and similar examples, and continue the +questions. _He thinks so. So much time has been wasted_. + +Let the teacher give verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, and require the pupils +to modify them by appropriate adverbs. + ++DEFINITION.--_An Adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or +an adverb+. + +Analysis and Parsing. + +Analyze, diagram, and parse the following sentences. + ++Model+.--_We have been very agreeably disappointed_. +Diagram+ as in. +Lesson 25. + +For +Written Parsing+, use _Model_, Lesson 22, adding a column for adverbs. + ++Oral Parsing+.--_We_ is a pronoun, because----; _have been disappointed_ +is a verb, because----; _very_ is an _adverb_, because it is joined to the +adverb _agreeably_ to tell how agreeably; _agreeably_ is an _adverb_, +because it is joined to the verb _have been disappointed_ to indicate +manner. + +1. The plough-boy plods homeward. +2. The water gushed forth. +3. Too much time was wasted. +4. She decided too hastily. +5. You should listen more attentively. +6. More difficult sentences must be built. +7. An intensely painful operation was performed. +8. The patient suffered intensely. +9. That story was peculiarly told. +10. A peculiarly interesting story was told. +11. An extravagantly high price was paid. +12. That lady dresses extravagantly. + +The pupil will notice that, in some of the examples above, the same adverb +modifies an adjective in one sentence and an adverb in another, and that, +in other examples, an adjective and a verb are modified by the same word. +You may learn from this why such modifiers are grouped into one class. + + + + +LESSON 28. + +ANALYSIS AND PARSING. + +MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES FOR REVIEW. + +1. You must diagram neatly. +2. The sheaves are nearly gathered. +3. The wheat is duly garnered. +4. The fairies were called together. +5. The birds chirp merrily. +6. This reckless adventurer has returned. +7. The wild woods rang. +8. White fleecy clouds are floating above. +9. Those severe laws have been repealed. +10. A republican government was established. +11. An unusually large crop had just been harvested. +12. She had been waiting quite patiently. +13. A season so extremely warm had never before been known. +14. So brave a deed [Footnote: _Can be commended_ is the verb, and _not_ is + an adverb.] cannot be too warmly commended. + + + + +LESSON 29. + +SENTENCE-BUILDING. + +MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES FOR REVIEW. + +Build sentences containing the following adverbs. + +Hurriedly, solemnly, lightly, well, how, somewhere, abroad, forever, +seldom, exceedingly. + +Using the following subjects and predicates as foundations, build six +sentences having modified subjects and modified predicates, two of which +shall contain adverbs modifying adjectives; two, adverbs modifying adverbs; +and two, adverbs modifying verbs. + +1. ------- boat glides -----. +2. ------- cloud is rising -----. +3. ------- breezes are blowing -----. +4. ------- elephant was captured -----. +5. ------- streams flow -----. +6. ------- spring has opened -----. + +We here give you, in classes, the material out of which you are to build +five sentences with modified subjects and modified predicates. + +Select the subject and the predicate first. + +_Nouns and +Pronouns. Verbs. Adjectives. Adverbs_. + +branch | was running | large, that | lustily +coach | were played | both, the | downward +they | cried | all, an | very +we | is growing | several, a | rapidly +games | cheered | amusing | not, loudly, then + + + + +LESSON 30. + +ERRORS FOR CORRECTION. + ++To the Teacher+.--We here suggest additional work in composition, with +particular reference to the choice and position of adjectives. See Notes, +pp. 171,172. + ++_Caution_+.--When two or more adjectives are used with a noun, care must +be taken in their arrangement. If there is any difference in their relative +importance, place nearest the noun the one that is most intimately +connected with it. + ++To the Teacher+.--We have in mind here those numerous cases where one +adjective modifies the noun, and the second modifies the noun as limited by +the first. _All ripe apples are picked_. Here _ripe_ modifies _apples_, but +_all_ modifies _apples_ limited by _ripe_. Not _all apples_ are _picked_, +but only _all_ that are _ripe_. + +CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS OF POSITION. + + A wooden pretty bowl stood on the table. + The blue beautiful sky is cloudless. + A young industrious man was hired. + The new marble large house was sold. + ++_Caution_+.--When the adjectives are of the _same_ rank, place them where +they will sound the best. This will usually be in the order of their +length--the longest last. + +CORRECT THESE ERRORS. + + An entertaining and fluent speaker followed. + An enthusiastic, noisy, large crowd was addressed. + ++_Caution_+.--Do not use the pronoun +_them_+ for the adjective +_those_+. + +CORRECT THESE ERRORS. + + Them books are nicely bound. + Them two sentences should be corrected. + +CORRECT THE FOLLOWING MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS. + + arouse, o romans + hear, o israel + it is i + i may be Mistaken + you Have frequently been warned + some Very savage beasts have been Tamed + +REVIEW QUESTIONS. + +What is an adverb? Give an example of an adverb modifying an adjective; one +modifying a verb; one modifying an adverb. Why are such expressions as _a +wooden pretty bowl_ faulty? Why is _an enthusiastic, noisy, large crowd_ +faulty? Why is _them books_ wrong? Why is _i may be Mistaken_ wrong? Why is +_hear, o israel_, wrong? Study the Review Questions given in previous +Lessons. + ++To the Teacher+.--See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement--Selection +from Darwin. + + + + +LESSON 31. + +PHRASES INTRODUCED BY PREPOSITIONS. + ++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--In the preceding Lessons, you have learned +that several words may be grouped together and used as one modifier. In the +examples given, the principal word is joined directly to the subject or to +the predicate, and this word is modified by another word. In this Lesson +also groups of words are used as modifiers, but these words are not united +with one another, or with the word which the group modifies, just as they +are in the preceding Lessons. I will write on the board this sentence: _De +Soto marched into Florida_. +T+.--What tells where De Soto marched? ++P+.--_Into Florida_. +T+.--What is the principal word of the group? ++P+.--_Florida_. +T+.--Is _Florida_ joined directly to the predicate, as +rapidly was in Lesson 25? +P+.--No. +T+.--What little word comes in to +unite the modifier to _marched?_ +P+.--_Into_. +T+.--Does _Florida_ alone, +tell where he marched? +P+.--No. +T+.--Does _into_ alone, tell where he +marched? +P+.--No. + ++T+.--These groups of related words are called +Phrases+. Let the teacher +draw on the board the diagram of the sentence above. + +Phrases of the form illustrated in this diagram are the most common, and +they perform a very important function in our language. + +Let the teacher frequently call attention to the fact that all the words of +a phrase are _taken together_ to perform _one distinct office_. + +A phrase modifying the subject is equivalent to an adjective, and, +frequently, may be changed into one. _The dew of the morning has passed +away_. What word may be used for the phrase _of the morning?_ ++P+.--_Morning_. +T+.--Yes. The _morning_ dew has passed away. + +A phrase modifying the predicate is equivalent to an adverb, and, +frequently, may be changed into one. _We shall go to that place_. What word +may be used for the phrase, _to that place?_ +P+.--_There_. +T+.--Yes. We +shall go _there_. + +Change the phrases in these sentences:--- + +_A citizen of America was insulted. + +We walked toward home_. + +Let the teacher write on the board the following words, and require the +pupils to add to each, one or more words to complete a phrase, and then to +construct a sentence in which the phrase may be properly employed: _To, +from, by, at, on, with, in, into, over_. + + ++DEFINITION.--A _Phrase_ is a group of words denoting related ideas but not +expressing a thought+. + +Analysis and Parsing. + +Analyze the following sentences, and parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, +verbs, and adverbs. + +Model.--_The finest trout in the lake are generally caught in the deepest +water_. + + trout | are caught +================|================ +\The \finest \in \generally \in + \ \ + \ lake \ water + ------ ---------- + \the \the \deepest + ++Explanation of the Diagram+.--You will notice that the diagram of the +_phrase_ is made up of a slanting line, standing for the introductory and +connecting word, and a horizontal line, representing the principal word. +Under the latter, are placed the little slanting lines standing for the +modifiers of the principal word. Here and elsewhere all modifiers are +joined to their principal words by slanting lines. + ++Oral Analysis+.--This is a sentence, because ------; _trout_ is the +subject, because -----; _are caught_ is the predicate, because ------; the +words _The_ and _finest_, and the phrase, _in the lake_, are modifiers of +the subject, because -----; the word _generally_ and the phrase, _in the +deepest water_, are modifiers of the predicate, because ------; _in_ +introduces the first phrase, and _lake_ is the principal word; _in_ +introduces the second phrase, and _water_ is the principal word; _the_ and +_deepest_ are modifiers of _water_; _The finest trout in the lake_ is the +modified subject, and _are generally caught in the deepest water_ is the +modified predicate. + +1. The gorilla lives in Africa. +2. It seldom rains in Egypt. +3. The Pilgrims landed at Plymouth. +4. The wet grass sparkled in the light. +5. The little brook ran swiftly under the bridge. +6. Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga. +7. The steeples of the village pierced through the dense fog. +8. The gloom of winter settled down on everything. +9. A gentle breeze blows from the south. +10. The temple of Solomon was destroyed. +11. The top of the mountain is covered with snow. +12. The second Continental Congress convened at Philadelphia. + + + + +LESSON 32. + +SENTENCE-BUILDING. + +Build sentences, employing the following phrases as modifiers. + +To Europe, of oak, from Albany, at the station, through the fields, for +vacation, among the Indians, of the United States. + +Supply to the following predicates subjects modified by phrases. + +---- is situated on the Thames. +---- has arrived. +---- was destroyed by an earthquake. +---- was received. +---- has just been completed. +---- may be enjoyed. + +Supply to the following subjects predicates modified by phrases. + +Iron ----. +The trees ----. +Squirrels ----. +The Bible ----. +Sugar ----. +Cheese ----. +Paul ----. +Strawberries ----. +The mountain ----. + +Write five sentences, each of which shall contain one or more phrases used +as modifiers. + + + + +LESSON 33. + +SENTENCE-BUILDING. + +Re-write the following sentences, changing the italicized words into +equivalent phrases. + ++Model+.--A _golden_ image was made. + An image _of gold_ was made. + +You will notice that the adjective _golden_ was placed before the subject, +but, when changed to a phrase, it followed the subject. + +1. The book was _carefully_ read. +2. The old soldiers fought _courageously_. +3. A group of children were strolling _homeward_. +4. No season of life should be spent _idly_. +5. The _English_ ambassador has just arrived. +6. That _generous_ act was liberally rewarded. + +Change the following adjectives and adverbs into equivalent phrases, and +employ the phrases in sentences of your own building. + +Wooden, penniless, eastward, somewhere, here, evening, everywhere, yonder, +joyfully, wintry. + +Make a sentence out of the words in each line below. + + Boat, waves, glides, the, the, over. + He, Sunday, church, goes, the, on, to. + Year, night, is dying, the, the, in. + Qualities, Charlemagne, vices, were alloyed, the, great, of, with. + Indians, America, intemperance, are thinned, the, out, of, by. + + + + +LESSON 34. + +PREPOSITIONS. + ++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--In the preceding Lessons, the little words +that were placed before nouns, thus forming phrases, belong to a, class of +words called +Prepositions+. You noticed that these words, which you have +now learned to call prepositions, served to introduce phrases. The +preposition shows the relation of the _idea_ expressed by the principal +word of the phrase to that of the word which the phrase modifies. It serves +also to connect these words. + +In the sentence, _The squirrel ran up a tree_, what word shows the relation +of the act of running, to the tree? Ans. _Up_. + +Other words may be used to express different relations. Repeat, nine times, +the sentence above given, supplying, in the place of _up_, each of the +following prepositions: _Around, behind, down, into, over, through, to, +under, from_. + +Let this exercise be continued, using such sentences as, _The man went into +the house; The ship sailed toward the bay_. + + ++DEFINITION.--A _Preposition_ is a word that introduces a phrase modifier, +and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word +modified+. + ++Analysis and Parsing+. + ++Model+.--_Flowers preach to us_. + +For +Analysis+ and +Diagram+, see Lesson 31. + +For +Written Parsing+, see Lesson 22. Add the needed columns. + ++Oral Parsing+.--_Flowers_ is a noun, because----; _preach_ is a verb, +because----; _to_ is a _preposition_, because it shows the relation, in +sense, between _us_ and _preach;_ _us_ is a pronoun, because it is used +instead of the name of the speaker and the names of those for whom he +speaks. + +1. The golden lines of sunset glow. +2. A smiling landscape lay before us. +3. Columbus was born at Genoa. +4. The forces of Hannibal were routed by Scipio. +5. The capital of New York is on the Hudson. +6. The ships sail over the boisterous sea. +7. All names of the Deity should begin with capital letters. +8. Air is composed chiefly of two invisible gases. +9. The greater portion of South America lies between the tropics. +10. The laurels of the warrior must at all times be dyed in blood. +11. The first word of every entire sentence should begin with a capital + letter. +12. The subject of a sentence is generally placed before the predicate. + +Impromptu Exercise. + +(The teacher may find it profitable to make a separate lesson of this +exercise.) + +Let the teacher write on the board a subject and a predicate that will +admit of many modifiers. The pupils are to expand the sentence into as many +separate sentences as possible, each containing one apt phrase modifier. +The competition is to see who can build the most and the best sentences in +a given time. The teacher gathers up the slates and reads the work aloud, +or has the pupils exchange slates and read it themselves. + + + + +LESSON 35. + +COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE. + +When two or more subjects united by a connecting word have the same +predicate, they form a +_Compound Subject;_+ and, when two or more +predicates connected in like manner have the same subject, they form a ++_Compound Predicate_+. + +In the sentence, _Birds and bees can fly_, the two words _birds_ and +_bees_, connected by _and_, have the same predicate; the same action is +asserted of both birds and bees. In the sentence, _Leaves fade and fall_, +two assertions are made of the same things. In the first sentence, _birds_ +and _bees_ form the _compound subject_; and, in the second, _fade_ and +_fall_ form the _compound predicate_. + +Analyze and parse the following sentences. + ++Models+.--_Napoleon rose, reigned, and fell_. + +_Frogs, antelopes, and kangaroos can jump_. + + rose Frogs + ,=,===== ======.=. + / ' ' \ +Napoleon| / X ' reigned antelopes ' X \ | can jump +========|==| '======== ==========' |==|========= + | \and' 'and/ | + \ ' fell kangaroos ' / + `-'====== =========='=' + ++Explanation of the Diagram+.--The short line following the subject line +represents the entire predicate, and is supposed to be continued in the +three horizontal lines that follow, each of which represents one of the +parts of the _compound predicate_. These three lines are united by dotted +lines, which stand for the connecting words. The +X+ denotes that an _and_ +is understood. + +Study this explanation carefully, and you will understand the other +diagram. + ++Oral Analysis+ of the first sentence. + +This is a sentence, because ----; _Napoleon_ is the subject, because ----; +_rose_, _reigned_, and _fell_ form the _compound predicate_, because they +belong in common to the same subject, and say something about Napoleon. +_And_ connects _reigned_ and _fell_. + +1. The Rhine and the Rhone rise in Switzerland. +2. Time and tide wait for no man. +3. Washington and Lafayette fought for American Independence. +4. Wild birds shrieked, and fluttered on the ground. +5. The mob raged and roared. +6. The seasons came and went. +7. Pride, poverty, and fashion cannot live in the same house. +8. The tables of stone were cast to the ground and broken. +9. Silver or gold will be received in payment. +10. Days, months, years, and ages will circle away. + +REVIEW QUESTIONS. + +What is a phrase? A phrase modifying a subject is equivalent to what? +Illustrate. A phrase modifying a predicate is equivalent to what? +Illustrate. + +What are prepositions? What do you understand by a compound subject? +Illustrate. What do you understand by a compound predicate? Illustrate. + + + + +LESSON 36. + +CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS. + +The words _and_ and _or_, used in the preceding Lesson to connect the nouns +and the verbs, belong to a class of words called +_Conjunctions_+. + +Conjunctions may also connect _words_ used as _modifiers;_ as, + +A daring _but_ foolish feat was performed. + +They may connect phrases; as, + +We shall go to Saratoga _and_ to Niagara. + +They may connect _clauses_, that is, expressions that, standing alone, +would be sentences; as, + +He must increase, _but_ I must decrease. + + ++DEFINITION.--A _Conjunction_, is a word used to connect words, phrases, or +clauses+. + +The +_Interjection_+ is the eighth and last _part of speech_. Interjections +are mere exclamations, and are without grammatical relation to any other +word in the sentence. + + ++DEFINITION.--An _Interjection_ is a word used to express strong or sudden +feeling+. + +Examples:-- + +Bravo! hurrah! pish! hush! ha, ha! alas! hail! lo! pshaw! + +Analyze and parse the following sentences. + ++Model+.--_Hurrah! that cool and fearless fireman has rushed into the house +and up the burning stairs_. + + Hurrah + ------ + + fireman | has rushed + ===================|======================= + \That\ and \ | \ and \ + \.....\ \........\ + \ \ \ \up + \cool \fearless \into \stairs + \ ---------- + \house \the \burning + ------ + \the + ++Explanation of the Diagram+.--The line representing the interjection is +not connected with the diagram. Notice the dotted lines, one standing for +the _and_ which connects the two _word_ modifiers; the other, for the _and_ +connecting the two _phrase_ modifiers. + ++Written Parsing+. + +N. Pro. Adj. Vb. Adv. Prep. Conj. Int. + | | | | | | | +fireman | | the | has rushed | | into | and | hurrah +house | | that | | | up | and | +stairs | | cool | | | | | + | | fearless | | | | | + | | burning | | | | | + ++Oral Parsing+ of the _conjunction_ and the _interjection_. + +The two _ands_ are conjunctions, because they _connect_. The first connects +two word modifiers; the second, two phrase modifiers. _Hurrah_ is an +_interjection_, because it expresses a burst of sudden feeling. + +1. The small but courageous band was finally overpowered. +2. Lightning and electricity were identified by Franklin. +3. A complete success or an entire failure was anticipated. +4. Good men and bad men are found in all communities. +5. Vapors rise from the ocean and fall upon the land. +6. The Revolutionary war began at Lexington and ended at Yorktown. +7. Alas! all hope has fled. +8. Ah! I am surprised at the news. +9. Oh! we shall certainly drown. +10. Pshaw! you are dreaming. +11. Hurrah! the field is won. + + + + +LESSON 37. + +PUNCTUATION AND CAPITAL LETTERS. + ++COMMA--RULE.--Phrases that are placed out of their natural order +[Footnote: A phrase in its natural order follows the word it modifies.] and +made emphatic, or that are loosely connected with the rest of the sentence, +should be set off by the comma+. + +PUNCTUATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES. + ++Model+.--The cable, _after many failures_, was successfully laid. Upon the +platform 'twixt eleven and twelve I'll visit you. To me this place is +endeared by many associations. Your answers with few exceptions have been +correctly given. In English much depends on the placing of phrases. + ++COMMA--RULE.--Words or phrases connected by conjunctions are separated +from each other by the comma unless all the conjunctions are expressed+. + +PUNCTUATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES. + ++Model+.--Caesar _came, saw, and conquered_. + Caesar _came and saw and conquered_. + +He travelled in _England, in Scotland, and in Ireland_. + +(The comma is used in the first sentence, because a conjunction is omitted; +but not in the second, as all the conjunctions are expressed.) + +A brave prudent and honorable man was chosen. + +Augustus Tiberius Nero and Vespasian were Roman emperors. + +Through rainy weather across a wild country over muddy roads after +a long ride we came to the end of our journey. + ++PERIOD and CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--_Abbreviations_ generally begin with +capital letters and are always followed by the period+. + +CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. ++Model.--+_Mr., Esq., N. Y., P. M_. + +gen, a m, mrs, no, u s a, n e, eng, p o, rev, prof, dr, gram, capt, coi, +co, va, conn. + ++EXCLAMATION POINT--RULE.--All _exclamatory expressions_ must be followed +by the exclamation point+. + +PUNCTUATE THE FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS. + ++Model.--+_Ah! Oh! Zounds! Stop pinching!_ + +Pshaw, whew, alas, ho Tom, halloo Sir, good-bye, welcome. + + + + +LESSON 38. + +SENTENCE-BUILDING. + ++To the Teacher.--+Call attention to the agreement of verbs with compound +subjects. Require the pupils to justify the verb-forms in Lesson 36 and +elsewhere. See Notes, pp. 165-167. + +Write _predicates_ for the following _compound subjects_. + +Snow and hail; leaves and branches; a soldier or a sailor; London and +Paris. + +Write _compound predicates_ for the following _subjects_. + +The sun; water; fish; steamboats; soap; farmers; fences; clothes. + +Write _subjects_ for the following _compound predicates_. + +Live, feel, and grow; judges and rewards; owes and pays; inhale and exhale; +expand and contract; flutters and alights; fly, buzz, and sting; restrain +or punish. + +Write _compound subjects_ before the following _predicates_. + +May be seen; roar; will be appointed; have flown; has been recommended. + +_Write compound predicates_ after the following _compound subjects_. + +Boys, frogs, and horses; wood, coal, and peat; Maine and New Hampshire; +Concord, Lexington, and Bunker Hill; pins, tacks, and needles. + +Write _compound subjects_ before the following _compound predicates_. + +Throb and ache; were tried, condemned, and hanged; eat, sleep, and dress. + +Choose your own material and write five sentences, each having a _compound +subject_ and a _compound predicate_. + + + + +LESSON 39. + +COMPLEMENTS. + ++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--When we say, _The sun gives_, we express no +complete thought. The subject _sun_ is complete, but the predicate _gives_ +does not make a complete assertion. When we say, _The sun gives light_, we +do utter a complete thought. The predicate _gives_ is completed by the word +_light_. Whatever fills out, or _completes_, we call a +Complement+. We +will therefore call _light_ the complement of the predicate. As _light_ +completes the predicate by naming the thing acted upon, we call it the ++Object Complement+. + +Expressions like the following may be written on the board, and by a series +of questions the pupils may be made to dwell upon these facts till they are +thoroughly understood. + +The officer arrested -----; +the boy found -----; +Charles saw -----; +coopers make -----. + +Besides these verbs requiring object complements, there are others that do +not make complete sense without the aid of a complement of _another_ +kind. + +A complete predicate does the asserting and expresses what is asserted. In +the sentence, _Armies march_, _march_ is a complete predicate, for it does +the asserting and expresses what is asserted; viz., _marching_. In the +phrase, _armies marching_, _marching_ expresses the same act as that +denoted by _march_, but it _asserts_ nothing. In the sentence, _Chalk is +white_, _is_ does the asserting, but it does not express what is asserted. +We do not wish to assert merely that chalk _is_ or _exists_. What we wish +to assert of chalk, is the quality expressed by the adjective _white_. As +_white_ expresses a quality or attribute, we may call it an +Attribute +Complement+. + +Using expressions like the following, let the facts given above be drawn +from the class by means of questions. + +Grass growing; grass grows; green grass; grass is green. + ++DEFINITION.--The _Object Complement of a sentence_ completes the +predicate, and names that which receives the act+. + ++DEFINITION.--The _Attribute Complement_ of a sentence completes the +predicate and belongs to the subject+. + +The complement with all its modifiers is called the +_Modified +Complement_+. + +Analysis and Parsing. + ++Model+.--_Fulton invented the first steamboat_. + + Fulton | invented | steamboat +========|====================== + | \ \ + \the \first + ++Explanation of the Diagram+.--You will see that the line standing for the +_object complement_ is a continuation of the predicate line, and that the +little vertical line only touches this without cutting it. + ++Oral Analysis.--+_Fulton_ and _invented_, as before. _Steamboat_ is the +_object complement_, because it completes the predicate, and names that +which receives the act. _The_ and _first_, as before. _The first steamboat_ +is the _modified complement_. + +1. Caesar crossed the Rubicon. +2. Morse invented the telegraph. +3. Ericsson built the Monitor. +4. Hume wrote a history. +5. Morn purples the east, +6. Antony beheaded Cicero. + ++Model+.--_Gold is malleable_. + +Gold | is \ malleable +=====|=============== + | + +In this diagram, the line standing for the _attribute complement_, +like the _object line_, is a continuation of the predicate line; but +notice the difference in the little mark separating the +_incomplete_[Footnote: Hereafter we shall call the _verb_ the +_predicate_, but, when followed by a complement, it must be regarded +as an _incomplete_ predicate.] predicate from the complement. + ++Oral Analysis+.---_Gold_ and _is_, as before. + +_Malleable_ is the _attribute complement_, because it completes +the predicate, and expresses a quality belonging to gold. + +7. Pure water is tasteless. +8. The hare is timid. +9. Fawns are graceful. +10. This peach is delicious. +11. He was extremely prodigal. +12. The valley of the Mississippi is very fertile. + ++To the Teacher+--See Notes, pp. 183,184. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 40. + +ERRORS IN THE USE OF MODIFIERS. + ++Caution+.--Place _adverbs_ where there can be no doubt as to the +words they modify. + +ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED. + +I only bring forward a few things. + +Hath the Lord only [Footnote: Adverbs sometimes modify phrases.]spoken by +Moses? + +We merely speak of numbers. + +The Chinese chiefly live upon rice. + ++Caution+.--In placing the adverb, regard must be had to the +_sound_ of the sentence. + +ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED. + +We always should do our duty. +The times have changed surely. +The work will be never finished. +He must have certainly been sick. + ++Caution+.--_Adverbs_ must not be used _for adjectives_. + +ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED. + +I feel badly. +Marble feels coldly. +She looks nicely. +It was sold cheaply. +It appears still more plainly. +That sounds harshly. +I arrived at home safely. + ++Caution+.--_Adjectives_ must not be used _for adverbs_. + +ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED. + +The bells ring merry. +The curtain hangs graceful. +That is a decided weak point. +Speak no coarser than usual. +These are the words nearest connected. +Talk slow and distinct. +She is a remarkable pretty girl. + ++To the Teacher+.--For additional exercises in distinguishing adjectives +from adverbs, see Notes, p. 181. + +REVIEW QUESTIONS. + +What is a conjunction? What is an interjection? Give two rules for the use +of the comma (Lesson 37). What is the rule for writing abbreviations? What +is the rule for the exclamation point? What is an object complement? What +is an attribute complement? Illustrate both. What are the cautions for the +position of the adverb? What are the cautions for the use of the adverb and +the adjective? + ++To the Teacher+.--See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement-Selection +from Habberton. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 41. + +ERRORS IN THE POSITION AND USE OF MODIFIERS. + ++Caution+.--Phrase modifiers should be placed as near as may be to the +words they modify. + ++To the Teacher+.--For composition exercises with particular reference +to arrangement, see Notes, pp. 172-176. + +ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED. + + A fellow was arrested with short hair. + I saw a man digging a well with a Roman nose. + He died and went to his rest in New York. + Wanted--A room by two gentlemen thirty feet long and twenty feet wide. + Some garments were made for the family of thick material. + The vessel was beautifully painted with a tall mast. + I perceived that it had been scoured with half an eye. + A house was built by a mason of brown stone. + A pearl was found by a sailor in a shell. + +Punctuate these sentences when corrected. + ++Caution+.--Care must be taken to select the right preposition. + ++To the Teacher+.--For the preposition to be used, consult the Unabridged +Dictionaries. + +ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED. + + They halted with the river on their backs. + The cat jumped on the chair. + He fell onto the floor. + He went in the house. + He divides his property between his four sons. + He died for thirst. + This is different to that. + Two thieves divided the booty among themselves. + I am angry at him. + ++Caution+.--Do not use two negative, or denying, words so that one shall +contradict the other, unless you wish to affirm. + +ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED. + +I haven't no umbrella. + +Correct by dropping either the adjective _no_ or the adverb _not_; as, I +have _no_ umbrella, or I have _not_ an umbrella. + + I didn't say nothing. + I can't do this in no way. + No other emperor was so wise nor powerful. + Nothing can never be annihilated. + + + + +LESSON 42. + +ANALYSIS AND PARSING. + +1. Brutus stabbed Caesar. +2. Man is an animal. +3. Washington captured Cornwallis. +4. Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. +5. Balboa discovered the Pacific ocean. +6. Vulcan was a blacksmith. +7. The summer has been very rainy. +8. Columbus made four voyages to the New World. +9. The moon reflects the light of the sun. +10. The first vice-president of the United States was John Adams. +11. Roger Williams was the founder of Rhode Island. +12. Harvey discovered the circulation of blood. +13. Diamonds are combustible. +14. Napoleon died a prisoner, at St.. Helena. +15. In 1619 the first ship-load of slaves was landed at Jamestown. + +The pupil will notice that _animal_, in sentence No. 2, is an _attribute +complement_, though it is not an adjective expressing a quality belonging +to man, but a noun denoting his class. +_Nouns_+ then may be +_attribute +compliments_+. + +The pupil will notice also that some of the _object_ and _attribute +complements_ above have phrase modifiers. + + + + +LESSON 43. + +SENTENCE-BUILDING. + +Using the following predicates, build sentences having subjects, +predicates, and object complements with or without modifiers. + +---- climb ----; ---- hunt ----; ---- command ----; ---- attacked +----; ---- pursued ----; ---- shall receive ----; ---- have seen ----; +---- love ----. + +Change the following expressions into sentences by _asserting_ the +qualities here _assumed_. Use these verbs for predicates: + +Is, were, appears, may be, became, was, have been, should have been, is +becoming, are. + ++Model+.--_Heavy_ gold. Gold _is heavy_. + +Green fields; sweet oranges; interesting story; brilliant sunrise; severe +punishment; playful kittens; warm weather; pitiful sight; sour grapes; +amusing anecdote. + +Prefix to the following nouns several adjectives expressing qualities, and +then make complete sentences by _asserting_ the same qualities. + + white | Chalk _is white_. ++Model+.--brittle + chalk. Chalk _is brittle_. + soft | Chalk _is soft_. + +Gold, pears, pens, lead, water, moon, vase, rock, lakes, summer, ocean, +valley. + +Find your own material, and build two sentences having object complements, +and two having attribute complements. + + + + +LESSON 44. + +ANALYSIS AND PARSING. + +MISCELLANEOUS. + ++Models+.-- + + expands + /=========== + Learning | / ' \ | mind + =========|=and' \======= + | \ ' elevates / \the + \============ + + ran + ========= + / ' \forward + He | / ' + =======|=== and' + | \ ' + \ ' kissed | him + \================ + +In the second diagram, one of the predicate lines is followed by a +complement line; but the two predicate lines are not united, for the two +verbs have not a common object. + +1. Learning expands and elevates the mind. +2. He ran forward and kissed him. +3. The earth and the moon are planets. +4. The Swiss scenery is picturesque. +5. Jefferson was chosen the third president of the United States. +6. Nathan Hale died a martyr to liberty. +7. The man stood speechless. +8. Labor disgraces no man. +9. Aristotle and Plato were the most distinguished philosophers of + antiquity. +10. Josephus wrote a history of the Jews. +11. This man seems the leader of the whole party. +12. The attribute complement completes the predicate and belongs to the + subject. +13. Lord Cornwallis became governor of Bengal after his disastrous defeat. +14. The multitude ran before him and strewed branches in the way. +15. Peter Minuits traded with the Indians, and bought the whole island of + Manhattan for twenty-four dollars. + + + + +LESSON 45. + +ANALYSIS AND PARSING. + +MISCELLANEOUS. + ++Model+.-- + + wise + /========== + / ' \in + / X' \ council + / ' \--------- + Henry IV. | was \ / ' simple +===========|============== '========== + \of | \very \ and' \in + \ House \ ' \ manners + \-------- \ ' \--------- + \the \of \ ' chivalric + \ Burbon \============ + \------- \in + \ field + \------- + \the + +The line standing for the word-modifier is joined to that part of the +complement line which represents the _entire_ attribute complement. + +1. Henry IV., of the House of Bourbon, was very wise in council, simple in + manners, and chivalric in the field. +2. Caesar defeated Pompey at Pharsalia. +3. The diamond is the most valuable gem. +4. The Greeks took Troy by stratagem. +5. The submarine cable unites the continent of America and the Old World. +6. The Gauls joined the army of Hannibal. +7. Columbus crossed the Atlantic with ninety men, and landed at San + Salvador. +8. Vulcan made arms for Achilles. +9. Cromwell gained at Naseby a most decisive victory over the Royalists. +10. Columbus was a native of Genoa. +11. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb. +12. The morning hour has gold in its mouth. +13. The mill of the gods grinds late, but grinds to powder. +14. A young farmer recently bought a yoke of oxen, six cows, and a horse. +15. America has furnished to the world tobacco, the potato, and Indian + corn. + + + + +LESSON 46. + +ANALYSIS AND PARSING. + +MISCELLANEOUS. + + Cotton | is raised + ===========|=============== + | \ Egypt + \ /'------- + \in / ' + \ / X' + \ / ' India + \--/ '-------- + \ ' + \and' + \ ' + \ ' United States + \--------------- + \the + ++Explanation of the Diagram+.--In this diagram the line representing the +principal part of the phrase separates into three lines. This shows that +the principal part of the phrase is compound. _Egypt_, _India_, and _United +States_ are all introduced by the same preposition _in_, and have the same +relation to _is raised_. + +1. Cotton is raised in Egypt, India, and the United States. +2. The navy of Hiram brought gold from Ophir. +3. The career of Cromwell was short. +4. Most mountain ranges run parallel with the coast. +5. Now swiftly glides the bonny boat. +6. An able but dishonest judge presided. +7. The queen bee lays eggs in cells of three different sizes. +8. Umbrellas were introduced into England from China. +9. The first permanent English settlement in America was made at Jamestown, + in 1607. +10. The spirit of true religion is social, kind, and cheerful. +11. The summits of the Alps are covered with perpetual snow. +12. The months of July and August were named after Julius Caesar and + Augustus Caesar. +13. All the kings of Egypt are called, in Scripture, Pharaoh. +14. The bamboo furnishes to the natives of China, shade, food, houses, + weapons, and clothing. + + + + +LESSON 47. + +SENTENCE-BUILDING. + +Supply _attribute complements_ to the following expressions. (See Caution, +Lesson 40.) + +The marble feels ----. Mary looks ----. The weather continues ----. The +apple tastes ----. That lady appears ----. The sky grows ----. The leaves +of roses are ----. The undertaking was pronounced ----. + +Write a subject and a predicate to each of the following nouns taken as +_attribute complements_. + ++Model+.--_Soldier_.--That old man has been a _soldier_. + +Plant, insect, mineral, vegetable, liquid, gas, solid, historian, poet, +artist, traveler, emperor. + +Using the following nouns as subjects, build sentences each having a simple +predicate and two or more _object complements_. + +Congress, storm, education, king, tiger, hunter, Arnold, shoemakers, +lawyers, merchant. + +Build three sentences on each of the following subjects, two of which shall +contain _object complements_, and the third, an _attribute +complement_. + ++Model+.--_Sun_.-- + The _sun_ gives _light_. + The _sun_ warms the _earth_. + The _sun_ is a luminous _body_. + +Moon, oak, fire, whiskey. + + + + +LESSON 48. + +SUBJECT OR COMPLEMENT MODIFIED BY A PARTICIPLE. + ++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--You have learned, in the preceding Lessons, +that a _quality_ may be _assumed_ as belonging to a thing; as, _white +chalk_, or that it may be _asserted_ of it; as, _Chalk is white_. An +_action_, also, may be _assumed_ as belonging to something; as, _Peter +turning_, or it may be _asserted;_ as, Peter _turned_. In the expression, +_Peter, turning, said_, what word expresses an action as _assumed_, and +which _asserts_ an action? Each pupil may give an example of an action +asserted and of an action assumed; as, Corn _grows_, corn _growing_; geese +_gabble_; geese _gabbling_. + +This form of the verb, which merely _assumes_ the act, being, or state, is +called the +Participle+. + +When the words _growing_ and _gabbling_ are placed before the nouns, thus: +_growing corn, gabbling geese_, they tell simply the kind of corn and the +kind of geese, and are therefore _adjectives_. + +When _the_ or some other adjective is placed before these words, and a +preposition after them, thus: _The growing of the corn, the gabbling of the +geese_, they are simply the _names_ of actions, and are therefore _nouns_. + +Let each pupil give an example of a verb asserting an action, and change it +to express:-- + +1st, An _assumed_ action; 2d, A permanent _quality;_ 3d, The _name_ of an +action. + + +_Participles_ may be completed by _objects_ and _attributes_. + ++Analysis and Parsing+. + ++Model+.--_Truth, crushed to earth, will rise again_. + + Truth | will rise + ==========|============= + \cru | \again + \ shed + -------- + \to + \ earth + \------- + ++Explanation of the Diagram+.--In this diagram, the line standing for the +principal word of the participial phrase is broken; one part slants, and +the other is horizontal. This shows that the participle _crushed_ is used +like an adjective to modify _Truth_, and yet retains the nature of a verb, +expressing an action received by truth. + ++Oral Analysis+.--This is a sentence, because ----; _Truth_ is the subject, +because ----; _will rise_ is the predicate, because ----; the phrase, +_crushed to earth_, is a modifier of the Subj., because ----; _crushed_ +introduces the phrase and is the principal word in it; the phrase _to +earth_ is a modifier of _crushed_; _to_ introduces it, and _earth_ is the +principal word in it; _again_ is a modifier of the Pred., because ----. +_Truth crushed to earth_ is the modified subject, _will rise again_ is the +modified predicate. + ++Parsing+--_Crushed_ is the form of the verb called _participle_. The +action expressed by it is merely _assumed_. + +1. The mirth of Addison is genial, imparting a mild glow of thought. +2. The general, riding to the front, led the attack. +3. The balloon, shooting swiftly into the clouds, was soon lost to sight. +4. Wealth acquired dishonestly will prove a curse. +5. The sun, rising, dispelled the mists. +6. The thief, being detected, surrendered to the officer. +7. They boarded the vessel lying in the harbor. +8. The territory claimed by the Dutch was called New Netherlands. +9. Washington, having crossed the Delaware, attacked the Hessians stationed + at Trenton. +10. Burgoyne, having been surrounded at Saratoga, surrendered to Gen. + Gates. +11. Pocahontas was married to a young Englishman named John Rolfe. +12. A shrug of the shoulders, translated into words, loses much force. +13. The armies of England, mustered for the battles of Europe, do not + awaken sincere admiration. + +(Note that the participle, like the predicate verb, may consist of two or +more words.) + +(Note, too, that the participle, like the adjective, may belong to a +_noun complement_.) + + + + +LESSON 49. + +THE INFINITIVE PHRASE. + ++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--There is another form of the verb which, +like the participle, cannot be the predicate of a sentence, for it cannot +_assert_; as, She went out _to see_ a friend; _To lie_ is a disgrace. As +this form of the verb expresses the action, being, or state in a general +manner, without limiting it directly to a subject, it is called an ++Infinitive+, which means _without limit_. The infinitive generally follows +_to_; as, _to walk, to sleep_. + +Let each pupil give an infinitive. + +The infinitive and the preposition _to_ constitute a phrase, which may be +employed in several ways. + ++T+.--_I have a duty to perform_. The infinitive phrase modifies what? + ++P+.--The noun _duty_. +T+.--It then performs the office of what? +P+.--Of +an adjective modifier. + ++T+.--_I come to hear_. The infinitive phrase modifies what? +P+.--The verb +_come_. +T+.--What office then does it perform? +P+.--Of an adverb +modifier. + ++T+.--_To lie is base_. _What_ is base? +P+.--To lie. +T+.--_He attempted +to speak_. _What_ did he attempt? +P+.--To speak. +T+.--_To lie_ is a +subject, and _to speak_ is an _object_. What part of speech is used as +subject and object? +P+.--The noun. + ++T+.--The +Infinitive+ phrase is used as an +adjective+, an +adverb+, and a ++noun+. + +_Infinitives_ may be completed by _objects_ and _attributes_. + ++Analysis and Parsing+. + ++Model+.--_David hasted to meet Goliath_. + + David | hasted +==========|=========== + | \to + \ meet | Goliath + \---------------- + ++Analysis of the Infinitive Phrase+.--_To_ introduces the phrase; _meet_, +completed by the object _Goliath_, is the principal part. + ++Parsing of the Phrase+.--_To_ is a preposition, because ----; _meet_ is a +verb, because ----; _Goliath_ is a noun, because ----. + +1. I come not here to talk. +2. I rejoice to hear it. +3. A desire to excel leads to eminence. +4. Dr. Franklin was sent to France to solicit aid for the colonies. +5. To retreat was impossible. + +(_To_ is here used merely to introduce the infinitive phrase.) + + \to + \ retreat + \--------- + | + | + / \ | was \ impossible + ==========|====================== + | + ++Explanation of the Diagram+.--As this _phrase subject_ cannot, in its +proper form, be written on the subject line, it is placed above, and, by +means of a support, the phrase diagram is made to rest on the subject line. +The _phrase complement_ may be diagramed in a similar way, and made to rest +on the complement line. + +6. The hands refuse to labor. +7. To live is not all of life. +8. The Puritans desired to obtain religious freedom. +9. The Romans, having conquered the world, were unable to conquer + themselves. +10. Narvaez sailed from Cuba to conquer Florida. +11. Some savages of America and Africa love to wear rings in the nose. +12. Andrew Jackson, elected to succeed J. Q. Adams, was inaugurated in + 1829. + + + + +LESSON 50. + +POSITION AND PUNCTUATION OF THE PARTICIPIAL PHRASE. + +ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED. (See Caution 1, Lesson 41.) + +Punctuate as you correct. (See Lesson 37.) + + A house was built for a clergyman having seven gables. + The old man struck the saucy boy raising a gold-headed cane. + We saw a marble bust of Sir W. Scott entering the vestibule. + Here is news from a neighbor boiled down. + I found a cent walking over the bridge. + Balboa discovered the Pacific ocean climbing to the top of a mountain. + +Punctuate the following exercises. + + Cradled in the camp Napoleon was the darling of the army. + Having approved of the plan the king put it into execution. + Satan incensed with indignation stood unterrified. + My friend seeing me in need offered his services. + James being weary with his journey sat down on the wall. + The owl hid in the tree hooted through the night. + +REVIEW QUESTIONS. + +Give the caution relating to the position of the phrase modifier; that +relating to the choice of prepositions; that relating to the double +negative (Lesson 41). Give examples of errors. Can a noun be an attribute +complement? Illustrate. What do you understand by a participle? Into what +may some participles be changed? Illustrate. What offices does the +infinitive phrase perform? Illustrate them. + ++To the Teacher+.--See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement--Selection +from George Eliot. + + + + +LESSON 51. + +REVIEW. + +MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS FOR CORRECTION. (See Cautions in Lessons 30, 40, and +41.) + + There never was such another man. + He was an old venerable patriarch. + + John has a cadaverous, hungry, and lean look. + He was a well-proportioned, fine fellow. + + Pass me them potatoes. + + Put your trust not in money. + We have often occasion for thanksgiving, + + Now this is to be done how? + Nothing can justify ever profanity. + + To continually study is impossible. + +(An adverb is seldom placed between the preposition _to_ and the +infinitive.) + + Mary likes to tastefully dress. + Learn to carefully choose your words. + + She looks queerly. + Give me a soon and direct answer. + + The post stood firmly. + The eagle flies highly. + The orange tastes sweetly. + + I feel tolerable well. + The branch breaks easy. + Thistles grow rapid. + The eagle flies swift. + This is a miserable poor pen. + + A wealthy gentleman will adopt a little boy with a small family. + A gentleman called from Africa to pay his compliments. + + Water consists in oxygen and hydrogen. + He went out attended with a servant. + I have a dislike to such tricksters. + We have no prejudice to foreigners. + She don't know nothing about it. + Father wouldn't give me none. + He hasn't been sick neither. + I won't have no more nohow. + ++To the Teacher+.--Let the reason be given for every correction. + + + + +LESSON 52. + +SENTENCE-BUILDING. + +Build sentences in which the following participles shall be used as +modifiers. + +Being fatigued; laughing; being amused; having been elected; running; +having been running. + +Expand each of the following sentences into three sentences, using the +_participial form_ of the verb as a _participle_, in the first; the same +form as an _adjective_, in the second; and as a _noun_, in the third. + ++Model+.--The stream _flows_. The stream, _flowing_ gently, crept through +the meadow. The _flowing_ stream slipped away to the sea. The _flowing_ of +the stream caused a low murmur. The stream flows. The sun rises. Insects +hum. The birds sing. The wind whistles. The bells are ringing. The tide +ebbs. + +Form _infinitive phrases_ from the following verbs, and use these phrases +as _adjectives, adverbs_, and _nouns_, in sentences of your own building. + +Smoke, dance, burn, eat, lie, try. + ++To the Teacher+.--For exercises to distinguish the participle from the +predicate verb, see Notes, pp. 181, 182. + + + + +LESSON 53. + +NOUNS AND PRONOUNS AS MODIFIERS. + ++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--In the sentence, _The robin's eggs are +blue_, the noun _robin's_ does what? +P+.--It tells what or whose eggs are +blue. +T+.--What word names the things owned or possessed? +P+.--_Eggs_. ++T+.--What word names the owner or possessor? +P+.--_Robin's_. + ++T+.--The noun _robin's_ is here used as a _modifier_. You see that this +word, which I have written on the board, is the word _robin_ with a little +mark (') called an apostrophe, and the letter _s_ added. These are added to +denote possession. + +In the sentence, _Webster, the statesman, was born in New Hampshire_, the +noun _statesman_ modifies the subject _Webster_ by explaining what or which +Webster is meant. Both words name the same person. + +Let the pupils give examples of each of these two kinds of +Noun +Modifiers+--the +Possessive+ and the +Explanatory+. + + +Analysis and Parsing. + ++Model+.--_Julia's sister Mary has lost her diamond ring_. + + sister (Mary) | has lost | ring + ===============|============'============= + \Julia's | \her \diamond + ++Explanation of the Diagram+.--_Mary_ is written on the subject line, +because _Mary_ and _sister_ both name the same person, but the word _Mary_ +is inclosed within marks of parenthesis to show that _sister_ is the proper +grammatical subject. + +In _oral analysis_, call _Julia's_ and _Mary_ modifiers of the subject, +_sister_, because _Julia's_ tells whose sister, and _Mary_ explains sister +by adding another name of the same person. _Her_ is a modifier of the +object, because it tells whose ring is meant. + +_Julia's sister Mary_ is the _modified subject_, the predicate is +unmodified, and _her diamond ring_ is the _modified object complement_. + +1. The planet Jupiter has four moons. +2. The Emperor Nero was a cruel tyrant. +3. Peter's wife's mother lay sick of a fever. + + mother + ======== + \wife's + \Peter's + +4. An ostrich outruns an Arab's horse. +5. His pretty little nephew Arthur had the best claim to the throne. +6. Milton, the great English poet, became blind. +7. Caesar gave his daughter Julia in marriage to Pompey. +8. London, the capital of England, is the largest and richest city in the + world. +9. Joseph, Jacob's favorite son, was sold by his brethren to the + Ishmaelites. +10. Alexander the Great [Footnote: _Alexander the Great_ may be taken as + one name, or _Great_ may be called an explanatory modifier of + _Alexander_.] was educated under the celebrated philosopher Aristotle. +11. Friends tie their purses with a spider's thread. +12. Caesar married Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna. +13. His fate, alas! was deplorable. +14. Love rules his kingdom without a sword. + + + + +LESSON 54. + +SENTENCE-BUILDING. + +Nouns and pronouns denoting possession may generally be changed to +equivalent phrases; as, _Arnold's treason_ = _the treason of Arnold_. Here +the preposition _of_ indicates _possession_, the same relation expressed by +the apostrophe (') and _s_. Change the following possessive nouns to +equivalent phrases, and the phrases indicating possession to possessive +nouns, and then expand the expressions into complete sentences. + ++Model+.--The _earth's_ surface. The surface _of the earth_ is made up of +land and water. + +The earth's surface: Solomon's temple; England's Queen; Washington's +Farewell Address; Dr. Kane's Explorations; Peter's wife's mother; George's +friend's father; Shakespeare's plays; Noah's dove; the diameter of the +earth; the daughter of Jephthah; the invasion of Burgoyne; the voyage of +Cabot; the Armada of Philip; the attraction of the earth; the light of the +moon. + +Find for the things mentioned below, _other_ names which shall describe or +explain them. Add such names to these nouns, and then expand the +expressions into complete sentences. + ++Model+.--_Ink_.--_Ink, a dark fluid_, is used in writing. + +Observe the following rule. + ++COMMA-RULE.--An _Explanatory Modifier_, when it does not restrict the +modified term or combine closely with it, is set off by the comma+. + ++To the Teacher+.--See Notes, pp. 176, 177. + +New York, rain, paper, the monkey, the robin, tea, Abraham Lincoln, +Alexander Hamilton, world, peninsula, Cuba, Shakespeare. + +Write three sentences, each of which shall contain a noun or pronoun +denoting possession, and a noun or pronoun used to explain. + ++To the Teacher+.--For additional exercises in the use of possessive +modifiers, see Notes, pp. 182, 183. + + + + +LESSON 55. + +ANALYSIS AND PARSING. + +MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES IN REVIEW. + +1. The toad spends the winter in a dormant state. +2. Pride in dress or in beauty betrays a weak mind. +3. The city of London is situated on the river Thames. +4. Napoleon Bonaparte was born in 1769, on an island in the Mediterranean. +5. Men's opinions vary with their interests. +6. Ammonia is found in the sap of trees, and in the juices of all + vegetables. +7. Earth sends up her perpetual hymn of praise to the Creator. +8. Having once been deceived by him, I never trusted him again. +9. Aesop, the author of Aesop's Fables, was a slave. +10. Hope comes with smiles to cheer the hour of pain. +11. Clouds are collections of vapors in the air. +12. To relieve the wretched was his pride. +13. Greece, the most noted country of antiquity, scarcely exceeded in size + the half of the state of New York. + + + + +LESSON 56. + +ANALYSIS AND PARSING. + +MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES IN REVIEW--CONTINUED. + +1. We are never too old to learn. +2. Civility is the result of good nature and good sense. +3. The right of the people to instruct their representatives is generally + admitted. +4. The immense quantity of matter in the Universe presents a most striking + display of Almighty power. +5. Virtue, diligence, and industry, joined with good temper and prudence, + must ever be the surest means of prosperity. +6. The people called Quakers were a source of much trouble to the Puritans. +7. The Mayflower brought to America [Footnote: One hundred and one may be + taken as one adjective.] one hundred and one men, women, and children. +8. Edward Wingfield, an avaricious and unprincipled man, was the first + president of the Jamestown colony. +9. John Cabot and his son Sebastian, sailing under a commission from Henry + VII. of England, discovered the continent of America. +10. True worth is modest and retiring. +11. Jonah, the prophet, preached to the inhabitants of Nineveh. + + + + +LESSON 57. + +COMPLEX SENTENCES. + +THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE. + ++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--A word-modifier may sometimes be expanded +into a phrase or into an expression that asserts. + ++T+.--_A wise man will be honored_. Expand _wise_ into a phrase, and give +me the sentence. +P+.--A man _of wisdom_ will be honored. +T+.--Expand +_wise_ into an expression that asserts, join this to _man_, as a modifier, +and then give me the entire sentence. +P+.--A man _who is wise_ will be +honored. + ++T+.--You see that the same quality may be expressed in three ways--A +_wise_ man, A man _of wisdom_, A man _who is wise_. + +Let the pupils give similar examples. + ++T+.--In the sentence, _A man who is wise will be honored_, the word _who_ +stands for what? +P+.--For the noun _man_. +T+.--Then what part of speech +is it? +P+.--A pronoun. + ++T+.--Put the noun _man_ in the place of the pronoun _who_, and then give +me the sentence. +P+.--_A man, man is wise, will be honored_. + ++T+.--I will repeat your sentence, changing the order of the words--_A man +will be honored. Man is wise_. Is the last sentence now joined to the first +as a modifier, or are they two separate sentences? +P+.--They are two +separate sentences. + ++T+.--Then you see that the pronoun _who_ not only stands for the noun +_man_, but it connects the modifying expression, _who is wise_, to _man_, +the subject of the sentence, _A man will be honored_, and thus there is +formed what we call a +Complex Sentence+. These two parts we call ++Clauses+. _A man will be honored_ is the +Independent Clause;+ _who is +wise_ is the +Dependent Clause+. + +Clauses that modify nouns or pronouns are called +Adjective Clauses+. + + ++DEFINITION.--A _Clause_ is a part of a sentence containing a subject and +its predicate+. + ++DEFINITION.--A _Dependent Clause_ is one used as an adjective, an adverb, +or a noun+. + ++DEFINITION.--An _Independent Clause_ is one not dependent on another +clause+. + ++DEFINITION.--A _Simple Sentence_ is one that contains but one subject and +one predicate, either or both of which may be compound+. + ++DEFINITION.--A _Complex Sentence_ is one composed of an independent clause +and one or more dependent clauses+. + +Analysis and Parsing. + ++Model+.-- + + man | will be honored + =========|================== + \A ` | + ` + ` + who ` | is \ wise + -------|------------ + | + ++Explanation of the Diagram+.--You will notice that the lines standing for +the subject and predicate of the _independent clause_ are heavier than +those of the _dependent clause_. This pictures to you the relative +importance of the two clauses. You will see that the pronoun _who_ is +written on the subject line of the dependent clause. But this word performs +the office of a conjunction also, and this office is expressed in the +diagram by a dotted line. As all modifiers are joined by _slanting_ lines, +to the words they modify, you learn from this diagram that _who is wise_ is +a modifier of _man_. + ++Oral Analysis+.--This is a _complex sentence_, because it consists of an +_independent clause_ and a _dependent clause_. _A man will be honored_ is +_the independent clause_; _who is wise_ is the _dependent clause_. _Man_ is +the subject of the independent clause; _will be honored_ is the predicate. +The word _A_ and the clause, _who is wise_, are modifiers of the subject. +_A_ points out _man_, and _who is wise_ tells the _kind_ of man. _A man who +is wise_ is the modified subject; the predicate is unmodified. _Who_ is the +subject of the dependent clause, _is_ is the predicate, and _wise_ is the +attribute complement. _Who_ connects the two clauses. + +1. He that runs may read. +2. Man is the only animal that laughs and weeps. +3. Henry Hudson discovered the river which bears his name. +4. He necessarily remains weak who never tries exertion. +5. The meridians are those lines that extend from pole to pole. +6. He who will not be ruled by the rudder must be ruled by the rock. +7. Animals that have a backbone are called vertebrates. +8. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. +9. The thick mists which prevail in the neighborhood of Newfoundland are + caused by the warm waters of the Gulf Stream. +10. The power which brings a pin to the ground holds the earth in its + orbit. +11. Death is the black camel which kneels at every man's gate. +12. Our best friends are they who tell us of our faults, and help us to + mend them. + +The pupil will notice that, in some of these sentences, the dependent +clause modifies the subject, and that, in others, it modifies the noun +complement. + ++COMMA--RULE.--The _adjective_ or the _adverb clause_, when it does not +closely follow and restrict the word modified, is generally set off by the +comma+. + + + + +LESSON 58. + +SENTENCE-BUILDING. + +ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. + +Expand each of the following adjectives into + +1. A phrase; +2. A clause; + +and then use these three modifiers in three separate sentences of your own +construction. + + | _who has energy_, ++Model+.--_Energetic; of energy_; + or + | _who is energetic_. + + +An _energetic_ man will succeed. A man _of energy_ will succeed. A man who +has _energy_ (or _who is energetic_) will succeed. + +Honest, long-eared, beautiful, wealthy. + +Expand each of the following _possessive nouns_ into + +1. A phrase; +2. A clause; + +and then use these three modifiers in three separate sentences. + ++Model+.--_Saturn's rings_; the rings _of Saturn_; the rings _which +surround Saturn_. + +_Saturn's_ rings can be seen with a telescope. The _rings of Saturn_ can be +seen with a telescope. The rings _which surround Saturn_ can be seen, with +a telescope. + +Absalom's hair; the hen's eggs; the elephant's tusks. + +Change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding +the participial phrases into clauses. + +The vessels carrying the blood from the heart are called arteries. The book +prized above all other books is the Bible. Rivers rising west of the Rocky +Mts. flow into the Pacific ocean. The guns fired at Concord were heard +around the world. + ++To the Teacher+.--For additional composition exercises with particular +reference to adjective clauses, see Notes, p. 177. + + + + +LESSON 59. + +COMPLEX SENTENCES. + +THE ADVERB CLAUSE. + ++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--You learned in Lesson 83 that an adverb can +be expanded into an equivalent phrase; as, The book was _carefully_ read = +The book was read _with care_. + +We shall now learn that a phrase used as an adverb may be expanded into an ++Adverb clause+. In the sentence, _We started at sunrise_, what phrase is +used like an adverb? +P+.--_At sunrise_. +T+.--Expand this phrase into an +equivalent clause, and give me the entire sentence. +P+.--We started _when +the sun rose_. + ++T+.--You see that the phrase, _at sunrise_, and the clause, _when the sun +rose_, both modify _started_, telling the time of starting, and are +therefore equivalent to adverbs. We will then call such clauses +Adverb +Clauses+. + + +Analysis and Parsing. + ++Model.--+ + + We | started +=========|============= + \ + ` when + sun \ rose + =======|========= + \the + ++Explanation of the Diagram+.--The line which connects the two predicate +lines pictures three things. It is made up of three parts. The upper part +shows that _when_ modifies _started_; the lower part, that it modifies +_rose_; and the dotted part shows that it _connects_. + ++Oral Analysis+.--This is a complex sentence, because ----; _We started_ is +the independent clause, and _when the sun rose_ is the dependent clause. +_We_ is the subject of the independent clause, and _started_ is the +predicate. The clause, _when the sun rose_, is a modifier of the predicate, +because it tells when we started. _Started when the sun rose_ is the +modified predicate. + +_Sun_ is the subject of the dependent clause, and _rose_ is the predicate, +and the is a modifier of _sun_; _the sun_ is the modified subject. _When_ +modifies _rose_ and _started_, and connects the clause-modifier to the +predicate _started_. + ++Parsing+ of _when_.--_When_ is an adverb modifying the two verbs _started_ +and _rose_, thus connecting the two clauses. It modifies these verbs by +showing that the two actions took place at the same time. + +1. The dew glitters when the sun shines. +2. Printing was unknown when Homer wrote the Iliad. +3. Where the bee sucks honey, the spider sucks poison. +4. Ah! few shall part where many meet. +5. Where the devil cannot come, he will send. +6. While the bridegroom tarried, they all slumbered and slept. +7. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. +8. When the tale of bricks is doubled, Moses comes. +9. When I look upon the tombs of the great, every emotion of envy dies + within me. +10. The upright man speaks as he thinks. +11. He died as the fool dieth. +12. The scepter shall not depart from Judah until Shiloh come. + + + + +LESSON 60. + +SENTENCE-BUILDING. + +ADVERB CLAUSES. + +Expand each of the following phrases into an adverb clause, and fit this +clause into a sentence of your own building. + ++Model+.--_At sunset; when the sun set_. We returned _when the sun set_. + +At the hour; on the playground; by moonlight; in youth; among icebergs; +after school; at the forks of the road; during the day; before church; with +my friend. + +To each of the following independent clauses, join an adverb clause, +and so make complex sentences. + +---- Peter began to sink. The man dies ----. Grass grows ----. Iron ---- +can easily be shaped. The rattlesnake shakes his rattle ----. ---- a nation +mourns. Pittsburg stands ----. He dared to lead ----. + ++To the Teacher+.--For additional composition exercises with particular +reference to adverb clauses, see Notes, p. 177. + +See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement--Selection from the Brothers +Grimm. + +REVIEW QUESTIONS. + +In what two ways may nouns be used as modifiers? Illustrate. Nouns and +pronouns denoting possession may sometimes be changed into what? +Illustrate. Give the rule for the punctuation of explanatory modifiers. +Into what may an adjective be expanded? Into what may a participial phrase +be expanded? Give illustrations. Give an example of a complex sentence. Of +a clause. Of an independent clause. Of a dependent clause. Into what may a +phrase used as an adverb be expanded? Illustrate. + + + + +LESSON 61. + +THE NOUN CLAUSE. + ++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_That stars are suns is taught by +astronomers_. What is taught by astronomers? +P+.--That stars are suns. ++T+.--What then is the subject of _is taught_? +P+.--The clause, _That +stars are suns_. +T+.--This clause then performs the office of what part of +speech? +P+.--Of a noun. + ++T+.--_Astronomers teach that stars are suns_. What do astronomers teach? ++P+.--That stars are suns. +T+.--What is the object complement of _teach_? ++P+.--The clause, _that stars are suns_. +T+.--What office then does this +clause perform? +P+.--That of a noun. + ++T+.--_The teaching of astronomers is, that stars are suns_. What does _is_ +assert of teaching? +P+.--That stars are suns. +T+.--What then is the +attribute complement? +P+.--_That stars are suns_. +T+.--Does this +complement express the quality of the subject, or does it name the same +thing that the subject names? +P+.--It names the same thing that the +subject names. +T+.--It is equivalent then to what part of speech? +P+.--To +a noun. + ++T+.--You see then that a clause, like a noun, may be used as the subject +or the complement of a sentence. + + +Analysis and Parsing. + ++Model+.-- + + That + ------ + ' + stars | are '\suns + =======|============ + | | + | + / \ | is taught +================|============ + | \by + \ astronomers + -------------- + +You will understand this diagram from the explanation of the second diagram +in Lesson 49. + ++Oral Analysis+.--This is a complex sentence, in which the whole sentence +takes the place of the independent clause. _That stars are suns_ is the +dependent clause. _That stars are suns_ is the subject of the whole +sentence, etc. ----. _That_ simply introduces the dependent clause. + +In _parsing_, call _that_ a conjunction. + +1. That the Scotch are an intelligent people is generally acknowledged. +2. That the moon is made of green cheese is believed by some boys and + girls. +3. That Julius Caesar invaded Britain is a historic fact. +4. That children should obey their parents is a divine precept. +5. I know that my Redeemer liveth. +6. Plato taught that the soul is immortal. +7. Peter denied that he knew his Lord. +8. Mahomet found that the mountain would not move. +9. The principle maintained by the colonies was, that taxation without + representation is unjust. +10. Our intention is, that this work shall be well done. +11. Our hearts' desire and prayer is, that you may be saved. +12. The belief of the Sadducees was, that there is no resurrection of the + dead. + + * * * * * + +LESSON 62. + +COMPOUND SENTENCES. + +ANALYSIS AND PARSING. + ++DEFINITION.--A _Compound Sentence_ is one composed of two or more +independent clauses+. + ++Model+.--_War has ceased, and peace has come_. + + War | has ceased +=======|============= + | ' + ' and + '..... + ' + peace | has ' come +=========|=============== + | + ++Explanation of the Diagram+.--These two clause diagrams are shaded alike +to show that the two clauses are of the same rank. The connecting line is +not slanting, for one clause is not a modifier of the other. As one entire +clause is connected with the other, the connecting line is drawn between +the predicates simply for convenience. + ++Oral Analysis+.--This is a _compound sentence_, because it is made up of +two independent clauses. The first clause, etc. ----. + +1. Morning dawns, and the clouds disperse. +2. Prayer leads the heart to God, and he always listens. +3. A soft answer turneth away wrath, but grievous words stir up anger. +4. Power works easily, but fretting is a perpetual confession of weakness. +5. Many meet the gods, but few salute them. +6. We eat to live, but we do not live to eat. +7. The satellites revolve in orbits around the planets, and the planets + move in orbits around the sun. +8. A wise son maketh a glad father, but a foolish son is the heaviness of + his mother. +9. Every man desires to live long, but no man would be old. +10. [Footnote: A verb is to be supplied in each of the last three + sentences.] Pride goeth before destruction, and a haughty spirit before + a fall. +11. Towers are measured by their shadows, and great men, by their + calumniators. +12. Worth makes the man, and want of it, the fellow. + + + + +LESSON 63. + +SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO THEIR MEANING. + ++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--You have already become acquainted with +three kinds of sentences. Can you name them? + ++P+.--The Simple sentence, the Complex, and the Compound. + ++T+.--These classes have been made with regard to the _form_ of the +sentence. We will now arrange sentences in classes with regard to their +_meaning_. + +_Mary sings. Does Mary sing? Sing, Mary. How Mary sings!_ Here are four +simple sentences. Do they all _mean_ the same thing? + ++P+.--They do not. + ++T+.--Well, you see they differ. Let me tell you wherein. The first one +tells a fact, the second asks a question, the third expresses a command, +and the fourth expresses sudden thought or strong feeling. We call the +first a +Declarative sentence+, the second an +Interrogative sentence+, the +third an +Imperative sentence+, and the fourth an +Exclamatory sentence+. + + ++DEFINITION.--A _Declarative Sentence_ is one that is used to affirm or to +deny+. + ++DEFINITION.--An _Interrogative Sentence_ is one that expresses a +question+. + ++DEFINITION.--An _Imperative Sentence_ is one that expresses a command or +an entreaty+. + ++DEFINITION.--An _Exclamatory Sentence_ is one that expresses sudden +thought or strong feeling+. + ++INTERROGATION POINT--RULE.--Every direct interrogative sentence should be +followed by an interrogation point+. [Footnote: To The Teacher.--See Notes, +pp. 178, 179.] + + +SENTENCE-BUILDING. + +Change each of the following declarative sentences into three interrogative +sentences, and tell how the change was made. + ++Model+.--_Girls can skate. Can girls skate? How can girls skate? What +girls can skate?_ You are happy. Parrots can talk. Low houses were built. + +Change each of the following into an imperative sentence. Notice that +independent words are set off by the comma. + ++Model+.--_Carlo eats his dinner. Eat your dinner, Carlo_. George plays the +flute. Birdie stands on one leg. + +Change each of the following into exclamatory sentences. + ++Model+.--_You are happy. How happy you are! What a happy child you are! +You are so happy!_ + +Time flies swiftly. I am glad to see you. A refreshing shower fell. Lapland +is a cold country. It is hot between the tropics. + +Write a declarative, an interrogative, an imperative, and an exclamatory +sentence on each of the following topics. + +Weather, lightning, a stage coach. + + + + +LESSON 64. + +ANALYSIS AND PARSING. + +MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW. + +In the analysis, classify these sentences first with reference to their +_form_, and then with reference to their _meaning_. + +1. Wickedness is often made a substitute for wit. +2. Alfred was a brave, pious, and patriotic prince. +3. The throne of Philip trembles while Demosthenes speaks. +4. That the whole is equal to the sum of its parts is an axiom. +5. The lion belongs to the cat tribe, but he cannot climb a tree. +6. Pride is a flower that grows in the devil's garden. +7. Of all forms of habitation, the simplest is the burrow. +8. When the righteous are in authority, the people rejoice. +9. When the wicked beareth rule, the people mourn. +10. Cassius, be not deceived. [Footnote: _Cassius_ is independent, and + may be diagramed like an interjection. The subject of _be + deceived_ is _thou_, or _you_, understood.] +11. How poor, how rich, how abject, how august, how wonderful is man! +12. Which is the largest city in the world? + + + + +LESSON 65. + +ANALYSIS AND PARSING. + +MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW--CONTINUED, + +1. Politeness is the oil which lubricates the wheels of society. +2. 0 liberty! liberty! how many crimes are committed in thy name! +3. The mind is a goodly field, and to sow it with trifles is the worst + husbandry in the world. +4. Every day in thy life is a leaf in thy history. +5. Make hay while the sun shines. +6. Columbus did not know that he had discovered a new continent. +7. The subject of inquiry was, Who invented printing? +8. The cat's tongue is covered with thousands of little sharp cones, + pointing towards the throat. +9. The fly sat upon the axle of a chariot-wheel and said, "What a dust do I + raise!" +10. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, attempting to recross the Atlantic in his little + vessel, the Squirrel, went down in mid-ocean. +11. Charity begins at home, but it should not stay there. +12. The morn, in russet mantle clad, walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern + hill. + + + + +LESSON 66. + +MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS IN REVIEW. + +I haven't near so much. I only want one. Draw the string tightly. He writes +good. I will prosecute him who sticks bills upon this church or any other +nuisance. Noah for his godliness and his family were saved from the flood. +We were at Europe this summer. You may rely in that. She lives to home. I +can't do no work. He will never be no better. They seemed to be nearly +dressed alike. I won't never do so no more. A ivory ball. An hundred head +of cattle. george washington, gen dix of n y. o sarah i Saw A pretty +Bonnet. are You going home? A young man wrote these verses who has long +lain in his grave for his own amusement. This house will be kept by the +widow of Mr. B. who died recently on an improved plan. _In correcting the +position of the adjective clauses in the two examples above, observe the +caution for the phrase modifiers, Lesson_ 41. He was an independent small +farmer. The mind knows feels and thinks. The urchin was ragged barefooted +dirty homeless and friendless. I am some tired. This here road is rough. +That there man is homely. pshaw i am so Disgusted. Whoa can't you stand +still. James the gardener gave me a white lily. Irving the genial writer +lived on the hudson. + + + + +LESSON 67. + +SENTENCE-BUILDING. + +Build one sentence out of each group of the sentences which follow. + ++Model+.--An _able_ man was chosen. + A _prudent_ man was chosen. + An _honorable_ man was chosen. + An _able, prudent_, and _honorable_ man was chosen. + + Pure water is destitute of color. + Pure water is destitute of taste. + Pure water is destitute of smell. + + Cicero was the greatest orator of his age. + Demosthenes was the greatest orator of his age. + + Daisies peeped up here. + Daisies peeped up there. + Daisies peeped up everywhere. + +Expand each of the following sentences into three. + + The English language is spoken in England, Canada, and the United States. + The Missouri, Ohio, and Arkansas rivers are branches of the Mississippi. + +Out of the four following sentences, build one sentence having three +explanatory modifiers. + ++Model+.--Elizabeth was _the daughter of Henry VIII_. + Elizabeth was _sister of Queen Mary_. + Elizabeth was _the patron of literature_. + Elizabeth defeated the Armada. +Elizabeth, _the daughter of Henry VIII., sister of Queen Mary, and the +patron of literature_, defeated the Armada. + + Boston is the capital of Massachusetts. + Boston is the Athens of America. + Boston is the "Hub of the Universe." + Boston has crooked streets. + +Expand the following sentence into four sentences. + + Daniel Webster, the great jurist, the expounder of the Constitution, and + the chief of the "American Triumvirate," died with the words, "I still + live," on his lips. + + + + +LESSON 68. + +SENTENCE-BUILDING. + ++To the Teacher+.--For additional exercises in composition, see Notes, pp. +176-180. + +Change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding +the phrases into adjective clauses. + ++Model+.--People _living in glass houses_ shouldn't throw stones. + People _who live in glass houses_ shouldn't throw stones. + + Those living in the Arctic regions need much oily food. + A house built upon the rock will stand. + The boy of studious habits will always have his lesson. + Wellington was a man of iron will. + +Change the following complex sentences into simple sentences by contracting +the adjective clauses into phrases. + + Much of the cotton which is raised in the Gulf States is exported. + The house which was built upon the sand fell. + A thing which is beautiful is a joy forever. + Aaron Burr was a man who had fascinating manners. + +Change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding +the phrases into adverb clauses. + ++Model+.--Birds return _in the spring_. + _When spring comes_, the birds return. + + The dog came at call. In old age our senses fail. + +Change the following complex sentences into simple sentences by contracting +the adverb clauses into phrases. + + The ship started when the tide was at flood. + When he reached the middle of his speech, he stopped. + +By supplying noun clauses, make complete sentences out of the following +expressions. + + ---- is a well-known fact. + The fact was ----. + Ben. Franklin said ----. + + + + +LESSON 69. + +GENERAL REVIEW. + +What is a letter? Give the name and the sound of each of the letters in the +three following words: _letters, name, sound_. Into what classes are +letters divided? Define each class. Name the vowels. What is a word? What +is artificial language? What is English Grammar? What is a sentence? What +is the difference between the two expressions, _ripe apples_ and _apples +are ripe_? What two parts must every sentence have? Define each. What is +the analysis of a sentence? What is a diagram? What are parts of speech? +How many parts of speech are there? Give an example of each. What is a +noun? What is a verb? What must every predicate contain? What is a pronoun? +What is a modifier? What is an adjective? What adjectives are sometimes +called articles? When is _a_ used? When is _an_ used? Illustrate. Give an +example of one modifier joined to another. What is an adverb? What is a +phrase? What is a preposition? What is a conjunction? What is an +interjection? Give four rules for the use of capital letters (Lessons 8, +15, 19, 87). Give two rules for the use of the period, one for the +exclamation point, and one for the interrogation point (Lessons 8, 37, 63). + + + + +LESSON 70. + +GENERAL REVIEW. + +What is an object complement? What is an attribute complement? How does a +participle differ from a predicate verb? Illustrate. What offices does an +infinitive phrase perform? Illustrate. How are sentences classified with +respect to form? Give an example of each class. What is a simple sentence? +What is a clause? What is a dependent clause? What is an independent +clause? What is a complex sentence? What is a compound sentence? How are +sentences classified with respect to meaning? Give an example of each +class. What is a declarative sentence? What is an interrogative sentence? +What is an imperative sentence? What is an exclamatory sentence? What +different offices may a noun perform? Ans.--_A noun may be used as a +subject, as an object complement, as an attribute complement, as a +possessive modifier, as an explanatory modifier, as the principal word in a +prepositional phrase, and it may be used independently_. Illustrate each +use. What are sometimes substituted for nouns? _Ans.--Pronouns, phrases, +and clauses_. Illustrate. What is the principal office of a verb? What +offices may be performed by a phrase? What, by a clause? What, different +offices may an adjective perform? What parts of speech may connect clauses? +_Ans.--Conjunctions, adverbs, and pronouns_. (See Lessons 62, 59, and 57.) +Give rules for the use of the comma (Lessons 37, 54, 57). Give and +illustrate the directions for using adjectives and adverbs, for placing +phrases, for using prepositions, and for using negatives (Lessons 40, 41). + ++To the Teacher+.--For additional review, see "Scheme," p. 185. + +If the early presentation of an outline of technical grammar is not +compelled by a prescribed course of study, we should here introduce a +series of lessons in the construction of sentences, paragraphs, letters, +and general compositions. The pages following Lesson 100 will furnish +matter. + +See especially COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement--Selection from +Beecher. + + + + +PARTS OF SPEECH SUBDIVIDED. + +LESSON 71. + +CLASSES OF NOUNS. + ++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--Hereafter, in the "Hints," we shall drop the +dialogue form, but we expect the teacher to continue it. A poor teacher +does all the talking, a good teacher makes the pupils talk. + +The teacher may here refer to his talk about the classification of birds, +and show that, after birds have been arranged in great classes, such as +robins, sparrows, etc., these classes will need to be subdivided, if the +pupil is to be made thoroughly acquainted with this department of the +animal kingdom. So, after grouping _words_ into the eight great classes, +called Parts of Speech, these classes may be divided into other classes. +For instance, take the two nouns _city_ and _Brooklyn_. The word _city_ is +the _common_ name of all places of a certain class, but the word _Brooklyn_ +is the _proper_ or particular name of an _individual_ of this class. We +have here, then, two kinds of nouns which we call +Common+ and +Proper+. + +Let the teacher write a number of nouns on the board, and require the pupil +to classify them and give the reasons for the classification. + +To prepare the pupil thoroughly for this work, the teacher will find it +necessary to explain why such words as _music, mathematics, knowledge_, +etc., are common nouns. _Music, e. g._, is not a proper noun, for it is not +a name given to an individual thing to distinguish it from other things of +the same class. There are no other things of the same class--it forms a +class by itself. So we call the noun _music_ a _common_ noun. + +CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. + +The speaker seldom refers to himself by name, but uses the pronoun _I_ +instead. In speaking _to_ a person, we often use the pronoun _you_ instead +of his name. In speaking _of_ a person or thing that has been mentioned +before, we say _he_ or _she_ or _it_. These words that by their _form_ +indicate the speaker, the hearer, or the person or thing spoken of, are +called +Personal Pronouns+. See Lesson 19, "Hints." + +Give sentences containing nouns repeated, and require the pupils to improve +these sentences by substituting pronouns. + +When we wish to refer to an object that has been mentioned in _another_ +clause, and at the same time to _connect the clauses_, we use a class of +pronouns called +Relative Pronouns+. Let the teacher illustrate by using +the pronouns _who, which_, and _that_. See Lesson 57, "Hints for Oral +Instruction." + +When we wish to ask about anything whose _name is unknown_, we use a class +of pronouns called +Interrogative Pronouns+. The interrogative pronoun +stands for the unknown name, and asks for it; as, _Who_ comes here? _What_ +is this? + +_Both men were wrong_. Let us omit _men_ and say, _Both were wrong_. You +see the meaning is not changed--_both_ is here equivalent to _both men_, +that is, it performs the office of an adjective and that of a noun. It is +therefore an +Adjective Pronoun+. Let the teacher further illustrate the +office of the adjective pronoun by using the words _each, all, many, some, +such_, etc. + +DEFINITIONS. + +CLASSES OF NOUNS. + ++A _Common Noun_ is a name which belongs to all things of a class+. + ++A _Proper Noun_ is the particular name of an individual+. + +CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. + ++A _Personal Pronoun_ is a pronoun that by its form denotes the speaker, +the one spoken to, or the one spoken of+. + ++A _Relative Pronoun_ is one that relates to some preceding word or words, +and connects clauses+. + ++An _Interrogative Pronoun_ is one with which a question is asked+. + ++An _Adjective Pronoun_ is one that performs the offices of both an +adjective and a noun+. + + + + +LESSON 72. + +SENTENCE-BUILDING. + +Build each of the following groups of nouns into a sentence. See Rule, +Lesson 15. + + webster cares office washington repose home marshfleld. + + george washington commander army revolution president united states + westmoreland state virginia month february. + + san francisco city port pacific trade united states lines steamships + sandwich islands japan china australia. + +Write five simple sentences, each containing one of the five personal +pronouns: _I, thou_ or _you, he, she_, and _it_. + +Write four complex sentences, each containing one of the four relative +pronouns: _who, which, that_, and _what_. + +_What_ is used as a relative pronoun when the antecedent is omitted. The +word for which a pronoun stands is called its antecedent. When we express +the antecedent, we use _which_ or _that_. I shall do _what_ is required; I +shall do the _thing which_ is required, or _that_ is required. + +Build three interrogative sentences, each containing one of the three +interrogative pronouns: _who, which_, and _what_. + +Build eight sentences, each containing one of the following adjective +pronouns: _few, many, much, some, this, these, that, those_. + + + + +LESSON 73. + +CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. + ++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--When I say _large, round, sweet, yellow +oranges_, the words _large, round, sweet_, and _yellow_ modify the word +_oranges_ by telling the _kind_, and limit the application of the word to +oranges of that kind. + +When I say _this orange, yonder orange, one orange_, the words _this, +yonder_, and _one_ do not tell the kind, but simply point out or number the +orange, and limit the application of the word to the orange pointed out or +numbered. + +Adjectives of the first class describe by giving a quality, and so are +called +Descriptive adjectives+. + +Adjectives of the second class define by pointing out or numbering, and so +are called +Definitive adjectives+. + +Let the teacher write nouns on the board, and require the pupils to modify +them by appropriate descriptive and definitive adjectives. + +DEFINITIONS. + ++A _Descriptive Adjective_ is one that modifies by expressing quality+. + ++A _Definitive Adjective_ is one that modifies by pointing out, numbering, +or denoting quantity+. + +SENTENCE-BUILDING. + +Place the following adjectives in two columns, one headed _descriptive_, +and the other _definitive_, then build simple sentences in which they shall +be employed as _modifiers_. Find out the meaning of each word before you +use it. + + Round, frolicsome, first, industrious, jolly, idle, skillful, each, the, + faithful, an, kind, one, tall, ancient, modern, dancing, mischievous, + stationary, nimble, several, slanting, parallel, oval, every. + +Build simple sentences in which the following _descriptive_ adjectives +shall be employed as _attribute complements_. Let some of these attributes +be _compound_. + + Restless, impulsive, dense, rare, gritty, sluggish, dingy, selfish, + clear, cold, sparkling, slender, graceful, hungry, friendless. + +Build simple sentences in which the following _descriptive_ adjectives +shall be employed. + +Some of these adjectives have the _form_ of _participles_, and some are +_derived_ from _proper nouns_. + ++CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--An Adjective derived from a proper noun must begin +with a capital letter+. + + Shining, moving, swaying, bubbling, American, German, French, Swiss, + Irish, Chinese. + + + + +LESSON 74. + +CLASSES OF VERBS. + ++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_The man caught_ makes no complete +assertion, and is not a sentence. If I add the object complement _fish_, I +complete the assertion and form a sentence--_The man caught fish_. The +action expressed by _caught_ passes over from the man to the fish. +_Transitive_ means _passing over_, and so all those verbs that express an +action that passes over from a doer to something which receives, are called ++Transitive verbs+. + +_Fish swim_. The verb _swim_ does not require an object to complete the +sentence. No action passes from a doer to a receiver. These verbs which +express action that does not pass over to a receiver, and all those which +do not express action at all, but simply _being_ or _state of being_, are +called +Intransitive verbs+. + +Let the teacher write transitive and intransitive verbs on the board, and +require the pupils to distinguish them. + +When I say, I _crush_ the worm, I express an action that is going on now, +or in present time. I _crushed_ the worm, expresses an action that took +place in past time. As _tense_ means _time_, we call the form _crush_ the +_present tense_ of the verb, and _crushed_ the _past tense_. In the +sentence, The worm _crushed_ under my foot died, _crushed_, expressing the +action as assumed, is, as you have already learned, a participle; and, as +the action is completed, we call it a _past participle_. Now notice that +_ed_ was added to _crush_, the verb in the present tense, to form the verb +in the past tense, and to form the past participle. Most verbs form their +past tense and their past participle by adding _ed_, and so we call such ++Regular verbs+. + +I _see_ the man; I _saw_ the man; The man _seen_ by me ran away. I _catch_ +fish in the brook; I _caught_ fish in the brook; The fish _caught_ in the +brook tasted good. Here the verbs _see_ and _catch_ do not form their past +tense and past participle by adding _ed_ to the present, and so we call +them _Irregular verbs_. + +Let the teacher write on the board verbs of both classes, and require the +pupils to distinguish them. + + +DEFINITIONS. + +CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO MEANING. + ++A _Transitive Verb_ is one that requires an object+. [Footnote: The +_object_ of a transitive verb, that is, the name of the receiver of the +action, may be the _object complement_, or it may be the subject; as, +Brutus stabbed _Caesar_, _Caesar_ was stabbed by Brutus.] + ++An _Intransitive Verb_ is one that does not require an object+. + +CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO FORM. + ++A _Regular Verb_ is one that forms its past tense and past participle by +adding _ed_ to the present+. [Footnote: If the present ends in _e_, the _e_ +is dropped when _ed_ is added; as, lov_e_, lov_ed_; believ_e_, believ_ed_.] + ++An _Irregular Verb_ is one that does not form its past tense and past +participle by adding _ed_ to the present+. + +SENTENCE-BUILDING. + +Place the following verbs in two columns, one headed _transitive_ and the +other, _intransitive_. Place the same verbs in two other columns, one +headed _regular_ and the other, _irregular_. Build these verbs into +sentences by supplying a subject to each intransitive verb, and a subject +and an object to each transitive verb. + + Vanish, gallop, bite, promote, contain, produce, provide, veto, secure, + scramble, rattle, draw. + +Arrange the following verbs as before, and then build them into sentences +by supplying a subject and a noun attribute to each intransitive verb, and +a subject and an object to each transitive verb. + + Degrade, gather, know, was, became, is. + +A verb may be transitive in one sentence and intransitive in another. Use +the following verbs both ways. + ++Model+.--The wren _sings_ sweetly. + +The wren _sings_ a pretty little song. + + Bend, ring, break, dash, move. + + + + +LESSON 75. + +CLASSES OF ADVERBS. + ++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--When I say, He will come _soon_, or +_presently_, or _often_, or _early_, I am using, to modify _will come_, +words which express the _time_ of coming. These and all such adverbs we +call +Adverbs of Time+. + +He will come _up_, or _hither_, or _here_, or _back_. Here I use, to modify +_will come_, words which express _place_. These and all such adverbs we +call +Adverbs of Place+. + +When I say, The weather is _so_ cold, or _very_ cold, or _intensely_ cold, +the words _so, very_, and _intensely_ modify the adjective _cold_ by +expressing the _degree_ of coldness. These and all such adverbs we call ++Adverbs of Degree+. + +When I say, He spoke _freely, wisely_, and _well_, the words _freely, +wisely_, and _well_ tell how or _in what manner_ he spoke. All such adverbs +we call +Adverbs of Manner+. + +Let the teacher place adverbs on the board, and require the pupil to +classify them. + + +DEFINITIONS. + ++_Adverbs of Time_ are those that generally answer the question+, _When?_ + +_+Adverbs of Place are those that generally answer the question+, Where? + ++Adverbs of Degree are those that generally answer the question+, To what +extent? + ++Adverbs of Manner are those that generally answer the question+, In what +way?_ + +SENTENCE-BUILDING. + +Place the following adverbs in the four classes we have made--if the +classification be perfect, there will be five words in each column--then +build each adverb into a simple sentence. + + Partly, only, too, wisely, now, here, when, very, well, where, nobly, + already, seldom, more, ably, away, always, not, there, out. + +Some adverbs, as you have already learned, modify two verbs, and thus +connect the two clauses in which these verbs occur. Such adverbs are called +_+Conjunctive Adverbs+_. + +The following _dependent_ clauses are introduced by _conjunctive adverbs_. +Build them into complex sentences by supplying _independent clauses_. + +------ _when_ the ice is smooth; +------ _while_ we sleep; +------ _before_ winter comes; +------ _where_ the reindeer lives; +------ _wherever_ you go. + + + + +LESSON 76. + +CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. [Footnote: For classified lists, see pp. 190,191.] + ++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_Frogs, antelopes, and kangaroos can jump_. +Here the three nouns are of the same rank in the sentence. All are subjects +of _can jump. War has ceased, and peace has come_. In this compound +sentence, there are two clauses of the same rank. The word _and_ connects +the subjects of _can jump_, in the first sentence: and the two clauses, in +the second. All words that connect words, phrases, or clauses of the _same +rank_ are called +Co-ordinate Conjunctions+. + +_If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. I will go, because you need +me_. Here _if_ joins the clause, _you have tears_, as a modifier, +expressing condition, to the independent clause, _prepare to shed them +now;_ and _because_ connects _you need me_, as a modifier, expressing +reason or cause, to the independent clause, _I will go_. These and all such +conjunctions as connect dependent clauses to clauses of a _higher rank_ are +called +Subordinate Conjunctions+. + +Let the teacher illustrate the meaning and use of the words _subordinate_ +and _co-ordinate_. + + +DEFINITIONS. + ++_Co-ordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect words, phrases, or clauses +of the same rank+. + ++_Subordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect clauses of different rank+. + +SENTENCE-BUILDING. + +Build four short sentences for each of the three _co-ordinate conjunctions_ +that follow. In the first, let the conjunction be used to connect principal +parts of a sentence; in the second, to connect word modifiers; in the +third, to connect phrase modifiers; and in the fourth, to connect +independent clauses. + +And, or, but. + +Write four short complex sentences containing the four _subordinate +conjunctions_ that follow. Let the first be used to introduce a noun +clause, and the other three to connect adverb clauses to independent +clauses. + +That, for, if, because. + + + + +LESSON 77. + +REVIEW QUESTIONS. + +What new subject begins with page 95? Name and define the different classes +of nouns. Illustrate by examples the difference between common nouns and +proper nouns. Name and define the different classes of pronouns. Can the +pronoun _I_ be used to stand for the one spoken to?--the one spoken of? +Does the relative pronoun distinguish by its _form_ the speaker, the one +spoken to, and the one spoken of? Illustrate. Can any other class of +pronouns be used to connect clauses? + +For what do interrogative pronouns stand? Illustrate. Where may the +antecedent of an interrogative pronoun generally be found? _Ans.--The +antecedent of an interrogative pronoun may generally lie found in the +answer to the question_. + +Name and define the different classes of adjectives. Give an example of +each class. Name and define the different classes of verbs, made with +respect to their meaning. Give an example of each class. Name and define +the different classes of verbs, made with respect to their form. Give an +example of each class. + +Name and define the different classes of adverbs. Give examples of each +kind. Name and define the different classes of conjunctions. Illustrate by +examples. + +Are prepositions and interjections subdivided? (See "Schemes" for the +conjunction, the preposition, and the interjection, p. 188.) + ++To the Teacher+.--See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement-- Selection +from Dr. John Brown. + +We suggest that other selections from literature be made and these +exercises continued. + + + + +MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. + + +LESSON 78. + +NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. + +You have learned that two words may express a thought, and that the thought +may be varied by adding modifying words. You are now to learn that the +meaning or use of a word may sometimes be changed by simply changing its +_form_. The English language has lost many of its inflections, or forms, so +that frequently changes in the meaning and use of words are not marked by +changes in form. These _changes_ in the _form, meaning_, and _use_ of the +parts of speech, we call their +Modifications+. + +_The boy shouts. The boys shout_. I have changed the form of the subject +_boy_ by adding an _s_ to it. The meaning has changed. _Boy_ denotes _one_ +lad; _boys_, _two or more_ lads. This change in the form and meaning of +nouns is called +Number+. The word _boy_, denoting one thing, is in the ++Singular Number;+ and _boys_, denoting more than one thing, is in the ++Plural Number+. + +Let the teacher write other nouns on the board, and require the pupils to +form the plural of them. + + +DEFINITIONS. + ++_Modifications of the Parts of Speech_ are changes in their form, meaning, +and use+. + +NUMBER. + ++_Number_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes one thing +or more than one+. + ++The _Singular Number_ denotes one thing+. + ++The _Plural Number_ denotes more than one thing+. + ++RULE.--The _plural_ of nouns is regularly formed by adding _s_ to the +singular+. + + +Write the plural of the following nouns. + + Tree, bird, insect, cricket, grasshopper, wing, stick, stone, flower, + meadow, pasture, grove, worm, bug, cow, eagle, hawk, wren, plough, + shovel. + +When a singular noun ends in the sound of _s, x, z, sh_, or _ch_, it is not +easy to add the sound of _s_, so _es_ is added to make another syllable. + +Write the plural of the following nouns. + + Guess, box, topaz, lash, birch, compass, fox, waltz, sash, bench, gas, + tax, adz, brush, arch. + +Many nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a consonant form the plural by adding +_es_ without increasing the number of syllables. + +Write the plural of the following nouns. + + Hero, cargo, negro, potato, echo, volcano, mosquito, motto. + +Common nouns ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant form the plural by +changing _y_ into _i_ and adding _es_ without increasing the number of +syllables. + +Write the plural of the following nouns. + + Lady, balcony, family, city, country, daisy, fairy, cherry, study, sky. + +Some nouns ending in _f_ and _fe_ form the plural by changing _f_ or _fe_ +into _ves_ without increasing the number of syllables. + +Write the plural of the following nouns. + + Sheaf, loaf, beef, thief, calf, half, elf, shelf, self, wolf, life, + knife, wife. + + + + +LESSON 79. + +NUMBER. + +From the following list of nouns, select, and write in separate columns: +1st. Those that have no plural; 2d. Those that have no singular; 3d. Those +that are alike in both numbers. + + Pride, wages, trousers, cider, suds, victuals, milk, riches, flax, + courage, sheep, deer, flour, idleness, tidings, thanks, ashes, scissors, + swine, heathen. + +The following nouns have very irregular plurals. Learn to spell the +plurals. + +_Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural_. + Man, men. Foot, feet. + Woman, women. Ox, oxen. + Child, children. Tooth, teeth. + Mouse, mice. Goose, geese. + + +Learn the following plurals and compare them with the groups in the +preceding Lesson. + + Moneys, flies, chimneys, valleys, stories, berries, lilies, turkeys, + monkeys, cuckoos, pianos, vetoes, solos, folios, gulfs, chiefs, leaves, + roofs, scarfs, inches. + + + + +LESSON 80. + +NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.--GENDER. + ++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_The lion was caged. The lioness was caged_. +In the first sentence, something was said about a _male_ lion; and in the +second, something was said about a _female_ lion. Modifications of the noun +to denote the sex of the object, we call +Gender+. Knowing the sex of the +object, you know the gender of its name. The word _lion_, denoting a male +animal, is in the +Masculine Gender;+ and _lioness_, denoting a female +lion, is in the +Feminine Gender+. + +The names of things _without_ sex are in the +Neuter Gender+. + +Such words as _cousin, child, friend, neighbor_, may be _either masculine +or feminine_. + + ++DEFINITIONS. + +_Gender_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes sex. + +The _Masculine Gender_ denotes the male sex. + +The _Feminine Gender_ denotes the female sex. + +The _Neuter Gender_ denotes want of sex+. + +The masculine is distinguished from the feminine in three ways:-- + +1st. By a difference in the ending of the nouns. + +2d. By different words in the compound names. + +3d. By words wholly or radically different. + +Arrange the following pairs in separate columns with reference to these +ways. + + Abbot, abbess; actor, actress; Francis, Frances; Jesse, Jessie; bachelor, + maid; beau, belle; monk, nun; gander, goose; administrator, + administratrix; baron, baroness; count, countess; czar, czarina; don, + donna; boy, girl; drake, duck; lord, lady; nephew, niece; landlord, + landlady; gentleman, gentlewoman; peacock, peahen; duke, duchess; hero, + heroine; host, hostess; Jew, Jewess; man-servant, maid-servant; sir, + madam; wizard, witch; marquis, marchioness; widow, widower; heir, + heiress; Paul, Pauline; Augustus, Augusta. + +REVIEW QUESTIONS. + +What new way of varying the meaning of words is introduced in Lesson 78? +Illustrate. What are modifications of the parts of speech? What is number? +How many numbers are there? Name and define each. Give the rule for forming +the plural of nouns. Illustrate the variations of this rule. What is +gender? How many genders are there? Name and define each. In how many ways +are the genders distinguished? Illustrate. + + + + +LESSON 81. + +NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.--PERSON AND CASE. + ++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_Number_ and _gender_, as you have already +learned, are modifications affecting the _meaning_ of nouns and pronouns. +Number is almost always indicated by the ending; gender, sometimes. There +are two other modifications which refer not to changes in the _meaning_ of +nouns and pronouns, but to their different _uses_ and _relations_. In the +English language, these changes are not often indicated by a change of +_form_. + +_I Paul_ have written. _Paul, thou_ art beside thyself. _He_ brought _Paul_ +before Agrippa. In these three sentences the word _Paul_ has _three +different uses_. In the first, it is used as the name of the _speaker_; in +the second, as the name of _one spoken to_; in the third, as the name of +_one spoken of_. You will notice that the _form_ of the noun was not +changed. This change in the use of nouns and pronouns is called +Person+. +The word _I_ in the first sentence, the word _thou_ in the second, and the +word _he_ in the third have each a different use. _I_, _thou_, and _he_ are +personal pronouns, and, as you have learned, distinguish _person_ by their +_form_. _I_, denoting the speaker, is in the +First Person+; _thou_, +denoting the one spoken to, is in the +Second Person+; and _he_, denoting +the one spoken of, is in the +Third Person+. + +_Personal pronouns_ and _verbs_ are the only words that distinguish person +by their form. + +_The bear killed the man_. _The man killed the bear_. _The bear's grease +was made into hair oil_. In the first sentence, the bear is represented as +_performing_ an action; in the second, as _receiving_ an action; in the +third, as _possessing_ something. So the word _bear_ in these sentences has +three different uses. These uses of nouns are called +Cases+. The use of a +noun as subject is called the +Nominative Case+; its use as object is +called the +Objective Case+; and its use to denote possession is called the ++Possessive Case+. + +The _possessive_ is the only case of nouns that is indicated by a change in +_form_. + +A noun or pronoun used as an _attribute_ complement is in the _nominative +case_. A noun or pronoun following a preposition as the principal word of a +phrase is in the _objective case_. _I_ and _he_ are _nominative_ forms. +_Me_ and _him_ are _objective_ forms. + +The following sentences are therefore incorrect: It is _me_; It is _him_; +_Me_ gave the pen to _he_. + ++DEFINITIONS. + +_Person_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes the +speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of. + +The _First Person_ denotes the one speaking. + +The _Second Person_ denotes the one spoken to. + +The _Third Person_ denotes the one spoken of. + +_Case_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes its office +in the sentence. + +The _Nominative Case of a noun or pronoun_ denotes its office as subject or +as attribute complement. + +The _Possessive Case of a noun or pronoun_ denotes its office as possessive +modifier. + +The _Objective Case of a noun or pronoun_ denotes its office as object +complement, or as principal word in a prepositional phrase+. + + + + +LESSON 82. + +NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.--PERSON AND CASE. + +Tell the _person_ and _case_ of each of the following nouns and pronouns. + ++_Remember_+ that a noun or pronoun used as an _explanatory modifier_ is in +the same case as the word which it explains, and that a noun or pronoun +used _independently_ is in the _nominative case_. + + We Americans do things in a hurry. + You Englishmen take more time to think. + The Germans do their work with the most patience and deliberation. + We boys desire a holiday. + Come on, my men; I will lead you. + I, your teacher, desire your success. + You, my pupils, are attentive. + I called on Tom, the tinker. + Friends, countrymen, and lovers, hear me for my cause. + +Write simple sentences in which each of the following nouns shall be used +in the _three persons_ and in the _three cases_. + +Andrew Jackson, Alexander, Yankees. + +Write a sentence containing a noun in the _nominative_ case, used as an +_attribute;_ one in the _nominative_, used as an _explanatory modifier_; +one in the _nominative_, used independently. + +Write a sentence containing a noun in the _objective case_, used to +_complete two predicate verbs_; one used to _complete_ a _participle_; one +used to _complete_ an _infinitive_; one used _with a preposition_ to make a +phrase; one used as an _explanatory modifier_. + ++To the Teacher+.--See pp. 183, 184. + + + + +LESSON 83. + +NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.--DECLENSION. + ++DEFINITION.--_Declension_ is the arrangement of the cases of nouns and +pronouns in the two numbers+. + +Declension of Nouns. + +LADY. + + _Singular_. _Plural_. + _Nom_. lady, ladies, + _Pos_. lady's, ladies', + _Obj_. lady; ladies. + +CHILD. + + _Singular_. _Plural_. + _Nom._ child, children, + _Pos._ child's, children's, + _Obj._ child; children. + + +Declension of Pronouns. + +PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + +FIRST PERSON. + + _Singular_. _Plural_. + _Nom._ I, we, + _Pos._ my _or_ mine, our _or_ ours, + _Obj._ me; us. + +SECOND PERSON--_common form_. + + _Singular_. _Plural_. + _Nom._ you, you, + _Pos._ your _or_ yours, your _or_ yours, + _Obj._ you; you. + + +SECOND PERSON--_old form_. + + _Singular_. _Plural_. + _Nom._ thou, ye or you, + _Pos._ thy _or_ thine, your _or_ yours, + _Obj._ thee; you. + +THIRD PERSON--_masculine_. + + _Singular_. _Plural_. + _Nom._ he, they, + _Pos._ his, their _or_ theirs, + _Obj._ him; them. + +THIRD PERSON--_feminine_. + + _Singular_. _Plural_. + _Nom._ she, they, + _Pos._ her _or_ hers, their _or_ theirs, + _Obj._ her; them. + +THIRD PERSON----_neuter_. + + _Singular_. _Plural_. + _Nom._ it, they, + _Pos._ its, their _or_ theirs, + _Obj._ it; them. + + +_Mine, ours, yours, thine, hers_, and _theirs_ are used when the name of +the thing possessed is omitted; as, This rose is _yours_ = This rose is +_your rose_. + +COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. + +By joining the word _self_ to the possessive forms _my, thy, your_, and to +the objective forms _him, her, it_, the +_Compound Personal Pronouns_+ are +formed. They have no possessive case, and are alike in the nominative and +the objective. + +Their plurals are _ourselves_, _yourselves_, and _themselves_. Form the +_compound personal pronouns_, and write their declension. + +RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. + + _Sing. and Plu._ + _Nom._ who, + _Pos._ whose, + _Obj._ whom. + + _Sing. and Plu._ + _Nom._ which, + _Pos._ whose, + _Obj._ which. + +_Of which_ is often used instead of the possessive form of the latter +pronoun. + + _Sing. and Plu._ + _Nom._ that, + _Pos._ ----, + _Obj._ that. + + _Sing. and Plu._ + _Nom._ what, + _Pos._ ----, + _Obj._ what. + +_Ever_ and _soever_ are added to _who, which_, and _what_ to form the ++_Compound Relative Pronouns_+. They are used when the antecedent is +omitted. For declension, see above. + + + + +LESSON 84. + +POSSESSIVE FORMS. + ++RULE.--The _possessive case_ of nouns is formed in the singular by adding +to the nominative the apostrophe and the letter _s_ ('s); in the plural, by +adding (') only. If the plural does not end in _s_, the apostrophe and the +_s_ are both added+. + +Write the _possessive singular_ and the _possessive plural_ of the +following nouns, and place an appropriate noun after each. + + Robin, friend, fly, hero, woman, bee, mouse, cuckoo, fox, ox, man, thief, + fairy, mosquito, wolf, shepherd, farmer, child, neighbor, cow. + +Possession may be expressed also by the preposition _of_ and the +_objective_; as, the _mosquito's_ bill = the bill _of_ the _mosquito_. + +The possessive sign ('s) is confined _chiefly_ to the names of persons and +animals. + +We do not say the _chair's_ legs, but the legs _of_ the _chair_. Regard +must be had also to the _sound_. + +IMPROVE THE FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS, and expand each into a simple sentence. + + The sky's color; the cloud's brilliancy; the rose's leaves; my uncle's + partner's house; George's father's friend's farm; the mane of the horse + of my brother; my brother's horse's mane. + +When there are several possessive nouns, all belonging to one word, the +possessive sign is added to the last only. If they modify different words, +the sign is added to each. + +CORRECT THE FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS, and expand each into a simple sentence. + ++Model+.--_Webster and Worcester's dictionary may be bought at Ticknor's +and Field's book-store_. + +The possessive sign should be added to _Webster_, for the word _dictionary_ +is understood immediately after. Webster and Worcester do not together +possess the same dictionary. The sign should not be added to _Ticknor_, for +the two men, Tieknor and Field, possess the same store. + +Adam's and Eve's garden; Jacob's and Esau's father; Shakespeare and +Milton's works; Maud, Kate, and Clara's gloves; Maud's, Kate's, and Clara's +teacher was ----. + +When one possessive noun is explanatory of another, the possessive sign is +added to the last only. + +CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. + + I called at Tom's the tinker's. + They listened to Peter's the Hermit's eloquence. + This was the Apostle's Paul's advice. + +CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. + + Our's, your's, hi's, their's, her's, it's, hisn, yourn, hern. + + + + +LESSON 85. + +FORMS OF THE PRONOUN. + ++_Remember_+ that _I, we, thou, ye, he, she, they_, and _who_ are ++_nominative_+ forms, and must not be used in the objective case. + ++_Remember_+ that _me, us, thee, him, her, them_, and _whom_ are ++_objective_+ forms, and must not be used in the nominative case. + ++To the Teacher+.--The _eight_ nominative forms and the _seven_ objective +forms given above are the only distinctive nominative and objective forms +in the English language. Let the pupils become familiar with them. + +CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. + + Him and me are good friends. + The two persons were her and me. + Us girls had a jolly time. + It is them, surely. + Who will catch this? Me. + Them that despise me shall be lightly esteemed. + Who is there? Me. + It was not us, it was him. + Who did you see? + Who did you ask for? + ++_Remember_+ that pronouns must agree with their antecedents in number, +gender, and person. + +CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. + + Every boy must read their own sentences. + I gave the horse oats, but he would not eat it. + Every one must read it for themselves. + I took up the little boy, and set it on my knee. + ++_Remember_+ that the relative _who_ represents persons; _which_, animals +and things; _that_, persons, animals, and things; and _what_, things. + +CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. + + I have a dog who runs to meet me. + The boy which I met was quite lame. + Those which live in glass houses must not throw stones. + +REVIEW QUESTIONS. + ++To the Teacher+.--For "Schemes," see p. 186. + +How many modifications have nouns and pronouns? Name and define each. How +many persons are there? Define each. How many cases are there? Define each. +How do you determine the case of an explanatory noun or pronoun? What is +declension? How are the forms _mine, yours_, etc., now used? What is the +rule for forming the possessive case? What words are used only in the +nominative case? What words are used only in the objective case? [Footnote: +_Her_ is used in the possessive case also.] How do you determine the +number, gender, and person of pronouns? + + + + +LESSON 86. + +NOUNS AND PRONOUNS--PARSING. + ++To the Teacher+.--For general "Scheme" for parsing, see p. 189. + +Select and parse all the nouns and pronouns in Lesson 53. + ++Model for Written Parsing+.--_Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh, was beheaded +by James I._ + +Elizabeth's + CLASSIFICATION. _Nouns_. + _Kind_. Prop. + MODIFICATIONS. _Person_. 3d + _Number_. Sing. + _Gender_. Fem. + _Case_. Pos. + SYNTAX. Pos. Mod. of _favorite_. + +favorite + CLASSIFICATION. _Nouns_. + _Kind_. Com. + MODIFICATIONS. _Person_. 3d + _Number_. Sing. + _Gender_. Mas. + _Case_. Nom. + SYNTAX. Sub. of _was beheaded_. + +Raleigh + CLASSIFICATION. _Nouns_. + _Kind_. Prop. + MODIFICATIONS. _Person_. 3d + _Number_. Sing. + _Gender_. Mas. + _Case_. Nom. + SYNTAX. Exp. Mod. of _favorite_. + +James I. + CLASSIFICATION. _Nouns_. + _Kind_. Prop. + MODIFICATIONS. _Person_. 3d + _Number_. Sing. + _Gender_. Mas. + _Case_. Obj. + SYNTAX. Prin. word after _by_. + ++To the Teacher+.--Select other exercises, and continue this work as long +as it may be profitable. See Lessons 56, 57, 61, 64, and 65. + + + + +LESSON 87. + +COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. + ++Adjectives have one modification;+ viz., _Comparison_. + +DEFINITIONS. + ++_Comparison_ is a modification of the adjective to express the relative +degree of the quality in the things compared+. + ++The _Positive degree_ expresses the simple quality+. + ++The _Comparative degree_ expresses a greater or a less degree of the +quality+. + ++The _Superlative degree_ expresses the greatest or the least degree of the +quality+. + ++RULE.--Adjectives are regularly compared by adding _er_ to the positive to +form the comparative, and _est_ to the positive to form the superlative+. + +Adjectives of one syllable are _generally_ compared regularly; adjectives +of two or more syllables are often compared by prefixing _more_ and _most_. + +When there are two correct forms, choose the one that can be more easily +pronounced. + +Compare the following adjectives. For the spelling, consult your +dictionaries. + +Model.--_Positive. Comparative. Superlative_. + Lovely, lovelier, loveliest; _or_ + lovely, more lovely, most lovely. + + Tame, warm, beautiful, brilliant, amiable, high, mad, greedy, pretty, + hot. + +Some adjectives are compared _irregularly_. Learn the following forms. + + _Positive. Comparative. Superlative_. + Good, better, best. + Bad, | + Evil, + worse, worst. + Ill, | + Little, less, least. + Much, | + Many, | more, most. + + + + +LESSON 88. + +COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. + ++_Remember_+ that, when two things or groups of things are compared, the +_comparative_ degree is commonly used; when more than two, the +_superlative_ is employed. + ++_Caution_+.--Adjectives should not be _doubly_ compared. + +CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. + + Of all the boys, George is the more industrious. + Peter was older than the twelve apostles. + Which is the longer of the rivers of America? + This was the most unkindest cut of all. + He chose a more humbler part. + My hat is more handsomer than yours. + The younger of those three boys is the smarter. + Which is the more northerly, Maine, Oregon, or Minnesota? + ++_Caution_+.--Do not use adjectives and adverbs extravagantly. + +CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. + + The weather is horrid. + That dress is perfectly awful. + Your coat sits frightfully. + We had an awfully good time. + This is a tremendously hard lesson. + Harry is a mighty nice boy. + ++_Remember_+ that adjectives whose meaning does not admit of different +degrees cannot be compared; as, _every_, _universal_. + +Use in the three different degrees such of the following adjectives as +admit of comparison. + +All, serene, excellent, immortal, first, two, total, infinite, +three-legged, bright. + ++_Adverbs_+ are compared in the same manner as adjectives. The following +are compared regularly. Compare them. + +Fast, often, soon, late, early. + +In the preceding and in the following list, find words that may be used as +adjectives. + +The following are compared irregularly. Learn them. + + _Pos. Comp. Sup. _ + ----------- ---------- -------- + Badly, Ill, worse, worst. + Well, better, best. + Little, less, least. + Much, more, most. + Far, farther, farthest. + +Adverbs ending in _ly_ are generally compared by prefixing _more_ and +_most_. Compare the following. + +Firmly, gracefully, actively, easily. + ++To the Teacher+.--Let the pupils select and parse all the adjectives and +adverbs in Lesson 27. For forms, see p. 189. Select other exercises, and +continue the work as long as it is profitable. See "Schemes" for review, p. +188. + +REVIEW QUESTIONS. + +How is a noun parsed? What modification have adjectives? What is +comparison? How many degrees of comparison are there? Define each. How are +adjectives regularly compared? Distinguish the uses of the comparative and +the superlative degree. Give the directions for using adjectives and +adverbs (Lesson 88). Illustrate. What adjectives cannot be compared? How +are adverbs compared? + + + + +LESSON 89. + +MODIFICATION OF VERBS. + +VOICE. + ++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_I picked the rose_. I will tell the same +thing in another way. _The rose was picked by me_. The first verb _picked_ +shows that the subject _I_ represents the actor, and the second form of the +verb, _was picked_, shows that the subject names the thing acted upon. This +change in the form of the verb is called +Voice+. The first form is called +the +Active Voice+; and the second, the +Passive Voice+. + +The _passive_ form is very convenient when we wish to assert an action +without naming any actor. _Money is coined_ is better than _somebody coins +money_. + +DEFINITIONS. + ++_Voice_ is that modification of the transitive verb which shows whether +the subject names the _actor_ or the _thing acted upon_+. + ++The _Active Voice_ shows that the subject names the actor+. + ++The _Passive Voice_ shows that the subject names the thing acted upon+. + +In each of the following sentences, change the _voice_ of the verb without +changing the meaning of the sentence. Note the other changes that occur in +the sentence. + + The industrious bees gather honey from the flowers. + The storm drove the vessel against the rock. + Our words should be carefully chosen. + Death separates the dearest friends. + His vices have weakened his mind and destroyed his health. + True valor protects the feeble and humbles the oppressor. + The Duke of Wellington, who commanded the English armies in the + Peninsula, never lost a battle. + Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt. + Dr. Livingstone explored a large part of Africa. + The English were conquered by the Normans. + +Name all the transitive verbs in Lessons 20 and 22, and give, their +_voice_. + + + + +LESSON 90. + +MODE, TENSE, NUMBER, AND PERSON. + ++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--When I say, _James walks_, I assert the +walking as a _fact_. When I say, _James may walk_, I do not assert the +action as a fact, but as a _possible_ action. When I say, _If James walk +out, he will improve_, I assert the action, not as an actual fact, but as a +_condition_ of James's, improving. When I say to James, _Walk out_, I do +not assert that James actually does the act, I assert the action as a +_command_. + +The action expressed by the verb _walk_ has been asserted in _four_ +different _ways_, or +modes+. The first way is called the +Indicative +Mode+; the second, the +Potential Mode+; the third, the +Subjunctive Mode+; +the fourth, the +Imperative Mode+. + +Let the teacher give other examples and require the pupils to repeat this +instruction. + +For the two forms of the verb called the +Infinitive+ and the +Participle+, +see "Hints," Lessons 48 and 49. + +_I walk. I walked. I shall walk_. In each of these three sentences, the +manner of asserting the action is the same. _I walk_ expresses the action +as _present_. _I walked_ expresses the action as _past_, and _I shall walk_ +expresses the action as _future_. As +Tense+ means _time_, the first form +is called the +Present Tense+; the second, the +Past Tense+; and the third, +the +Future Tense+. + +We have three other forms of the verb, expressing the action as _completed_ +in the _present_, the _past_, or the _future_. + +_I have walked out to-day. I had walked out when he called. I shall have +walked out by to-morrow_. The form, _have walked_, expressing the action as +_completed_ in the present, is called the +Present Perfect Tense+. The +form, _had walked_, expressing the action as _completed_ in the past, is +called the +Past Perfect Tense+. The form, _shall have walked_, expressing +an action to be _completed_ in the future, is called the +Future Perfect +Tense+. + +Let the teacher give other verbs, and require the pupils to name and +explain the different tenses. + +_I walk. Thou walkest. He walks. They walk_. + +In the second sentence, the verb _walk_ was changed by adding _est_; and in +the third, it was changed by adding _s_. These changes are for the sake of +agreement with the person of the subject. The verb ending in _est_ agrees +with the subject _thou_ in the second person, and the verb ending in _s_ +agrees with _he_ in the third person. In the fourth sentence, the subject +is in the third person; but it is plural, and so the verb drops the _s_ to +agree with they in the plural. + +Verbs are said to agree in +Person+ and +Number+ with their subjects. The +person and number _forms_ will be found in Lessons 93, 94. + ++DEFINITIONS+. + ++_Mode_ is that modification of the verb which denotes the manner of +asserting the action or being+. + ++The _Indicative Mode_ asserts the action or being as a fact+. + ++The _Potential Mode_ asserts the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity +of acting or being+. + ++The _Subjunctive Mode_ asserts the action or being as a mere condition, +supposition, or wish+. + ++The _Imperative Mode_ asserts the action or being as a command or an +entreaty+. + + ++The _Infinitive_ is a form of the verb which names the action or being in +a general way, without asserting it of anything+. + ++The _Participle_ is a form of the verb partaking of the nature of an +adjective or of a noun, and expressing the action or being as assumed+. + ++The _Present Participle_ denotes action or being as continuing at the time +indicated by the predicate+. + ++The _Past Participle_ denotes action or being as past or completed at the +time indicated by the predicate+. + ++The _Past Perfect Participle_ denotes action or being as completed at a +time previous to that indicated by the predicate+. + + ++_Tense_ is that modification of the verb which expresses the time of the +action or being+. + ++The _Present Tense_ expresses action or being as present+. + ++The _Past Tense_ expresses action or being as past+. + ++The _Future Tense_ expresses action or being as yet to come+. + ++The _Present Perfect Tense_ expresses action or being as completed at the +present time+. + ++The _Past Perfect Tense_ expresses action or being as completed at some +past time+. + ++The _Future Perfect Tense_ expresses action or being to be completed at +some future time+. + + ++_Number_ and _Person_ of a verb are those modifications that show its +agreement with the number and person of its subject+. + + + + +LESSON 91. + +CONJUGATION OF THE VERB. + ++DEFINITIONS+. + ++_Conjugation_ is the regular arrangement of all the forms of the verb+. + ++_Synopsis_ is the regular arrangement of the forms of one number and +person in all the modes and tenses+. + ++_Auxiliary Verbs_ are those that help in the conjugation of other verbs+. + +The auxiliaries are _do_, _be_, _have_, _shall_, _will_, _may_, _can_, and +_must_. + ++The _Principal Parts_ of a verb are the present indicative or the present +infinitive, the past indicative, and the past participle+. + +These are called _principal parts_, because all the other forms of the verb +are derived from them. + +We give, below, the _principal parts_ of some of the most important +_irregular verbs_. Learn them. + +_Present_. _Past_. _Past. Par._ +Be _or_ am, was, been. +Begin, began, begun. +Blow, blew, blown. +Break, broke, broken. +Choose, chose, chosen. +Come, came, come. +Do, did, done. +Draw, drew, drawn. +Drink, drank, drunk. +Drive, drove, driven. +Eat, ate, eaten. +Fall, fell, fallen. +Fly, flew, flown. +Freeze, froze, frozen. +Go, went, gone. +Get, got, got _or_ gotten. +Give, gave, given. +Grow, grew, grown. +Have, had, had. +Know, knew, known. +Lay, laid, laid. +Lie, (to rest) lay, lain. +Ride, rode, ridden. +Ring, rang _or_ rung, rung. +Rise, rose, risen. +Run, ran, run. +See, saw, seen. +Set, set, set. +Sit, sat, sat. +Shake, shook, shaken. +Sing, sang _or_ sung, sung. +Slay, slew, slain. +Speak, spoke, spoken. +Steal, stole, stolen. +Swim, swam _or_ swum, swum. +Take, took, taken. +Tear, tore, torn. +Throw, threw, thrown. +Wear, wore, worn. +Write, wrote, written. + +The following irregular verbs are called +_Defective_,+ because some of +their parts are wanting. + + _Present_. _Past_. | _Present_. _Past_. + --------------------|--------------------- + Can, could. | Will, would. + May, might. | Must, ---- + Shall, should. | Ought, ---- + + + + +LESSON 92. + +CONJUGATION OF THE VERB +SEE+ IN THE SIMPLE FORM. + ++PRINCIPAL PARTS+. + +_Pres_. _Past_. _Past Par._ +See, saw, seen. + +INDICATIVE MODE. +PRESENT TENSE. + + _Singular_. _Plural_. +1. I see, 1. We see, +2. You see, _or_ 2. You see, + Thou seest, +3. He sees; 3. They see. + +PAST TENSE. + +1. I saw, 1. We saw, +2. You saw, _or_ 2. You saw, + Thou sawest, +3. He saw; 3. They saw. + +FUTURE TENSE. + +1. I shall see, 1. We shall see, +2. You will see, _or_ 2. You will see, + Thou wilt see, +3. He will see; 3. They will see. + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. + +1. I have seen, 1. We have seen, +2. You have seen, _or_ 2. You have seen, + Thou hast seen +3. He has seen; 3. They have seen. + +PAST PERFECT TENSE. + +1. I had seen, 1. We had seen, +2. You had seen, _or_ 2. You had seen, + Thou hadst seen, +3. He had seen; 3. They had seen. + +FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. + +1. I shall have seen, 1. We shall have seen, +2. You will have seen, _or_ 2. You will have seen, + Thou wilt have seen, +3. He will have seen; 3. They will have seen. + +POTENTIAL MODE. + +PRESENT TENSE. + + _Singular_. _Plural_. +1. I may see, 1. We may see, +2. You may see, _or_ 2. You may see, + Thou mayst see, +3. He may see; 3. They may see. + +PAST TENSE. + +1. I might see, 1. We might see, +2. You might see, _or_ + Thou mightst see, 2. You might see, +3. He might see; 3. They might see. + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. + +1. I may have seen, 1. We may have seen, +2. You may have seen, _or_ 2. You may have seen + Thou mayst have seen, +3. He may have seen; 3. They may have seen. + +PAST PERFECT TENSE. + + _Singular_. _Plural_. +1. I might have seen, 1. We might have seen, +2. You might have seen, _or_ 2. You might have seen, + Thou mightst have seen, +3. He might have seen; 3. They might have seen. + +SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. + +PRESENT TENSE. + + _Singular_. _Plural_. +1. If I see, 1. If we see, +2. If you see, _or_ 2. If you see, + If thou see, +3. If he see; 3. If they see. + +IMPERATIVE MODE. + +PRESENT TENSE. + +2. See (you _or_ thou); 2. See (you). + +INFINITIVES. + +PRESENT TENSE. + +To see. + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. + +To have seen. + +PARTICIPLES. + +PRESENT. PAST. PAST PERFECT. + +Seeing, Seen, Having seen. + ++To the Teacher+.--Let the pupils prefix _do_ and _did_ to the simple +present _see_, and thus make the _emphatic form_ of the present and the +past tense. + +Let _can_ and _must_ be used in place of _may_; and _could_, _would_, and +_should_, in place of _might_. + +Require the pupils to tell how each tense is formed, and to note all +changes for agreement in number and person. + +A majority of modern writers use the _indicative_ forms instead of the +_subjunctive_, in all of the tenses, unless it may be the _present_. The +_subjunctive_ forms of the verb _to be_ are retained in the present and the +past tense. Let the pupils understand that the mode and tense forms do not +always correspond with the actual meaning. _The ship sails next week. I may +go to-morrow_. The verbs _sails_ and _may go_ are _present_ in form but +_future_ in meaning. _If it rains by noon, he may not come_. The verb +_rains_ is _indicative_ in form but _subjunctive_ in meaning. + +The plural forms, _You saw, You were_, etc., are used in the _singular_ +also. + + + + +LESSON 93. + +CONJUGATION OF THE VERB--SIMPLE FORM. + +Fill out the following forms, using the principal parts of the verb _walk. +Pres., walk; Past, walked; Past Par., walked_. + +INDICATIVE MODE. + +PRESENT TENSE. + +_Singular_. _Plural_. +1. I / _Pres_ /, 1. We / _Pres_ /, +2. You / _Pres_ /, 2. You / _Pres_ /, + Thou / _Pres_ /est, +3. He / _Pres_ /s; 3. They / _Pres_ /. + +PAST TENSE + +1. I / _Past_ /, 1. We / _Past_ /, +2. You / _Past_ /, 2. You / _Past_ /, + Thou / _Past_ /st, +3. He / _Past_ /; 3. They / _Past_ /. + +FUTURE TENSE. + +1. I _shall_ / _Pres_ /, 1. We _will_ / _Pres_ /, +2. You _will_ / _Pres_ /, 2. You _will_ / _Pres_ /, + Thou _wil-t_ / _Pres_ /, +3. He _will_ / _Pres_ /; 3. They _will_ / _Pres_ /. + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. + +1. I _have_ /_Past Par._/, 1. We _have_ /_Past Par._/, +2. You _have_ /_Past Par._/, 2. You _have_ /_Past Par._/, + Thou _ha-st_ /_Past Par._/, +3. He _ha-s_ /_Past Par._/; 3. They _have_ /_Past Par._/. + +PAST PERFECT TENSE. + +1. I _had_ /_Past Par._/, 1. We _had_ /_Past Par._/, +2. You _had_ /_Past Par._/, 2. You _had_ /_Past Par._/, + Thou _had-st_ /_Past Par._/, +3. He _had_ /_Past Par._/; 3. They _had_ /_Past Par._/. + +FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. + +1. I _shall have_ /_Past Par._/, 1. We _will have_ _Past Par._, +2. You _will have_ /_Past Par._/, 2. You _will have_ _Past Par._, + Thou _wil-t have_ /_Past Par._/, +3. He _will have_ /_Past Par._/; 3. They _will have_ _Past Par._. + +POTENTIAL MODE. + +PRESENT TENSE. + +1. I _may_ / _Pres._ /, 1. We _may_ / _Pres._ /, +2. You _may_ / _Pres._ /, 2. You _may_ / _Pres._ /, + Thou _may-st_ / _Pres._ /, +3. He _may_ / _Pres._ /; 3. They _may_ / _Pres._ /. + +PAST TENSE. + +1. I _might_ / _Pres._ /, 1. We _might_ / _Pres._ /, +2. You _might_ / _Pres._ /, 2. You _might_ / _Pres._ /, + Thou _might-st_ / _Pres._ /, +3. He _might_ / _Pres._ /; 3. They _might_ / _Pres._ /. + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. + +1. I _may have_ /_Past Par._/, 1. We _may have_ /_Past Par._/, +2. You _may have_ /_Past Par._/, 2. You _may have_ /_Past Par._/, + Thou _may-st have_ /_Past Par._/, +3. He _may have_ /_Past Par._/; 3. They _may have_ /_Past Par._/. + +PAST PERFECT TENSE. + +1. I _might have_ /_Past Par._/, 1. We _might have_ /_Past Par._/, +2. You _might have_ /_Past Par._/, 2. You _might have_ /_Past Par._/, + Thou _might-st have_ /_Past Par._/, +3. He _might have_ /_Past Par._/; 3. They _might have_ /_Past Par._/. + +SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. + +PRESENT TENSE. + +_Singular_. _Plural_. +1. If I / _Pres._ /, 1. If we / _Pres._ /, +2. If you / _Pres._ /, 2. If you / _Pres._ /, + If thou / _Pres._ /, +3. If he / _Pres._ /; 3. If they / _Pres._ /. + +IMPERATIVE MODE. + +PRESENT TENSE. + +2. / _Pres._ / (you _or_ thou); 2. / _Pres._ / (you). + +INFINITIVES. + +PRESENT TENSE. + +To / _Pres._ /. + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. + +To _have_ /_Past Par._/. + +PARTICIPLES. + +PRESENT. PAST. PAST PERFECT. +/_Pres./ing_. /_Past Par._/ _Having /Past Par./_ + ++To the Teacher+.--Let the pupils fill out these forms with other verbs. In +the indicative, present, third, singular, _es_ is sometimes added instead +of _s_; and in the second person, old style, _st_ is sometimes added +instead of _est_. + + + + +LESSON 94. + +CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE. + +In studying this Lesson, pay no attention to the line at the right of each +verb. + +INDICATIVE MODE. + +PRESENT TENSE. + + _Singular_. _Plural_. +1. I am ----, 1. We are ----, +2. You are ---- _or_ 2. You are ----, + Thou art ----, +3. He is ----; 3. They are ----. + +PAST TENSE. + +1. I was ----, 1. We were ----, +2. You were ----, _or_ 2. You were ----, + Thou wast ----, +3. He was ----; 3. They were ----. + +FUTURE TENSE. + +1. I shall be ----, 1. We shall be ----, +2. You will be ----, _or_ 2. You will be ----, + Thou wilt be ----, +3. He will be ----; 3. They will be ----. + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. + +1. I have been ----, 1. We have been ----, +2. You have been ---- _or_ 2. You have been ----, + Thou hast been ----, +3. He has been ----; 3. They have been ----. + +PAST PERFECT TENSE. + +1. I had been ----, 1. We had been ----, +2. You had been ---- _or_ 2. You had been ----, + Thou hadst been ----, +3. He had been ----; 3. They had been ----. + +FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. + +1. I shall have been ----, 1. We shall have been ----, +2. You will have been ---- _or_ 2. You will have been ----, + Thou wilt have been ----, +3. He will has been ----; 3. They will have been ----. + +POTENTIAL MODE. + +PRESENT TENSE. + + _Singular_. _Plural_. +1. I may be ----, 1. We may be ----, +2. You may be ---- _or_ 2. You may be ----, + Thou mayst be ----, +3. He may be ----; 3. They may be ----. + +PAST TENSE. + +1. I might be ----, 1. We might be ----, +2. You might be ---- _or_ 2. You might be ----, + Thou mightst be ----, +3. He might be ----; 3. They might be ----. + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. + +1. I may have been ----, 1. We may have been ----, +2. You may have been ---- _or_ 2. You may have been ----, + Thou mayst have been ----, +3. He may have been ----; 3. They may have been ----. + +PAST PERFECT TENSE. + +1. I might have been ----, 1. We might have been ----, +2. You might have been ---- _or_ 2. You might have been ----, + Thou mightst have been ----, +3. He might have been ----; 3. They might have been ----. + +SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. + +PRESENT TENSE. + + _Singular_. _Plural_. +1. If I be ----, 1. If we be ----, +2. If you be ---- _or _ 2. If you be ----, + If thou be ----, +3. If he be ----; 3. If they be ----. + +PAST TENSE. + +1. If I were ----, 1. If we were ----, +2. If you were ---- _or_ 2. If you were ----, + If thou wert ----, +3. If he were ----; 3. If they were ----. + +IMPERATIVE MODE. + +PRESENT TENSE. + +2. Be (you _or_ them) ----; 2. Be (you)------. + +INFINITIVES. + +PRESENT TENSE. +To be ----. + +PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. + +To have been ----. + +PARTICIPLES. + +PRESENT. PAST. PAST PERFECT. +Being ----. Been. Having been ----. + ++To the Teacher+.--After the pupils have become thoroughly familiar with +the verb _be_ as a principal verb, teach them to use it as an auxiliary in +making the +Progressive Form+ and the +Passive Form+. + +The _progressive form_ may be made by filling all the blanks with the +_present participle_ of some verb. + +The _passive form_ may be made by filling all the blanks with the _past +participle_ of a _transitive_ verb. + +Notice that, after the past participle, no blank is left. + +In the progressive form, this participle is wanting; and, in the passive +form, it is the same as in the simple. + + + + +LESSON 95. + +AGREEMENT OF THE VERB. + ++To the Teacher+.--For additional matter, see pp. 163-167. + ++_Remember_+ that the verb must agree with its subject in number and +person. + +Give the person and number of each of the following verbs, and write +sentences in which each form shall be used correctly. + +_Common forms_.--Does, has=ha(ve)s, is, am, are, was, were. + +_Old forms_.--Seest, sawest, hast=ha(ve)st, wilt, mayst, mightst, art, +wast. + +When a verb has two or more subjects connected by _and_, it must agree with +them in the plural. _A similar rule applies to the agreement of the +pronoun_. + +CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. + ++Model+.--Poverty and obscurity _oppresses_ him who thinks that _it is +oppressive_. + +Wrong: the verb _oppresses_ should be changed to _oppress_ to agree with +its two subjects, connected by _and_. The pronoun _it_ should be changed to +_they_ to agree with its two antecedents, and the verb _is_ should be +changed to _are_ to agree with _they_. + + Industry, energy, and good sense is essential to success. + Time and tide waits for no man. + The tall sunflower and the little violet is turning its face to the sun. + The mule and the horse was harnessed together. + Every green leaf and every blade of grass seem grateful. + ++Model+.--The preceding sentence is wrong. The verb _seem_ is plural, and +it should be singular; for, when several singular subjects are preceded by +_each_, every_, or _no_, they are taken separately. + + Each day and each hour bring their portion of duty. + Every book and every paper were found in their place. + +When a verb has two or more singular subjects connected by _or_ or _nor_, +it must agree with them in the singular. _A similar rule applies to the +agreement of the pronoun_. + +CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. + + One or the other have made a mistake in their statement. + Neither the aster nor the dahlia are cultivated for their fragrance. + Either the president or his secretary were responsible. + Neither Ann, Jane, nor Sarah are at home. + +To foretell, or to express future time simply, the auxiliary _shall_ is +used in the first person, and _will_ in the second and third; but when a +speaker determines or promises, he uses _will_ in the first person and +_shall_ in the second and third. + +CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. + + I will freeze, if I do not move about. + You shall feel better soon, I think. + She shall be fifteen years old to-morrow. + I shall find it for you, if you shall bring the book to me. + You will have it, if I can get it for you. + He will have it, if he shall take the trouble to ask for it. + He will not do it, if I can prevent him. + I will drown, nobody shall help me. + I will be obliged to you, if you shall attend to it. + We will have gone by to-morrow morning. + You shall disappoint your father, if you do not return. + I do not think I will like the change. + Next Tuesday shall be your birthday. + You shall be late, if you do not hurry. + + + + +LESSON 96. + +ERRORS IN THE FORM OF THE VERB. + +CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. + ++Model+.--Those things _have_ not _came to-day_. + +Wrong, because the past _came_ is here used for the past participle _come_. +The present perfect tense is formed by prefixing _have_ to the _past +participle_. + + I done all my work before breakfast. + I come in a little late yesterday. + He has went to my desk without permission. + That stupid fellow set down on my new hat. + +_Set_ is generally transitive, and _sit_ is intransitive. _Lay_ is +transitive, and _lie_ is intransitive. + + He sat the chair in the corner. + Sit that plate on the table, and let it set. + I have set in this position a long time. + That child will not lay still or set still a minute. + I laid down under the tree, and enjoyed the scenery. + Lie that stick on the table, and let it lay. + Those boys were drove out of the fort three times. + I have rode through the park. + I done what I could. + He has not spoke to-day. + The leaves have fell from the trees. + This sentence is wrote badly. + He throwed his pen down, and said that the point was broke. + He teached me grammar. + I seen him when he done it. + My hat was took off my head, and throwed out of the window. + The bird has flew into that tall tree. + I was chose leader. + I have began to do better. I begun this morning. + My breakfast was ate in a hurry. + Your dress sets well. + That foolish old hen is setting on a wooden egg. + He has tore it up and throwed it away. + William has took my knife, and I am afraid he has stole it. + This should be well shook. + I begun to sing, before I knowed what I was doing. + We drunk from a pure spring. + I thought you had forsook us. + His pencil is nearly wore up. + He come, and tell me all he knowed about it. + + + + +LESSON 97. + +REVIEW QUESTIONS. + ++To the Teacher+.--See "Scheme," p. 187. + +How many modifications have verbs? Ans.--_Five; viz., voice, mode, tense, +number, and person_. Define voice. How many voices are there? Define each. +Illustrate. What is mode? How many modes are there? Define each. What is an +infinitive? What is a participle? How many different kinds of participles +are there? Define each. Illustrate. What is tense? How many tenses are +there? Define each. Illustrate. What are the number and the person of a +verb? Illustrate. What is conjugation? What is synopsis? What are +auxiliaries? Name the auxiliaries. What are the principal parts of a verb? +Why are they so called? How does a verb agree with its subject? When a verb +has two or more subjects, how does it agree? Illustrate the uses of _shall_ +and _will_. + ++To the Teacher+.--Select some of the preceding exercises, and require the +pupils to write the parsing of all the verbs. See Lessons 34, 35, 48, 49, +and 56. + ++Model for Written Parsing--Verbs+.--_The Yankee, selling his farm, wanders +away to seek new lands_. + +CLASSIFICATION. MODIFICATIONS. SYNTAX. + +_Verbs_. _Kind_. _Voice_. _Mode_. _Tense_. _Num_. _Per_. + +*selling Pr. Par., Ir., Tr. Ac. --- --- --- --- Mod. of _Yankee_. +wanders Reg., Int. --- Ind. Pres. Sing. 3d. Pred. of " +*seek Inf, Ir., Tt, Ac. --- " --- --- Prin. word in phrase + Mod. of _wanders_. + +[Footnote *: Participles and Infinitives have no _person_ or _number_.] + + + + +LESSON 98. + +SENTENCE-BUILDING. + +Participles sometimes partake of the nature of the noun, while they retain +the nature of the verb. + +Build each of the following phrases into a sentence, and explain the nature +of the participle. + ++Model+.-- ----_in building a snow fort_. They were engaged _in building a +snow fort_. The participle _building_, like a noun, follows the preposition +_in_, as the principal word in the phrase; and, like a verb, it takes the +object complement _fort_. + + ---- by foretelling storms. ---- by helping others. ---- on approaching + the house. ----- in catching fish. + +Use the following phrases as subjects. + + Walking in the garden ----. His writing that letter ----. Breaking a + promise ----. + +Use each of the following phrases in a complex sentence. Let some of the +dependent clauses be used as adjectives, and some, as adverbs. + + ---- in sledges. ---- up the Hudson. ---- down the Rhine. ---- through + the Alps. ---- with snow and ice. ---- into New York Bay. ---- on the + prairie. ---- at Saratoga. + +Build a short sentence containing all the parts of speech. + +Expand the following simple sentence into twelve sentences. + + Astronomy teaches the size, form, nature, and motions of the sun, moon, + and stars. + +Contract the following awkward compound sentence into a neat simple +sentence, + + Hannibal passed through Gaul, and then he crossed the Alps, and then came + down into Italy, and then he defeated several Roman generals. + +Change the following complex sentences to compound sentences. + + When he asked me the question, I answered him courteously. + Morse, the man who invented the telegraph, was a public benefactor. + When spring comes, the birds will return. + +Contract the following complex sentences into simple sentences by changing +the verb in the dependent clause to a participle. Notice all the other +changes. + + A ship which was gliding along the horizon attracted our attention. + I saw a man who was plowing a field. + When the shower had passed, we went on our way. + I heard that he wrote that article. + That he was a foreigner was well known. + I am not sure that he did it. + Every pupil who has an interest in this work will prepare for it. + +Change the following compound sentences to complex sentences. + ++Model+.--Morning dawns, and the clouds disperse. When morning dawns, the +clouds disperse. + + Avoid swearing; it is a wicked habit. + Pearls are valuable, and they are found in oyster shells. + Dickens wrote David Copperfield, and he died in 1870. + Some animals are vertebrates, and they have a backbone. + +Expand each of the following sentences as much as you can. + + Indians dance. The clock struck. The world moves. + + + + +LESSON 99. + +MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS. + +CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. + +I have got that book at home. + ++Model+.--Wrong, because _have_, alone, asserts possession. _Got_, used in +the sense of _obtained_, is correct; as, _I have just got the book_. + + Have you got time to help me? + There is many mistakes in my composition. + ++Model+.--Wrong, because _is_ should agree with its plural subject +_mistakes_. The adverb _there_ is often used to introduce a sentence, that +the subject may follow the predicate. This often makes the sentence sound +smooth, and gives variety. + + There goes my mother and sister. + Here comes the soldiers. + There was many friends to greet him. + It ain't there. + ++Model+.--_Ain't_ is a vulgar contraction. Correction--It _is not_ there. + + I have made up my mind that it ain't no use. + 'Tain't so bad as you think. + Two years' interest were due. + Every one of his acts were criticised. + I, Henry, and you have been chosen. + ++Model+.--Wrong, for politeness requires that you should mention the one +spoken to, first; the one spoken of, next; and yourself, last. + + He invited you and I and Mary. + Me and Jane are going to the fair. + I only want a little piece. + He is a handsome, tall man. + Did you sleep good? + How much trouble one has, don't they? + He inquired for some tinted ladies' note-paper. + You needn't ask me nothing about it, for I haven't got no time to answer. + Him that is diligent will succeed. + He found the place sooner than me. + Who was that? It was me and him. + If I was her, I would say less. + Bring me them tongs. + Us boys have a base-ball club. + Whom did you say that it was? + Who did you speak to just now? + Who did you mean, when you said that? + Where was you when I called? + There's twenty of us going. + Circumstances alters cases. + Tell them to set still. + He laid down by the fire. + She has lain her book aside. + It takes him everlastingly. + That was an elegant old rock. + + + + +LESSON 100. + +ANALYSIS AND PARSING. + +1. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain. +2. Strike! till the last armed foe expires! +3. You wrong me, Brutus. +4. Shall we gather strength by irresolution and inaction? +5. Why stand we here idle? +6. Give me liberty, or give me death! +7. Thy mercy, O Lord, is in the heavens, and thy faithfulness reacheth unto + the clouds. +8. The clouds poured out water, the skies sent out a sound, the voice of + thy thunder was in the heaven. +9. The heavens declare his righteousness, and all the people see his glory. +10. The verdant lawn, the shady grove, the variegated landscape, the + boundless ocean, and the starry firmament are beautiful and magnificent + objects. +11. When you grind your corn, give not the flour to the devil and the bran + to God. +12. That which the fool does in the end, the wise man does at the + beginning. +13. Xerxes commanded the largest army that was ever brought into the field. +14. Without oxygen, fires would cease to burn, and all animals would + immediately die. +15. Liquids, when acted upon by gravity, press downward, upward, and + sideways. +16. Matter exists in three states--the solid state, the liquid state, and + the gaseous state. +17. The blending of the seven prismatic colors produces white light. +18. Soap-bubbles, when they are exposed to light, exhibit colored rings. +19. He who yields to temptation debases himself with a debasement from + which he can never arise. +20. Young eyes that last year smiled in ours + Now point the rifle's barrel; + And hands then stained with fruits and flowers + Bear redder stains of quarrel. + +CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION. + ++Capital Letters+.--The first word of (1) a sentence, (2) a line of poetry, +(3) a direct quotation making complete sense or a direct question +introduced into a sentence, and (4) phrases or clauses separately numbered +or paragraphed should begin with a capital letter. Begin with a capital +letter (5) proper names and words derived from them, (6) names of things +personified, and (7) most abbreviations. Write in capital letters (8) the +words _I_ and _O_, and (9) numbers in the Roman notation. [Footnote: Small +letters are preferred where numerous references to chapters, etc., are +made.] + ++Examples+.--1. The judicious are always a minority. + +2. Honor and shame from no condition rise; + Act well your part, there all the honor lies. +3. The question is, "Can law make people honest?" +4. Paintings are useful for these reasons: 1. They please; 2. They + instruct. +5. The heroic Nelson destroyed the French fleet in Aboukir Bay. +6. Next, Anger rushed, his eyes on fire. +7. The Atlantic ocean beat Mrs. Partington. +8. The use of _O_ and _oh_ I am now to explain. +9. Napoleon II. never came to the throne. + ++Period+.--Place a period after (1) a declarative or an imperative +sentence, (2) an abbreviation, and (3) a number written in the Roman +notation. + +For examples see 1, 7, and 9 in the sentences above. + ++Interrogation Point+.--Every direct interrogative sentence or clause +should be followed by an interrogation point. + ++Example+.--King Agrippa, believest thou the prophets? + ++Exclamation Point+.--All exclamatory expressions must be followed by the +exclamation point. + ++Example+.--Oh! bloodiest picture in the book of time! +_Comma_+.--Set off +by the comma (1) a phrase out of its natural order or not closely connected +with the word it modifies; (2) an explanatory modifier that does not +restrict the modified term or combine closely with it; (3) a participle +used as an adjective modifier, with the words belonging to it, unless +restrictive; (4) the adjective clause, when not restrictive; (5) the adverb +clause, unless it closely follows and restricts the word it modifies; (6) a +word or phrase independent or nearly so; (7) a direct quotation introduced +into a sentence, unless _formally_ introduced; (8) a noun clause used as an +attribute complement; and (9) a term connected to another by or and having +the same meaning. Separate by the comma (10) connected words and phrases, +unless all the conjunctions are expressed; (11) independent clauses, when +short and closely connected; and (12) the parts of a compound predicate and +of other phrases, when long or differently modified. + ++_Examples_+.--l. In the distance, icebergs look like masses of burnished +metal. 2. Alexandria, the capital of Lower Egypt, is an ill-looking city. +3. Labor, diving deep into the earth, brings up long-hidden stores of coal. +4. The sun, which is the center of our system, is millions of miles from +us. 5. When beggars die, there are no comets seen. 6. Gentlemen, this, +then, is your verdict. 7. God said, "Let there be light." 8. Nelson's +signal was, "England expects every man to do his duty." 9. Rubbers, or +overshoes, are worn to keep the feet dry. 10. The sable, the seal, and the +otter furnish us rich furs. 11. His dark eye flashed, his proud breast +heaved, his cheek's hue came and went. 12. Flights of birds darken the air, +and tempt the traveler with the promise of abundant provisions. + ++_Semicolon_+.--Independent clauses (1) when slightly connected, or (2) +when themselves divided by the comma, must be separated by the semicolon. +Use the semicolon (3) between serial phrases or clauses having a common +dependence on something that precedes or follows; and (4) before _as, viz., +to wit., namely, i. e._, and _that is_, when they introduce examples or +illustrations. + ++_Examples_+.--1. The furnace blazes; the anvil rings; the busy wheels +whirl round. 2. As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I +rejoice at it; as he was valiant, I honor him; but, as he was ambitious, I +slew him. 3. He drew a picture of the sufferings of our Saviour; his trial +before Pilate; his ascent of Calvary; his crucifixion and death. 4. Gibbon +writes, "I have been sorely afflicted with gout in the hand; to wit, +laziness." + ++_Colon_+.--Use the colon (1) between the parts of a sentence when these +parts are themselves divided by the semicolon; and (2) before a quotation +or an enumeration of particulars when formally introduced. + ++_Examples_+.--l. Canning's features were handsome; his eye, though deeply +ensconced under his eyebrows, was full of sparkle and gayety: the features +of Brougham were harsh in the extreme. 2. To Lentullus and Gellius bear +this message: "Their graves are measured." + ++_Dash_+.--Use the dash where there is an omission (1) of letters or +figures, and (2) of such words as _as_, _namely_, or _that is_, introducing +illustrations or equivalent expressions. Use the dash (3) where the +sentence breaks off abruptly, and the same thought is resumed after a +slight suspension, or another takes its place; and (4) before a word or +phrase repeated at intervals for emphasis. The dash may be used (5) instead +of marks of parenthesis, and may (6) follow other marks, adding to their +force. + ++_Examples_+.--1. In M------w, v. 3-11, you may find the "beatitudes." 2. +There are two things certain in this world--taxes and death. 3. I said--I +know not what. 4. I never would lay down my arms--_never_-- NEVER--+NEVER+. +5. Fulton started a steamboat----he called it the Clermont--on the Hudson +in 1807. 6. My dear Sir,--I write this letter for information. + ++_Marks of Parenthesis_+.--Marks of parenthesis may be used to enclose what +has no essential connection with the rest of the sentence. + ++Example+.--The noun (Lat. _nomen_, a name) is the first part of speech. + ++_Apostrophe_+.--Use the apostrophe (1) to mark the omission of letters, +(2) in the pluralizing of letters, figures, and characters, and (3) to +distinguish the possessive from other cases. + ++_Examples_+.--1. Bo't of John Jones 10 lbs. of butter. 2. What word is +there one-half of which is _p's_? 3. He washed the disciples' feet. + ++_Hyphen_+.--Use the hyphen (-) (1) between the parts of compound words +that have not become consolidated, and (2) between syllables when a word is +divided. + ++_Examples_+.--1. Work-baskets are convenient. 2. Divide _basket_ thus: +_bas-ket_. + ++_Quotation Marks_+--Use quotation marks to enclose a copied word or +passage. If the quotation contains a quotation, the latter is enclosed +within single marks. + ++_Example_+---The sermon closed with this sentence: "God said, 'Let there +be light.'" + ++_Brackets_+.--Use brackets [ ] to enclose what, in quoting another's +words, you insert by way of explanation or correction. + ++_Example_+.--The Psalmist says, "I prevented [anticipated] the dawning of +the morning." + +SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPHS. + ++_To the Teacher_+.--It is very profitable to exercise pupils in combining +simple statements into complex and compound sentences, and in resolving +complex and compound sentences into simple statements. In combining +statements, it is an excellent practice for the pupil to contract, expand, +transpose, and to substitute different words. They thus learn to express +the same thought in a variety of ways. Any reading-book or history will +furnish good material for such practice. A few examples are given below. + ++_Direction_+.--Combine in as many ways as possible each of the following +groups of sentences:-- + ++_Example_+.--This man is to be pitied. He has no friends. + +1. This man has no friends, and he is to be pitied. +2. This man is to be pitied, because he has no friends. +3. Because this man has no friends, he is to be pitied. +4. This man, who has no friends, is to be pitied. +5. This man, having no friends, is to be pitied. +6. This man, without friends, is to be pitied. +7. This friendless man deserves our pity. + +1. The ostrich is unable to fly. It has not wings in proportion to its + body. +2. Egypt is a fertile country. It is annually inundated by the Nile. +3. The nerves are little threads, or fibers. They extend, from the brain. + They spread over the whole body. +4. John Gutenberg published a book. It was the first book known to have + been printed on a printing-press. He was aided by the patronage of John + Paust. He published it in 1455. He published it in the city of Mentz. +5. The human body is a machine. A watch is delicately constructed. This + machine is more delicately constructed. A steam-engine is complicated. + This machine is more complicated. A steam-engine is wonderful. This + machine is more wonderful. + +You see that short statements closely related in meaning may be improved by +being combined. But young writers frequently use too many _ands_ and other +connectives, and make their sentences too long. + +Long sentences should be broken up into short ones when the relations of +the parts are not clear. + +As clauses may be joined to form sentences, so sentences may be united to +make _paragraphs_. + +A +_paragraph_+ is a sentence or a group of related sentences developing +one point or one division of a general subject. + +The first word of a paragraph should begin a new line, and should be +written a little farther to the right than the first words of other lines. + ++_Direction_+.--Combine the following statements into sentences and +paragraphs, and make of them a complete composition:-- + +Water is a liquid. It is composed of oxygen and hydrogen. It covers about +three-fourths of the surface of the earth. It takes the form of ice. It +takes the form of snow. It takes the form of vapor. The air is constantly +taking up water from rivers, lakes, oceans, and from damp ground. Cool air +contains moisture. Heated air contains more moisture. Heated air becomes +lighter. It rises. It becomes cool. The moisture is condensed into fine +particles. Clouds are formed. They float across the sky. The little +particles unite and form rain-drops. They sprinkle the dry fields. At night +the grass and flowers become cool. The air is not so cool. The warm air +touches the grass and flowers. It is chilled. It loses a part of its +moisture. Drops of dew are formed. Water has many uses. Men and animals +drink it. Trees and plants drink it. They drink it by means of their leaves +and roots. Water is a great purifier. It cleanses our bodies. It washes our +clothes. It washes the dust from the leaves and the flowers. Water is a +great worker. It floats vessels. It turns the wheels of mills. It is +converted into steam. It is harnessed to mighty engines. It does the work +of thousands of men and horses. + ++_To the Teacher_+.--Condensed statements of facts, taken from some book +not in the hands of your pupils, may be read to them, and they may be +required to expand and combine these and group them into paragraphs. + +LETTER-WRITING. + +In writing a letter there are six things to consider--the _Heading_, the +_Introduction_, the _Body of the Letter_, the _Conclusion_, the _Folding_, +and the _Superscription_. + +THE HEADING. + ++_Parts_+.--The Heading consists of the name of the +_Place_+ at which the +letter is written, and the +_Date_+. If you write from a city, give the +door-number, the name of the street, the name of the city, and the name of +the state. If you are at a hotel or a school, or any other well-known +institution, its name may take the place of the door-number and the name of +the street. If you write from a village or other country place, give your +post-office address, the name of the county, and that of the state. + +The Date consists of the month, the day of the month, and the year. + ++_How Written_+.--Begin the Heading about an inch and a half from the top +of the page--on the first ruled line of commercial note--and a little to +the left of the middle of the page. If the Heading is very short, it may +stand on one line. If it occupies more than one line, the second line +should begin farther to the right than the first, and the third farther to +the right than the second. + +The Date stands upon a line by itself if the Heading occupies two or more +lines. + +The door-number, the day of month, and the year are written in figures, the +rest in words. Each important word begins with a capital letter, each item +is set off by the comma, and the whole closes with a period. + +_Direction_.--Study what has been said, and write the following headings +according to these models:--- + +1. Hull, Mass., Nov. 1, 1860. +2. 1466 Colorado Ave., + Rochester, N. Y., + Apr. 3, 1870. +3. Newburyport, Mass., + June 30, 1826. +4. Starkville, Herkimer Co., N. Y., + Dec. 19, 1871. + +1. n y rondout 11 1849 oct. 2. staten island port richmond 1877 25 january. +3. brooklyn march 1871 mansion house 29. 4. executive chamber vt february +montpelier 1869 27. 5. washington franklin como nov 16 1874. 6. fifth ave +may new york 460 9 1863. 7. washington d c march 1847 520 pennsylvania ave +16. + +THE INTRODUCTION. + +_+Parts+_.--The Introduction consists of the _+Address+_--the Name, the +Title, and the Place of Business or the Residence of the one addressed--and +the _+Salutation+_. Titles of respect and courtesy should appear in the +Address. Prefix _Mr._ (plural, _Messrs_.) to a man's name; _Master_ to a +boy's name; _Miss_ to the name of a girl or an unmarried lady; _Mrs._ to +the name of a married lady. Prefix _Dr_. to the name of a physician, or +write _M.D._ after his name. Prefix _Rev_. (or _The Rev_.) to the name of a +clergyman; if he is a Doctor of Divinity, prefix _Rev. Dr_., or write +_Rev_. before his name and _D.D._ after it; if you do not know his +Christian name, prefix _Rev. Mr._ or _Rev. Dr._ to his surname, but never +_Rev_. alone. _Esq._ is added to the name of a lawyer, and to the names of +other prominent men. Avoid such combinations as the following: _Mr. John +Smith, Esq., Dr. John Smith, M.D., Mr. John Smith, M.D._, etc. + +Salutations vary with the station of the one addressed, or the writer's +degree of intimacy with him. Strangers may be addressed as _Sir, Rev. Sir, +General, Madam, Miss Brown_, etc.; acquaintances as _Dear Sir, Dear Madam_, +etc.; friends as _My dear Sir, My dear Madam, My dear Mr. Brown_, etc.; and +near relatives and other dear friends as _My dear Wife, My dear Boy, +Dearest Ellen_, etc. + +_+How Written+_.--The Address may follow the Heading, beginning on the next +line, or the next but one, and standing on the left side of the page; or it +may stand in corresponding position after the Body of the Letter and the +Conclusion. If the letter is written to a very intimate friend, the Address +may appropriately be placed at the bottom of the letter; but in other +letters, especially those on ordinary business, it should be placed at the +top and as directed above. There should always be a narrow margin on the +left-hand side of the page, and the Address should always begin on the +marginal line. If the Address occupies more than one line, the initial +words of these lines should slope to the right, as in the Heading. + +Begin the Salutation on the marginal line or a little to the right of it, +when the Address occupies three lines; on the marginal line or farther to +the right than the second line of the Address begins, when this occupies +two lines; a little to the right of the marginal lime, when the Address +occupies one line; on the marginal line, when the Address stands below. + +Every important word in the Address should begin with a capital letter. All +the items of it should be set off by the comma, and, as it is an +abbreviated sentence, it should close with a period. Every important word +in the Salutation should begin with a capital letter, and the whole should +be followed by a comma. + +_+Direction+_.--Study what has been said, and write the following +introductions according to these models:-- + +1. Dear Father, + I write, etc. + +2. The Rev. M. H. Buckham, D.D., + President of U. V. M., + Burlington, Vt. + My dear Sir, + +3. Messrs. Clark & Brown, + Quogue, N. Y. + Gentlemen, + +4. Messrs. Tiffany & Co., + 2 Milk St., Boston. + Dear Sirs, + +1. david h cochran lld president of polytechnic institute brooklyn my dear +sir. 2. dr John h hobart burge 64 livingston st brooklyn n y sir. 3. prof +geo n boardman Chicago ill dear teacher. 4. to the president executive +mansion Washington d c mr president. 5. rev t k beecher elmira n y sir. 6. +messrs gilbert & sons gentlemen mass boston. 7. mr george r curtis minn +rochester my friend dear. 8. to the honorable wm m evarts secretary of +state Washington d c sir. + +THE BODY OF THE LETTER. + ++_The Beginning_+.--Begin the Body of the Letter at the end of the +Salutation, and on the _same_ line, if the Introduction consists of four +lines--in which case the comma after the Salutation should be followed by a +dash;--otherwise, on the line _below_. + ++_Style_+.--Be perspicuous. Paragraph and punctuate as in other kinds of +writing. Spell correctly; write legibly, neatly, and with care. + +_Letters of friendship_ should be colloquial, natural, and familiar. +Whatever is interesting to you will be interesting to your friends. + +_Business letters_ should be brief, and the sentences should be short, +concise, and to the point. + +In _formal notes_ the third person is generally used instead of the first +and the second; there is no Introduction, no Conclusion, no Signature, only +the name of the Place and the Date at the bottom, on the left side of the +page. + +THE CONCLUSION. + +_+Parts+_.--The Conclusion consists of the _+Complimentary Close+_ and the +_+Signature+_. The forms of the Complimentary Close are many, and are +determined by the relations of the writer to the one addressed. In letters +of _friendship_ you may use _Your sincere friend; Yours affectionately ; +Your loving son or daughter_, etc. In business letters, you may use _Yours; +Yours truly; Truly yours; Yours respectfully; Very respectfully yours_, +etc. In official letters use _I have the honor to be, Sir, your obedient +servant; Very respectfully, your most obedient servant_. + +The Signature consists of your Christian name and your surname. In +addressing a stranger write your Christian name in full. A lady addressing +a stranger should prefix her title--_Miss_ or _Mrs._--to her own name, +enclosing it within marks of parenthesis, if she prefers. + +_+How Written+_.--The Conclusion should begin near the middle of the first +line below the Body of the Letter, and should slope to the right like the +Heading and the Address. Begin each line of it with a capital letter, and +punctuate as in other writing, following the whole with a period. The +Signature should be very plain. + +THE FOLDING. + +The Folding is a simple matter when, as now, the envelope used is adapted +in length to the width of the sheet. Take the letter as it lies before you, +with its first page uppermost, turn up the bottom of it about one-third the +length of the sheet, bring the top down over this, taking care that the +sides are even, and press the parts together. + +Taking the envelope with its back toward you, insert the letter, putting in +first the edge last folded. The form of the envelope may require the letter +to be folded in the middle. Other conditions may require other ways of +folding. + +THE SUPERSCRIPTION. + +_+Parts+_.--The Superscription is what is written on the outside of the +envelope. It is the same as the Address, consisting of the Name, the Title, +and the full Directions of the one addressed. + +_+How Written+_.--The Superscription should begin near the middle of the +envelope and near the left edge-- the envelope lying with its closed side +toward you--and should occupy three or four lines. These lines should slope +to the right as in the Heading and the Address, the spaces between the +lines should be the same, and the last line should end near the lower +right-hand corner. On the first line the Name and the Title should stand. +If the one addressed is in a city, the door-number and name of the street +should be on the second line, the name of the city on the third, and the +name of the state on the fourth. If he is in the country, the name of the +post-office should be on the second line, the name of the county on the +third--(or by itself near the lower left-hand corner), and the name of the +state on the fourth. The titles following the name should be separated from +it and from each other by the comma, and every line should end with a +comma, except the last, which should be followed by a period. The lines +should be straight, and every part of the Superscription should be legible. +Place the stamp at the upper right-hand corner. + +LETTER, ORDERING MERCHANDISE. + +[Cursive: +Newburgh, N. Y. +Jan. 7. 1888 + +Messrs. Hyde & Co., +250 Broadway. N. Y. + +Gentlemen, + +Please send me by Adams Express the articles mentioned in the enclosed +list. + +Be careful in the selection of the goods, as I desire them for a special +class of customers. + +When they are forwarded, please inform me by letter and enclose the +invoice. + +Yours truly, + +Thomas Dodds.] + +ANSWER, ENCLOSING INVOICE. + +[Cursive: +250 Broadway, N. Y. +Jan 9, 1888. + +Mr. Thomas Dodds, +Newburgh, N. Y. + +Dear Sir, + +We have to-day sent you by Adams Express the goods ordered in your letter +of the 7th inst. Enclosed you will find the invoice. + +We hope that everything will reach you in good condition and will prove +satisfactory in quality and in price. + +Very truly yours, + +Peter Hyde & Co.] + +INVOICE. + +Thomas Dodds, + +Bought of Peter Hyde & Co. + + 3 boxes Sperm Candles. 140 lbs., @33c. $46.20 + 7 do. Adamantine Extra Candles, 182 lbs., "26c. 47.32 + 120 lbs. Crushed Sugar, "12-1/2c. 15.00 + 60 do. Coffee do., "11-1/4c. 6.75 + ----- + $115.27 + +LETTER OF APPLICATION. + +[Cursive: +176 Clinton St. Brooklyn, N. Y. +Dec. 12, 1887 + +Messrs. Fisk & Hatch, +5 Nassau St., N. Y. + +Gentlemen, + +Learning by advertisement that a clerkship in your house is vacant, I beg +leave to offer myself as a candidate for the place. I am sixteen years old, +and am strong and in excellent health. I have just graduated with honor +from the seventh grade of the Polytechnic Institute, Brooklyn, and I +enclose testimonials of my character and standing from the President of +that Institution. + +If you desire a personal interview, I shall be glad to present myself at +such time and place as you may name. + +Very respectfully yours, + +Charles Hastings.] + +NOTES OF INVITATION AND ACCEPTANCE +(in the third person). + +_Mr. and Mrs. Brooks request the pleasure of Mr. Churchill's company at a +social gathering, next Tuesday evening, at_ 8 _o'clock_. + 32 _W_. 31_st Street, Oct_. 5. + +_Mr. Churchill has much pleasure in accepting Mr. and Mrs. Brooks's kind +invitation to a social gathering next Tuesday evening_. + 160 _Fifth Ave., Oct_. 5. + +LETTER OF INTRODUCTION. + +[Cursive: +Concord, N. H. +Jan. 10, 1888. + +George Chapman, Esq., +Portland, Conn. + +My dear Friend, + +It gives me great pleasure to introduce to you my friend, Mr. Alpheus +Crane. Any attention you may be able to show him I shall esteem as a +personal favor. + +Sincerely yours, + +Peter Cooper.] + +A LETTER OF FRIENDSHIP. + +[Cursive: +21 Dean St., Toledo, Ohio. +Dec. 16, 1887. + +My dear Mother, + +I cannot tell you how I long to be at home again and in my old place. In my +dreams and in my waking hours, I am often back at the old homestead; my +thoughts play truant while I pore over my books, and even while I listen to +my teacher in the class-room. I would give so much to know what you are all +doing--so much to feel that now and then I am in your thoughts, and that +you do indeed miss me at home. + +Everything here is as pleasant as it need be or can be, I suppose. I am +sure I shall enjoy it all by and by, when I get over this fit of +homesickness. My studies are not too hard, and my teachers are kind and +faithful. + +Do write me a long letter as soon as you get this and tell me everything. + +Much love to each of the dear ones at home. + +Your affectionate son, + +Henry James. + +[Footnote: In familiar (and official) letters, the Address may stand, you +will remember, at the bottom.] Mrs. Alexander James, Tallmadge, Ohio.] + +[Illustration of Envelope: Mrs. Alexander James, Tallmadge, Summit Co. +Ohio.] + ++_To the Teacher_+.--Have your pupils write complete letters and notes of +all kinds. You can name the persons to whom these are to be addressed. +Attend minutely to al1 the points. Letters of introduction should have the +word _Introducing_ (followed by the name of the one introduced) at the +lower left-hand corner of the envelope. This letter should not be sealed. +The receiver may seal it before handing it to the one addressed. + +Continue this work of letter-writing until the pupils have mastered all the +details, and are able easily and quickly to write any ordinary letter. + +A SUMMARY OF THE RULES OF SYNTAX. + +I. A noun or pronoun used as subject or as attribute complement of a +predicate verb, or used independently, is in the nominative case. + +II. The attribute complement of a participle or an infinitive is in the +same case (Nom. or Obj.) as the word to which it relates. + +III. A noun or pronoun used as possessive modifier is in the possessive +case. + +IV. A noun or pronoun used as object or objective complement, or as the +principal word of a prepositional phrase, is in the objective case. + +V. A noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in the same case as +the word explained. + +VI. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, number, and gender. + +With two or more antecedents connected by _and_, the pronoun is plural. + +With two or more singular antecedents connected by _or_ or _nor_, the +pronoun is singular. + +VII. A verb agrees with its subject in person and number. + +With two or more subjects connected by _and_, the verb is plural. + +With two or more singular subjects connected by _or_ or _nor_, the verb is +singular. + +VIII. A participle assumes the action or being, and is used like an +adjective or a noun. + +IX. An infinitive is generally introduced by _to_, and with it forms a +phrase used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. + +X. Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns. + +XI. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs. + +XII. A preposition introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in +sense, of its principal word to the word modified. + +XIII. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses. + +XIV. Interjections are used independently. + ++PROOF-MARKS+. + ++Remark+.--The following are some of the marks used in correcting +proof-sheets for the printer:-- + + +[Symbol: dele] De-le = Strike out. + +[^] Ca-ret = Something to be inserted. + +[/] This calls attention to points or letters placed in the margin as +corrections. + +[Symbol: dotted circle] This calls attention to the period. + +[tr.] Transpose. + +[Symbol: para] Begin a new paragraph with the word preceded by [. + +[No Symbol: para] No new paragraph. + +[Symbol: v' ] This calls attention to the apostrophe. + ++To the Teacher+.--We suggest that the pupils learn to use these marks in +correcting compositions. The following exercises are given as +illustrations:-- + +[Illustration: Corrected letter] + + + + +NOTES FOR TEACHERS. + +AGREEMENT. + +Before Lesson 8 is assigned, the pupils may be required to note, in Lessons +6 and 7, the subjects that add _s_ to denote more than one, and then to +mark the changes that occur in the predicates when the _s_ is dropped from +these subjects. In Lesson 8, the predicates may be changed by adding or +dropping _s_, and other subjects may be found to correspond. In Lesson 9, +_s_ may be dropped from the plural subjects, and other predicates may be +found to agree. + +At this stage of the work we should give no formal rules, and should avoid +such technical terms as _number, person, tense_, etc. The pupils may be led +to discover rules for themselves, and to state them informally. Exercises +and questions may be so directed that the pupils may draw some such +conclusion as the following:-- + +When a simple form of the verb is used to tell what one thing does, _s_ or +_es_ is added (unless the subject is _I_ or _you_). + +Let the pupils see that the _s_-form of the verb is used only in telling +what one thing _does_, not what it _did_; as, "The boy _runs_," "The boy +_ran_"; and that its subject always stands for the one spoken of; as, "_He +runs_," "_I run_." + +Before Lesson 12 is assigned, attention may be called to the use of _is, +was_, and _has_, in Lesson 11 and elsewhere. For the predicates introduced +by these words let the pupils find subjects which name more than one, that +they may note the change of _is_ to _are_, _was_ to _were_, and _has_ to +_have_. The forms _does_ and _do_ may also be introduced, and these +exercises continued till the pupils are led to discover some such rule as +the following:-- + +_Is, was, has_, and _does_ are used with subjects denoting but one. _Are, +were, have_, and _do_ are used with subjects denoting more than one. + +We suggest that the form of a question and the use of the question mark be +introduced after Lesson 12, and that the pupils be allowed to change the +sentences in Lessons 11 and 12 by placing the subject after the first +auxiliary. A straight line may be drawn under each subject, and a waving +line under each predicate, thus:-- + +~Was~ /Napoleon/ ~banished?~ + +The sentences given for analysis will furnish material for making +interrogative sentences, and for justifying the agreement of verbs. + +In connection with Lesson 19 attention may be called to the agreement of +verbs with _I_ and _you_. Exercises may be given from which the pupils will +draw the following conclusions:-- + +_I_ can be used with _am, was, have_, and _do_. _You_ may mean one or more +than one, but the verb always agrees as if _you_ meant more than one. + +Exercises may be given requiring the pupils to use such expressions as "You +_were_," "They _were_," "We _were_," "He _doesn't_," etc., and to repeat +them aloud till the ear is accustomed to the right form. + +When predicate verbs immediately follow their subjects, there is little +danger of errors in agreement, except that _was_ is often used incorrectly +for _were_, and _don't_ for _doesn't_. The chief object of introducing +these exercises here is to train the pupils' observation so that they will +readily and naturally note the agreement of the subject and predicate when +these terms are transposed, or are separated by other words. To determine +the correct form of the verb in such cases, let the pupils see how it +sounds when placed immediately after its subject. We suggest exercises like +the following:-- + + 1 is are + 2 was were + 3 has have + 4 does do + 5 comes come + 6 goes go + 7 thinks think + 8 writes write + +1. With what kind of letter ~(4)~ _each_ of these names ~begin~? +2. Under this rule ~(1) found~ important _exceptions_. +3. The _farm_, with all the cattle and horses, ~(2) sold~. +4. With what mark ~(4)~ imperative _sentences_ ~end~? +5. Every _effort_ of the friends of these measures (3) failed. +6. There (5) trying _times_ in every man's life. +7. _One_ of them (6) to Vassar College. +8. Not _one_ in ten (7) about this. +9. _Neither_ of you (8) correctly. +10. After this (5) the calisthenic _exercises_. +11. A _cargo_ of Delaware peaches (3) arrived. +12. There (6) the cars. +13. There (6) a _train_ of cars. + +After these blanks have been filled with the verbs above, as indicated by +the numbers, the sentences may be repeated aloud till the correct form is +familiar. + +Let the pupils see that in (2), Lesson 36, _were identified_ is asserted of +two things, and that in (3) _was anticipated_ is asserted of one of two +things, but not of both. Let them give other examples of connected subjects +with verbs singular in form, and with verbs plural in form. The meaning of +_singular_ and _plural_ may be explained, and the pupils may form some such +rule as the following:-- + +With two or more subjects connected by _and_ the verb agrees in the plural. + +With two or more singular subjects connected by _or_ or _nor_ the verb +agrees in the singular. + +The pupils may examine such sentences as-- + +1. Each word and gesture _was_ suited to the thought; +2. Every bud, leaf, and blade of grass _rejoices_ after the warm rain; +3. No dew, no rain, no cloud _comes_ to the relief of the parched + earth;-- + +and note that _each_, _every_, and _no_ show that the things named in the +different subjects are taken separately, and that the verbs are therefore +singular. + +Such sentences as-- + + "In the death of Franklin, a philosopher and statesman _was_ lost to the + world"-- + +may be given to show that subjects connected by _and_ may name the same +thing, and so take a verb in the singular. + +Such examples as the following may be given and justified:-- + +1. Beauty and utility _are_ combined in nature. +2. Either beauty or utility _appears_ in every natural object. +3. Here _is_ neither beauty nor utility. +4. Time and tide _wait_ for no man. +5. Wisdom and prudence _dwell_ with the lowly man. +6. _Does_ either landlord or tenant profit by this bill? +7. Neither landlords nor tenants _profit_ by this bill. +8. Every fly, bee, beetle, and butterfly _is_ provided with six feet. +9. That desperate robber and murderer _was_ finally secured. +10. That desperate robber and that murderer _were_ finally secured. +11. The builder and owner of the yacht _has_ sailed from Liverpool. +12. The builder and the owner of the yacht _have_ sailed from Liverpool. +13. A lame and blind man _was_ provided with food and lodging. +14. A lame and a blind man _were_ provided with food and lodging. + +Particular attention may be called to examples 9-14, that the pupils may +note the effect of repeating _that_, _the_, and _a_. + +Pupils should early learn that rules in grammar should not be followed +rigidly and blindly, as they generally have variations and exceptions. +Caution, however, should be used in presenting exceptions, lest the pupils +become confused. They may be presented in reviews after the rules and +general principles are well understood. They need not be formally stated, +but may be introduced in the way of observation lessons that appeal to the +judgment rather than to the memory. In this way such constructions as the +following may be introduced:-- + +1. Neither he nor _I am _going. (Better--He is not going, nor am I.) +2. Neither John nor his _sisters were_ there. +3. _Action_, and not words, _is_ needed. +4. _Bread and milk is_ good food. +5. The _committee are_ unable to agree on _their_ report. +6. The _committee has_ made _its_ report. + +Other examples may be given till the pupils are led to discover that in +examples like (1) and (2) the verb agrees with its nearest subject, and +that the plural subject is usually placed next to the verb; that in (3) the +verb agrees with the affirmative subject, another verb being understood +with the negative subject; that in (4) "bread and milk" represents one +article of food; and that in (5) the individuals of the committee are +thought of, while in (6) the committee as a whole is thought of. In (5) and +(6) the agreement of the pronoun may also be noted. Pronouns may be +introduced into many of the preceding exercises and the pupils led to apply +to the agreement of the pronoun with its antecedent what has been learned +of the agreement of the verb with its subject. Let the pupils determine why +the following connected subjects are arranged in the proper order:-- + +1. You and I are invited. +2. Mary and I are invited. +3. You and Mary are invited. +4. You and Mary and I are invited. + +WRITING NAMES--CAPITALS AND ABBREVIATIONS. [Footnote: For list of +abbreviations see p. 191.] + +Pupils may copy the following list of names, and note all peculiarities in +form:-- + + Texas, state, river, Red River, city, Albany, New Orleans, Kansas City, + statesman, Thomas Jefferson, Thos. Jefferson, author, Charles Dickens, + Chas. Dickens, writer, George William Curtis, Geo. Wm. Curtis, Geo. W. + Curtis, poet, John Greenleaf Whittier, John G. Whittier, J. G. Whittier, + gulf, sea, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, lake, Lake Erie, general, + General Robert Edmund Lee, Gen. Robt. E. Lee, doctor, Doctor Valentine + Mott, Dr. V. Mott, professor, Prof. Goldwin Smith. + + Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote "The Song of Hiawatha." + John Bunyan wrote "The Pilgrim's Progress." + The subject for composition was "A Day in the Woods." + +We give the following questions to illustrate our method of conducting an + ++Observation Lesson+.--Are _city_ and _Albany_ both names? What difference +can you discover in meaning? What in form? Which of the names just written +are _class_ names? Which are _individual_ names? Mention an individual name +made up of two names; one of three names; one of four. How many capitals do +you find in each of the names just mentioned? Mention seven words that are +written without capitals as class names, and again with capitals as parts +of individual names. Mention a word that is shortened, or _abbreviated_, by +omitting all but the first, or _initial_, letter. Mention an _abbreviation_ +containing two letters; one containing three; one containing four. What new +use of the period have you discovered in this exercise? What three words in +this exercise are used together as the title of a book? What four as the +title of a poem? What five as the subject of a school composition? Each of +these groups may be regarded as a kind of individual name. Besides the +first word, what words begin with capitals in each of these three groups? +Notice that these are the principal words. + +For another exercise the pupils may copy the following sentences, noting +carefully capitals and punctuation marks:-- + +1. The city of Chicago is on Lake Michigan. +2. The steamer _City of Chicago_ sails from Jersey City. +3. The island of Cuba is under Spanish rule. +4. The Isle of Man is in the Irish Sea. +5. The Hon. Wm. E. Gladstone is an English statesman. +6. The subject for composition was "The View from my Window." +7. In the evening Aunt Mary entertained my cousin and me with stories of + Uncle Remus. +8. Miss Evans--afterward Mrs. Lewes--was the author of "The Mill on the + Floss." +9. We may call the Supreme Being our Heavenly Father. +10. The Old Testament points to the coming of a Messiah. +11. George I., George II., George III., George IV., and William IV. + preceded Victoria. + +The teacher may find the following questions suggestive:-- + ++Observation Lesson+.--Is _Chicago_, or _city of Chicago_ the individual +name of the place mentioned in (1)? Is _Chicago_, or _City of Chicago_ the +name of the steamer mentioned in (2)? Is the town mentioned in (2) named +_Jersey_, or _Jersey City_? Is the body of water mentioned in (1) known as +_Michigan_, or _Lake Michigan_? What is the name of the island mentioned in +(3)?--in (4)? Is _Irish_, or _Irish Sea_ the name of the body of water +mentioned in (4)? + +Notice that _Spanish_, in (3), and _English_, in (5), are not names, or +nouns. They begin with capitals, because they are derived from the +individual names _Spain_ and _England_. + +What names in (7) usually denote relationship? Notice that such words as +_uncle, captain, professor_, etc., do not necessarily begin with capitals +unless prefixed to individual names. + +What group of words in (6) is treated as an individual name? What in (8)? +Which words of these groups are regarded as the most important? + +In (8) do you find a period after _Miss_?--after _Mrs._? + +_Miss_ is not written as an abbreviation. + +What words in (9) and (10) are used as names of the Deity? What is _Old +Testament_ the particular name of? + +What do you discover in the names found in (11)? + +For other exercises, pupils may be required to bring in lists of +geographical and biographical names, titles of books, etc. + +We earnestly recommend the introduction here of letter-writing to +illustrate the use of capitals, abbreviations, and punctuation. (See pp. +146-161.) The writing of _headings, introductions, conclusions_, and +_superscriptions_ will give most excellent practice in capitals, etc. The +_body_ of the letter may be directed to the same end. For instance, an +invitation to a friend may be accompanied by a description of the route to +be taken and of the places or objects of interest to be seen on the way. Or +the writer may mention some of the books he has read, with the names of the +characters and of the places mentioned. + +ADJECTIVES--CHOICE AND ARRANGEMENT. + +Words denoting quality form a very large and important group. Our knowledge +of things about us is a knowledge of their qualities. A writer's style is, +to a large extent, determined by his use of adjectives. We therefore +recommend special drill in the choice and the use of adjectives. The +exercises given below may serve as suggestions to the teacher. Groups of +adjectives like the following may be presented, the pupils being required +to join them to appropriate nouns:-- + +_Some Qualities learned directly through the Senses_. + ++Seeing+, +scarlet +crimson +florid +sallow +opaque +dingy +vivid +gorgeous +gaudy +variegated +verdant +transparent + ++Hearing+, +audible +stunning +thundering +deafening +purling +husky +monotonous +discordant +melodious + ++Smelling+, +fragrant +balmy +odorous +rancid +fetid +aromatic + ++Tasting+, +acid +acrid +pungent +delicious +insipid +brackish +palatable +savory +luscious + ++Feeling+. +rough +gritty +hard +keen +tepid +sultry + +Pupils will find little difficulty in largely increasing the lists above. +Many other groupings may be made; as, of qualities learned by comparison, +measurement, or experiment; qualities of the mind; qualities pertaining to +right and wrong, etc. + +Groups of nouns like the following may be made, and the pupils may be +required to mention as many qualities as possible belonging to each of the +things named:-- + +chalk +ice +brooks +clouds +water +snow +ocean +music + +Pupils may mention animals properly described by the following +adjectives:-- + +timid +fleet +cunning +ferocious +gentle +graceful +sagacious +venomous + +Careless persons and those that have a meager list of adjectives at command +overwork and abuse such words as-- + +_nice, awful, horrid, splendid, elegant, lovely_. + +We hear of _nice mountains_, _awful pens_, _horrid ink_, _splendid pie_, +_elegant beef_, _lovely cheese_, etc. + +Pupils may study the meaning of the six adjectives last mentioned, and use +them to fill the following blanks:-- + + | distinction + ----------+ workmanship + | calculation + + | stillness + ----------+ chasm + | rumbling + + | child + ----------+ features + | character + + | palace + ----------+ victory + | illumination + + | manners + ----------+ taste + | furniture + + | deeds + ----------+ dreams + | butchery + +This work may very profitable be extended. + +A word picture is often spoiled by using too many adjectives; as, + + "A _great_, _large_, _roomy_, spacious hall"; + "_Superb_, delicious, _magnificent_ pumpkin-pie"; + "A _stingy_, miserly, _close-fisted_ fellow." + +The italicized words may be omitted. + +Pupils should be taught to watch for such errors, and to correct them. + +Pupils may be required to copy choice selections from literature, and to +note carefully capitals, punctuation, and the use of adjectives. We offer +the following exercise as a specimen:-- + + We piled with care our nightly stack + Of wood against the chimney-back,-- + The oaken log, green, huge, and thick, + And on its top the stout back-stick; + The knotty fore-stick laid apart, + And filled between with curious art + The ragged brush; then, hovering near, + We watched the first red blaze appear, + Heard the sharp crackle, caught the gleam + On whitewashed wall and sagging beam, + Until the old, rude-furnished room + Burst, flower-like, into rosy bloom. + + _Whittier.--Snow-Bound_. + ++Observation Lesson+.--Of what are the lines above a picture? Where, and in +what kind of house, do you think this picture was seen? + +What object is pictured by the help of five adjectives? Are the adjectives +that precede the name of this object of the same rank? Are those that +follow of the same rank? What noun is modified by three adjectives of +different rank? What noun by three adjectives two of which are of the same +rank? What difference is found in the punctuation of these several groups? + +Notice how the noun _crackle_ crackles as you pronounce it, and how the +adjective _sharp_ makes it penetrate. Notice how strong a picture is made +in the two lines immediately before the last. The adjectives here used +bring out the most prominent qualities of the room, and these qualities +bring along with them into the imagination all the other qualities. This is +what we must try to make our adjectives do. + +Point out all the adjectives in the selection above, and explain the office +of each. + +What peculiar use of capitals do you discover in these lines of poetry? + +Much that has been suggested above concerning the use of adjectives will +apply to adverbs also. + +ARRANGEMENT. + +The following exercises are given to show how pupils may discover for +themselves the _natural order_ of words and phrases:-- + +(_a_) Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. +(_b_) William's sister Mary is an excellent musician. +(_c_) Everything suddenly appeared so strangely bright. +(_d_) We saw it distinctly. +(_e_) We had often been there. +(_f_) Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo. + ++Observation Lesson+.--The words and the phrases in the sentences above +stand in their _Natural Order_. + +From (_a_) and (_b_) determine the natural order of the subject, predicate, +and complement. From (_b_) determine the natural order of a possessive +modifier, of an explanatory modifier, and of an adjective. From (_c_), +(_d_), and (_e_) determine the several positions of an adverb joined to a +verb. Determine from (_c_) the position of an adverb modifying an adjective +or another adverb. Determine from (_a_) and (_f_) the natural order of a +phrase. + +Pupils may copy the following, and note the arrangement and the punctuation +of the phrases:-- + +(_g_) This place is endeared to me by many associations. +(_h_) To me, this place is endeared by many associations. +(_i_) Your answers, with few exceptions, have been correctly given. +(_j_) He applied for the position, without a recommendation. + ++Observation Lesson+.--Phrases in their natural order follow the words they +modify. When two or more phrases belong to the same word, the one most +closely modifying it stands nearest to it. + +In the first sentence above, _to me_ tells to whom the place is endeared; +_by many associations_ tells how it is endeared to me, and is therefore +placed after to me. Try the effect of placing _to me_ last. Phrases, like +adjectives, may be of different rank. + +Phrases are often transposed, or placed out of their natural order. Notice +that _to me_, in (_h_) above, is transposed, and thus made emphatic, and +that it is set off by the comma. + +In (_i_), the phrase is loosely thrown in as if it were not essential, thus +making a break in the sentence. To make this apparent to the eye we set the +phrase off by the comma. + +Place the phrase of (_i_) in three other positions, and set it off. When +the phrase is at the beginning or at the end of the sentence, how many +commas do you need to set it off? How many, when it is in the middle? + +Do you find any choice in the four positions of this phrase? After having +been told that your answers were correct, would it be a disappointment to +be told that they were not all correct? Is the interest in a story best +kept up by first telling the important points and then the unimportant +particulars? What then do you think of placing this phrase at the end? + +What does the last phrase of (_j_) modify? Take out the comma, and then see +whether there can be any doubt as to what the phrase modifies. + +In the placing of adverbs and phrases great freedom is often allowable, and +the determining of their best possible position affords an almost unlimited +opportunity for the exercise of taste and judgment. + +Such questions as those on (_i_) above may suggest a mode of easy approach +to what is usually relegated to the province of rhetoric. Let the pupils +see that phrases may be transposed for various reasons--for emphasis, as in +(_h_) above; for the purpose of exciting the reader's curiosity and holding +his attention till the complete statement is made, as in (_i_) above, or +in, "In the dead of night, with a chosen band, under the cover of a truce, +he approached"; for the sake of balancing the sentence by letting some of +the modifying terms precede, and some follow, the principal parts, as, "In +1837, on the death of William IV., Victoria succeeded to the throne"; and +for other reasons. + +Other selections maybe made and these exercises continued, the pupils +discussing fully the effects of all possible changes. + +Pupils may note the transposed words and phrases in the following +sentences, explaining their office and the effect of the transposition:-- + +1. Victories, indeed, they were. +2. Down came the masts. +3. Here stands the man. +4. Doubtful seemed the battle. +5. Wide open stood the doors. +6. A mighty man is he. +7. That gale I well remember. +8. Behind her rode Lalla Rookh. +9. Blood-red became the sun. +10. Louder waxed the applause. +11. Him the Almighty Power hurled headlong. +12. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. +13. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred. +14. So died the great Columbus of the skies. +15. Aeneas did, from the flames of Troy, upon his shoulders, the old + Anchises bear. +16. Such a heart in the breast of my people beats. +17. The great fire up the deep and wide chimney roared. +18. Ease and grace in writing are, of all the acquisitions made in school, + the most difficult and valuable. + +Pupils may read or write the following sentences in the transposed order, +and explain the effect of the change:-- + +19. He could not avoid it. +20. He would not escape. +21. I must go. +22. He ended his tale here. +23. It stands written so. +24. She seemed young and sad. +25. I will make one more effort to save you. +26. My regrets were bitter and unavailing. +27. I came into the world helpless. +28. A sincere word was never utterly lost. +29. Catiline shall no longer plot her ruin. + +ORDER OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. + +30. Who wrote the Declaration of Independence? +31. What states border on the Gulf of Mexico? +32. Whom did you see? +33. What is poetry? +34. Which course will you choose? +35. Why are the days shorter in winter? +36. When was America discovered? +37. Were you there? +38. Has the North Pole been reached? + ++Observation Lesson+.--When the interrogative word is subject or a modifier +of it, is the order natural, or transposed? See (30) and (31) above. + +When the interrogative word is object or attribute complement, or a +modifier of either, what is the order? See (32), (33), and (34). + +When the interrogative word is an adverb, what is the order? See (35) and +(36). + +When there is no interrogative word, what is the order? See (37) and (38). + +The sentences above will furnish profitable review lessons in _analysis_. + +REVIEW--COMPOSITION. + +We suggest that, from two or more paragraphs of some interesting and +instructive article, leading sentences be selected, and that the pupils be +required to explain the office and the punctuation of the easier adjective +and adverb phrases, to vary the arrangement in every possible way, and to +discuss the effects of these changes. Then, after finding the general +subject and the heading for each paragraph, the pupils may arrange these +sentences and work them into a composition, making such additions as may be +suggested. + +RESTRICTIVE MODIFIERS--PUNCTUATION. + +The chief difficulty in the punctuation of the different kinds of modifiers +is in determining whether or not they are restrictive. The following +examples may serve as the basis of an observation lesson:-- + +(_a_) The words _golden_ and _oriole_ are pleasant to the ear. +(_b_) Words, the signs of ideas, are spoken and written. +(_c_) Use words that are current. +(_d_) Words, which are the signs of ideas, are spoken and written. +(_e_) The country anciently called Gaul is now called France. +(_f_) France, anciently called Gaul, derived its name from the Franks. +(_g_) Glass bends easily when it is hot. +(_h_) I met him in Paris, when I was last abroad. + +The following explanations may be drawn from the pupils:-- + +In (_a_) the application of _words_ is limited, or restricted, to the two +words mentioned; in (_c_) _words_ is restricted to a certain kind. In (_b_) +and (_d_) the modifiers do not restrict. They apply to all words and simply +add information. In (_e_) the participial phrase restricts the application +of _country_ to one particular country; but in (_f_) the phrase describes +without limiting. The omission of the comma in (_g_) shows that _Glass +bends easily_ is not offered as a general statement, but that the action is +restricted to a certain time or condition. _When it is hot_ is essential to +the intended meaning. The punctuation of (_h_) shows that the speaker does +not wish to make the time of meeting a prominent or essential part of what +he has to say. The adverb clause simply gives additional information. If +(_h_) were an answer to the question, When did you meet him? the comma +would be omitted. The sense may be varied by the use or the omission of the +comma. + +Let the pupils see how incomplete the statements are when the restrictive +modifiers are omitted, and that the other modifiers are not so necessary to +the sense. In such expressions as _I myself, we boys_, the explanatory +words are not restrictive, but they combine closely with the modified term. + +ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. + +Adjective clauses allow little change in position. They usually follow +closely the word modified. Often they may be contracted into adjectives or +into adjective phrases. + +Selections from standard writers may be made with special reference to the +study of adjective clauses. The position, punctuation, and choice of +relatives may be noticed, and, as far as possible, the clauses may be +changed into equivalent adjectives or into phrases. + +ADVERB CLAUSES. + +An adverb clause may stand before the independent clause, between its +parts, or after it; as, "When it is hot, glass bends easily;" "Glass, when +it is hot, bends easily;" "Glass bends easily when it is hot." Notice the +punctuation of these examples. + +Adverb clauses may be contracted in various ways. Clauses introduced by the +comparatives _as_ and _than_ are usually found in an abbreviated form; as, +"You are as old _as_ he (_is old_);" "You are older _than_ I (_am old_)." +Attention may be called to the danger of mistaking here the nominative for +the objective. We suggest making selections for the study of adverb +clauses. + +NOUN CLAUSES. + +Noun clauses may be contracted; as, "_That we should obey_ is necessary" = +"_Obedience_ is necessary," or, "_To obey_ is necessary;" "I can hardly +realize _that my friend is gone_" = "I can hardly realize _my friend's +being gone_." By substituting _it_ for the subject clause, this clause +maybe placed last and made explanatory; as, "_It_ is necessary _that we +should obey_." The object clause is sometimes transposed; as, "_That my +friend is gone_, I can hardly realize." The noun clause may be made +prominent by introducing the independent clause parenthetically; as,"_His +story_, we believe, _is exaggerated_." + +Notice the punctuation of the clauses above. The noun clause used as +attribute complement is generally set off by the comma. Noun clauses that +are quotations need special treatment. + +NOUN CLAUSES--QUOTATIONS. + +We suggest the following observation lesson:-- + +1. Goldsmith says, "Learn the luxury of doing good." +2. Goldsmith says that we should learn the luxury of doing good. +3. "The owlet Atheism, hooting at the glorious sun in heaven, cries out, + 'Where is it?'" +4. Coleridge compares atheism to an owlet hooting at the sun, and asking + where it is. +5. "To read without reflecting," says Burke, "is like eating without + digesting." +6. May we not find "sermons in stones and good in everything"? +7. There is much meaning in the following quotation: "Books are embalmed + minds." +8. We must ask, What are we living for? +9. We must ask what we are living for. + ++Observation Lesson+.--Notice that the writer of (1) has copied into his +sentence (quoted) the exact language of Goldsmith. The two marks like +inverted commas and the two marks like apostrophes, which inclose this +copied passage (quotation), are called _Quotation Marks_. + +Name all the differences between (1) and (2). Is the same thought expressed +in both? Which quotation would you call _direct?_ Which, _indirect?_ + +Notice that the whole of (3) is a quotation, and that this quotation +contains another quotation inclosed within _single marks_. Notice the order +of the marks at the end of (3). + +Point out the differences between (3) and (4). In which is a question +quoted just as it would be asked? In which is a question merely referred +to? Which question would you call _direct?_ Which, _indirect_? Name every +difference in the form of these. + +In which of the above sentences is a quotation interrupted by a +parenthetical clause? How are the parts marked? + +Point out a quotation that cannot make complete sense by itself. How does +it differ from the others as to punctuation and the first letter? + +In (7) a _Colon_ precedes the quotation to show that it is _formally +introduced_. + +In (8) a question is introduced without quotation marks. Questions that, +like this, are introduced without being referred to any particular person +or persons, are often written without quotation marks. State the +differences between (8) and (9). + +In quoting a question, the interrogation point must stand within the +quotation marks; but, when a question contains a quotation, this order is +reversed. Point out illustrations above. + +Sum up what you have learned. (See rules for capitals, comma, colon, and +quotation marks, pp. 140-143.) + +Selections written in the colloquial style and containing frequent +quotations and questions may be taken from reading-books, for examination, +discussion, and copying. Noun phrases may be expanded, and noun clauses +contracted, transposed, etc. + +INDEPENDENT CLAUSES. + +Frequently independent clauses are contracted by using repeated parts but +once and uniting the other parts into a compound term, as in Lesson 67. +They are also contracted by omitting such words as may be readily +understood; as, "Is it true, or _not;_" "He is a philosopher, _not a +poet_." For punctuation, see rules for the comma and the semicolon, p. 141. + +REVIEW--COMPOSITION. + +We recommend that the teacher select some short article containing valuable +information and break up each paragraph into short, disconnected +expressions. One paragraph at a time may be put on the board for the pupils +to copy. The general subject may be given, and the pupils may be required +to find a proper heading for the paragraph. The different ways of +connecting the expressions may be discussed in the class. By contracting, +expanding, transposing, and by substituting entirely different words, a +great variety of forms may be had. (The forms found in the "Example," p. +144, and the list of connectives, p. 190, may be helpful.) The pupils may +then combine the different paragraphs into a composition. For the +explanation of _paragraph_, see p. 145, and Exercises for Composition in +the Supplement. + +We give below material for one composition:-- + +Frog's spawn found in a pond. At first like a mass of jelly. Eggs can be +distinguished. + +In a few days curious little fish are hatched. These "tadpoles" are lively. +Swim by means of long tails. Head very large--out of proportion. Appearance +of all head and tail. This creature is a true fish. It breathes water-air +by means of gills. It has a two-chambered heart. + +Watch it day by day. Two little gills seen. These soon disappear. Hind legs +begin to grow. Tail gets smaller. Two small arms, or forelegs, are seen. +Remarkable change going on inside. True lungs for breathing air have been +forming. Another chamber added to the heart. + +As the gills grow smaller, it finds difficulty in breathing water-air. One +fine day it pokes its nose out of the water. Astonished (possibly) to find +that it can breathe in the air. A new life has come upon it. No particular +reason for spending all its time in water; crawls out upon land; sits down +upon its haunches; surveys the world. It is no longer a fish; has entered +upon a higher stage of existence; has become a frog. + +This work of analyzing a composition to find the leading thoughts under +which the other thoughts may be grouped is in many ways a most valuable +discipline. + +It teaches the pupil to compare, to discriminate, to weigh, to systematize, +to read intelligently and profitably. + +The reading-book will afford excellent practice in finding heads for +paragraphs. Such work is an essential preparation for the reading-class. + +This composition work should serve as a constant review of all that has +been passed over in the text-book. + +ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS AND ADVERBS. + +It is often difficult to distinguish an adjective complement from an adverb +modifier. We offer the following explanation:-- + +"Mary arrived _safe_." As we here wish to tell the condition of Mary on her +arrival, and _not_ the _manner_ of her arriving, we use _safe_, not +_safely_. "My head feels _bad_" (is in a bad condition, as perceived by the +sense of feeling). "The sun shines _bright_" (is bright--quality,--as +perceived by its shining). + +You must determine whether you wish to tell the _quality_ of the thing +named or the _manner_ of the action. + +When the idea of being is prominent in the verb, as in the examples above, +you see that the adjective, and not the adverb, follows. + +Let the pupils show that the following adjectives and adverbs are used +correctly:-- + +1. I feel sad. +2. I feel deeply. +3. I feel miserable. +4. He appeared prompt and willing. +5. He appeared promptly and willingly. +6. She looks beautiful. +7. She sings beautifully. + +PAST PARTICIPLES AND PREDICATE VERBS DISTINGUISHED. + +When the past tense and the past participle differ in form, they are often +confounded in use; as, + + I _done_ it; + I _seen_ it. + +Pupils may be required to construct short sentences, oral or written, using +the _Past_ forms found in Lesson 91 as predicates, and the _Past +Participle_ forms either as modifiers or as completing words in compound +verbs. + +They may be led to some such conclusion as the following:-- + +The _Past_ is always an asserting, or predicate, word; the _Past +Participle_ never asserts, but is used as an adjective modifier or as the +completing word of a compound verb; the _Present_ may be used as a +predicate or as an infinitive. + +Exercises like the following may be copied, and repeated aloud:-- + +1. _Lay_ down your pen. +2. _Lie_ down, Rover. +3. I _laid_ down my pen. +4. The dog then _lay_ down. +5. I have _laid_ down my pen. +6. The dog has _lain_ down. +7. _Set_ the pail down. +8. _Sit_ down and rest. +9. I then _set_ it down. +10. I _sat_ down and rested. +11. I have _set_ it down. +12. I have _sat_ down. +13. My work was _laid_ aside. +14. I was _lying_ down. +15. The trap was _set_ by the river. +16. I was _sitting_ by the river. +17. The garment _sits_ well. +18. The hen _sits_ on her eggs. +19. He came in and _lay_ down. +20. The Mediterranean _lies_ between Europe and Africa. + +Notice that we may speak of _laying_ something or _setting_ something, or +may say that something is _laid_ or is _set_; but we cannot speak of +_lying_ or _sitting_ something, or of something being _lain_ or _sat_. +_Set_, in some of its meanings, is used without an object; as, "The sun +_set_;" "He _set_ out on a journey." + +_Lay_, the present of the first verb, and _lay_, the past of _lie_, may +easily be distinguished by the difference in meaning and in the time +expressed. + +POSSESSIVE FORMS. + +Pupils may be required to copy such forms as the following:-- + +The sailor's story; the farmer's son; the pony's mane; the monkey's tail; a +day's work; James's book; a cent's worth; a man's wages; the child's toys; +the woman's hat; the sailors' stories; the farmers' sons; the ponies' +manes; the monkeys' tails; three days' work; five cents' worth; two men's +wages; those children's toys; women's hats. + +This may be continued till the pupils are able to form some such statement +as the following:-- + +(_'s_) and (_'_) are the possessive signs, (_'_) being used when _s_ has +been added to denote more than one, (_'s_) in other cases. + +Such expressions as the following may be copied:-- + +Dombey and Son's business; J. J. Little & Co.'s printing-house; William the +Conqueror's reign; Houghton, Mifflin, and Company's publications. + +This may be continued till the pupils learn that, when a group of words may +be treated as a compound name, the possessive sign is added to the last +word only. + +THE OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT. + +The treatment of the objective complement may be introduced in a review +course, when the class is sufficiently mature. The following explanation +may aid some teachers:-- + +In "It made him _sad_," _made_ does not fully express the action performed +upon him--not "_made_ him," but "_made sad_ (saddened) him." _Sad_ helps +_made_ to express the action, and also denotes a quality which as the +result of the action belongs to the person represented by the object _him_. + +Whatever completes the predicate and belongs to the object we call an +_Objective Complement_. + +Nouns, infinitives, and participles may also be used in the same way; as, + + "They made Victoria _queen_," + "It made him _weep_;" + "It kept him _laughing_." + + They | made / queen | Victoria + ======|========================= + | + ++Explanation+.--The line that separates _made_ from _queen_ slants toward +the object complement to show that _queen_ belongs to the object. + +A noun or pronoun used as objective complement is in the objective case. + +The teacher may here explain such constructions as, "I proved it to be +_him_," in which _it_ is object complement and _to be him_ is objective +complement. _Him_, the attribute complement of _be_, is in the objective +case because _it_, the assumed subject of _be_, is objective. Let the +pupils compare "I proved it to be _him_" with "I proved that it was _he;_" +"_Whom_ did you suppose it to be?" with "_Who_ did you suppose it was?" +etc. + +NOUNS AS ADVERB MODIFIERS. + +The following uses of nouns and pronouns, not found in the preceding +Lessons, may be introduced in a review course. + +1. He gave _John_ a book. +2. He bought _me_ a book. + +_John_ and _me_, as here used, are generally called _Indirect Objects_. The +"indirect object" names the one _to_ or _for_ whom something is done. We +treat these words as phrase modifiers without the preposition. If we change +the order, the preposition must be supplied; as, "He gave a book _to +John;_" "He bought a book _for me_." + +Nouns denoting _measure, quantity, weight, time, value, distance_, or +_direction_ may be used adverbially, being equivalent to phrase modifiers +without the preposition; as, + +1. We walked four _miles_ an _hour_. +2. It weighs one _pound_. +3. It is worth a _dollar_. +4. The wall is ten _feet_, six _inches_ high. +5. I went _home_ that way. + +The following diagram will illustrate both the "indirect object" and the +"noun of measure:"-- + +They offered Caesar the crown three times. + + They | offered | crown + =======|==================== + | \ \ \the + \ \ times + \ \------ + \ \three + \ Caesar + \------ + ++Explanation+.--_Caesar_ (the "indirect object") and _times_ (denoting +measure) stand in the diagram on lines representing the principal words of +prepositional phrases. + +SCHEMES FOR REVIEW. + +These schemes will be found very helpful in a general review. The pupils +should be able to reproduce them, omitting the Lesson numbers. + +Scheme for the Sentence. + +(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.) + + PARTS. + + +Subject+. + Noun or Pronoun (6, 14, 19). + Phrase (49). + Clause (61). + + +Predicate+. + Verb (6,16). + + +Complements+. + Object. + Noun or Pronoun (39). + Phrase (49). + Clause (61). + Attribute. + Adjective (39). + Noun or Pronoun (42). + Phrase. + Clause (61). + + +Modifiers+. + Adjectives (20, 22). + Adverbs (24, 27). + Participles (48). + Nouns and Pronouns (53). + Phrases (31, 48, 49). + Clauses (57, 59). + + +Connectives+. + Conjunctions (35, 36, 62). + Pronouns (57). + Adverbs (59). + + +Independent Parts (36, 64)+. + ++Classes+--+Meaning+.--Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, +Exclamatory (63). + ++Classes+--+Form+.--Simple, Complex, Compound (57, 62). + +Scheme for the Noun. + +(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.) + + NOUN (14). + + +Uses+. + Subject (6). + Object Complement (39). + Attribute Complement (42). + Adjective Modifier (53). + Prin. word in Prep. Phrase (34). + Independent (64). + + +Classes+. + Common (71). + Proper (71). + + +Modifications+. + Number + Singular (78, 79). + Plural (78, 79). + + +Gender+. + Masculine (80). + Feminine (80). + Neuter (80). + + +Person+. + First (81-83). + Second (81-83). + Third (81-83). + + +Case+. + Nominative (81-85). + Possessive (81-85). + Objective (81-85). + +Scheme for the Pronoun. + + PRONOUNS. + + +Uses+.--Same as those of the Noun. + + +Classes+. + Personal (71, 72). + Relative (71, 72). + Interrogative (71, 72). + Adjective (71, 72). + + +Modifications+.--Same as those of the Noun + (78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 95). + +Scheme for the Verb. + +(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.) + + VERB. + +Uses+ + To _assert_ action, being, or state.--Predicate (6, 16). + To _assume_ action, being, or state. Participles (48). + Infinitives (49). + + +Classes+. + Form. + Regular (74). + Irregular (74, 91). + Meaning. + Transitive (74), + Intransitive (74). + + +Modifications+. + Voice. + Active (89). + Passive (89). + Mode. + Indicative (90-94). + Potential (90-94). + Subjunctive (90-94). + Imperative (90-94). + Tense. + Present (90-94). + Past (90-94). + Future (90-94). + Present Perfect (90-94). + Past Perfect (90-94). + Future Perfect (90-94). + Number. + Singular (90, 92-95). + Plural (90, 92-95). + Person. + First (90, 92-95). + Second (90, 92-95). + Third (90, 92-95). + + +Participles+.-- + Classes. + Present (90-94, 96, 98). + Past (90-94, 96, 98). + Past Perfect (90-94, 96, 98). + + +Infinitives+.-- + Tenses. + Present (90, 92-94). + Present Perfect (90, 92-94). + +Scheme for the Adjective. + +(_The numbers refer to Lessons.)_ + + ADJECTIVE. + + +Uses+. + Modifier (20, 23). + Attribute Complement (39). + + +Classes+. + Descriptive (73). + Definitive (73). + + +Modification+.--Comparison. + Pos. Deg. (87, 88). + Comp. Deg. (87, 88). + Sup. Deg. (87, 88). + +Scheme for the Adverb. + + ADVERB. + + +Classes+. + Time (75). + Place (75). + Degree (75). + Manner (75). + + +Modification+--Comparison. + Pos. Deg. (87, 88). + Comp. Deg. (87, 88). + Sup. Deg. (87, 88). + ++Schemes for the Conj., Prep., and Int+. + +THE CONJUNCTION.-- + +Classes+. + Co-ordinate (36, 76). No Modifications. + Subordinate (36, 76). No Modifications. + +THE PREPOSITION (34, 41).--No Classes. No Modifications. + +THE INTERJECTION (36).--No Classes. No Modifications. + ++Model for Written Parsing adapted to all Parts of Speech+.--_Oh! it +has a voice for those who on their sick beds lie and waste away_. + + CLASSIFICATION. MODIFICATIONS. SYNTAX. +_Sentence_. +Oh! Class: Int. Voice: Independent. + Sub-C.: Mode: + Tense: + Per.: + Num.: + Gen.: + Case: + Deg. of + Comp.: + +it Class: Pro. Voice: Sub. of _has_. + Sub-C.: Per. Mode: + Tense: + Per.: 3d. + Num.: Sing. + Gen.: Neut. + Case: Nom. + Deg. of + Comp.: Pred. of _it_. + +has Class: Vb. Voice: Act. + Sub-C.: Ir., Tr. Mode: Ind. + Tense: Pres. + Per.: 3d. + Num.: Sing. + Gen.: + Case: + Deg. of + Comp.: + +a Class: Adj. Voice: Mod. of _voice_. + Sub-C.: Def. Mode: + Tense: + Per.: + Num.: + Gen.: + Case: + Deg. of + Comp.: ---- + +voice Class: N. Voice: Obj. Com. of _has_. + Sub-C.: Com. Mode: + Tense: + Per.: 3d. + Num.: Sing. + Gen.: Neut. + Case: Obj. + Deg. of + Comp.: + + +for Class: Prep. Voice: Shows Rel. of + Sub-C.: Mode: _has_ to + Tense: _those_. + Per.: + Num.: + Gen.: + Case: + Deg. of + Comp.: + +those Class: Pro. Voice: Prin. word after + Sub-C.: Adj. Mode: _for_. + Tense: + Per.: 3d. + Num.: Plu. + Gen.: M.or F. + Case: Obj. + Deg. of + Comp.: + + + +who Class: Pro. Voice: Sub. of _lie_ and + Sub-C.: Rel. Mode: _waste_. + Tense: + Per.: 3d. + Num.: Plu. + Gen.: M.or F. + Case: Nom. + Deg. of + Comp.: + +on Class: Prep. Voice: Shows Rel. of _lie_ + Sub-C.: Mode: to _beds_. + Tense: + Per.: + Num.: + Gen.: + Case: + Deg. of + Comp.: + +their Class: Pro. Voice: Pos. Mod. of + Sub-C.: Per. Mode: _beds_. + Tense: + Per.: 3d. + Num.: Plu. + Gen.: M.or F. + Case: Pos. + Deg. of + Comp.: + +sick Class: Adj. Voice: Mod. of _beds_. + Sub-C.: Des. Mode: + Tense: + Per.: + Num.: + Gen.: + Case: + Deg. of + Comp.: Pos. + +beds Class: N. Voice: Prin. word after + Sub-C.: Com. Mode: _on_. + Tense: + Per.: 3d. + Num.: Plu. + Gen.: Neut. + Case: Obj. + Deg. of + Comp.: + +lie Class: Vb. Voice: ---- Pred. of _who_. + Sub-C.: Ir., Int. Mode: Ind. + Tense: Pres. + Per.: 3d. + Num.: Plu. + Gen.: + Case: + Deg. of + Comp.: + +and Class: Conj. Voice: Con. _lie_ and + Sub-C.: Co-or. Mode: _waste_. + Tense: + Per.: + Num.: + Gen.: + Case: + Deg. of + Comp.: + +waste Class: Vb. Voice: ---- Pred. of _who_. + Sub-C.: Reg., Int.Mode: Ind. + Tense: Pres. + Per.: 3d. + Num.: Plu. + Gen.: + Case: + Deg. of + Comp.: + +away. Class: Adv. Voice: Mod. of _waste_. + Sub-C.: Place Mode: + Tense: + Per.: + Num.: + Gen.: + Case: + Deg. of + Comp.: ---- + + +For exercises in general parsing, select from the preceding Lessons on +Analysis. + +LIST OF CONNECTIVES. + ++Remark+.--Some of the connectives below are conjunctions proper; some are +relative pronouns; and some are adverbs or adverb phrases, which, in +addition to their office as modifiers, may, in the absence of the +conjunction, take its office upon themselves, and connect the clauses. + +CO-ORDINATE CONNECTIVES. + ++_Copulative_+.--_And, both...and, as well as_, [Footnote: The _as well as_ +in "He, _as well as_ I, went"; and not that in "He is _as well as_ I am."] +are conjunctions proper. Accordingly, _also, besides, consequently, +furthermore, hence, likewise, moreover, now, so, then_, and _therefore_ are +conjunctive adverbs. + ++_Adversative_+.--_But_ and _whereas_ are conjunctions proper. However, +_nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, still_, +and _yet_ are conjunctive adverbs. + ++_Alternative_+.--_Neither, nor, or, either... or_, and _neither...nor_ are +conjunctions proper. _Else_ and _otherwise_ are conjunctive adverbs. + +SUBORDINATE CONNECTIVES. + +Connectives of Adjective Clauses. + +_That, what, whatever, which, whichever, who_, and whoever are relative +pronouns. _When, where, whereby, wherein_, and _why_ are conjunctive +adverbs. + +Connectives of Adverb Clauses. + +_Time_.--_After, as, before, ere, since, till, until, when, whenever, +while_, and _whilst_ are conjunctive adverbs. + +_Place_.--_Whence, where_, and _wherever_ are conjunctive adverbs. + +_Degree_.--_As, than, that_, and _the_ are conjunctive adverbs, +correlative, with adjectives or adverbs. + +_Manner_.--_As_ is a conjunctive adverb, correlative often with an +adjective or an adverb. + +_Real Cause_.--_As, because, for, since_, and _whereas_ are conjunctions +proper. + +_Reason_.--_Because, for_, and _since_ are conjunctions proper. + +Purpose.--_In order that, lest_ (=_that not_) _that_, and _so that_ are +conjunctions proper. + +_Condition_.--_Except, if, in case that, on condition that, provided, +provided that_, and _unless_ are conjunctions proper. + +_Concession_.--_Although, if_ (=_even if_), _notwithstanding, though_, and +_whether_ are conjunctions proper. _However_ is a conjunctive adverb. +_Whatever, whichever_, and _whoever_ are relative pronouns used +indefinitely. + ++Connectives of Noun Clauses+. + +_If, lest, that_, and _whether_ are conjunctions proper. _What, which_, and +_who_ are pronouns introducing questions; _how, when, whence, where_, and +_why_ are conjunctive adverbs. + + +ABBREVIATIONS. + ++Remarks+.--Few abbreviations are allowable in ordinary composition. They +are very convenient in writing lists of articles, in scientific works, and +wherever certain terms frequently occur. + +Titles prefixed to proper names are generally abbreviated, except in +addressing an officer of high rank. Titles that immediately follow names +are almost always abbreviated. + +Names of women are not generally abbreviated except by using an initial for +one of two Christian names. + +Abbreviations that shorten only by one letter are unnecessary; as, _Jul._ +for "July," _Jno._ for "John," _da._ for "day," etc. + +1_st_, 2_d_, 3_d_, 4_th_, etc., are not followed by the period. They are +not treated as abbreviations. + +@, At. ++A. B.+ or +B. A.+ (_Artium Baccalaureus_), Bachelor of +Arts. ++Acct., acct.+, or +a/c+, Account. ++A. D.+ (_Anno Domini_), In the year of our Lord. ++Adjt.+, Adjutant. ++Aet.+ or +aet.+ (aetatis), Of age, aged. ++Ala.+, Alabama. ++Alex.+, Alexander. ++A. M.+ or +M. A.+ (_Artium Magister_), Master of Arts. ++A. M.+ (_ante meridiem_), Before noon. ++Amt.+, Amount. ++And.+, Andrew. ++Anon.+, Anonymous. ++Ans.+, Answer. ++Anth.+, Anthony. ++Apr.+, April. ++Arch.+, Archibald. ++Ark.+, Arkansas. ++Arizona+ or +Ariz.+, Arizona Territory. ++Atty.+, Attorney. ++Atty.-Gen.+, Attorney-General. ++Aug.+, August; Augustus. ++Av.+ or +Ave.+, Avenue. ++Avoir.+, Avoirdupois. ++Bart.+, Baronet. ++bbl.+, Barrels. ++B. C.+, Before Christ. ++Benj.+, Benjamin. ++Brig.-Gen.+, Brigadier-General. ++B. S.+, Bachelor of Science. ++bu.+, Bushels. ++c+ or +ct.+, Cents. ++Cal.+, California. ++Cap.+, Capital. +Caps.+, Capitals. ++Capt.+, Captain. ++C. E.+, Civil Engineer. ++cf.+ (_confer_), Compare. ++Chas.+, Charles. ++Chron.+, Chronicles. ++Co.+, Company; County. ++c/o+, In care of. ++C. O. D.+, Collect on delivery. ++Col.+, Colonel; Colossians. ++Coll.+, College; Collector. ++Conn.+, Connecticut. ++Colo+, or +Col.+, Colorado. ++Cr.+, Credit; Creditor. ++cub. ft.+, Cubic feet. ++cub. in.+, Cubic inches. ++cwt.+, Hundred-weight. ++d.+, Days; Pence. ++Danl.+ or +Dan.+, Daniel. ++D. C.+, District of Columbia. ++D. C. L.+, Doctor of Civil Law. ++D. D.+ (_Divinitatis Doctor_), Doctor of Divinity. ++D. D. S.+, Doctor of Dental Surgery. ++Dec.+, December. ++Del.+, Delaware. ++Deut.+, Deuteronomy. ++D. G.+ (_Dei gratia_), By the grace of God. ++Dist.-Atty.+, District-Attorney. ++D. M.+, Doctor of Music. ++do.+ (_ditto_), The same. ++doz.+, Dozen. ++Dr.+, Doctor; Debtor. ++D. V.+ (_Deo volente_), God willing. ++E.+, East. ++Eben.+, Ebenezer. ++Eccl.+, Ecclesiastes. ++Ed.+, Edition; Editor. ++Edm.+, Edmund. ++Edw.+, Edward. ++e. g.+ (_exempli gratia_), For example. ++E. N. E.+, East-northeast. ++Eng.+, English; England. ++Eph.+, Ephesians; Ephraim. ++E. S. E.+, East-southeast. ++Esq.+, Esquire. ++et al.+ (_et alibi_), And elsewhere. ++et al.+ (_et alii_), And others. ++et seq.+ (_et sequeniia_), And following. ++etc.+ or +&c.+ (et caetera), And others; And so forth. ++Ex.+, Example; Exodus. ++Ez.+, Ezra. ++Ezek.+, Ezekiel. ++Fahr.+ or +F.+, Fahrenheit (thermometer). ++Feb.+, February. ++Fla.+, Florida. ++Fr.+, French; France. ++Fran.+, Francis. ++Fred.+, Frederic. ++Fri.+, Friday. ++ft.+, Feet. ++Ft.+, Fort. ++fur.+, Furlong. ++Ga.+, Georgia. ++Gal.+, Galatians. ++gal.+, Gallons. ++Gen.+, General; Genesis. ++Geo.+, George. ++Gov.+, Governor. ++gr.+, Grains. ++h.+, Hours. ++Hab.+, Habakkuk. ++Hag.+, Haggai. ++H. B. M.+, His (or Her) Britannic Majesty. ++hdkf.+, Handkerchief. ++Heb.+, Hebrews. ++H. H.+, His Holiness (the Pope). ++hhd.+, Hogsheads. ++H. M.+, His (or Her) Majesty. ++Hon.+, Honorable. ++Hos.+, Hosea. ++H. R. H.+, His (or Her) Royal Highness. ++ib.+ or +ibid+, (_ibidem_), In the same place. ++id.+ (_idem_), The same. ++Idaho+, Idaho. ++i.e.+ (_id est_), That is. ++I. H. S.+ (_Jesus hominum Salvator_), Jesus, the Savior of Men. ++Ill.+, Illinois. ++in.+, Inches. ++incog.+ (i_ncognito_), Unknown. ++Ind.+, Indiana. ++Ind. T.+, Indian Territory. ++inst.+, Instant, the present month. ++Iowa+ or +Io.+, Iowa. ++I. O. O. F.+, Independent Order of Odd Fellows. ++Isa.+, Isaiah. ++Jac.+, Jacob. ++Jan.+, January. ++Jas.+, James. ++Jer.+, Jeremiah. ++Jona.+, Jonathan. ++Jos.+, Joseph. ++Josh.+, Joshua. ++Jr.+ or +Jun.+, Junior. ++Judg.+, Judges. ++Kans.+ or +Kan.+, Kansas. ++Ky.+, Kentucky. ++l.+, Line; ll., Lines. ++l.+ or +lb.+, Pounds sterling. ++La.+, Louisiana. ++Lam.+, Lamentations. ++L.+, Latin. ++lb.+ or lb-. (_libra_ or _librae_), Pound or pounds in weight. ++l.c.+, Lower case (small letter). ++Lev.+, Leviticus. ++L. I.+, Long Island. ++Lieut.+, Lieutenant. ++LL. B.+(_Legum Baccalaureus_), Bachelor of Laws. ++LL. D.+ (_Legum Doctor_), Doctor of Laws. ++M.+ or +Mons.+, Monsieur. ++M.+ (_meridies_), Noon. ++m.+, Miles; Minutes. ++Mad.+, Madam. +Mme.+, Madame. ++Maj.+, Major. ++Mal.+, Malachi. ++Mar.+, March. ++Mass.+, Massachusetts. ++Matt.+, Matthew. ++M. C.+, Member of Congress. ++M. D.+ (_Medicinae Doctor_), Doctor of Medicine. ++Md.+, Maryland. ++mdse.+, Merchandise. ++Me.+, Maine. ++Mem.+, Memorandum; Memoranda. ++Messrs.+, Messieurs. ++Mic.+, Micah. ++Mgr.+, Monseigneur. ++Mich.+, Michigan; Michael. ++Minn.+, Minnesota. ++Miss.+, Mississippi. ++Mlle.+, Mademoiselle. ++Mmes.+, Mesdames. ++Mo.+, Missouri. ++mo.+, Months. ++Mon.+, Monday. ++M. P.+, Member of Parliament. ++Mont.+, Montana. ++Mr.+, Mister. ++Mrs.+, Mistress (pronounced Missis). ++MS.+, Manuscript. ++MSS.+, Manuscripts. ++Mt.+, Mountain. ++N.+, North. ++N. A.+, North America. ++Nath.+, Nathaniel. ++N. B.+ (_nota bene_), Mark well. ++N. C.+, North Carolina. ++N. Dak.+, North Dakota. ++N. E.+, New England. ++N. E.+, Northeast. ++Nebr.+ or +Neb.+, Nebraska. ++Neh.+, Nehemiah. ++Nev.+, Nevada. ++N. H.+, New Hampshire. ++N. J.+, New Jersey. ++N. Mex.+ or +N. M.+, New Mexico. ++N. N. E.+, North-northeast. ++N. N. W.+, North-northwest. ++N. O.+, New Orleans. ++No.+ (_numero_), Number, ++Nov.+, November. ++N. W.+, Northwest ++N. Y.+, New York. ++Obad.+, Obadiah. ++Oct.+, October. ++Ohio+ or +O.+, Ohio. ++Oreg.+ or +Or.+, Oregon. ++Oxon.+ (_Oxonia_), Oxford, ++oz.+, Ounces. ++p.+, Page, +pp.+, Pages. ++Pa.+ or +Penn.+, Pennsylvania. ++Payt.+ or +payt.+, Payment. ++per cent+, or +per ct.+ (_per centum_) or %, By the hundred. ++Ph. D.+ (_Philosophiae Doctor_), Doctor of Philosophy. ++Phil.+, Philip; Philippians. ++Phila.+, Philadelphia. ++pk.+, Pecks. ++P. M.+, Postmaster. ++P. M.+ or +p. m.+ (_post meridiem_), Afternoon. ++P. O.+, Post-Office. ++Pres.+, President. ++Prof.+, Professor. ++Pro tem.+ (_pro tempore_), For the time being. ++Prov.+, Proverbs. ++prox.+ (_proximo_), The next month. ++P. S.+, Postscript. ++Ps.+, Psalms. ++pt.+, Pints. ++pwt.+, Pennyweights. ++qt.+, Quarts. ++q. v.+ (_quod vide_), Which see. ++Qy.+, Query. ++rd.+, Rods. ++Recd.+, Received. ++Rev.+, Reverend; Revelation. ++R. I.+, Rhode Island. ++Robt.+, Robert. ++Rom.+, Romans (Book of); Roman letters. ++R. R.+, Railroad. ++R. S. V. P.+ (_Repondez s'il vous plait_), Answer, if you please. ++Rt. Hon.+, Right Honorable. ++Rt. Rev.+, Right Reverend. ++S.+, South. ++s.+, Shillings. ++S. A.+, South America. ++Saml.+ or +Sam.+, Samuel. ++Sat.+, Saturday. ++S. C.+, South Carolina. ++S. Dak.+, South Dakota. ++S. E.+, Southeast. ++Sec.+, Secretary. ++sec.+, Seconds. ++Sep.+ or +Sept.+, September. ++Sol.+, Solomon. ++sq. ft.+, Square feet. ++sq. in.+, Square inches. ++sq. m.+, Square miles. ++S. S. E.+, South-southeast. ++S. S. W.+, South-southwest. ++St.+, Street; Saint. ++S. T. D.+ (_Sacrae Theologiae Doctor_), Doctor of Divinity. ++Sun.+, Sunday. ++Supt.+, Superintendent. ++S. W.+, Southwest. ++T.+, Tons; Tuns. ++Tenn.+, Tennessee. ++Tex.+, Texas. ++Theo.+, Theodore. ++Theoph.+, Theophilus. ++Thess.+, Thessalonians, ++Thos.+, Thomas. ++Thurs.+, Thursday. ++Tim.+, Timothy. ++tr.+, Transpose. ++Treas.+, Treasurer. ++Tues.+, Tuesday. ++ult.+ (_ultimo_), Last--last month. ++U. S.+ or +U. S. A.+, United States of America; United States Army. ++U. S. M.+, United States Mail. ++U. S. N.+, United States Navy. ++Utah+ or +U. Ter.+, Utah Territory. ++Va.+, Virginia. ++Vice-Pres.+, Vice-President. ++viz.+ (_videlicet_), To wit, namely. ++vol.+, Volume. ++vs.+ (_versus_), Against. ++Vt.+, Vermont. ++W.+, West. ++Wash.+, Washington. ++Wed.+, Wednesday. ++Wis.+, Wisconsin. ++wk.+, Weeks. ++Wm.+, William. ++W. N. W.+, West-northwest. ++W. S. W.+, West-southwest. ++W. Va.+, West Virginia. ++Wyo.+, Wyoming. ++Xmas.+, Christmas. ++yd.+, Yards. ++y.+ or +yr.+, Years. ++Zech.+, Zechariah. ++& Co.+, And Company. + +SUPPLEMENT. + ++Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph+. + +SELECTION FROM DARWIN. + +Morren says that angleworms often lie for hours almost motionless close +beneath the mouths of their burrows. I have occasionally noticed the same +fact with worms kept in pots in the house; so that by looking down into +their burrows their heads could just be seen. If the ejected earth or +rubbish over the burrows be suddenly removed, the end of the worm's body +may very often be seen rapidly retreating. + +This habit of lying near the surface leads to their destruction to an +immense extent. Every morning, during certain seasons of the year, the +thrushes and blackbirds on all the lawns throughout the country draw out of +their holes an astonishing number of worms; and this they could not do +unless they lay close to the surface. + +It is not probable that worms behave in this manner for the sake of +breathing fresh air, for they can live for a long time under water. I +believe that they lie near the surface for the sake of warmth, especially +in the morning; and we shall hereafter find that they often coat the mouths +of their burrows with leaves, apparently to prevent their bodies from +coming into close contact with the cold, damp earth. + ++The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--We will break up Mr. Darwin's +first group of sentences into single sentences or single statements, each +having but one predicate verb. + +1. Angleworms often lie for hours almost motionless close beneath the +mouths of their burrows. 2. Morren says this. 3. I have occasionally +noticed the same fact with worms kept in pots in the house. 4. By looking +down into their burrows their heads could just be seen. 5. The ejected +earth or rubbish over the burrows may suddenly be removed. 6. The end of +the worm's body may then very often be seen rapidly retreating. + +Find the two chief words (subject and predicate) in 1. What does _often_ +do? What does the group of words _for hours_ do? The group _almost +motionless_ describes what things? The group _close beneath the mouths of +their burrows_, used like a single adverb, tells what? Find the two chief +words in 2. _This_ helps out the meaning of _says_, but it is not an +adverb. _This_ is here a pronoun standing for the thing said. What whole +sentence does _this_ take the place of? Find the subject and the predicate +verb in 3. What noun follows this verb to tell what Mr. Darwin noticed? +What does _occasionally_ do? What does _same_ go with? What group of eight +words tells in what way Mr. Darwin noticed this fact? Find the unmodified +subject and predicate in 4. What does the second _their_ go with? What does +_by looking down into their burrows_ tell? What does _just_ do? In 5, put +_what_ before _may be removed_, and find two words either of which may be +used as subject. What is the office of _the_, _ejected_, and the group +_over the burrows_? What does _suddenly_ do? Find the subject and the +predicate verb in 6. _Retreating_ helps out the meaning of the predicate +and at the same time modifies the subject. Notice that _the end rapidly +retreating_ is not a sentence, nor is _worms kept in pots_, in 3. +_Retreating_ and _kept_ here express action, but they are not predicates; +they do not assert. You learned in Lesson 16 that certain forms of the verb +do not assert. _Of the worm's body_ modifies what? _Then_ and _very often_ +do what? + +If you will compare these numbered sentences with Mr. Darwin's, you will +see how two or more sentences are put together to make one longer sentence. +You see Mr. Darwin puts our sentence 1 after _says_ to tell what Morren +says. What word here helps to bring two sentences together? Change this +sentence about so as to make _says Morren_ come last. See how many other +changes you can make in the arrangement of the words and groups of words in +this sentence. What two words are used to join 3 and 4 together? Notice +that these sentences are not joined so closely as 1 and 2, as is shown by +the semi-colon. Notice that _if_ has much to do in joining 5 and 6. These +are more closely joined than 3 and 4, but not so closely as 1 and 2. How is +this shown by the punctuation? Put 5 and 6 together and change their order. +Find, if you can, still another arrangement. + ++To the Teacher+.--It is very important that pupils should learn to see +words in groups and to note their offices. If difficulties and +technicalities be avoided, such exercises as we suggest above may be begun +very early. They will lead to an intelligent observation of language and +will prepare the way for the more formal lessons of the text-book. + +If time can be had, such exercises may profitably be continued through the +second and third paragraphs of the selection above. + +We have said elsewhere that the sentence exercises on this selection from +Darwin may follow Lesson 30, but the teacher must determine. + ++The Paragraph+.--If we write about only one thing, or one point, our +sentences will be closely related to each other. If we write on two or more +points, there will be two or more sets of sentences--the sentences of each +set closely related to one another, but the sets themselves not so closely +related. A group of sentences expressing what we have to say on a single +point, or division, of our subject is called a +paragraph+. How many +paragraphs do you find in the selection above? How are they separated on +the page? + +Let us examine this selection more carefully to find whether the sentences +of each group are all on a single point and closely related, and whether +the groups themselves are related. Do the sentences of the first paragraph +all help to tell of a certain habit of angleworms? Do the sentences of the +second paragraph tell what results from this habit? Do the sentences of the +third paragraph tell what is thought to be the cause of this habit? If you +can say yes to these questions, the sentences in each paragraph must be +closely related. Are a habit, a result of it, and a cause of it related in +thought, or meaning? If so, the paragraphs are related. + +You must now see that paragraphing helps both the reader and the writer, +and that we should master it. + ++The Style+.--We shall not here say much about what we may call the style +of the author--his way of putting his thought, or manner of expressing it. +But this you will notice: his words are few, plain, and simple; the +arrangement of them is easy; and so what is said is said clearly. You are +nowhere in doubt about his meaning unless it be in the second paragraph. It +may puzzle you to see what _their_, _they_, and _they_ in the second +sentence of this paragraph stand for. Let _an astonishing number of worms_ +and _out of their holes_ change places, and substitute _birds_ and _worms_ +for _they_ and _they_, and see whether the meaning would be clearer. +Clearness is worth all it costs. You cannot take too much pains to be +understood. + ++First-hand Knowledge+.--As you know, we get our knowledge in two ways. We +get it by seeing and by thinking about what we see; and we get it by +listening to other people and reading what they have written. What we get +by seeing, by observation, is first-hand knowledge; what we get from others +is second-hand knowledge. Both kinds are useful; we cannot have too much of +either. But the kind that it does us most good to get and is worth most to +us when got is first-hand knowledge. This especially is the kind which you +should make your compositions of. In the first two paragraphs of the +selection above, Darwin is telling what he saw, and in the third he is +explaining what he saw. That is why what he says is so fresh and +interesting. + +And just one thing more. If such a man as Charles Darwin thought it worth +his while to spend much time in studying and experimenting upon angleworms +and then to write a large book about them, surely you need not think +anything in nature beneath your notice. + +ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. + +Tell in two or three short paragraphs what you have observed of some worm, +insect, or other creature, and what you think about it. + ++To the Teacher+.--We suggest that what is said above be read by the pupils +and discussed in the class, and that the substance of it be reproduced in +the pupils' own language. Such reproduction will serve as a lesson in oral +composition. + +It may be profitable for the pupils to reproduce the selection from Darwin. + ++Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph+. + +SELECTION FROM HABBERTON--"HELEN'S BABIES." + +The whistles completed, I was marched with music to the place where the +"Jacks" grew. It was just such a place as boys delight in--low, damp, and +boggy, with a brook hidden away under overhanging ferns and grasses. + +1. The children knew by sight the plant that bore the "Jacks," and every +discovery was announced by a piercing shriek of delight. 2. At first I +looked hurriedly toward the brook as each yell clove the air; but, as I +became accustomed to it, my attention was diverted by some exquisite ferns. +3. Suddenly, however, a succession of shrieks announced that something was +wrong, and across a large fern I saw a small face in a great deal of agony. +4. Budge was hurrying to the relief of his brother, and was soon as deeply +imbedded as Toddie was in the rich, black mud at the bottom of the brook. +5. I dashed to the rescue, stood astride the brook, and offered a hand to +each boy, when a treacherous tuft of grass gave way, and, with a glorious +splash, I went in myself. + +This accident turned Toddie's sorrow to laughter, but I can't say I made +light of my misfortune on that account. To fall into _clear_ water is not +pleasant, even when one is trout-fishing; but to be clad in white trousers +and suddenly drop nearly knee-deep into the lap of mother earth is quite a +different thing. + +I hastily picked up the children and threw them upon the bank, and then +strode out, and tried to shake myself, as I have seen a Newfoundland dog +do. The shake was not a success--it caused my trouser's legs to flap +dismally about my ankles, and sent the streams of treacherous ooze +trickling down into my shoes. My hat, of drab felt, had fallen off by the +brookside, and been plentifully spattered as I got out. + ++The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--We will put the first paragraph +above into single sentences. + +1. The whistles completed, we were marched with music to the place. 2. The +"Jacks" grew in this place. 3. It was a place low, damp, and boggy, with a +brook hidden away under overhanging ferns and grasses. 4. Boys delight in +such a place. + +Find the subject noun (or pronoun) and the predicate verb in each of the +four sentences above. Does _the whistles completed_ make complete sense? +You learned in Lesson 16 that some forms of the verb do not assert--cannot +be predicates. Does _brook hidden_, in 3, contain a predicate? What can you +say of _hidden?_ Find a noun in 3 used to complete the predicate and make +the meaning of the subject plainer. What group of adjectives modifies +_place_? Tell why these three adjectives are separated by commas. What long +phrase describes _place_? + +Find the first verb in the second paragraph of the selection. What is the +object complement of this verb? _That bore the "Jacks"_ does what? The +pronoun _that_ stands for _plant_. _The plant bore the "Jacks,"_ standing +by itself, is a complete sentence; but by using _that_ for _plant_ the +whole expression is made to do the work of an adjective. What conjunction +joins on another expression that by itself would make a complete sentence? +What are the subject and the predicate of this added sentence? _By a +piercing shriek of delight_ does what? Of what use are the phrases _at +first_ and _toward the brook_ in sentence 2? What group of words is joined +to _looked_ to tell on what occasion or how often? Find in this group a +subject, a predicate, and an object complement. What connects this group to +_looked_? What two sentences does _but_ here bring together? Does the +semicolon show that this connection is close? Point out what you think to +be the leading subject and the leading verb after _but_. _By some exquisite +ferns_ is joined to what? What group of words goes with _was diverted_ to +tell when? Find in this group a subject, a predicate, and an attribute +complement. Point out in the first part of 3 the leading subject and its +verb. What does _suddenly_ go with? What does _of shrieks_ modify? +_However_ is loosely thrown in to carry the attention back to what goes +before. Notice the commas. Answer the question made by putting _what_ after +_announced_. In this group of words used as object complement can you find +a subject, a predicate, and a complement? What two sentences does _and_ +here bring together? Point out the subject, the predicate, and the +complement in the second of these. _Across a large fern_ is joined like an +adverb to what? _In a great deal of agony_ modifies what? Find a compound +predicate in 4. What phrase is joined to _was imbedded_ to tell where? The +group of words _as deeply as Toddie was (imbedded)_ is joined to what? Find +in 5 a compound predicate made up of three verbs, one of which has an +object complement. + ++To the Teacher+.--See suggestions with the preceding selection. If our +exercises on the second paragraph above are found too hard, the compound +and complex sentences may be broken up into single statements. + +We have indicated elsewhere that this sentence work may follow Lesson 40. + ++The Narrative+.--This selection from "Helen's Babies" is a story and +therefore a narrative. But there are some descriptive touches in it. All +stories must have such touches. Perhaps it is not always essential to +distinguish between narration and description, but it is worth your while +to do it occasionally. Try to point out the descriptive parts in these +paragraphs. You certainly can find a descriptive sentence in the first +paragraph, and descriptive words, phrases, and clauses throughout the +selection. What help to the narrative do these descriptive touches give? + ++The Paragraphs+.--What have you learned about the sentences that make up +one paragraph? Are the paragraphs more, or less, closely related than the +sentences of each paragraph? Why? Examine these paragraphs and see whether +any sentences can be changed from one paragraph to another. If you think +they can, give your reason. Is the order of these paragraphs the right one? +Can the order anywhere be changed without throwing the story out of joint? +Why? + ++The General Topic and the Sub-topics+.--We shall find that every +composition has its general subject and that each paragraph in the +composition bus its own particular subject. Let us call the subject of the +whole composition the _general topic_. _Sub_ means _under_, and so let us +call the point which each paragraph develops a _sub-topic_. In the story +above we may find some such outline as the following:-- + + AN EXCURSION IN SEARCH OF "JACKS." + 1. The Place where Jacks Grow. + 2. The Mishap to the Excursionists. + 3. The Uncle Takes his Seriously. + 4. His Attempt at Repairs. + +Do you think that such a _framework_ helps a writer to tell his story? Do +you not think that each sub-topic must suggest some thoughts that the +general topic alone would not suggest? If you keep clearly before you the +sub-topic of your paragraph, what effect do you think it will have on the +thoughts and the sentences of that paragraph? With a good framework clearly +before you, must not your story move along in an orderly way from a +beginning to an end? Have you ever heard stories badly told? If so, what +were the faults? + + +ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. + +Have you not had some experience that you can work up into a good story? If +you have, tell the story upon paper, making use of the instruction we have +given you in our talk above. + ++To the Teacher+.--Perhaps a reproduction of the story above may be +profitable. + + +EXERCISES ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE SENTENCE AND THE PARAGRAPH. + +SELECTION FROM GEORGE ELIOT. + +And this is Dovecote Mill. I must stand a minute or two here on the bridge +and look at it, though the clouds are threatening and it is far on in the +afternoon. Even in this leafless time of departing February, it is pleasant +to look at it. Perhaps the chill, damp season adds a charm to the +trimly-kept building, as old as the elms and chestnuts that shelter it from +the northern blast. + +The stream is brimful now, and half drowns the grassy fringe in front of +the house. As I look at the stream, the vivid grass, the delicate, bright +green softening the outline of the great trunks and branches that gleam +from under the bare purple boughs, I am in love with moistness, and envy +the white ducks that are dipping their heads far into the water, unmindful +of the awkward appearance in the drier world above. + +1. And now there is the huge covered wagon, coming home with sacks of +grain. 2. That honest wagoner is thinking of his dinner, which is getting +sadly dry in the oven at this late hour; but he will not touch it till he +has fed his horses--the strong, submissive beasts, who, I fancy, are +looking mild reproach at him from between their blinkers, that he should +crack his whip at them in that awful manner, as if they needed such a hint! +3. See how they stretch their shoulders up the slope toward the bridge, +with all the more energy because they are so near home. 4. Look at their +grand, shaggy feet, that seem to grasp the firm earth, at the patient +strength of their necks bowed under the heavy collar, at the mighty muscles +of their struggling haunches. 5. I should like to see them, with their +moist necks freed from the harness, dipping their eager nostrils into the +pond. + ++The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--Notice that in sentence 1, third +paragraph, the subject is placed after the predicate. Tell what _now_ and +_there_ do. _Coming home with sacks of grain_ does what? Does _coming_ +express action? Does it assert action? What is it? What does _home_ do? Put +_its_ before _home_ and then read the whole phrase. What other change do +you find necessary? A noun is sometimes used alone to do the work of an +adverb phrase, the preposition being omitted. What is the office of +_minute_ in the second sentence of the first paragraph? What preposition +could be put in? In 2, third paragraph, the pronoun _which_ stands for +_dinner_. Read the sentence, using the noun instead of the pronoun. Have +you now two sentences, or one? You see that _which_ not only stands for +_dinner_, but it joins on a sentence so as to make it describe the dinner. +What does _till he has fed his horses_ do? Omitting _till_, would this +group of words be a sentence? What, then, joins this group, and makes it do +the work of an adverb? Notice the dash after _horses_. The writer here +breaks off rather suddenly and begins again, using _beasts_ instead of +_horses_. To _beasts_ are added many descriptive words. You will learn that +this noun _beasts_ added to the noun _horses_ is called an explanatory +modifier. Notice that _I fancy_ is thrown in loosely or independently and +is set off by commas. All the other words beginning with _who_ and ending +with _hint_ are joined by _who_ to _beasts_. Notice that the writer makes +these beasts think like persons, and so uses _who_ instead of _which_ or +_that_. Do we ordinarily speak of looking anything? In _who are looking +reproach_, what is the object complement of _are looking_? What long group +of words made up of two sentences tells why the beasts are looking +reproach? Read separately the main divisions of 2. What conjunction +connects these? Is one of these divisions itself divided into parts by +commas? Should, then, some mark of wider separation be put between the main +divisions of 2? To build so long a sentence as 2 is venturesome. We advise +young writers not to make such attempts. It is hard to write very long +sentences and keep the meaning clear. In 3 the subject of _see_ is _you_, +which is generally omitted in a command. You are here told to see what? +Break this long object complement up into two sentences. What do the horses +stretch? Where do they stretch their shoulders? How do they stretch? Why do +they stretch with more energy? What is the subject of _look_ in 4? The +phrase beginning with _at_ and ending with _earth_ does what? Find two +other long phrases introduced by _at_ and tell what they do. _That seem to +grasp the firm earth_ goes with what? Put the noun _feet_ in place of the +pronoun _that_ and make a separate sentence of this group. What word, then, +makes an adjective modifier of this sentence and joins it to _feet_? Does +_to grasp_ assert action? What do you call it? It is here used as attribute +complement. _Bowed under the heavy collar_ describes what? Does _bowed_ +assert action? What do you call it? + ++To the Teacher+.--If time permits, we believe that such exercises as the +above may profitably be continued. This sentence work may perhaps best +follow Lesson 50. See suggestions with preceding exercises. + ++Descriptive Writing+.--This extract from the novelist who called herself +"George Eliot" we have slightly changed for our purpose. It is purely ++descriptive+. It is a painting in words--a vivid picture of a very pretty +scene. How grateful we are to those who can, as it were, turn a page of a +book into canvas, and paint on it a rich verbal picture that delights us +every time we read it or recall it! How many such pictures there are in our +libraries! And how little they cost us when compared with those that we buy +and hang upon our walls! + ++Some Features of a Good Description+.--Does this author mention many +features of the mill, of the stream, and of the horses pulling their load +over the bridge? Do those that she does mention suggest to you everything +else? Name some of the things suggested to you but not mentioned in this +description. Does not some of the charm of a description lie in the +reader's having something left him to supply? If the author had given you +every little detail of the mill, the stream, and the laboring horses, would +not the description have been dull and tiresome? What things that the +author imagined but did not really see are mentioned in the third +paragraph? Do these touches of fancy or imagination help the picture? Do +they show that the author was in love with her work? and do they therefore +stimulate your fancy or imagination? + ++The Framework+.--In making a framework for this description would you take +for the general topic "The Scene from the Bridge" or "Things Seen from a +Bridge"? or would you prefer some other wording of it? Now write out a +framework, placing the sub-topics under the general topic as you have been +taught. + + +ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. + +Describe some scene that you greatly enjoy, or draw your picture from +imagination. Make a framework and try to profit by all that we have said. + + +EXERCISES ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE SENTENCE AND THE PARAGRAPH. + +SELECTION FROM THE BROTHERS GRIMM. + +Once upon a time there was a very old man, whose eyes were dim, whose ears +were dull, and whose knees trembled. When he sat at table, he could +scarcely hold his spoon; and often he spilled his food over the tablecloth +and sometimes down his clothes. + +His son and daughter-in-law were much vexed about this, and at last they +made the old man sit behind the oven in a corner, and gave him his food in +an earthen dish, and not enough of it either; so that the poor man grew +sad, and his eyes were wet with tears. Once his hand trembled so much that +he could not hold the dish, and it fell upon the ground and broke all in +pieces, so that the young wife scolded him; but he made no reply and only +sighed. Then they brought him a wooden dish, and out of that he had to +feed. + +One day, as he was sitting in his usual place, he saw his little grandson, +four years old, fitting together some pieces of wood. "What are you +making?" asked the old man. + +"I am making a wooden trough," replied the child, "for father and mother to +feed out of when I grow big." + +At these words the father looked at his wife for a moment, and presently +they began to cry. Henceforth they let the old grandfather sit at the table +with them, and they did not even say anything if he spilled a little food +upon the cloth. + ++The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--What is the order of subject and +predicate in the first sentence of this selection? The word _there_ does +not tell where; it is put before _was_ to let the subject follow. _There_ +is frequently so used and is then called an independent adverb. Find in the +first sentence three adjective clauses. What connects each to _man_? What +other office has this connective? How are these adjective clauses connected +with one another? What is the office of the dependent clause in the next +sentence? If this clause were placed after its principal clause, would the +comma be needed? Are the clauses separated by the semicolon as closely +connected as those divided by the comma? + +After _made_ and some other words the _to_ before the infinitive is +omitted. Find such an instance in the first sentence of the second +paragraph. In this same sentence change _gave him his food_, making _him_ +come last. You have learned that a noun or a pronoun may be used without a +preposition to do the work of an adverb phrase. What does _one day_ do in +the third paragraph? Is a preposition needed before _day?_ In the same +sentence _years_ is used adverbially to modify the adjective _old_. It +would be hard to find a preposition to put before _years_. We might say +"old to the extent of four years," but _four years_ answers for the whole +phrase. In this same paragraph what words are quoted exactly as the old man +uttered them? Describe the quotation marks. Notice that the next quotation +is broken by the words _replied the child_, and so each part of the +quotation is separately inclosed within quotation marks. + ++To the Teacher+.--We have here touched a few features of the sentences +above. The exercises given with the preceding selections will suggest a +fuller examination of the phrases and clauses. + ++Suggestions from this Narrative+.--We see that this beautiful story has a +purpose. Its purpose is to teach us kindness to our parents. It is well +planned. Every sentence and every paragraph is adapted to the end in view. +No useless item or circumstance is admitted. The story stops when the end +is reached. Anything added to the fifth paragraph would spoil the story. We +certainly can learn much from such a model. + ++Paragraphs+.--Does every sentence in the first paragraph aid in picturing +the helplessness of the old grandfather? Is the picture complete? Does the +second paragraph strongly impress us with the unkindness of the son and +daughter-in-law, who ought to have been moved to pity by the old man's +condition? Does it contain an unnecessary sentence? In telling how the +grandchild unconsciously taught a lesson, a dialogue is introduced, and so +what really belongs to one sub-topic is put in the form of two paragraphs. +It is customary to make a separate paragraph of each single speech in a +dialogue. Read the last paragraph carefully and see whether one could wish +to know anything more about the effect of the lesson taught by the child. + +Make a framework for this story. + + +ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. + +Make up a short story from your own experience, or from your imagination, +and try to profit by the suggestions above. Prepare a framework at the +beginning. + + + ++Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph+. + + +SELECTION FROM BEECHER. + +Overwork almost always ends in weakening the digestive organs. There are +those who overtax their minds through months and years, forgetful that +there is a close connection between overwork and dyspepsia. Everyone should +remember that there is a point beyond which he cannot urge his brain +without harm to his stomach; and that, when he loses his stomach, he loses +the very citadel of health. The whole body is renewed from the blood, and +the blood is made from the food taken into the stomach. The power of the +blood to renew bone and brain and muscle depends upon a good digestion. + +Too little sleep is fatal to health. Perhaps you have to work hard all day; +but that is no reason why you should resolve, "If I cannot have pleasure by +day, I will have it at night." You are taking the very substance of your +body when you burn the lamp of pleasure till one or two o'clock in the +morning. God has made sleep to be a sponge with which to rub out fatigue. A +man's roots are planted in night, as a tree's are planted in soil, and out +of it he should come, at waking, with fresh growth and bloom. As a rule, +you should take eight hours of the twenty-four, for sleep. + ++The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--In the exercises under the +selection from the Brothers Grimm what did you learn about _there_ as used +twice in the second sentence above? What does _those_ mean? What long +adjective clause is joined to _those_ by _who_? Does this clause read so +closely as not to need a comma before _who_? Does _forgetful_ describe the +persons represented by _who_? Why is a comma used before _forgetful_? You +learned in a preceding exercise that a noun may do the work of an adverb +phrase without the help of a preposition. A noun clause may do the same. +The adjective _forgetful_ is modified by the noun clause _that ... +dyspepsia_. If we say _forgetful of the fact_, we see that the noun clause +means the same as _fact_ and has the same office. What two long noun +clauses aroused to complete _should remember_? What conjunction introduces +each of these clauses? What conjunction joins them together? What mark of +punctuation between? If one of these noun clauses were not itself divided +into clauses by the comma, would the semicolon be needed? The clause +_beyond ... stomach_ goes with what word? _When ... stomach_ modifies what +verb? Classify the sentences of this paragraph as simple, complex, or +compound. + ++To the Teacher+.--We have here treated informally some difficult points. +Perhaps these may be better understood when the book is reviewed. + ++The Various Objects Writers Have+.--From your study of the preceding +selections you learn that a writer may have any one of several objects in +writing. He may wish simply to instruct the reader, as does Darwin in what +he says of earthworms. He may wish merely to amuse the reader, as does Mr. +Habberton in our extract from "Helen's Babies." He may wish only to put +before them a picture which, like that of George Eliot's, shall afford +delight. Or he may wish to get hold of what we call our wills and lead us +to do something, perform some duty. This is what the story from the +Brothers Grimm aims at. And you saw how it does this--by working on our +feelings. There are at least these four objects that a writer may propose +to himself. Which of these four objects has Mr. Beecher in the paragraphs +we quote? Does he instruct? Does he try to get us to do something? Would it +help you to have clearly before you from the beginning the object you are +seeking to accomplish? + ++Figurative Expressions+.--In these paragraphs Mr. Beecher calls a man's +stomach the citadel of health, and sleep a sponge to rub out fatigue with, +and says a man's roots are planted in night. He does not use these words +_citadel_, _sponge_, and _roots_ in their first or common meaning. He uses +them in what we call a +figurative+ sense. He means to say that a man's +stomach is to him what a fortress is to soldiers, a source of strength; +that in sleep fatigue disappears as do figures on a slate or blackboard +when a wet sponge is drawn across them; and that a man gets out of night +what a tree's roots draw out of the soil, nourishment and vigor. Such +figurative uses of words give strength and beauty to style. + + +ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. + +In the paragraphs quoted above you were told of the effects on health of +overwork and of insufficient sleep. Perhaps you can write of exercise, of +proper food, of clothes, or of some other things on which health may +depend. + ++Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph+. + +ADAPTED FROM DR. JOHN BROWN--"RAB AND HIS FRIENDS." + +Rab belonged to a lost tribe--there are no such dogs now. He was old and +gray and brindled; and his hair short, hard, and close, like a lion's. He +was as big as a Highland bull, and his body was thickset. He must have +weighed ninety pounds at least. + +His large, blunt head was scarred with the record of old wounds, a series +of battlefields all over it. His muzzle was as black as night, his mouth +blacker than any night, and a tooth or two, all he had, gleamed out of his +jaws of darkness. One eye was out, one ear cropped close. The remaining eye +had the power of two; and above it, and in constant communication with it, +was a tattered rag of an ear that was for ever unfurling itself, like an +old flag. + +And then that bud of a tail, about an inch long, if it could in any sense +be said to be long, being as broad as it was long! The mobility of it, its +expressive twinklings and winkings, and the intercommunications between the +eye, the ear, and it, were of the oddest and swiftest. + +Rab had the dignity and simplicity of great size. Having fought his way all +along the road to absolute supremacy, he was as mighty in his own line as +Julius Caesar or the Duke of Wellington in his, and he had the gravity of +all great fighters. + ++To the Teacher+.--We suggest exercises on the uses of words similar to +those preceding. Before attempting this it may be well to let the pupils go +over these condensed expressions and supply the words necessary to the +analysis. For instance, in the first paragraph _hair_ may be followed by +_was_ and _Highland bull_ by _is big_. In the next paragraph _wounds_ may +be followed by _marking_, _as night_ by _is black_, etc. In the third +paragraph _and then_ may be followed by _there was_, etc. The pupils will +determine whether supplying these words makes the description stronger or +weaker. + +Pupils may note especially the offices of nouns, verbs, and adjectives. +This selection abounds in descriptive nouns and verbs that are particularly +well chosen. Let the pupils point out such. + ++The Description+.--How does the description above impress you? Are only +characteristic parts and features selected? Are these few features enough +to give you a distinct and vivid picture of Rab? What comparisons do you +find? How do they help? Pick out some words or phrases that seem to you +very expressive. Find some words that are used, not in their first or +common sense, but in a figurative sense. How do they help? + ++Paragraphs+.--Which paragraph puts before you the dog as a whole? Where +must this paragraph naturally stand? Why? Which paragraph describes Rab's +character? What does each of the other paragraphs describe? If you think +the arrangement of paragraphs above is the best, tell why. + +Make a framework for this description. + +ORIGINAL COMPOSITION. + +Write a description of some animal which you have closely observed and in +which you are interested. Be careful to pick out leading or characteristic +features that will bring others into the reader's imagination. First +prepare a framework. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Graded Lessons in English +by Alonzo Reed and Brainerd Kellogg + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GRADED LESSONS IN ENGLISH *** + +This file should be named 7010.txt or 7010.zip + +This eBook was produced by Karl Hagen, Charles Franks, +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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