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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Graded Lessons in English
+by Alonzo Reed and Brainerd Kellogg
+
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+**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts**
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+**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971**
+
+*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!*****
+
+
+Title: Graded Lessons in English
+       An Elementary English Grammar Consisting of One Hundred Practical
+       Lessons, Carefully Graded and Adapted to the Class-Room
+
+Author: Alonzo Reed and Brainerd Kellogg
+
+Release Date: December, 2004 [EBook #7010]
+[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule]
+[This file was first posted on February 22, 2003]
+
+Edition: 10
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GRADED LESSONS IN ENGLISH ***
+
+
+
+
+This eBook was produced by Karl Hagen, Charles Franks,
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team.
+
+
+
+
+** Transcriber's Notes **
+
+Underscores mark italics; words enclosed in +pluses+ represent boldface;
+words enclosed in /slashes/ represent underlined words. Words enclosed in
+~tildes~ represent a wavy underline.
+
+To represent the sentence diagrams in ASCII, the following conventions are
+used:
+
+- The heavy horizontal line (for the main clause) is formed with equals
+  signs (==).
+- Other solid vertical lines are formed with minus signs (--).
+- Diagonal lines are formed with backslashes (\).
+- Words printed on a diagonal line are preceded by a backslash, with no
+  horizontal line under them.
+- Dotted horizontal lines are formed with periods (..)
+- Dotted vertical lines are formed with straight apostrophes (')
+- Dotted diagonal lines are formed with slanted apostrophes  (`)
+- Words printed over a horizontally broken line are shown like this:
+
+     ----, helping
+         '---------
+
+- Words printed bending around a diagonal-horizontal line are broken like
+  this:
+
+     \wai
+      \   ting
+       ---------
+** End Transcriber's Notes **
+
+GRADED LESSONS IN ENGLISH.
+
+AN
+
+ELEMENTARY
+
+ENGLISH GRAMMAR,
+
+CONSISTING OF
+
+ONE HUNDRED PRACTICAL LESSONS,
+
+CAREFULLY GRADED AND ADAPTED TO THE CLASS-ROOM,
+
+BY
+
+ALONZO REED, A.M.,
+
+FORMERLY INSTRUCTOR OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR IN THE POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE,
+BROOKLYN
+
+AND
+
+BRAINERD KELLOGG, LL.D.,
+PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN THE
+POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, BROOKLYN
+
+REVISED EDITION, 1896.
+
+
+
+A COMPLETE COURSE IN ENGLISH.
+BY
+ALONZO REED, A.M., AND BRAINERD KELLOGG, LL.D.
+
+REED'S WORD LESSONS, A COMPLETE SPELLER. Designed to teach the correct
+spelling, pronunciation, and use of such words only as are most common in
+current literature, and as are most likely to be misspelled, mispronounced,
+or misused, and to awaken new interest in the study of synonyms and of
+word-analysis. 188 pages, 12mo.
+
+REED'S INTRODUCTORY LANGUAGE WORK. A simple, varied, and pleasing, but
+methodical series of exercises in English to precede the study of technical
+grammar. 253 pages, 16mo, linen.
+
+REED & KELLOGG'S GRADED LESSONS IN ENGLISH. An elementary English grammar,
+consisting of one hundred practical lessons, carefully graded and adapted,
+to the class-room. 215 pages, 16mo, linen.
+
+REED & KELLOGG'S HIGHER LESSONS IN ENGLISH. A work on English grammar and
+composition, in which the science of the language is made tributary to the
+art of expression. A course of practical lessons carefully graded, and
+adapted to every-day use in the school-room. 386 pages, 16mo, cloth.
+
+REED & KELLOGG'S ONE-BOOK COURSE IN ENGLISH. A carefully graded and
+complete series of lessons in English grammar and composition based on the
+natural development of the sentence. For schools that have not time to
+complete more than one book on grammar. 328 pages, 16mo, cloth.
+
+KELLOGG & REED'S WORD-BUILDING. Fifty lessons, combining Latin, Greek, and
+Anglo-Saxon roots, prefixes, and suffixes, into about fifty-five hundred
+common derivative words in English; with a brief history of the English
+language. 122 pages, 16mo, cloth.
+
+KELLOGG & REED'S THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. A brief history of the grammatical
+changes of the language and its vocabulary, with exercises on synonyms,
+prefixes, suffixes, word-analysis, and word-building. A text-book for high
+schools and colleges. 226 pages, 16mo, cloth.
+
+KELLOGG'S TEXT-BOOK ON RHETORIC. Revised and enlarged edition.
+Supplementing the development of the science with exhaustive practice in
+composition. A course of practical lessons adapted for use in high schools,
+academies, and lower classes of colleges. 345 pages, 12mo, cloth.
+
+KELLOGG'S TEXT-BOOK ON ENGLISH LITERATURE. with copious extracts from the
+leading authors, English and American, and full instructions as to the
+method in which these books are to be studied. 485 pages, 12mo, cloth.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+The plan of "Graded and Higher Lessons in English" will perhaps be better
+understood if we first speak of two classes of text-books with which this
+course is brought into competition.
+
++Method of One Class of Text-books+.--In one class are those that aim
+chiefly to present a course of technical grammar in the order of
+Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. These books give large space
+to grammatical Etymology, and demand much memorizing of definitions, rules,
+declensions, and conjugations, and much formal word parsing,--work of which
+a considerable portion is merely the invention of grammarians, and has
+little value in determining the pupil's use of language or in developing
+his reasoning faculties. This is a revival of the long-endured, unfruitful,
+old-time method.
+
++Method of Another Class of Text-books+.--In another class are those that
+present a miscellaneous collection of lessons in Composition, Spelling,
+Pronunciation, Sentence-analysis, Technical Grammar, and General
+Information, without unity or continuity. The pupil who completes these
+books will have gained something by practice and will have picked up some
+scraps of knowledge; but his information will be vague and disconnected,
+and he will have missed that mental training which it is the aim of a good
+text-book to afford. A text-book is of value just so far as it presents a
+clear, logical development of its subject. It must present its science or
+its art as a natural growth, otherwise there is no apology for its being.
+
++The Study of the Sentence for the Proper Use of Words+.--It is the plan of
+this course to trace with easy steps the natural development of the
+sentence, to consider the leading facts first and then to descend to the
+details. To begin with the parts of speech is to begin with details and to
+disregard the higher unities, without which the details are scarcely
+intelligible. The part of speech to which a word belongs is determined only
+by its function in the sentence, and inflections simply mark the offices
+and relations of words. Unless the pupil has been systematically trained to
+discover the functions and relations of words as elements of an organic
+whole, his knowledge of the parts of speech is of little value. It is not
+because he cannot conjugate the verb or decline the pronoun that he falls
+into such errors as "How many sounds _have_ each of the vowels?" "Five
+years' interest _are_ due." "She is older than _me_." He probably would not
+say "each _have_," "interest _are_," "_me_ am." One thoroughly familiar
+with the structure of the sentence will find little trouble in using
+correctly the few inflectional forms in English.
+
++The Study of the Sentence for the Laws of Discourse+.--Through the study
+of the sentence we not only arrive at an intelligent knowledge of the parts
+of speech and a correct use of grammatical forms, but we discover the laws
+of discourse in general. In the sentence the student should find the law of
+unity, of continuity, of proportion, of order. All good writing consists of
+good sentences properly joined. Since the sentence is the foundation or
+unit of discourse, it is all-important that the pupil should know the
+sentence. He should be able to put the principal and the subordinate parts
+in their proper relation; he should know the exact function of every
+element, its relation to other elements and its relation to the whole. He
+should know the sentence as the skillful engineer knows his engine, that,
+when there is a disorganization of parts, he may at once find the
+difficulty and the remedy for it.
+
++The Study of the Sentence for the Sake of Translation+.--The laws of
+thought being the same for all nations, the logical analysis of the
+sentence is the same for all languages. When a student who has acquired a
+knowledge of the English sentence comes to the translation of a foreign
+language, he finds his work greatly simplified. If in a sentence of his own
+language he sees only a mass of unorganized words, how much greater must be
+his confusion when this mass of words is in a foreign tongue! A study of
+the parts of speech is a far less important preparation for translation,
+since the declensions and conjugations in English do not conform to those
+of other languages. Teachers of the classics and of modern languages are
+beginning to appreciate these facts.
+
++The Study of the Sentence for Discipline+.--As a means of discipline
+nothing can compare with a training in the logical analysis of the
+sentence. To study thought through its outward form, the sentence, and to
+discover the fitness of the different parts of the expression to the parts
+of the thought, is to learn to think. It has been noticed that pupils
+thoroughly trained in the analysis and the construction of sentences come
+to their other studies with a decided advantage in mental power. These
+results can be obtained only by systematic and persistent work. Experienced
+teachers understand that a few weak lessons on the sentence at the
+beginning of a course and a few at the end can afford little discipline and
+little knowledge that will endure, nor can a knowledge of the sentence be
+gained by memorizing complicated rules and labored forms of analysis. To
+compel a pupil to wade through a page or two of such bewildering terms as
+"complex adverbial element of the second class" and "compound prepositional
+adjective phrase," in order to comprehend a few simple functions, is
+grossly unjust; it is a substitution of form for content, of words for
+ideas.
+
++Subdivisions and Modifications after the Sentence+.--Teachers familiar
+with text books that group all grammatical instruction around the eight
+parts of speech, making eight independent units, will not, in the following
+lessons, find everything in its accustomed place. But, when it is
+remembered that the thread of connection unifying this work is the
+sentence, it will be seen that the lessons fall into their natural order of
+sequence. When, through the development of the sentence, all the offices of
+the different parts of speech are mastered, the most natural thing is to
+continue the work of classification and subdivide the parts of speech. The
+inflection of words, being distinct from their classification, makes a
+separate division of the work. If the chief end of grammar were to enable
+one to parse, we should not here depart from long-established precedent.
+
++Sentences in Groups--Paragraphs+.--In tracing the growth of the sentence
+from the simplest to the most complex form, each element, as it is
+introduced, is illustrated by a large number of detached sentences, chosen
+with the utmost care as to thought and expression. These compel the pupil
+to confine his attention to one thing till he gets it well in hand.
+Paragraphs from literature are then selected to be used at intervals, with
+questions and suggestions to enforce principles already presented, and to
+prepare the way informally for the regular lessons that follow. The lessons
+on these selections are, however, made to take a much wider scope. They
+lead the pupil to discover how and why sentences are grouped into
+paragraphs, and how paragraphs are related to each other; they also lead
+him on to discover whatever is most worthy of imitation in the style of the
+several models presented.
+
++The Use of the Diagram+.--In written analysis, the simple map, or diagram,
+found in the following lessons, will enable the pupil to present directly
+and vividly to the eye the exact function of every clause in the sentence,
+of every phrase in the clause, and of every word in the phrase--to picture
+the complete analysis of the sentence, with principal and subordinate parts
+in their proper relations. It is only by the aid of such a map, or picture,
+that the pupil can, at a single view, see the sentence as an organic whole
+made up of many parts performing various functions and standing in various
+relations. Without such map he must labor under the disadvantage of seeing
+all these things by piecemeal or in succession.
+
+But, if for any reason the teacher prefers not to use these diagrams, they
+may be omitted without causing the slightest break in the work. The plan of
+this book is in no way dependent on the use of the diagrams.
+
++The Objections to the Diagram+.--The fact that the pictorial diagram
+groups the parts of a sentence according to their offices and relations,
+and not in the order of speech, has been spoken of as a fault. It is on the
+contrary, a merit, for it teaches the pupil to look through the literary
+order and discover the logical order. He thus learns what the literary
+order really is, and sees that this may be varied indefinitely, so long as
+the logical relations are kept clear.
+
+The assertion that correct diagrams can be made mechanically is not borne
+out by the facts. It is easier to avoid precision in oral analysis than in
+written. The diagram drives the pupil to a most searching examination of
+the sentence, brings him face to face with every difficulty, and compels a
+decision on every point.
+
++The Abuse of the Diagram+.--Analysis by diagram often becomes so
+interesting and so helpful that, like other good things, it is liable to be
+overdone. There is danger of requiring too much written analysis. When the
+ordinary constructions have been made clear, diagrams should be used only
+for the more difficult sentences, or, if the sentences are long, only for
+the more difficult parts of them. In both oral and written analysis there
+is danger of repeating what needs no repetition. When the diagram has
+served its purpose, it should be dropped.
+
+SUGGESTIONS FOR COMPOSITION EXERCISES
+
+The exercises in composition found in the numbered Lessons of this book are
+generally confined to the illustration and the practical application of the
+principles of the science as these principles are developed step by step.
+To break up the continuity of the text by thrusting unrelated composition
+work between lessons closely related and mutually dependent is exceedingly
+unwise.
+
+The Composition Exercises suggested in this revision of "Graded Lessons"
+are designed to review the regular Lessons and to prepare in a broad,
+informal way for text work that follows. But since these Exercises go much
+farther, and teach the pupil how to construct paragraphs and how to observe
+and imitate what is good in different authors, they are placed in a
+supplement, and not between consecutive Lessons of the text.
+
+To let such general composition work take the place of the regular grammar
+lesson, say once a week, will be profitable. We suggest that the sentence
+work on the selections in the Supplement be made to follow Lessons 30, 40,
+50, 60, 70, 77; but each teacher must determine for himself when these and
+the other outlined lessons can best be used. We advise that other
+selections from literature be made and these exercises continued with the
+treatment of the parts of speech.
+
+For composition work to precede Lesson 30 we suggest that the teacher break
+up a short story of one or two paragraphs into simple sentences, making
+some of these transposed, some interrogative, and some exclamatory. The
+pupils may be required to copy these, to underline the subject and the
+predicate, and to tell, in answer to suggestive questions, what some of the
+other words and groups of words do (the questions on the selections in the
+Supplement may aid the teacher). The pupils may then write out the story in
+full form. To vary the exercise, the teacher might read the story and let
+the pupils write out the short sentences.
+
+
+
+
+A TALK ON LANGUAGE.
+
+
+The teacher is recommended, before assigning any lesson, to occupy the time
+of at least two or three recitations, in talking with his pupils about
+language, always remembering that, in order to secure the interest of his
+class, he must allow his pupils to take an active part in the exercise. The
+teacher should guide the thought of his class; but, if he attempt to do
+_all the talking_, he will find, when he concludes, that he has been
+left to do _all the thinking_.
+
+We give below a few hints in conducting this talk on language, but the
+teacher is not expected to confine himself to them. He will, of course, be
+compelled, in some instances, to resort to various devices in order to
+obtain from the pupils answers equivalent to those here suggested.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 1.
+
++Teacher+.--I will pronounce these three sounds very slowly and distinctly,
+thus: _b-u-d_. Notice, it is the _power_, or _sound_, of the letter, and
+not its name, that I give. What did you hear?
+
++Pupil+.--I heard three sounds.
+
++T.--+Give them. I will write on the board, so that you can see them, three
+letters--_b-u-d_. Are these letters, taken separately, signs to you of
+anything?
+
++P.--+Yes, they are signs to me of the three sounds that I have just heard.
+
++T.--+What then do these letters, taken separately, picture to your eye?
+
++P.--+They picture the sounds that came to my ear.
+
++T+.--Letters then are the signs of what?
+
++P.--Letters are the signs of sounds+.
+
++T+.--I will pronounce the same three sounds more rapidly, uniting them
+more closely--_bud_. These sounds, so united, form a spoken word. Of what
+do you think when you hear the word _bud_?
+
++P+.--I think of a little round thing that grows to be a leafy branch or a
+flower.
+
++T+.--Did you see the thing when you were thinking of it?
+
++P+.--No.
+
++T+.--Then you must have had a picture of it in your mind. We call this
++mental picture+ an +idea+. What called up this idea?
+
++P+.--It was called up by the word _bud_, which I heard.
+
++T+.--A _spoken word_ then is the sign of what?
+
++P.--A spoken word is the sign of an idea+.
+
++T+.--I will call up the same idea in another way. I will _write_ three
+_letters_ and unite them thus: _bud_. What do you see?
+
++P+.--I see the word _bud_.
+
++T+.--If we call the other word _bud_ a _spoken_ word, what shall we call
+this?
+
++P+.--This is a _written_ word.
+
++T+.--If they stand for the same idea, how do they differ?
+
++P+.--I _see_ this, and I _heard_ that.
+
++T+.--You will observe that we have called attention to _four_ different
+things; viz., the +real bud+; your _mental picture_ of the bud, which we
+have called an +idea+; and the +two words+, which we have called signs of
+this idea, the one addressed to the ear, and the other to the eye.
+
+If the pupil be brought to see these distinctions, it may aid him to
+observe more closely and express himself more clearly.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 2.
+
++Teacher+.--What did you learn in the previous Lesson?
+
++Pupil+.--I learned that a spoken word is composed of certain sounds, and
+that letters are signs of sounds, and that spoken and written words are the
+signs of ideas.
+
+This question should be passed from one pupil to another till all of these
+answers are elicited.
+
+All the written words in all the English books ever made, are formed of
+twenty-six letters, representing about forty sounds. These letters and
+these sounds make up what is called artificial language.
+
+Of these twenty-six letters, +a, e, i, o, u+, and sometimes +w+ and +y+,
+are called +vowels+, and the remainder are called +consonants+.
+
+In order that you may understand what kind of sounds the vowels stand for,
+and what kinds the consonants represent, I will tell you something about
+the _human voice_.
+
+The air breathed out from your lungs beats against two flat muscles,
+stretched like strings across the top of the windpipe, and causes them to
+vibrate. This vibrating makes sound. Take a thread, put one end between
+your teeth, hold the other in your fingers, draw it tight and strike it,
+and you will understand how voice is made.
+
+If the voice thus produced comes out through the mouth held well open, a
+class of sounds is formed which we call _vowel_ sounds.
+
+But, if the voice is held back by your palate, tongue, teeth, or lips,
+_one_ kind of _consonant_ sounds is made. If the _breath_ is driven out
+_without voice_, and is held back by these same parts of the mouth, the
+_other_ kind of _consonant_ sounds is formed. Ex. of both: _b, d, g; p, t,
+k_.
+
+The teacher and pupils should practice on these sounds till the three kinds
+can easily be distinguished.
+
+You are now prepared to understand what I mean when I say that the +vowels+
+are the +letters+ which stand for the +open sounds of the voice+, and that
+the +consonants+ are the +letters+ which stand for the sounds made by the
++obstructed voice+ and the +obstructed breath+.
+
+The teacher can here profitably spend a few minutes in showing how ideas
+may be communicated by _Natural Language_, the language of _sighs, groans,
+gestures_ of the hands, _attitudes_ of the body, _expressions_ of the face,
+_tones_ of the voice, etc. He can show that, in conversation, we sometimes
+couple this _Natural Language_ of _tone_ and _gesture_ with our language of
+words, in order to make a stronger impression. Let the pupil be told that,
+if the passage contain feeling, he should do the same in _Reading_ and
+_Declaiming_.
+
+Let the following definitions be learned, and given at the next recitation.
+
++DEFINITION.--Artificial Language, or _Language Proper_, consists of the
+spoken and written words used to communicate ideas and thoughts+.
+
++DEFINITION.--_English Grammar_ is the science which teaches the forms,
+uses, and relations of the words of the English Language+.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 3
+
+Let the pupils be required to tell what they learned in the previous
+lessons.
+
++Teacher+.--When I pronounce the two words _star_ and _bud_ thus: _star
+bud_, how many ideas, or mental pictures, do I call up to you?
+
++Pupil+.--Two.
+
++T+.--Do you see any connection between these ideas?
+
++P+.--No.
+
++T+.--When I utter the two words _bud_ and _swelling_, thus: _bud
+swelling_, do you see any connection in the ideas they stand for?
+
++P+.--Yes, I imagine that I see a bud expanding, or growing larger.
+
++T+.--I will connect two words more closely, so as to express a thought:
+_Buds swell_. A thought has been formed in my mind when I say, _Buds
+swell_; and these two words, in which something is said of something else,
+express that thought, and make what we call a _sentence_. In the former
+expression, _bud swelling_ it is assumed, or taken for granted, that buds
+perform the act; in the latter, the swelling is asserted as a fact.
+
+_Leaves falling_. Do these two words express two ideas merely associated,
+or do they express a thought?
+
++P+.--They express ideas merely associated.
+
++T+.--_Leaves fall_.
+
+Same question.
+
++P+.--A thought.
+
++T+.--Why?
+
++P+.--Because, in these words, there is something _said_ or _asserted_ of
+leaves.
+
++T+.--When I say, _Falling leaves rustle_, does _falling_ tell what is
+thought of leaves?
+
++P+.--No.
+
++T+.--What does _falling_ do?
+
++P+.--It tells the _kind_ of leaves you are thinking and speaking of.
+
++T+.--What word _does_ tell what is thought of leaves?
+
++P+.--_Rustle_.
+
++T+.--You see then that in the thought there are two parts; something of
+which we think, and that which we think about it.
+
+Let the pupils give other examples.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 4.
+
+Commit to memory all definitions.
+
++DEFINITION.--A _Sentence_ is the expression of a thought in words+.
+
+Which of the following expressions contain words that have _no connection_,
+which contain words _merely associated_, and which are _sentences_?
+
+1. Flowers bloom.
+2. Ice melts.
+3. Bloom ice.
+4. Grass grows.
+5. Brooks babble.
+6. Babbling brooks.
+7. Grass soar.
+8. Doors open.
+9. Open doors.
+10. Cows graze.
+11. Curling smoke.
+12. Sugar graze.
+13. Dew sparkles.
+14. Hissing serpents.
+15. Smoke curls.
+16. Serpents hiss.
+17. Smoke curling.
+18. Serpents sparkles.
+19. Melting babble.
+20. Eagles soar.
+21. Birds chirping.
+22. Birds are chirping.
+23. Birds chirp.
+24. Gentle cows.
+25. Eagles are soaring.
+26. Bees ice.
+27. Working bees.
+28. Bees work.
+29. Crawling serpents.
+30. Landscape piano.
+31. Serpents crawl.
+32. Eagles clock.
+33. Serpents crawling.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 5.
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+Illustrate, by the use of _a_, _b_, and _p_, the difference between the
+_sounds_ of letters and their _names_. Letters are the signs of what? What
+is an idea? A _spoken_ word is the sign of what? A _written_ word is the
+sign of what? How do they differ? To what four different things did we call
+attention in Lesson 1?
+
+How are _vowel_ sounds made? How are the two kinds of _consonant_ sounds
+made? What are vowels? Name them. What are consonants? What is artificial
+language, or language proper? What do you understand by natural language?
+What is English grammar?
+
+What three kinds of expressions are spoken of in Lessons 3 and 4? Give
+examples of each. What is a sentence?
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 6.
+
+ANALYSIS.
+
+On the following sentences, let the pupils be exercised according to the
+model.
+
++Model+.--_Intemperance degrades_. Why is this a _sentence?_ Ans.--Because
+it expresses a thought. Of what is something thought? Ans.--Intemperance.
+Which word tells what is thought? Ans.--_Degrades_.
+
+1. Magnets attract.
+2. Horses neigh.
+3. Frogs leap.
+4. Cold contracts.
+5. Sunbeams dance.
+6. Heat expands.
+7. Sunlight gleams.
+8. Banners wave.
+9. Grass withers.
+10. Sailors climb.
+11. Rabbits burrow.
+12. Spring advances.
+
+You see that in these sentences there are two parts. The parts are the
+_+Subject+_ and the _+Predicate+_.
+
++DEFINITION.--The _Subject of a sentence_ names that of which something is
+thought+.
+
++DEFINITION.--The _Predicate of a sentence_ tells what is thought+.
+
++DEFINITION.--The _Analysis of a sentence_ is the separation of it into its
+parts+.
+
+Analyze, according to the model, the following sentences.
+
++Model+.--_Stars twinkle_. This is a _sentence_, because it expresses a
+thought. _Stars_ is the _subject_, because it names that of which something
+is thought; _twinkle_ is the _predicate_, because it tells what is thought.
+
++To the Teacher+.--After the pupils become familiar with the definitions,
+the "Models" may be varied, and some of the reasons maybe made specific;
+as, "_Plants_ names the things we tell about; _droop_ tells what plants
+do," etc.
+
+Guard against needless repetition.
+
+1. Plants droop.
+2. Books help.
+3. Clouds float.
+4. Exercise strengthens.
+5. Rain falls.
+6. Time flies.
+7. Rowdies fight.
+8. Bread nourishes.
+9. Boats capsize.
+10. Water flows.
+11. Students learn.
+12. Horses gallop.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON  7.
+
+ANALYSIS AND THE DIAGRAM.
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--I will draw on the board a heavy, or shaded,
+line, and divide it into two parts, thus:
+
+           |
+===========|============
+           |
+
+We will consider the first part as the sign of the _subject_ of a
+sentence, and the second part as the sign of the _predicate_ of a
+sentence.
+
+Now, if I write a word over the first line, thus--(doing it)--you will
+understand that that word is the subject of a sentence. If I write a word
+over the second line, thus--you will understand that that word is the
+predicate of a sentence.
+
+  Planets   |  revolve
+============|===========
+            |
+
+The class can see by this picture that _Planets revolve_ is a sentence,
+that _planets_ is the subject, and that _revolve_ is the predicate.
+
+These signs, or illustrations, made up of straight lines, we call
++Diagrams+.
+
++DEFINITION.--A _Diagram_ is a picture of the offices and relations of the
+different parts of a sentence+.
+
+_Analyze_ and _diagram_ the following sentences.
+
+1. Waves dash.
+2. Kings reign.
+3. Fruit ripens.
+4. Stars shine.
+5. Steel tarnishes.
+6. Insects buzz.
+7. Paul preached.
+8. Poets sing.
+9. Nero fiddled.
+10. Larks sing.
+11. Water ripples.
+12. Lambs frisk.
+13. Lions roar.
+14. Tigers growl.
+15. Breezes sigh.
+16. Carthage fell.
+17. Morning dawns.
+18. Showers descended.
+19. Diamonds sparkle.
+20. Alexander conquered.
+21. Jupiter thunders.
+22. Columbus sailed,
+23. Grammarians differ.
+24. Cornwallis surrendered.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+LESSON 8.
+
+SENTENCE-BUILDING.
+
+You have now learned to analyze sentences, that is, to separate them into
+their parts. You must next learn to put these parts together, that is, to
+_build sentences_.
+
+We will find one part, and you must find the other and do the building.
+
++To the Teacher+.--Let some of the pupils write their sentences on the
+board, while others are reading theirs. Then let the work on the board be
+corrected.
+
+Correct any expression that does not make _good sense_, or that asserts
+something not strictly true; for the pupil should early be taught to _think
+accurately_, as well as to write and speak grammatically.
+
+Correct all mistakes in _spelling_, and in the use of _capital letters_ and
+the _period_.
+
+Call attention to the agreement in form of the predicate with the subject.
+See Notes, p. 163.
+
+Insist on neatness. Collect the papers before the recitation closes.
+
++CAPITAL LETTER-RULE.--The first word of every sentence must begin with a
+_capital letter_+.
+
++PERIOD--RULE.--A _period_ must be placed after every sentence that simply
+affirms, denies, or expresses a command+.
+
+Construct sentences by supplying a _subject_ to each of the following
+_predicates_.
+
+Ask yourself the question, What swim, sink, hunt, etc.?
+
+1. ---- swim.
+2. ---- sinks.
+3. ---- hunt.
+4. ---- skate.
+5. ---- jingle.
+6. ---- decay.
+7. ---- climb.
+8. ---- creep.
+9. ---- run.
+10. ---- walk.
+11. ---- snort.
+12. ---- kick.
+13. ---- flashes.
+14. ---- flutters.
+15. ---- paddle.
+16. ---- toil.
+17. ---- terrifies.
+18. ---- rages.
+19. ---- expand.
+20. ---- jump.
+21. ---- hop.
+22. ---- bellow.
+23. ---- burns.
+24. ---- evaporates.
+
+This exercise may profitably be extended by requiring the pupils to supply
+_several_ subjects to each predicate.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 9.
+
+SENTENCE-BUILDING--Continued.
+
+Construct sentences by supplying a _predicate_ to each of the following
+_subjects_.
+
+Ask yourself the question, Artists do what?
+
+1. Artists ----.
+2. Sailors ----.
+3. Tides ----.
+4. Whales ----.
+5. Gentlemen ----.
+6. Swine ----.
+7. Clouds ----.
+8. Girls ----.
+9. Fruit ----.
+10. Powder ----.
+11. Hail ----.
+12. Foxes ----.
+13. Water ----.
+14. Frost ----.
+15. Man ----.
+16. Blood ----.
+17. Kings ----.
+18. Lilies ----.
+19. Roses ----.
+20. Wheels ----.
+21. Waves ----.
+22. Dew ----.
+23. Boys ----.
+24. Volcanoes ----.
+25. Storms ----.
+26. Politicians ----.
+27. Serpents ----.
+28. Chimneys ----.
+29. Owls ----.
+30. Rivers ----.
+31. Nations ----.
+32. Indians ----.
+33. Grain ----.
+34. Rogues ----.
+34. Volcanoes ----.
+35. Rome ----.
+36. Briars ----.
+
+This exercise may be extended by requiring the pupils to supply several
+predicates to each subject.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 10.
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+Of what two parts does a sentence consist? What is the subject of a
+sentence? What is the predicate of a sentence? What is the analysis of a
+sentence?
+
+What is a diagram? What rule for the use of capital letters have you
+learned? What rule for the period?
+
+Impromptu Exercise.
+
+Let the pupils "choose sides," as in a spelling match. Let the teacher
+select _predicates_ from Lesson 8, and give them alternately to the pupils
+thus arranged. The first pupil prefixes to his word whatever suitable
+subjects he can think of, the teacher judging of their fitness and keeping
+the count. This pupil now rises and remains standing until some one else,
+on his side or the other, shall have prefixed to his word a greater number
+of apt subjects. The strife is to see who shall be standing at the close of
+the match, and which side shall have furnished the greater number of
+subjects. The exercise may be continued with the _subjects_ of Lesson 9.
+Each pupil is to be limited to the same time--one or two minutes.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 11.
+
+ANALYSIS.
+
+The +_predicate_+ sometimes contains +_more than one word_+.
+
+_Analyze_ and _diagram_ according to the model.
+
++Model+.--_Socrates was poisoned_.
+
+  Socrates  |  was poisoned
+============|================
+            |
+
+This is a sentence, because it expresses a thought. _Socrates_ is the
+subject, because ----; _was poisoned_ is the predicate, because ----.
+[Footnote: The word _because_--suggesting a reason--should be dropped from
+these "+Models+" whenever it may lead to mere mechanical repetition.]
+
+1. Napoleon was banished.
+2. Andre was captured.
+3. Money is circulated.
+4. Columbus was imprisoned.
+5. Acorns are sprouting.
+6. Bells are tolled.
+7. Summer has come.
+8. Sentences may be analyzed.
+9. Clouds are reddening.
+10. Air may be weighed.
+11. Jehovah shall reign.
+12. Corn is planted.
+13. Grammarians will differ.
+14. Snow is falling.
+15. Leaves are rustling.
+16. Children will prattle.
+17. Crickets are chirping.
+18. Eclipses have been foretold.
+19. Storms may abate.
+20. Deception may have been practiced.
+21. Esau was hated.
+22. Treason should have been punished.
+23. Bees are humming.
+24. Sodom might have been spared.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 12.
+
+SENTENCE-BUILDING.
+
++To the Teacher+.--Continue oral and written exercises in agreement. See
+Notes, pp. 163,164.
+
+Prefix the little helping words in the _second column_ to such of the more
+important words in the _third column_ as with them will make complete
+predicates, and join these predicates to all subjects in the _first column_
+with which they will unite to make good sense.
+
+     1       |        2        |     3
+-------------|-----------------|------------
+Burgoyne     | are             | woven.
+Henry Hudson | was             | defeated.
+Sparrows     | can be          | condensed.
+Comets       | is              | inhaled.
+Time         | have been       | worn.
+Turbans      | may be          | slacked.
+Lime         | has been        | wasted.
+Steam        | could have been | seen.
+Air          | must have been  | deceived.
+Carpets      | were            | quarreling.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 13.
+
+Point out the _subject_ and the predicate of each sentence in Lessons 28,
+31, 34.
+
+Look first for the word that asserts, and then, by putting _who_ or _what_
+before this _predicate_, the _subject_ may easily be found.
+
++To the Teacher+.--Most violations of the rules of concord come from a
+failure to recognize the relation of subject and predicate when these parts
+are transposed or are separated by other words. Such constructions should
+therefore receive special attention. See Notes, pp. 164, 165.
+
+Introduce the class to the Parts of Speech before the close of this
+recitation. See "Hints for Oral Instruction."
+
+See "Suggestions for COMPOSITION EXERCISES," p. 8, last paragraph.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 14.
+
+CLASSES OF WORDS.
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--By the assistance of the few hints here
+given, the ingenious teacher may render this usually dry subject
+interesting and highly attractive. By questioning the pupil as to what he
+has seen and heard, his interest may be excited and his curiosity awakened.
+
+Suppose that we make an imaginary excursion to some pleasant field or
+grove, where we may study the habits, the plumage, and the songs of the
+little birds.
+
+If we attempt to make the acquaintance of every little feathered singer we
+meet, we shall never get to the end of our pleasant task: but we find that
+some resemble one another in size, shape, color, habits, and song. These we
+associate together and call them sparrows.
+
+We find others differing essentially from the sparrows, but resembling one
+another. These we call robins.
+
+We thus find that, although we were unable to become acquainted with each
+_individual_ bird, they all belong to a few _classes_, with which we may
+soon become familiar.
+
+It is so with the words of our language. There are many thousand words, all
+of which belong to eight classes.
+
+These classes of words are called +Parts of Speech+.
+
+We classify birds according to their form, color, etc., but we group words
+into _classes_, called +Parts of Speech+, with respect to their use in the
+_sentence_.
+
+We find that many words are names. These we put in one class and call them
++Nouns+.
+
+Each pupil may give the name of something in the room; the name of a
+distinguished person; a name that may be applied to a class of persons; the
+name of an animal; the name of a place: the name of a river; the name of a
+mountain; the name of something which we cannot see or touch, but of which
+we can think; as, _beauty_, _mind_.
+
+Remind the pupils frequently that these _names_ are all _nouns_.
+
+NOUNS.
+
++DEFINITION.--A _Noun_ is the name of anything+.
+
+Write in columns, headed _nouns_, the names of domestic animals, of garden
+vegetables, of flowers, of trees, of articles sold in a dry goods store,
+and of things that cannot be seen or touched; as, _virtue_, _time_, _life_.
+
+Write and arrange, according to the following model, the names of things
+that can _float_, _fly_, _walk_, _work_, _sit_, or _sing_.
+
+          _Nouns_.
+          Cork   |
+          Clouds |
++Model+.--Wood   + floats or float.
+          Ships  |
+          Boys   |
+
+Such expressions as _Cork floats_ are _sentences_, and the nouns _cork_,
+_ship_, etc., are the subjects. You will find that _+every subject+ is a
++noun+ or some word or words used for a noun_.
+
+Be prepared to analyze and parse the sentences which you have made. _Naming
+the class to which a word belongs is the first step in parsing_.
+
++Model for Analysis+.--This is a sentence, because -----; _cork_ is the
+subject, because -----; _floats_ is the predicate, because -----.
+
++Parsing+.--_Cork_ is a _noun_, because it is the name of a thing--the bark
+of a tree.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 15.
+
+Select and write all the nouns in the sentences given in Lessons 28, 31,
+34.
+
+Tell why they are nouns.
+
+In writing the nouns, observe the following rule.
+
++CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--Every proper or individual name must begin with a
+capital letter+.
+
++To the Teacher+.--See Notes, pp. 167-169.
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+With respect to what, do we classify words (Lesson 14)? What are such
+classes called? Can you illustrate this classification? What are all names?
+What is a noun? What is the first step in parsing? What is the rule for
+writing individual names?
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 16.
+
+VERBS.
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--We propose to introduce you now to another
+class of words. (The teacher may here refer to the talk about birds.)
+
+You have learned that one very large class of words consists of _names of
+things_. There is another very important class of words used to tell what
+these things _do_, or used to _express_ their _existence_.
+
+When I say, _Plants grow_, is _grow_ the name of anything? +P+.--No.
++T+.--What does it do? +P+.--It tells what plants _do_. It _expresses
+action_.
+
++T+.--When I say, _God is_, what does _is_ express? +P+.--It expresses
+_existence_, or _being_.
+
++T+.--When I say, _George sleeps_, _sleeps_ expresses _being_ and something
+more; it tells the condition, or _state_ in which George is, or exists,
+that is, it expresses _state of being_.
+
+All the words that assert _action, being_, or _state of being_, we call
++Verbs+.
+
+Let the teacher write nouns on the board, and require the pupils to give
+all the words of which they can think, telling what the things named can
+do. They may be arranged thus:--
+
+_Noun_.  _Verbs_.
+       | grow,
+       | droop,
+Plants + decay,
+       | flourish,
+       | revive.
+
+Each pupil may give a verb that expresses an action of the body; as _weep,
+sing_; an action of the mind; as, _study, love_; one that expresses being
+or state of being.
+
++DEFINITION.--A _Verb_ is a word that asserts action, being, or state of
+being+.
+
+The office of the verb in all its forms, except two (the participle and the
+infinitive, see Lessons 48 and 49), is to +_assert_+. This it does whether
+the sentence affirms, denies, or asks a question.
+
++To the Teacher+.--In the exercises of this and the next two Lessons, let
+the pupils note the agreement of the verb with its subject. See Notes, pp.
+163-165.
+
+Supply, to each of the following _nouns_, as many appropriate _verbs_ as
+you can think of.
+
+Let some express _being_ or _state of being_.
+
+Water ----.
+Wind ----.
+Pens ----.
+Parrots ----.
+Vines ----.
+Farmers ----.
+Trees ----.
+Ministers ----.
+
+One verb may consist of _two, three_, or _four_ words; as, _is singing,
+will be sung, might have been sung_.
+
+Form _verbs_ by combining the words in columns 2 and 3, and add these verbs
+to all the _nouns_ in column 1 with which they appropriately combine.
+
+  1    |       2          |    3
+-------|------------------|------------
+Laws   | has been         | published.
+Clouds | have been        | paid.
+Food   | will be          | restored.
+Health | should have been | preserved.
+Taxes  | may be           | collected.
+Books  | are              | obeyed.
+
+The examples you have written are sentences; the _nouns_ are _subjects_,
+and the _verbs_ are _predicates_.
+
+As verbs are the only words that assert, _+every predicate+ must be a
++verb+, or must contain a verb_.
+
+Be prepared to _analyze and parse five of the sentences_ that you have
+written.
+
++Model+.--_Laws are obeyed_. Diagram and analyze as in Lesson 11.
+
++Parsing+.--_Laws_ is a noun, because----; _are obeyed_ is a _verb_,
+because it asserts action.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 17.
+
+Select and write all the verbs in the sentences given in Lessons 28, 31,
+34, and tell why they are verbs.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 18.
+
+SENTENCE-BUILDING.
+
+From the following nouns and verbs, build as many sentences as possible,
+taking care that every one makes good sense.
+
+Poems, was conquered, lambs, rebellion, stars, forests, shone, were seen,
+were written, treason, patriots, meteors, fought, were discovered, frisk,
+Cain, have fallen, fled, stream, have crumbled, day, ages, deer, are
+flickering, are bounding, gleamed, voices, lamps, rays, were heard, are
+gathering, time, death, friends, is coming, will come.
+
++To the Teacher+.--Before this recitation closes, let the teacher open up
+the subject of Lesson 19. See "Hints for Oral Instruction."
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 19.
+
+PRONOUNS.
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--We propose to introduce you now to the
+_third part of speech_. +T.--+If I should ask who whispered, and some boy
+should promptly confess, what would he say? +P.--+_I_ whispered.
++T.--+Would he mention his own name? +P.--+No. +T.--+What word would he use
+instead? +P.--+_I_.
+
++T.--+Suppose that I had _spoken to_ that boy and had accused him of
+whispering, how should I have addressed him without mentioning his name?
++P.--+_You_ whispered. +T.--+What word would be used instead of the name of
+the boy _to_ whom I spoke? +P.--+_You_.
+
++T.--+Suppose that, without using his name, I had told you what he did,
+what should I have said? +P.--+_He_ whispered. +T.--+What word would have
+been used instead of the name of the boy _of_ whom I spoke? +P.--+_He_.
+
+(Repeat these questions and suppose the pupil to be a girl.)
+
++T.--+If I should tell that boy to close his book, when his book was
+already closed, what would he say without mentioning the word book?
++P.--+_It_ is closed.
+
++T.--+If I should accuse several of you of whispering, and one should speak
+for himself and for the others whispering with him, what would he say? _We_
+whispered.
+
++T--+Suppose that a boy should inform me that all of the boys on that seat
+had whispered, what would he say? +P.--+_They_ whispered.
+
+_I, you, he, she, it, we_, and _they_ are not names, but they are used
+instead of names. We call such words +Pronouns+.
+
++DEFINITION.--A _Pronoun_ is a word used for a noun+.
+
++CAPITAL LETTERS--RULE.--The words _I_ and _O_ should be written in capital
+letters+.
+
+Analysis and Parsing.
+
++Model.--+_You will be rewarded_.
+
++Oral Analysis--+This is a sentence, because----; _you_ is the subject,
+because----; _will be rewarded_ is the predicate, because----.
+
++Parsing.--+_You_ is a _pronoun_, because it stands for the name of the
+person spoken to; _will be rewarded_ is a verb, because----.
+
+1. We think.
+2. She prattles.
+3. We have recited.
+4. I study.
+5. You have been seen.
+6. It has been decided.
+7. He was punished.
+8. They are conquered.
+9. Thou art adored.
+
+Compose nine similar sentences, using a pronoun for the subject of each,
+and diagram them.
+
++To the Teacher.--+Call special attention to the agreement of the verb with
+_I_ and _you_. See Notes, p. 164.
+
+Before this recitation closes, explain "Modified Subject." See "Hints for
+Oral Instruction."
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 20.
+
+MODIFIED SUBJECT.
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction.--+The _Subject_ and the _Predicate_ may be
+considered as the foundation on which every sentence is built. No sentence
+can be constructed without them.
+
+You have already learned that these parts _alone_, sometimes make a
+complete structure; but we are about to show you that they are often used
+as the foundation of a structure, which is completed by adding _other_
+parts.
+
+I hold in my hand several pieces of metal, with letters and other
+characters stamped on them. What do you say I have in my hand? +P+.--Money.
++T.--+Yes. What other word can you use? +P.--+_Coin_. +T.--+Yes. I will
+write on the board this sentence: _Coin is stamped_.
+
+The subject _coin_ is a general name for all such pieces of metal. I will
+write the word _the_ before this sentence. _The coin is stamped_. I have
+now made an assertion about one particular coin, so the meaning of the
+subject is limited by joining the word _the_.
+
+I can again limit the meaning of the subject by putting the word _a_ before
+it. The assertion is now about one coin, but no particular one. I point to
+the piece near me and say, _This coin is stamped_. I point to the one
+farther from me and say, _That coin is stamped_.
+
+When words are joined to the subject to limit its meaning, we say that the
+subject is _modified_.
+
+The words _the, a, this_, and _that_ modify the subject by limiting the
+word to one coin, or to one particular coin.
+
+We can modify the subject by joining some word which will tell what _kind_
+of coin is meant.
+
+Here is a coin dated 18--. We can say, _The new coin is stamped_. Here the
+word _new_ tells what kind of coin is meant. What other words can I use to
+modify _coin_? +P.--+_Beautiful, bright, new, round, silver_. +T.--+These
+words _beautiful, bright, new, round_, and _silver_ modify the subject by
+telling the qualities of the coin.
+
+We call the words _the, beautiful_, etc., +Modifiers+.
+
+
++DEFINITION.--A _Modifier_ is a word or group of words joined to some part
+of the sentence to qualify or limit the meaning+.
+
+The +_Subject_+ with its +_Modifiers_+ is called the +_Modified Subject_+.
+
+ANALYSIS.
+
+Analyze and diagram the following sentences.
+
++Model.--+_The genial summer days have come_.
+
+       days          |  have come
+=====================|=============
+\The \genial \summer |
+
++Explanation of the Diagram.--+The lighter lines, joined to the subject
+line, stand for the _modifiers_, the less important parts.
+
++Oral Analysis.--+This is a sentence, because----; _days_ is the subject,
+because----; _have come_ is the predicate, because----; _The, genial_, and
+_summer_ are _modifiers_ of the subject, because they are words joined to
+the subject to modify its meaning. _The genial summer days_ is the
+_modified subject_.
+
++To the Teacher.--+To excite thought and guard against mere routine, pupils
+may, so far as they are able, make the reasons specific. For example,
+"_The_ points out some particular clouds, _dark_ tells their color," etc.
+
+Here and elsewhere the teacher must determine how far it is profitable to
+follow "Models." There is great danger of wasting time in repeating forms
+that require no mental effort.
+
+1. The angry wind is howling.
+2. The dead leaves fall.
+3. The dark clouds lower.
+4. The tall elm bends.
+5. All men must die.
+6. The lusty bellows roared.
+7. A boding silence reigned.
+8. Little Arthur was murdered.
+9. The mighty oak was uprooted.
+10. The fragile violet was crushed.
+11. The beautiful marble statue was carved.
+12. The turbid torrent roared.
+13. The affrighted shepherds fled.
+14. The vivid lightning flashes.
+15. Those elegant Etruscan vases are broken.
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+What is a verb? Give examples of verbs of action. Of being. Of state of
+being. May a verb consist of more than one word? Illustrate. Verbs are the
+only words that do what? What must every predicate contain?
+
+What parts of speech are explained in the preceding Lessons? What is a
+pronoun? Give the rule for writing the words _I_ and _0_.
+
+What is the foundation on which every sentence is built? May the subject be
+modified? What is a modifier? What is the modified subject?
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 21.
+
+SENTENCE-BUILDING.
+
+We have here prepared the foundations of sentences which you are to
+complete by writing two or more suitable modifiers to each subject. Be
+careful to choose and arrange your material so as to make a neat and
+appropriate structure.
+
++Model+.---------- eminence was reached.
+      _That lofty_ eminence was reached.
+
+1. ---- speaker was applauded.
+2. ---- difficulties were overcome.
+3. ---- leaf trembles.
+4. ---- accident happened.
+5. ---- books should be read.
+6. ---- houses are built.
+7. ---- soldiers perished.
+8. ---- opinions prevailed.
+9. ---- leader fell.
+10. ---- task is completed.
+
+For other subjects and predicates, the teacher is referred to Lessons 7 and
+11.
+
+Build sentences by prefixing _modified subjects_ to the following
+predicates.
+
+1. ---- frolic.
+2. ---- crawl.
+3. ---- are dashing.
+4. ---- was caught.
+5. ---- escaped.
+6. ---- chatter.
+7. ---- flourished.
+8. ---- whistles.
+
+Build, on each of the following subjects, three sentences similar to those
+in the model.
+
++Model+ ------------- sun ---------------
+
+      _The bright_    sun _is shining_.
+      _The glorious_  sun _has risen_.
+      _The unclouded_ sun _is sinking_.
+
+1. ---- snow ----.
+2. ---- dew ----.
+3. ---- wind ----.
+4. ---- landscape ----.
+
++To the Teacher+.--Please take notice that the next Lesson begins with
+"Hints for Oral Instruction."
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 22.
+
+ADJECTIVES.
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--You are now prepared to consider the _fourth
+part of speech_. Those words that are added to the subject to modify its
+meaning are called +Adjectives+.
+
+Some grammarians have formed a separate class of the little words _the_,
+and _an_ or _a_, calling them _articles_.
+
+I will write the word _boys_ on the board, and you may name adjectives that
+will appropriately modify it. As you give them, _I_ will write these
+adjectives in a column.
+
+_Adjectives_.
+
+small    |
+large    |
+white    |
+black    |
+straight + boys.
+crooked  |
+five     |
+some     |
+all      |
+
+What words here modify _boys_ by adding the idea of size? What by adding
+the idea of color? What by adding the idea of form? What by adding the idea
+of number? What are such words called? Why?
+
+Let the teacher name familiar objects and require the pupils to join
+appropriate adjectives to the names till their stock is exhausted.
+
+
++DEFINITION.--An _Adjective_ is a word used to modify a noun or a pronoun+.
+
+Analysis and Parsing.
+
++Model+.--_A fearful storm was raging_. Diagram and analyze as in Lesson
+20.
+
++Written Parsing+.
+
+_Nouns_. | _Pronouns_. | _Adjectives_. | _Verbs_.
+storm    | ----        | A fearful     | was raging.
+
++Oral Parsing+.--_A_ is an _adjective_, because it is joined to the noun
+_storm_, to modify its meaning; _fearful_ is an _adjective_, because
+------; _storm_ is a noun, because ------; _was raging_ is a verb, because
+-----.
+
+1. The rosy morn advances.
+2. The humble boon was obtained.
+3. An unyielding firmness was displayed.
+4. The whole earth smiles.
+5. Several subsequent voyages were made.
+6. That burly mastiff must be secured.
+7. The slender greyhound was released.
+8. The cold November rain is falling.
+9. That valuable English watch has been sold.
+10. I alone have escaped.
+11. Both positions can be defended.
+12. All such discussions should have been avoided.
+13. That dilapidated old wooden building has fallen.
+
++To the Teacher+.--See Notes, pp. 169, 170.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 23.
+
+SENTENCE-BUILDING.
+
+Prefix five adjectives to each of the following nouns.
+
+Shrubs, wilderness, beggar, cattle, cloud.
+
+Write ten sentences with modified subjects, using in each two or more of
+the following adjectives.
+
+A, an, the, heroic, one, all, many, every, either, first, tenth, frugal,
+great, good, wise, honest, immense, square, circular, oblong, oval, mild,
+virtuous, universal, sweet, careless, fragrant.
+
+Write five sentences with modified subjects, each of which shall contain
+one of the following words as a subject.
+
+Chimney, hay, coach, robber, horizon.
+
+_An_ and _a_ are forms of the same word, once spelled _an_, and meaning
+_one_. After losing something of this force, _an_ was still used before
+vowels and consonants alike; as, _an eagle, an ball, an hair, an use_.
+Still later, and for the sake of ease in speaking, the word came to have
+the two forms mentioned above; and an was retained before letters having
+vowel sounds, but it dropped its _n_ and became _a_ before letters having
+consonant sounds. This is the present usage.
+
+CORRECT THESE ERRORS.
+
+A apple; a obedient child; an brickbat; an busy boy.
+
+CORRECT THESE ERRORS.
+
+A heir; a hour; a honor.
+
+Notice, the first letter of these words is _silent_.
+
+CORRECT THESE ERRORS.
+
+An unit; an utensil; an university; an ewe; an ewer; an union; an use; an
+history; an one.
+
+_Unit_ begins with the sound of the consonant _y_; and _one_, with that of
+_w_.
+
++To the Teacher+.--See "Suggestions for COMPOSITION EXERCISES," p. 8, last
+paragraph.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 24.
+
+MODIFIED PREDICATES.
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--I will now show you how the _predicate_ of a
+sentence may be modified.
+
+_The ship sails gracefully_. What word is here joined to _sails_ to tell
+the _manner_ of sailing? +P+.--_Gracefully_.
+
++T+.--_The ship sails immediately_. What word is here joined to _sails_ to
+tell the _time_ of sailing? +P+.--_Immediately_.
+
++T+.--_The, ship sails homeward_. What word is here joined to _sails_ to
+tell the _direction_ of sailing? +P+.--_Homeward_.
+
++T+.--These words _gracefully, immediately_, and _homeward_ are modifiers
+of the predicate. In the first sentence, _sails gracefully_ is the
++_Modified Predicate_+.
+
+Let the following modifiers be written on the board as the pupil suggests
+them.
+
+               | instantly.
+               | soon.
+               | daily.
+               | hither.
+The ship sails + hence.
+               | there.
+               | rapidly.
+               | smoothly.
+               | well.
+
+Which words indicate the time of sailing? Which, the place? Which, the
+manner?
+
+The teacher may suggest predicates, and require the pupils to find as many
+appropriate modifiers as they can.
+
+
+The Predicate with its modifiers is called the +_Modified Predicate_+.
+
+Analysis and Parsing.
+
+Analyze and diagram the following sentences, and parse the nouns, pronouns,
+verbs, and adjectives.
+
++Model+.--_The letters were rudely carved_.
+
+ letters |  were carved
+=========|===============
+ \The    |    \rudely
+
++Written Parsing+.--See _Model_, Lesson 22.
+
++Oral Analysis+.--This is a sentence, because----; _letters_ is the
+subject, because----; _were carved_ is the predicate, because----; _The_ is
+a modifier of the subject, because----; _rudely_ is a modifier of the
+predicate, because----; _The letters_ is the modified subject, _were rudely
+carved_ is the _modified predicate_.
+
+1. He spoke eloquently.
+2. She chattered incessantly.
+3. They searched everywhere.
+4. I shall know presently.
+5. The bobolink sings joyously.
+6. The crowd cheered heartily.
+7. A great victory was finally won.
+8. Threatening clouds are moving slowly.
+9. The deafening waves dash angrily.
+10. These questions may be settled peaceably.
+11. The wounded soldier fought bravely.
+12. The ranks were quickly broken.
+13. The south wind blows softly.
+14. Times will surely change.
+15. An hour stole on.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 25.
+
+ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
+
+ONE MODIFIER JOINED TO ANOTHER.
+
+Analyze and diagram the following sentences, and parse the nouns, pronouns,
+adjectives, and verbs.
+
++Model+.--_The frightened animal fled still more rapidly_.
+
+      animal       |         fled
+===================|=====================
+ \The \frightened  |   \rapidly
+                          \more
+                             \still
+
++Explanation of the Diagram+.--Notice that the three lines forming this
+group all slant the same way to show that each stands for a modifying word.
+The line standing for the principal word of the group is joined to the
+predicate line. The end of each of the other two lines is broken, and
+turned to touch its principal at an angle.
+
++Oral Analysis+.--This is a sentence, because----; _animal_ is the subject,
+because----; _fled_ is the predicate, because----; _The_ and _frightened_
+are modifiers of the subject, because----; _still more rapidly_ is a
+modifier of the predicate, because it is a group of words joined to it to
+limit its meaning; _rapidly_ is the principal word of the group; _more_
+modifies _rapidly_, and _still_ modifies _more_, _The frightened animal_ is
+the modified subject; _fled still more rapidly_ is the modified predicate.
+
+1. The crocus flowers very early.
+2. A violet bed is budding near.
+3. The Quakers were most shamefully persecuted.
+4. Perhaps he will return.
+5. We laughed very heartily.
+6. The yellow poplar leaves floated down.
+7. The wind sighs so mournfully.
+8. Few men have ever fought so stubbornly.
+9. The debt will probably be paid.
+10. The visitor will soon be here.
+11. That humane project was quite generously sustained.
+12. A perfectly innocent man was very cruelly persecuted.
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+What is an adjective? What are the words _an_ or _a_, and _the_ called by
+some grammarians? When is _a_ used, and when _an?_ Give examples of their
+misuse.
+
+What is the modified predicate? Give an example. Give an example of one
+modifier joined to another.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 26.
+
+Select your subjects from Lesson 9, and construct twenty sentences having
+modified subjects and modified predicates.
+
+Impromptu Exercise.
+
+Select sentences from Lessons 6, 7, and 11, and conduct the exercise as
+directed in Lesson 10. Let the strife be to see who can supply the greatest
+number of modifiers to the subject and to the predicate. The teacher can
+vary this exercise.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 27.
+
+ADVERBS.
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--You have learned, in the preceding Lessons,
+that the meaning of the predicate may be limited by modifiers, and that one
+modifier may be joined to another. Words used to modify the predicate of a
+sentence and those used to modify modifiers belong to one class, or one
+_part of speech_, and are called +Adverbs+.
+
++T+.--_She decided too hastily_. What word tells how she decided?
++P+.---_Hastily_. +T+.--What word tells how hastily? +P+.--_Too_.
++T+.--What then are the words _too_ and _hastily?_ +P+.--Adverbs.
+
++T+.--_Too much time has been wasted_. What word modifies _much_ by telling
+how much? +P+.--_Too_. +T+.--What _part of speech_ is _much?_ +P+.--An
+adjective. +T+.--What then is _too?_ +P+.--An adverb.
+
++T+.--Why is _too_ in the first sentence an adverb? Why is _too_ in the
+second sentence an adverb? Why is _hastily_ an adverb?
+
+Let the teacher use the following and similar examples, and continue the
+questions. _He thinks so. So much time has been wasted_.
+
+Let the teacher give verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, and require the pupils
+to modify them by appropriate adverbs.
+
++DEFINITION.--_An Adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or
+an adverb+.
+
+Analysis and Parsing.
+
+Analyze, diagram, and parse the following sentences.
+
++Model+.--_We have been very agreeably disappointed_. +Diagram+ as in.
+Lesson 25.
+
+For +Written Parsing+, use _Model_, Lesson 22, adding a column for adverbs.
+
++Oral Parsing+.--_We_ is a pronoun, because----; _have been disappointed_
+is a verb, because----; _very_ is an _adverb_, because it is joined to the
+adverb _agreeably_ to tell how agreeably; _agreeably_ is an _adverb_,
+because it is joined to the verb _have been disappointed_ to indicate
+manner.
+
+1. The plough-boy plods homeward.
+2. The water gushed forth.
+3. Too much time was wasted.
+4. She decided too hastily.
+5. You should listen more attentively.
+6. More difficult sentences must be built.
+7. An intensely painful operation was performed.
+8. The patient suffered intensely.
+9. That story was peculiarly told.
+10. A peculiarly interesting story was told.
+11. An extravagantly high price was paid.
+12. That lady dresses extravagantly.
+
+The pupil will notice that, in some of the examples above, the same adverb
+modifies an adjective in one sentence and an adverb in another, and that,
+in other examples, an adjective and a verb are modified by the same word.
+You may learn from this why such modifiers are grouped into one class.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 28.
+
+ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES FOR REVIEW.
+
+1. You must diagram neatly.
+2. The sheaves are nearly gathered.
+3. The wheat is duly garnered.
+4. The fairies were called together.
+5. The birds chirp merrily.
+6. This reckless adventurer has returned.
+7. The wild woods rang.
+8. White fleecy clouds are floating above.
+9. Those severe laws have been repealed.
+10. A republican government was established.
+11. An unusually large crop had just been harvested.
+12. She had been waiting quite patiently.
+13. A season so extremely warm had never before been known.
+14. So brave a deed [Footnote: _Can be commended_ is the verb, and _not_ is
+    an adverb.] cannot be too warmly commended.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 29.
+
+SENTENCE-BUILDING.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES FOR REVIEW.
+
+Build sentences containing the following adverbs.
+
+Hurriedly, solemnly, lightly, well, how, somewhere, abroad, forever,
+seldom, exceedingly.
+
+Using the following subjects and predicates as foundations, build six
+sentences having modified subjects and modified predicates, two of which
+shall contain adverbs modifying adjectives; two, adverbs modifying adverbs;
+and two, adverbs modifying verbs.
+
+1. ------- boat glides -----.
+2. ------- cloud is rising -----.
+3. ------- breezes are blowing -----.
+4. ------- elephant was captured -----.
+5. ------- streams flow -----.
+6. ------- spring has opened -----.
+
+We here give you, in classes, the material out of which you are to build
+five sentences with modified subjects and modified predicates.
+
+Select the subject and the predicate first.
+
+_Nouns and
+Pronouns.      Verbs.        Adjectives.   Adverbs_.
+
+branch       | was running | large, that | lustily
+coach        | were played | both, the   | downward
+they         | cried       | all, an     | very
+we           | is growing  | several, a  | rapidly
+games        | cheered     | amusing     | not, loudly, then
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 30.
+
+ERRORS FOR CORRECTION.
+
++To the Teacher+.--We here suggest additional work in composition, with
+particular reference to the choice and position of adjectives. See Notes,
+pp. 171,172.
+
++_Caution_+.--When two or more adjectives are used with a noun, care must
+be taken in their arrangement. If there is any difference in their relative
+importance, place nearest the noun the one that is most intimately
+connected with it.
+
++To the Teacher+.--We have in mind here those numerous cases where one
+adjective modifies the noun, and the second modifies the noun as limited by
+the first. _All ripe apples are picked_. Here _ripe_ modifies _apples_, but
+_all_ modifies _apples_ limited by _ripe_. Not _all apples_ are _picked_,
+but only _all_ that are _ripe_.
+
+CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS OF POSITION.
+
+  A wooden pretty bowl stood on the table.
+  The blue beautiful sky is cloudless.
+  A young industrious man was hired.
+  The new marble large house was sold.
+
++_Caution_+.--When the adjectives are of the _same_ rank, place them where
+they will sound the best. This will usually be in the order of their
+length--the longest last.
+
+CORRECT THESE ERRORS.
+
+  An entertaining and fluent speaker followed.
+  An enthusiastic, noisy, large crowd was addressed.
+
++_Caution_+.--Do not use the pronoun +_them_+ for the adjective +_those_+.
+
+CORRECT THESE ERRORS.
+
+  Them books are nicely bound.
+  Them two sentences should be corrected.
+
+CORRECT THE FOLLOWING MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS.
+
+  arouse, o romans
+  hear, o israel
+  it is i
+  i may be Mistaken
+  you Have frequently been warned
+  some Very savage beasts have been Tamed
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+What is an adverb? Give an example of an adverb modifying an adjective; one
+modifying a verb; one modifying an adverb. Why are such expressions as _a
+wooden pretty bowl_ faulty? Why is _an enthusiastic, noisy, large crowd_
+faulty? Why is _them books_ wrong? Why is _i may be Mistaken_ wrong? Why is
+_hear, o israel_, wrong? Study the Review Questions given in previous
+Lessons.
+
++To the Teacher+.--See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement--Selection
+from Darwin.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 31.
+
+PHRASES INTRODUCED BY PREPOSITIONS.
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--In the preceding Lessons, you have learned
+that several words may be grouped together and used as one modifier. In the
+examples given, the principal word is joined directly to the subject or to
+the predicate, and this word is modified by another word. In this Lesson
+also groups of words are used as modifiers, but these words are not united
+with one another, or with the word which the group modifies, just as they
+are in the preceding Lessons. I will write on the board this sentence: _De
+Soto marched into Florida_. +T+.--What tells where De Soto marched?
++P+.--_Into Florida_. +T+.--What is the principal word of the group?
++P+.--_Florida_. +T+.--Is _Florida_ joined directly to the predicate, as
+rapidly was in Lesson 25? +P+.--No. +T+.--What little word comes in to
+unite the modifier to _marched?_ +P+.--_Into_. +T+.--Does _Florida_ alone,
+tell where he marched? +P+.--No. +T+.--Does _into_ alone, tell where he
+marched? +P+.--No.
+
++T+.--These groups of related words are called +Phrases+. Let the teacher
+draw on the board the diagram of the sentence above.
+
+Phrases of the form illustrated in this diagram are the most common, and
+they perform a very important function in our language.
+
+Let the teacher frequently call attention to the fact that all the words of
+a phrase are _taken together_ to perform _one distinct office_.
+
+A phrase modifying the subject is equivalent to an adjective, and,
+frequently, may be changed into one. _The dew of the morning has passed
+away_. What word may be used for the phrase _of the morning?_
++P+.--_Morning_. +T+.--Yes. The _morning_ dew has passed away.
+
+A phrase modifying the predicate is equivalent to an adverb, and,
+frequently, may be changed into one. _We shall go to that place_. What word
+may be used for the phrase, _to that place?_ +P+.--_There_. +T+.--Yes. We
+shall go _there_.
+
+Change the phrases in these sentences:---
+
+_A citizen of America was insulted.
+
+We walked toward home_.
+
+Let the teacher write on the board the following words, and require the
+pupils to add to each, one or more words to complete a phrase, and then to
+construct a sentence in which the phrase may be properly employed: _To,
+from, by, at, on, with, in, into, over_.
+
+
++DEFINITION.--A _Phrase_ is a group of words denoting related ideas but not
+expressing a thought+.
+
+Analysis and Parsing.
+
+Analyze the following sentences, and parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives,
+verbs, and adverbs.
+
+Model.--_The finest trout in the lake are generally caught in the deepest
+water_.
+
+    trout       |    are caught
+================|================
+\The \finest \in     \generally  \in
+              \                   \
+               \ lake              \ water
+                ------              ----------
+                  \the                \the  \deepest
+
++Explanation of the Diagram+.--You will notice that the diagram of the
+_phrase_ is made up of a slanting line, standing for the introductory and
+connecting word, and a horizontal line, representing the principal word.
+Under the latter, are placed the little slanting lines standing for the
+modifiers of the principal word. Here and elsewhere all modifiers are
+joined to their principal words by slanting lines.
+
++Oral Analysis+.--This is a sentence, because ------; _trout_ is the
+subject, because -----; _are caught_ is the predicate, because ------; the
+words _The_ and _finest_, and the phrase, _in the lake_, are modifiers of
+the subject, because -----; the word _generally_ and the phrase, _in the
+deepest water_, are modifiers of the predicate, because ------; _in_
+introduces the first phrase, and _lake_ is the principal word; _in_
+introduces the second phrase, and _water_ is the principal word; _the_ and
+_deepest_ are modifiers of _water_; _The finest trout in the lake_ is the
+modified subject, and _are generally caught in the deepest water_ is the
+modified predicate.
+
+1. The gorilla lives in Africa.
+2. It seldom rains in Egypt.
+3. The Pilgrims landed at Plymouth.
+4. The wet grass sparkled in the light.
+5. The little brook ran swiftly under the bridge.
+6. Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga.
+7. The steeples of the village pierced through the dense fog.
+8. The gloom of winter settled down on everything.
+9. A gentle breeze blows from the south.
+10. The temple of Solomon was destroyed.
+11. The top of the mountain is covered with snow.
+12. The second Continental Congress convened at Philadelphia.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 32.
+
+SENTENCE-BUILDING.
+
+Build sentences, employing the following phrases as modifiers.
+
+To Europe, of oak, from Albany, at the station, through the fields, for
+vacation, among the Indians, of the United States.
+
+Supply to the following predicates subjects modified by phrases.
+
+---- is situated on the Thames.
+---- has arrived.
+---- was destroyed by an earthquake.
+---- was received.
+---- has just been completed.
+---- may be enjoyed.
+
+Supply to the following subjects predicates modified by phrases.
+
+Iron ----.
+The trees ----.
+Squirrels ----.
+The Bible ----.
+Sugar ----.
+Cheese ----.
+Paul ----.
+Strawberries ----.
+The mountain ----.
+
+Write five sentences, each of which shall contain one or more phrases used
+as modifiers.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 33.
+
+SENTENCE-BUILDING.
+
+Re-write the following sentences, changing the italicized words into
+equivalent phrases.
+
++Model+.--A _golden_ image was made.
+   An image _of gold_ was made.
+
+You will notice that the adjective _golden_ was placed before the subject,
+but, when changed to a phrase, it followed the subject.
+
+1. The book was _carefully_ read.
+2. The old soldiers fought _courageously_.
+3. A group of children were strolling _homeward_.
+4. No season of life should be spent _idly_.
+5. The _English_ ambassador has just arrived.
+6. That _generous_ act was liberally rewarded.
+
+Change the following adjectives and adverbs into equivalent phrases, and
+employ the phrases in sentences of your own building.
+
+Wooden, penniless, eastward, somewhere, here, evening, everywhere, yonder,
+joyfully, wintry.
+
+Make a sentence out of the words in each line below.
+
+  Boat, waves, glides, the, the, over.
+  He, Sunday, church, goes, the, on, to.
+  Year, night, is dying, the, the, in.
+  Qualities, Charlemagne, vices, were alloyed, the, great, of, with.
+  Indians, America, intemperance, are thinned, the, out, of, by.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 34.
+
+PREPOSITIONS.
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--In the preceding Lessons, the little words
+that were placed before nouns, thus forming phrases, belong to a, class of
+words called +Prepositions+. You noticed that these words, which you have
+now learned to call prepositions, served to introduce phrases. The
+preposition shows the relation of the _idea_ expressed by the principal
+word of the phrase to that of the word which the phrase modifies. It serves
+also to connect these words.
+
+In the sentence, _The squirrel ran up a tree_, what word shows the relation
+of the act of running, to the tree? Ans. _Up_.
+
+Other words may be used to express different relations. Repeat, nine times,
+the sentence above given, supplying, in the place of _up_, each of the
+following prepositions: _Around, behind, down, into, over, through, to,
+under, from_.
+
+Let this exercise be continued, using such sentences as, _The man went into
+the house; The ship sailed toward the bay_.
+
+
++DEFINITION.--A _Preposition_ is a word that introduces a phrase modifier,
+and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word
+modified+.
+
++Analysis and Parsing+.
+
++Model+.--_Flowers preach to us_.
+
+For +Analysis+ and +Diagram+, see Lesson 31.
+
+For +Written Parsing+, see Lesson 22. Add the needed columns.
+
++Oral Parsing+.--_Flowers_ is a noun, because----; _preach_ is a verb,
+because----; _to_ is a _preposition_, because it shows the relation, in
+sense, between _us_ and _preach;_ _us_ is a pronoun, because it is used
+instead of the name of the speaker and the names of those for whom he
+speaks.
+
+1. The golden lines of sunset glow.
+2. A smiling landscape lay before us.
+3. Columbus was born at Genoa.
+4. The forces of Hannibal were routed by Scipio.
+5. The capital of New York is on the Hudson.
+6. The ships sail over the boisterous sea.
+7. All names of the Deity should begin with capital letters.
+8. Air is composed chiefly of two invisible gases.
+9. The greater portion of South America lies between the tropics.
+10. The laurels of the warrior must at all times be dyed in blood.
+11. The first word of every entire sentence should begin with a capital
+    letter.
+12. The subject of a sentence is generally placed before the predicate.
+
+Impromptu Exercise.
+
+(The teacher may find it profitable to make a separate lesson of this
+exercise.)
+
+Let the teacher write on the board a subject and a predicate that will
+admit of many modifiers. The pupils are to expand the sentence into as many
+separate sentences as possible, each containing one apt phrase modifier.
+The competition is to see who can build the most and the best sentences in
+a given time. The teacher gathers up the slates and reads the work aloud,
+or has the pupils exchange slates and read it themselves.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 35.
+
+COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE.
+
+When two or more subjects united by a connecting word have the same
+predicate, they form a +_Compound Subject;_+ and, when two or more
+predicates connected in like manner have the same subject, they form a
++_Compound Predicate_+.
+
+In the sentence, _Birds and bees can fly_, the two words _birds_ and
+_bees_, connected by _and_, have the same predicate; the same action is
+asserted of both birds and bees. In the sentence, _Leaves fade and fall_,
+two assertions are made of the same things. In the first sentence, _birds_
+and _bees_ form the _compound subject_; and, in the second, _fade_ and
+_fall_ form the _compound predicate_.
+
+Analyze and parse the following sentences.
+
++Models+.--_Napoleon rose, reigned, and fell_.
+
+_Frogs, antelopes, and kangaroos can jump_.
+
+                  rose            Frogs
+              ,=,=====            ======.=.
+             /  '                       '  \
+Napoleon|   / X ' reigned     antelopes ' X \   | can jump
+========|==|    '========     =========='    |==|=========
+        |   \and'                       'and/   |
+             \  ' fell        kangaroos '  /
+              `-'======       =========='='
+
++Explanation of the Diagram+.--The short line following the subject line
+represents the entire predicate, and is supposed to be continued in the
+three horizontal lines that follow, each of which represents one of the
+parts of the _compound predicate_. These three lines are united by dotted
+lines, which stand for the connecting words. The +X+ denotes that an _and_
+is understood.
+
+Study this explanation carefully, and you will understand the other
+diagram.
+
++Oral Analysis+ of the first sentence.
+
+This is a sentence, because ----; _Napoleon_ is the subject, because ----;
+_rose_, _reigned_, and _fell_ form the _compound predicate_, because they
+belong in common to the same subject, and say something about Napoleon.
+_And_ connects _reigned_ and _fell_.
+
+1. The Rhine and the Rhone rise in Switzerland.
+2. Time and tide wait for no man.
+3. Washington and Lafayette fought for American Independence.
+4. Wild birds shrieked, and fluttered on the ground.
+5. The mob raged and roared.
+6. The seasons came and went.
+7. Pride, poverty, and fashion cannot live in the same house.
+8. The tables of stone were cast to the ground and broken.
+9. Silver or gold will be received in payment.
+10. Days, months, years, and ages will circle away.
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+What is a phrase? A phrase modifying a subject is equivalent to what?
+Illustrate. A phrase modifying a predicate is equivalent to what?
+Illustrate.
+
+What are prepositions? What do you understand by a compound subject?
+Illustrate. What do you understand by a compound predicate? Illustrate.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 36.
+
+CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS.
+
+The words _and_ and _or_, used in the preceding Lesson to connect the nouns
+and the verbs, belong to a class of words called +_Conjunctions_+.
+
+Conjunctions may also connect _words_ used as _modifiers;_ as,
+
+A daring _but_ foolish feat was performed.
+
+They may connect phrases; as,
+
+We shall go to Saratoga _and_ to Niagara.
+
+They may connect _clauses_, that is, expressions that, standing alone,
+would be sentences; as,
+
+He must increase, _but_ I must decrease.
+
+
++DEFINITION.--A _Conjunction_, is a word used to connect words, phrases, or
+clauses+.
+
+The +_Interjection_+ is the eighth and last _part of speech_. Interjections
+are mere exclamations, and are without grammatical relation to any other
+word in the sentence.
+
+
++DEFINITION.--An _Interjection_ is a word used to express strong or sudden
+feeling+.
+
+Examples:--
+
+Bravo! hurrah! pish! hush! ha, ha! alas! hail! lo! pshaw!
+
+Analyze and parse the following sentences.
+
++Model+.--_Hurrah! that cool and fearless fireman has rushed into the house
+and up the burning stairs_.
+
+  Hurrah
+  ------
+
+  fireman            |     has rushed
+  ===================|=======================
+  \That\ and \       |    \   and  \
+        \.....\            \........\
+         \     \            \        \up
+          \cool \fearless    \into    \stairs
+                              \        ----------
+                               \house     \the  \burning
+                                ------
+                                   \the
+
++Explanation of the Diagram+.--The line representing the interjection is
+not connected with the diagram. Notice the dotted lines, one standing for
+the _and_ which connects the two _word_ modifiers; the other, for the _and_
+connecting the two _phrase_ modifiers.
+
++Written Parsing+.
+
+N.       Pro.  Adj.          Vb.       Adv.  Prep. Conj.  Int.
+        |    |          |            |     |      |     |
+fireman |    | the      | has rushed |     | into | and | hurrah
+house   |    | that     |            |     | up   | and |
+stairs  |    | cool     |            |     |      |     |
+        |    | fearless |            |     |      |     |
+        |    | burning  |            |     |      |     |
+
++Oral Parsing+ of the _conjunction_ and the _interjection_.
+
+The two _ands_ are conjunctions, because they _connect_. The first connects
+two word modifiers; the second, two phrase modifiers. _Hurrah_ is an
+_interjection_, because it expresses a burst of sudden feeling.
+
+1. The small but courageous band was finally overpowered.
+2. Lightning and electricity were identified by Franklin.
+3. A complete success or an entire failure was anticipated.
+4. Good men and bad men are found in all communities.
+5. Vapors rise from the ocean and fall upon the land.
+6. The Revolutionary war began at Lexington and ended at Yorktown.
+7. Alas! all hope has fled.
+8. Ah! I am surprised at the news.
+9. Oh! we shall certainly drown.
+10. Pshaw! you are dreaming.
+11. Hurrah! the field is won.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 37.
+
+PUNCTUATION AND CAPITAL LETTERS.
+
++COMMA--RULE.--Phrases that are placed out of their natural order
+[Footnote: A phrase in its natural order follows the word it modifies.] and
+made emphatic, or that are loosely connected with the rest of the sentence,
+should be set off by the comma+.
+
+PUNCTUATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES.
+
++Model+.--The cable, _after many failures_, was successfully laid. Upon the
+platform 'twixt eleven and twelve I'll visit you. To me this place is
+endeared by many associations. Your answers with few exceptions have been
+correctly given. In English much depends on the placing of phrases.
+
++COMMA--RULE.--Words or phrases connected by conjunctions are separated
+from each other by the comma unless all the conjunctions are expressed+.
+
+PUNCTUATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES.
+
++Model+.--Caesar _came, saw, and conquered_.
+          Caesar _came and saw and conquered_.
+
+He travelled in _England, in Scotland, and in Ireland_.
+
+(The comma is used in the first sentence, because a conjunction is omitted;
+but not in the second, as all the conjunctions are expressed.)
+
+A brave prudent and honorable man was chosen.
+
+Augustus Tiberius Nero and Vespasian were Roman emperors.
+
+Through rainy weather across a wild country over muddy roads after
+a long ride we came to the end of our journey.
+
++PERIOD and CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--_Abbreviations_ generally begin with
+capital letters and are always followed by the period+.
+
+CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
++Model.--+_Mr., Esq., N. Y., P. M_.
+
+gen, a m, mrs, no, u s a, n e, eng, p o, rev, prof, dr, gram, capt, coi,
+co, va, conn.
+
++EXCLAMATION POINT--RULE.--All _exclamatory expressions_ must be followed
+by the exclamation point+.
+
+PUNCTUATE THE FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS.
+
++Model.--+_Ah! Oh! Zounds! Stop pinching!_
+
+Pshaw, whew, alas, ho Tom, halloo Sir, good-bye, welcome.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 38.
+
+SENTENCE-BUILDING.
+
++To the Teacher.--+Call attention to the agreement of verbs with compound
+subjects. Require the pupils to justify the verb-forms in Lesson 36 and
+elsewhere. See Notes, pp. 165-167.
+
+Write _predicates_ for the following _compound subjects_.
+
+Snow and hail; leaves and branches; a soldier or a sailor; London and
+Paris.
+
+Write _compound predicates_ for the following _subjects_.
+
+The sun; water; fish; steamboats; soap; farmers; fences; clothes.
+
+Write _subjects_ for the following _compound predicates_.
+
+Live, feel, and grow; judges and rewards; owes and pays; inhale and exhale;
+expand and contract; flutters and alights; fly, buzz, and sting; restrain
+or punish.
+
+Write _compound subjects_ before the following _predicates_.
+
+May be seen; roar; will be appointed; have flown; has been recommended.
+
+_Write compound predicates_ after the following _compound subjects_.
+
+Boys, frogs, and horses; wood, coal, and peat; Maine and New Hampshire;
+Concord, Lexington, and Bunker Hill; pins, tacks, and needles.
+
+Write _compound subjects_ before the following _compound predicates_.
+
+Throb and ache; were tried, condemned, and hanged; eat, sleep, and dress.
+
+Choose your own material and write five sentences, each having a _compound
+subject_ and a _compound predicate_.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 39.
+
+COMPLEMENTS.
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--When we say, _The sun gives_, we express no
+complete thought. The subject _sun_ is complete, but the predicate _gives_
+does not make a complete assertion. When we say, _The sun gives light_, we
+do utter a complete thought. The predicate _gives_ is completed by the word
+_light_. Whatever fills out, or _completes_, we call a +Complement+. We
+will therefore call _light_ the complement of the predicate. As _light_
+completes the predicate by naming the thing acted upon, we call it the
++Object Complement+.
+
+Expressions like the following may be written on the board, and by a series
+of questions the pupils may be made to dwell upon these facts till they are
+thoroughly understood.
+
+The officer arrested -----;
+the boy found -----;
+Charles saw -----;
+coopers make -----.
+
+Besides these verbs requiring object complements, there are others that do
+not make complete sense without the aid of a complement of _another_
+kind.
+
+A complete predicate does the asserting and expresses what is asserted. In
+the sentence, _Armies march_, _march_ is a complete predicate, for it does
+the asserting and expresses what is asserted; viz., _marching_. In the
+phrase, _armies marching_, _marching_ expresses the same act as that
+denoted by _march_, but it _asserts_ nothing. In the sentence, _Chalk is
+white_, _is_ does the asserting, but it does not express what is asserted.
+We do not wish to assert merely that chalk _is_ or _exists_. What we wish
+to assert of chalk, is the quality expressed by the adjective _white_. As
+_white_ expresses a quality or attribute, we may call it an +Attribute
+Complement+.
+
+Using expressions like the following, let the facts given above be drawn
+from the class by means of questions.
+
+Grass growing; grass grows; green grass; grass is green.
+
++DEFINITION.--The _Object Complement of a sentence_ completes the
+predicate, and names that which receives the act+.
+
++DEFINITION.--The _Attribute Complement_ of a sentence completes the
+predicate and belongs to the subject+.
+
+The complement with all its modifiers is called the +_Modified
+Complement_+.
+
+Analysis and Parsing.
+
++Model+.--_Fulton invented the first steamboat_.
+
+ Fulton | invented | steamboat
+========|======================
+        |             \      \
+                       \the   \first
+
++Explanation of the Diagram+.--You will see that the line standing for the
+_object complement_ is a continuation of the predicate line, and that the
+little vertical line only touches this without cutting it.
+
++Oral Analysis.--+_Fulton_ and _invented_, as before. _Steamboat_ is the
+_object complement_, because it completes the predicate, and names that
+which receives the act. _The_ and _first_, as before. _The first steamboat_
+is the _modified complement_.
+
+1. Caesar crossed the Rubicon.
+2. Morse invented the telegraph.
+3. Ericsson built the Monitor.
+4. Hume wrote a history.
+5. Morn purples the east,
+6. Antony beheaded Cicero.
+
++Model+.--_Gold is malleable_.
+
+Gold | is \ malleable
+=====|===============
+     |
+
+In this diagram, the line standing for the _attribute complement_,
+like the _object line_, is a continuation of the predicate line; but
+notice the difference in the little mark separating the
+_incomplete_[Footnote: Hereafter we shall call the _verb_ the
+_predicate_, but, when followed by a complement, it must be regarded
+as an _incomplete_ predicate.] predicate from the complement.
+
++Oral Analysis+.---_Gold_ and _is_, as before.
+
+_Malleable_ is the _attribute complement_, because it completes
+the predicate, and expresses a quality belonging to gold.
+
+7. Pure water is tasteless.
+8. The hare is timid.
+9. Fawns are graceful.
+10. This peach is delicious.
+11. He was extremely prodigal.
+12. The valley of the Mississippi is very fertile.
+
++To the Teacher+--See Notes, pp. 183,184.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+LESSON 40.
+
+ERRORS IN THE USE OF MODIFIERS.
+
++Caution+.--Place _adverbs_ where there can be no doubt as to the
+words they modify.
+
+ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.
+
+I only bring forward a few things.
+
+Hath the Lord only [Footnote: Adverbs sometimes modify phrases.]spoken by
+Moses?
+
+We merely speak of numbers.
+
+The Chinese chiefly live upon rice.
+
++Caution+.--In placing the adverb, regard must be had to the
+_sound_ of the sentence.
+
+ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.
+
+We always should do our duty.
+The times have changed surely.
+The work will be never finished.
+He must have certainly been sick.
+
++Caution+.--_Adverbs_ must not be used _for adjectives_.
+
+ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.
+
+I feel badly.
+Marble feels coldly.
+She looks nicely.
+It was sold cheaply.
+It appears still more plainly.
+That sounds harshly.
+I arrived at home safely.
+
++Caution+.--_Adjectives_ must not be used _for adverbs_.
+
+ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.
+
+The bells ring merry.
+The curtain hangs graceful.
+That is a decided weak point.
+Speak no coarser than usual.
+These are the words nearest connected.
+Talk slow and distinct.
+She is a remarkable pretty girl.
+
++To the Teacher+.--For additional exercises in distinguishing adjectives
+from adverbs, see Notes, p. 181.
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+What is a conjunction? What is an interjection? Give two rules for the use
+of the comma (Lesson 37). What is the rule for writing abbreviations? What
+is the rule for the exclamation point? What is an object complement? What
+is an attribute complement? Illustrate both. What are the cautions for the
+position of the adverb? What are the cautions for the use of the adverb and
+the adjective?
+
++To the Teacher+.--See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement-Selection
+from Habberton.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+LESSON 41.
+
+ERRORS IN THE POSITION AND USE OF MODIFIERS.
+
++Caution+.--Phrase modifiers should be placed as near as may be to the
+words they modify.
+
++To the Teacher+.--For composition exercises with particular reference
+to arrangement, see Notes, pp. 172-176.
+
+ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.
+
+  A fellow was arrested with short hair.
+  I saw a man digging a well with a Roman nose.
+  He died and went to his rest in New York.
+  Wanted--A room by two gentlemen thirty feet long and twenty feet wide.
+  Some garments were made for the family of thick material.
+  The vessel was beautifully painted with a tall mast.
+  I perceived that it had been scoured with half an eye.
+  A house was built by a mason of brown stone.
+  A pearl was found by a sailor in a shell.
+
+Punctuate these sentences when corrected.
+
++Caution+.--Care must be taken to select the right preposition.
+
++To the Teacher+.--For the preposition to be used, consult the Unabridged
+Dictionaries.
+
+ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.
+
+  They halted with the river on their backs.
+  The cat jumped on the chair.
+  He fell onto the floor.
+  He went in the house.
+  He divides his property between his four sons.
+  He died for thirst.
+  This is different to that.
+  Two thieves divided the booty among themselves.
+  I am angry at him.
+
++Caution+.--Do not use two negative, or denying, words so that one shall
+contradict the other, unless you wish to affirm.
+
+ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.
+
+I haven't no umbrella.
+
+Correct by dropping either the adjective _no_ or the adverb _not_; as, I
+have _no_ umbrella, or I have _not_ an umbrella.
+
+  I didn't say nothing.
+  I can't do this in no way.
+  No other emperor was so wise nor powerful.
+  Nothing can never be annihilated.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 42.
+
+ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
+
+1. Brutus stabbed Caesar.
+2. Man is an animal.
+3. Washington captured Cornwallis.
+4. Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo.
+5. Balboa discovered the Pacific ocean.
+6. Vulcan was a blacksmith.
+7. The summer has been very rainy.
+8. Columbus made four voyages to the New World.
+9. The moon reflects the light of the sun.
+10. The first vice-president of the United States was John Adams.
+11. Roger Williams was the founder of Rhode Island.
+12. Harvey discovered the circulation of blood.
+13. Diamonds are combustible.
+14. Napoleon died a prisoner, at St.. Helena.
+15. In 1619 the first ship-load of slaves was landed at Jamestown.
+
+The pupil will notice that _animal_, in sentence No. 2, is an _attribute
+complement_, though it is not an adjective expressing a quality belonging
+to man, but a noun denoting his class. +_Nouns_+ then may be +_attribute
+compliments_+.
+
+The pupil will notice also that some of the _object_ and _attribute
+complements_ above have phrase modifiers.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 43.
+
+SENTENCE-BUILDING.
+
+Using the following predicates, build sentences having subjects,
+predicates, and object complements with or without modifiers.
+
+---- climb ----; ---- hunt ----; ---- command ----; ---- attacked
+----; ---- pursued ----; ---- shall receive ----; ---- have seen ----;
+---- love ----.
+
+Change the following expressions into sentences by _asserting_ the
+qualities here _assumed_. Use these verbs for predicates:
+
+Is, were, appears, may be, became, was, have been, should have been, is
+becoming, are.
+
++Model+.--_Heavy_ gold.    Gold _is heavy_.
+
+Green fields; sweet oranges; interesting story; brilliant sunrise; severe
+punishment; playful kittens; warm weather; pitiful sight; sour grapes;
+amusing anecdote.
+
+Prefix to the following nouns several adjectives expressing qualities, and
+then make complete sentences by _asserting_ the same qualities.
+
+          white   |          Chalk _is white_.
++Model+.--brittle + chalk.   Chalk _is brittle_.
+          soft    |          Chalk _is soft_.
+
+Gold, pears, pens, lead, water, moon, vase, rock, lakes, summer, ocean,
+valley.
+
+Find your own material, and build two sentences having object complements,
+and two having attribute complements.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 44.
+
+ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS.
+
++Models+.--
+
+                 expands
+             /===========
+ Learning | /  '         \  | mind
+ =========|=and'          \=======
+          | \  ' elevates /   \the
+             \============
+
+                 ran
+              =========
+             /  ' \forward
+    He  |   /   '
+ =======|=== and'
+        |   \   '
+             \  ' kissed | him
+              \================
+
+In the second diagram, one of the predicate lines is followed by a
+complement line; but the two predicate lines are not united, for the two
+verbs have not a common object.
+
+1. Learning expands and elevates the mind.
+2. He ran forward and kissed him.
+3. The earth and the moon are planets.
+4. The Swiss scenery is picturesque.
+5. Jefferson was chosen the third president of the United States.
+6. Nathan Hale died a martyr to liberty.
+7. The man stood speechless.
+8. Labor disgraces no man.
+9. Aristotle and Plato were the most distinguished philosophers of
+   antiquity.
+10. Josephus wrote a history of the Jews.
+11. This man seems the leader of the whole party.
+12. The attribute complement completes the predicate and belongs to the
+    subject.
+13. Lord Cornwallis became governor of Bengal after his disastrous defeat.
+14. The multitude ran before him and strewed branches in the way.
+15. Peter Minuits traded with the Indians, and bought the whole island of
+    Manhattan for twenty-four dollars.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON  45.
+
+ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS.
+
++Model+.--
+
+                                 wise
+                              /==========
+                             / '    \in
+                            / X'     \  council
+                           /   '      \---------
+ Henry IV. | was \        /    ' simple
+===========|==============     '==========
+  \of      |        \very \ and'    \in
+   \  House                \   '     \  manners
+    \--------               \  '      \---------
+      \the \of               \ ' chivalric
+            \  Burbon         \============
+             \-------                \in
+                                      \  field
+                                       \-------
+                                         \the
+
+The line standing for the word-modifier is joined to that part of the
+complement line which represents the _entire_ attribute complement.
+
+1. Henry IV., of the House of Bourbon, was very wise in council, simple in
+   manners, and chivalric in the field.
+2. Caesar defeated Pompey at Pharsalia.
+3. The diamond is the most valuable gem.
+4. The Greeks took Troy by stratagem.
+5. The submarine cable unites the continent of America and the Old World.
+6. The Gauls joined the army of Hannibal.
+7. Columbus crossed the Atlantic with ninety men, and landed at San
+   Salvador.
+8. Vulcan made arms for Achilles.
+9. Cromwell gained at Naseby a most decisive victory over the Royalists.
+10. Columbus was a native of Genoa.
+11. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb.
+12. The morning hour has gold in its mouth.
+13. The mill of the gods grinds late, but grinds to powder.
+14. A young farmer recently bought a yoke of oxen, six cows, and a horse.
+15. America has furnished to the world tobacco, the potato, and Indian
+    corn.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 46.
+
+ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS.
+
+   Cotton   |  is raised
+ ===========|===============
+            |  \              Egypt
+                \          /'-------
+                 \in      / '
+                  \      / X'
+                   \    /   ' India
+                    \--/    '--------
+                       \    '
+                        \and'
+                         \  '
+                          \ ' United States
+                           \---------------
+                                \the
+
++Explanation of the Diagram+.--In this diagram the line representing the
+principal part of the phrase separates into three lines. This shows that
+the principal part of the phrase is compound. _Egypt_, _India_, and _United
+States_ are all introduced by the same preposition _in_, and have the same
+relation to _is raised_.
+
+1. Cotton is raised in Egypt, India, and the United States.
+2. The navy of Hiram brought gold from Ophir.
+3. The career of Cromwell was short.
+4. Most mountain ranges run parallel with the coast.
+5. Now swiftly glides the bonny boat.
+6. An able but dishonest judge presided.
+7. The queen bee lays eggs in cells of three different sizes.
+8. Umbrellas were introduced into England from China.
+9. The first permanent English settlement in America was made at Jamestown,
+   in 1607.
+10. The spirit of true religion is social, kind, and cheerful.
+11. The summits of the Alps are covered with perpetual snow.
+12. The months of July and August were named after Julius Caesar and
+    Augustus Caesar.
+13. All the kings of Egypt are called, in Scripture, Pharaoh.
+14. The bamboo furnishes to the natives of China, shade, food, houses,
+    weapons, and clothing.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 47.
+
+SENTENCE-BUILDING.
+
+Supply _attribute complements_ to the following expressions. (See Caution,
+Lesson 40.)
+
+The marble feels ----. Mary looks ----. The weather continues ----. The
+apple tastes ----. That lady appears ----. The sky grows ----. The leaves
+of roses are ----. The undertaking was pronounced ----.
+
+Write a subject and a predicate to each of the following nouns taken as
+_attribute complements_.
+
++Model+.--_Soldier_.--That old man has been a _soldier_.
+
+Plant, insect, mineral, vegetable, liquid, gas, solid, historian, poet,
+artist, traveler, emperor.
+
+Using the following nouns as subjects, build sentences each having a simple
+predicate and two or more _object complements_.
+
+Congress, storm, education, king, tiger, hunter, Arnold, shoemakers,
+lawyers, merchant.
+
+Build three sentences on each of the following subjects, two of which shall
+contain _object complements_, and the third, an _attribute
+complement_.
+
++Model+.--_Sun_.--
+  The _sun_ gives _light_.
+  The _sun_ warms the _earth_.
+  The _sun_ is a luminous _body_.
+
+Moon, oak, fire, whiskey.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 48.
+
+SUBJECT OR COMPLEMENT MODIFIED BY A PARTICIPLE.
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--You have learned, in the preceding Lessons,
+that a _quality_ may be _assumed_ as belonging to a thing; as, _white
+chalk_, or that it may be _asserted_ of it; as, _Chalk is white_. An
+_action_, also, may be _assumed_ as belonging to something; as, _Peter
+turning_, or it may be _asserted;_ as, Peter _turned_. In the expression,
+_Peter, turning, said_, what word expresses an action as _assumed_, and
+which _asserts_ an action? Each pupil may give an example of an action
+asserted and of an action assumed; as, Corn _grows_, corn _growing_; geese
+_gabble_; geese _gabbling_.
+
+This form of the verb, which merely _assumes_ the act, being, or state, is
+called the +Participle+.
+
+When the words _growing_ and _gabbling_ are placed before the nouns, thus:
+_growing corn, gabbling geese_, they tell simply the kind of corn and the
+kind of geese, and are therefore _adjectives_.
+
+When _the_ or some other adjective is placed before these words, and a
+preposition after them, thus: _The growing of the corn, the gabbling of the
+geese_, they are simply the _names_ of actions, and are therefore _nouns_.
+
+Let each pupil give an example of a verb asserting an action, and change it
+to express:--
+
+1st, An _assumed_ action; 2d, A permanent _quality;_ 3d, The _name_ of an
+action.
+
+
+_Participles_ may be completed by _objects_ and _attributes_.
+
++Analysis and Parsing+.
+
++Model+.--_Truth, crushed to earth, will rise again_.
+
+  Truth    |  will rise
+ ==========|=============
+  \cru     |    \again
+   \  shed
+    --------
+      \to
+       \  earth
+        \-------
+
++Explanation of the Diagram+.--In this diagram, the line standing for the
+principal word of the participial phrase is broken; one part slants, and
+the other is horizontal. This shows that the participle _crushed_ is used
+like an adjective to modify _Truth_, and yet retains the nature of a verb,
+expressing an action received by truth.
+
++Oral Analysis+.--This is a sentence, because ----; _Truth_ is the subject,
+because ----; _will rise_ is the predicate, because ----; the phrase,
+_crushed to earth_, is a modifier of the Subj., because ----; _crushed_
+introduces the phrase and is the principal word in it; the phrase _to
+earth_ is a modifier of _crushed_; _to_ introduces it, and _earth_ is the
+principal word in it; _again_ is a modifier of the Pred., because ----.
+_Truth crushed to earth_ is the modified subject, _will rise again_ is the
+modified predicate.
+
++Parsing+--_Crushed_ is the form of the verb called _participle_. The
+action expressed by it is merely _assumed_.
+
+1. The mirth of Addison is genial, imparting a mild glow of thought.
+2. The general, riding to the front, led the attack.
+3. The balloon, shooting swiftly into the clouds, was soon lost to sight.
+4. Wealth acquired dishonestly will prove a curse.
+5. The sun, rising, dispelled the mists.
+6. The thief, being detected, surrendered to the officer.
+7. They boarded the vessel lying in the harbor.
+8. The territory claimed by the Dutch was called New Netherlands.
+9. Washington, having crossed the Delaware, attacked the Hessians stationed
+   at Trenton.
+10. Burgoyne, having been surrounded at Saratoga, surrendered to Gen.
+    Gates.
+11. Pocahontas was married to a young Englishman named John Rolfe.
+12. A shrug of the shoulders, translated into words, loses much force.
+13. The armies of England, mustered for the battles of Europe, do not
+    awaken sincere admiration.
+
+(Note that the participle, like the predicate verb, may consist of two or
+more words.)
+
+(Note, too, that the participle, like the adjective, may belong to a
+_noun complement_.)
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 49.
+
+THE INFINITIVE PHRASE.
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--There is another form of the verb which,
+like the participle, cannot be the predicate of a sentence, for it cannot
+_assert_; as, She went out _to see_ a friend; _To lie_ is a disgrace. As
+this form of the verb expresses the action, being, or state in a general
+manner, without limiting it directly to a subject, it is called an
++Infinitive+, which means _without limit_. The infinitive generally follows
+_to_; as, _to walk, to sleep_.
+
+Let each pupil give an infinitive.
+
+The infinitive and the preposition _to_ constitute a phrase, which may be
+employed in several ways.
+
++T+.--_I have a duty to perform_. The infinitive phrase modifies what?
+
++P+.--The noun _duty_. +T+.--It then performs the office of what? +P+.--Of
+an adjective modifier.
+
++T+.--_I come to hear_. The infinitive phrase modifies what? +P+.--The verb
+_come_. +T+.--What office then does it perform? +P+.--Of an adverb
+modifier.
+
++T+.--_To lie is base_. _What_ is base? +P+.--To lie. +T+.--_He attempted
+to speak_. _What_ did he attempt? +P+.--To speak. +T+.--_To lie_ is a
+subject, and _to speak_ is an _object_. What part of speech is used as
+subject and object? +P+.--The noun.
+
++T+.--The +Infinitive+ phrase is used as an +adjective+, an +adverb+, and a
++noun+.
+
+_Infinitives_ may be completed by _objects_ and _attributes_.
+
++Analysis and Parsing+.
+
++Model+.--_David hasted to meet Goliath_.
+
+  David   |  hasted
+==========|===========
+          |    \to
+                \  meet | Goliath
+                 \----------------
+
++Analysis of the Infinitive Phrase+.--_To_ introduces the phrase; _meet_,
+completed by the object _Goliath_, is the principal part.
+
++Parsing of the Phrase+.--_To_ is a preposition, because ----; _meet_ is a
+verb, because ----; _Goliath_ is a noun, because ----.
+
+1. I come not here to talk.
+2. I rejoice to hear it.
+3. A desire to excel leads to eminence.
+4. Dr. Franklin was sent to France to solicit aid for the colonies.
+5. To retreat was impossible.
+
+(_To_ is here used merely to introduce the infinitive phrase.)
+
+ \to
+  \  retreat
+   \---------
+       |
+       |
+      / \   |  was  \  impossible
+  ==========|======================
+            |
+
++Explanation of the Diagram+.--As this _phrase subject_ cannot, in its
+proper form, be written on the subject line, it is placed above, and, by
+means of a support, the phrase diagram is made to rest on the subject line.
+The _phrase complement_ may be diagramed in a similar way, and made to rest
+on the complement line.
+
+6. The hands refuse to labor.
+7. To live is not all of life.
+8. The Puritans desired to obtain religious freedom.
+9. The Romans, having conquered the world, were unable to conquer
+   themselves.
+10. Narvaez sailed from Cuba to conquer Florida.
+11. Some savages of America and Africa love to wear rings in the nose.
+12. Andrew Jackson, elected to succeed J. Q. Adams, was inaugurated in
+    1829.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 50.
+
+POSITION AND PUNCTUATION OF THE PARTICIPIAL PHRASE.
+
+ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED. (See Caution 1, Lesson 41.)
+
+Punctuate as you correct. (See Lesson 37.)
+
+  A house was built for a clergyman having seven gables.
+  The old man struck the saucy boy raising a gold-headed cane.
+  We saw a marble bust of Sir W. Scott entering the vestibule.
+  Here is news from a neighbor boiled down.
+  I found a cent walking over the bridge.
+  Balboa discovered the Pacific ocean climbing to the top of a mountain.
+
+Punctuate the following exercises.
+
+  Cradled in the camp Napoleon was the darling of the army.
+  Having approved of the plan the king put it into execution.
+  Satan incensed with indignation stood unterrified.
+  My friend seeing me in need offered his services.
+  James being weary with his journey sat down on the wall.
+  The owl hid in the tree hooted through the night.
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+Give the caution relating to the position of the phrase modifier; that
+relating to the choice of prepositions; that relating to the double
+negative (Lesson 41). Give examples of errors. Can a noun be an attribute
+complement? Illustrate. What do you understand by a participle? Into what
+may some participles be changed? Illustrate. What offices does the
+infinitive phrase perform? Illustrate them.
+
++To the Teacher+.--See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement--Selection
+from George Eliot.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 51.
+
+REVIEW.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS FOR CORRECTION. (See Cautions in Lessons 30, 40, and
+41.)
+
+  There never was such another man.
+  He was an old venerable patriarch.
+
+  John has a cadaverous, hungry, and lean look.
+  He was a well-proportioned, fine fellow.
+
+  Pass me them potatoes.
+
+  Put your trust not in money.
+  We have often occasion for thanksgiving,
+
+  Now this is to be done how?
+  Nothing can justify ever profanity.
+
+  To continually study is impossible.
+
+(An adverb is seldom placed between the preposition _to_ and the
+infinitive.)
+
+  Mary likes to tastefully dress.
+  Learn to carefully choose your words.
+
+  She looks queerly.
+  Give me a soon and direct answer.
+
+  The post stood firmly.
+  The eagle flies highly.
+  The orange tastes sweetly.
+
+  I feel tolerable well.
+  The branch breaks easy.
+  Thistles grow rapid.
+  The eagle flies swift.
+  This is a miserable poor pen.
+
+  A wealthy gentleman will adopt a little boy with a small family.
+  A gentleman called from Africa to pay his compliments.
+
+  Water consists in oxygen and hydrogen.
+  He went out attended with a servant.
+  I have a dislike to such tricksters.
+  We have no prejudice to foreigners.
+  She don't know nothing about it.
+  Father wouldn't give me none.
+  He hasn't been sick neither.
+  I won't have no more nohow.
+
++To the Teacher+.--Let the reason be given for every correction.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 52.
+
+SENTENCE-BUILDING.
+
+Build sentences in which the following participles shall be used as
+modifiers.
+
+Being fatigued; laughing; being amused; having been elected; running;
+having been running.
+
+Expand each of the following sentences into three sentences, using the
+_participial form_ of the verb as a _participle_, in the first; the same
+form as an _adjective_, in the second; and as a _noun_, in the third.
+
++Model+.--The stream _flows_. The stream, _flowing_ gently, crept through
+the meadow. The _flowing_ stream slipped away to the sea. The _flowing_ of
+the stream caused a low murmur. The stream flows. The sun rises. Insects
+hum. The birds sing. The wind whistles. The bells are ringing. The tide
+ebbs.
+
+Form _infinitive phrases_ from the following verbs, and use these phrases
+as _adjectives, adverbs_, and _nouns_, in sentences of your own building.
+
+Smoke, dance, burn, eat, lie, try.
+
++To the Teacher+.--For exercises to distinguish the participle from the
+predicate verb, see Notes, pp. 181, 182.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 53.
+
+NOUNS AND PRONOUNS AS MODIFIERS.
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--In the sentence, _The robin's eggs are
+blue_, the noun _robin's_ does what? +P+.--It tells what or whose eggs are
+blue. +T+.--What word names the things owned or possessed? +P+.--_Eggs_.
++T+.--What word names the owner or possessor? +P+.--_Robin's_.
+
++T+.--The noun _robin's_ is here used as a _modifier_. You see that this
+word, which I have written on the board, is the word _robin_ with a little
+mark (') called an apostrophe, and the letter _s_ added. These are added to
+denote possession.
+
+In the sentence, _Webster, the statesman, was born in New Hampshire_, the
+noun _statesman_ modifies the subject _Webster_ by explaining what or which
+Webster is meant. Both words name the same person.
+
+Let the pupils give examples of each of these two kinds of +Noun
+Modifiers+--the +Possessive+ and the +Explanatory+.
+
+
+Analysis and Parsing.
+
++Model+.--_Julia's sister Mary has lost her diamond ring_.
+
+  sister (Mary) |  has lost  |   ring
+ ===============|============'=============
+    \Julia's    |                \her  \diamond
+
++Explanation of the Diagram+.--_Mary_ is written on the subject line,
+because _Mary_ and _sister_ both name the same person, but the word _Mary_
+is inclosed within marks of parenthesis to show that _sister_ is the proper
+grammatical subject.
+
+In _oral analysis_, call _Julia's_ and _Mary_ modifiers of the subject,
+_sister_, because _Julia's_ tells whose sister, and _Mary_ explains sister
+by adding another name of the same person. _Her_ is a modifier of the
+object, because it tells whose ring is meant.
+
+_Julia's sister Mary_ is the _modified subject_, the predicate is
+unmodified, and _her diamond ring_ is the _modified object complement_.
+
+1. The planet Jupiter has four moons.
+2. The Emperor Nero was a cruel tyrant.
+3. Peter's wife's mother lay sick of a fever.
+
+   mother
+  ========
+    \wife's
+       \Peter's
+
+4. An ostrich outruns an Arab's horse.
+5. His pretty little nephew Arthur had the best claim to the throne.
+6. Milton, the great English poet, became blind.
+7. Caesar gave his daughter Julia in marriage to Pompey.
+8. London, the capital of England, is the largest and richest city in the
+   world.
+9. Joseph, Jacob's favorite son, was sold by his brethren to the
+   Ishmaelites.
+10. Alexander the Great [Footnote: _Alexander the Great_ may be taken as
+    one name, or _Great_ may be called an explanatory modifier of
+    _Alexander_.] was educated under the celebrated philosopher Aristotle.
+11. Friends tie their purses with a spider's thread.
+12. Caesar married Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna.
+13. His fate, alas! was deplorable.
+14. Love rules his kingdom without a sword.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 54.
+
+SENTENCE-BUILDING.
+
+Nouns and pronouns denoting possession may generally be changed to
+equivalent phrases; as, _Arnold's treason_ = _the treason of Arnold_. Here
+the preposition _of_ indicates _possession_, the same relation expressed by
+the apostrophe (') and _s_. Change the following possessive nouns to
+equivalent phrases, and the phrases indicating possession to possessive
+nouns, and then expand the expressions into complete sentences.
+
++Model+.--The _earth's_ surface. The surface _of the earth_ is made up of
+land and water.
+
+The earth's surface: Solomon's temple; England's Queen; Washington's
+Farewell Address; Dr. Kane's Explorations; Peter's wife's mother; George's
+friend's father; Shakespeare's plays; Noah's dove; the diameter of the
+earth; the daughter of Jephthah; the invasion of Burgoyne; the voyage of
+Cabot; the Armada of Philip; the attraction of the earth; the light of the
+moon.
+
+Find for the things mentioned below, _other_ names which shall describe or
+explain them. Add such names to these nouns, and then expand the
+expressions into complete sentences.
+
++Model+.--_Ink_.--_Ink, a dark fluid_, is used in writing.
+
+Observe the following rule.
+
++COMMA-RULE.--An _Explanatory Modifier_, when it does not restrict the
+modified term or combine closely with it, is set off by the comma+.
+
++To the Teacher+.--See Notes, pp. 176, 177.
+
+New York, rain, paper, the monkey, the robin, tea, Abraham Lincoln,
+Alexander Hamilton, world, peninsula, Cuba, Shakespeare.
+
+Write three sentences, each of which shall contain a noun or pronoun
+denoting possession, and a noun or pronoun used to explain.
+
++To the Teacher+.--For additional exercises in the use of possessive
+modifiers, see Notes, pp. 182, 183.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 55.
+
+ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES IN REVIEW.
+
+1. The toad spends the winter in a dormant state.
+2. Pride in dress or in beauty betrays a weak mind.
+3. The city of London is situated on the river Thames.
+4. Napoleon Bonaparte was born in 1769, on an island in the Mediterranean.
+5. Men's opinions vary with their interests.
+6. Ammonia is found in the sap of trees, and in the juices of all
+   vegetables.
+7. Earth sends up her perpetual hymn of praise to the Creator.
+8. Having once been deceived by him, I never trusted him again.
+9. Aesop, the author of Aesop's Fables, was a slave.
+10. Hope comes with smiles to cheer the hour of pain.
+11. Clouds are collections of vapors in the air.
+12. To relieve the wretched was his pride.
+13. Greece, the most noted country of antiquity, scarcely exceeded in size
+    the half of the state of New York.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 56.
+
+ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES IN REVIEW--CONTINUED.
+
+1. We are never too old to learn.
+2. Civility is the result of good nature and good sense.
+3. The right of the people to instruct their representatives is generally
+   admitted.
+4. The immense quantity of matter in the Universe presents a most striking
+   display of Almighty power.
+5. Virtue, diligence, and industry, joined with good temper and prudence,
+   must ever be the surest means of prosperity.
+6. The people called Quakers were a source of much trouble to the Puritans.
+7. The Mayflower brought to America [Footnote: One hundred and one may be
+   taken as one adjective.] one hundred and one men, women, and children.
+8. Edward Wingfield, an avaricious and unprincipled man, was the first
+   president of the Jamestown colony.
+9. John Cabot and his son Sebastian, sailing under a commission from Henry
+   VII. of England, discovered the continent of America.
+10. True worth is modest and retiring.
+11. Jonah, the prophet, preached to the inhabitants of Nineveh.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 57.
+
+COMPLEX SENTENCES.
+
+THE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE.
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--A word-modifier may sometimes be expanded
+into a phrase or into an expression that asserts.
+
++T+.--_A wise man will be honored_. Expand _wise_ into a phrase, and give
+me the sentence. +P+.--A man _of wisdom_ will be honored. +T+.--Expand
+_wise_ into an expression that asserts, join this to _man_, as a modifier,
+and then give me the entire sentence. +P+.--A man _who is wise_ will be
+honored.
+
++T+.--You see that the same quality may be expressed in three ways--A
+_wise_ man, A man _of wisdom_, A man _who is wise_.
+
+Let the pupils give similar examples.
+
++T+.--In the sentence, _A man who is wise will be honored_, the word _who_
+stands for what? +P+.--For the noun _man_. +T+.--Then what part of speech
+is it? +P+.--A pronoun.
+
++T+.--Put the noun _man_ in the place of the pronoun _who_, and then give
+me the sentence. +P+.--_A man, man is wise, will be honored_.
+
++T+.--I will repeat your sentence, changing the order of the words--_A man
+will be honored. Man is wise_. Is the last sentence now joined to the first
+as a modifier, or are they two separate sentences? +P+.--They are two
+separate sentences.
+
++T+.--Then you see that the pronoun _who_ not only stands for the noun
+_man_, but it connects the modifying expression, _who is wise_, to _man_,
+the subject of the sentence, _A man will be honored_, and thus there is
+formed what we call a +Complex Sentence+. These two parts we call
++Clauses+. _A man will be honored_ is the +Independent Clause;+ _who is
+wise_ is the +Dependent Clause+.
+
+Clauses that modify nouns or pronouns are called +Adjective Clauses+.
+
+
++DEFINITION.--A _Clause_ is a part of a sentence containing a subject and
+its predicate+.
+
++DEFINITION.--A _Dependent Clause_ is one used as an adjective, an adverb,
+or a noun+.
+
++DEFINITION.--An _Independent Clause_ is one not dependent on another
+clause+.
+
++DEFINITION.--A _Simple Sentence_ is one that contains but one subject and
+one predicate, either or both of which may be compound+.
+
++DEFINITION.--A _Complex Sentence_ is one composed of an independent clause
+and one or more dependent clauses+.
+
+Analysis and Parsing.
+
++Model+.--
+
+    man   | will be honored
+ =========|==================
+  \A  `   |
+       `
+        `
+     who ` | is \ wise
+    -------|------------
+           |
+
++Explanation of the Diagram+.--You will notice that the lines standing for
+the subject and predicate of the _independent clause_ are heavier than
+those of the _dependent clause_. This pictures to you the relative
+importance of the two clauses. You will see that the pronoun _who_ is
+written on the subject line of the dependent clause. But this word performs
+the office of a conjunction also, and this office is expressed in the
+diagram by a dotted line. As all modifiers are joined by _slanting_ lines,
+to the words they modify, you learn from this diagram that _who is wise_ is
+a modifier of _man_.
+
++Oral Analysis+.--This is a _complex sentence_, because it consists of an
+_independent clause_ and a _dependent clause_. _A man will be honored_ is
+_the independent clause_; _who is wise_ is the _dependent clause_. _Man_ is
+the subject of the independent clause; _will be honored_ is the predicate.
+The word _A_ and the clause, _who is wise_, are modifiers of the subject.
+_A_ points out _man_, and _who is wise_ tells the _kind_ of man. _A man who
+is wise_ is the modified subject; the predicate is unmodified. _Who_ is the
+subject of the dependent clause, _is_ is the predicate, and _wise_ is the
+attribute complement. _Who_ connects the two clauses.
+
+1. He that runs may read.
+2. Man is the only animal that laughs and weeps.
+3. Henry Hudson discovered the river which bears his name.
+4. He necessarily remains weak who never tries exertion.
+5. The meridians are those lines that extend from pole to pole.
+6. He who will not be ruled by the rudder must be ruled by the rock.
+7. Animals that have a backbone are called vertebrates.
+8. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown.
+9. The thick mists which prevail in the neighborhood of Newfoundland are
+   caused by the warm waters of the Gulf Stream.
+10. The power which brings a pin to the ground holds the earth in its
+    orbit.
+11. Death is the black camel which kneels at every man's gate.
+12. Our best friends are they who tell us of our faults, and help us to
+    mend them.
+
+The pupil will notice that, in some of these sentences, the dependent
+clause modifies the subject, and that, in others, it modifies the noun
+complement.
+
++COMMA--RULE.--The _adjective_ or the _adverb clause_, when it does not
+closely follow and restrict the word modified, is generally set off by the
+comma+.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 58.
+
+SENTENCE-BUILDING.
+
+ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.
+
+Expand each of the following adjectives into
+
+1. A phrase;
+2. A clause;
+
+and then use these three modifiers in three separate sentences of your own
+construction.
+
+                                  | _who has energy_,
++Model+.--_Energetic; of energy_; +   or
+                                  | _who is energetic_.
+
+
+An _energetic_ man will succeed. A man _of energy_ will succeed. A man who
+has _energy_ (or _who is energetic_) will succeed.
+
+Honest, long-eared, beautiful, wealthy.
+
+Expand each of the following _possessive nouns_ into
+
+1. A phrase;
+2. A clause;
+
+and then use these three modifiers in three separate sentences.
+
++Model+.--_Saturn's rings_; the rings _of Saturn_; the rings _which
+surround Saturn_.
+
+_Saturn's_ rings can be seen with a telescope. The _rings of Saturn_ can be
+seen with a telescope. The rings _which surround Saturn_ can be seen, with
+a telescope.
+
+Absalom's hair; the hen's eggs; the elephant's tusks.
+
+Change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding
+the participial phrases into clauses.
+
+The vessels carrying the blood from the heart are called arteries. The book
+prized above all other books is the Bible. Rivers rising west of the Rocky
+Mts. flow into the Pacific ocean. The guns fired at Concord were heard
+around the world.
+
++To the Teacher+.--For additional composition exercises with particular
+reference to adjective clauses, see Notes, p. 177.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 59.
+
+COMPLEX SENTENCES.
+
+THE ADVERB CLAUSE.
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--You learned in Lesson 83 that an adverb can
+be expanded into an equivalent phrase; as, The book was _carefully_ read =
+The book was read _with care_.
+
+We shall now learn that a phrase used as an adverb may be expanded into an
++Adverb clause+. In the sentence, _We started at sunrise_, what phrase is
+used like an adverb? +P+.--_At sunrise_. +T+.--Expand this phrase into an
+equivalent clause, and give me the entire sentence. +P+.--We started _when
+the sun rose_.
+
++T+.--You see that the phrase, _at sunrise_, and the clause, _when the sun
+rose_, both modify _started_, telling the time of starting, and are
+therefore equivalent to adverbs. We will then call such clauses +Adverb
+Clauses+.
+
+
+Analysis and Parsing.
+
++Model.--+
+
+   We    |    started
+=========|=============
+                 \
+                  ` when
+             sun   \  rose
+           =======|=========
+             \the
+
++Explanation of the Diagram+.--The line which connects the two predicate
+lines pictures three things. It is made up of three parts. The upper part
+shows that _when_ modifies _started_; the lower part, that it modifies
+_rose_; and the dotted part shows that it _connects_.
+
++Oral Analysis+.--This is a complex sentence, because ----; _We started_ is
+the independent clause, and _when the sun rose_ is the dependent clause.
+_We_ is the subject of the independent clause, and _started_ is the
+predicate. The clause, _when the sun rose_, is a modifier of the predicate,
+because it tells when we started. _Started when the sun rose_ is the
+modified predicate.
+
+_Sun_ is the subject of the dependent clause, and _rose_ is the predicate,
+and the is a modifier of _sun_; _the sun_ is the modified subject. _When_
+modifies _rose_ and _started_, and connects the clause-modifier to the
+predicate _started_.
+
++Parsing+ of _when_.--_When_ is an adverb modifying the two verbs _started_
+and _rose_, thus connecting the two clauses. It modifies these verbs by
+showing that the two actions took place at the same time.
+
+1. The dew glitters when the sun shines.
+2. Printing was unknown when Homer wrote the Iliad.
+3. Where the bee sucks honey, the spider sucks poison.
+4. Ah! few shall part where many meet.
+5. Where the devil cannot come, he will send.
+6. While the bridegroom tarried, they all slumbered and slept.
+7. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread.
+8. When the tale of bricks is doubled, Moses comes.
+9. When I look upon the tombs of the great, every emotion of envy dies
+   within me.
+10. The upright man speaks as he thinks.
+11. He died as the fool dieth.
+12. The scepter shall not depart from Judah until Shiloh come.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 60.
+
+SENTENCE-BUILDING.
+
+ADVERB CLAUSES.
+
+Expand each of the following phrases into an adverb clause, and fit this
+clause into a sentence of your own building.
+
++Model+.--_At sunset; when the sun set_. We returned _when the sun set_.
+
+At the hour; on the playground; by moonlight; in youth; among icebergs;
+after school; at the forks of the road; during the day; before church; with
+my friend.
+
+To each of the following independent clauses, join an adverb clause,
+and so make complex sentences.
+
+---- Peter began to sink. The man dies ----. Grass grows ----. Iron ----
+can easily be shaped. The rattlesnake shakes his rattle ----. ---- a nation
+mourns. Pittsburg stands ----. He dared to lead ----.
+
++To the Teacher+.--For additional composition exercises with particular
+reference to adverb clauses, see Notes, p. 177.
+
+See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement--Selection from the Brothers
+Grimm.
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+In what two ways may nouns be used as modifiers? Illustrate. Nouns and
+pronouns denoting possession may sometimes be changed into what?
+Illustrate. Give the rule for the punctuation of explanatory modifiers.
+Into what may an adjective be expanded? Into what may a participial phrase
+be expanded? Give illustrations. Give an example of a complex sentence. Of
+a clause. Of an independent clause. Of a dependent clause. Into what may a
+phrase used as an adverb be expanded? Illustrate.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 61.
+
+THE NOUN CLAUSE.
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_That stars are suns is taught by
+astronomers_. What is taught by astronomers? +P+.--That stars are suns.
++T+.--What then is the subject of _is taught_? +P+.--The clause, _That
+stars are suns_. +T+.--This clause then performs the office of what part of
+speech? +P+.--Of a noun.
+
++T+.--_Astronomers teach that stars are suns_. What do astronomers teach?
++P+.--That stars are suns. +T+.--What is the object complement of _teach_?
++P+.--The clause, _that stars are suns_. +T+.--What office then does this
+clause perform? +P+.--That of a noun.
+
++T+.--_The teaching of astronomers is, that stars are suns_. What does _is_
+assert of teaching? +P+.--That stars are suns. +T+.--What then is the
+attribute complement? +P+.--_That stars are suns_. +T+.--Does this
+complement express the quality of the subject, or does it name the same
+thing that the subject names? +P+.--It names the same thing that the
+subject names. +T+.--It is equivalent then to what part of speech? +P+.--To
+a noun.
+
++T+.--You see then that a clause, like a noun, may be used as the subject
+or the complement of a sentence.
+
+
+Analysis and Parsing.
+
++Model+.--
+
+            That
+           ------
+              '
+  stars | are '\suns
+ =======|============
+        |  |
+           |
+          / \   | is taught
+================|============
+                |   \by
+                     \  astronomers
+                      --------------
+
+You will understand this diagram from the explanation of the second diagram
+in Lesson 49.
+
++Oral Analysis+.--This is a complex sentence, in which the whole sentence
+takes the place of the independent clause. _That stars are suns_ is the
+dependent clause. _That stars are suns_ is the subject of the whole
+sentence, etc. ----. _That_ simply introduces the dependent clause.
+
+In _parsing_, call _that_ a conjunction.
+
+1. That the Scotch are an intelligent people is generally acknowledged.
+2. That the moon is made of green cheese is believed by some boys and
+   girls.
+3. That Julius Caesar invaded Britain is a historic fact.
+4. That children should obey their parents is a divine precept.
+5. I know that my Redeemer liveth.
+6. Plato taught that the soul is immortal.
+7. Peter denied that he knew his Lord.
+8. Mahomet found that the mountain would not move.
+9. The principle maintained by the colonies was, that taxation without
+   representation is unjust.
+10. Our intention is, that this work shall be well done.
+11. Our hearts' desire and prayer is, that you may be saved.
+12. The belief of the Sadducees was, that there is no resurrection of the
+    dead.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+LESSON 62.
+
+COMPOUND SENTENCES.
+
+ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
+
++DEFINITION.--A _Compound Sentence_ is one composed of two or more
+independent clauses+.
+
++Model+.--_War has ceased, and peace has come_.
+
+  War  |  has ceased
+=======|=============
+       |    '
+            ' and
+            '.....
+                 '
+  peace  |   has ' come
+=========|===============
+         |
+
++Explanation of the Diagram+.--These two clause diagrams are shaded alike
+to show that the two clauses are of the same rank. The connecting line is
+not slanting, for one clause is not a modifier of the other. As one entire
+clause is connected with the other, the connecting line is drawn between
+the predicates simply for convenience.
+
++Oral Analysis+.--This is a _compound sentence_, because it is made up of
+two independent clauses. The first clause, etc. ----.
+
+1. Morning dawns, and the clouds disperse.
+2. Prayer leads the heart to God, and he always listens.
+3. A soft answer turneth away wrath, but grievous words stir up anger.
+4. Power works easily, but fretting is a perpetual confession of weakness.
+5. Many meet the gods, but few salute them.
+6. We eat to live, but we do not live to eat.
+7. The satellites revolve in orbits around the planets, and the planets
+   move in orbits around the sun.
+8. A wise son maketh a glad father, but a foolish son is the heaviness of
+   his mother.
+9. Every man desires to live long, but no man would be old.
+10. [Footnote: A verb is to be supplied in each of the last three
+    sentences.] Pride goeth before destruction, and a haughty spirit before
+    a fall.
+11. Towers are measured by their shadows, and great men, by their
+    calumniators.
+12. Worth makes the man, and want of it, the fellow.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 63.
+
+SENTENCES CLASSIFIED WITH RESPECT TO THEIR MEANING.
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--You have already become acquainted with
+three kinds of sentences. Can you name them?
+
++P+.--The Simple sentence, the Complex, and the Compound.
+
++T+.--These classes have been made with regard to the _form_ of the
+sentence. We will now arrange sentences in classes with regard to their
+_meaning_.
+
+_Mary sings. Does Mary sing? Sing, Mary. How Mary sings!_ Here are four
+simple sentences. Do they all _mean_ the same thing?
+
++P+.--They do not.
+
++T+.--Well, you see they differ. Let me tell you wherein. The first one
+tells a fact, the second asks a question, the third expresses a command,
+and the fourth expresses sudden thought or strong feeling. We call the
+first a +Declarative sentence+, the second an +Interrogative sentence+, the
+third an +Imperative sentence+, and the fourth an +Exclamatory sentence+.
+
+
++DEFINITION.--A _Declarative Sentence_ is one that is used to affirm or to
+deny+.
+
++DEFINITION.--An _Interrogative Sentence_ is one that expresses a
+question+.
+
++DEFINITION.--An _Imperative Sentence_ is one that expresses a command or
+an entreaty+.
+
++DEFINITION.--An _Exclamatory Sentence_ is one that expresses sudden
+thought or strong feeling+.
+
++INTERROGATION POINT--RULE.--Every direct interrogative sentence should be
+followed by an interrogation point+. [Footnote: To The Teacher.--See Notes,
+pp. 178, 179.]
+
+
+SENTENCE-BUILDING.
+
+Change each of the following declarative sentences into three interrogative
+sentences, and tell how the change was made.
+
++Model+.--_Girls can skate. Can girls skate? How can girls skate? What
+girls can skate?_ You are happy. Parrots can talk. Low houses were built.
+
+Change each of the following into an imperative sentence. Notice that
+independent words are set off by the comma.
+
++Model+.--_Carlo eats his dinner. Eat your dinner, Carlo_. George plays the
+flute. Birdie stands on one leg.
+
+Change each of the following into exclamatory sentences.
+
++Model+.--_You are happy. How happy you are! What a happy child you are!
+You are so happy!_
+
+Time flies swiftly. I am glad to see you. A refreshing shower fell. Lapland
+is a cold country. It is hot between the tropics.
+
+Write a declarative, an interrogative, an imperative, and an exclamatory
+sentence on each of the following topics.
+
+Weather, lightning, a stage coach.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 64.
+
+ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW.
+
+In the analysis, classify these sentences first with reference to their
+_form_, and then with reference to their _meaning_.
+
+1. Wickedness is often made a substitute for wit.
+2. Alfred was a brave, pious, and patriotic prince.
+3. The throne of Philip trembles while Demosthenes speaks.
+4. That the whole is equal to the sum of its parts is an axiom.
+5. The lion belongs to the cat tribe, but he cannot climb a tree.
+6. Pride is a flower that grows in the devil's garden.
+7. Of all forms of habitation, the simplest is the burrow.
+8. When the righteous are in authority, the people rejoice.
+9. When the wicked beareth rule, the people mourn.
+10. Cassius, be not deceived. [Footnote: _Cassius_ is independent, and
+    may be diagramed like an interjection. The subject of _be
+    deceived_ is _thou_, or _you_, understood.]
+11. How poor, how rich, how abject, how august, how wonderful is man!
+12. Which is the largest city in the world?
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 65.
+
+ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES IN REVIEW--CONTINUED,
+
+1. Politeness is the oil which lubricates the wheels of society.
+2. 0 liberty! liberty! how many crimes are committed in thy name!
+3. The mind is a goodly field, and to sow it with trifles is the worst
+   husbandry in the world.
+4. Every day in thy life is a leaf in thy history.
+5. Make hay while the sun shines.
+6. Columbus did not know that he had discovered a new continent.
+7. The subject of inquiry was, Who invented printing?
+8. The cat's tongue is covered with thousands of little sharp cones,
+   pointing towards the throat.
+9. The fly sat upon the axle of a chariot-wheel and said, "What a dust do I
+   raise!"
+10. Sir Humphrey Gilbert, attempting to recross the Atlantic in his little
+    vessel, the Squirrel, went down in mid-ocean.
+11. Charity begins at home, but it should not stay there.
+12. The morn, in russet mantle clad, walks o'er the dew of yon high eastern
+    hill.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 66.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS IN REVIEW.
+
+I haven't near so much. I only want one. Draw the string tightly. He writes
+good. I will prosecute him who sticks bills upon this church or any other
+nuisance. Noah for his godliness and his family were saved from the flood.
+We were at Europe this summer. You may rely in that. She lives to home. I
+can't do no work. He will never be no better. They seemed to be nearly
+dressed alike. I won't never do so no more. A ivory ball. An hundred head
+of cattle. george washington, gen dix of n y. o sarah i Saw A pretty
+Bonnet. are You going home? A young man wrote these verses who has long
+lain in his grave for his own amusement. This house will be kept by the
+widow of Mr. B. who died recently on an improved plan. _In correcting the
+position of the adjective clauses in the two examples above, observe the
+caution for the phrase modifiers, Lesson_ 41. He was an independent small
+farmer. The mind knows feels and thinks. The urchin was ragged barefooted
+dirty homeless and friendless. I am some tired. This here road is rough.
+That there man is homely. pshaw i am so Disgusted. Whoa can't you stand
+still. James the gardener gave me a white lily. Irving the genial writer
+lived on the hudson.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 67.
+
+SENTENCE-BUILDING.
+
+Build one sentence out of each group of the sentences which follow.
+
++Model+.--An _able_ man was chosen.
+        A _prudent_ man was chosen.
+        An _honorable_ man was chosen.
+  An _able, prudent_, and _honorable_ man was chosen.
+
+  Pure water is destitute of color.
+  Pure water is destitute of taste.
+  Pure water is destitute of smell.
+
+  Cicero was the greatest orator of his age.
+  Demosthenes was the greatest orator of his age.
+
+  Daisies peeped up here.
+  Daisies peeped up there.
+  Daisies peeped up everywhere.
+
+Expand each of the following sentences into three.
+
+  The English language is spoken in England, Canada, and the United States.
+  The Missouri, Ohio, and Arkansas rivers are branches of the Mississippi.
+
+Out of the four following sentences, build one sentence having three
+explanatory modifiers.
+
++Model+.--Elizabeth was _the daughter of Henry VIII_.
+        Elizabeth was _sister of Queen Mary_.
+        Elizabeth was _the patron of literature_.
+        Elizabeth defeated the Armada.
+Elizabeth, _the daughter of Henry VIII., sister of Queen Mary, and the
+patron of literature_, defeated the Armada.
+
+  Boston is the capital of Massachusetts.
+  Boston is the Athens of America.
+  Boston is the "Hub of the Universe."
+  Boston has crooked streets.
+
+Expand the following sentence into four sentences.
+
+  Daniel Webster, the great jurist, the expounder of the Constitution, and
+  the chief of the "American Triumvirate," died with the words, "I still
+  live," on his lips.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 68.
+
+SENTENCE-BUILDING.
+
++To the Teacher+.--For additional exercises in composition, see Notes, pp.
+176-180.
+
+Change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding
+the phrases into adjective clauses.
+
++Model+.--People _living in glass houses_ shouldn't throw stones.
+        People _who live in glass houses_ shouldn't throw stones.
+
+  Those living in the Arctic regions need much oily food.
+  A house built upon the rock will stand.
+  The boy of studious habits will always have his lesson.
+  Wellington was a man of iron will.
+
+Change the following complex sentences into simple sentences by contracting
+the adjective clauses into phrases.
+
+  Much of the cotton which is raised in the Gulf States is exported.
+  The house which was built upon the sand fell.
+  A thing which is beautiful is a joy forever.
+  Aaron Burr was a man who had fascinating manners.
+
+Change the following simple sentences into complex sentences by expanding
+the phrases into adverb clauses.
+
++Model+.--Birds return _in the spring_.
+        _When spring comes_, the birds return.
+
+  The dog came at call. In old age our senses fail.
+
+Change the following complex sentences into simple sentences by contracting
+the adverb clauses into phrases.
+
+  The ship started when the tide was at flood.
+  When he reached the middle of his speech, he stopped.
+
+By supplying noun clauses, make complete sentences out of the following
+expressions.
+
+  ---- is a well-known fact.
+  The fact was ----.
+  Ben. Franklin said ----.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 69.
+
+GENERAL REVIEW.
+
+What is a letter? Give the name and the sound of each of the letters in the
+three following words: _letters, name, sound_. Into what classes are
+letters divided? Define each class. Name the vowels. What is a word? What
+is artificial language? What is English Grammar? What is a sentence? What
+is the difference between the two expressions, _ripe apples_ and _apples
+are ripe_? What two parts must every sentence have? Define each. What is
+the analysis of a sentence? What is a diagram? What are parts of speech?
+How many parts of speech are there? Give an example of each. What is a
+noun? What is a verb? What must every predicate contain? What is a pronoun?
+What is a modifier? What is an adjective? What adjectives are sometimes
+called articles? When is _a_ used? When is _an_ used? Illustrate. Give an
+example of one modifier joined to another. What is an adverb? What is a
+phrase? What is a preposition? What is a conjunction? What is an
+interjection? Give four rules for the use of capital letters (Lessons 8,
+15, 19, 87). Give two rules for the use of the period, one for the
+exclamation point, and one for the interrogation point (Lessons 8, 37, 63).
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 70.
+
+GENERAL REVIEW.
+
+What is an object complement? What is an attribute complement? How does a
+participle differ from a predicate verb? Illustrate. What offices does an
+infinitive phrase perform? Illustrate. How are sentences classified with
+respect to form? Give an example of each class. What is a simple sentence?
+What is a clause? What is a dependent clause? What is an independent
+clause? What is a complex sentence? What is a compound sentence? How are
+sentences classified with respect to meaning? Give an example of each
+class. What is a declarative sentence? What is an interrogative sentence?
+What is an imperative sentence? What is an exclamatory sentence? What
+different offices may a noun perform? Ans.--_A noun may be used as a
+subject, as an object complement, as an attribute complement, as a
+possessive modifier, as an explanatory modifier, as the principal word in a
+prepositional phrase, and it may be used independently_. Illustrate each
+use. What are sometimes substituted for nouns? _Ans.--Pronouns, phrases,
+and clauses_. Illustrate. What is the principal office of a verb? What
+offices may be performed by a phrase? What, by a clause? What, different
+offices may an adjective perform? What parts of speech may connect clauses?
+_Ans.--Conjunctions, adverbs, and pronouns_. (See Lessons 62, 59, and 57.)
+Give rules for the use of the comma (Lessons 37, 54, 57). Give and
+illustrate the directions for using adjectives and adverbs, for placing
+phrases, for using prepositions, and for using negatives (Lessons 40, 41).
+
++To the Teacher+.--For additional review, see "Scheme," p. 185.
+
+If the early presentation of an outline of technical grammar is not
+compelled by a prescribed course of study, we should here introduce a
+series of lessons in the construction of sentences, paragraphs, letters,
+and general compositions. The pages following Lesson 100 will furnish
+matter.
+
+See especially COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement--Selection from
+Beecher.
+
+
+
+
+PARTS OF SPEECH SUBDIVIDED.
+
+LESSON 71.
+
+CLASSES OF NOUNS.
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--Hereafter, in the "Hints," we shall drop the
+dialogue form, but we expect the teacher to continue it. A poor teacher
+does all the talking, a good teacher makes the pupils talk.
+
+The teacher may here refer to his talk about the classification of birds,
+and show that, after birds have been arranged in great classes, such as
+robins, sparrows, etc., these classes will need to be subdivided, if the
+pupil is to be made thoroughly acquainted with this department of the
+animal kingdom. So, after grouping _words_ into the eight great classes,
+called Parts of Speech, these classes may be divided into other classes.
+For instance, take the two nouns _city_ and _Brooklyn_. The word _city_ is
+the _common_ name of all places of a certain class, but the word _Brooklyn_
+is the _proper_ or particular name of an _individual_ of this class. We
+have here, then, two kinds of nouns which we call +Common+ and +Proper+.
+
+Let the teacher write a number of nouns on the board, and require the pupil
+to classify them and give the reasons for the classification.
+
+To prepare the pupil thoroughly for this work, the teacher will find it
+necessary to explain why such words as _music, mathematics, knowledge_,
+etc., are common nouns. _Music, e. g._, is not a proper noun, for it is not
+a name given to an individual thing to distinguish it from other things of
+the same class. There are no other things of the same class--it forms a
+class by itself. So we call the noun _music_ a _common_ noun.
+
+CLASSES OF PRONOUNS.
+
+The speaker seldom refers to himself by name, but uses the pronoun _I_
+instead. In speaking _to_ a person, we often use the pronoun _you_ instead
+of his name. In speaking _of_ a person or thing that has been mentioned
+before, we say _he_ or _she_ or _it_. These words that by their _form_
+indicate the speaker, the hearer, or the person or thing spoken of, are
+called +Personal Pronouns+. See Lesson 19, "Hints."
+
+Give sentences containing nouns repeated, and require the pupils to improve
+these sentences by substituting pronouns.
+
+When we wish to refer to an object that has been mentioned in _another_
+clause, and at the same time to _connect the clauses_, we use a class of
+pronouns called +Relative Pronouns+. Let the teacher illustrate by using
+the pronouns _who, which_, and _that_. See Lesson 57, "Hints for Oral
+Instruction."
+
+When we wish to ask about anything whose _name is unknown_, we use a class
+of pronouns called +Interrogative Pronouns+. The interrogative pronoun
+stands for the unknown name, and asks for it; as, _Who_ comes here? _What_
+is this?
+
+_Both men were wrong_. Let us omit _men_ and say, _Both were wrong_. You
+see the meaning is not changed--_both_ is here equivalent to _both men_,
+that is, it performs the office of an adjective and that of a noun. It is
+therefore an +Adjective Pronoun+. Let the teacher further illustrate the
+office of the adjective pronoun by using the words _each, all, many, some,
+such_, etc.
+
+DEFINITIONS.
+
+CLASSES OF NOUNS.
+
++A _Common Noun_ is a name which belongs to all things of a class+.
+
++A _Proper Noun_ is the particular name of an individual+.
+
+CLASSES OF PRONOUNS.
+
++A _Personal Pronoun_ is a pronoun that by its form denotes the speaker,
+the one spoken to, or the one spoken of+.
+
++A _Relative Pronoun_ is one that relates to some preceding word or words,
+and connects clauses+.
+
++An _Interrogative Pronoun_ is one with which a question is asked+.
+
++An _Adjective Pronoun_ is one that performs the offices of both an
+adjective and a noun+.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 72.
+
+SENTENCE-BUILDING.
+
+Build each of the following groups of nouns into a sentence. See Rule,
+Lesson 15.
+
+  webster cares office washington repose home marshfleld.
+
+  george washington commander army revolution president united states
+  westmoreland state virginia month february.
+
+  san francisco city port pacific trade united states lines steamships
+  sandwich islands japan china australia.
+
+Write five simple sentences, each containing one of the five personal
+pronouns: _I, thou_ or _you, he, she_, and _it_.
+
+Write four complex sentences, each containing one of the four relative
+pronouns: _who, which, that_, and _what_.
+
+_What_ is used as a relative pronoun when the antecedent is omitted. The
+word for which a pronoun stands is called its antecedent. When we express
+the antecedent, we use _which_ or _that_. I shall do _what_ is required; I
+shall do the _thing which_ is required, or _that_ is required.
+
+Build three interrogative sentences, each containing one of the three
+interrogative pronouns: _who, which_, and _what_.
+
+Build eight sentences, each containing one of the following adjective
+pronouns: _few, many, much, some, this, these, that, those_.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 73.
+
+CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES.
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--When I say _large, round, sweet, yellow
+oranges_, the words _large, round, sweet_, and _yellow_ modify the word
+_oranges_ by telling the _kind_, and limit the application of the word to
+oranges of that kind.
+
+When I say _this orange, yonder orange, one orange_, the words _this,
+yonder_, and _one_ do not tell the kind, but simply point out or number the
+orange, and limit the application of the word to the orange pointed out or
+numbered.
+
+Adjectives of the first class describe by giving a quality, and so are
+called +Descriptive adjectives+.
+
+Adjectives of the second class define by pointing out or numbering, and so
+are called +Definitive adjectives+.
+
+Let the teacher write nouns on the board, and require the pupils to modify
+them by appropriate descriptive and definitive adjectives.
+
+DEFINITIONS.
+
++A _Descriptive Adjective_ is one that modifies by expressing quality+.
+
++A _Definitive Adjective_ is one that modifies by pointing out, numbering,
+or denoting quantity+.
+
+SENTENCE-BUILDING.
+
+Place the following adjectives in two columns, one headed _descriptive_,
+and the other _definitive_, then build simple sentences in which they shall
+be employed as _modifiers_. Find out the meaning of each word before you
+use it.
+
+  Round, frolicsome, first, industrious, jolly, idle, skillful, each, the,
+  faithful, an, kind, one, tall, ancient, modern, dancing, mischievous,
+  stationary, nimble, several, slanting, parallel, oval, every.
+
+Build simple sentences in which the following _descriptive_ adjectives
+shall be employed as _attribute complements_. Let some of these attributes
+be _compound_.
+
+  Restless, impulsive, dense, rare, gritty, sluggish, dingy, selfish,
+  clear, cold, sparkling, slender, graceful, hungry, friendless.
+
+Build simple sentences in which the following _descriptive_ adjectives
+shall be employed.
+
+Some of these adjectives have the _form_ of _participles_, and some are
+_derived_ from _proper nouns_.
+
++CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--An Adjective derived from a proper noun must begin
+with a capital letter+.
+
+  Shining, moving, swaying, bubbling, American, German, French, Swiss,
+  Irish, Chinese.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 74.
+
+CLASSES OF VERBS.
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_The man caught_ makes no complete
+assertion, and is not a sentence. If I add the object complement _fish_, I
+complete the assertion and form a sentence--_The man caught fish_. The
+action expressed by _caught_ passes over from the man to the fish.
+_Transitive_ means _passing over_, and so all those verbs that express an
+action that passes over from a doer to something which receives, are called
++Transitive verbs+.
+
+_Fish swim_. The verb _swim_ does not require an object to complete the
+sentence. No action passes from a doer to a receiver. These verbs which
+express action that does not pass over to a receiver, and all those which
+do not express action at all, but simply _being_ or _state of being_, are
+called +Intransitive verbs+.
+
+Let the teacher write transitive and intransitive verbs on the board, and
+require the pupils to distinguish them.
+
+When I say, I _crush_ the worm, I express an action that is going on now,
+or in present time. I _crushed_ the worm, expresses an action that took
+place in past time. As _tense_ means _time_, we call the form _crush_ the
+_present tense_ of the verb, and _crushed_ the _past tense_. In the
+sentence, The worm _crushed_ under my foot died, _crushed_, expressing the
+action as assumed, is, as you have already learned, a participle; and, as
+the action is completed, we call it a _past participle_. Now notice that
+_ed_ was added to _crush_, the verb in the present tense, to form the verb
+in the past tense, and to form the past participle. Most verbs form their
+past tense and their past participle by adding _ed_, and so we call such
++Regular verbs+.
+
+I _see_ the man; I _saw_ the man; The man _seen_ by me ran away. I _catch_
+fish in the brook; I _caught_ fish in the brook; The fish _caught_ in the
+brook tasted good. Here the verbs _see_ and _catch_ do not form their past
+tense and past participle by adding _ed_ to the present, and so we call
+them _Irregular verbs_.
+
+Let the teacher write on the board verbs of both classes, and require the
+pupils to distinguish them.
+
+
+DEFINITIONS.
+
+CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO MEANING.
+
++A _Transitive Verb_ is one that requires an object+. [Footnote: The
+_object_ of a transitive verb, that is, the name of the receiver of the
+action, may be the _object complement_, or it may be the subject; as,
+Brutus stabbed _Caesar_, _Caesar_ was stabbed by Brutus.]
+
++An _Intransitive Verb_ is one that does not require an object+.
+
+CLASSES OF VERBS WITH RESPECT TO FORM.
+
++A _Regular Verb_ is one that forms its past tense and past participle by
+adding _ed_ to the present+. [Footnote: If the present ends in _e_, the _e_
+is dropped when _ed_ is added; as, lov_e_, lov_ed_; believ_e_, believ_ed_.]
+
++An _Irregular Verb_ is one that does not form its past tense and past
+participle by adding _ed_ to the present+.
+
+SENTENCE-BUILDING.
+
+Place the following verbs in two columns, one headed _transitive_ and the
+other, _intransitive_. Place the same verbs in two other columns, one
+headed _regular_ and the other, _irregular_. Build these verbs into
+sentences by supplying a subject to each intransitive verb, and a subject
+and an object to each transitive verb.
+
+  Vanish, gallop, bite, promote, contain, produce, provide, veto, secure,
+  scramble, rattle, draw.
+
+Arrange the following verbs as before, and then build them into sentences
+by supplying a subject and a noun attribute to each intransitive verb, and
+a subject and an object to each transitive verb.
+
+  Degrade, gather, know, was, became, is.
+
+A verb may be transitive in one sentence and intransitive in another. Use
+the following verbs both ways.
+
++Model+.--The wren _sings_ sweetly.
+
+The wren _sings_ a pretty little song.
+
+  Bend, ring, break, dash, move.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 75.
+
+CLASSES OF ADVERBS.
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--When I say, He will come _soon_, or
+_presently_, or _often_, or _early_, I am using, to modify _will come_,
+words which express the _time_ of coming. These and all such adverbs we
+call +Adverbs of Time+.
+
+He will come _up_, or _hither_, or _here_, or _back_. Here I use, to modify
+_will come_, words which express _place_. These and all such adverbs we
+call +Adverbs of Place+.
+
+When I say, The weather is _so_ cold, or _very_ cold, or _intensely_ cold,
+the words _so, very_, and _intensely_ modify the adjective _cold_ by
+expressing the _degree_ of coldness. These and all such adverbs we call
++Adverbs of Degree+.
+
+When I say, He spoke _freely, wisely_, and _well_, the words _freely,
+wisely_, and _well_ tell how or _in what manner_ he spoke. All such adverbs
+we call +Adverbs of Manner+.
+
+Let the teacher place adverbs on the board, and require the pupil to
+classify them.
+
+
+DEFINITIONS.
+
++_Adverbs of Time_ are those that generally answer the question+, _When?_
+
+_+Adverbs of Place are those that generally answer the question+, Where?
+
++Adverbs of Degree are those that generally answer the question+, To what
+extent?
+
++Adverbs of Manner are those that generally answer the question+, In what
+way?_
+
+SENTENCE-BUILDING.
+
+Place the following adverbs in the four classes we have made--if the
+classification be perfect, there will be five words in each column--then
+build each adverb into a simple sentence.
+
+  Partly, only, too, wisely, now, here, when, very, well, where, nobly,
+  already, seldom, more, ably, away, always, not, there, out.
+
+Some adverbs, as you have already learned, modify two verbs, and thus
+connect the two clauses in which these verbs occur. Such adverbs are called
+_+Conjunctive Adverbs+_.
+
+The following _dependent_ clauses are introduced by _conjunctive adverbs_.
+Build them into complex sentences by supplying _independent clauses_.
+
+------ _when_ the ice is smooth;
+------ _while_ we sleep;
+------ _before_ winter comes;
+------ _where_ the reindeer lives;
+------ _wherever_ you go.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 76.
+
+CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. [Footnote: For classified lists, see pp. 190,191.]
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_Frogs, antelopes, and kangaroos can jump_.
+Here the three nouns are of the same rank in the sentence. All are subjects
+of _can jump. War has ceased, and peace has come_. In this compound
+sentence, there are two clauses of the same rank. The word _and_ connects
+the subjects of _can jump_, in the first sentence: and the two clauses, in
+the second. All words that connect words, phrases, or clauses of the _same
+rank_ are called +Co-ordinate Conjunctions+.
+
+_If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. I will go, because you need
+me_. Here _if_ joins the clause, _you have tears_, as a modifier,
+expressing condition, to the independent clause, _prepare to shed them
+now;_ and _because_ connects _you need me_, as a modifier, expressing
+reason or cause, to the independent clause, _I will go_. These and all such
+conjunctions as connect dependent clauses to clauses of a _higher rank_ are
+called +Subordinate Conjunctions+.
+
+Let the teacher illustrate the meaning and use of the words _subordinate_
+and _co-ordinate_.
+
+
+DEFINITIONS.
+
++_Co-ordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect words, phrases, or clauses
+of the same rank+.
+
++_Subordinate Conjunctions_ are such as connect clauses of different rank+.
+
+SENTENCE-BUILDING.
+
+Build four short sentences for each of the three _co-ordinate conjunctions_
+that follow. In the first, let the conjunction be used to connect principal
+parts of a sentence; in the second, to connect word modifiers; in the
+third, to connect phrase modifiers; and in the fourth, to connect
+independent clauses.
+
+And, or, but.
+
+Write four short complex sentences containing the four _subordinate
+conjunctions_ that follow. Let the first be used to introduce a noun
+clause, and the other three to connect adverb clauses to independent
+clauses.
+
+That, for, if, because.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 77.
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+What new subject begins with page 95? Name and define the different classes
+of nouns. Illustrate by examples the difference between common nouns and
+proper nouns. Name and define the different classes of pronouns. Can the
+pronoun _I_ be used to stand for the one spoken to?--the one spoken of?
+Does the relative pronoun distinguish by its _form_ the speaker, the one
+spoken to, and the one spoken of? Illustrate. Can any other class of
+pronouns be used to connect clauses?
+
+For what do interrogative pronouns stand? Illustrate. Where may the
+antecedent of an interrogative pronoun generally be found? _Ans.--The
+antecedent of an interrogative pronoun may generally lie found in the
+answer to the question_.
+
+Name and define the different classes of adjectives. Give an example of
+each class. Name and define the different classes of verbs, made with
+respect to their meaning. Give an example of each class. Name and define
+the different classes of verbs, made with respect to their form. Give an
+example of each class.
+
+Name and define the different classes of adverbs. Give examples of each
+kind. Name and define the different classes of conjunctions. Illustrate by
+examples.
+
+Are prepositions and interjections subdivided? (See "Schemes" for the
+conjunction, the preposition, and the interjection, p. 188.)
+
++To the Teacher+.--See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement-- Selection
+from Dr. John Brown.
+
+We suggest that other selections from literature be made and these
+exercises continued.
+
+
+
+
+MODIFICATIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH.
+
+
+LESSON 78.
+
+NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.
+
+You have learned that two words may express a thought, and that the thought
+may be varied by adding modifying words. You are now to learn that the
+meaning or use of a word may sometimes be changed by simply changing its
+_form_. The English language has lost many of its inflections, or forms, so
+that frequently changes in the meaning and use of words are not marked by
+changes in form. These _changes_ in the _form, meaning_, and _use_ of the
+parts of speech, we call their +Modifications+.
+
+_The boy shouts. The boys shout_. I have changed the form of the subject
+_boy_ by adding an _s_ to it. The meaning has changed. _Boy_ denotes _one_
+lad; _boys_, _two or more_ lads. This change in the form and meaning of
+nouns is called +Number+. The word _boy_, denoting one thing, is in the
++Singular Number;+ and _boys_, denoting more than one thing, is in the
++Plural Number+.
+
+Let the teacher write other nouns on the board, and require the pupils to
+form the plural of them.
+
+
+DEFINITIONS.
+
++_Modifications of the Parts of Speech_ are changes in their form, meaning,
+and use+.
+
+NUMBER.
+
++_Number_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes one thing
+or more than one+.
+
++The _Singular Number_ denotes one thing+.
+
++The _Plural Number_ denotes more than one thing+.
+
++RULE.--The _plural_ of nouns is regularly formed by adding _s_ to the
+singular+.
+
+
+Write the plural of the following nouns.
+
+  Tree, bird, insect, cricket, grasshopper, wing, stick, stone, flower,
+  meadow, pasture, grove, worm, bug, cow, eagle, hawk, wren, plough,
+  shovel.
+
+When a singular noun ends in the sound of _s, x, z, sh_, or _ch_, it is not
+easy to add the sound of _s_, so _es_ is added to make another syllable.
+
+Write the plural of the following nouns.
+
+  Guess, box, topaz, lash, birch, compass, fox, waltz, sash, bench, gas,
+  tax, adz, brush, arch.
+
+Many nouns ending in _o_ preceded by a consonant form the plural by adding
+_es_ without increasing the number of syllables.
+
+Write the plural of the following nouns.
+
+  Hero, cargo, negro, potato, echo, volcano, mosquito, motto.
+
+Common nouns ending in _y_ preceded by a consonant form the plural by
+changing _y_ into _i_ and adding _es_ without increasing the number of
+syllables.
+
+Write the plural of the following nouns.
+
+  Lady, balcony, family, city, country, daisy, fairy, cherry, study, sky.
+
+Some nouns ending in _f_ and _fe_ form the plural by changing _f_ or _fe_
+into _ves_ without increasing the number of syllables.
+
+Write the plural of the following nouns.
+
+  Sheaf, loaf, beef, thief, calf, half, elf, shelf, self, wolf, life,
+  knife, wife.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 79.
+
+NUMBER.
+
+From the following list of nouns, select, and write in separate columns:
+1st. Those that have no plural; 2d. Those that have no singular; 3d. Those
+that are alike in both numbers.
+
+  Pride, wages, trousers, cider, suds, victuals, milk, riches, flax,
+  courage, sheep, deer, flour, idleness, tidings, thanks, ashes, scissors,
+  swine, heathen.
+
+The following nouns have very irregular plurals. Learn to spell the
+plurals.
+
+_Singular.   Plural.     Singular.   Plural_.
+ Man,        men.        Foot,       feet.
+ Woman,      women.      Ox,         oxen.
+ Child,      children.   Tooth,      teeth.
+ Mouse,      mice.       Goose,      geese.
+
+
+Learn the following plurals and compare them with the groups in the
+preceding Lesson.
+
+  Moneys, flies, chimneys, valleys, stories, berries, lilies, turkeys,
+  monkeys, cuckoos, pianos, vetoes, solos, folios, gulfs, chiefs, leaves,
+  roofs, scarfs, inches.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 80.
+
+NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.--GENDER.
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_The lion was caged. The lioness was caged_.
+In the first sentence, something was said about a _male_ lion; and in the
+second, something was said about a _female_ lion. Modifications of the noun
+to denote the sex of the object, we call +Gender+. Knowing the sex of the
+object, you know the gender of its name. The word _lion_, denoting a male
+animal, is in the +Masculine Gender;+ and _lioness_, denoting a female
+lion, is in the +Feminine Gender+.
+
+The names of things _without_ sex are in the +Neuter Gender+.
+
+Such words as _cousin, child, friend, neighbor_, may be _either masculine
+or feminine_.
+
+
++DEFINITIONS.
+
+_Gender_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes sex.
+
+The _Masculine Gender_ denotes the male sex.
+
+The _Feminine Gender_ denotes the female sex.
+
+The _Neuter Gender_ denotes want of sex+.
+
+The masculine is distinguished from the feminine in three ways:--
+
+1st. By a difference in the ending of the nouns.
+
+2d. By different words in the compound names.
+
+3d. By words wholly or radically different.
+
+Arrange the following pairs in separate columns with reference to these
+ways.
+
+  Abbot, abbess; actor, actress; Francis, Frances; Jesse, Jessie; bachelor,
+  maid; beau, belle; monk, nun; gander, goose; administrator,
+  administratrix; baron, baroness; count, countess; czar, czarina; don,
+  donna; boy, girl; drake, duck; lord, lady; nephew, niece; landlord,
+  landlady; gentleman, gentlewoman; peacock, peahen; duke, duchess; hero,
+  heroine; host, hostess; Jew, Jewess; man-servant, maid-servant; sir,
+  madam; wizard, witch; marquis, marchioness; widow, widower; heir,
+  heiress; Paul, Pauline; Augustus, Augusta.
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+What new way of varying the meaning of words is introduced in Lesson 78?
+Illustrate. What are modifications of the parts of speech? What is number?
+How many numbers are there? Name and define each. Give the rule for forming
+the plural of nouns. Illustrate the variations of this rule. What is
+gender? How many genders are there? Name and define each. In how many ways
+are the genders distinguished? Illustrate.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 81.
+
+NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.--PERSON AND CASE.
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_Number_ and _gender_, as you have already
+learned, are modifications affecting the _meaning_ of nouns and pronouns.
+Number is almost always indicated by the ending; gender, sometimes. There
+are two other modifications which refer not to changes in the _meaning_ of
+nouns and pronouns, but to their different _uses_ and _relations_. In the
+English language, these changes are not often indicated by a change of
+_form_.
+
+_I Paul_ have written. _Paul, thou_ art beside thyself. _He_ brought _Paul_
+before Agrippa. In these three sentences the word _Paul_ has _three
+different uses_. In the first, it is used as the name of the _speaker_; in
+the second, as the name of _one spoken to_; in the third, as the name of
+_one spoken of_. You will notice that the _form_ of the noun was not
+changed. This change in the use of nouns and pronouns is called +Person+.
+The word _I_ in the first sentence, the word _thou_ in the second, and the
+word _he_ in the third have each a different use. _I_, _thou_, and _he_ are
+personal pronouns, and, as you have learned, distinguish _person_ by their
+_form_. _I_, denoting the speaker, is in the +First Person+; _thou_,
+denoting the one spoken to, is in the +Second Person+; and _he_, denoting
+the one spoken of, is in the +Third Person+.
+
+_Personal pronouns_ and _verbs_ are the only words that distinguish person
+by their form.
+
+_The bear killed the man_. _The man killed the bear_. _The bear's grease
+was made into hair oil_. In the first sentence, the bear is represented as
+_performing_ an action; in the second, as _receiving_ an action; in the
+third, as _possessing_ something. So the word _bear_ in these sentences has
+three different uses. These uses of nouns are called +Cases+. The use of a
+noun as subject is called the +Nominative Case+; its use as object is
+called the +Objective Case+; and its use to denote possession is called the
++Possessive Case+.
+
+The _possessive_ is the only case of nouns that is indicated by a change in
+_form_.
+
+A noun or pronoun used as an _attribute_ complement is in the _nominative
+case_. A noun or pronoun following a preposition as the principal word of a
+phrase is in the _objective case_. _I_ and _he_ are _nominative_ forms.
+_Me_ and _him_ are _objective_ forms.
+
+The following sentences are therefore incorrect: It is _me_; It is _him_;
+_Me_ gave the pen to _he_.
+
++DEFINITIONS.
+
+_Person_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes the
+speaker, the one spoken to, or the one spoken of.
+
+The _First Person_ denotes the one speaking.
+
+The _Second Person_ denotes the one spoken to.
+
+The _Third Person_ denotes the one spoken of.
+
+_Case_ is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes its office
+in the sentence.
+
+The _Nominative Case of a noun or pronoun_ denotes its office as subject or
+as attribute complement.
+
+The _Possessive Case of a noun or pronoun_ denotes its office as possessive
+modifier.
+
+The _Objective Case of a noun or pronoun_ denotes its office as object
+complement, or as principal word in a prepositional phrase+.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 82.
+
+NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.--PERSON AND CASE.
+
+Tell the _person_ and _case_ of each of the following nouns and pronouns.
+
++_Remember_+ that a noun or pronoun used as an _explanatory modifier_ is in
+the same case as the word which it explains, and that a noun or pronoun
+used _independently_ is in the _nominative case_.
+
+  We Americans do things in a hurry.
+  You Englishmen take more time to think.
+  The Germans do their work with the most patience and deliberation.
+  We boys desire a holiday.
+  Come on, my men; I will lead you.
+  I, your teacher, desire your success.
+  You, my pupils, are attentive.
+  I called on Tom, the tinker.
+  Friends, countrymen, and lovers, hear me for my cause.
+
+Write simple sentences in which each of the following nouns shall be used
+in the _three persons_ and in the _three cases_.
+
+Andrew Jackson, Alexander, Yankees.
+
+Write a sentence containing a noun in the _nominative_ case, used as an
+_attribute;_ one in the _nominative_, used as an _explanatory modifier_;
+one in the _nominative_, used independently.
+
+Write a sentence containing a noun in the _objective case_, used to
+_complete two predicate verbs_; one used to _complete_ a _participle_; one
+used to _complete_ an _infinitive_; one used _with a preposition_ to make a
+phrase; one used as an _explanatory modifier_.
+
++To the Teacher+.--See pp. 183, 184.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 83.
+
+NOUNS AND PRONOUNS.--DECLENSION.
+
++DEFINITION.--_Declension_ is the arrangement of the cases of nouns and
+pronouns in the two numbers+.
+
+Declension of Nouns.
+
+LADY.
+
+            _Singular_.   _Plural_.
+  _Nom_.     lady,        ladies,
+  _Pos_.     lady's,      ladies',
+  _Obj_.     lady;        ladies.
+
+CHILD.
+
+            _Singular_.   _Plural_.
+  _Nom._     child,       children,
+  _Pos._     child's,     children's,
+  _Obj._     child;       children.
+
+
+Declension of Pronouns.
+
+PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
+
+FIRST PERSON.
+
+            _Singular_.       _Plural_.
+  _Nom._     I,               we,
+  _Pos._     my _or_ mine,    our _or_ ours,
+  _Obj._     me;              us.
+
+SECOND PERSON--_common form_.
+
+            _Singular_.       _Plural_.
+  _Nom._     you,             you,
+  _Pos._     your _or_ yours, your _or_ yours,
+  _Obj._     you;             you.
+
+
+SECOND PERSON--_old form_.
+
+            _Singular_.       _Plural_.
+  _Nom._     thou,            ye or you,
+  _Pos._     thy _or_ thine,  your _or_ yours,
+  _Obj._     thee;            you.
+
+THIRD PERSON--_masculine_.
+
+            _Singular_.       _Plural_.
+  _Nom._     he,              they,
+  _Pos._     his,             their _or_ theirs,
+  _Obj._     him;             them.
+
+THIRD PERSON--_feminine_.
+
+            _Singular_.       _Plural_.
+  _Nom._     she,             they,
+  _Pos._     her _or_ hers,   their _or_ theirs,
+  _Obj._     her;             them.
+
+THIRD PERSON----_neuter_.
+
+            _Singular_.       _Plural_.
+  _Nom._     it,              they,
+  _Pos._     its,             their _or_ theirs,
+  _Obj._     it;              them.
+
+
+_Mine, ours, yours, thine, hers_, and _theirs_ are used when the name of
+the thing possessed is omitted; as, This rose is _yours_ = This rose is
+_your rose_.
+
+COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
+
+By joining the word _self_ to the possessive forms _my, thy, your_, and to
+the objective forms _him, her, it_, the +_Compound Personal Pronouns_+ are
+formed. They have no possessive case, and are alike in the nominative and
+the objective.
+
+Their plurals are _ourselves_, _yourselves_, and _themselves_. Form the
+_compound personal pronouns_, and write their declension.
+
+RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
+
+  _Sing. and Plu._
+  _Nom._ who,
+  _Pos._ whose,
+  _Obj._ whom.
+
+  _Sing. and Plu._
+  _Nom._ which,
+  _Pos._ whose,
+  _Obj._ which.
+
+_Of which_ is often used instead of the possessive form of the latter
+pronoun.
+
+  _Sing. and Plu._
+  _Nom._ that,
+  _Pos._ ----,
+  _Obj._ that.
+
+  _Sing. and Plu._
+  _Nom._ what,
+  _Pos._ ----,
+  _Obj._ what.
+
+_Ever_ and _soever_ are added to _who, which_, and _what_ to form the
++_Compound Relative Pronouns_+. They are used when the antecedent is
+omitted. For declension, see above.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 84.
+
+POSSESSIVE FORMS.
+
++RULE.--The _possessive case_ of nouns is formed in the singular by adding
+to the nominative the apostrophe and the letter _s_ ('s); in the plural, by
+adding (') only. If the plural does not end in _s_, the apostrophe and the
+_s_ are both added+.
+
+Write the _possessive singular_ and the _possessive plural_ of the
+following nouns, and place an appropriate noun after each.
+
+  Robin, friend, fly, hero, woman, bee, mouse, cuckoo, fox, ox, man, thief,
+  fairy, mosquito, wolf, shepherd, farmer, child, neighbor, cow.
+
+Possession may be expressed also by the preposition _of_ and the
+_objective_; as, the _mosquito's_ bill = the bill _of_ the _mosquito_.
+
+The possessive sign ('s) is confined _chiefly_ to the names of persons and
+animals.
+
+We do not say the _chair's_ legs, but the legs _of_ the _chair_. Regard
+must be had also to the _sound_.
+
+IMPROVE THE FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS, and expand each into a simple sentence.
+
+  The sky's color; the cloud's brilliancy; the rose's leaves; my uncle's
+  partner's house; George's father's friend's farm; the mane of the horse
+  of my brother; my brother's horse's mane.
+
+When there are several possessive nouns, all belonging to one word, the
+possessive sign is added to the last only. If they modify different words,
+the sign is added to each.
+
+CORRECT THE FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS, and expand each into a simple sentence.
+
++Model+.--_Webster and Worcester's dictionary may be bought at Ticknor's
+and Field's book-store_.
+
+The possessive sign should be added to _Webster_, for the word _dictionary_
+is understood immediately after. Webster and Worcester do not together
+possess the same dictionary. The sign should not be added to _Ticknor_, for
+the two men, Tieknor and Field, possess the same store.
+
+Adam's and Eve's garden; Jacob's and Esau's father; Shakespeare and
+Milton's works; Maud, Kate, and Clara's gloves; Maud's, Kate's, and Clara's
+teacher was ----.
+
+When one possessive noun is explanatory of another, the possessive sign is
+added to the last only.
+
+CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
+
+  I called at Tom's the tinker's.
+  They listened to Peter's the Hermit's eloquence.
+  This was the Apostle's Paul's advice.
+
+CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
+
+  Our's, your's, hi's, their's, her's, it's, hisn, yourn, hern.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 85.
+
+FORMS OF THE PRONOUN.
+
++_Remember_+ that _I, we, thou, ye, he, she, they_, and _who_ are
++_nominative_+ forms, and must not be used in the objective case.
+
++_Remember_+ that _me, us, thee, him, her, them_, and _whom_ are
++_objective_+ forms, and must not be used in the nominative case.
+
++To the Teacher+.--The _eight_ nominative forms and the _seven_ objective
+forms given above are the only distinctive nominative and objective forms
+in the English language. Let the pupils become familiar with them.
+
+CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
+
+  Him and me are good friends.
+  The two persons were her and me.
+  Us girls had a jolly time.
+  It is them, surely.
+  Who will catch this? Me.
+  Them that despise me shall be lightly esteemed.
+  Who is there? Me.
+  It was not us, it was him.
+  Who did you see?
+  Who did you ask for?
+
++_Remember_+ that pronouns must agree with their antecedents in number,
+gender, and person.
+
+CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
+
+  Every boy must read their own sentences.
+  I gave the horse oats, but he would not eat it.
+  Every one must read it for themselves.
+  I took up the little boy, and set it on my knee.
+
++_Remember_+ that the relative _who_ represents persons; _which_, animals
+and things; _that_, persons, animals, and things; and _what_, things.
+
+CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
+
+  I have a dog who runs to meet me.
+  The boy which I met was quite lame.
+  Those which live in glass houses must not throw stones.
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
++To the Teacher+.--For "Schemes," see p. 186.
+
+How many modifications have nouns and pronouns? Name and define each. How
+many persons are there? Define each. How many cases are there? Define each.
+How do you determine the case of an explanatory noun or pronoun? What is
+declension? How are the forms _mine, yours_, etc., now used? What is the
+rule for forming the possessive case? What words are used only in the
+nominative case? What words are used only in the objective case? [Footnote:
+_Her_ is used in the possessive case also.] How do you determine the
+number, gender, and person of pronouns?
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 86.
+
+NOUNS AND PRONOUNS--PARSING.
+
++To the Teacher+.--For general "Scheme" for parsing, see p. 189.
+
+Select and parse all the nouns and pronouns in Lesson 53.
+
++Model for Written Parsing+.--_Elizabeth's favorite, Raleigh, was beheaded
+by James I._
+
+Elizabeth's
+  CLASSIFICATION.   _Nouns_.
+                    _Kind_.   Prop.
+  MODIFICATIONS.    _Person_. 3d
+                    _Number_. Sing.
+                    _Gender_. Fem.
+                    _Case_.   Pos.
+  SYNTAX.                   Pos. Mod. of _favorite_.
+
+favorite
+  CLASSIFICATION.   _Nouns_.
+                    _Kind_.   Com.
+  MODIFICATIONS.    _Person_. 3d
+                    _Number_. Sing.
+                    _Gender_. Mas.
+                    _Case_.   Nom.
+  SYNTAX.                   Sub. of _was beheaded_.
+
+Raleigh
+  CLASSIFICATION.   _Nouns_.
+                    _Kind_.   Prop.
+  MODIFICATIONS.    _Person_. 3d
+                    _Number_. Sing.
+                    _Gender_. Mas.
+                    _Case_.   Nom.
+  SYNTAX.                   Exp. Mod. of _favorite_.
+
+James I.
+  CLASSIFICATION.   _Nouns_.
+                    _Kind_.   Prop.
+  MODIFICATIONS.    _Person_. 3d
+                    _Number_. Sing.
+                    _Gender_. Mas.
+                    _Case_.   Obj.
+  SYNTAX.                   Prin. word after _by_.
+
++To the Teacher+.--Select other exercises, and continue this work as long
+as it may be profitable. See Lessons 56, 57, 61, 64, and 65.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 87.
+
+COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
+
++Adjectives have one modification;+ viz., _Comparison_.
+
+DEFINITIONS.
+
++_Comparison_ is a modification of the adjective to express the relative
+degree of the quality in the things compared+.
+
++The _Positive degree_ expresses the simple quality+.
+
++The _Comparative degree_ expresses a greater or a less degree of the
+quality+.
+
++The _Superlative degree_ expresses the greatest or the least degree of the
+quality+.
+
++RULE.--Adjectives are regularly compared by adding _er_ to the positive to
+form the comparative, and _est_ to the positive to form the superlative+.
+
+Adjectives of one syllable are _generally_ compared regularly; adjectives
+of two or more syllables are often compared by prefixing _more_ and _most_.
+
+When there are two correct forms, choose the one that can be more easily
+pronounced.
+
+Compare the following adjectives. For the spelling, consult your
+dictionaries.
+
+Model.--_Positive.  Comparative.   Superlative_.
+        Lovely,     lovelier,      loveliest; _or_
+        lovely,     more lovely,   most lovely.
+
+  Tame, warm, beautiful, brilliant, amiable, high, mad, greedy, pretty,
+  hot.
+
+Some adjectives are compared _irregularly_. Learn the following forms.
+
+  _Positive.  Comparative.  Superlative_.
+   Good,      better,       best.
+   Bad,   |
+   Evil,  +   worse,        worst.
+   Ill,   |
+   Little,    less,         least.
+   Much,  |
+   Many,  |   more,         most.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 88.
+
+COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS.
+
++_Remember_+ that, when two things or groups of things are compared, the
+_comparative_ degree is commonly used; when more than two, the
+_superlative_ is employed.
+
++_Caution_+.--Adjectives should not be _doubly_ compared.
+
+CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
+
+  Of all the boys, George is the more industrious.
+  Peter was older than the twelve apostles.
+  Which is the longer of the rivers of America?
+  This was the most unkindest cut of all.
+  He chose a more humbler part.
+  My hat is more handsomer than yours.
+  The younger of those three boys is the smarter.
+  Which is the more northerly, Maine, Oregon, or Minnesota?
+
++_Caution_+.--Do not use adjectives and adverbs extravagantly.
+
+CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
+
+  The weather is horrid.
+  That dress is perfectly awful.
+  Your coat sits frightfully.
+  We had an awfully good time.
+  This is a tremendously hard lesson.
+  Harry is a mighty nice boy.
+
++_Remember_+ that adjectives whose meaning does not admit of different
+degrees cannot be compared; as, _every_, _universal_.
+
+Use in the three different degrees such of the following adjectives as
+admit of comparison.
+
+All, serene, excellent, immortal, first, two, total, infinite,
+three-legged, bright.
+
++_Adverbs_+ are compared in the same manner as adjectives. The following
+are compared regularly. Compare them.
+
+Fast, often, soon, late, early.
+
+In the preceding and in the following list, find words that may be used as
+adjectives.
+
+The following are compared irregularly. Learn them.
+
+  _Pos.          Comp.        Sup. _
+  -----------   ----------   --------
+  Badly, Ill,   worse,       worst.
+  Well,         better,      best.
+  Little,       less,        least.
+  Much,         more,        most.
+  Far,          farther,     farthest.
+
+Adverbs ending in _ly_ are generally compared by prefixing _more_ and
+_most_. Compare the following.
+
+Firmly, gracefully, actively, easily.
+
++To the Teacher+.--Let the pupils select and parse all the adjectives and
+adverbs in Lesson 27. For forms, see p. 189. Select other exercises, and
+continue the work as long as it is profitable. See "Schemes" for review, p.
+188.
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
+How is a noun parsed? What modification have adjectives? What is
+comparison? How many degrees of comparison are there? Define each. How are
+adjectives regularly compared? Distinguish the uses of the comparative and
+the superlative degree. Give the directions for using adjectives and
+adverbs (Lesson 88). Illustrate. What adjectives cannot be compared? How
+are adverbs compared?
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 89.
+
+MODIFICATION OF VERBS.
+
+VOICE.
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--_I picked the rose_. I will tell the same
+thing in another way. _The rose was picked by me_. The first verb _picked_
+shows that the subject _I_ represents the actor, and the second form of the
+verb, _was picked_, shows that the subject names the thing acted upon. This
+change in the form of the verb is called +Voice+. The first form is called
+the +Active Voice+; and the second, the +Passive Voice+.
+
+The _passive_ form is very convenient when we wish to assert an action
+without naming any actor. _Money is coined_ is better than _somebody coins
+money_.
+
+DEFINITIONS.
+
++_Voice_ is that modification of the transitive verb which shows whether
+the subject names the _actor_ or the _thing acted upon_+.
+
++The _Active Voice_ shows that the subject names the actor+.
+
++The _Passive Voice_ shows that the subject names the thing acted upon+.
+
+In each of the following sentences, change the _voice_ of the verb without
+changing the meaning of the sentence. Note the other changes that occur in
+the sentence.
+
+  The industrious bees gather honey from the flowers.
+  The storm drove the vessel against the rock.
+  Our words should be carefully chosen.
+  Death separates the dearest friends.
+  His vices have weakened his mind and destroyed his health.
+  True valor protects the feeble and humbles the oppressor.
+  The Duke of Wellington, who commanded the English armies in the
+    Peninsula, never lost a battle.
+  Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt.
+  Dr. Livingstone explored a large part of Africa.
+  The English were conquered by the Normans.
+
+Name all the transitive verbs in Lessons 20 and 22, and give, their
+_voice_.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 90.
+
+MODE, TENSE, NUMBER, AND PERSON.
+
++Hints for Oral Instruction+.--When I say, _James walks_, I assert the
+walking as a _fact_. When I say, _James may walk_, I do not assert the
+action as a fact, but as a _possible_ action. When I say, _If James walk
+out, he will improve_, I assert the action, not as an actual fact, but as a
+_condition_ of James's, improving. When I say to James, _Walk out_, I do
+not assert that James actually does the act, I assert the action as a
+_command_.
+
+The action expressed by the verb _walk_ has been asserted in _four_
+different _ways_, or +modes+. The first way is called the +Indicative
+Mode+; the second, the +Potential Mode+; the third, the +Subjunctive Mode+;
+the fourth, the +Imperative Mode+.
+
+Let the teacher give other examples and require the pupils to repeat this
+instruction.
+
+For the two forms of the verb called the +Infinitive+ and the +Participle+,
+see "Hints," Lessons 48 and 49.
+
+_I walk. I walked. I shall walk_. In each of these three sentences, the
+manner of asserting the action is the same. _I walk_ expresses the action
+as _present_. _I walked_ expresses the action as _past_, and _I shall walk_
+expresses the action as _future_. As +Tense+ means _time_, the first form
+is called the +Present Tense+; the second, the +Past Tense+; and the third,
+the +Future Tense+.
+
+We have three other forms of the verb, expressing the action as _completed_
+in the _present_, the _past_, or the _future_.
+
+_I have walked out to-day. I had walked out when he called. I shall have
+walked out by to-morrow_. The form, _have walked_, expressing the action as
+_completed_ in the present, is called the +Present Perfect Tense+. The
+form, _had walked_, expressing the action as _completed_ in the past, is
+called the +Past Perfect Tense+. The form, _shall have walked_, expressing
+an action to be _completed_ in the future, is called the +Future Perfect
+Tense+.
+
+Let the teacher give other verbs, and require the pupils to name and
+explain the different tenses.
+
+_I walk. Thou walkest. He walks. They walk_.
+
+In the second sentence, the verb _walk_ was changed by adding _est_; and in
+the third, it was changed by adding _s_. These changes are for the sake of
+agreement with the person of the subject. The verb ending in _est_ agrees
+with the subject _thou_ in the second person, and the verb ending in _s_
+agrees with _he_ in the third person. In the fourth sentence, the subject
+is in the third person; but it is plural, and so the verb drops the _s_ to
+agree with they in the plural.
+
+Verbs are said to agree in +Person+ and +Number+ with their subjects. The
+person and number _forms_ will be found in Lessons 93, 94.
+
++DEFINITIONS+.
+
++_Mode_ is that modification of the verb which denotes the manner of
+asserting the action or being+.
+
++The _Indicative Mode_ asserts the action or being as a fact+.
+
++The _Potential Mode_ asserts the power, liberty, possibility, or necessity
+of acting or being+.
+
++The _Subjunctive Mode_ asserts the action or being as a mere condition,
+supposition, or wish+.
+
++The _Imperative Mode_ asserts the action or being as a command or an
+entreaty+.
+
+
++The _Infinitive_ is a form of the verb which names the action or being in
+a general way, without asserting it of anything+.
+
++The _Participle_ is a form of the verb partaking of the nature of an
+adjective or of a noun, and expressing the action or being as assumed+.
+
++The _Present Participle_ denotes action or being as continuing at the time
+indicated by the predicate+.
+
++The _Past Participle_ denotes action or being as past or completed at the
+time indicated by the predicate+.
+
++The _Past Perfect Participle_ denotes action or being as completed at a
+time previous to that indicated by the predicate+.
+
+
++_Tense_ is that modification of the verb which expresses the time of the
+action or being+.
+
++The _Present Tense_ expresses action or being as present+.
+
++The _Past Tense_ expresses action or being as past+.
+
++The _Future Tense_ expresses action or being as yet to come+.
+
++The _Present Perfect Tense_ expresses action or being as completed at the
+present time+.
+
++The _Past Perfect Tense_ expresses action or being as completed at some
+past time+.
+
++The _Future Perfect Tense_ expresses action or being to be completed at
+some future time+.
+
+
++_Number_ and _Person_ of a verb are those modifications that show its
+agreement with the number and person of its subject+.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 91.
+
+CONJUGATION OF THE VERB.
+
++DEFINITIONS+.
+
++_Conjugation_ is the regular arrangement of all the forms of the verb+.
+
++_Synopsis_ is the regular arrangement of the forms of one number and
+person in all the modes and tenses+.
+
++_Auxiliary Verbs_ are those that help in the conjugation of other verbs+.
+
+The auxiliaries are _do_, _be_, _have_, _shall_, _will_, _may_, _can_, and
+_must_.
+
++The _Principal Parts_ of a verb are the present indicative or the present
+infinitive, the past indicative, and the past participle+.
+
+These are called _principal parts_, because all the other forms of the verb
+are derived from them.
+
+We give, below, the _principal parts_ of some of the most important
+_irregular verbs_. Learn them.
+
+_Present_.      _Past_.        _Past. Par._
+Be _or_ am,     was,             been.
+Begin,          began,           begun.
+Blow,           blew,            blown.
+Break,          broke,           broken.
+Choose,         chose,           chosen.
+Come,           came,            come.
+Do,             did,             done.
+Draw,           drew,            drawn.
+Drink,          drank,           drunk.
+Drive,          drove,           driven.
+Eat,            ate,             eaten.
+Fall,           fell,            fallen.
+Fly,            flew,            flown.
+Freeze,         froze,           frozen.
+Go,             went,            gone.
+Get,            got,             got _or_ gotten.
+Give,           gave,            given.
+Grow,           grew,            grown.
+Have,           had,             had.
+Know,           knew,            known.
+Lay,            laid,            laid.
+Lie, (to rest)  lay,             lain.
+Ride,           rode,            ridden.
+Ring,           rang _or_ rung,  rung.
+Rise,           rose,            risen.
+Run,            ran,             run.
+See,            saw,             seen.
+Set,            set,             set.
+Sit,            sat,             sat.
+Shake,          shook,           shaken.
+Sing,           sang _or_ sung,  sung.
+Slay,           slew,            slain.
+Speak,          spoke,           spoken.
+Steal,          stole,           stolen.
+Swim,           swam _or_ swum,  swum.
+Take,           took,            taken.
+Tear,           tore,            torn.
+Throw,          threw,           thrown.
+Wear,           wore,            worn.
+Write,          wrote,           written.
+
+The following irregular verbs are called +_Defective_,+ because some of
+their parts are wanting.
+
+  _Present_.  _Past_. | _Present_.  _Past_.
+  --------------------|---------------------
+  Can,        could.  | Will,      would.
+  May,        might.  | Must,      ----
+  Shall,      should. | Ought,     ----
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 92.
+
+CONJUGATION OF THE VERB +SEE+ IN THE SIMPLE FORM.
+
++PRINCIPAL PARTS+.
+
+_Pres_.   _Past_.  _Past Par._
+See,      saw,     seen.
+
+INDICATIVE  MODE.
+PRESENT TENSE.
+
+  _Singular_.                  _Plural_.
+1. I see,                    1. We see,
+2. You see, _or_             2. You see,
+   Thou seest,
+3. He sees;                  3. They see.
+
+PAST TENSE.
+
+1. I saw,                    1. We saw,
+2. You saw, _or_             2. You saw,
+   Thou sawest,
+3. He saw;                   3. They saw.
+
+FUTURE TENSE.
+
+1. I shall see,              1. We shall see,
+2. You will see, _or_        2. You will see,
+   Thou wilt see,
+3. He will see;              3. They will see.
+
+PRESENT PERFECT  TENSE.
+
+1. I have seen,              1. We have seen,
+2. You have seen, _or_       2. You have seen,
+   Thou hast seen
+3. He has seen;              3. They have seen.
+
+PAST PERFECT TENSE.
+
+1. I had seen,               1. We had seen,
+2. You had seen, _or_        2. You had seen,
+   Thou hadst seen,
+3. He had seen;              3. They had seen.
+
+FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
+
+1. I shall have seen,        1. We shall have seen,
+2. You will have seen, _or_  2. You will have seen,
+   Thou wilt have seen,
+3. He will have seen;        3. They will have seen.
+
+POTENTIAL MODE.
+
+PRESENT TENSE.
+
+  _Singular_.                  _Plural_.
+1. I may see,                1. We may see,
+2. You may see, _or_         2. You may see,
+   Thou mayst see,
+3. He may see;               3. They may see.
+
+PAST TENSE.
+
+1. I might see,              1. We might see,
+2. You might see, _or_
+   Thou mightst see,         2. You might see,
+3. He might see;             3. They might see.
+
+PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
+
+1. I may have seen,          1. We may have seen,
+2. You may have seen, _or_   2. You may have seen
+   Thou mayst have seen,
+3. He may have seen;         3. They may have seen.
+
+PAST PERFECT TENSE.
+
+  _Singular_.                  _Plural_.
+1. I might have seen,        1. We might have seen,
+2. You might have seen, _or_ 2. You might have seen,
+   Thou mightst have seen,
+3. He might have seen;       3. They might have seen.
+
+SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
+
+PRESENT TENSE.
+
+  _Singular_.                  _Plural_.
+1. If I see,                 1. If we see,
+2. If you see, _or_          2. If you see,
+   If thou see,
+3. If he see;                3. If they see.
+
+IMPERATIVE  MODE.
+
+PRESENT TENSE.
+
+2. See (you _or_ thou);      2. See (you).
+
+INFINITIVES.
+
+PRESENT TENSE.
+
+To see.
+
+PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
+
+To have seen.
+
+PARTICIPLES.
+
+PRESENT.       PAST.        PAST PERFECT.
+
+Seeing,        Seen,        Having seen.
+
++To the Teacher+.--Let the pupils prefix _do_ and _did_ to the simple
+present _see_, and thus make the _emphatic form_ of the present and the
+past tense.
+
+Let _can_ and _must_ be used in place of _may_; and _could_, _would_, and
+_should_, in place of _might_.
+
+Require the pupils to tell how each tense is formed, and to note all
+changes for agreement in number and person.
+
+A majority of modern writers use the _indicative_ forms instead of the
+_subjunctive_, in all of the tenses, unless it may be the _present_. The
+_subjunctive_ forms of the verb _to be_ are retained in the present and the
+past tense. Let the pupils understand that the mode and tense forms do not
+always correspond with the actual meaning. _The ship sails next week. I may
+go to-morrow_. The verbs _sails_ and _may go_ are _present_ in form but
+_future_ in meaning. _If it rains by noon, he may not come_. The verb
+_rains_ is _indicative_ in form but _subjunctive_ in meaning.
+
+The plural forms, _You saw, You were_, etc., are used in the _singular_
+also.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 93.
+
+CONJUGATION OF THE VERB--SIMPLE FORM.
+
+Fill out the following forms, using the principal parts of the verb _walk.
+Pres., walk; Past, walked; Past Par., walked_.
+
+INDICATIVE MODE.
+
+PRESENT TENSE.
+
+_Singular_.                            _Plural_.
+1. I    / _Pres_ /,                    1. We   / _Pres_ /,
+2. You  / _Pres_ /,                    2. You  / _Pres_ /,
+   Thou / _Pres_ /est,
+3. He   / _Pres_ /s;                   3. They / _Pres_ /.
+
+PAST TENSE
+
+1. I    / _Past_ /,                    1. We   / _Past_ /,
+2. You  / _Past_ /,                    2. You  / _Past_ /,
+   Thou / _Past_ /st,
+3. He   / _Past_ /;                    3. They / _Past_ /.
+
+FUTURE TENSE.
+
+1. I _shall_    / _Pres_ /,       1. We _will_  / _Pres_ /,
+2. You _will_   / _Pres_ /,       2. You _will_ / _Pres_ /,
+   Thou _wil-t_ / _Pres_ /,
+3. He _will_    / _Pres_ /;       3. They _will_ / _Pres_ /.
+
+PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
+
+1. I _have_     /_Past Par._/,  1. We _have_   /_Past Par._/,
+2. You _have_   /_Past Par._/,  2. You _have_  /_Past Par._/,
+   Thou _ha-st_ /_Past Par._/,
+3. He _ha-s_    /_Past Par._/;  3. They _have_ /_Past Par._/.
+
+PAST PERFECT TENSE.
+
+1. I _had_       /_Past Par._/, 1. We _had_   /_Past Par._/,
+2. You _had_     /_Past Par._/, 2. You _had_  /_Past Par._/,
+   Thou _had-st_ /_Past Par._/,
+3. He _had_      /_Past Par._/; 3. They _had_ /_Past Par._/.
+
+FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
+
+1. I _shall have_    /_Past Par._/, 1. We _will have_   _Past Par._,
+2. You _will have_   /_Past Par._/, 2. You _will have_  _Past Par._,
+   Thou _wil-t have_ /_Past Par._/,
+3. He _will have_    /_Past Par._/; 3. They _will have_ _Past Par._.
+
+POTENTIAL MODE.
+
+PRESENT TENSE.
+
+1. I _may_       / _Pres._ /,     1. We _may_   / _Pres._ /,
+2. You _may_     / _Pres._ /,     2. You _may_  / _Pres._ /,
+   Thou _may-st_ / _Pres._ /,
+3. He _may_      / _Pres._ /;     3. They _may_ / _Pres._ /.
+
+PAST TENSE.
+
+1. I _might_       / _Pres._ /,   1. We _might_   / _Pres._ /,
+2. You _might_     / _Pres._ /,   2. You _might_  / _Pres._ /,
+   Thou _might-st_ / _Pres._ /,
+3. He _might_      / _Pres._ /;   3. They _might_ / _Pres._ /.
+
+PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
+
+1. I _may have_       /_Past Par._/, 1. We _may have_   /_Past Par._/,
+2. You _may have_     /_Past Par._/, 2. You _may have_  /_Past Par._/,
+   Thou _may-st have_ /_Past Par._/,
+3. He _may have_      /_Past Par._/; 3. They _may have_ /_Past Par._/.
+
+PAST PERFECT TENSE.
+
+1. I _might have_       /_Past Par._/, 1. We _might have_   /_Past Par._/,
+2. You _might have_     /_Past Par._/, 2. You _might have_  /_Past Par._/,
+   Thou _might-st have_ /_Past Par._/,
+3. He _might have_      /_Past Par._/; 3. They _might have_ /_Past Par._/.
+
+SUBJUNCTIVE MODE.
+
+PRESENT TENSE.
+
+_Singular_.                   _Plural_.
+1. If I    / _Pres._ /,       1. If we   / _Pres._ /,
+2. If you  / _Pres._ /,       2. If you  / _Pres._ /,
+   If thou / _Pres._ /,
+3. If he   / _Pres._ /;       3. If they / _Pres._ /.
+
+IMPERATIVE MODE.
+
+PRESENT TENSE.
+
+2. / _Pres._ / (you _or_ thou);  2. / _Pres._ / (you).
+
+INFINITIVES.
+
+PRESENT TENSE.
+
+To / _Pres._ /.
+
+PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
+
+To _have_ /_Past Par._/.
+
+PARTICIPLES.
+
+PRESENT.           PAST.               PAST PERFECT.
+/_Pres./ing_. /_Past Par._/  _Having /Past Par./_
+
++To the Teacher+.--Let the pupils fill out these forms with other verbs. In
+the indicative, present, third, singular, _es_ is sometimes added instead
+of _s_; and in the second person, old style, _st_ is sometimes added
+instead of _est_.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 94.
+
+CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE.
+
+In studying this Lesson, pay no attention to the line at the right of each
+verb.
+
+INDICATIVE MODE.
+
+PRESENT TENSE.
+
+  _Singular_.                       _Plural_.
+1. I am ----,                     1. We are ----,
+2. You are ---- _or_              2. You are ----,
+   Thou art ----,
+3. He is ----;                    3. They are ----.
+
+PAST TENSE.
+
+1. I was ----,                    1. We were ----,
+2. You were ----, _or_            2. You were ----,
+   Thou wast ----,
+3. He was ----;                   3. They were ----.
+
+FUTURE TENSE.
+
+1. I shall be ----,               1. We shall be ----,
+2. You will be ----, _or_         2. You will be ----,
+   Thou wilt be ----,
+3. He will be ----;               3. They will be ----.
+
+PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
+
+1. I have been ----,              1. We have been ----,
+2. You have been ---- _or_        2. You have been ----,
+   Thou hast been ----,
+3. He has been ----;              3. They have been ----.
+
+PAST PERFECT TENSE.
+
+1. I had been ----,               1. We had been ----,
+2. You had been ---- _or_         2. You had been ----,
+   Thou hadst been ----,
+3. He had been ----;              3. They had been ----.
+
+FUTURE PERFECT TENSE.
+
+1. I shall have been ----,        1. We shall have been ----,
+2. You will have been ---- _or_   2. You will have been ----,
+   Thou wilt have been ----,
+3. He will has been ----;         3. They will have been ----.
+
+POTENTIAL  MODE.
+
+PRESENT TENSE.
+
+  _Singular_.                       _Plural_.
+1. I may be ----,                 1. We may be ----,
+2. You may be ---- _or_           2. You may be ----,
+   Thou mayst be ----,
+3. He may be ----;                3. They may be ----.
+
+PAST TENSE.
+
+1. I might be ----,               1. We might be ----,
+2. You might be ---- _or_         2. You might be ----,
+   Thou mightst be ----,
+3. He might be ----;              3. They might be ----.
+
+PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
+
+1. I may have been ----,          1. We may have been ----,
+2. You may have been ---- _or_    2. You may have been ----,
+   Thou mayst have been ----,
+3. He may have been ----;         3. They may have been ----.
+
+PAST PERFECT TENSE.
+
+1. I might have been ----,        1. We might have been ----,
+2. You might have been ---- _or_  2. You might have been ----,
+   Thou mightst have been ----,
+3. He might have been ----;       3. They might have been ----.
+
+SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE.
+
+PRESENT TENSE.
+
+  _Singular_.                       _Plural_.
+1. If I be ----,                  1. If we be ----,
+2. If you be ---- _or  _          2. If you be ----,
+   If thou be ----,
+3. If he be ----;                 3. If they be ----.
+
+PAST TENSE.
+
+1. If I were ----,                1. If we were ----,
+2. If you were ---- _or_          2. If you were ----,
+   If thou wert ----,
+3. If he were ----;               3. If they were ----.
+
+IMPERATIVE MODE.
+
+PRESENT TENSE.
+
+2. Be (you _or_ them) ----;       2. Be (you)------.
+
+INFINITIVES.
+
+PRESENT TENSE.
+To be ----.
+
+PRESENT PERFECT TENSE.
+
+To have been ----.
+
+PARTICIPLES.
+
+PRESENT.            PAST.           PAST PERFECT.
+Being ----.         Been.           Having been ----.
+
++To the Teacher+.--After the pupils have become thoroughly familiar with
+the verb _be_ as a principal verb, teach them to use it as an auxiliary in
+making the +Progressive Form+ and the +Passive Form+.
+
+The _progressive form_ may be made by filling all the blanks with the
+_present participle_ of some verb.
+
+The _passive form_ may be made by filling all the blanks with the _past
+participle_ of a _transitive_ verb.
+
+Notice that, after the past participle, no blank is left.
+
+In the progressive form, this participle is wanting; and, in the passive
+form, it is the same as in the simple.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 95.
+
+AGREEMENT OF THE VERB.
+
++To the Teacher+.--For additional matter, see pp. 163-167.
+
++_Remember_+ that the verb must agree with its subject in number and
+person.
+
+Give the person and number of each of the following verbs, and write
+sentences in which each form shall be used correctly.
+
+_Common forms_.--Does, has=ha(ve)s, is, am, are, was, were.
+
+_Old forms_.--Seest, sawest, hast=ha(ve)st, wilt, mayst, mightst, art,
+wast.
+
+When a verb has two or more subjects connected by _and_, it must agree with
+them in the plural. _A similar rule applies to the agreement of the
+pronoun_.
+
+CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
+
++Model+.--Poverty and obscurity _oppresses_ him who thinks that _it is
+oppressive_.
+
+Wrong: the verb _oppresses_ should be changed to _oppress_ to agree with
+its two subjects, connected by _and_. The pronoun _it_ should be changed to
+_they_ to agree with its two antecedents, and the verb _is_ should be
+changed to _are_ to agree with _they_.
+
+  Industry, energy, and good sense is essential to success.
+  Time and tide waits for no man.
+  The tall sunflower and the little violet is turning its face to the sun.
+  The mule and the horse was harnessed together.
+  Every green leaf and every blade of grass seem grateful.
+
++Model+.--The preceding sentence is wrong. The verb _seem_ is plural, and
+it should be singular; for, when several singular subjects are preceded by
+_each_, every_, or _no_, they are taken separately.
+
+  Each day and each hour bring their portion of duty.
+  Every book and every paper were found in their place.
+
+When a verb has two or more singular subjects connected by _or_ or _nor_,
+it must agree with them in the singular. _A similar rule applies to the
+agreement of the pronoun_.
+
+CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
+
+  One or the other have made a mistake in their statement.
+  Neither the aster nor the dahlia are cultivated for their fragrance.
+  Either the president or his secretary were responsible.
+  Neither Ann, Jane, nor Sarah are at home.
+
+To foretell, or to express future time simply, the auxiliary _shall_ is
+used in the first person, and _will_ in the second and third; but when a
+speaker determines or promises, he uses _will_ in the first person and
+_shall_ in the second and third.
+
+CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
+
+  I will freeze, if I do not move about.
+  You shall feel better soon, I think.
+  She shall be fifteen years old to-morrow.
+  I shall find it for you, if you shall bring the book to me.
+  You will have it, if I can get it for you.
+  He will have it, if he shall take the trouble to ask for it.
+  He will not do it, if I can prevent him.
+  I will drown, nobody shall help me.
+  I will be obliged to you, if you shall attend to it.
+  We will have gone by to-morrow morning.
+  You shall disappoint your father, if you do not return.
+  I do not think I will like the change.
+  Next Tuesday shall be your birthday.
+  You shall be late, if you do not hurry.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 96.
+
+ERRORS IN THE FORM OF THE VERB.
+
+CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
+
++Model+.--Those things _have_ not _came to-day_.
+
+Wrong, because the past _came_ is here used for the past participle _come_.
+The present perfect tense is formed by prefixing _have_ to the _past
+participle_.
+
+  I done all my work before breakfast.
+  I come in a little late yesterday.
+  He has went to my desk without permission.
+  That stupid fellow set down on my new hat.
+
+_Set_ is generally transitive, and _sit_ is intransitive. _Lay_ is
+transitive, and _lie_ is intransitive.
+
+  He sat the chair in the corner.
+  Sit that plate on the table, and let it set.
+  I have set in this position a long time.
+  That child will not lay still or set still a minute.
+  I laid down under the tree, and enjoyed the scenery.
+  Lie that stick on the table, and let it lay.
+  Those boys were drove out of the fort three times.
+  I have rode through the park.
+  I done what I could.
+  He has not spoke to-day.
+  The leaves have fell from the trees.
+  This sentence is wrote badly.
+  He throwed his pen down, and said that the point was broke.
+  He teached me grammar.
+  I seen him when he done it.
+  My hat was took off my head, and throwed out of the window.
+  The bird has flew into that tall tree.
+  I was chose leader.
+  I have began to do better. I begun this morning.
+  My breakfast was ate in a hurry.
+  Your dress sets well.
+  That foolish old hen is setting on a wooden egg.
+  He has tore it up and throwed it away.
+  William has took my knife, and I am afraid he has stole it.
+  This should be well shook.
+  I begun to sing, before I knowed what I was doing.
+  We drunk from a pure spring.
+  I thought you had forsook us.
+  His pencil is nearly wore up.
+  He come, and tell me all he knowed about it.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 97.
+
+REVIEW QUESTIONS.
+
++To the Teacher+.--See "Scheme," p. 187.
+
+How many modifications have verbs? Ans.--_Five; viz., voice, mode, tense,
+number, and person_. Define voice. How many voices are there? Define each.
+Illustrate. What is mode? How many modes are there? Define each. What is an
+infinitive? What is a participle? How many different kinds of participles
+are there? Define each. Illustrate. What is tense? How many tenses are
+there? Define each. Illustrate. What are the number and the person of a
+verb? Illustrate. What is conjugation? What is synopsis? What are
+auxiliaries? Name the auxiliaries. What are the principal parts of a verb?
+Why are they so called? How does a verb agree with its subject? When a verb
+has two or more subjects, how does it agree? Illustrate the uses of _shall_
+and _will_.
+
++To the Teacher+.--Select some of the preceding exercises, and require the
+pupils to write the parsing of all the verbs. See Lessons 34, 35, 48, 49,
+and 56.
+
++Model for Written Parsing--Verbs+.--_The Yankee, selling his farm, wanders
+away to seek new lands_.
+
+CLASSIFICATION.              MODIFICATIONS.               SYNTAX.
+
+_Verbs_.   _Kind_.       _Voice_. _Mode_. _Tense_. _Num_. _Per_.
+
+*selling Pr. Par., Ir., Tr. Ac.   ---   ---   ---  ---  Mod. of _Yankee_.
+wanders  Reg., Int.         ---   Ind.  Pres. Sing. 3d. Pred. of   "
+*seek    Inf, Ir., Tt,      Ac.   ---    "    ---  ---  Prin. word in phrase
+                                                         Mod. of _wanders_.
+
+[Footnote *: Participles and Infinitives have no _person_ or _number_.]
+
+
+
+
+LESSON  98.
+
+SENTENCE-BUILDING.
+
+Participles sometimes partake of the nature of the noun, while they retain
+the nature of the verb.
+
+Build each of the following phrases into a sentence, and explain the nature
+of the participle.
+
++Model+.-- ----_in building a snow fort_. They were engaged _in building a
+snow fort_. The participle _building_, like a noun, follows the preposition
+_in_, as the principal word in the phrase; and, like a verb, it takes the
+object complement _fort_.
+
+  ---- by foretelling storms. ---- by helping others. ---- on approaching
+  the house. ----- in catching fish.
+
+Use the following phrases as subjects.
+
+  Walking in the garden ----. His writing that letter ----. Breaking a
+  promise ----.
+
+Use each of the following phrases in a complex sentence. Let some of the
+dependent clauses be used as adjectives, and some, as adverbs.
+
+  ---- in sledges. ---- up the Hudson. ---- down the Rhine. ---- through
+  the Alps. ---- with snow and ice. ---- into New York Bay. ---- on the
+  prairie. ---- at Saratoga.
+
+Build a short sentence containing all the parts of speech.
+
+Expand the following simple sentence into twelve sentences.
+
+  Astronomy teaches the size, form, nature, and motions of the sun, moon,
+  and stars.
+
+Contract the following awkward compound sentence into a neat simple
+sentence,
+
+  Hannibal passed through Gaul, and then he crossed the Alps, and then came
+  down into Italy, and then he defeated several Roman generals.
+
+Change the following complex sentences to compound sentences.
+
+  When he asked me the question, I answered him courteously.
+  Morse, the man who invented the telegraph, was a public benefactor.
+  When spring comes, the birds will return.
+
+Contract the following complex sentences into simple sentences by changing
+the verb in the dependent clause to a participle. Notice all the other
+changes.
+
+  A ship which was gliding along the horizon attracted our attention.
+  I saw a man who was plowing a field.
+  When the shower had passed, we went on our way.
+  I heard that he wrote that article.
+  That he was a foreigner was well known.
+  I am not sure that he did it.
+  Every pupil who has an interest in this work will prepare for it.
+
+Change the following compound sentences to complex sentences.
+
++Model+.--Morning dawns, and the clouds disperse. When morning dawns, the
+clouds disperse.
+
+  Avoid swearing; it is a wicked habit.
+  Pearls are valuable, and they are found in oyster shells.
+  Dickens wrote David Copperfield, and he died in 1870.
+  Some animals are vertebrates, and they have a backbone.
+
+Expand each of the following sentences as much as you can.
+
+  Indians dance. The clock struck. The world moves.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 99.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS.
+
+CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS.
+
+I have got that book at home.
+
++Model+.--Wrong, because _have_, alone, asserts possession. _Got_, used in
+the sense of _obtained_, is correct; as, _I have just got the book_.
+
+  Have you got time to help me?
+  There is many mistakes in my composition.
+
++Model+.--Wrong, because _is_ should agree with its plural subject
+_mistakes_. The adverb _there_ is often used to introduce a sentence, that
+the subject may follow the predicate. This often makes the sentence sound
+smooth, and gives variety.
+
+  There goes my mother and sister.
+  Here comes the soldiers.
+  There was many friends to greet him.
+  It ain't there.
+
++Model+.--_Ain't_ is a vulgar contraction. Correction--It _is not_ there.
+
+  I have made up my mind that it ain't no use.
+  'Tain't so bad as you think.
+  Two years' interest were due.
+  Every one of his acts were criticised.
+  I, Henry, and you have been chosen.
+
++Model+.--Wrong, for politeness requires that you should mention the one
+spoken to, first; the one spoken of, next; and yourself, last.
+
+  He invited you and I and Mary.
+  Me and Jane are going to the fair.
+  I only want a little piece.
+  He is a handsome, tall man.
+  Did you sleep good?
+  How much trouble one has, don't they?
+  He inquired for some tinted ladies' note-paper.
+  You needn't ask me nothing about it, for I haven't got no time to answer.
+  Him that is diligent will succeed.
+  He found the place sooner than me.
+  Who was that? It was me and him.
+  If I was her, I would say less.
+  Bring me them tongs.
+  Us boys have a base-ball club.
+  Whom did you say that it was?
+  Who did you speak to just now?
+  Who did you mean, when you said that?
+  Where was you when I called?
+  There's twenty of us going.
+  Circumstances alters cases.
+  Tell them to set still.
+  He laid down by the fire.
+  She has lain her book aside.
+  It takes him everlastingly.
+  That was an elegant old rock.
+
+
+
+
+LESSON 100.
+
+ANALYSIS AND PARSING.
+
+1. Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain.
+2. Strike! till the last armed foe expires!
+3. You wrong me, Brutus.
+4. Shall we gather strength by irresolution and inaction?
+5. Why stand we here idle?
+6. Give me liberty, or give me death!
+7. Thy mercy, O Lord, is in the heavens, and thy faithfulness reacheth unto
+   the clouds.
+8. The clouds poured out water, the skies sent out a sound, the voice of
+   thy thunder was in the heaven.
+9. The heavens declare his righteousness, and all the people see his glory.
+10. The verdant lawn, the shady grove, the variegated landscape, the
+    boundless ocean, and the starry firmament are beautiful and magnificent
+    objects.
+11. When you grind your corn, give not the flour to the devil and the bran
+    to God.
+12. That which the fool does in the end, the wise man does at the
+    beginning.
+13. Xerxes commanded the largest army that was ever brought into the field.
+14. Without oxygen, fires would cease to burn, and all animals would
+    immediately die.
+15. Liquids, when acted upon by gravity, press downward, upward, and
+    sideways.
+16. Matter exists in three states--the solid state, the liquid state, and
+    the gaseous state.
+17. The blending of the seven prismatic colors produces white light.
+18. Soap-bubbles, when they are exposed to light, exhibit colored rings.
+19. He who yields to temptation debases himself with a debasement from
+    which he can never arise.
+20. Young eyes that last year smiled in ours
+      Now point the rifle's barrel;
+    And hands then stained with fruits and flowers
+      Bear redder stains of quarrel.
+
+CAPITAL LETTERS AND PUNCTUATION.
+
++Capital Letters+.--The first word of (1) a sentence, (2) a line of poetry,
+(3) a direct quotation making complete sense or a direct question
+introduced into a sentence, and (4) phrases or clauses separately numbered
+or paragraphed should begin with a capital letter. Begin with a capital
+letter (5) proper names and words derived from them, (6) names of things
+personified, and (7) most abbreviations. Write in capital letters (8) the
+words _I_ and _O_, and (9) numbers in the Roman notation. [Footnote: Small
+letters are preferred where numerous references to chapters, etc., are
+made.]
+
++Examples+.--1. The judicious are always a minority.
+
+2. Honor and shame from no condition rise;
+   Act well your part, there all the honor lies.
+3. The question is, "Can law make people honest?"
+4. Paintings are useful for these reasons: 1. They please; 2. They
+   instruct.
+5. The heroic Nelson destroyed the French fleet in Aboukir Bay.
+6. Next, Anger rushed, his eyes on fire.
+7. The Atlantic ocean beat Mrs. Partington.
+8. The use of _O_ and _oh_ I am now to explain.
+9. Napoleon II. never came to the throne.
+
++Period+.--Place a period after (1) a declarative or an imperative
+sentence, (2) an abbreviation, and (3) a number written in the Roman
+notation.
+
+For examples see 1, 7, and 9 in the sentences above.
+
++Interrogation Point+.--Every direct interrogative sentence or clause
+should be followed by an interrogation point.
+
++Example+.--King Agrippa, believest thou the prophets?
+
++Exclamation Point+.--All exclamatory expressions must be followed by the
+exclamation point.
+
++Example+.--Oh! bloodiest picture in the book of time! +_Comma_+.--Set off
+by the comma (1) a phrase out of its natural order or not closely connected
+with the word it modifies; (2) an explanatory modifier that does not
+restrict the modified term or combine closely with it; (3) a participle
+used as an adjective modifier, with the words belonging to it, unless
+restrictive; (4) the adjective clause, when not restrictive; (5) the adverb
+clause, unless it closely follows and restricts the word it modifies; (6) a
+word or phrase independent or nearly so; (7) a direct quotation introduced
+into a sentence, unless _formally_ introduced; (8) a noun clause used as an
+attribute complement; and (9) a term connected to another by or and having
+the same meaning. Separate by the comma (10) connected words and phrases,
+unless all the conjunctions are expressed; (11) independent clauses, when
+short and closely connected; and (12) the parts of a compound predicate and
+of other phrases, when long or differently modified.
+
++_Examples_+.--l. In the distance, icebergs look like masses of burnished
+metal. 2. Alexandria, the capital of Lower Egypt, is an ill-looking city.
+3. Labor, diving deep into the earth, brings up long-hidden stores of coal.
+4. The sun, which is the center of our system, is millions of miles from
+us. 5. When beggars die, there are no comets seen. 6. Gentlemen, this,
+then, is your verdict. 7. God said, "Let there be light." 8. Nelson's
+signal was, "England expects every man to do his duty." 9. Rubbers, or
+overshoes, are worn to keep the feet dry. 10. The sable, the seal, and the
+otter furnish us rich furs. 11. His dark eye flashed, his proud breast
+heaved, his cheek's hue came and went. 12. Flights of birds darken the air,
+and tempt the traveler with the promise of abundant provisions.
+
++_Semicolon_+.--Independent clauses (1) when slightly connected, or (2)
+when themselves divided by the comma, must be separated by the semicolon.
+Use the semicolon (3) between serial phrases or clauses having a common
+dependence on something that precedes or follows; and (4) before _as, viz.,
+to wit., namely, i. e._, and _that is_, when they introduce examples or
+illustrations.
+
++_Examples_+.--1. The furnace blazes; the anvil rings; the busy wheels
+whirl round. 2. As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I
+rejoice at it; as he was valiant, I honor him; but, as he was ambitious, I
+slew him. 3. He drew a picture of the sufferings of our Saviour; his trial
+before Pilate; his ascent of Calvary; his crucifixion and death. 4. Gibbon
+writes, "I have been sorely afflicted with gout in the hand; to wit,
+laziness."
+
++_Colon_+.--Use the colon (1) between the parts of a sentence when these
+parts are themselves divided by the semicolon; and (2) before a quotation
+or an enumeration of particulars when formally introduced.
+
++_Examples_+.--l. Canning's features were handsome; his eye, though deeply
+ensconced under his eyebrows, was full of sparkle and gayety: the features
+of Brougham were harsh in the extreme. 2. To Lentullus and Gellius bear
+this message: "Their graves are measured."
+
++_Dash_+.--Use the dash where there is an omission (1) of letters or
+figures, and (2) of such words as _as_, _namely_, or _that is_, introducing
+illustrations or equivalent expressions. Use the dash (3) where the
+sentence breaks off abruptly, and the same thought is resumed after a
+slight suspension, or another takes its place; and (4) before a word or
+phrase repeated at intervals for emphasis. The dash may be used (5) instead
+of marks of parenthesis, and may (6) follow other marks, adding to their
+force.
+
++_Examples_+.--1. In M------w, v. 3-11, you may find the "beatitudes." 2.
+There are two things certain in this world--taxes and death. 3. I said--I
+know not what. 4. I never would lay down my arms--_never_-- NEVER--+NEVER+.
+5. Fulton started a steamboat----he called it the Clermont--on the Hudson
+in 1807. 6. My dear Sir,--I write this letter for information.
+
++_Marks of Parenthesis_+.--Marks of parenthesis may be used to enclose what
+has no essential connection with the rest of the sentence.
+
++Example+.--The noun (Lat. _nomen_, a name) is the first part of speech.
+
++_Apostrophe_+.--Use the apostrophe (1) to mark the omission of letters,
+(2) in the pluralizing of letters, figures, and characters, and (3) to
+distinguish the possessive from other cases.
+
++_Examples_+.--1. Bo't of John Jones 10 lbs. of butter. 2. What word is
+there one-half of which is _p's_? 3. He washed the disciples' feet.
+
++_Hyphen_+.--Use the hyphen (-) (1) between the parts of compound words
+that have not become consolidated, and (2) between syllables when a word is
+divided.
+
++_Examples_+.--1. Work-baskets are convenient. 2. Divide _basket_ thus:
+_bas-ket_.
+
++_Quotation Marks_+--Use quotation marks to enclose a copied word or
+passage. If the quotation contains a quotation, the latter is enclosed
+within single marks.
+
++_Example_+---The sermon closed with this sentence: "God said, 'Let there
+be light.'"
+
++_Brackets_+.--Use brackets [ ] to enclose what, in quoting another's
+words, you insert by way of explanation or correction.
+
++_Example_+.--The Psalmist says, "I prevented [anticipated] the dawning of
+the morning."
+
+SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPHS.
+
++_To the Teacher_+.--It is very profitable to exercise pupils in combining
+simple statements into complex and compound sentences, and in resolving
+complex and compound sentences into simple statements. In combining
+statements, it is an excellent practice for the pupil to contract, expand,
+transpose, and to substitute different words. They thus learn to express
+the same thought in a variety of ways. Any reading-book or history will
+furnish good material for such practice. A few examples are given below.
+
++_Direction_+.--Combine in as many ways as possible each of the following
+groups of sentences:--
+
++_Example_+.--This man is to be pitied. He has no friends.
+
+1. This man has no friends, and he is to be pitied.
+2. This man is to be pitied, because he has no friends.
+3. Because this man has no friends, he is to be pitied.
+4. This man, who has no friends, is to be pitied.
+5. This man, having no friends, is to be pitied.
+6. This man, without friends, is to be pitied.
+7. This friendless man deserves our pity.
+
+1. The ostrich is unable to fly. It has not wings in proportion to its
+   body.
+2. Egypt is a fertile country. It is annually inundated by the Nile.
+3. The nerves are little threads, or fibers. They extend, from the brain.
+   They spread over the whole body.
+4. John Gutenberg published a book. It was the first book known to have
+   been printed on a printing-press. He was aided by the patronage of John
+   Paust. He published it in 1455. He published it in the city of Mentz.
+5. The human body is a machine. A watch is delicately constructed. This
+   machine is more delicately constructed. A steam-engine is complicated.
+   This machine is more complicated. A steam-engine is wonderful. This
+   machine is more wonderful.
+
+You see that short statements closely related in meaning may be improved by
+being combined. But young writers frequently use too many _ands_ and other
+connectives, and make their sentences too long.
+
+Long sentences should be broken up into short ones when the relations of
+the parts are not clear.
+
+As clauses may be joined to form sentences, so sentences may be united to
+make _paragraphs_.
+
+A +_paragraph_+ is a sentence or a group of related sentences developing
+one point or one division of a general subject.
+
+The first word of a paragraph should begin a new line, and should be
+written a little farther to the right than the first words of other lines.
+
++_Direction_+.--Combine the following statements into sentences and
+paragraphs, and make of them a complete composition:--
+
+Water is a liquid. It is composed of oxygen and hydrogen. It covers about
+three-fourths of the surface of the earth. It takes the form of ice. It
+takes the form of snow. It takes the form of vapor. The air is constantly
+taking up water from rivers, lakes, oceans, and from damp ground. Cool air
+contains moisture. Heated air contains more moisture. Heated air becomes
+lighter. It rises. It becomes cool. The moisture is condensed into fine
+particles. Clouds are formed. They float across the sky. The little
+particles unite and form rain-drops. They sprinkle the dry fields. At night
+the grass and flowers become cool. The air is not so cool. The warm air
+touches the grass and flowers. It is chilled. It loses a part of its
+moisture. Drops of dew are formed. Water has many uses. Men and animals
+drink it. Trees and plants drink it. They drink it by means of their leaves
+and roots. Water is a great purifier. It cleanses our bodies. It washes our
+clothes. It washes the dust from the leaves and the flowers. Water is a
+great worker. It floats vessels. It turns the wheels of mills. It is
+converted into steam. It is harnessed to mighty engines. It does the work
+of thousands of men and horses.
+
++_To the Teacher_+.--Condensed statements of facts, taken from some book
+not in the hands of your pupils, may be read to them, and they may be
+required to expand and combine these and group them into paragraphs.
+
+LETTER-WRITING.
+
+In writing a letter there are six things to consider--the _Heading_, the
+_Introduction_, the _Body of the Letter_, the _Conclusion_, the _Folding_,
+and the _Superscription_.
+
+THE HEADING.
+
++_Parts_+.--The Heading consists of the name of the +_Place_+ at which the
+letter is written, and the +_Date_+. If you write from a city, give the
+door-number, the name of the street, the name of the city, and the name of
+the state. If you are at a hotel or a school, or any other well-known
+institution, its name may take the place of the door-number and the name of
+the street. If you write from a village or other country place, give your
+post-office address, the name of the county, and that of the state.
+
+The Date consists of the month, the day of the month, and the year.
+
++_How Written_+.--Begin the Heading about an inch and a half from the top
+of the page--on the first ruled line of commercial note--and a little to
+the left of the middle of the page. If the Heading is very short, it may
+stand on one line. If it occupies more than one line, the second line
+should begin farther to the right than the first, and the third farther to
+the right than the second.
+
+The Date stands upon a line by itself if the Heading occupies two or more
+lines.
+
+The door-number, the day of month, and the year are written in figures, the
+rest in words. Each important word begins with a capital letter, each item
+is set off by the comma, and the whole closes with a period.
+
+_Direction_.--Study what has been said, and write the following headings
+according to these models:---
+
+1.  Hull, Mass., Nov. 1, 1860.
+2.  1466 Colorado Ave.,
+    Rochester, N. Y.,
+    Apr. 3, 1870.
+3.  Newburyport, Mass.,
+    June 30, 1826.
+4.  Starkville, Herkimer Co., N. Y.,
+    Dec. 19, 1871.
+
+1. n y rondout 11 1849 oct. 2. staten island port richmond 1877 25 january.
+3. brooklyn march 1871 mansion house 29. 4. executive chamber vt february
+montpelier 1869 27. 5. washington franklin como nov 16 1874. 6. fifth ave
+may new york 460 9 1863. 7. washington d c march 1847 520 pennsylvania ave
+16.
+
+THE INTRODUCTION.
+
+_+Parts+_.--The Introduction consists of the _+Address+_--the Name, the
+Title, and the Place of Business or the Residence of the one addressed--and
+the _+Salutation+_. Titles of respect and courtesy should appear in the
+Address. Prefix _Mr._ (plural, _Messrs_.) to a man's name; _Master_ to a
+boy's name; _Miss_ to the name of a girl or an unmarried lady; _Mrs._ to
+the name of a married lady. Prefix _Dr_. to the name of a physician, or
+write _M.D._ after his name. Prefix _Rev_. (or _The Rev_.) to the name of a
+clergyman; if he is a Doctor of Divinity, prefix _Rev. Dr_., or write
+_Rev_. before his name and _D.D._ after it; if you do not know his
+Christian name, prefix _Rev. Mr._ or _Rev. Dr._ to his surname, but never
+_Rev_. alone. _Esq._ is added to the name of a lawyer, and to the names of
+other prominent men. Avoid such combinations as the following: _Mr. John
+Smith, Esq., Dr. John Smith, M.D., Mr. John Smith, M.D._, etc.
+
+Salutations vary with the station of the one addressed, or the writer's
+degree of intimacy with him. Strangers may be addressed as _Sir, Rev. Sir,
+General, Madam, Miss Brown_, etc.; acquaintances as _Dear Sir, Dear Madam_,
+etc.; friends as _My dear Sir, My dear Madam, My dear Mr. Brown_, etc.; and
+near relatives and other dear friends as _My dear Wife, My dear Boy,
+Dearest Ellen_, etc.
+
+_+How Written+_.--The Address may follow the Heading, beginning on the next
+line, or the next but one, and standing on the left side of the page; or it
+may stand in corresponding position after the Body of the Letter and the
+Conclusion. If the letter is written to a very intimate friend, the Address
+may appropriately be placed at the bottom of the letter; but in other
+letters, especially those on ordinary business, it should be placed at the
+top and as directed above. There should always be a narrow margin on the
+left-hand side of the page, and the Address should always begin on the
+marginal line. If the Address occupies more than one line, the initial
+words of these lines should slope to the right, as in the Heading.
+
+Begin the Salutation on the marginal line or a little to the right of it,
+when the Address occupies three lines; on the marginal line or farther to
+the right than the second line of the Address begins, when this occupies
+two lines; a little to the right of the marginal lime, when the Address
+occupies one line; on the marginal line, when the Address stands below.
+
+Every important word in the Address should begin with a capital letter. All
+the items of it should be set off by the comma, and, as it is an
+abbreviated sentence, it should close with a period. Every important word
+in the Salutation should begin with a capital letter, and the whole should
+be followed by a comma.
+
+_+Direction+_.--Study what has been said, and write the following
+introductions according to these models:--
+
+1. Dear Father,
+              I write, etc.
+
+2. The Rev. M. H. Buckham, D.D.,
+        President of U. V. M.,
+             Burlington, Vt.
+   My dear Sir,
+
+3. Messrs. Clark & Brown,
+        Quogue, N. Y.
+   Gentlemen,
+
+4. Messrs. Tiffany & Co.,
+         2 Milk St., Boston.
+   Dear Sirs,
+
+1. david h cochran lld president of polytechnic institute brooklyn my dear
+sir. 2. dr John h hobart burge 64 livingston st brooklyn n y sir. 3. prof
+geo n boardman Chicago ill dear teacher. 4. to the president executive
+mansion Washington d c mr president. 5. rev t k beecher elmira n y sir. 6.
+messrs gilbert & sons gentlemen mass boston. 7. mr george r curtis minn
+rochester my friend dear. 8. to the honorable wm m evarts secretary of
+state Washington d c sir.
+
+THE BODY OF THE LETTER.
+
++_The Beginning_+.--Begin the Body of the Letter at the end of the
+Salutation, and on the _same_ line, if the Introduction consists of four
+lines--in which case the comma after the Salutation should be followed by a
+dash;--otherwise, on the line _below_.
+
++_Style_+.--Be perspicuous. Paragraph and punctuate as in other kinds of
+writing. Spell correctly; write legibly, neatly, and with care.
+
+_Letters of friendship_ should be colloquial, natural, and familiar.
+Whatever is interesting to you will be interesting to your friends.
+
+_Business letters_ should be brief, and the sentences should be short,
+concise, and to the point.
+
+In _formal notes_ the third person is generally used instead of the first
+and the second; there is no Introduction, no Conclusion, no Signature, only
+the name of the Place and the Date at the bottom, on the left side of the
+page.
+
+THE CONCLUSION.
+
+_+Parts+_.--The Conclusion consists of the _+Complimentary Close+_ and the
+_+Signature+_. The forms of the Complimentary Close are many, and are
+determined by the relations of the writer to the one addressed. In letters
+of _friendship_ you may use _Your sincere friend; Yours affectionately ;
+Your loving son or daughter_, etc. In business letters, you may use _Yours;
+Yours truly; Truly yours; Yours respectfully; Very respectfully yours_,
+etc. In official letters use _I have the honor to be, Sir, your obedient
+servant; Very respectfully, your most obedient servant_.
+
+The Signature consists of your Christian name and your surname. In
+addressing a stranger write your Christian name in full. A lady addressing
+a stranger should prefix her title--_Miss_ or _Mrs._--to her own name,
+enclosing it within marks of parenthesis, if she prefers.
+
+_+How Written+_.--The Conclusion should begin near the middle of the first
+line below the Body of the Letter, and should slope to the right like the
+Heading and the Address. Begin each line of it with a capital letter, and
+punctuate as in other writing, following the whole with a period. The
+Signature should be very plain.
+
+THE FOLDING.
+
+The Folding is a simple matter when, as now, the envelope used is adapted
+in length to the width of the sheet. Take the letter as it lies before you,
+with its first page uppermost, turn up the bottom of it about one-third the
+length of the sheet, bring the top down over this, taking care that the
+sides are even, and press the parts together.
+
+Taking the envelope with its back toward you, insert the letter, putting in
+first the edge last folded. The form of the envelope may require the letter
+to be folded in the middle. Other conditions may require other ways of
+folding.
+
+THE SUPERSCRIPTION.
+
+_+Parts+_.--The Superscription is what is written on the outside of the
+envelope. It is the same as the Address, consisting of the Name, the Title,
+and the full Directions of the one addressed.
+
+_+How Written+_.--The Superscription should begin near the middle of the
+envelope and near the left edge-- the envelope lying with its closed side
+toward you--and should occupy three or four lines. These lines should slope
+to the right as in the Heading and the Address, the spaces between the
+lines should be the same, and the last line should end near the lower
+right-hand corner. On the first line the Name and the Title should stand.
+If the one addressed is in a city, the door-number and name of the street
+should be on the second line, the name of the city on the third, and the
+name of the state on the fourth. If he is in the country, the name of the
+post-office should be on the second line, the name of the county on the
+third--(or by itself near the lower left-hand corner), and the name of the
+state on the fourth. The titles following the name should be separated from
+it and from each other by the comma, and every line should end with a
+comma, except the last, which should be followed by a period. The lines
+should be straight, and every part of the Superscription should be legible.
+Place the stamp at the upper right-hand corner.
+
+LETTER, ORDERING MERCHANDISE.
+
+[Cursive:
+Newburgh, N. Y.
+Jan. 7. 1888
+
+Messrs. Hyde & Co.,
+250 Broadway. N. Y.
+
+Gentlemen,
+
+Please send me by Adams Express the articles mentioned in the enclosed
+list.
+
+Be careful in the selection of the goods, as I desire them for a special
+class of customers.
+
+When they are forwarded, please inform me by letter and enclose the
+invoice.
+
+Yours truly,
+
+Thomas Dodds.]
+
+ANSWER, ENCLOSING INVOICE.
+
+[Cursive:
+250 Broadway, N. Y.
+Jan 9, 1888.
+
+Mr. Thomas Dodds,
+Newburgh, N. Y.
+
+Dear Sir,
+
+We have to-day sent you by Adams Express the goods ordered in your letter
+of the 7th inst. Enclosed you will find the invoice.
+
+We hope that everything will reach you in good condition and will prove
+satisfactory in quality and in price.
+
+Very truly yours,
+
+Peter Hyde & Co.]
+
+INVOICE.
+
+Thomas Dodds,
+
+Bought of Peter Hyde & Co.
+
+ 3   boxes Sperm Candles. 140 lbs.,            @33c.    $46.20
+ 7   do.   Adamantine Extra Candles, 182 lbs., "26c.     47.32
+ 120 lbs.  Crushed Sugar,                      "12-1/2c. 15.00
+ 60  do.   Coffee   do.,                       "11-1/4c.  6.75
+                                                         -----
+                                                        $115.27
+
+LETTER OF APPLICATION.
+
+[Cursive:
+176 Clinton St. Brooklyn, N. Y.
+Dec. 12, 1887
+
+Messrs. Fisk & Hatch,
+5 Nassau St., N. Y.
+
+Gentlemen,
+
+Learning by advertisement that a clerkship in your house is vacant, I beg
+leave to offer myself as a candidate for the place. I am sixteen years old,
+and am strong and in excellent health. I have just graduated with honor
+from the seventh grade of the Polytechnic Institute, Brooklyn, and I
+enclose testimonials of my character and standing from the President of
+that Institution.
+
+If you desire a personal interview, I shall be glad to present myself at
+such time and place as you may name.
+
+Very respectfully yours,
+
+Charles Hastings.]
+
+NOTES OF INVITATION AND ACCEPTANCE
+(in the third person).
+
+_Mr. and Mrs. Brooks request the pleasure of Mr. Churchill's company at a
+social gathering, next Tuesday evening, at_ 8 _o'clock_.
+  32 _W_. 31_st Street, Oct_. 5.
+
+_Mr. Churchill has much pleasure in accepting Mr. and Mrs. Brooks's kind
+invitation to a social gathering next Tuesday evening_.
+  160 _Fifth Ave., Oct_. 5.
+
+LETTER OF INTRODUCTION.
+
+[Cursive:
+Concord, N. H.
+Jan. 10, 1888.
+
+George Chapman, Esq.,
+Portland, Conn.
+
+My dear Friend,
+
+It gives me great pleasure to introduce to you my friend, Mr. Alpheus
+Crane. Any attention you may be able to show him I shall esteem as a
+personal favor.
+
+Sincerely yours,
+
+Peter Cooper.]
+
+A LETTER OF FRIENDSHIP.
+
+[Cursive:
+21 Dean St., Toledo, Ohio.
+Dec. 16, 1887.
+
+My dear Mother,
+
+I cannot tell you how I long to be at home again and in my old place. In my
+dreams and in my waking hours, I am often back at the old homestead; my
+thoughts play truant while I pore over my books, and even while I listen to
+my teacher in the class-room. I would give so much to know what you are all
+doing--so much to feel that now and then I am in your thoughts, and that
+you do indeed miss me at home.
+
+Everything here is as pleasant as it need be or can be, I suppose. I am
+sure I shall enjoy it all by and by, when I get over this fit of
+homesickness. My studies are not too hard, and my teachers are kind and
+faithful.
+
+Do write me a long letter as soon as you get this and tell me everything.
+
+Much love to each of the dear ones at home.
+
+Your affectionate son,
+
+Henry James.
+
+[Footnote: In familiar (and official) letters, the Address may stand, you
+will remember, at the bottom.] Mrs. Alexander James, Tallmadge, Ohio.]
+
+[Illustration of Envelope: Mrs. Alexander James, Tallmadge, Summit Co.
+Ohio.]
+
++_To the Teacher_+.--Have your pupils write complete letters and notes of
+all kinds. You can name the persons to whom these are to be addressed.
+Attend minutely to al1 the points. Letters of introduction should have the
+word _Introducing_ (followed by the name of the one introduced) at the
+lower left-hand corner of the envelope. This letter should not be sealed.
+The receiver may seal it before handing it to the one addressed.
+
+Continue this work of letter-writing until the pupils have mastered all the
+details, and are able easily and quickly to write any ordinary letter.
+
+A SUMMARY OF THE RULES OF SYNTAX.
+
+I. A noun or pronoun used as subject or as attribute complement of a
+predicate verb, or used independently, is in the nominative case.
+
+II. The attribute complement of a participle or an infinitive is in the
+same case (Nom. or Obj.) as the word to which it relates.
+
+III. A noun or pronoun used as possessive modifier is in the possessive
+case.
+
+IV. A noun or pronoun used as object or objective complement, or as the
+principal word of a prepositional phrase, is in the objective case.
+
+V. A noun or pronoun used as explanatory modifier is in the same case as
+the word explained.
+
+VI. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, number, and gender.
+
+With two or more antecedents connected by _and_, the pronoun is plural.
+
+With two or more singular antecedents connected by _or_ or _nor_, the
+pronoun is singular.
+
+VII. A verb agrees with its subject in person and number.
+
+With two or more subjects connected by _and_, the verb is plural.
+
+With two or more singular subjects connected by _or_ or _nor_, the verb is
+singular.
+
+VIII. A participle assumes the action or being, and is used like an
+adjective or a noun.
+
+IX. An infinitive is generally introduced by _to_, and with it forms a
+phrase used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
+
+X. Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns.
+
+XI. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.
+
+XII. A preposition introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in
+sense, of its principal word to the word modified.
+
+XIII. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses.
+
+XIV. Interjections are used independently.
+
++PROOF-MARKS+.
+
++Remark+.--The following are some of the marks used in correcting
+proof-sheets for the printer:--
+
+
+[Symbol: dele] De-le = Strike out.
+
+[^] Ca-ret = Something to be inserted.
+
+[/] This calls attention to points or letters placed in the margin as
+corrections.
+
+[Symbol: dotted circle] This calls attention to the period.
+
+[tr.] Transpose.
+
+[Symbol: para] Begin a new paragraph with the word preceded by [.
+
+[No Symbol: para] No new paragraph.
+
+[Symbol: v' ] This calls attention to the apostrophe.
+
++To the Teacher+.--We suggest that the pupils learn to use these marks in
+correcting compositions. The following exercises are given as
+illustrations:--
+
+[Illustration: Corrected letter]
+
+
+
+
+NOTES FOR TEACHERS.
+
+AGREEMENT.
+
+Before Lesson 8 is assigned, the pupils may be required to note, in Lessons
+6 and 7, the subjects that add _s_ to denote more than one, and then to
+mark the changes that occur in the predicates when the _s_ is dropped from
+these subjects. In Lesson 8, the predicates may be changed by adding or
+dropping _s_, and other subjects may be found to correspond. In Lesson 9,
+_s_ may be dropped from the plural subjects, and other predicates may be
+found to agree.
+
+At this stage of the work we should give no formal rules, and should avoid
+such technical terms as _number, person, tense_, etc. The pupils may be led
+to discover rules for themselves, and to state them informally. Exercises
+and questions may be so directed that the pupils may draw some such
+conclusion as the following:--
+
+When a simple form of the verb is used to tell what one thing does, _s_ or
+_es_ is added (unless the subject is _I_ or _you_).
+
+Let the pupils see that the _s_-form of the verb is used only in telling
+what one thing _does_, not what it _did_; as, "The boy _runs_," "The boy
+_ran_"; and that its subject always stands for the one spoken of; as, "_He
+runs_," "_I run_."
+
+Before Lesson 12 is assigned, attention may be called to the use of _is,
+was_, and _has_, in Lesson 11 and elsewhere. For the predicates introduced
+by these words let the pupils find subjects which name more than one, that
+they may note the change of _is_ to _are_, _was_ to _were_, and _has_ to
+_have_. The forms _does_ and _do_ may also be introduced, and these
+exercises continued till the pupils are led to discover some such rule as
+the following:--
+
+_Is, was, has_, and _does_ are used with subjects denoting but one. _Are,
+were, have_, and _do_ are used with subjects denoting more than one.
+
+We suggest that the form of a question and the use of the question mark be
+introduced after Lesson 12, and that the pupils be allowed to change the
+sentences in Lessons 11 and 12 by placing the subject after the first
+auxiliary. A straight line may be drawn under each subject, and a waving
+line under each predicate, thus:--
+
+~Was~ /Napoleon/ ~banished?~
+
+The sentences given for analysis will furnish material for making
+interrogative sentences, and for justifying the agreement of verbs.
+
+In connection with Lesson 19 attention may be called to the agreement of
+verbs with _I_ and _you_. Exercises may be given from which the pupils will
+draw the following conclusions:--
+
+_I_ can be used with _am, was, have_, and _do_. _You_ may mean one or more
+than one, but the verb always agrees as if _you_ meant more than one.
+
+Exercises may be given requiring the pupils to use such expressions as "You
+_were_," "They _were_," "We _were_," "He _doesn't_," etc., and to repeat
+them aloud till the ear is accustomed to the right form.
+
+When predicate verbs immediately follow their subjects, there is little
+danger of errors in agreement, except that _was_ is often used incorrectly
+for _were_, and _don't_ for _doesn't_. The chief object of introducing
+these exercises here is to train the pupils' observation so that they will
+readily and naturally note the agreement of the subject and predicate when
+these terms are transposed, or are separated by other words. To determine
+the correct form of the verb in such cases, let the pupils see how it
+sounds when placed immediately after its subject. We suggest exercises like
+the following:--
+
+  1 is      are
+  2 was     were
+  3 has     have
+  4 does    do
+  5 comes   come
+  6 goes    go
+  7 thinks  think
+  8 writes  write
+
+1. With what kind of letter ~(4)~ _each_ of these names ~begin~?
+2. Under this rule ~(1) found~ important _exceptions_.
+3. The _farm_, with all the cattle and horses, ~(2) sold~.
+4. With what mark ~(4)~ imperative _sentences_ ~end~?
+5. Every _effort_ of the friends of these measures (3) failed.
+6. There (5) trying _times_ in every man's life.
+7. _One_ of them (6) to Vassar College.
+8. Not _one_ in ten (7) about this.
+9. _Neither_ of you (8) correctly.
+10. After this (5) the calisthenic _exercises_.
+11. A _cargo_ of Delaware peaches (3) arrived.
+12. There (6) the cars.
+13. There (6) a _train_ of cars.
+
+After these blanks have been filled with the verbs above, as indicated by
+the numbers, the sentences may be repeated aloud till the correct form is
+familiar.
+
+Let the pupils see that in (2), Lesson 36, _were identified_ is asserted of
+two things, and that in (3) _was anticipated_ is asserted of one of two
+things, but not of both. Let them give other examples of connected subjects
+with verbs singular in form, and with verbs plural in form. The meaning of
+_singular_ and _plural_ may be explained, and the pupils may form some such
+rule as the following:--
+
+With two or more subjects connected by _and_ the verb agrees in the plural.
+
+With two or more singular subjects connected by _or_ or _nor_ the verb
+agrees in the singular.
+
+The pupils may examine such sentences as--
+
+1. Each word and gesture _was_ suited to the thought;
+2. Every bud, leaf, and blade of grass _rejoices_ after the warm rain;
+3. No dew, no rain, no cloud _comes_ to the relief of the parched
+   earth;--
+
+and note that _each_, _every_, and _no_ show that the things named in the
+different subjects are taken separately, and that the verbs are therefore
+singular.
+
+Such sentences as--
+
+  "In the death of Franklin, a philosopher and statesman _was_ lost to the
+  world"--
+
+may be given to show that subjects connected by _and_ may name the same
+thing, and so take a verb in the singular.
+
+Such examples as the following may be given and justified:--
+
+1. Beauty and utility _are_ combined in nature.
+2. Either beauty or utility _appears_ in every natural object.
+3. Here _is_ neither beauty nor utility.
+4. Time and tide _wait_ for no man.
+5. Wisdom and prudence _dwell_ with the lowly man.
+6. _Does_ either landlord or tenant profit by this bill?
+7. Neither landlords nor tenants _profit_ by this bill.
+8. Every fly, bee, beetle, and butterfly _is_ provided with six feet.
+9. That desperate robber and murderer _was_ finally secured.
+10. That desperate robber and that murderer _were_ finally secured.
+11. The builder and owner of the yacht _has_ sailed from Liverpool.
+12. The builder and the owner of the yacht _have_ sailed from Liverpool.
+13. A lame and blind man _was_ provided with food and lodging.
+14. A lame and a blind man _were_ provided with food and lodging.
+
+Particular attention may be called to examples 9-14, that the pupils may
+note the effect of repeating _that_, _the_, and _a_.
+
+Pupils should early learn that rules in grammar should not be followed
+rigidly and blindly, as they generally have variations and exceptions.
+Caution, however, should be used in presenting exceptions, lest the pupils
+become confused. They may be presented in reviews after the rules and
+general principles are well understood. They need not be formally stated,
+but may be introduced in the way of observation lessons that appeal to the
+judgment rather than to the memory. In this way such constructions as the
+following may be introduced:--
+
+1. Neither he nor _I am _going. (Better--He is not going, nor am I.)
+2. Neither John nor his _sisters were_ there.
+3. _Action_, and not words, _is_ needed.
+4. _Bread and milk is_ good food.
+5. The _committee are_ unable to agree on _their_ report.
+6. The _committee has_ made _its_ report.
+
+Other examples may be given till the pupils are led to discover that in
+examples like (1) and (2) the verb agrees with its nearest subject, and
+that the plural subject is usually placed next to the verb; that in (3) the
+verb agrees with the affirmative subject, another verb being understood
+with the negative subject; that in (4) "bread and milk" represents one
+article of food; and that in (5) the individuals of the committee are
+thought of, while in (6) the committee as a whole is thought of. In (5) and
+(6) the agreement of the pronoun may also be noted. Pronouns may be
+introduced into many of the preceding exercises and the pupils led to apply
+to the agreement of the pronoun with its antecedent what has been learned
+of the agreement of the verb with its subject. Let the pupils determine why
+the following connected subjects are arranged in the proper order:--
+
+1. You and I are invited.
+2. Mary and I are invited.
+3. You and Mary are invited.
+4. You and Mary and I are invited.
+
+WRITING NAMES--CAPITALS AND ABBREVIATIONS. [Footnote: For list of
+abbreviations see p. 191.]
+
+Pupils may copy the following list of names, and note all peculiarities in
+form:--
+
+  Texas, state, river, Red River, city, Albany, New Orleans, Kansas City,
+  statesman, Thomas Jefferson, Thos. Jefferson, author, Charles Dickens,
+  Chas. Dickens, writer, George William Curtis, Geo. Wm. Curtis, Geo. W.
+  Curtis, poet, John Greenleaf Whittier, John G. Whittier, J. G. Whittier,
+  gulf, sea, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, lake, Lake Erie, general,
+  General Robert Edmund Lee, Gen. Robt. E. Lee, doctor, Doctor Valentine
+  Mott, Dr. V. Mott, professor, Prof. Goldwin Smith.
+
+  Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote "The Song of Hiawatha."
+  John Bunyan wrote "The Pilgrim's Progress."
+  The subject for composition was "A Day in the Woods."
+
+We give the following questions to illustrate our method of conducting an
+
++Observation Lesson+.--Are _city_ and _Albany_ both names? What difference
+can you discover in meaning? What in form? Which of the names just written
+are _class_ names? Which are _individual_ names? Mention an individual name
+made up of two names; one of three names; one of four. How many capitals do
+you find in each of the names just mentioned? Mention seven words that are
+written without capitals as class names, and again with capitals as parts
+of individual names. Mention a word that is shortened, or _abbreviated_, by
+omitting all but the first, or _initial_, letter. Mention an _abbreviation_
+containing two letters; one containing three; one containing four. What new
+use of the period have you discovered in this exercise? What three words in
+this exercise are used together as the title of a book? What four as the
+title of a poem? What five as the subject of a school composition? Each of
+these groups may be regarded as a kind of individual name. Besides the
+first word, what words begin with capitals in each of these three groups?
+Notice that these are the principal words.
+
+For another exercise the pupils may copy the following sentences, noting
+carefully capitals and punctuation marks:--
+
+1. The city of Chicago is on Lake Michigan.
+2. The steamer _City of Chicago_ sails from Jersey City.
+3. The island of Cuba is under Spanish rule.
+4. The Isle of Man is in the Irish Sea.
+5. The Hon. Wm. E. Gladstone is an English statesman.
+6. The subject for composition was "The View from my Window."
+7. In the evening Aunt Mary entertained my cousin and me with stories of
+   Uncle Remus.
+8. Miss Evans--afterward Mrs. Lewes--was the author of "The Mill on the
+   Floss."
+9. We may call the Supreme Being our Heavenly Father.
+10. The Old Testament points to the coming of a Messiah.
+11. George I., George II., George III., George IV., and William IV.
+    preceded Victoria.
+
+The teacher may find the following questions suggestive:--
+
++Observation Lesson+.--Is _Chicago_, or _city of Chicago_ the individual
+name of the place mentioned in (1)? Is _Chicago_, or _City of Chicago_ the
+name of the steamer mentioned in (2)? Is the town mentioned in (2) named
+_Jersey_, or _Jersey City_? Is the body of water mentioned in (1) known as
+_Michigan_, or _Lake Michigan_? What is the name of the island mentioned in
+(3)?--in (4)? Is _Irish_, or _Irish Sea_ the name of the body of water
+mentioned in (4)?
+
+Notice that _Spanish_, in (3), and _English_, in (5), are not names, or
+nouns. They begin with capitals, because they are derived from the
+individual names _Spain_ and _England_.
+
+What names in (7) usually denote relationship? Notice that such words as
+_uncle, captain, professor_, etc., do not necessarily begin with capitals
+unless prefixed to individual names.
+
+What group of words in (6) is treated as an individual name? What in (8)?
+Which words of these groups are regarded as the most important?
+
+In (8) do you find a period after _Miss_?--after _Mrs._?
+
+_Miss_ is not written as an abbreviation.
+
+What words in (9) and (10) are used as names of the Deity? What is _Old
+Testament_ the particular name of?
+
+What do you discover in the names found in (11)?
+
+For other exercises, pupils may be required to bring in lists of
+geographical and biographical names, titles of books, etc.
+
+We earnestly recommend the introduction here of letter-writing to
+illustrate the use of capitals, abbreviations, and punctuation. (See pp.
+146-161.) The writing of _headings, introductions, conclusions_, and
+_superscriptions_ will give most excellent practice in capitals, etc. The
+_body_ of the letter may be directed to the same end. For instance, an
+invitation to a friend may be accompanied by a description of the route to
+be taken and of the places or objects of interest to be seen on the way. Or
+the writer may mention some of the books he has read, with the names of the
+characters and of the places mentioned.
+
+ADJECTIVES--CHOICE AND ARRANGEMENT.
+
+Words denoting quality form a very large and important group. Our knowledge
+of things about us is a knowledge of their qualities. A writer's style is,
+to a large extent, determined by his use of adjectives. We therefore
+recommend special drill in the choice and the use of adjectives. The
+exercises given below may serve as suggestions to the teacher. Groups of
+adjectives like the following may be presented, the pupils being required
+to join them to appropriate nouns:--
+
+_Some Qualities learned directly through the Senses_.
+
++Seeing+,
+scarlet
+crimson
+florid
+sallow
+opaque
+dingy
+vivid
+gorgeous
+gaudy
+variegated
+verdant
+transparent
+
++Hearing+,
+audible
+stunning
+thundering
+deafening
+purling
+husky
+monotonous
+discordant
+melodious
+
++Smelling+,
+fragrant
+balmy
+odorous
+rancid
+fetid
+aromatic
+
++Tasting+,
+acid
+acrid
+pungent
+delicious
+insipid
+brackish
+palatable
+savory
+luscious
+
++Feeling+.
+rough
+gritty
+hard
+keen
+tepid
+sultry
+
+Pupils will find little difficulty in largely increasing the lists above.
+Many other groupings may be made; as, of qualities learned by comparison,
+measurement, or experiment; qualities of the mind; qualities pertaining to
+right and wrong, etc.
+
+Groups of nouns like the following may be made, and the pupils may be
+required to mention as many qualities as possible belonging to each of the
+things named:--
+
+chalk
+ice
+brooks
+clouds
+water
+snow
+ocean
+music
+
+Pupils may mention animals properly described by the following
+adjectives:--
+
+timid
+fleet
+cunning
+ferocious
+gentle
+graceful
+sagacious
+venomous
+
+Careless persons and those that have a meager list of adjectives at command
+overwork and abuse such words as--
+
+_nice, awful, horrid, splendid, elegant, lovely_.
+
+We hear of _nice mountains_, _awful pens_, _horrid ink_, _splendid pie_,
+_elegant beef_, _lovely cheese_, etc.
+
+Pupils may study the meaning of the six adjectives last mentioned, and use
+them to fill the following blanks:--
+
+            | distinction
+  ----------+ workmanship
+            | calculation
+
+            | stillness
+  ----------+ chasm
+            | rumbling
+
+            | child
+  ----------+ features
+            | character
+
+            | palace
+  ----------+ victory
+            | illumination
+
+            | manners
+  ----------+ taste
+            | furniture
+
+            | deeds
+  ----------+ dreams
+            | butchery
+
+This work may very profitable be extended.
+
+A word picture is often spoiled by using too many adjectives; as,
+
+  "A _great_, _large_, _roomy_, spacious hall";
+  "_Superb_, delicious, _magnificent_ pumpkin-pie";
+  "A _stingy_, miserly, _close-fisted_ fellow."
+
+The italicized words may be omitted.
+
+Pupils should be taught to watch for such errors, and to correct them.
+
+Pupils may be required to copy choice selections from literature, and to
+note carefully capitals, punctuation, and the use of adjectives. We offer
+the following exercise as a specimen:--
+
+  We piled with care our nightly stack
+  Of wood against the chimney-back,--
+  The oaken log, green, huge, and thick,
+  And on its top the stout back-stick;
+  The knotty fore-stick laid apart,
+  And filled between with curious art
+  The ragged brush; then, hovering near,
+  We watched the first red blaze appear,
+  Heard the sharp crackle, caught the gleam
+  On whitewashed wall and sagging beam,
+  Until the old, rude-furnished room
+  Burst, flower-like, into rosy bloom.
+
+       _Whittier.--Snow-Bound_.
+
++Observation Lesson+.--Of what are the lines above a picture? Where, and in
+what kind of house, do you think this picture was seen?
+
+What object is pictured by the help of five adjectives? Are the adjectives
+that precede the name of this object of the same rank? Are those that
+follow of the same rank? What noun is modified by three adjectives of
+different rank? What noun by three adjectives two of which are of the same
+rank? What difference is found in the punctuation of these several groups?
+
+Notice how the noun _crackle_ crackles as you pronounce it, and how the
+adjective _sharp_ makes it penetrate. Notice how strong a picture is made
+in the two lines immediately before the last. The adjectives here used
+bring out the most prominent qualities of the room, and these qualities
+bring along with them into the imagination all the other qualities. This is
+what we must try to make our adjectives do.
+
+Point out all the adjectives in the selection above, and explain the office
+of each.
+
+What peculiar use of capitals do you discover in these lines of poetry?
+
+Much that has been suggested above concerning the use of adjectives will
+apply to adverbs also.
+
+ARRANGEMENT.
+
+The following exercises are given to show how pupils may discover for
+themselves the _natural order_ of words and phrases:--
+
+(_a_) Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo.
+(_b_) William's sister Mary is an excellent musician.
+(_c_) Everything suddenly appeared so strangely bright.
+(_d_) We saw it distinctly.
+(_e_) We had often been there.
+(_f_) Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo.
+
++Observation Lesson+.--The words and the phrases in the sentences above
+stand in their _Natural Order_.
+
+From (_a_) and (_b_) determine the natural order of the subject, predicate,
+and complement. From (_b_) determine the natural order of a possessive
+modifier, of an explanatory modifier, and of an adjective. From (_c_),
+(_d_), and (_e_) determine the several positions of an adverb joined to a
+verb. Determine from (_c_) the position of an adverb modifying an adjective
+or another adverb. Determine from (_a_) and (_f_) the natural order of a
+phrase.
+
+Pupils may copy the following, and note the arrangement and the punctuation
+of the phrases:--
+
+(_g_) This place is endeared to me by many associations.
+(_h_) To me, this place is endeared by many associations.
+(_i_) Your answers, with few exceptions, have been correctly given.
+(_j_) He applied for the position, without a recommendation.
+
++Observation Lesson+.--Phrases in their natural order follow the words they
+modify. When two or more phrases belong to the same word, the one most
+closely modifying it stands nearest to it.
+
+In the first sentence above, _to me_ tells to whom the place is endeared;
+_by many associations_ tells how it is endeared to me, and is therefore
+placed after to me. Try the effect of placing _to me_ last. Phrases, like
+adjectives, may be of different rank.
+
+Phrases are often transposed, or placed out of their natural order. Notice
+that _to me_, in (_h_) above, is transposed, and thus made emphatic, and
+that it is set off by the comma.
+
+In (_i_), the phrase is loosely thrown in as if it were not essential, thus
+making a break in the sentence. To make this apparent to the eye we set the
+phrase off by the comma.
+
+Place the phrase of (_i_) in three other positions, and set it off. When
+the phrase is at the beginning or at the end of the sentence, how many
+commas do you need to set it off? How many, when it is in the middle?
+
+Do you find any choice in the four positions of this phrase? After having
+been told that your answers were correct, would it be a disappointment to
+be told that they were not all correct? Is the interest in a story best
+kept up by first telling the important points and then the unimportant
+particulars? What then do you think of placing this phrase at the end?
+
+What does the last phrase of (_j_) modify? Take out the comma, and then see
+whether there can be any doubt as to what the phrase modifies.
+
+In the placing of adverbs and phrases great freedom is often allowable, and
+the determining of their best possible position affords an almost unlimited
+opportunity for the exercise of taste and judgment.
+
+Such questions as those on (_i_) above may suggest a mode of easy approach
+to what is usually relegated to the province of rhetoric. Let the pupils
+see that phrases may be transposed for various reasons--for emphasis, as in
+(_h_) above; for the purpose of exciting the reader's curiosity and holding
+his attention till the complete statement is made, as in (_i_) above, or
+in, "In the dead of night, with a chosen band, under the cover of a truce,
+he approached"; for the sake of balancing the sentence by letting some of
+the modifying terms precede, and some follow, the principal parts, as, "In
+1837, on the death of William IV., Victoria succeeded to the throne"; and
+for other reasons.
+
+Other selections maybe made and these exercises continued, the pupils
+discussing fully the effects of all possible changes.
+
+Pupils may note the transposed words and phrases in the following
+sentences, explaining their office and the effect of the transposition:--
+
+1. Victories, indeed, they were.
+2. Down came the masts.
+3. Here stands the man.
+4. Doubtful seemed the battle.
+5. Wide open stood the doors.
+6. A mighty man is he.
+7. That gale I well remember.
+8. Behind her rode Lalla Rookh.
+9. Blood-red became the sun.
+10. Louder waxed the applause.
+11. Him the Almighty Power hurled headlong.
+12. Slowly and sadly we laid him down.
+13. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred.
+14. So died the great Columbus of the skies.
+15. Aeneas did, from the flames of Troy, upon his shoulders, the old
+    Anchises bear.
+16. Such a heart in the breast of my people beats.
+17. The great fire up the deep and wide chimney roared.
+18. Ease and grace in writing are, of all the acquisitions made in school,
+    the most difficult and valuable.
+
+Pupils may read or write the following sentences in the transposed order,
+and explain the effect of the change:--
+
+19. He could not avoid it.
+20. He would not escape.
+21. I must go.
+22. He ended his tale here.
+23. It stands written so.
+24. She seemed young and sad.
+25. I will make one more effort to save you.
+26. My regrets were bitter and unavailing.
+27. I came into the world helpless.
+28. A sincere word was never utterly lost.
+29. Catiline shall no longer plot her ruin.
+
+ORDER OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.
+
+30. Who wrote the Declaration of Independence?
+31. What states border on the Gulf of Mexico?
+32. Whom did you see?
+33. What is poetry?
+34. Which course will you choose?
+35. Why are the days shorter in winter?
+36. When was America discovered?
+37. Were you there?
+38. Has the North Pole been reached?
+
++Observation Lesson+.--When the interrogative word is subject or a modifier
+of it, is the order natural, or transposed? See (30) and (31) above.
+
+When the interrogative word is object or attribute complement, or a
+modifier of either, what is the order? See (32), (33), and (34).
+
+When the interrogative word is an adverb, what is the order? See (35) and
+(36).
+
+When there is no interrogative word, what is the order? See (37) and (38).
+
+The sentences above will furnish profitable review lessons in _analysis_.
+
+REVIEW--COMPOSITION.
+
+We suggest that, from two or more paragraphs of some interesting and
+instructive article, leading sentences be selected, and that the pupils be
+required to explain the office and the punctuation of the easier adjective
+and adverb phrases, to vary the arrangement in every possible way, and to
+discuss the effects of these changes. Then, after finding the general
+subject and the heading for each paragraph, the pupils may arrange these
+sentences and work them into a composition, making such additions as may be
+suggested.
+
+RESTRICTIVE MODIFIERS--PUNCTUATION.
+
+The chief difficulty in the punctuation of the different kinds of modifiers
+is in determining whether or not they are restrictive. The following
+examples may serve as the basis of an observation lesson:--
+
+(_a_) The words _golden_ and _oriole_ are pleasant to the ear.
+(_b_) Words, the signs of ideas, are spoken and written.
+(_c_) Use words that are current.
+(_d_) Words, which are the signs of ideas, are spoken and written.
+(_e_) The country anciently called Gaul is now called France.
+(_f_) France, anciently called Gaul, derived its name from the Franks.
+(_g_) Glass bends easily when it is hot.
+(_h_) I met him in Paris, when I was last abroad.
+
+The following explanations may be drawn from the pupils:--
+
+In (_a_) the application of _words_ is limited, or restricted, to the two
+words mentioned; in (_c_) _words_ is restricted to a certain kind. In (_b_)
+and (_d_) the modifiers do not restrict. They apply to all words and simply
+add information. In (_e_) the participial phrase restricts the application
+of _country_ to one particular country; but in (_f_) the phrase describes
+without limiting. The omission of the comma in (_g_) shows that _Glass
+bends easily_ is not offered as a general statement, but that the action is
+restricted to a certain time or condition. _When it is hot_ is essential to
+the intended meaning. The punctuation of (_h_) shows that the speaker does
+not wish to make the time of meeting a prominent or essential part of what
+he has to say. The adverb clause simply gives additional information. If
+(_h_) were an answer to the question, When did you meet him? the comma
+would be omitted. The sense may be varied by the use or the omission of the
+comma.
+
+Let the pupils see how incomplete the statements are when the restrictive
+modifiers are omitted, and that the other modifiers are not so necessary to
+the sense. In such expressions as _I myself, we boys_, the explanatory
+words are not restrictive, but they combine closely with the modified term.
+
+ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.
+
+Adjective clauses allow little change in position. They usually follow
+closely the word modified. Often they may be contracted into adjectives or
+into adjective phrases.
+
+Selections from standard writers may be made with special reference to the
+study of adjective clauses. The position, punctuation, and choice of
+relatives may be noticed, and, as far as possible, the clauses may be
+changed into equivalent adjectives or into phrases.
+
+ADVERB CLAUSES.
+
+An adverb clause may stand before the independent clause, between its
+parts, or after it; as, "When it is hot, glass bends easily;" "Glass, when
+it is hot, bends easily;" "Glass bends easily when it is hot." Notice the
+punctuation of these examples.
+
+Adverb clauses may be contracted in various ways. Clauses introduced by the
+comparatives _as_ and _than_ are usually found in an abbreviated form; as,
+"You are as old _as_ he (_is old_);" "You are older _than_ I (_am old_)."
+Attention may be called to the danger of mistaking here the nominative for
+the objective. We suggest making selections for the study of adverb
+clauses.
+
+NOUN CLAUSES.
+
+Noun clauses may be contracted; as, "_That we should obey_ is necessary" =
+"_Obedience_ is necessary," or, "_To obey_ is necessary;" "I can hardly
+realize _that my friend is gone_" = "I can hardly realize _my friend's
+being gone_." By substituting _it_ for the subject clause, this clause
+maybe placed last and made explanatory; as, "_It_ is necessary _that we
+should obey_." The object clause is sometimes transposed; as, "_That my
+friend is gone_, I can hardly realize." The noun clause may be made
+prominent by introducing the independent clause parenthetically; as,"_His
+story_, we believe, _is exaggerated_."
+
+Notice the punctuation of the clauses above. The noun clause used as
+attribute complement is generally set off by the comma. Noun clauses that
+are quotations need special treatment.
+
+NOUN CLAUSES--QUOTATIONS.
+
+We suggest the following observation lesson:--
+
+1. Goldsmith says, "Learn the luxury of doing good."
+2. Goldsmith says that we should learn the luxury of doing good.
+3. "The owlet Atheism, hooting at the glorious sun in heaven, cries out,
+   'Where is it?'"
+4. Coleridge compares atheism to an owlet hooting at the sun, and asking
+   where it is.
+5. "To read without reflecting," says Burke, "is like eating without
+   digesting."
+6. May we not find "sermons in stones and good in everything"?
+7. There is much meaning in the following quotation: "Books are embalmed
+   minds."
+8. We must ask, What are we living for?
+9. We must ask what we are living for.
+
++Observation Lesson+.--Notice that the writer of (1) has copied into his
+sentence (quoted) the exact language of Goldsmith. The two marks like
+inverted commas and the two marks like apostrophes, which inclose this
+copied passage (quotation), are called _Quotation Marks_.
+
+Name all the differences between (1) and (2). Is the same thought expressed
+in both? Which quotation would you call _direct?_ Which, _indirect?_
+
+Notice that the whole of (3) is a quotation, and that this quotation
+contains another quotation inclosed within _single marks_. Notice the order
+of the marks at the end of (3).
+
+Point out the differences between (3) and (4). In which is a question
+quoted just as it would be asked? In which is a question merely referred
+to? Which question would you call _direct?_ Which, _indirect_? Name every
+difference in the form of these.
+
+In which of the above sentences is a quotation interrupted by a
+parenthetical clause? How are the parts marked?
+
+Point out a quotation that cannot make complete sense by itself. How does
+it differ from the others as to punctuation and the first letter?
+
+In (7) a _Colon_ precedes the quotation to show that it is _formally
+introduced_.
+
+In (8) a question is introduced without quotation marks. Questions that,
+like this, are introduced without being referred to any particular person
+or persons, are often written without quotation marks. State the
+differences between (8) and (9).
+
+In quoting a question, the interrogation point must stand within the
+quotation marks; but, when a question contains a quotation, this order is
+reversed. Point out illustrations above.
+
+Sum up what you have learned. (See rules for capitals, comma, colon, and
+quotation marks, pp. 140-143.)
+
+Selections written in the colloquial style and containing frequent
+quotations and questions may be taken from reading-books, for examination,
+discussion, and copying. Noun phrases may be expanded, and noun clauses
+contracted, transposed, etc.
+
+INDEPENDENT CLAUSES.
+
+Frequently independent clauses are contracted by using repeated parts but
+once and uniting the other parts into a compound term, as in Lesson 67.
+They are also contracted by omitting such words as may be readily
+understood; as, "Is it true, or _not;_" "He is a philosopher, _not a
+poet_." For punctuation, see rules for the comma and the semicolon, p. 141.
+
+REVIEW--COMPOSITION.
+
+We recommend that the teacher select some short article containing valuable
+information and break up each paragraph into short, disconnected
+expressions. One paragraph at a time may be put on the board for the pupils
+to copy. The general subject may be given, and the pupils may be required
+to find a proper heading for the paragraph. The different ways of
+connecting the expressions may be discussed in the class. By contracting,
+expanding, transposing, and by substituting entirely different words, a
+great variety of forms may be had. (The forms found in the "Example," p.
+144, and the list of connectives, p. 190, may be helpful.) The pupils may
+then combine the different paragraphs into a composition. For the
+explanation of _paragraph_, see p. 145, and Exercises for Composition in
+the Supplement.
+
+We give below material for one composition:--
+
+Frog's spawn found in a pond. At first like a mass of jelly. Eggs can be
+distinguished.
+
+In a few days curious little fish are hatched. These "tadpoles" are lively.
+Swim by means of long tails. Head very large--out of proportion. Appearance
+of all head and tail. This creature is a true fish. It breathes water-air
+by means of gills. It has a two-chambered heart.
+
+Watch it day by day. Two little gills seen. These soon disappear. Hind legs
+begin to grow. Tail gets smaller. Two small arms, or forelegs, are seen.
+Remarkable change going on inside. True lungs for breathing air have been
+forming. Another chamber added to the heart.
+
+As the gills grow smaller, it finds difficulty in breathing water-air. One
+fine day it pokes its nose out of the water. Astonished (possibly) to find
+that it can breathe in the air. A new life has come upon it. No particular
+reason for spending all its time in water; crawls out upon land; sits down
+upon its haunches; surveys the world. It is no longer a fish; has entered
+upon a higher stage of existence; has become a frog.
+
+This work of analyzing a composition to find the leading thoughts under
+which the other thoughts may be grouped is in many ways a most valuable
+discipline.
+
+It teaches the pupil to compare, to discriminate, to weigh, to systematize,
+to read intelligently and profitably.
+
+The reading-book will afford excellent practice in finding heads for
+paragraphs. Such work is an essential preparation for the reading-class.
+
+This composition work should serve as a constant review of all that has
+been passed over in the text-book.
+
+ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS AND ADVERBS.
+
+It is often difficult to distinguish an adjective complement from an adverb
+modifier. We offer the following explanation:--
+
+"Mary arrived _safe_." As we here wish to tell the condition of Mary on her
+arrival, and _not_ the _manner_ of her arriving, we use _safe_, not
+_safely_. "My head feels _bad_" (is in a bad condition, as perceived by the
+sense of feeling). "The sun shines _bright_" (is bright--quality,--as
+perceived by its shining).
+
+You must determine whether you wish to tell the _quality_ of the thing
+named or the _manner_ of the action.
+
+When the idea of being is prominent in the verb, as in the examples above,
+you see that the adjective, and not the adverb, follows.
+
+Let the pupils show that the following adjectives and adverbs are used
+correctly:--
+
+1. I feel sad.
+2. I feel deeply.
+3. I feel miserable.
+4. He appeared prompt and willing.
+5. He appeared promptly and willingly.
+6. She looks beautiful.
+7. She sings beautifully.
+
+PAST PARTICIPLES AND PREDICATE VERBS DISTINGUISHED.
+
+When the past tense and the past participle differ in form, they are often
+confounded in use; as,
+
+  I _done_ it;
+  I _seen_ it.
+
+Pupils may be required to construct short sentences, oral or written, using
+the _Past_ forms found in Lesson 91 as predicates, and the _Past
+Participle_ forms either as modifiers or as completing words in compound
+verbs.
+
+They may be led to some such conclusion as the following:--
+
+The _Past_ is always an asserting, or predicate, word; the _Past
+Participle_ never asserts, but is used as an adjective modifier or as the
+completing word of a compound verb; the _Present_ may be used as a
+predicate or as an infinitive.
+
+Exercises like the following may be copied, and repeated aloud:--
+
+1. _Lay_ down your pen.
+2. _Lie_ down, Rover.
+3. I _laid_ down my pen.
+4. The dog then _lay_ down.
+5. I have _laid_ down my pen.
+6. The dog has _lain_ down.
+7. _Set_ the pail down.
+8. _Sit_ down and rest.
+9. I then _set_ it down.
+10. I _sat_ down and rested.
+11. I have _set_ it down.
+12. I have _sat_ down.
+13. My work was _laid_ aside.
+14. I was _lying_ down.
+15. The trap was _set_ by the river.
+16. I was _sitting_ by the river.
+17. The garment _sits_ well.
+18. The hen _sits_ on her eggs.
+19. He came in and _lay_ down.
+20. The Mediterranean _lies_ between Europe and Africa.
+
+Notice that we may speak of _laying_ something or _setting_ something, or
+may say that something is _laid_ or is _set_; but we cannot speak of
+_lying_ or _sitting_ something, or of something being _lain_ or _sat_.
+_Set_, in some of its meanings, is used without an object; as, "The sun
+_set_;" "He _set_ out on a journey."
+
+_Lay_, the present of the first verb, and _lay_, the past of _lie_, may
+easily be distinguished by the difference in meaning and in the time
+expressed.
+
+POSSESSIVE FORMS.
+
+Pupils may be required to copy such forms as the following:--
+
+The sailor's story; the farmer's son; the pony's mane; the monkey's tail; a
+day's work; James's book; a cent's worth; a man's wages; the child's toys;
+the woman's hat; the sailors' stories; the farmers' sons; the ponies'
+manes; the monkeys' tails; three days' work; five cents' worth; two men's
+wages; those children's toys; women's hats.
+
+This may be continued till the pupils are able to form some such statement
+as the following:--
+
+(_'s_) and (_'_) are the possessive signs, (_'_) being used when _s_ has
+been added to denote more than one, (_'s_) in other cases.
+
+Such expressions as the following may be copied:--
+
+Dombey and Son's business; J. J. Little & Co.'s printing-house; William the
+Conqueror's reign; Houghton, Mifflin, and Company's publications.
+
+This may be continued till the pupils learn that, when a group of words may
+be treated as a compound name, the possessive sign is added to the last
+word only.
+
+THE OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT.
+
+The treatment of the objective complement may be introduced in a review
+course, when the class is sufficiently mature. The following explanation
+may aid some teachers:--
+
+In "It made him _sad_," _made_ does not fully express the action performed
+upon him--not "_made_ him," but "_made sad_ (saddened) him." _Sad_ helps
+_made_ to express the action, and also denotes a quality which as the
+result of the action belongs to the person represented by the object _him_.
+
+Whatever completes the predicate and belongs to the object we call an
+_Objective Complement_.
+
+Nouns, infinitives, and participles may also be used in the same way; as,
+
+  "They made Victoria _queen_,"
+  "It made him _weep_;"
+  "It kept him _laughing_."
+
+   They | made / queen | Victoria
+  ======|=========================
+        |
+
++Explanation+.--The line that separates _made_ from _queen_ slants toward
+the object complement to show that _queen_ belongs to the object.
+
+A noun or pronoun used as objective complement is in the objective case.
+
+The teacher may here explain such constructions as, "I proved it to be
+_him_," in which _it_ is object complement and _to be him_ is objective
+complement. _Him_, the attribute complement of _be_, is in the objective
+case because _it_, the assumed subject of _be_, is objective. Let the
+pupils compare "I proved it to be _him_" with "I proved that it was _he;_"
+"_Whom_ did you suppose it to be?" with "_Who_ did you suppose it was?"
+etc.
+
+NOUNS AS ADVERB MODIFIERS.
+
+The following uses of nouns and pronouns, not found in the preceding
+Lessons, may be introduced in a review course.
+
+1. He gave _John_ a book.
+2. He bought _me_ a book.
+
+_John_ and _me_, as here used, are generally called _Indirect Objects_. The
+"indirect object" names the one _to_ or _for_ whom something is done. We
+treat these words as phrase modifiers without the preposition. If we change
+the order, the preposition must be supplied; as, "He gave a book _to
+John;_" "He bought a book _for me_."
+
+Nouns denoting _measure, quantity, weight, time, value, distance_, or
+_direction_ may be used adverbially, being equivalent to phrase modifiers
+without the preposition; as,
+
+1. We walked four _miles_ an _hour_.
+2. It weighs one _pound_.
+3. It is worth a _dollar_.
+4. The wall is ten _feet_, six _inches_ high.
+5. I went _home_ that way.
+
+The following diagram will illustrate both the "indirect object" and the
+"noun of measure:"--
+
+They offered Caesar the crown three times.
+
+   They  |  offered  | crown
+  =======|====================
+         | \      \      \the
+            \      \ times
+             \      \------
+              \        \three
+               \ Caesar
+                \------
+
++Explanation+.--_Caesar_ (the "indirect object") and _times_ (denoting
+measure) stand in the diagram on lines representing the principal words of
+prepositional phrases.
+
+SCHEMES FOR REVIEW.
+
+These schemes will be found very helpful in a general review. The pupils
+should be able to reproduce them, omitting the Lesson numbers.
+
+Scheme for the Sentence.
+
+(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.)
+
+  PARTS.
+
+    +Subject+.
+      Noun or Pronoun (6, 14, 19).
+      Phrase (49).
+      Clause (61).
+
+    +Predicate+.
+      Verb (6,16).
+
+    +Complements+.
+      Object.
+        Noun or Pronoun (39).
+        Phrase (49).
+        Clause (61).
+      Attribute.
+        Adjective (39).
+        Noun or Pronoun (42).
+        Phrase.
+        Clause (61).
+
+    +Modifiers+.
+      Adjectives (20, 22).
+      Adverbs (24, 27).
+      Participles (48).
+      Nouns and Pronouns (53).
+      Phrases (31, 48, 49).
+      Clauses (57, 59).
+
+    +Connectives+.
+      Conjunctions (35, 36, 62).
+      Pronouns (57).
+      Adverbs (59).
+
+    +Independent Parts (36, 64)+.
+
++Classes+--+Meaning+.--Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative,
+Exclamatory (63).
+
++Classes+--+Form+.--Simple, Complex, Compound (57, 62).
+
+Scheme for the Noun.
+
+(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.)
+
+  NOUN (14).
+
+    +Uses+.
+      Subject (6).
+      Object Complement (39).
+      Attribute Complement (42).
+      Adjective Modifier (53).
+      Prin. word in Prep. Phrase (34).
+      Independent (64).
+
+    +Classes+.
+      Common (71).
+      Proper (71).
+
+    +Modifications+.
+      Number
+        Singular (78, 79).
+        Plural (78, 79).
+
+      +Gender+.
+        Masculine (80).
+        Feminine (80).
+        Neuter (80).
+
+      +Person+.
+        First (81-83).
+        Second (81-83).
+        Third (81-83).
+
+      +Case+.
+        Nominative (81-85).
+        Possessive (81-85).
+        Objective (81-85).
+
+Scheme for the Pronoun.
+
+  PRONOUNS.
+
+    +Uses+.--Same as those of the Noun.
+
+    +Classes+.
+      Personal (71, 72).
+      Relative (71, 72).
+      Interrogative (71, 72).
+      Adjective (71, 72).
+
+    +Modifications+.--Same as those of the Noun
+                    (78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 95).
+
+Scheme for the Verb.
+
+(_The numbers refer to Lessons_.)
+
+  VERB.
+    +Uses+
+      To _assert_ action, being, or state.--Predicate (6, 16).
+      To _assume_ action, being, or state. Participles (48).
+                                         Infinitives (49).
+
+    +Classes+.
+      Form.
+        Regular (74).
+        Irregular (74, 91).
+      Meaning.
+        Transitive (74),
+        Intransitive (74).
+
+    +Modifications+.
+      Voice.
+        Active (89).
+        Passive (89).
+      Mode.
+        Indicative (90-94).
+        Potential (90-94).
+        Subjunctive (90-94).
+        Imperative (90-94).
+      Tense.
+        Present (90-94).
+        Past (90-94).
+        Future (90-94).
+        Present Perfect (90-94).
+        Past Perfect (90-94).
+        Future Perfect (90-94).
+      Number.
+        Singular (90, 92-95).
+        Plural (90, 92-95).
+      Person.
+        First (90, 92-95).
+        Second (90, 92-95).
+        Third (90, 92-95).
+
+    +Participles+.--
+      Classes.
+        Present (90-94, 96, 98).
+        Past (90-94, 96, 98).
+        Past Perfect (90-94, 96, 98).
+
+    +Infinitives+.--
+      Tenses.
+        Present (90, 92-94).
+        Present Perfect (90, 92-94).
+
+Scheme for the Adjective.
+
+(_The numbers refer to Lessons.)_
+
+  ADJECTIVE.
+
+    +Uses+.
+      Modifier (20, 23).
+      Attribute Complement (39).
+
+    +Classes+.
+      Descriptive (73).
+      Definitive (73).
+
+    +Modification+.--Comparison.
+      Pos.  Deg. (87, 88).
+      Comp. Deg. (87, 88).
+      Sup.  Deg. (87, 88).
+
+Scheme for the Adverb.
+
+  ADVERB.
+
+    +Classes+.
+      Time (75).
+      Place (75).
+      Degree (75).
+      Manner (75).
+
+    +Modification+--Comparison.
+      Pos.  Deg. (87, 88).
+      Comp. Deg. (87, 88).
+      Sup.  Deg. (87, 88).
+
++Schemes for the Conj., Prep., and Int+.
+
+THE CONJUNCTION.--
+  +Classes+.
+    Co-ordinate (36, 76). No Modifications.
+    Subordinate (36, 76). No Modifications.
+
+THE PREPOSITION (34, 41).--No Classes. No Modifications.
+
+THE INTERJECTION (36).--No Classes. No Modifications.
+
++Model for Written Parsing adapted to all Parts of Speech+.--_Oh! it
+has a voice for those who on their sick beds lie and waste away_.
+
+          CLASSIFICATION.   MODIFICATIONS.   SYNTAX.
+_Sentence_.
+Oh!       Class: Int.       Voice:           Independent.
+          Sub-C.:           Mode:
+                            Tense:
+                            Per.:
+                            Num.:
+                            Gen.:
+                            Case:
+                            Deg. of
+                             Comp.:
+
+it        Class: Pro.       Voice:           Sub. of _has_.
+          Sub-C.: Per.      Mode:
+                            Tense:
+                            Per.:  3d.
+                            Num.:  Sing.
+                            Gen.:  Neut.
+                            Case:  Nom.
+                            Deg. of
+                            Comp.:           Pred. of _it_.
+
+has       Class: Vb.        Voice: Act.
+          Sub-C.: Ir., Tr.  Mode: Ind.
+                            Tense:  Pres.
+                            Per.:   3d.
+                            Num.:   Sing.
+                            Gen.:
+                            Case:
+                            Deg. of
+                             Comp.:
+
+a         Class: Adj.       Voice:           Mod. of _voice_.
+          Sub-C.: Def.      Mode:
+                            Tense:
+                            Per.:
+                            Num.:
+                            Gen.:
+                            Case:
+                            Deg. of
+                             Comp.: ----
+
+voice     Class: N.         Voice:           Obj. Com. of _has_.
+          Sub-C.: Com.      Mode:
+                            Tense:
+                            Per.: 3d.
+                            Num.: Sing.
+                            Gen.: Neut.
+                            Case: Obj.
+                            Deg. of
+                             Comp.:
+
+
+for       Class: Prep.      Voice:           Shows Rel. of
+          Sub-C.:           Mode:            _has_ to
+                            Tense:           _those_.
+                            Per.:
+                            Num.:
+                            Gen.:
+                            Case:
+                            Deg. of
+                             Comp.:
+
+those     Class: Pro.       Voice:           Prin. word after
+          Sub-C.: Adj.      Mode:            _for_.
+                            Tense:
+                            Per.: 3d.
+                            Num.: Plu.
+                            Gen.: M.or F.
+                            Case: Obj.
+                            Deg. of
+                             Comp.:
+
+
+
+who       Class: Pro.       Voice:           Sub. of _lie_ and
+          Sub-C.: Rel.      Mode:            _waste_.
+                            Tense:
+                            Per.: 3d.
+                            Num.: Plu.
+                            Gen.: M.or F.
+                            Case: Nom.
+                            Deg. of
+                             Comp.:
+
+on        Class: Prep.      Voice:           Shows Rel. of _lie_
+          Sub-C.:           Mode:            to _beds_.
+                            Tense:
+                            Per.:
+                            Num.:
+                            Gen.:
+                            Case:
+                            Deg. of
+                             Comp.:
+
+their     Class: Pro.       Voice:           Pos. Mod. of
+          Sub-C.: Per.      Mode:            _beds_.
+                            Tense:
+                            Per.: 3d.
+                            Num.: Plu.
+                            Gen.: M.or F.
+                            Case: Pos.
+                            Deg. of
+                             Comp.:
+
+sick      Class: Adj.       Voice:           Mod. of _beds_.
+          Sub-C.: Des.      Mode:
+                            Tense:
+                            Per.:
+                            Num.:
+                            Gen.:
+                            Case:
+                            Deg. of
+                             Comp.: Pos.
+
+beds      Class: N.         Voice:           Prin. word after
+          Sub-C.: Com.      Mode:            _on_.
+                            Tense:
+                            Per.: 3d.
+                            Num.: Plu.
+                            Gen.: Neut.
+                            Case: Obj.
+                            Deg. of
+                             Comp.:
+
+lie       Class: Vb.        Voice: ----      Pred. of _who_.
+          Sub-C.: Ir., Int. Mode: Ind.
+                            Tense: Pres.
+                            Per.: 3d.
+                            Num.: Plu.
+                            Gen.:
+                            Case:
+                            Deg. of
+                             Comp.:
+
+and       Class: Conj.      Voice:           Con. _lie_ and
+          Sub-C.: Co-or.    Mode:            _waste_.
+                            Tense:
+                            Per.:
+                            Num.:
+                            Gen.:
+                            Case:
+                            Deg. of
+                             Comp.:
+
+waste     Class: Vb.        Voice: ----      Pred. of _who_.
+          Sub-C.: Reg., Int.Mode: Ind.
+                            Tense: Pres.
+                            Per.: 3d.
+                            Num.: Plu.
+                            Gen.:
+                            Case:
+                            Deg. of
+                             Comp.:
+
+away.     Class: Adv.       Voice:           Mod. of _waste_.
+          Sub-C.: Place     Mode:
+                            Tense:
+                            Per.:
+                            Num.:
+                            Gen.:
+                            Case:
+                            Deg. of
+                             Comp.: ----
+
+
+For exercises in general parsing, select from the preceding Lessons on
+Analysis.
+
+LIST OF CONNECTIVES.
+
++Remark+.--Some of the connectives below are conjunctions proper; some are
+relative pronouns; and some are adverbs or adverb phrases, which, in
+addition to their office as modifiers, may, in the absence of the
+conjunction, take its office upon themselves, and connect the clauses.
+
+CO-ORDINATE CONNECTIVES.
+
++_Copulative_+.--_And, both...and, as well as_, [Footnote: The _as well as_
+in "He, _as well as_ I, went"; and not that in "He is _as well as_ I am."]
+are conjunctions proper. Accordingly, _also, besides, consequently,
+furthermore, hence, likewise, moreover, now, so, then_, and _therefore_ are
+conjunctive adverbs.
+
++_Adversative_+.--_But_ and _whereas_ are conjunctions proper. However,
+_nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, still_,
+and _yet_ are conjunctive adverbs.
+
++_Alternative_+.--_Neither, nor, or, either... or_, and _neither...nor_ are
+conjunctions proper. _Else_ and _otherwise_ are conjunctive adverbs.
+
+SUBORDINATE CONNECTIVES.
+
+Connectives of Adjective Clauses.
+
+_That, what, whatever, which, whichever, who_, and whoever are relative
+pronouns. _When, where, whereby, wherein_, and _why_ are conjunctive
+adverbs.
+
+Connectives of Adverb Clauses.
+
+_Time_.--_After, as, before, ere, since, till, until, when, whenever,
+while_, and _whilst_ are conjunctive adverbs.
+
+_Place_.--_Whence, where_, and _wherever_ are conjunctive adverbs.
+
+_Degree_.--_As, than, that_, and _the_ are conjunctive adverbs,
+correlative, with adjectives or adverbs.
+
+_Manner_.--_As_ is a conjunctive adverb, correlative often with an
+adjective or an adverb.
+
+_Real Cause_.--_As, because, for, since_, and _whereas_ are conjunctions
+proper.
+
+_Reason_.--_Because, for_, and _since_ are conjunctions proper.
+
+Purpose.--_In order that, lest_ (=_that not_) _that_, and _so that_ are
+conjunctions proper.
+
+_Condition_.--_Except, if, in case that, on condition that, provided,
+provided that_, and _unless_ are conjunctions proper.
+
+_Concession_.--_Although, if_ (=_even if_), _notwithstanding, though_, and
+_whether_ are conjunctions proper. _However_ is a conjunctive adverb.
+_Whatever, whichever_, and _whoever_ are relative pronouns used
+indefinitely.
+
++Connectives of Noun Clauses+.
+
+_If, lest, that_, and _whether_ are conjunctions proper. _What, which_, and
+_who_ are pronouns introducing questions; _how, when, whence, where_, and
+_why_ are conjunctive adverbs.
+
+
+ABBREVIATIONS.
+
++Remarks+.--Few abbreviations are allowable in ordinary composition. They
+are very convenient in writing lists of articles, in scientific works, and
+wherever certain terms frequently occur.
+
+Titles prefixed to proper names are generally abbreviated, except in
+addressing an officer of high rank. Titles that immediately follow names
+are almost always abbreviated.
+
+Names of women are not generally abbreviated except by using an initial for
+one of two Christian names.
+
+Abbreviations that shorten only by one letter are unnecessary; as, _Jul._
+for "July," _Jno._ for "John," _da._ for "day," etc.
+
+1_st_, 2_d_, 3_d_, 4_th_, etc., are not followed by the period. They are
+not treated as abbreviations.
+
+@, At.
++A. B.+ or +B. A.+ (_Artium Baccalaureus_), Bachelor of
+Arts.
++Acct., acct.+, or +a/c+, Account.
++A. D.+ (_Anno Domini_), In the year of our Lord.
++Adjt.+, Adjutant.
++Aet.+ or +aet.+ (aetatis), Of age, aged.
++Ala.+, Alabama.
++Alex.+, Alexander.
++A. M.+ or +M. A.+ (_Artium Magister_), Master of Arts.
++A. M.+ (_ante meridiem_), Before noon.
++Amt.+, Amount.
++And.+, Andrew.
++Anon.+, Anonymous.
++Ans.+, Answer.
++Anth.+, Anthony.
++Apr.+, April.
++Arch.+, Archibald.
++Ark.+, Arkansas.
++Arizona+ or +Ariz.+, Arizona Territory.
++Atty.+, Attorney.
++Atty.-Gen.+, Attorney-General.
++Aug.+, August; Augustus.
++Av.+ or +Ave.+, Avenue.
++Avoir.+, Avoirdupois.
++Bart.+, Baronet.
++bbl.+, Barrels.
++B. C.+, Before Christ.
++Benj.+, Benjamin.
++Brig.-Gen.+, Brigadier-General.
++B. S.+, Bachelor of Science.
++bu.+, Bushels.
++c+ or +ct.+, Cents.
++Cal.+, California.
++Cap.+, Capital. +Caps.+, Capitals.
++Capt.+, Captain.
++C. E.+, Civil Engineer.
++cf.+ (_confer_), Compare.
++Chas.+, Charles.
++Chron.+, Chronicles.
++Co.+, Company; County.
++c/o+, In care of.
++C. O. D.+, Collect on delivery.
++Col.+, Colonel; Colossians.
++Coll.+, College; Collector.
++Conn.+, Connecticut.
++Colo+, or +Col.+, Colorado.
++Cr.+, Credit; Creditor.
++cub. ft.+, Cubic feet.
++cub. in.+, Cubic inches.
++cwt.+, Hundred-weight.
++d.+, Days; Pence.
++Danl.+ or +Dan.+, Daniel.
++D. C.+, District of Columbia.
++D. C. L.+, Doctor of Civil Law.
++D. D.+ (_Divinitatis Doctor_), Doctor of Divinity.
++D. D. S.+, Doctor of Dental Surgery.
++Dec.+, December.
++Del.+, Delaware.
++Deut.+, Deuteronomy.
++D. G.+ (_Dei gratia_), By the grace of God.
++Dist.-Atty.+, District-Attorney.
++D. M.+, Doctor of Music.
++do.+ (_ditto_), The same.
++doz.+, Dozen.
++Dr.+, Doctor; Debtor.
++D. V.+ (_Deo volente_), God willing.
++E.+, East.
++Eben.+, Ebenezer.
++Eccl.+, Ecclesiastes.
++Ed.+, Edition; Editor.
++Edm.+, Edmund.
++Edw.+, Edward.
++e. g.+ (_exempli gratia_), For example.
++E. N. E.+, East-northeast.
++Eng.+, English; England.
++Eph.+, Ephesians; Ephraim.
++E. S. E.+, East-southeast.
++Esq.+, Esquire.
++et al.+ (_et alibi_), And elsewhere.
++et al.+ (_et alii_), And others.
++et seq.+ (_et sequeniia_), And following.
++etc.+ or +&c.+ (et caetera), And others; And so forth.
++Ex.+, Example; Exodus.
++Ez.+, Ezra.
++Ezek.+, Ezekiel.
++Fahr.+ or +F.+, Fahrenheit (thermometer).
++Feb.+, February.
++Fla.+, Florida.
++Fr.+, French; France.
++Fran.+, Francis.
++Fred.+, Frederic.
++Fri.+, Friday.
++ft.+, Feet.
++Ft.+, Fort.
++fur.+, Furlong.
++Ga.+, Georgia.
++Gal.+, Galatians.
++gal.+, Gallons.
++Gen.+, General; Genesis.
++Geo.+, George.
++Gov.+, Governor.
++gr.+, Grains.
++h.+, Hours.
++Hab.+, Habakkuk.
++Hag.+, Haggai.
++H. B. M.+, His (or Her) Britannic Majesty.
++hdkf.+, Handkerchief.
++Heb.+, Hebrews.
++H. H.+, His Holiness (the Pope).
++hhd.+, Hogsheads.
++H. M.+, His (or Her) Majesty.
++Hon.+, Honorable.
++Hos.+, Hosea.
++H. R. H.+, His (or Her) Royal Highness.
++ib.+ or +ibid+, (_ibidem_), In the same place.
++id.+ (_idem_), The same.
++Idaho+, Idaho.
++i.e.+ (_id est_), That is.
++I. H. S.+ (_Jesus hominum Salvator_), Jesus, the Savior of Men.
++Ill.+, Illinois.
++in.+, Inches.
++incog.+ (i_ncognito_), Unknown.
++Ind.+, Indiana.
++Ind. T.+, Indian Territory.
++inst.+, Instant, the present month.
++Iowa+ or +Io.+, Iowa.
++I. O. O. F.+, Independent Order of Odd Fellows.
++Isa.+, Isaiah.
++Jac.+, Jacob.
++Jan.+, January.
++Jas.+, James.
++Jer.+, Jeremiah.
++Jona.+, Jonathan.
++Jos.+, Joseph.
++Josh.+, Joshua.
++Jr.+ or +Jun.+, Junior.
++Judg.+, Judges.
++Kans.+ or +Kan.+, Kansas.
++Ky.+, Kentucky.
++l.+, Line; ll., Lines.
++l.+ or +lb.+, Pounds sterling.
++La.+, Louisiana.
++Lam.+, Lamentations.
++L.+, Latin.
++lb.+ or lb-. (_libra_ or _librae_), Pound or pounds in weight.
++l.c.+, Lower case (small letter).
++Lev.+, Leviticus.
++L. I.+, Long Island.
++Lieut.+, Lieutenant.
++LL. B.+(_Legum Baccalaureus_), Bachelor of Laws.
++LL. D.+ (_Legum Doctor_), Doctor of Laws.
++M.+ or +Mons.+, Monsieur.
++M.+ (_meridies_), Noon.
++m.+, Miles; Minutes.
++Mad.+, Madam. +Mme.+, Madame.
++Maj.+, Major.
++Mal.+, Malachi.
++Mar.+, March.
++Mass.+, Massachusetts.
++Matt.+, Matthew.
++M. C.+, Member of Congress.
++M. D.+ (_Medicinae Doctor_), Doctor of Medicine.
++Md.+, Maryland.
++mdse.+, Merchandise.
++Me.+, Maine.
++Mem.+, Memorandum; Memoranda.
++Messrs.+, Messieurs.
++Mic.+, Micah.
++Mgr.+, Monseigneur.
++Mich.+, Michigan; Michael.
++Minn.+, Minnesota.
++Miss.+, Mississippi.
++Mlle.+, Mademoiselle.
++Mmes.+, Mesdames.
++Mo.+, Missouri.
++mo.+, Months.
++Mon.+, Monday.
++M. P.+, Member of Parliament.
++Mont.+, Montana.
++Mr.+, Mister.
++Mrs.+, Mistress (pronounced Missis).
++MS.+, Manuscript.
++MSS.+, Manuscripts.
++Mt.+, Mountain.
++N.+, North.
++N. A.+, North America.
++Nath.+, Nathaniel.
++N. B.+ (_nota bene_), Mark well.
++N. C.+, North Carolina.
++N. Dak.+, North Dakota.
++N. E.+, New England.
++N. E.+, Northeast.
++Nebr.+ or +Neb.+, Nebraska.
++Neh.+, Nehemiah.
++Nev.+, Nevada.
++N. H.+, New Hampshire.
++N. J.+, New Jersey.
++N. Mex.+ or +N. M.+, New Mexico.
++N. N. E.+, North-northeast.
++N. N. W.+, North-northwest.
++N. O.+, New Orleans.
++No.+ (_numero_), Number,
++Nov.+, November.
++N. W.+, Northwest
++N. Y.+, New York.
++Obad.+, Obadiah.
++Oct.+, October.
++Ohio+ or +O.+, Ohio.
++Oreg.+ or +Or.+, Oregon.
++Oxon.+ (_Oxonia_), Oxford,
++oz.+, Ounces.
++p.+, Page, +pp.+, Pages.
++Pa.+ or +Penn.+, Pennsylvania.
++Payt.+ or +payt.+, Payment.
++per cent+, or +per ct.+ (_per centum_) or %, By the hundred.
++Ph. D.+ (_Philosophiae Doctor_), Doctor of Philosophy.
++Phil.+, Philip; Philippians.
++Phila.+, Philadelphia.
++pk.+, Pecks.
++P. M.+, Postmaster.
++P. M.+ or +p. m.+ (_post meridiem_), Afternoon.
++P. O.+, Post-Office.
++Pres.+, President.
++Prof.+, Professor.
++Pro tem.+ (_pro tempore_), For the time being.
++Prov.+, Proverbs.
++prox.+ (_proximo_), The next month.
++P. S.+, Postscript.
++Ps.+, Psalms.
++pt.+, Pints.
++pwt.+, Pennyweights.
++qt.+, Quarts.
++q. v.+ (_quod vide_), Which see.
++Qy.+, Query.
++rd.+, Rods.
++Recd.+, Received.
++Rev.+, Reverend; Revelation.
++R. I.+, Rhode Island.
++Robt.+, Robert.
++Rom.+, Romans (Book of); Roman letters.
++R. R.+, Railroad.
++R. S. V. P.+ (_Repondez s'il vous plait_), Answer, if you please.
++Rt. Hon.+, Right Honorable.
++Rt. Rev.+, Right Reverend.
++S.+, South.
++s.+, Shillings.
++S. A.+, South America.
++Saml.+ or +Sam.+, Samuel.
++Sat.+, Saturday.
++S. C.+, South Carolina.
++S. Dak.+, South Dakota.
++S. E.+, Southeast.
++Sec.+, Secretary.
++sec.+, Seconds.
++Sep.+ or +Sept.+, September.
++Sol.+, Solomon.
++sq. ft.+, Square feet.
++sq. in.+, Square inches.
++sq. m.+, Square miles.
++S. S. E.+, South-southeast.
++S. S. W.+, South-southwest.
++St.+, Street; Saint.
++S. T. D.+ (_Sacrae Theologiae Doctor_), Doctor of Divinity.
++Sun.+, Sunday.
++Supt.+, Superintendent.
++S. W.+, Southwest.
++T.+, Tons; Tuns.
++Tenn.+, Tennessee.
++Tex.+, Texas.
++Theo.+, Theodore.
++Theoph.+, Theophilus.
++Thess.+, Thessalonians,
++Thos.+, Thomas.
++Thurs.+, Thursday.
++Tim.+, Timothy.
++tr.+, Transpose.
++Treas.+, Treasurer.
++Tues.+, Tuesday.
++ult.+ (_ultimo_), Last--last month.
++U. S.+ or +U. S. A.+, United States of America; United States Army.
++U. S. M.+, United States Mail.
++U. S. N.+, United States Navy.
++Utah+ or +U. Ter.+, Utah Territory.
++Va.+, Virginia.
++Vice-Pres.+, Vice-President.
++viz.+ (_videlicet_), To wit, namely.
++vol.+, Volume.
++vs.+ (_versus_), Against.
++Vt.+, Vermont.
++W.+, West.
++Wash.+, Washington.
++Wed.+, Wednesday.
++Wis.+, Wisconsin.
++wk.+, Weeks.
++Wm.+, William.
++W. N. W.+, West-northwest.
++W. S. W.+, West-southwest.
++W. Va.+, West Virginia.
++Wyo.+, Wyoming.
++Xmas.+, Christmas.
++yd.+, Yards.
++y.+ or +yr.+, Years.
++Zech.+, Zechariah.
++& Co.+, And Company.
+
+SUPPLEMENT.
+
++Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph+.
+
+SELECTION FROM DARWIN.
+
+Morren says that angleworms often lie for hours almost motionless close
+beneath the mouths of their burrows. I have occasionally noticed the same
+fact with worms kept in pots in the house; so that by looking down into
+their burrows their heads could just be seen. If the ejected earth or
+rubbish over the burrows be suddenly removed, the end of the worm's body
+may very often be seen rapidly retreating.
+
+This habit of lying near the surface leads to their destruction to an
+immense extent. Every morning, during certain seasons of the year, the
+thrushes and blackbirds on all the lawns throughout the country draw out of
+their holes an astonishing number of worms; and this they could not do
+unless they lay close to the surface.
+
+It is not probable that worms behave in this manner for the sake of
+breathing fresh air, for they can live for a long time under water. I
+believe that they lie near the surface for the sake of warmth, especially
+in the morning; and we shall hereafter find that they often coat the mouths
+of their burrows with leaves, apparently to prevent their bodies from
+coming into close contact with the cold, damp earth.
+
++The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--We will break up Mr. Darwin's
+first group of sentences into single sentences or single statements, each
+having but one predicate verb.
+
+1. Angleworms often lie for hours almost motionless close beneath the
+mouths of their burrows. 2. Morren says this. 3. I have occasionally
+noticed the same fact with worms kept in pots in the house. 4. By looking
+down into their burrows their heads could just be seen. 5. The ejected
+earth or rubbish over the burrows may suddenly be removed. 6. The end of
+the worm's body may then very often be seen rapidly retreating.
+
+Find the two chief words (subject and predicate) in 1. What does _often_
+do? What does the group of words _for hours_ do? The group _almost
+motionless_ describes what things? The group _close beneath the mouths of
+their burrows_, used like a single adverb, tells what? Find the two chief
+words in 2. _This_ helps out the meaning of _says_, but it is not an
+adverb. _This_ is here a pronoun standing for the thing said. What whole
+sentence does _this_ take the place of? Find the subject and the predicate
+verb in 3. What noun follows this verb to tell what Mr. Darwin noticed?
+What does _occasionally_ do? What does _same_ go with? What group of eight
+words tells in what way Mr. Darwin noticed this fact? Find the unmodified
+subject and predicate in 4. What does the second _their_ go with? What does
+_by looking down into their burrows_ tell? What does _just_ do? In 5, put
+_what_ before _may be removed_, and find two words either of which may be
+used as subject. What is the office of _the_, _ejected_, and the group
+_over the burrows_? What does _suddenly_ do? Find the subject and the
+predicate verb in 6. _Retreating_ helps out the meaning of the predicate
+and at the same time modifies the subject. Notice that _the end rapidly
+retreating_ is not a sentence, nor is _worms kept in pots_, in 3.
+_Retreating_ and _kept_ here express action, but they are not predicates;
+they do not assert. You learned in Lesson 16 that certain forms of the verb
+do not assert. _Of the worm's body_ modifies what? _Then_ and _very often_
+do what?
+
+If you will compare these numbered sentences with Mr. Darwin's, you will
+see how two or more sentences are put together to make one longer sentence.
+You see Mr. Darwin puts our sentence 1 after _says_ to tell what Morren
+says. What word here helps to bring two sentences together? Change this
+sentence about so as to make _says Morren_ come last. See how many other
+changes you can make in the arrangement of the words and groups of words in
+this sentence. What two words are used to join 3 and 4 together? Notice
+that these sentences are not joined so closely as 1 and 2, as is shown by
+the semi-colon. Notice that _if_ has much to do in joining 5 and 6. These
+are more closely joined than 3 and 4, but not so closely as 1 and 2. How is
+this shown by the punctuation? Put 5 and 6 together and change their order.
+Find, if you can, still another arrangement.
+
++To the Teacher+.--It is very important that pupils should learn to see
+words in groups and to note their offices. If difficulties and
+technicalities be avoided, such exercises as we suggest above may be begun
+very early. They will lead to an intelligent observation of language and
+will prepare the way for the more formal lessons of the text-book.
+
+If time can be had, such exercises may profitably be continued through the
+second and third paragraphs of the selection above.
+
+We have said elsewhere that the sentence exercises on this selection from
+Darwin may follow Lesson 30, but the teacher must determine.
+
++The Paragraph+.--If we write about only one thing, or one point, our
+sentences will be closely related to each other. If we write on two or more
+points, there will be two or more sets of sentences--the sentences of each
+set closely related to one another, but the sets themselves not so closely
+related. A group of sentences expressing what we have to say on a single
+point, or division, of our subject is called a +paragraph+. How many
+paragraphs do you find in the selection above? How are they separated on
+the page?
+
+Let us examine this selection more carefully to find whether the sentences
+of each group are all on a single point and closely related, and whether
+the groups themselves are related. Do the sentences of the first paragraph
+all help to tell of a certain habit of angleworms? Do the sentences of the
+second paragraph tell what results from this habit? Do the sentences of the
+third paragraph tell what is thought to be the cause of this habit? If you
+can say yes to these questions, the sentences in each paragraph must be
+closely related. Are a habit, a result of it, and a cause of it related in
+thought, or meaning? If so, the paragraphs are related.
+
+You must now see that paragraphing helps both the reader and the writer,
+and that we should master it.
+
++The Style+.--We shall not here say much about what we may call the style
+of the author--his way of putting his thought, or manner of expressing it.
+But this you will notice: his words are few, plain, and simple; the
+arrangement of them is easy; and so what is said is said clearly. You are
+nowhere in doubt about his meaning unless it be in the second paragraph. It
+may puzzle you to see what _their_, _they_, and _they_ in the second
+sentence of this paragraph stand for. Let _an astonishing number of worms_
+and _out of their holes_ change places, and substitute _birds_ and _worms_
+for _they_ and _they_, and see whether the meaning would be clearer.
+Clearness is worth all it costs. You cannot take too much pains to be
+understood.
+
++First-hand Knowledge+.--As you know, we get our knowledge in two ways. We
+get it by seeing and by thinking about what we see; and we get it by
+listening to other people and reading what they have written. What we get
+by seeing, by observation, is first-hand knowledge; what we get from others
+is second-hand knowledge. Both kinds are useful; we cannot have too much of
+either. But the kind that it does us most good to get and is worth most to
+us when got is first-hand knowledge. This especially is the kind which you
+should make your compositions of. In the first two paragraphs of the
+selection above, Darwin is telling what he saw, and in the third he is
+explaining what he saw. That is why what he says is so fresh and
+interesting.
+
+And just one thing more. If such a man as Charles Darwin thought it worth
+his while to spend much time in studying and experimenting upon angleworms
+and then to write a large book about them, surely you need not think
+anything in nature beneath your notice.
+
+ORIGINAL COMPOSITION.
+
+Tell in two or three short paragraphs what you have observed of some worm,
+insect, or other creature, and what you think about it.
+
++To the Teacher+.--We suggest that what is said above be read by the pupils
+and discussed in the class, and that the substance of it be reproduced in
+the pupils' own language. Such reproduction will serve as a lesson in oral
+composition.
+
+It may be profitable for the pupils to reproduce the selection from Darwin.
+
++Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph+.
+
+SELECTION FROM HABBERTON--"HELEN'S BABIES."
+
+The whistles completed, I was marched with music to the place where the
+"Jacks" grew. It was just such a place as boys delight in--low, damp, and
+boggy, with a brook hidden away under overhanging ferns and grasses.
+
+1. The children knew by sight the plant that bore the "Jacks," and every
+discovery was announced by a piercing shriek of delight. 2. At first I
+looked hurriedly toward the brook as each yell clove the air; but, as I
+became accustomed to it, my attention was diverted by some exquisite ferns.
+3. Suddenly, however, a succession of shrieks announced that something was
+wrong, and across a large fern I saw a small face in a great deal of agony.
+4. Budge was hurrying to the relief of his brother, and was soon as deeply
+imbedded as Toddie was in the rich, black mud at the bottom of the brook.
+5. I dashed to the rescue, stood astride the brook, and offered a hand to
+each boy, when a treacherous tuft of grass gave way, and, with a glorious
+splash, I went in myself.
+
+This accident turned Toddie's sorrow to laughter, but I can't say I made
+light of my misfortune on that account. To fall into _clear_ water is not
+pleasant, even when one is trout-fishing; but to be clad in white trousers
+and suddenly drop nearly knee-deep into the lap of mother earth is quite a
+different thing.
+
+I hastily picked up the children and threw them upon the bank, and then
+strode out, and tried to shake myself, as I have seen a Newfoundland dog
+do. The shake was not a success--it caused my trouser's legs to flap
+dismally about my ankles, and sent the streams of treacherous ooze
+trickling down into my shoes. My hat, of drab felt, had fallen off by the
+brookside, and been plentifully spattered as I got out.
+
++The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--We will put the first paragraph
+above into single sentences.
+
+1. The whistles completed, we were marched with music to the place. 2. The
+"Jacks" grew in this place. 3. It was a place low, damp, and boggy, with a
+brook hidden away under overhanging ferns and grasses. 4. Boys delight in
+such a place.
+
+Find the subject noun (or pronoun) and the predicate verb in each of the
+four sentences above. Does _the whistles completed_ make complete sense?
+You learned in Lesson 16 that some forms of the verb do not assert--cannot
+be predicates. Does _brook hidden_, in 3, contain a predicate? What can you
+say of _hidden?_ Find a noun in 3 used to complete the predicate and make
+the meaning of the subject plainer. What group of adjectives modifies
+_place_? Tell why these three adjectives are separated by commas. What long
+phrase describes _place_?
+
+Find the first verb in the second paragraph of the selection. What is the
+object complement of this verb? _That bore the "Jacks"_ does what? The
+pronoun _that_ stands for _plant_. _The plant bore the "Jacks,"_ standing
+by itself, is a complete sentence; but by using _that_ for _plant_ the
+whole expression is made to do the work of an adjective. What conjunction
+joins on another expression that by itself would make a complete sentence?
+What are the subject and the predicate of this added sentence? _By a
+piercing shriek of delight_ does what? Of what use are the phrases _at
+first_ and _toward the brook_ in sentence 2? What group of words is joined
+to _looked_ to tell on what occasion or how often? Find in this group a
+subject, a predicate, and an object complement. What connects this group to
+_looked_? What two sentences does _but_ here bring together? Does the
+semicolon show that this connection is close? Point out what you think to
+be the leading subject and the leading verb after _but_. _By some exquisite
+ferns_ is joined to what? What group of words goes with _was diverted_ to
+tell when? Find in this group a subject, a predicate, and an attribute
+complement. Point out in the first part of 3 the leading subject and its
+verb. What does _suddenly_ go with? What does _of shrieks_ modify?
+_However_ is loosely thrown in to carry the attention back to what goes
+before. Notice the commas. Answer the question made by putting _what_ after
+_announced_. In this group of words used as object complement can you find
+a subject, a predicate, and a complement? What two sentences does _and_
+here bring together? Point out the subject, the predicate, and the
+complement in the second of these. _Across a large fern_ is joined like an
+adverb to what? _In a great deal of agony_ modifies what? Find a compound
+predicate in 4. What phrase is joined to _was imbedded_ to tell where? The
+group of words _as deeply as Toddie was (imbedded)_ is joined to what? Find
+in 5 a compound predicate made up of three verbs, one of which has an
+object complement.
+
++To the Teacher+.--See suggestions with the preceding selection. If our
+exercises on the second paragraph above are found too hard, the compound
+and complex sentences may be broken up into single statements.
+
+We have indicated elsewhere that this sentence work may follow Lesson 40.
+
++The Narrative+.--This selection from "Helen's Babies" is a story and
+therefore a narrative. But there are some descriptive touches in it. All
+stories must have such touches. Perhaps it is not always essential to
+distinguish between narration and description, but it is worth your while
+to do it occasionally. Try to point out the descriptive parts in these
+paragraphs. You certainly can find a descriptive sentence in the first
+paragraph, and descriptive words, phrases, and clauses throughout the
+selection. What help to the narrative do these descriptive touches give?
+
++The Paragraphs+.--What have you learned about the sentences that make up
+one paragraph? Are the paragraphs more, or less, closely related than the
+sentences of each paragraph? Why? Examine these paragraphs and see whether
+any sentences can be changed from one paragraph to another. If you think
+they can, give your reason. Is the order of these paragraphs the right one?
+Can the order anywhere be changed without throwing the story out of joint?
+Why?
+
++The General Topic and the Sub-topics+.--We shall find that every
+composition has its general subject and that each paragraph in the
+composition bus its own particular subject. Let us call the subject of the
+whole composition the _general topic_. _Sub_ means _under_, and so let us
+call the point which each paragraph develops a _sub-topic_. In the story
+above we may find some such outline as the following:--
+
+     AN EXCURSION IN SEARCH OF "JACKS."
+      1. The Place where Jacks Grow.
+      2. The Mishap to the Excursionists.
+      3. The Uncle Takes his Seriously.
+      4. His Attempt at Repairs.
+
+Do you think that such a _framework_ helps a writer to tell his story? Do
+you not think that each sub-topic must suggest some thoughts that the
+general topic alone would not suggest? If you keep clearly before you the
+sub-topic of your paragraph, what effect do you think it will have on the
+thoughts and the sentences of that paragraph? With a good framework clearly
+before you, must not your story move along in an orderly way from a
+beginning to an end? Have you ever heard stories badly told? If so, what
+were the faults?
+
+
+ORIGINAL COMPOSITION.
+
+Have you not had some experience that you can work up into a good story? If
+you have, tell the story upon paper, making use of the instruction we have
+given you in our talk above.
+
++To the Teacher+.--Perhaps a reproduction of the story above may be
+profitable.
+
+
+EXERCISES ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE SENTENCE AND THE PARAGRAPH.
+
+SELECTION FROM GEORGE ELIOT.
+
+And this is Dovecote Mill. I must stand a minute or two here on the bridge
+and look at it, though the clouds are threatening and it is far on in the
+afternoon. Even in this leafless time of departing February, it is pleasant
+to look at it. Perhaps the chill, damp season adds a charm to the
+trimly-kept building, as old as the elms and chestnuts that shelter it from
+the northern blast.
+
+The stream is brimful now, and half drowns the grassy fringe in front of
+the house. As I look at the stream, the vivid grass, the delicate, bright
+green softening the outline of the great trunks and branches that gleam
+from under the bare purple boughs, I am in love with moistness, and envy
+the white ducks that are dipping their heads far into the water, unmindful
+of the awkward appearance in the drier world above.
+
+1. And now there is the huge covered wagon, coming home with sacks of
+grain. 2. That honest wagoner is thinking of his dinner, which is getting
+sadly dry in the oven at this late hour; but he will not touch it till he
+has fed his horses--the strong, submissive beasts, who, I fancy, are
+looking mild reproach at him from between their blinkers, that he should
+crack his whip at them in that awful manner, as if they needed such a hint!
+3. See how they stretch their shoulders up the slope toward the bridge,
+with all the more energy because they are so near home. 4. Look at their
+grand, shaggy feet, that seem to grasp the firm earth, at the patient
+strength of their necks bowed under the heavy collar, at the mighty muscles
+of their struggling haunches. 5. I should like to see them, with their
+moist necks freed from the harness, dipping their eager nostrils into the
+pond.
+
++The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--Notice that in sentence 1, third
+paragraph, the subject is placed after the predicate. Tell what _now_ and
+_there_ do. _Coming home with sacks of grain_ does what? Does _coming_
+express action? Does it assert action? What is it? What does _home_ do? Put
+_its_ before _home_ and then read the whole phrase. What other change do
+you find necessary? A noun is sometimes used alone to do the work of an
+adverb phrase, the preposition being omitted. What is the office of
+_minute_ in the second sentence of the first paragraph? What preposition
+could be put in? In 2, third paragraph, the pronoun _which_ stands for
+_dinner_. Read the sentence, using the noun instead of the pronoun. Have
+you now two sentences, or one? You see that _which_ not only stands for
+_dinner_, but it joins on a sentence so as to make it describe the dinner.
+What does _till he has fed his horses_ do? Omitting _till_, would this
+group of words be a sentence? What, then, joins this group, and makes it do
+the work of an adverb? Notice the dash after _horses_. The writer here
+breaks off rather suddenly and begins again, using _beasts_ instead of
+_horses_. To _beasts_ are added many descriptive words. You will learn that
+this noun _beasts_ added to the noun _horses_ is called an explanatory
+modifier. Notice that _I fancy_ is thrown in loosely or independently and
+is set off by commas. All the other words beginning with _who_ and ending
+with _hint_ are joined by _who_ to _beasts_. Notice that the writer makes
+these beasts think like persons, and so uses _who_ instead of _which_ or
+_that_. Do we ordinarily speak of looking anything? In _who are looking
+reproach_, what is the object complement of _are looking_? What long group
+of words made up of two sentences tells why the beasts are looking
+reproach? Read separately the main divisions of 2. What conjunction
+connects these? Is one of these divisions itself divided into parts by
+commas? Should, then, some mark of wider separation be put between the main
+divisions of 2? To build so long a sentence as 2 is venturesome. We advise
+young writers not to make such attempts. It is hard to write very long
+sentences and keep the meaning clear. In 3 the subject of _see_ is _you_,
+which is generally omitted in a command. You are here told to see what?
+Break this long object complement up into two sentences. What do the horses
+stretch? Where do they stretch their shoulders? How do they stretch? Why do
+they stretch with more energy? What is the subject of _look_ in 4? The
+phrase beginning with _at_ and ending with _earth_ does what? Find two
+other long phrases introduced by _at_ and tell what they do. _That seem to
+grasp the firm earth_ goes with what? Put the noun _feet_ in place of the
+pronoun _that_ and make a separate sentence of this group. What word, then,
+makes an adjective modifier of this sentence and joins it to _feet_? Does
+_to grasp_ assert action? What do you call it? It is here used as attribute
+complement. _Bowed under the heavy collar_ describes what? Does _bowed_
+assert action? What do you call it?
+
++To the Teacher+.--If time permits, we believe that such exercises as the
+above may profitably be continued. This sentence work may perhaps best
+follow Lesson 50. See suggestions with preceding exercises.
+
++Descriptive Writing+.--This extract from the novelist who called herself
+"George Eliot" we have slightly changed for our purpose. It is purely
++descriptive+. It is a painting in words--a vivid picture of a very pretty
+scene. How grateful we are to those who can, as it were, turn a page of a
+book into canvas, and paint on it a rich verbal picture that delights us
+every time we read it or recall it! How many such pictures there are in our
+libraries! And how little they cost us when compared with those that we buy
+and hang upon our walls!
+
++Some Features of a Good Description+.--Does this author mention many
+features of the mill, of the stream, and of the horses pulling their load
+over the bridge? Do those that she does mention suggest to you everything
+else? Name some of the things suggested to you but not mentioned in this
+description. Does not some of the charm of a description lie in the
+reader's having something left him to supply? If the author had given you
+every little detail of the mill, the stream, and the laboring horses, would
+not the description have been dull and tiresome? What things that the
+author imagined but did not really see are mentioned in the third
+paragraph? Do these touches of fancy or imagination help the picture? Do
+they show that the author was in love with her work? and do they therefore
+stimulate your fancy or imagination?
+
++The Framework+.--In making a framework for this description would you take
+for the general topic "The Scene from the Bridge" or "Things Seen from a
+Bridge"? or would you prefer some other wording of it? Now write out a
+framework, placing the sub-topics under the general topic as you have been
+taught.
+
+
+ORIGINAL COMPOSITION.
+
+Describe some scene that you greatly enjoy, or draw your picture from
+imagination. Make a framework and try to profit by all that we have said.
+
+
+EXERCISES ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE SENTENCE AND THE PARAGRAPH.
+
+SELECTION FROM THE BROTHERS GRIMM.
+
+Once upon a time there was a very old man, whose eyes were dim, whose ears
+were dull, and whose knees trembled. When he sat at table, he could
+scarcely hold his spoon; and often he spilled his food over the tablecloth
+and sometimes down his clothes.
+
+His son and daughter-in-law were much vexed about this, and at last they
+made the old man sit behind the oven in a corner, and gave him his food in
+an earthen dish, and not enough of it either; so that the poor man grew
+sad, and his eyes were wet with tears. Once his hand trembled so much that
+he could not hold the dish, and it fell upon the ground and broke all in
+pieces, so that the young wife scolded him; but he made no reply and only
+sighed. Then they brought him a wooden dish, and out of that he had to
+feed.
+
+One day, as he was sitting in his usual place, he saw his little grandson,
+four years old, fitting together some pieces of wood. "What are you
+making?" asked the old man.
+
+"I am making a wooden trough," replied the child, "for father and mother to
+feed out of when I grow big."
+
+At these words the father looked at his wife for a moment, and presently
+they began to cry. Henceforth they let the old grandfather sit at the table
+with them, and they did not even say anything if he spilled a little food
+upon the cloth.
+
++The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--What is the order of subject and
+predicate in the first sentence of this selection? The word _there_ does
+not tell where; it is put before _was_ to let the subject follow. _There_
+is frequently so used and is then called an independent adverb. Find in the
+first sentence three adjective clauses. What connects each to _man_? What
+other office has this connective? How are these adjective clauses connected
+with one another? What is the office of the dependent clause in the next
+sentence? If this clause were placed after its principal clause, would the
+comma be needed? Are the clauses separated by the semicolon as closely
+connected as those divided by the comma?
+
+After _made_ and some other words the _to_ before the infinitive is
+omitted. Find such an instance in the first sentence of the second
+paragraph. In this same sentence change _gave him his food_, making _him_
+come last. You have learned that a noun or a pronoun may be used without a
+preposition to do the work of an adverb phrase. What does _one day_ do in
+the third paragraph? Is a preposition needed before _day?_ In the same
+sentence _years_ is used adverbially to modify the adjective _old_. It
+would be hard to find a preposition to put before _years_. We might say
+"old to the extent of four years," but _four years_ answers for the whole
+phrase. In this same paragraph what words are quoted exactly as the old man
+uttered them? Describe the quotation marks. Notice that the next quotation
+is broken by the words _replied the child_, and so each part of the
+quotation is separately inclosed within quotation marks.
+
++To the Teacher+.--We have here touched a few features of the sentences
+above. The exercises given with the preceding selections will suggest a
+fuller examination of the phrases and clauses.
+
++Suggestions from this Narrative+.--We see that this beautiful story has a
+purpose. Its purpose is to teach us kindness to our parents. It is well
+planned. Every sentence and every paragraph is adapted to the end in view.
+No useless item or circumstance is admitted. The story stops when the end
+is reached. Anything added to the fifth paragraph would spoil the story. We
+certainly can learn much from such a model.
+
++Paragraphs+.--Does every sentence in the first paragraph aid in picturing
+the helplessness of the old grandfather? Is the picture complete? Does the
+second paragraph strongly impress us with the unkindness of the son and
+daughter-in-law, who ought to have been moved to pity by the old man's
+condition? Does it contain an unnecessary sentence? In telling how the
+grandchild unconsciously taught a lesson, a dialogue is introduced, and so
+what really belongs to one sub-topic is put in the form of two paragraphs.
+It is customary to make a separate paragraph of each single speech in a
+dialogue. Read the last paragraph carefully and see whether one could wish
+to know anything more about the effect of the lesson taught by the child.
+
+Make a framework for this story.
+
+
+ORIGINAL COMPOSITION.
+
+Make up a short story from your own experience, or from your imagination,
+and try to profit by the suggestions above. Prepare a framework at the
+beginning.
+
+
+
++Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph+.
+
+
+SELECTION FROM BEECHER.
+
+Overwork almost always ends in weakening the digestive organs. There are
+those who overtax their minds through months and years, forgetful that
+there is a close connection between overwork and dyspepsia. Everyone should
+remember that there is a point beyond which he cannot urge his brain
+without harm to his stomach; and that, when he loses his stomach, he loses
+the very citadel of health. The whole body is renewed from the blood, and
+the blood is made from the food taken into the stomach. The power of the
+blood to renew bone and brain and muscle depends upon a good digestion.
+
+Too little sleep is fatal to health. Perhaps you have to work hard all day;
+but that is no reason why you should resolve, "If I cannot have pleasure by
+day, I will have it at night." You are taking the very substance of your
+body when you burn the lamp of pleasure till one or two o'clock in the
+morning. God has made sleep to be a sponge with which to rub out fatigue. A
+man's roots are planted in night, as a tree's are planted in soil, and out
+of it he should come, at waking, with fresh growth and bloom. As a rule,
+you should take eight hours of the twenty-four, for sleep.
+
++The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.--In the exercises under the
+selection from the Brothers Grimm what did you learn about _there_ as used
+twice in the second sentence above? What does _those_ mean? What long
+adjective clause is joined to _those_ by _who_? Does this clause read so
+closely as not to need a comma before _who_? Does _forgetful_ describe the
+persons represented by _who_? Why is a comma used before _forgetful_? You
+learned in a preceding exercise that a noun may do the work of an adverb
+phrase without the help of a preposition. A noun clause may do the same.
+The adjective _forgetful_ is modified by the noun clause _that ...
+dyspepsia_. If we say _forgetful of the fact_, we see that the noun clause
+means the same as _fact_ and has the same office. What two long noun
+clauses aroused to complete _should remember_? What conjunction introduces
+each of these clauses? What conjunction joins them together? What mark of
+punctuation between? If one of these noun clauses were not itself divided
+into clauses by the comma, would the semicolon be needed? The clause
+_beyond ... stomach_ goes with what word? _When ... stomach_ modifies what
+verb? Classify the sentences of this paragraph as simple, complex, or
+compound.
+
++To the Teacher+.--We have here treated informally some difficult points.
+Perhaps these may be better understood when the book is reviewed.
+
++The Various Objects Writers Have+.--From your study of the preceding
+selections you learn that a writer may have any one of several objects in
+writing. He may wish simply to instruct the reader, as does Darwin in what
+he says of earthworms. He may wish merely to amuse the reader, as does Mr.
+Habberton in our extract from "Helen's Babies." He may wish only to put
+before them a picture which, like that of George Eliot's, shall afford
+delight. Or he may wish to get hold of what we call our wills and lead us
+to do something, perform some duty. This is what the story from the
+Brothers Grimm aims at. And you saw how it does this--by working on our
+feelings. There are at least these four objects that a writer may propose
+to himself. Which of these four objects has Mr. Beecher in the paragraphs
+we quote? Does he instruct? Does he try to get us to do something? Would it
+help you to have clearly before you from the beginning the object you are
+seeking to accomplish?
+
++Figurative Expressions+.--In these paragraphs Mr. Beecher calls a man's
+stomach the citadel of health, and sleep a sponge to rub out fatigue with,
+and says a man's roots are planted in night. He does not use these words
+_citadel_, _sponge_, and _roots_ in their first or common meaning. He uses
+them in what we call a +figurative+ sense. He means to say that a man's
+stomach is to him what a fortress is to soldiers, a source of strength;
+that in sleep fatigue disappears as do figures on a slate or blackboard
+when a wet sponge is drawn across them; and that a man gets out of night
+what a tree's roots draw out of the soil, nourishment and vigor. Such
+figurative uses of words give strength and beauty to style.
+
+
+ORIGINAL COMPOSITION.
+
+In the paragraphs quoted above you were told of the effects on health of
+overwork and of insufficient sleep. Perhaps you can write of exercise, of
+proper food, of clothes, or of some other things on which health may
+depend.
+
++Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph+.
+
+ADAPTED FROM DR. JOHN BROWN--"RAB AND HIS FRIENDS."
+
+Rab belonged to a lost tribe--there are no such dogs now. He was old and
+gray and brindled; and his hair short, hard, and close, like a lion's. He
+was as big as a Highland bull, and his body was thickset. He must have
+weighed ninety pounds at least.
+
+His large, blunt head was scarred with the record of old wounds, a series
+of battlefields all over it. His muzzle was as black as night, his mouth
+blacker than any night, and a tooth or two, all he had, gleamed out of his
+jaws of darkness. One eye was out, one ear cropped close. The remaining eye
+had the power of two; and above it, and in constant communication with it,
+was a tattered rag of an ear that was for ever unfurling itself, like an
+old flag.
+
+And then that bud of a tail, about an inch long, if it could in any sense
+be said to be long, being as broad as it was long! The mobility of it, its
+expressive twinklings and winkings, and the intercommunications between the
+eye, the ear, and it, were of the oddest and swiftest.
+
+Rab had the dignity and simplicity of great size. Having fought his way all
+along the road to absolute supremacy, he was as mighty in his own line as
+Julius Caesar or the Duke of Wellington in his, and he had the gravity of
+all great fighters.
+
++To the Teacher+.--We suggest exercises on the uses of words similar to
+those preceding. Before attempting this it may be well to let the pupils go
+over these condensed expressions and supply the words necessary to the
+analysis. For instance, in the first paragraph _hair_ may be followed by
+_was_ and _Highland bull_ by _is big_. In the next paragraph _wounds_ may
+be followed by _marking_, _as night_ by _is black_, etc. In the third
+paragraph _and then_ may be followed by _there was_, etc. The pupils will
+determine whether supplying these words makes the description stronger or
+weaker.
+
+Pupils may note especially the offices of nouns, verbs, and adjectives.
+This selection abounds in descriptive nouns and verbs that are particularly
+well chosen. Let the pupils point out such.
+
++The Description+.--How does the description above impress you? Are only
+characteristic parts and features selected? Are these few features enough
+to give you a distinct and vivid picture of Rab? What comparisons do you
+find? How do they help? Pick out some words or phrases that seem to you
+very expressive. Find some words that are used, not in their first or
+common sense, but in a figurative sense. How do they help?
+
++Paragraphs+.--Which paragraph puts before you the dog as a whole? Where
+must this paragraph naturally stand? Why? Which paragraph describes Rab's
+character? What does each of the other paragraphs describe? If you think
+the arrangement of paragraphs above is the best, tell why.
+
+Make a framework for this description.
+
+ORIGINAL COMPOSITION.
+
+Write a description of some animal which you have closely observed and in
+which you are interested. Be careful to pick out leading or characteristic
+features that will bring others into the reader's imagination. First
+prepare a framework.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Graded Lessons in English
+by Alonzo Reed and Brainerd Kellogg
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GRADED LESSONS IN ENGLISH ***
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