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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0dcab52 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #69207 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/69207) diff --git a/old/69207-0.txt b/old/69207-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 9d5883f..0000000 --- a/old/69207-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3415 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Tibetan Grammar, by H.A. Jäschke - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Tibetan Grammar - -Author: H.A. Jäschke - -Editor: H. Wenzel - -Release Date: October 22, 2022 [eBook #69207] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed Proofreading - Team at https://www.pgdp.net/ for Project Gutenberg (This - file was produced from images generously made available by - The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TIBETAN GRAMMAR *** - - -[Transcriber’s note: This Unicode text file includes Tibetan and -Indic scripts. You may need to install a special fonts to read it. -Because Tibetan scripts are not monospaced, tables may appear -misaligned.] - - - - - - - - - TIBETAN GRAMMAR - - BY - - H. A. JÄSCHKE - MORAVIAN MISSIONARY. - - SECOND EDITION - - PREPARED BY - Dr. H. WENZEL. - - - - LONDON: - TRÜBNER & CO., 57 & 59, LUDGATE HILL. - 1883. - - - - - - - - -PREFACE. - - -The present new edition of Mr. Jäschke’s Tibetan Grammar scarcely needs -a word of apology. As the first edition which was lithographed at -Kyelaṅ in 1865 in a limited number of copies has long been out of -print, Dr. Rost urged the author to revise his grammar for the purpose -of bringing it out in an improved form. The latter, prevented by -ill-health from undertaking the task, placed the matter in my hands, -and had the goodness to make over to me his own manuscript notes and -additions to the original work. Without his personal cooperation, -however, I was unable to make any but a very sparing use of these, -adding only a few remarks from Gyalrabs and Milaraspa, with some -further remarks on the local vernacular of Western Tibet. Indeed, -special attention has been paid throughout to this dialect; it is the -one with which the author during his long residence at Kyelaṅ had -become most familiar, and with which the English in India are most -likely to be brought into direct contact. - -Besides the above mentioned additions, I have taken a number of -examples from the Dzaṅlun, to make clearer some of the rules, and, with -the same view, I have altered, here and there, the wording of the -lithographed edition. The order of the paragraphs has been retained -throughout, and only one (23.) has been added for completeness’ sake. - -The system of transliteration is nearly the same as in the Dictionary, -only for ny, ñ is used, and instead of e̱, ä (respectively ā̤) has been -thought to be a clearer representation of the sound intended. For the -niceties of pronunciation the reader is referred to the Dictionary, as -in this Grammar only the general rules have been given. - -Finally I must express my warmest thanks to Dr. Rost, to whose -exertions not only the printing of this Grammar is solely due, but who -also rendered me much help in the correcting of the work. - -Mayence, May 1883. - -H. Wenzel. - - - - - - - - -ABBREVIATIONS. - - - act. = active. - C or CT = Central Tibet, especially the provinces of Ü and Tsaṅ. - cf. = confer, compare. - Dzl. = Dzaṅlun. - e.g. = exempli gratia, for instance. - ET = East Tibet. - fut. = future. - imp. = imperative. - inf. = infinitive. - i.o. = instead of. - Köpp. = Köppen. - Kun. = Kunawur, province under English protection. - Ld. = Ladak, province. - Mil. = Milaraspa. - neutr. = neuter verb. - perf. or pf. = perfect. - pres. = present. - s. = see. - term. = terminative case. - Thgy. = Thar-gyan, scientific treatises. - v. = vide, see. - vulg. = vulgar expression. - W or WT = Western Tibet. - - - - - - - - -CONTENTS. - - -I. Phonology. - Page - 1. Alphabet 1 - 2. Remarks 3 - 3. Vowels 3 - 4. Syllables 4 - 5. Final Consonants 5 - 6. Diphthongs 6 - 7. Compound Consonants 7 - 8. Prefixed Letters 11 - 9. Word; Accent; Quantity 12 - 10. Punctuation 14 - -II. Etymology. - - I. Article. - - 11. Peculiarities of the Tibetan Article 17 - 12. Difference of the Articles 18 - 13. The Indefinite Article 19 - - II. Substantive. - - 14. Number 20 - 15. Declension 21 - - III. Adjective. - - 16. Relation to the Substantive 25 - 17. Comparison 26 - - IV. Numerals. - - 18. Cardinal numerals 28 - 19. Ordinal numerals 31 - 20. Remarks 31 - 21. Distributive numerals 33 - 22. Adverbial numerals 33 - 23. Fractional numerals 33 - - V. Pronouns. - - 24. Personal pronouns 34 - 25. Possessive pronouns 36 - 26. Reflective pronouns 37 - 27. Demonstrative pronouns 37 - 28. Interrogative pronouns 38 - 29. Relative pronouns 38 - - VI. Verb. - - 30. Introduction 40 - 31. Inflection 41 - 32. Infinitive 42 - 33. Participle 43 - 34. Finite Verb 45 - 35. Present 46 - 36. Preterit 47 - 37. Future 48 - 38. Imperative 49 - 39. Intensive 50 - 40. Substantive Verbs 51 - 41. Gerunds and Supines 54 - 42. VII. Adverb 65 - 43. VIII. Postposition 67 - 44. IX. Conjunction 74 - 45. X. Interjection 76 - XI. Derivation: - 46. Derivation of Substantives 77 - 47. Derivation of Adjectives 78 - -III. Syntax. - - 48. Arrangement of Words 80 - 49. Use of the Cases 81 - 50. Simple Sentences 82 - 51. Compound Sentences 83 - -Appendix. - - Phrases 86 - Reading Exercise 92 - Verbs 99 - - - - - - - - -PART I. - -PHONOLOGY. - - -1. The Alphabet. The Tibetan Alphabet was adapted from the Lañc̀ʽa -(ལཱཉ་ཚ) form of the Indian letters by Tʽon-mi-sam-bho-ta (ཐོན་མི་སམ་བྷོ་ཏ) -minister of king Sroṅ-tsan-gam-po (སྲོང་བཙན་སྒམ་པོ་) about the year 632 (s. -Köpp. II, 56). The Indian letters out of which the single Tibetan -characters were formed are given in the following table in their Nāgari -shape. - - surd. aspir. sonant. nasal. - -gutturals. ཀ་ क ka ཁ་ ख kʽa ག་ ग ga ང་ ङ ṅa -palatals. ཅ་ च c̀a ཆ་ छ c̀ʽa ཇ་ ज j̀a ཉ་ ञ ña -dentals. ཏ་ त ta ཐ་ थ tʽa ད་ द da ན་ न na -labials. པ་ प pa ཕ་ फ pʽa བ་ ब ba མ་ म ma -palatal ཙ་ tsa ཚ་ tʽsa ཛ་ dsa -sibilants. -semivowels ཝ་ व wa ཞ་ z̀a ཟ་ za འ་ ˱a - ཡ་ य ya ར་ र ra ལ་ ल la - ཤ་ श s̀a ས་ स sa ཧ་ ह ha - ཨ་ ’a - - -It is seen from this table that several signs have been added to -express sounds that are unknown in Sanscrit. The sibilants ཙ་ ཚ་ ཛ་ -evidently were differentiated from the palatals. But as in transcribing -Sanscrit words the Tibetans substitute their sibilants for the palatals -of the original (as ཙི་ན་ for चीन), we must suppose that the sibilisation -of those consonants, common at present among the Hindus on the Southern -slopes of the Himālaya (who say tsār for चार, four etc.), was in general -use with those Indians from whom the Tib. Alphabet was taken (cf. also -the Afghan څ and ڂ likewise sprung from چ and ج). ཝ་ is -differentiated from བ་, which itself often is pronounced v, as shewn in -the sequel; in transcribing Sanscrit, ब and व both are given, -generally, by བ only. ཞ་ seems to be formed out of ཤ་ to which it is -related in sound. ཟ་ evidently is only the inverted ཇ་. ཨ་ corresponds -with Sanscrit अ. འ་ is newly invented; for its functions see the -following §§.—The letters which are peculiar to Sanscrit are expressed, -in transcribing, in the following manner. a) The linguals, simply by -inverting the signs of the dentals: thus, ཊ་ ट, ཋ་ ठ, ཌ་ ड, ཎ་ ण. b) -The sonant aspirates, by putting ཧ་ under the sonants: thus, གྷ་ घ, ཛྷ་ -झ, ཊྷ་ ढ, དྷ་ ध, བྷ་ भ. [1] - - - -2. Remarks. 1. Regarding the pronunciation of the single letters, as -given above, it is to be born in mind, that surds ཀ་ ཏ་ པ་ are uttered -without the least admixture of an aspiration, viz. as k, t, p are -pronounced in the words skate, stale, spear; the aspirates ཁ་ ཐ་ ཕ་ -forcibly, rather harder than the same in Kate, tale, peer; the sonants -ག་ ད་ བ་ like g, d, b in gate, dale, beer. 2. The same difference of -hardness is to be observed in ཅ་ ཆ་ ཇ་ or c̀, c̀ʽ, j̀ (c̀ʽ occurs in -church; c̀, the same without aspiration; j̀ in judge) and in ཙ་ ཚ་ ཛ་ or -ts, tʽs, ds. 3. ཞ་ is the soft modification of s̀ or the s in leisure -(French j in jamais, but more palatal). 4. ང་ is the English ng in -sing, but occurs in Tibetan often at the commencement of a syllable. 5. -ཉ་ ñ is the Hindi न्य, or the initial sound in the word new, which would -be spelled ཉུ་ ñu. 6. In the dialects of Eastern or Chinese-Tibet, -however, the soft consonants ག་ ད་ བ་ ཇ་ ཛ་, when occurring as -initials, are pronounced with an aspiration, similar to the Hindi घ, ध, -भ, झ, or indeed so that they often scarcely differ from the common -English k, t, p, ch; also ཞ་ and ཟ་ are more difficult to distinguish -from ཤ་ and ས་ than in the Western provinces (Exceptions s. §§ 7. 8). - - - -3. Vowels. 1. Since every consonant sign implies, like its Sanscrit -prototype, a following a, unless some other vowel sign is attached to -it, no particular sign is wanted to denote this vowel, except in some -cases specified in the following §§. The special vowel signs are ེ, -ི, ོ, ུ, pronounced respectively as e, i, o, u are in German, Italian -and most other European languages, viz. ེ like ay in say, or e in ten; -ི like i in machine, tin; ོ like o in so, on; ུ like u in rule, pull. -It ought to be specially remarked that all vowels, including e and o -(unlike the Sanscrit vowels from which they have taken their signs) are -short, since no long vowels at all occur in the Tibetan language, -except under particular circumstances, mentioned below (s. § 9. 5, 6). -2. When vowels are initial, ཨ is used as their base, as is ا in Urdu, -e.g. ཨ་མ་ ama, ‘mother’. 3. འ is originally different from ཨ་, as the -latter denotes the opening of the previously closed throat for -pronouncing a vowel with that slight explosive sound which the Arabs -mean by أ (همزة), as the a in the words: the lily, an endogen, which -would be in Tibetan characters ལི་ལི་ཨན་; འ་ on the contrary is the mere -vowel without that audible opening of the throat (as Arabic ا without -ء), as in Lilian, ལི་ལི་འན་. In Eastern Tibet this difference is -strictly observed; and if the vowel is o or u the intentional exertion -for avoiding the sound of ཨ་ makes it resemble wo and wu: འོ་མ་ ‘the -milk’, almost like wo-ma, འུག་པ་ ‘the owl’ = wug-pa. In western Tibet -this has been obliterated, and འ་ is there spoken just like ཨ་. - - - -4. Syllables. The Tibetan language is monosyllabic, that is to say all -its words consist of one syllable only, which indeed may be variously -composed, though the component parts cannot, in every case, be -recognised in their individuality. The mark for the end of such a -syllable is a dot, called ཚེག་ tʽseg, put at the right side of the upper -part of the closing letter, such as ཀ་ the syllable ka. This tʽseg must -invariably be put at the end of each written syllable, except before a -s̀ad (§ 10), in which case only ང་ ṅa retains its tʽseg. If therefore -such a dot is found after two or more consonants, this will indicate -that all of them, some way or other, form one syllable with only one -vowel in it: ཀ་ར་ ka-ra, ཀར་ kar (cf. §§ 5. 8). - - - -5. Final consonants. 1. Only the following ten: ག་ ང་ ཏ་ ན་ བ་ མ་ འ་ ར་ -ལ་ ས་ (and the four with affixed ས, v. 5) occur at the end of a -syllable. 2. It must be observed, that ག་ ད་ བ་ as finals are never -pronounced like the English g, d, b in leg, bad, cab, but are -transformed differently in the different provinces. In Ladak they sound -like k, t, p e.g. སོག་ = sock, གོད་ = got, ཐོབ་ = top. 3. In all Central -Tibet, moreover, final ད་ and ན་, sometimes even ལ་, modify the sound -of a preceding vowel: a to ä (similar to the English a in hare, man), o -into o̤ (French eu in jeu), u into ṳ (French u in mur). In most of the -other provinces ག་ and ད་ are uttered so indistinctly as to be scarcely -audible, so that སོག་, གོད་ become sŏʼ, gŏʼ. In Tsang even final ལ་ is -scarcely perceptible, and final ག་, particularly after o, is almost -dissolved into a vowel sound = a: སོལ་བ་ so-wa, དཀོན་མཆོག་ kon-choa. [2] -4. Final ས་ is sounded as s only in Northern Ladak; elsewhere it -changes into i or disappears entirely, prolonging, or even modifying at -the same time the preceding vowel. Thus the following words: ནས་ -‘barley’, ཤེས་ ‘know’, རིས་ ‘figure’, ཆོས་ ‘religion’, ལུས་ ‘body’, are -pronounced in Northern Ladak: năs, s̀ĕs, ris, c̀ʽos, lŭs; in Lahoul: nai, -shei, rī, c̀ʽō, lū; in Lhasa, and consequently by everyone who wishes to -speak elegantly: nā̤, s̀ē, rī, c̀ʽō̤, lṳ̄. 5. In some words final ས་ occurs -as a second closing letter (affix), after ག་ ང་ བ་ མ་, as in ནགས་ -‘forest’, གངས་ ‘glacier-ice’, ཐབས་ ‘means’, རམས་ ‘indigo’; these are -pronounced in N. Ladak: nacks, gaṅs, tʽaps, rams, elsewhere nack (in Ü: -nā), gaṅ (ET ghang), tʽap, ram. 6. ན་ before པ་ and མ་ is especially in -ET very often pronounced m, e.g. ཉན་པ་ ñäm-pa, ཉོན་པ་ ñöm-pa, སྙེན་པ་ -ñem-pa. - - - -6. Diphthongs. 1. They occur in Tibetan writing only where one of the -vowels i, o, u have to be added to a word ending with an other vowel -(s. §§ 15. 1; 33. 1; 45. 2). These additional vowels are then always -written འི་, འོ་, འུ་, never ཨི་ etc. (cf. § 3. 3); and the combinations -ai, oi, ui (as in བཀའི་, མགོའི་, བུའི་) are pronounced very much like ā̤, ō̤, -ṳ̄, so that the syllables ནའི་, ཤེའི་, རིའི་, ཆོའི་, ལུའི་ can only in some -vulgar dialects be distinguished from those mentioned in § 5. 4. 2. The -others ao, eo, io, oo, uo, au, eu, iu (བཀའོ་, སྐྱེའོ་, བགྱིའོ་, འགྲོའོ་, འདུའོ་, -གའུ་, བྱེའུ་, ཁྱིའུ་) are pronounced in rapid succession, but each vowel is -distinctly audible. In prosody they are generally regarded as one -syllable, but if the verse should require it they may be counted as -two. - - - -7. Compound consonants. 1. They are expressed in writing by putting one -below the other, in which case several change their original figure. - -Subscribed consonants. 2. The letter y subjoined to another is -represented by the figure ྱ, and occurs in connection with the three -gutturals and labials, and with m, thus ཀྱ་ ཁྱ་ གྱ་ པྱ་ ཕྱ་ བྱ་ མྱ་. The -former three have preserved, in most cases, their original -pronunciation kya, kʽya, gya (the latter in ET: ghya s. § 2. 6). In the -Mongol pronunciation of Tibetan words, however, they have been -corrupted into c̀, c̀ʽ, j̀ respectively, a well known instance of which is -the common pronunciation Kanj̀ur i.o. kangyur, or eleg. ka-gyur -(བཀའ་འགྱུར་). པྱ་, ཕྱ་, བྱ་ are almost everywhere spoken without any -difference from ཅ, ཆ, ཇ (except in the Western dialect before e and i, -where the y is dropped and པ, ཕ, བ alone are pronounced). མྱ is spoken -ny = ཉ. 3. r occurs at the foot of the gutturals, dentals, labials, of -ན, མ, ས, and ཧ, in the shape of ྲ. In some parts of the country, as in -Purig, these combinations are pronounced literally, like kra, khra -etc., but by far the most general custom is to sound them like the -Indian cerebrals, viz. ཀྲ, ཏྲ, པྲ indiscriminately = ट ṭ; ཁྲ, ཐྲ, ཕྲ = ठ ṭh; -གྲ, དྲ, བྲ = ड ḍ (in CT: ḍh); only in the case of བྲ the literal -pronunciation br is not uncommon. In ནྲ and མྲ both letters are -distinctly heard; ཧྲ sounds like shr in shrub, and so does སྲ generally. -In Ü this r is dropped nearly in all cases: thus, ཕྲ pʽa, སྲ sa etc. 4. -Six letters are often found with an ལ beneath: ཀླ་ གླ་ བླ་ ཟླ་ རླ་ སླ་; in -these the ལ alone is pronounced, except in ཟླ་, which sounds da. 5. The -figure ྭ, sometimes found at the foot of a letter is used in Sanscrit -words to express the subscribed व, as in སྭཱ་ཧཱ་ (cf. § 9. 6) for स्वाहा; and -is now pronounced by Tibetans = ō: sōhā; in words originally Tibetan it -now exists merely as an orthographical mark, to distinguish homonyms in -writing, as ཚ་ tʽsa, ‘hot’ and ཚྭ་ tʽsa, ‘salt’; but, as it is spoken, -in some words at least, in Balti (e.g. རྩྭ་ rtswa ‘grass’), it must be -supposed that, in the primitive form of the language, it was generally -heard.—Note. Of such compounds, indeed, as ཕྱྭ་ ‘lot’ it is difficult to -understand, how they can have been pronounced literally, if the v was -not, perhaps, pronounced before the y. - -Superadded consonants. 6. r over another consonant is written ⸆, and 11 -consonants have this sign: རྐ་ རྒ་ རྔ་ རྟ་ རྡ་ རྣ་ རྦ་ རྨ་ རྩ་ རྫ་, above ཉ་ it -preserves its full shape, as better adapted to the form of that letter: -thus, རྙ་. In speaking it is seldom heard except provincially, and in -some instances in compound words after a vowel thus, ཨུ་རྒྱན་ Urgyán, -Urgyén, ancient name of the country of Lahore; རྡོ་རྗེ་ dórje ‘vaj̀ra’. -Ladakees often pronounce it = s: རྟ་ sta ‘horse’ elsewhere ta. 7. -Similar is the usage in those with a superadded ལ (namely: the surds -and sonants of the first four classes, the guttural nasal, and ཧ), -which latter is often softly heard in WT, but entirely dropped -elsewhere, except in the case of ལྷ, which is spoken = ལ in WT, but with -a distinct aspiration = hla or lha in ET. 8. ས is superadded to the -gutturals, dentals and labials with exception of the aspiratae, then ཉ་ -and ཙ་. It is, in many cases, distinctly pronounced in Ladak, but -dropped elsewhere [3]. 9. ག་ ད་ བ་ ཇ་ ཛ་ with any superadded letter -lose the aspiration mentioned in § 2. 6 and sound = g, d, b, j̀, ds. 10. -རྗ་ རྩ་ རྫ་ often lose even the inherent t-sound in pronunciation and are -spoken like j̀, s, z. - - -Examples. - - ཀྱིར་ཀྱིར་ kyir-kyir, round, circular. - ཁྱི་ kʽyi, dog. - གྱེན་ལ་ gyen-la, upwards. - ཕྱུགས་ c̀ʽug(s), Ü: c̀ʽū, cattle. - ཀྱུ་ kyu, hook. - ཁྱོད་ kʽyod, C: kʽyöʼ, you. - ཕྱུག་པོ་ c̀ʽug-po, rich. - ཕྱེད་ W: pʽed, C: c̀ʽĕʼ, half. - བྱ་མོ་ W: j̀á-mo, C: j̀ʽa-mo, hen. - མྱ་ངན་ W: ña-ṅán, C: -ṅän, misery. - ཀྲམ་ ṭam, cabbage. - ཁྲིམས་ ṭʽim(s), judgment. - གྲང་མོ་ W: ḍaṅ-mo, C: ḍʽ°-, cold. - ཕྲུག་གུ་ ṭʽug-gu, child. - སྲན་མ་ s̀ran-ma, srän-ma, pea. - གླ་ la, wages. - རླུང་(པོ་) luṅ(-po), wind. - ཟླ་བ་ da-wa (s. § 11 note), moon. - རྣོན་པོ་ nón-po, C: no̤m-po, sharp. - ལྗང་ཁུ་ jaṅ-kʽu (Ld. lj°), green. - སྐོམ་ (s)kom, thirst. - སྒོ་ (s)go, door. - སྒྱུར་བ་ (s)gyúr-wa, to alter, turn. - སྤྱིན་ W: (s)pin, C: c̀ʽin, glue. - སྤྲེའུ་ ṭe-u, Ld: s̀re-u, monkey. - སྨན་ W: (s)man, C: män, medicine. - བྱེ་མ་ W: bé-ma, C: j̀ʽe-ma, sand. - མྱུར་དུ་ ñur-du, quickly. - ཁྲལ་ ṭʽal, tax. - གྲི་ W: ḍi, ḍʽi (Pur: gri), knife. - དྲང་པོ་ W: ḍaṅ-po, C: ḍʽ°, straight. - བྲག་ ḍag, ḍʽag (brag), rock. - ཧྲུལ་པོ་ s̀rul-po, ragged. - བླ་མ་ lá-ma, priest. - སླ་མོ་ lá-mo, easy. - རྐང་པ་ kaṅ-pa, foot. - རྫུན་ W: zun, C: dsṳn, lie, untruth. - ལྟད་མོ་ tad-mo (Ld. lt°), C: täʼ-mo, spectacle. - སྐྲ་ W: s̀ra [4], C: ṭa, hair. - སྒྲ་ ḍa (vulg.: ra), sound, voice. - སྤུ་ (s)pu, small hair. - སྤྱོད་པ་ W: (s)c̀od-pa, C: c̀öʼ-pa, to behave. - སྦྲུལ་ W: (sb)rul, C: ḍul, snake. - སྨྱོན་པ་ W: ñon-pa, C: ño̤n-pa, mad. - - - -8. Prefixed letters. 1. The five letters ག་ ད་ བ་ མ་ འ་ frequently -occur before the real, radical initials of other words, but are seldom -pronounced, except in similar cases as § 7. 6. ག་ occurs before ཅ་ ཉ་ -ཏ་ ད་ ན་ ཙ་ ཞ་ ཟ་ ཡ་ ཤ་ ས་; ད before the gutturals and labials with -exception of the aspiratae; བ་ before ཀ་ ག་, the palatals, dentals and -palatal sibilants with the same exception as under ད, then ཞ་ ཟ་ ར་ ཤ་ -ས་; མ་ before the gutturals, palatals, dentals and palatal sibilants, -except the surds; འ before the aspiratae and sonants of the five -classes. In CT, to pronounce them in any case, is considered vulgar. 2. -The ambiguity which would arise in case of the prefix standing before -one of the 10 final consonants, as single radical, the vowel being the -unwritten a,—e.g. in the syllable དག་, which, if ད is radical, has to -be pronounced dag, if prefixed gā,—is avoided by adding an འ་ in the -latter case: thus, དགའ་. Other examples are: གད་ gad (gʽäʼ) and གདའ་ -dā; བས་ bas (bā̤, bʽā̤) and བསའ་ sā; མད་ mad (mäʼ) and མདའ་ dā; འགའ་ gā. -This འ་ is added, though the radical be not one of the mentioned -letters; as, བཀའ་ kā. 3. ད་ as a prefix and བ་ as first radical annul -each other, so that only the following sound is heard, as will be seen -in the following examples (དབང་ etc.). 4. Another irregularity is the -nasal pronunciation of the prefixed འ་ in compounds after a vowel, -which is often heard e.g. དགེ་འདུན་ pronounced gen-dún, gen-dṳ́n, but -eleg.: ge-dṳ́n, ‘clergy’; བཀའ་འབུམ་ kam-bum, eleg. ka-búm, ‘the 100 000 -precepts’ (title of a book).—Note. With regard to the aspiration of the -soft consonants in ET the prefixed letters have the same influence as -the superadded ones § 7. 9. - - -Examples. - - གཡག་ yag, bos grunniens. - དཔེ་ཆ་ pé-c̀ʽa (Ld.: spe-c̀ʽa), book. - བཟང་པོ་ záṅ-po, good. - འབབ་པ་ bab-pa, to descend. - དབང་ waṅ, vulg. C: aṅ, power. - དབུས་ Ṳ̄, name of the Lhasa district. - དབེན་པ་ en-pa, solitude. - དབྱིབས་ yib(s), ib, figure. - དཀར་པོ་ kár-po, white. - དགྲ་བོ་ ḍá-wo, enemy. - མངར་མོ་ ṅár-mo, sweet. - བཅུ་བཞི་ c̀ub-z̀i, eleg. c̀u-z̀i, fourteen. - དབུ་ u, resp. head. - དབུགས་ ug(s), C: ug, ū, breath. - དབྱར་ཀ་ yar-ka, summer. - དབྱེ་བ་ ye-wa, e-wa, difference. - - - -9. Word; Accent; Quantity. 1. The peculiarity of the Tibetan mode of -writing in distinctly marking the word-syllables, but not the words -(cf. § 4) composed of two or more of these, sometimes renders it -doubtful what is to be regarded as one word. 2. There exist a great -number of small monosyllables, which serve to denote different shades -of notions, grammatical relations etc., and are postponed to the word -in question; but never alter its original shape, though their own -initials are not seldom influenced by its final consonant (cf. § 15). -3. Such monosyllables may conveniently be regarded as terminations, -forming one word together with the preceding nominal or verbal root. 4. -The accent is, in such cases, most naturally given to the root, or, in -compounds, generally to the latter part of the composition, as: མིག་ -mig, ‘eye’, མིག་གི་ míg-gi, ‘of the eye’; ལག་ lag, ‘hand’, ལག་ཤུབས་ -lag-s̀ub(s), ‘hand-covering, glove’.—5. Equally natural is, in WT, the -quantity of the vowels: accentuated vowels, when closing the syllable, -are comparatively long (though never so long as in the English words -bee, stay, or Hindi راجا etc.), otherwise short, as མི་ mī ‘man’, མི་ལ་ -mī-lă ‘to the man’, but མར་ măr, ‘butter’.—In CT, however, even -accentuated and closing vowels are uttered very shortly: mĭ, mĭ-lă -etc., and long ones occur there only in the case of § 5, 4. 5. and 8, -2., as ལས་ lā̤ ‘work’; ཆོས་ c̀ʽō̤ ‘religion’; མདའ་ dā ‘arrow’; གཟའ་ zā -‘planet’; and in Lhasa especially: ནགས་ nā ‘forest’; ལེགས་པ་ lē-pa -‘good’; རིགས་ rī ‘class, sort’; ལོགས་ lō ‘side’; ལུགས་ lū ‘manner’.—In -Sanscrit words the long vowels are marked by an འ་ beneath the -consonant, as: ནཱ་མ་ (नाम) ‘called’, མཱུ་ལ་ (मूल) ‘root’ (s. § 3). - - - -10. Punctuation. For separating the members of a longer period, a -vertical stroke: །, called ཤད་ s̀ad (s̀äʼ), is used, which corresponds at -once to our comma, semicolon and colon; after the closing of a sentence -the same is doubled; after a longer piece, e.g. a chapter, four s̀ads -are put. No marks of interrogation or exclamation exist in -punctuation.—2. In metrical compositions, the double s̀ad is used for -separating the single verses; in that case the logical partition of the -sentence is not marked (cf. § 4). - - -A list of a few useful words. - - ཀ་ར་ or ཁ་ར་ ká-ra, kʽá-ra, sugar. - ཁང་པ་ kʽaṅ-pa, house. - གང་ W: gaṅ, C: gʽaṅ, which? - གུར་ W: gur, C: gʽur, tent. - ངལ་ ṅal, fatigue. - ཅི་ c̀i, what? - ཆད་པ་ W: c̀ʽad-pa, C: c̀ʽăʼ-pa, punishment. - ཆུང་བ་ c̀ʽuṅ-wa, little. - ཇ་ W: j̀a, C: j̀ʽa, tea. - ཉི་མ་ ñí-ma, sun; day. - ཉུང་མ་ ñúṅ-ma, turnip. - ཏིབ་རིལ་ tíb-ril, tea-pot, kettle. - ཀུན་ W: kun, C: kün, all. - ཁུང་ kʽuṅ, hole. - ག་རུ་ or གར་ W: ga-ru, gar, C: gʽ°, where? - ངན་པ་ ṅan-pa, C: ṅam-pa, bad. - ཆང་, c̀ʽaṅ, beer. - ཆར་པ་ c̀ʽár-pa, rain. - ཆེན་པོ་ c̀ʽen-po, great. - ཉ་ ña, fish. - ཉུང་བ་ ñuṅ-wa, little, few. - ཉེ་མོ་ ñe-mo, near. - ཏོག་ཙེ་ tóg-tse (W), hoe. - ཐག་པ་ tʽag-pa, rope. - ཐོད་པ་ W: tʽód-pa, C: tʽöʼ-pa, skull. - དང་ daṅ, dʽaṅ, and; with. - ནག་པོ nag-po, black. - ནོར་ nor, wealth, property. - ཕན་པ་ pʽan-pa, pʽäm-pa, use, benefit. - བ་ ba, bʽa, cow. - བུ་ bu, bʽu, son. - མེ་ me, fire. - མེད་ med, mĕʼ, there is not. - ཚང་མ་ tʽsaṅ-ma, whole. - ཞོ་ z̀o, s̀ŏ, curdled milk. - འོད་ od, wöʼ, light, shine. - ཡི་གེ་ yí-ge, letter. - ཡོད་ yod, yöʼ, am, is, are. - རི་ ri, hill, mountain. - ལ་ la, mountain-pass. - ལུག་ lug, sheep. - ཐང་ tʽáṅ, the plain. - ད་ W: da, C: dʽa, now. - དུད་པ་ dud-pa, dʽüʼ-pa, smoke. - ནད་ nad, näʼ, disease. - པར་མ་ pár-ma, a printed book. - ཕུག་རོན་ pʽug-rón, -ró̤n, dove. - བལ་ bal, bʽal, wool. - བུ་མོ་ bu-mo, bʽ°, daughter. - མིང་ miṅ, name. - ཙམ་ tsam, how much? - ཞག་ z̀ag, C: s̀ag, day. - འོ་མ་ o-ma, wo-ma, milk. - ཡང་ yaṅ, also. - ཡིན་ yin, am, is, are (cf. § 39). - ར་མ་ ra-ma, goat. - རིན་ rin, price. - ལམ་ lam, road. - ཤ་ s̀a, flesh, meat. - ཤིང་ s̀iṅ, tree, wood. - སུ་ su, who? - ཨ་ཕ་ a-pʽa, (vulg.) father. - རས་ (Ld: ras) rā̤, cotton cloth. - གོས་ (Ld: gos) gō̤, gʽō̤, clothing. - སེམས་ sem, soul. - ཁྲག་ ṭʽag, blood. - སླེབ་པ་ leb-pa, to arrive. - རྩྭ་ W: sa, C: tsa, grass. - སྔོན་པོ་ ṅon-po, ṅo̤m-po, blue. - གཞུ་ z̀u, bow (for shooting). - དགུན་ཀ་ gun-ka, gṳn-ka, winter. - མཚོ་ tʽso, lake. - འདྲི་བ་ ḍi-wa, to ask. - ས་ sa, earth. - སོ་མ་ só-ma, new. - ཨ་མ་ a-ma, (vulg.) mother. - དུས་ (Ld.: dus) dṳ̄, dʽṳ̄, time. - ཐབས་ tʽab(s), means. - བག་ཕྱེ་ W: bag-pʽe, C: bʽag-c̀ʽe, flour. - གྲོ་ ḍo, ḍʽŏ, wheat. - རྒད་པོ་ gad-po, gʽäʼ-po, old. - སྐྱེ་བ་ (s)kye-wa, to be born, grow. - སྙིང་ ñiṅ, heart. - གཟིག་ zig, leopard. - མགྱོགས་པ་ gyog(s)-pa (Ü: gyō-pa), fast, quick. - འབྲི་བ་ ḍi-wa (bri-wa), to write. - - - - - - - - -PART II. - -ETYMOLOGY. - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE ARTICLE. - - -11. Peculiarities of the Tibetan article. 1. What have been called -Articles by Csoma and Schmidt, are a number of little affixes: པ་ བ་ མ་ -པོ་ བོ་ མོ་, and some similar ones, which might perhaps be more adequately -termed denominators, since their principal object is undoubtedly to -represent a given root as a noun, substantive or adjective, as is most -clearly perceptible in the instance of the roots of verbs, to which པ་ -or བ་ impart the notion of the Infinitive and Participle, or the -nearest abstract and nearest concrete nouns that can possibly be formed -from the idea of a verb. These affixes are not, however,—except in this -case—essential to a noun, as many substantives and adjectives and most -of the pronouns are never accompanied by them, and even those which -usually appear connected with them, will drop them upon the slightest -occasion. 2. Almost the only case in which a syntactical use of them, -like that of the English definite Article, is perceptible, is that -mentioned § 20. 3; a formal one, that of distinguishing the Gender, -occurs in a limited number of words, where མོ་ denotes the female, པོ་ -the masculine. Thus: རྒྱལ་པོ་ gyál-po ‘king’, རྒྱལ་མོ་ gyál-mo ‘queen’. Or, -if the word in the masculine (or rather common) gender has no article, -མོ་ is added: སེང་གེ་ séṅ-ge ‘lion’, སེང་གེ་མོ་ ‘lioness’. 3. In most -instances, by far, their only use is to distinguish different meanings -of homonymous roots, e.g. སྟོན་པ་ (s)tón-pa (tó̤n-pa), ‘teacher’; སྟོན་མོ་ -(s)tón-mo (tó̤n-mo) ‘feast’; སྟོན་ཁ་ (s)tón-kʽa (tó̤n-kʽa) ‘autumn’. Even -this advantage, however, is given up, as soon as a composition takes -place, and then the meaning can only be inferred from the context, or -known from usage: མིང་སྟོན་ (from སྟོན་མོ་) ‘name feast’ (given on the -occasion of naming or christening an infant); སྟོན་ཟླ་ (from སྟོན་ཁ་) -‘autumnal month’. In some instances the putting or omitting of these -articles is optional; more frequently the usage varies in different -provinces. 4. The peculiar nature of these affixes is most clearly -shown by the manner in which they are connected with the indefinite -article § 13. - -Note. The affixes བ་ བོ་ are after vowels and after the consonants ང་ ར་ -ལ་ always pronounced wa and wo, instead of ba and bo; thus, དཀའ་བ་ -ka-wa ‘difficult’; རེ་བ་ re-wa ‘hope’; གང་བ་ gaṅ-wa (gh°) ‘full’; ཟེར་བ་ -zer-wa (ser-wa) ‘to say’; མྱལ་བ་ nyal-wa ‘hell’; ཇོ་བོ་ jo-wo (jho-wo) -‘lord, master’. - - - -12. Difference of the Articles among each other. 1. The usage of པ་ བ་ -མ་ is the most general and widest of all, as they occur with all sorts -of substantives and other nouns. པ་ is particularly used for denoting a -man who is in a certain way connected with a certain thing (something -like والا and دار in Hindustāni and Persian): གྲྭ་ ḍa ‘school’, གྲྭ་པ་ -(literally: scholar) ‘disciple, novice’; ཆུ་ c̀ʽu ‘water’, ཆུ་པ་ -‘water-carrier’ (پانى والا); རྟ་ ‘horse’, རྟ་པ་ ‘horseman’; དབུས་ ‘the -province of Ṳ̄’, དབུས་པ་ ‘a man from Ṳ̄’, ཁྱེའུ་ kʽyëu ‘boy’, ལོ་ lo ‘year’, -གཉིས་ ñi(s) ‘two’, hence: ཁྱེའུ་ལོ་གཉིས་པ་ ‘a two years’ boy’. If the -feminine is required མ་ is either added to, or—more commonly—used -instead of, the former: དབུས་མ་ ‘a woman from Ṳ̄’; བུ་མོ་ལོ་གཉིས་མ་ ‘a two -years’ girl’. The performer of an action is more frequently denoted by -པོ་ (or, in more solemn language, པ་པོ་), though, in conversation at -least, མཁན་ kʽan (kʽe̱n), is preferred; བྱེད་པ་ j̀ed-pa ‘to do, make; -doing, making’: བྱེད་པོ་, བྱེད་པ་པོ་, བྱེད་མཁན་ ‘the doer, maker’. 2. The -appendices ཀ་ ཁ་ ག་ occur with a limited number of nouns only, -especially the names of the seasons, with numerals, and some pronouns. -(ཀོ་ seems to be a vulgar form of pronunciation for ཀ་). - - - -13. The indefinite Article. This is the numeral one (§ 13), only -deprived of its prefix, viz.: ཅིག་, which form it retains, if the -preceding word ends with ག་ ད་ བ་, as: ཁབ་ཅིག་ kʽab-c̀ig, a needle; it is -changed to ཤིག་ after ས་, རས་ཤིག་ ras-s̀ig, rä-s̀ig, a cloth; to ཞིག་ z̀ig -(s̀ig) in all other cases. Some authors use ཅིག་ after any termination -indiscriminately. It is, of course, always without accent. The articles -པ་ བ་ etc. are not superseded by the indefinite article e.g. སྟོན་པ་ -‘teacher, the teacher’, སྟོན་པ་ཞིག་ ‘a teacher’. It is used even after a -plurality: thus, ཆུ་མིག་བཞི་ཞིག་དེ་རུ་ཡོད་ ‘there were some four wells’, and -even: མང་ཞིག་གདའ་སྟེ་ ‘there being a multitude of them’ (from Mil.). Very -often it is placed after the interrogative pronouns (v. 27), and -sometimes its original meaning is obscured so much that it occurs even -after known and definite subjects, where one would expect the -demonstrative (see f. i. Dzl. 25, 1. 28, 6. 128, 14). - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE SUBSTANTIVE. - - -14. The Number. The Plural is denoted by adding the word རྣམས་ nam, or, -more rarely, དག་ dag (dʽag), ཚོ་, or a few other words, which originally -were nouns with the common notion of plurality. But this mark of the -Plural is usually omitted, when the plurality of the thing in question -may be known from other circumstances, e.g. when a numeral is added: -thus, མི་ ‘man’, མི་རྣམས་ ‘men’, མི་གསུམ་ ‘three men’. When a substantive is -connected with an adjective, the plural sign is added only once, viz. -after the last of the connected words: མི་བཟང་པོ་རྣམས་ ‘the good men’. - -Note. The conversational language uses the words རྣམས་ etc. seldom, in -WT scarcely ever (an exception s. 24. Remarks), but adds, when -necessary, such words as: all, many, some; two, three, seven, eight, or -other suitable numerals (cf. § 20, 5.). - - - -15. Declension. The regular addition of the different particles or -single sounds by which the cases are formed is the same for all nouns, -whether substantives or adjectives, pronouns or participles. Only in -some cases, in the Dative and Instrumental, the noun itself is changed, -when, ending in a vowel, it admits of a closer connection with the -corrupted case-sign. We may reckon in Tibetan seven cases, expressive -of all the relations, for which cases are used in other languages, viz: -nominative and accusative, genitive, instrumental, dative, locative, -ablative, terminative and vocative. 1. The unaltered form of the noun -has some of the functions of our Nominative and those of the Accusative -and Vocative. 2. The sign of the Genitive is ཀྱི་ after words with the -finals ད་ བ་ ས་; གྱི་ after ན་ མ་ ར་ ལ་, གི་ after ག་ and ང་; after vowels -i is simply added by means of an འ་ thus: འི་, which then will form a -diphthong with the vowel of the noun (cf. § 6), or if, in -versification, two syllables are required, i appears supported by an ཡ་ -forming a distinct word. 3. The Instrumental or Agent is expressed by -the particles ཀྱིས་, གྱིས་ or གིས་ after the respective consonants as -specified above; after vowels simply ས་ is added, or, in verse, -sometimes ཡིས་. - -Note. The instrumental is, in modern pronunciation, except in Northern -Ladak, scarcely discernible from the genitive, and there are but few if -any, even among lamas, who are not liable to confound both cases in -writing. - -In the language of common life, in WT, the different forms of the -particle of the genitive and instrumental, after consonants, ཀྱི་ གྱི་ etc. -are never heard, but everywhere the final consonant is doubled and the -vowel i added to it, thus: ལུས་, G. lus-si (Ld.), lṳ̄-i; ལམ་, G. lam-mi; -གསེར་ (gold), G. ser-ri etc; or, in other words, all nouns ending in -consonants are formed like those ending with ག་ (see the example མིག་). -In those ending with a vowel no irregularity takes place. - -4. The Dative adds indiscriminately the postposition ལ་ la, denoting -the relation of space in the widest sense, expressed by the English -prepositions in, into, at, on, to. 5. The Locative is formed by the -postposition ན་ na ‘in’. 6. The Ablative by ནས་ nā̤ or ལས་ lā̤ ‘from’ -(the latter especially with the meaning: from among), all three -likewise without any discriminating regard to the ending of the noun. -7. The Terminative is expressed by the postpositions རུ་ or ར་ after -vowels; ཏུ་ after final ག་ and བ་ and, in certain words, ད་ ར་ ལ་; སུ་ -after ས་; དུ་ generally after ན་ ར་ ལ་ and the other final consonants. -All these postpositions denote the motion to or into. 8. The Vocative -is not different from the Nominative (as stated above), if not -distinguished by the interjection ཀྱེ་ oh!, and can only be known from -the context. - - - -Examples of declension. As example of the declension of consonantal -nouns we may take 1. for those in s (respectively d, b), ལུས་ lus, lṳ̄, -‘body’; 2. for those in m (n, r, l), ལམ་ lam ‘way’; 3. for those in g -(ṅ), མིག་ mig ‘eye’,—of that of vocalic nouns: 4. ཁ་ kʽa or kʽa-wa -‘snow’. - - -Singular. - - 1. 2. -N. Acc. ལུས་ lus, lṳ̄ ལམ་ lam -Gen. ལུས་ཀྱི་ lus-kyi, lṳ̄-kyi; ལམ་གྱི་ lam-gyi; lam-mi - lus-si, lṳ̄i -Inst. ལུས་ཀྱིས་ lus-kyis, ལམ་གྱིས་ lam-gyis, -gyī; lam-mī - lṳ̄-kyī; lus-sī, lṳ̄ī -Dat. ལུས་ལ་ lus-la, lṳ̄-la ལམ་ལ་ lam-la -Loc. ལུས་ན་ lus-na ལམ་ན་ lam-na -Abl. ལུས་ནས་ lus-nā̤ ལམ་ནས་ lam-nā̤ -Term. ལུས་སུ་ lus-su ལམ་དུ་ lam-du - - 3. 4. -N. Acc. མིག་ mig ཁ་ kʽa; ཁ་བ་ kʽa-wa -Gen. མིག་གི་ mig-gi ཁའི་ kʽai; ཁ་བའི་ kʽa-wai -Inst. མིག་གིས་ mig-gis, -gī ཁས་ kʽā̤; ཁ་བས་ kʽa-wā̤ -Dat. མིག་ལ་ mig-la ཁ་ལ་ kʽa-la; ཁ་བ་ལ་ kʽa-wa-la -Loc. མིག་ན་ mig-na ཁ་ན་ kʽa-na; ཁ་བ་ན་ kʽa-wa-na -Abl. མིག་ནས་ mig-nā̤ ཁ་ནས་ kʽa-nā̤; ཁ་བ་ནས་ - kʽa-wa-nā̤ -Term. མིག་ཏུ་ mig-tu ཁ་རུ་, ཁར་ kʽa-ru, kʽar; - ཁ་བ་རུ་, ཁ་བར་ kʽa-wa-ru, - kʽa-war. - - - -Plural. - -As the plural signs are simply added to the nouns, without affecting -their form, we here only give examples of declension with the two most -frequent plural particles. As example for དག་ the plural of the pron. -དེ་ ‘that’ has been chosen. - - - N. Acc. ལུས་རྣམས་ lus(lṳ̄-)-nam(s) དེ་དག་ de-dag - Gen. ལུས་རྣམས་ཀྱི་ lus-nam(s)-kyi དེ་དག་གི་ de-dag-gi - Inst. ལུས་རྣམས་ཀྱིས་ lus-nam(s)-kyis དེ་དག་གིས་ de-dag-gis - Dat. ལུས་རྣམས་ལ་ lus-nam(s)-la དེ་དག་ལ་ de-dag-la - Loc. ལུས་རྣམས་ན་ lus-nam(s)-na དེ་དག་ན་ de-dag-na - Abl. ལུས་རྣམས་ནས་ lus-nam(s)-nā̤ དེ་དག་ནས་ de-dag-nā̤ - Term. ལུས་རྣམས་སུ་ lus-nam(s)-su དེ་དག་ཏུ་ de-dag-tu - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE ADJECTIVE. - - -16. In the Tibetan language the Adjective is not formally distinguished -from the Substantive, so that many nouns may be used one or the other -way just as circumstances require. [5] The declension, likewise, -follows the same rules as that of substantives. Only two remarks may be -added here. 1. The particles པ་ མ་ པོ་ མོ་ are not very strictly used for -distinguishing the gender, since even in the case of human beings པ་ -and པོ་ are not seldom found connected with feminines, e.g.: བུ་མོ་མཛེས་པ་ -just as well as བུ་མོ་མཛེས་མ་ ‘a fine girl’. 2. The Adjective stands after -the Substantive to which it belongs: thus, རི་མཐོན་པོ་ ri-tʽón-po, C: -ri-tʽo̤n-po, ‘the high hill’, when, of course, the case-signs are joined -to the Adjective: རི་མཐོན་པོའི་ ‘of the high hill’, རི་མཐོན་པོ་རྣམས་ ‘the high -hills’ etc. - -Or the Adjective may be put in the Gen. before the Substantive: -མཐོན་པོའི་རི་, and then the latter only is declined: མཐོན་པོའི་རིའི་, -མཐོན་པོའི་རི་རྣམས་. In the vulgar speech both of C and WT the adjective -sometimes preserves, even in this position, its simple form -(Nominative). A third way of expression, when both are joined together, -without any article, as སྐམ་ས་ instead of ས་སྐམ་པོ་ ‘the dry land’, is -rather a compound substantive, with the same difference of meaning as -‘highland’ and ‘a high land’ in English. - - - -17. Comparison. 1. Special terminations, expressive of the different -degrees of comparison, as in the Aryan languages, do not exist in -Tibetan. There are two particles, however, corresponding to the English -than: བས་, after the final consonants ང་ ར་ ལ་ and after vowels (པས་, -after ག་ ད་ ན་ བ་ མ་ ས་ [6]), and ལས་; these particles follow the word -with which another is compared (like the Hind. سے) and this then -precedes the compared one, finally follows the adjective in the -positive: རྟ་བས་ (or ལས་) ཁྱི་ཆུང་བ་ཡིན་ ‘horse—than dog small is’, just as -in Hindūstāni: گھوڑى سے كتّا چھوٹا ھَى. But also the position usual in -our European languages occurs, thus: -རབ་ཏུ་འབྱུང་བའི་བསོད་ནམས་རི་རབ་ལྷུན་པོ་བས་འཕངས་མཐོའོ་ ‘the merit of becoming a -priest is relatively higher than mount Meru’; -བོད་གྱི་རྒྱལ་པོ་གཞན་ལས་ཆེ་བ་ཡིན་ནོ་ ‘the king of Tibet is greater than the other -ones’. The particle བས་ (པས་) may be put, in the same manner, after -adverbs. Thus, སྔར་བས་གསལ་བར་མཐོང་བར་གྱུར་ཏོ་ ‘(their eyes) became more -keen-sighted than before’. Or, after infinitives, -གཞན་སོང་བ་བས་ནུ་བོས་སོང་ན་ཕན་ ‘it is better (for him) that his younger -brother should go (with him) than another’. ལས་ for itself has the -meaning of ‘more than’, with the negative: ‘not more than’, ‘only’; -thus: ང་ལ་སྲང་གཉིས་ལས་ནི་མི་དགོས་ ‘more than two ounces I do not want’ (cf. -vulg. WT: གསུམ་མན་ན་མེད་ ‘there are not more than (only) three’); or -‘nothing but’, ‘only’, རི་དྭགས་ཤོར་བ་ལས་དགའ་བ་མེད་ ‘there is no pleasure -(for us) but hunting, h. is our only pl.’. - -2. An Adverb which augments the notion of the adjective itself, is -ལྷག་པར་ ‘more’; this can be added ad libitum: རྟ་བས་ཁྱི་ལྷག་པར་ཆུང་བ་ཡིན་. - -3. Another adverb, ཇེ་ means: ‘more and more’, ‘gradually more’, e.g. -ཇེ་ཉེ་ཇེ་ཉེ་སོང་སྟེ་ ‘going nearer and nearer’. 4. ‘The elder—the younger’ -e.g. of two brothers, is simply expressed by: ‘the great—the little’. -5. The Superlative is paraphrased by the same means: ཀུན་ལས་ཆེན་པོ་ or -ཐམས་ཅད་པས་ཆེན་པོ་ ‘greater than all’. Or it is expressed in the following -manner: ཡུལ་གྱི་རྒྱལ་པོའི་ནང་ན་རྒྱལ་པོ་གང་ཆེ་ ‘of (among) the kings of the country -which one is the greatest (prop. great)?’. Adverbs for expressing high -degrees are: ཤིན་ཏུ་ or རབ་ཏུ་ ‘very’, ཀུན་ཏུ་ ‘all’, ཡོངས་སུ་ ‘quite’, མཆོག་ཏུ་ -‘exceedingly’ etc. - -Note. The colloquial language of WT uses སང་ instead of བས་ or ལས་, and -མཱ་ (mā, always with a strong emphasis, perhaps a mutilated form of མངས་ -‘much’) or མང་པོ་ instead of ཤིན་ཏུ་, whereas that of CT employs ལས་ in -the former case, but repeats the adjective in the latter, so that ‘very -large’ is expressed in books by ཤིན་ཏུ་ཆེན་པོ་, in speaking, in WT by mā́ -c̀ʽén-po, in CT by c̀ʽem-po c̀ʽem-po. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE NUMERALS. - - -18. Cardinals: - - - 1 ༡ གཅིག་ c̀ig - 2 ༢ གཉིས་ ñi(s) - 3 ༣ གསུམ་ sum - 4 ༤ བཞི་ z̀i - 5 ༥ ལྔ་ ṅa - 6 ༦ དྲུག་ W: ḍug, C: ḍhug - 7 ༧ བདུན་ W: dun, C: dhṳn - 8 ༨ བརྒྱད་ W: gyad, C: gyäʼ - 9 ༩ དགུ་ gu - 10 ༡༠ བཅུ་ c̀u, or བཅུ་ཐམ་པ་ c̀u-tʽam-pa - 11 ༡༡ བཅུ་གཅིག་ c̀u-c̀ig - 12 ༡༢ བཅུ་གཉིས་ c̀u-ñí, vulg: c̀ug-ñí(s) - 13 ༡༣ བཅུ་གསུམ་ c̀u-súm, vulg: c̀ug-súm - 14 ༡༤ བཅུ་བཞི་ c̀u-z̀í, vulg: c̀ub-z̀í - 15 ༡༥ བཅོ་ལྔ་ c̀o-ṅá - 16 ༡༦ བཅུ་དྲུག་ c̀u-ḍúg, C: -ḍhúg - 17 ༡༧ བཅུ་བདུན་ c̀u-dún, C: -dṳ́n, vulg: c̀ub-d° - 18 ༡༨ བཅོ་བརྒྱད་ c̀o-gyád, C: -gyäʼ, vulg: c̀ob-g° - 19 ༡༩ བཅུ་དགུ་ c̀u-gú - 20 ༢༠ ཉི་ཤུ་ ñi-s̀u - 21 ༢༡ ཉི་ཤུ་རྩ་གཅིག་ ñi-s̀u-sa-c̀íg, or ཉེར་གཅིག་ - ñer-c̀íg - 30 ༣༠ སུམ་ཅུ་ súm-c̀u - 31 ༣༡ སུམ་ཅུ་རྩ་གཅིག་ sum-c̀u-sa-c̀íg, སོ་གཅིག་ - so-c̀ig - 40 ༤༠ བཞི་བཅུ་ z̀i-c̀u, vulg: z̀ib-c̀u - 41 ༤༡ བཞི་བཅུ་རྩ་གཅིག་ z̀i-c̀u-sa-c̀íg, ཞེ་གཅིག་ - z̀e-c̀íg - 50 ༥༠ ལྔ་བཅུ་ ṅa-c̀u, vulg: ṅab-c̀u - 51 ༥༡ ལྔ་བཅུ་རྩ་གཅིག་ ṅa-c̀u-sa-c̀íg, ང་གཅིག་ - ṅa-c̀ig - 60 ༦༠ དྲུག་ཅུ་ ḍug-c̀u, C: ḍhug-c̀u - 61 ༦༡ དྲུག་ཅུ་རྩ་གཅིག་ ḍug-c̀u-sa-c̀íg, རེ་གཅིག་ - re-c̀íg - 70 ༧༠ བདུན་ཅུ་ dun-c̀u, C: dṳn-c̀u - 71 ༧༡ བདུན་ཅུ་རྩ་གཅིག་ dun-c̀u-sa-c̀íg, དོན་གཅིག་ - don-c̀íg - 80 ༨༠ བརྒྱད་ཅུ་ gyád-c̀u, C: gyäʼ-c̀u - 81 ༨༡ བརྒྱད་ཅུ་རྩ་གཅིག་ gyad-c̀u-sa-c̀íg, གྱ་གཅིག་ - gya-c̀íg - 90 ༩༠ དགུ་བཅུ་ gú-c̀u, vulg: gúb-c̀u - 91 ༩༡ དགུ་བཅུ་རྩ་གཅིག་ gu-c̀u-sa-c̀ig, གོ་གཅིག་ - go-c̀íg (C: gʽo-c̀íg) - 100 ༡༠༠ བརྒྱ་(ཐམ་པ་) gya (tʽám-pa) - 101 ༡༠༡ བརྒྱ་དང་གཅིག་ or བརྒྱ་རྩ་གཅིག་ gya daṅ (or - sa) c̀íg - 200 ༢༠༠ ཉི་བརྒྱ་ ñi-gya, vulg: ñib-gya - 300 ༣༠༠ སུམ་བརྒྱ་ sum-gya - 400 ༤༠༠ བཞི་བརྒྱ་ z̀i-gya, vulg: z̀ib-gya etc. - 1000 ༡༠༠༠ སྟོང་ (s)toṅ - 10 000 ༡༠ ༠༠༠ ཁྲི་ ṭʽi - 100 000 ༡༠༠ ༠༠༠ འབུམ་ bum - 1 000 000 ༡ ༠༠༠ ༠༠༠ ས་ཡ་ sa-ya -10 000 000 ༡༠ ༠༠༠ ༠༠༠ བྱེ་བ་ j̀e-wa - - -There are, as in Sanscrit, names for many more powers of 10, but they -are seldom used. - - - -19. Ordinals. དང་པོ་ W: daṅ-po, C: dʽ° ‘the first’, the rest are simply -formed by adding པ་ to the cardinals, as: གཉིས་པ་, ‘the second’ etc.; -the 21st is ཉི་ཤུ་རྩ་གཅིག་པ་ ‘the twenty-oneth’, not, as in English, ‘the -twenty first’. - - - -20. Remarks. 1. The smaller number postponed indicates, as is seen in § -18, addition, the reverse—multiplication: བཅུ་གསུམ་ 13, སུམ་ཅུ་ 30; but in -the latter case the three first numerals are changed to ཆིག་, ཉི་, སུམ་; -and བཅུ་, as the second part of a compound after consonants, is spelled -ཅུ་. 2. The words ཐམ་པ་ (after full tens up to one hundred), ཕྲག་ (after -hundreds and thousands [7]), ཚོ་ (with still greater numbers), are -optional but frequent additions. རྩ་ is common instead of དང་ ‘and’, to -connect units with tens (s. § 18), but it occurs also with hundreds and -thousands, and not seldom together with དང་, e.g. སྟོང་དང་རྩ་གཉིས་, 1002. -It is used also instead of ཐམ་པ་, as: བཅུ་རྩ་ ten, ཉི་ཤུ་རྩ་ twenty; often -it is standing alone for ཉི་ཤུ་རྩ་, as རྩ་གཉིས་, twenty two. This latter -custom may have caused the belief, common even among educated readers -in C and WT, that རྩ་ must mean twenty, even when connecting a hundred -or thousand to a unit, as they will usually understand the above -mentioned number in the sense of 1022 instead of 1002; but the -authority of printed books, wherever the exact number can be verified -from other circumstances, does not confirm this, which would indeed be -a sadly ambiguous phraseology. 3. ཀ་ added to a cardinal number means -conjunction: གཉིས་ཀ་, the two together, both; གསུམ་ཀ་, the three -together, all three etc. པོ་ means either the same, or represents the -definite article, indicating that the number has been already -mentioned, e.g. མི་ལྔ༌༌༌༌ བཏང་ངོ༌། །མི་ལྔ་པོ་བསླེབ་སྟེ༌༌༌༌, five men were -sent.... The five men arriving etc. 4. པ་ is used, besides forming -Ordinals, to express the notion of ‘containing’, e.g. ཡི་གེ་དྲུག་པ་ ‘that -containing six letters’, viz. the famous formula: ཨོཾ་མ་ཎི་པ་དྨེ་ཧཱུཾ་ om maṇi -padme hum; སུམ་ཅུ་པ་ ‘that containing thirty (letters)’, the Tibetan -alphabet. 5. Such combinations as གཉིས་གསུམ་ etc. are frequently used in -common life, to denote a number approximately, ‘two or three or so’ -(cf. § 14 Note). - - - -21. Distributive numerals. They are expressed by repetition as in -Hind.: དྲུག་དྲུག་ each time six, six for each etc. In composed numerals -only the last member is repeated, thus སུམ་ཅུ་རྩ་གཉིས་གཉིས་ each time thirty -two. - - - -22. Adverbial numerals. 1. Firstly, secondly etc. are formed from the -ordinals as every Adverb is from an Adjective, viz. by adding the -letter ར་, དང་པོར་, གཉིས་པར་ etc. (s. § 41). 2. Multiplicative adverbs, -‘once’, ‘twice’ etc., are expressed by putting ལན་ ‘times’ before the -cardinal: ལན་གཅིག་, ལན་གཉིས་, W: lan-c̀ig, lan-ñi(s), C: län-c̀ig, län-ñī -‘once, twice’ etc.: seldom ཚེར་, ཚར་, ཐེངས་ with the same meaning as ལན་. - - - -23. Fractional numerals are formed by adding ཆ་ ‘part’: thus, བརྒྱའི་ཆ་ ‘a -hundredth part’ etc., but also: བང་མཛོད་གསུམ་ཆ་ཞིག་ ‘one third of the -treasury’. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -PRONOUNS. - - -24. Personal Pronouns. First person: ང་ ṅa; ངེད་ ṅed, ṅĕʼ; ངོས་ ṅos -(Ld.); ཁོ་བོ་ kʽo-wo, masc., and ཁོ་མོ་ kʽo-mo, fem.; བདག་ dag ‘self’—‘I’; -Second person: ཁྱོད་ kʽyod (kʽyöʼ), ཁྱེད་ kʽyed (kʽyĕʼ) ‘thou, you’; Third -person: ཁོ་ kʽo, ཁོང་ kʽoṅ—‘he, she, it’. - -The plural is formed by adding ཅག་, རྣམས་, ཅག་རྣམས་ or ཚོ་, but very -often, if circumstances show the meaning with sufficient certainty, the -sign of the plural is altogether omitted. The declension is the same as -that of the substantives. - -Remarks: ང་ is the most common and can be used by every body; ངེད་ seems -to be preferred in elegant speech (s. Note); ངོས་ is very common in -modern letter-writing, at least in WT; བདག་ ‘self’, when speaking to -superior persons occurs very often in books, but has disappeared from -common speech, except in the province of Tsaṅ (Ṭas̀ilhunpo) as also the -following; ཁོ་བོ་, ཁོ་མོ་ in easy conversation with persons of equal rank, -or to inferiors. - -2. person. ཁྱོད་ is used in books in addressing even the highest persons, -but in modern conversation only among equals or to inferiors; ཁྱེད་ is -elegant and respectful, especially in books.— - -3. person. ཁོ་ seldom occurs in books, where the demonstr. pron. དེ་ (§ -26) is generally used instead; ཁོང་ is common to both the written and -the spoken language, and used, at least in the latter, as respectful. -But it must be remarked that the pronoun of the third person is in most -cases entirely omitted, even when there is a change of subject.—Instead -of ང་ཅག་ and ཁྱོད་ཅག་ the people of WT use ང་ཞ་ and ཁྱོ་ཞ་; the vulgar -plural of ཁོ་ is ཁོ་པ་.— - -To each of these pronouns may be added: རང་ raṅ or ཉིད་ ñid, ñĭʼ ‘self’, -and in conversational language ང་རང་, ཁྱོད་རང་, ཁོ་རང་ are, perhaps, even -more frequently used than the simple forms, without any difference in -the meaning. ཉིད་ is more prevalent in books, except the compound ཉིད་རང་ -ñi-raṅ, which is in modern speech the usual respectful pronoun of -address, like ‘Sie’ in German. - -Note. The predilection of Eastern Asiatics for a system of ceremonials -in the language is met with also in Tibetan. There is one separate -class of words, which must be used in reference to the honoured person, -when spoken to as well as when spoken of. To this class belong, besides -the pronouns ཉིད་རང་, ཁྱེད་, ཁོང་, all the respectful terms by which the -body or soul, or parts of the same, and all things or persons -pertaining to such a person, and even his actions, must be called. The -terms, most frequently occurring, have special expressions, as སྐུ་ -(s)ku, instead of ལུས་ lus, lṳ̄, ‘body’; དབུ་ u, i.o. མགོ་ go ‘head’; ཐུགས་ -tʽug(s) (Ü: tʽū), i.o. སེམས་ sem(s) ‘soul’, or ཡིད་ yid, yĭʼ, ‘mind’; ཡབ་ -yab, i.o. ཕ་ (vulg: ཨ་ཕ་), ‘father’; ན་བཟའ་ na-za, i.o. གོས་ gos, gō̤, -‘coat’, ‘dress’; ཆིབས་ c̀ʽib(s), i.o. རྟ་ (r)ta, sta ‘horse’; བཞུགས་པ་ -z̀ug(s)-pa (Ü: z̀ū-pa), i.o. སྡོད་པ་ dod-pa, döʼ-pa ‘to sit’; མཛད་པ་ -dzad-pa, dzäʼ-pa i.o. བྱེད་པ་ j̀ed-pa, j̀hĕʼ-pa ‘to make’ and many others. -If there is no such special word, any substantive may be rendered -respectful by adding སྐུ་ or ཐུགས་ respectively (so, སྐུ་ཚེ་ i.o. ཚེ་ -‘lifetime’; ཐུགས་ཁྲོ་བ་ i.o. ཁྲོ་བ་ ‘anger’) and any verb by adding མཛན་པ་, -according to 39, 1. Another class of what might be called elegant terms -are to be used when conversing with an honoured person (or also by a -high person speaking of himself), such as བགྱིད་པ་ gyid-pa, gyĭʼ-pa ‘to -do’; མཆིས་པ་ c̀ʽī-pa ‘to be’; སླད་དུ་ lad-du, läʼ-du i.o. ཕྱིར་དུ་ ‘for the -sake of’, without reference to the said person himself. Even uneducated -people know, and make use of, most of the ‘respectful’ terms, but the -merely ‘elegant’ ones are, at least in WT, seldom or never heard in -conversation. - - - -25. Possessive pronouns. The Possessive is simply expressed by the -Genitive of the Personal, ངའི་, ཁྱོད་ཀྱི་ etc. ‘His’, ‘her’, ‘its’, when -referring to the acting subject (suus), must be expressed by རང་གི་ or -ཉིད་ཀྱི་ ‘his own’; otherwise (ejus) by ཁོའི་, ཁོང་གི་, དེའི་. In C, in the -latter case, ང་ཅན་, ཁྱོད་ཅན་, ཁོ་ཅན་ are used. - - - -26. Reflective and Reciprocal pronouns. 1. The Reflective pronoun, -‘myself’, ‘yourself’ etc. is expressed by རང་, ཉིད་, also བདག་. But in -the case of the same person being the subject and object of an action, -it must be paraphrased, so for ‘he precipitated himself from the rock’ -must be said ‘he precipitated his own body etc.’ རང་གི་ལུས་; for ‘he -rebuked himself’—‘he rebuked his own soul’ རང་གི་སེམས་.—2. The reciprocal -pronoun ‘each other’ or ‘one another’ is rendered by ‘one—one’, as -གཅིག་གིས་གཅིག་བསད་ ‘by one one was killed’, ‘they killed one another’; -གཅིག་ལ་གཅིག་ན་རེ་ ‘to one one said’, ‘they said to each other’. - - - -27. Demonstrative pronouns. 1. འདི་ di, ‘this’; དེ་ de, dhe ‘that’ are -those most frequently used, both in books and speaking. The Plural is -generally formed by དག་, but also by རྣམས་ and ཚོ་. More emphatical are -འདི་ཀ་, འདི་ག་, འདི་ཀོ་, འདི་གོ་, ‘just this’, ‘this same’; དེ་ཀ་ etc. ‘that -same’.—The vulgar dialect also uses ཧ་གྱི་ hắ-gyi and ཕ་གྱི་ pʽắ-gyi for -‘that’, ‘yonder’, and, in WT, ཨི་, ཨི་པོ་ for ‘this’ and ཨ་ for ‘that’; -ཕ་གྱི་ occurs even in books.—2. It is worth remarking that the -distinction of the nearer and remoter relation is, even in common -language, scrupulously observed. If reference is made to an object -already mentioned, དེ་ is used; if to something following, འདི་; e.g. -དེ་སྐད་ཅེས་སྨྲས་སོ་ ‘that speech he said’, ‘thus he said’; འདི་སྐད་ཅེས་སྨྲས་པ་ -‘this speech he said’, ‘he said thus, spoke the following words’. - - - -28. Interrogative pronouns. They are སུ་ su ‘who?’; གང་ gaṅ, ghaṅ -‘which?’; ཅི་ c̀i ‘what?’; to these the indefinite article ཞིག་ is often -added, སུ་ཞིག་ etc. The two former can also assume the plural termination -དག་, སུ་དག, གང་དག་.—In CT གང་ is frequently used instead of ཅི་. - - - -29. Relative pronouns. These are almost entirely wanting in the Tibetan -language, and our subordinate relative clauses must be expressed by -Participles and Gerunds, or a new independent sentence must be begun. -The participle, in such a case, is treated quite as an adjective, being -put either in the Genitive before the substantive, or, in the -Nominative, after: འགྲོ་བའི་ཚོང་པ་རྣམས་ ‘the merchants who would go (with -him)’; ཉག་ཐག་གཡུ་བརྒུས་པ་ ‘the cord on which turquoises are strung’; -འཁྱོས་མ་མང་པོ་ཡོང་བ་ཞིག་ ‘one who gets (unto whom come) many presents’. Cf. -also 33. Only those indefinite sentences which in English are -introduced by ‘he who’, ‘who ever’, ‘that which’, ‘what’ etc. can be -adequately expressed in Tibetan, by using the interrogative pronouns -with the participle (seldom the naked root) of the verb, or adding ན་ -(‘if—’ v. 41, A. 4.) to the latter. Instead of ཅི་ in this case ཇི་ is -written more correctly. Thus: སུ་ལ་དམ་པའི་ཆོས་མཆིས་པ་བདག་ལ་སྟོན་པར་གྱུར་ན་ ‘if -anybody who possesses the good faith teach it me’; -ཁྱོད་སུ་འགྲོ་བ་དག་ཀྱང་འགྲོགས་ཏེ་ ‘when those of you who wish to go are -assembled’; ནོར་བུ་རིན་པོ་ཆེ་འདི་ཇི་འདོད་པ་ཐམས་ཅད་ཆར་བཞིན་དུ་འབེབས་སོ་ ‘this jewel -(cintāmaṇi) will make come down like rain whatever is wished for’; -ཁྱོད་ཅི་ཟེར་ཁྱོད་ཇི་སྨྲས་པ་བཞིན་དུ་བྱའོ་ ‘whatever you may say and ask of me -according to that I will act, or I will grant you whatever you ask’. -བདག་གིས་མཐུ་ཇི་ཡོད་པས་རྒྱ་མཚོའི་ཆུ་བཅུས་ཏེ་ ‘having scooped the water of the sea -with what force I have’; རིན་པོ་ཆེ་ཇི་ལྟ་བུ་ཞིག་རྙེད་པ་བདག་ལ་བསྟན་དུ་གསོལ་ ‘I beg -you to show me what sort of jewel you have found (got)’; -རྒང་གྱེ་རྗེས་གང་རིགས་པར་གསེར་གྱི་བྱེ་མར་གྱུར་ཏོ་ ‘his footprints, in what place -soever they fell (v. lex. s. v. རིགས་), became gold-sand’. - -But the participle is treated as if no relative was preceding, thus -སྔར་ཇི་སྐད་སྨྲས་པ་ལས་མ་ཟློགས་སོ་ ‘he did not recede from (recall) the word he -had spoken before’; vulg., WT, ང་གང་བསྡད་པའི་ཁང་མིག་ ‘the room where I -sat’. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE VERB. - - -30. Introductory remarks. The Tibetan verbs must be regarded as -denoting, not an action, or suffering, or condition of any subject, but -merely a coming to pass, or, in other words, they are all impersonal -verbs, like taedet, miseret etc. in Latin, or it suits etc. in English. -Therefore they are destitute of what is called in our own languages the -active and passive voice, as well as of the discrimination of persons, -and show nothing beyond a rather poor capability of expressing the most -indispensable distinctions of tense and mood. From the same reason the -acting subject of a transitive verb must regularly appear in the -Instrumental case, as the case of the subject of a neuter verb,—which, -in European languages, is the Nominative—, ought to be regarded, from a -Tibetan point of view, as an Accusative expressing the object of an -impersonal verb, just as ‘poenitet me’ is translated by ‘I repent’. But -it will perhaps be easier to say: The subject of a transitive verb, in -Tibetan, assumes regularly the form of the instrumental, of a neuter -verb that of the nominative which is the same as the accusative. Thus, -ངས་ཁྱོད་རྡུང་ is properly: རྡུང་ a beating happens, ཁྱོད་ regarding you, ངས་ by -me = I beat you. In common life the object has often the form of the -dative, ཁྱོད་ལ་, to facilitate the comprehension. But often, in modern -talk as well as in the classical literature, the acting subject, if -known as such from the context, retains its Nominative form. Especially -the verba loquendi are apt to admit this slight irregularity. - - - - -31. Inflection of verbs. This is done in three different ways: - -a) by changing the form of the root. Such different forms are, at most, -four in number, which may be called, according to the tenses of our own -grammar to which they correspond, the Present-, Perfect-, Future-, and -Imperative-roots; e.g. of the Present-root གཏོང་བ་ ‘to give’ the Perfect -root is བཏང་, the Future-root གཏང་, the Imperative root ཐོང་; of འཚག་པ་ -‘to filter, bolt’ respectively: བཙགས་ tsag(s) (Ü: tsā), བཙག་ tsag, ཚོག་ -tʽsog. The Present root, which implies duration, is also occasionally -used for the Imperfect (in the sense of the Latin and Greek languages) -and Future tenses. It is obvious, from the above mentioned instances, -that the inflection of the root consists partly in alterations of the -prefixed letters (so, if the Perfect prefers the prefixed བ, the Future -will have ག or retain the བ), partly in adding a final ས་ (to the -Perfect and Imperative), partly in changing the vowel (particularly in -the Imperative). But also the consonants of the root itself are changed -sometimes: so the aspirates are often converted in the Perfect and -Future into their surds, besides other more irregular changes. Only a -limited number of verbs, however, are possessed of all the four roots, -some cannot assume more than three, some two, and a great many have -only one. To make up in some measure for this deficiency: - -b) some auxiliary verbs have been made available: for the Present tense -ཡིན་, འདུག་, ལགས་ and others, all of which mean ‘to be’ (§ 39); for the -Perfect ཚར་, ཟིན་, སོང་; for the Future འགྱུར་, འོང་, and the substantive -རྒྱུ་. - -c) By adding various monosyllabic affixes, the Infinitive, Participles, -and Gerunds are formed. These affixes as well as the auxiliary verbs -are connected partly with the root, partly with the Infinitive, resp. -its terminative, partly with the Participle. - -Note. The spoken language, at least in WT, recognises even in -four-rooted verbs seldom more than the Perfect root. - - - -32. The Infinitive mood. The syllables པ་ pa or, after the final -consonants ང་ ར་ ལ་ and vowels, བ་ wa are added to the root, whereby it -assumes all the qualities and powers of a noun. In verbs of more roots -than one, each of them can, of course, in this way be converted into a -substantive, or, in other words, each tense has its Infinitive, except -the Imperative. From one-rooted verbs the different Infinitives may be -formed by the above mentioned auxiliaries: thus, the Inf. Perf., by -adding ཡིན་པ་ to the Infinitive of the verb in question, or ཚར་བ་, -ཟིན་པ་, སོང་བ་ to the root, and the Inf. Fut. by adding འགྱུར་བ་ to the -Supine (terminative of the infinitive, 41. B) thus, མཐོང་བར་འགྱུར་བ་ -visurum esse, visum iri. - -Note. The spoken language uses, in WT almost exclusively, a termination -pronounced c̀as in Turig and Balti, c̀es, c̀e in Ladak, c̀e in Lahoul etc., -j̀a in Kunawar, s̀e in Tsaṅ etc., the etymology of which is doubtful, as -it is not to be found in any printed book. Lamas in Ladak and Lahoul -spell it ཅེས་. - - - -33. The Participle. 1. This is in the written language entirely like -the Infinitive ཡིན་པ་ ‘being’, གཏོང་བ་ ‘giving’, བཏང་བ་ ‘having -given’.—2. Whether the meaning is active or passive, however, can only -be inferred from the context, e.g. བཏང་བའི་དངུལ་ is of course ‘the money -given’, but དངུལ་བཏང་བའི་མི་ ‘the man having given, or, that has given, -the money’; the Tibetan participle means nothing but that the action or -condition is connected in some way with a person or thing. But it is -natural that in the present participle the active idea should be the -more frequent one, as well as in the preterit the passive.—3. In the -instance of Intensive verbs (formed with བྱེད་པ་ 38.1) the usage of -scientific authors has strictly connected the active sense with those -formed with བྱེད་, as གཏོང་བྱེད་ toṅ-j̀ed, toṅ-j̀ʽĕʼ, instead of གཏོང་བར་བྱེད་པ་, -‘doing give, giving, giver’, and the passive to those with བྱ་, as -གཏོང་བྱ་ toṅ j̀a, toṅ j̀ʽa i.o. གཏོང་བར་བྱ་བ་ ‘to be given’ (dandus), -བྱ་བ་དང་བྱ་བ་མ་ཡིན་པ་སྟོན་པ་ ‘to teach the things to be done and not to be -done’ (Thgy.).—4. In certain cases, especially with verbs that mean: to -say, ask etc., the Participle is used before the words of the speech, -where we should use the Imperfect: རྒྱལ་པོས་སྨྲས་པ༌༌༌ ‘the king said....’ - -Note. In the spoken language, of WT at least, the Participle is formed -by མཁན་, in the active sense as well as the passive (whereas in books -this syllable occurs only in the meaning of the performer of an action, -s. 12. 1.): དངུལ་བཏང་མཁན་གྱི་མི་ ṅul taṅ kʽan-ni mi (s. 15, Note) ‘the man -giving the money’, བཏང་མཁན་གྱི་དངུལ་ ‘the money given’. -འདས་ཞག་གོན་ཆས་བཙོངས་མཁན་གྱི་བླ་མ་ ‘the lama who brought a coat for sale the -other day’. བུ་མོ་རྗེ་བཙུན་ལ་སྒོ་ཁུང་སྟོན་མཁན་དེ་ ‘the girl who had shewn the door -to his reverence’ (Mil.). The future participle is represented, just as -in English, by the Infinitive (32, Note), so that ‘the sheep to be -killed’, (in books གསོད་པར་བྱ་བའི་ལུག་ or གསོད་བྱའི་ལུག་) is expressed, in the -most Western provinces, by: sád c̀as-si lug, Lad.: sád-c̀es-si lug, Lah. -etc.: sád c̀eï lug, Tsaṅ: söʼ-s̀ē-kyi lug གསོད་ཤེས་ཀྱི་ལུག་, and, most like -the classical language, in Kun.: sód j̀ā̤ lug. - - - -34. The finite verb. 1. The principal verb of a sentence, which always -closes it (48.) receives in written Tibetan in most cases a certain -mark, by which the end of a period may be known. This is, in -affirmative sentences, the vowel o (called by the grammarians: -སླར་སྡུ་བ་), in interrogative ones the syllable am. Before both the -closing consonant of the verb is repeated, or, if it ends with a vowel, -འོ་ and འམ་ are written. The Perfect of the verbs ending in ན་ ར་ ལ་, -which formerly had a ད་ as second final—ད་དྲག་—, assume ཏོ་ and ཏམ་.—2. -These additional syllables are omitted a) in imperative sentences, b) -in the latter member of a double question, c) when the question is -expressed already by an interrogative pronoun or adverb, d) in -coordinate members of a period, with the exception of the last one, e) -commonly, when the principal verb is the verb substantive ཡིན་, ཡོད་ etc. -(40. 1.). - -Examples. a) སོང་ ‘go!’, འདི་རུ་ཤོག་ ‘come here!’.—b) མཐོང་ངམ་མི་མཐོང་ ‘do you -see or not?’—c) དེ་ན་སུ་ཡོད་ ‘who is there?’, ནམ་བསླེབ་ ‘when did (he, you -etc.) arrive?’.—d) ཁང་པ་ཤིག །མི་བསད ། གྲོང་ཁྱེར་ཚང་མ་མེད་པར་བྱས་སོ། ‘the houses -were destroyed, the men killed, the whole town annihilated’.—e) -གཙང་པའི་བྱེ་མ་ལ་གསེར་ཡོད། ‘in the sand of the river is gold’. - -Note. In conversation the o is generally omitted, and the m of the -interrogative termination dropped, so that merely the vowel a is heard, -e.g. the question མཐོང་ངམ་ ‘do (you) see’ and the answer མཐོང་ངོ་ ‘(I) -see’, are commonly spoken in WT: tʽoṅ-ṅa? tʽoṅ. - - - -35. Present Tenses. 1. Simple Present Tense. This is the simple root of -the verb, which will always be found in the dictionary; in WT, as -mentioned above, of verbs with more than one root, only the Perfect -root is in use; if, therefore, stress is laid on the Present -signification, recourse must be had to one of the following -compositions (s. 31. and Note). Thus, མཐོང་ ‘(I, thou, he etc.) see, -seest etc.’, གཏོང་ ‘(I etc.) give’ through all persons; in the end of a -sentence: མཐོང་ངོ༌། གཏོང་ངོ༌།. - -2. Compound Present Tenses. a) འདུག་ (s. 40, 1) is added to the root: -མཐོང་འདུག་ ‘(I) see’, བཏང་འདུག་ ‘(I) give’. This is common in the dialect -of WT especially.—b) The Participle connected with ཡིན་, མཐོང་བ་ཡིན་ ‘I -see’. In WT this, of course, is changed to མཐོང་མཁན་ཡིན་.—c) One of the -Gerunds (41, A) with ཡོད་ or འདུག་, as མཐོང་སྟེ་ (or ནས་ or གི་ or ཞིང་), འདུག་ -or ཡོད་ ‘(I) see, am seeing’; it must, however, be remarked that both -ways of expression, b) and c), are not very frequent.—d) གིན་ཡོད་ or འདུག་ -is the proper form for the compound English present: མཐོང་གིན་འདུག་ ‘(I) -am seeing’, འབྲི་གིན་འདུག་ ‘(I) am writing (just now)’. - - - -36. Preterit Tenses. 1. Simple Preterit, Perfect or Aorist Tense; this -is the Perfect root: བཏང་, at the close of the sentence བཏང་ངོ༌། ‘gave, -have given, was given’; in one-rooted verbs it has, of course, the same -form as the present: མཐོང་(ངོ་) ‘saw, have, or was, seen’. This is the -usual narrative tense like the Greek Aorist or French Parfait -défini.—2. Compound Preterit Tenses.—a) The root with སོང་, བཏང་སོང་ -‘have given, gave, was given’, མཐོང་སོང་ ‘have seen, saw, was seen’; -rarely met with in books, but in general use in the conversation of WT. -In CT བྱུང་ j̀ʽuṅ is used in a similar way: ཁྱིས་རྨུག་བྱུང་ ‘the dog has -bitten’.—b) The root with ཟིན་ (more in books), or ཚར་ (more in common -language), the true Perfect as the tense of accomplished action: -བཏང་ཟིན་, བཏང་ཚར་ ‘have given etc.’, ‘the action of giving is past’, -མི་སོང་ཚར་ ‘the man has already left’.—c) The Participle connected with -ཡིན་ occurs more frequently in the past sense than otherwise. Here, in -the common talk of WT, པ་ is used, even in those cases where the books -have བ་, ཡི་གེ་བཀལ་པ་ཡིན་ yí-ge kál-pa yin, or, contracted, kál-pen, ‘the -letter has been sent off’, in books: བཀལ་བ་ཡིན་ (s. 11, Note), even -གླ་བཏངས་པ་ཡིན་ la táṅs-pa yin, táṅs-pen, ‘the wages have been paid’ i.o. -བཏང་བ་ཡིན་.—d) Gerunds in ཏེ་ (WT) or ནས་ (CT) with ཡོད་ or འདུག་ (the same -as 35. 2. c); also (in Ü Tsaṅ and later books) the mere Perfect root -with ཡོད་, the ཏེ་ or ནས་ being dropped: སོང་ཡོད་ ‘has gone’. - - - -37. Future Tenses. 1. Simple Future. The Future-root, གཏོང་(ངོ་) ‘shall, -will give, be given’.—2. Compound Future. a) The auxiliary verb འགྱུར་བ་ -(to grow, become) added to the Terminative case of the Infinitive: -གཏོང་བར་འགྱུར་(རོ་) ‘shall, will give, be given’, མཐོང་བར་འགྱུར་(རོ་) ‘shall, -will see, be seen’. This is the most common, and, together with the -Simple Future and the Intensive (39.), ༌༌༌བར་བྱའོ་, the only one in use -with the early classical authors in all cases where a special -Future-root is wanted, and even where this exists. It disappears, -however, gradually from the literature of the later period, and is -replaced by the two following compositions.—b) རྒྱུ་ཡིན་ connected with the -root: མཐོང་རྒྱུ་ཡིན་ ‘shall, will see’, གཏོང་རྒྱུ་ཡིན་ ‘shall, will give’ etc. -(རྒྱུ་ is originally a substantive, meaning material, cause, occasion).—c) -the root with འོང་ or ཡོང་, སླེབ་ཡོང་ ‘will arrive’, or, i.o. the root, the -Term. Inf., སླེབ་པར་འོང་.—Both b) and c) are even now in common use in CT, -whereas in WT:—d) ཡིན་ connected with the root is the general form: -མཐོང་ཡིན་ tʽoṅ yin, vulg.: tʽóṅin ‘shall, will see’, བཏང་ཡིན་ táṅin, -‘shall, will give’, བཀལ་ཡིན་ kállin ‘will send’, ཚ་ཡིན་ c̀ʽa yin, c̀ʽa’in, -c̀ʽän ‘will go’.—e) In books the Participle with ཡིན་ (35. 2. b, 36. 2 c) -occurs sometimes also as Future. - - - -38. Imperative mood. 1. This is usually the shortest possible form of -the verb, which often loses its prefixed letters, though in some -instances a final ས་ is added. In many verbs with the vowel a, and in -some with e these vowels are changed into o, besides other alterations -of the consonants. Particularly often the surds or sonants of the other -tense-roots are changed to their aspirates in the Imperative. Thus, ཐོང་ -‘give!’, from གཏོང་བ་; ལྟོས་ Ld: ltos, CT: tō̤ ‘look!’, from ལྟ་བ་; ཐོབ་ -‘throw!’, from འདེབས་པ་. In one-rooted verbs it is, of course, like the -Present, but it can always be sufficiently distinguished by adding the -particle ཅིག་ (ཤིག་ or ཞིག་, according to 13.). This is used in the -classical literature indiscriminately in addressing the highest and the -lowest persons (or, in other words, as well to command, as to pray), -but according to the modern custom of CT only when addressing servants -and inferior people.—2. In forbidding, the Present-root is used with -the negative particle མ་, མ་གཏོང་ ‘do not give!’, མ་ལྟ་ ‘do not look!’, -མ་འདེབས་ ‘do not throw!’—3. In praying or wishing (Precative or -Optative) either the same forms as under 1. are used, or the -Imperatives of འགྱུར་བ་ ‘to come’ or འོང་ ‘to come’ (the latter, ཤོག་, of a -quite different root) are connected with the Termin. Infin. -མཐོང་བར་གྱུར་ཅིག་ or ཤོག་ཅིག་ ‘may (I, you, he etc.) see!’—4. In none of the -three a person is indicated, but it is natural that in commanding and -forbidding the subject will be the second, sometimes the third person; -in the precative also the first person can be understood. - -Note. The common language of WT, acknowledging only the Perfect-root, -changes nothing but the vowel: བཏོང་ ‘give!’ from བཏང་ཅེས་; ལྟོས་ ‘look!’ -from ལྟ་ཅེས་; བཏོབ་ ‘throw!’ from བཏབ་ཅེས་ (Perf. of འདེབས་པ་). Instead of -ཅིག་, which is not much used, བཏོང་ (‘give!’) is often added to the roots -of other verbs (s. 39), thus, བཏོན་བཏོང་ ton toṅ ‘take out!’ from བཏོན་ཅེས་ -(འདོན་པ་). Or the Imperative is paraphrased by དགོས་ gos (Ld.), gō̤, goi -‘must’, added to the root of the verb: བསད་དགོས་ ‘must be killed’.—In CT -the changing of the vowel seems to be usually omitted, but the ཅིག་ is -more used. Here, also, the Perfect root is not so exclusively -preferred. - - - -39. Intensive verbs. 1. Very frequent in books is the connection of the -four-rooted verb བྱེད་པ་ (Pf. བྱས་, Fut. བྱ་, Imp. བྱོས་) ‘to do’, elegantly -བགྱིད་པ་ (Pf. བགྱིས་, Fut. བགྱི་, Imp. གྱིས་), respectfully མཛད་པ་ (Imp. མཛོད་) -with the Term. Inf. of another verb, to intensify the action of the -latter. By this means not only one-rooted verbs can be made to -participate in the advantages of the four-rooted, as མཐོང་བར་བྱེད་ ‘see’, -མཐོང་བར་བྱས་ ‘saw’, མཐོང་བར་བྱ་ ‘shall, will see’, མཐོང་བར་བྱོས་ ‘see!’, but -also several other periphrastical phrases are gained for speaking more -precisely than otherwise would be possible. The Future tense བྱ(འོ)༌ -serves, besides its proper notion of futurity, particularly to express -the English auxiliaries ‘must, ought etc.’: thus, བརྗོད་པར་མི་བྱའོ་ ‘must -not be uttered, ought not to be uttered’, sometimes it may be -translated by the Imperative mood. The spoken language, at least of WT, -is devoid of this convenience, and possesses nothing of the kind except -the above mentioned intensive form of the Imperative, formed by བཏོང་ -(s. 38., Note).—2. Another class of intensive verbs are formed by -connecting two synonyms, as འཇིགས་སྐྲག་པ་ ‘to be afraid’, literally ‘to be -fear-frightened’, and other similar ones. - - - -40. Substantive and Auxiliary Verbs. 1. To be a) ཡིན་པ་, in elegant and -respectful speech ལགས་པ་ lag-pa, Ü: lā-pa (the latter word never used -in WT) is the mere means of connecting the attribute with its subject, -as: མི་འདི་ལ་དྭགས་པ་ཡིན་ ‘this man is a Ladakee’, དེ་ཁྱེད་ལགས་སམ་ ‘is it you, -Sir?’. Therefore the question སུ་ཡིན་ is to be understood ‘who are you’ -or ‘who is he’ etc., the personal pronoun being often let to be -guessed.—ཡིན་ itself is often omitted in daily life in WT as well as in -poetry, e.g. ཨི་ཁུར་རུ་མཱ་ལྕིན་ཏེ་ ‘this load (is) very heavy’ WT. Negatively: -མ་ཡིན་, མིན་ vulg. མན་, resp. མ་ལགས་.—b) ཡོད་པ་ yod-pa, yöʼ-pa, eleg. -མཆིས་པ་ c̀ʽī-pa, resp. བཞུགས་པ་ z̀ug(s)-pa, Ü: z̀ū-pa, negat.: མེད་, མ་མཆིས་, -མི་བཞུགས་ means ‘to exist’, or ‘to be present’, ‘to be found at a place’, -therefore the question སུ་ཡོད་ is to be understood: ‘Who is here? Who is -there?’—ཡོད་ and བཞུགས་པ་ are in general use, མཆིས་པ་ is seldom heard. -When connected with the Dative of a substantive it expresses the -English ‘to have, to have got’, as: ང་ལ་དངུལ་ཡོད་ ‘I have money’; -ང་ལ་ཟུག་ཡོད་ ‘I have pain’. In this case the respectful term is not -གཞུགས་པ་ but མངའ་བ་ ṅa-wa: རྒྱལ་པོ་ལ་སྙུན་མི་མངའ་འམ་ ‘has not the King an -indisposition?’ i.e. ‘is Your Majesty ill?’.—c) འདུག་པ་ dug-pa (eleg. -གདའ་བ་ is seldom heard), resp. བཞུགས་པ་, ‘to be present, stay, be found -at a place’; negat. མི་འདུག་. Both འདུག་པ་ and ཡོད་པ་ can be used instead -of ཡིན་པ་, though not this instead of them.—d) རེད་པ་ rĕʼ-pa = འདུག་པ་, -negat. མ་རེད་ in Spiti and CT, seldom in books.—e) མོད་པ་ mod-pa, möʼ-pa -has a somewhat emphatical sense: ‘to be (something) in a high degree’, -‘to be (somehow) in plenty’. It occurs most frequently in the Gerund -with ཀྱི་ (41.), when it frequently has the sense of ‘though’, but never -with a negative.—f) སྣང་བ་ naṅ-wa, originally ‘to appear, to be visible, -extant’, negat. མི་སྣང་. Sometimes in books, and common in certain -districts.—g) In books the concluding o (34.) is, moreover, found to -represent the verb ‘to be’ in all its meanings, and is capable of being -connected with words of all classes besides verbs, e.g. དང་པོ་འོ་ ‘is the -first’ = དང་པོ་ཡིན་. In a similar manner also the ཅིག་ of the Imperative -(38.) implies the verb ‘to be’.—h) The Preterit root for all these -verbs is སོང་ soṅ ‘was, has been’, and besides also ‘has gone, become’, -which is its original meaning.—For the use of these verbs as -auxiliaries s. 35. sq. - -2. འགྱུར་བ་ originally ‘to be changed, turned into something’ then ‘to -become, to grow’, auxiliary for the Future tense in the old classical -language, as mentioned in 37. Since this can be considered as the -intransitive or passive sense, opposed to བྱེད་པ་ ‘to make, render’, the -connection of འགྱུར་བ་ with the Term. Inf. of another verb must, in many -cases, be rendered by the passive voice in our languages. In WT the -verb ཆ་ཅེས་ c̀ʽa-c̀e ‘to go’ is used in the sense of ‘to become, to grow’. -The Perfect root for both is སོང་ ‘(went), grew, became, has become, is’ -(s. above).—In CT and later books འབྱུང་བ་ is used instead. - -3. ‘must’ is expressed by དགོས་པ་ ‘to be necessary’ (s. 38. Note). In WT -this is used in a very wide sense for any possible modification of the -notion of necessity: ‘I must, should, want to, ought’ and even ‘I will, -wish, beg (for something)’ is nothing but ང་ལ་དགོས་ ‘to me is necessary’ -which may be, in the last mentioned case, rendered somewhat more -politely by adding ཞུ་ z̀u ‘pray!’ ང་ལ་ཨ་ལུ་དགོས་ཞུ་ ‘I want potatoes, -pray!’ is as much to say as ‘Will you kindly give me some potatoes’. In -books and more refined language several other verbs are used in the -same sense, viz. རིགས་པ་ ‘it is right to’ (usually with the Genit. -Infin.), རུང་བ་ ‘it is meet, decent’, འདོད་པ་ ‘to wish, desire’, both -with the Supine; དགའ་བ་ ‘to like’ with the Dat. Inf. The popular -substitute of the last, especially in use in WT, is འཐད་པ་, of similar -meaning, added to the root. - - - -41. Gerunds and Supines. We retain these terms, employed by former -grammarians, but observe that they do not refer to the form, but to the -meaning, as well as that Gerund is not to be understood in the same -signification as in Latin, but as the Gérondif of some French -grammarians, or what Shakespeare calls Past conjunctive participle in -Hindi. These forms are of the greatest importance in Tibetan, being the -only substitutes for most of those subordinate clauses which we are -accustomed to introduce by conjunctions. They are formed by the two -monosyllabic affixes ཏེ་ (so after the closing consonants ན་ ར་ ལ་ ས་); -དེ་ after དེ་, སྟེ་ after ག་ ང་ བ་ མ་ and vowels and ཅིང་ (ཤིང་ or ཞིང་ -according to the same rule as ཅིག་ 13.), both of which are added to the -root, or by the terminations mentioned in 15. as composing the -declension of nouns, which are added partly to the root, partly to the -Infinitive or Participle. - -A. Gerunds. All the following forms can be rendered by the English -Participle ending in ing, but the more accurate distinctions must be -expressed by various conjunctions. - -1. ཏེ་ (དེ་ etc.), the most frequent of all these endings. It is added to -the Present-root as well as to the Perfect-root: གཏོང་སྟེ་ ‘giving’, -བཏོང་སྟེ་ ‘having given’, and stands for all clauses beginning with when, -as, since, after etc. Also in the spoken language of WT it is used most -frequently.—Examples: ཕྲུ་གུ་ཆུས་ཁྱེར་ཏེ་ཤིའོ་ ‘the child, having been carried -away by the water, died’; རྒྱལ་པོ་ཤི་སྟེ་རྒྱལ་སྲས་ཀྱིས་རྒྱལ་ས་བཟུང་ངོ་ ‘the king -having died, the prince occupied the throne (king’s-place)’; -ཆུ་ཆེན་པོ་ཞིག་དེ་རུ་ཡོད་དེ་འགྲུལ་མི་ཐུབ་བོ་ ‘as there is a great water, we cannot -go’. - -2. ཅིང་ (ཤིང་ etc.), of a similar sense, chiefly used for smaller clauses -within a large one, མི་དགའ་ཞིང་ཁྲོས་ཏེ་ ‘when, being displeased, he became -angry’, or ‘growing displeased and angry’. Often it denotes two actions -going on at the same time, or two states of a thing existing together, -and then can only be translated by ‘and’, thus, མཐའ་མེད་ཅིང་མུ་མེད་ -‘without end and boundary’; ཤ་ལ་ཟ་ཞིང་ཁྲག་ལ་འཐུང་བ་ ‘to eat flesh and -drink blood’ [8]. It stands also in a causal sense: ‘by doing etc.’, -as: ཉ་བཤོར་ཞིང་འཚོའོ་ ‘(we) live by catching fish’. These two (1. and 2.) -can also, like the closing o, as mentioned in 40. 1. g, be added to -every class of words, in the sense of being: ཁྱོད་རིགས་ཆེ་ཞིང་མཐོ་བ་སྟེ་ ‘as -you are high(-born), being of a great family’. In conversation, ཅིང་ is -scarcely ever heard. - -3. ནས་ (from, or after, doing something) in temporal clauses with -‘after, when, as’; practically it is very much like ཏེ་, and often -alternating with it. In most cases, in speaking always, it is added to -the root, seldom to the infinitive.—Examples. ནམ་ལངས་ནས་སོང་ ‘when the -night had risen (viz. at daybreak) he went’; ལང་ནས་སོང་ ‘after you will -have risen, go!’ དེ་མཐོང་ནས་སྐད་ཕྱུང་སྟེ་ངུས་སོ་ ‘when I saw that, raising -clamour, I wept’. - -4. ན་ ‘in (doing something)’ again for clauses with ‘since, when, as’, -but in most cases by far for ‘if’ and conditional ‘when’: འགྲོ་ན་ ‘if, -or, when (I) go, or went’; ཤི་ཚར་ན་ ‘when, after (he) has died’, ‘if he -is already dead’; ཤི་ན་ ‘if (he) die, should die’, ‘if (he) died’, ‘when -(he) dies’; བྱེད་ན་ ‘if ... do, did’; བྱ་ན་ ‘if ... were to do’. It is -added to the root, seldom to the infinitive, and as common in talking -as in books. - -5. ལ་ is of more various use. When added to the root, it is very much -like ཅིང་, which it replaces in the conversational language of CT (where -the first example of 2. would be, མ་དགའ་ལ་ཁྲོས་ཏེ་), but does not occur so -often except in imperative or precative sentences, when it is added to -the Imperative root of the subordinate verb, just like other gerunds: -སོང་ལ་ལྟོས་ ‘going look!’, ‘go and look!’ ལོང་ལ་སོང་ ‘rise and go!’. This -particle, like the above-mentioned, implies the verb ‘to be’, -especially when added to adjectives denoting a personal quality. -མི་སྡུག་ལ་ཐུང་ངུ་ཡིན་ཏེ་ ‘being ugly and short’; དབྱིབས་ལེགས་ཤིང་ལྟ་ན་སྡུག་ལ་མཛེས་པ་ -‘pretty, being of a good figure and nice to behold’. When added to the -Infinitive, it denotes: a) of course, the real Dative, or the usual -meanings of the postposition ལ་ with a substantive; thus, -གསོད་པ་ལ་དགའ་བ་ ‘to rejoice at killing, be fond of killing’. b) nearly -the same as ཏེ་ or ‘as’ in English, e.g. -ལམ་གྱི་བར་དུ་ལྷ་རྟེན་ཞིག་ཡོད་པ་ལ་ཤིང་རྟ་ལས་བབ་བོ་ ‘as there was an idol-shrine in -the middle of the way, (she) alighted from (her) chariot’; -རྒྱལ་པོ་ཉིན་རེ་བཞིན་དུ་དེར་ཁྲུས་བྱེད་དུ་འགྲོ་བ་ལ་ ‘as the king went there daily to -bathe’; འཇིག་རྟེན་གྱི་ནང་ན་མི་འོང་བ་ལ་འདི་རུ་འོང་བ་ཅི་ཡིན་ ‘as (it) does not occur -in the (whole) world, what is (its) occurring here, or, how is it that -it occurs here?’. Finally, in the language of common life ལ་ is added -to the repeated root in order to express the English ‘while, whilst’: -ངས་ཤ་གཏུབ་གཏུབ་ལ་ཁྱོད་ཀྱིས་ཤིང་ཁྱོང་ ṅā̤ s̀a tub-túb-la kʽyód-dī (15., Note) s̀iṅ -kʽyoṅ WT, or ཁྱོད་ཀྱིས་ཤིང་བཀུར་ཤོག་ kʽyöʼ-kyī s̀iṅ kur-s̀og CT ‘while I am -cutting the meat into pieces, bring you (some) wood’. - -6. ལས་ added only to the Infinitive, literally ‘out of (the doing)’. -This may mean a) ‘after’, ཉལ་བ་ལས་ལང་བ་ ‘to rise from lying, after -having lain’; དུར་ན་ཞག་གསུམ་འདུག་པ་ལས་དུར་ནས་བྱུང་ ‘after having been three -days in the grave (I) came out of the grave’.—b) ‘while’, in which case -the root of the verb may be repeated, as: སོང་སོང་བ་ལས་བྲམ་ཟེ་ཞིག་དང་ཕྲད་དོ་ -‘out of my walking i.e. when walking along, (I) met with a brahman’; -ང་ཤ་གཏུབ་གཏུབ་པ་ལས་ཁྱོད་ཀྱིས་ཤིང་བཀུར་ཏེ་ཤོག་ (the above mentioned example (s. -ལ་) translated into classical language); c) also the English ‘being -about to’ is, in books, often expressed by this Gerund: -ནང་དུ་སོང་བ་ལས་སྒོ་བཅད་དོ་ ‘when (I) was about to enter, the door was shut’; -ཤི་བ་ལས་ཕྱིར་སོས་པར་གྱུར་ཏོ་ ‘when (I) was going to die, (I) was restored to -life again’. Which of the three is the real meaning, will in most cases -be clear from circumstances. This gerund is not used in talking, at -least in WT. - -7. ཀྱིས་ (གྱིས་ etc.) or ཀྱི་ (གྱི་ etc.), or the Instrumental and Genitive -cases of the root, mean a) ‘by doing something’ or ‘because’, e.g. -དགོས་ཀྱིས་འདོང་ངོ་ ‘we come (here), because it is necessary’. -ཁོ་མོས་གྲོགས་བུ་ཡིས་སྙིང་མ་ཆུང་ཞིག་ ‘since I am resolved to help you, do not be -depressed!’ This, originally, is a function of the Instrumental only, -but in later times the other cases also are used in this meaning.—b) -more frequently they are used adversatively, ‘though’, especially when -connected with མོད་ (40. 1. e), ཅེས་སྨྲས་མོད་ཀྱིས་ཅིས་ཡིད་ཆེས་པར་འགྱུར་ ‘though -(you) did say so, by what shall (I) believe (it)?’ In other cases it -may be left untranslated when the next sentence will commence with -‘but’: ཟས་བཟང་པོ་མི་འདོད་ཀྱིས་ཟས་ཐ་མལ་པ་ཟོས་སོ་ ‘not liking delicate food, he -ate vulgar food’ or ‘he did not like d. f., but preferred v. f.’. This -Gerund is scarcely used in talking, at least in WT. - -8. པས་ (བས་), the Instrumental of the Infinitive, ‘by (doing -something)’ is, of course, the proper expression for ‘because’, but -also very often used indiscriminately for ཏེ་ or ནས་ only for the sake -of varying the mode of speaking: ཤིན་ཏུ་དཀའ་བ་ཡིན་པས་ ‘because it is very -difficult’; ལྟས་པས་ ‘when (he) looked’. - -9. Also གིན་ the proper use of which has been shewn above (35. 2. d.) -must be mentioned once more as it occurs in a similar sense to ཅིང་, -སྨོན་ལམ་འདེབས་གིན་སོང་ཞིག་ ‘walk on praying (preces faciendo)!’; -བྲང་བརྡུང་གིན་ངུས་པས་ ‘beating (her own) breast and weeping’. - -B. Supines. They are expressed simply by the Terminative Case of the -Infinitive or of the Root, མཐོང་བར་ or ཐོང་དུ་ ‘to see’. In many instances -the use of either is optional, in others one is preferred. 1. Their use -is: with adjectives like the Latin supine in u, e.g. བསླབ་ཏུ་དཀའ་བ་ -‘difficult to learn’; with verbs expressing ‘to go, to send’ etc., also -‘to pray’ etc. like that in um: ལེན་ཏུ་སོང་ ‘go to fetch’, གནང་དུ་གསོལ་ ‘(I) -beg (you) to permit,—for permission’. In these cases the root is most -common, but the Inf. བསླབ་པར་, or གནང་བར་, ལེན་པར་ may also be used. 2. -Another use of the Supine is a) with verbs of sensation and, less -frequently, with those of declaration, where we use sentences with -‘that’ or the Participle or Infinitive: མ་འོང་བར་མཐོང་ནས་ ‘seeing (his) -mother coming’ (instead of which, however, འོང་བ་ may be said as well); -༌༌༌བའི་དུས་ལ་བབ་པར་ཤེས་ནས་ ‘knowing that the time of ...ing had arrived’ -(lit: ‘that it had come down to the time’); རྒྱལ་པོའི་བུ་ཡིན་པར་དྲན་ནས་ -‘remembering him to be the king’s son’ or ‘that he was...’.—b) in an -adverbial sense, when we say ‘so that’, especially in negative -sentences, ‘so that not’, ‘without ...ing’, སུས་ཀྱང་མ་ཚོར་བར་ ‘so that -nobody may (did) perceive it’, or ‘without anybody perceiving it’. - -Note 1. The modern language of WT uses in the first instance (B. 1.) -either the simple Infinitive, བསླབ་ཅེས་ཁག་པོ་ (or དཀག་པོ་), or the same -with ལ་, བསླབ་ཅེས་ལ་ཁག་པོ་, or with ཕྱི་ལ་ (for the ཕྱིར་ of the books s. 7. -2.), བསླབ་ཅེས་ཕྱི་ལ་ཁག་པོ་; in the second either the same forms, or a -particular one, which consists in repeating the final consonant of the -root with the vowel a, to which also ལ་ may be added: thus, ལེན་ན་སོང་, -ཁྱོད་རང་ལ་ཐུག་ག་ལ་ཡོངས་སོང་ ‘(I) have come to meet you’; in the third, the -direct Imperative adding ཞུ་ for the sake of civility, དགོངས་ཞུ་ ‘pray -permit!’ - -In the case of B. 2., instead of མ་འོང་བར་མཐོང་ནས་, the expression in -common use will be ཨ་མ་ཡོང་ or ཡོང་ང་མཐོང་ནས་; instead of སུས་ཀྱང་མ་ཚོར་བར་, -either the same form, མ་ཚོར་ར་, or the Gerund, མ་ཚོར་ཏེ་.—In CT those -examples would respectively, stand thus, བསླབ་ཏུ་ or བསླབ་བ་ or -བསླབ་པའི་དོན་དུ་དཀག་པོ་ láb-tu, láb-ba (sounding almost lă-wa), láb-pa̤ -dʽo̤n-dʽu kag-po; in the third instance a peculiar word, ‘rog’, is used, -which is said to be originally the same as གྲོགས་ (རོགས་) ‘friend, -assistant’, and serves now as the respectful substitute of ཅིག་, -Particle of the Imperative, གནང་རོག་ ‘pray permit!’, སྟེར་རོག་ ‘pray give!’ -Instead of མ་ཚོར་ར་ etc. the most usual form in CT will be the simple -Participle, མ་ཤེས་པ་. - -Note 2. All the forms, of course, where པ་ or བ་ are met with might in -certain cases belong to the Participle, and not to the Infinitive. - -Note 3. The reader will have missed any mention of tenses of the class -of Pluperfect, Past Future etc., and, indeed, there exists no form of -the kind, and they can only be rendered by a Gerund, e.g. -ཡི་གེ་བྲིས་ཟིན་ནས་བཀལ་སོང་ ‘when (he) had written the letter, (he) sent (it) -off’; ཡི་གེ་བྲིས་ཟིན་ནས་བཀལ་བར་འགྱུར་ (WT: བཀལ་ཡིན་, CT: བཀལ་རྒྱུ་ཡིན་) ‘when (he) -shall have written the letter, (he) will send (it) off’. Neither have -the Conditional or Subjunctive any special form. Thus, e.g., -འདི་མ་བྱས་ན་མི་འཚོའོ་ ‘if we did not do that, we could not live’ (i.e. we -cannot earn our sustenance in any other manner); ཅིའི་ཕྱེར་ཁྱོད་ཟེར་བ་ནི་མི་ཉན་ -‘why should not I hear (grant) what you say (your wish)?’; -བརྡ་མ་བཀྲོལ་ཞིང་རྟགས་མ་མཐོང་ན་མི་རྟོགས་པར་འདུག་ ‘if (you) had not explained it, -and (we) had not seen the signs, we would not have understood it’; -མིས་མི་རྙེད་པས་སྤྲུལ་པ་ཅིག་བཏག་དགོས་ ‘as a man would not find it, I must send an -emanation’; vulg., WT, ཨི་ཟུག་ཐག་རིང་མ་ཡིན་ན་ངའི་རྩར་འགྲོ་དུ་ཡོང་ཡིན་ ‘if the -distance was not so great, they would come to me (visit me)’. Here may -be added, that also the intention of, or attempt at, doing something is -expressed by the simple verb: thus, བདག་གིས་བཀག་ཡང་མ་བཏུབ་ཀྱིས་ ‘though I -did try to hinder him, I could not’; བདག་གི་ཉེ་གནས་ཆུར་མཆོངས་པ་མཐོང་ནས། -ཆུར་མ་ཕྱིན་པར་རྫུ་འཕྲུལ་གྱི་མཐུས་བླངས་སོ་ ‘as he saw his own disciple on the point -of springing into the water (and that he had sprung off the bank), he -held him back by the force of his magic, so that he did not touch the -water’ (s. 41. B. 2. b.). Especially the gerunds in ལས་ (41. A. 6.) -have often this meaning: བདག་སྲོག་དང་བྲལ་བ་ལས་སྲོག་གི་སྐྱབས་བྱས་སོ་ ‘when I was -about to be parted from life, he saved it’; -སྦྲུལ་ཁྲོས་ནས་གདུག་པ་ཕྱུང་པ་ལས་ཡང་འདི་སྙམས་བསམས་སོ་ ‘the snake, having become -angry, though she intended (or: had at first int.) to let out her -poison, reflected thus’. As will be seen from these examples, the -action, in such cases, is thought to have begun in fact. - - - - -A Survey of the principal forms of the Finite Verb. - -Present: - - -གཏོང་, W བཏང་འདུག་ give -མཐོང་བ་ཡིན་ མཐོང་མཁན་ཡིན་ I see intens. མཐོང་བར་བྱེད་ - C མཐོང་སྟེ་འདུག་ (or ཡོད་) - W མཐོང་གིན་འདུག་ (or ཡོད་); C མཐོང་གི་འདུག་ I am seeing - - -Perfect: - - -བཏང་ W བཏང་སོང་ gave, have given -མཐོང་ C མཐོང་བྱུང་ saw, W སོང་སྟེ་ཡོད་ C སོང་ཡོད་ - went went -བཏང་ཟིན་ བཏང་ཚར་ I have given, intens. མཐོང་བར་བྱས་བཏངས་པ་ཡིན་ has been given - - -Future: - - - གཏང་ W བཏང་ཡིན་ shall, will give - མཐོང་བར་འགྱུར་ C མཐོང་རྒྱུ་ཡིན་ intens. མཐོང་བར་བྱ་ - shall, will see - སླེབ་ཡོང་, སླེབ་པར་འོང་ will arrive - - -Imperative: - - -ཐོང་ W བཏོང་ give! བཏོན་བཏོང་ take out! - བསད་དགོས་ kill! - མཐོང་ཅིག་ see! intens. མཐོང་བར་བྱོས་ -negat. མ་གཏོང་མ་བཏང་ do not -give! མཐོང་བར་མ་བྱེད་ - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE ADVERB. - - -42. We may distinguish three classes of adverbs: 1. Primitive adverbs. -2. Adverbs formed from Adjectives. 3. Adverbs formed from Substantives -or Pronouns. - -1. Very few Primitive Adverbs occur; the most usual are: ད་ ‘now’, ནམ་ -‘when’, སང་ (books and CT) or ཐོ་རེ་ (WT) ‘to morrow’, and a few similar -ones; ཡང་ ‘again’, and the two negatives མི་ and མ་, the latter of which -is used in prohibitive sentences, and with a past tense, as མི་གཏོང་ ‘(I) -do not give’, མི་གཏང་ ‘(I) shall not give’, but: མ་བཏང་ ‘did not give’, -མ་གཏོང་ (WT: མ་བཏང་) ‘do not give!’ The verbs ཡིན་, ལགས་, མཆིས་, རེད་ have -always མ་ instead of མི་ before them (40.). Another particle of this -kind, of a merely formal value, is ནི་, which is added to any word or -group of words in order to single it out and distinctly separate it -from everything that follows. It is, therefore, often very useful in -lessening the great indistinctness of the language, especially so when -separating the subject from the attribute: མི་དེ་ནི་ལ་དྭགས་པ་ཡིན་ ‘that man -is a Ladakee’. (There is scarcely an adequate word to be found in our -modern languages, but the Greek γε, or μεν—δε—, are very similar.) In -talking it is seldom heard, and, when used, in WT pronounced: ནིང་. - -2. Adverbs may be formed from any Adjective by putting it in the -Terminative case. བཟང་པོ་ ‘good’, བཟང་པོར་ ‘well’; རབ་ ‘principal’, རབ་ཏུ་ -‘principally, very’; དྲག་པོ་ ‘violent’, དྲག་པོར་ or དྲག་ཏུ་ ‘violently’. - -3. Nearly all the local Adverbs are formed from Substantives or -Pronouns with some local Postposition: གོང་ ‘the place (space) above, -upper part’, གོང་ན་ ‘above’, གོང་ཏུ་ ‘upwards’, གོང་ནས་ ‘from above -(downwards)’; འདི་ ‘this’, འདི་ན་ ‘in this, here’, འདི་རུ་, འདིར་ ‘hither, -here’ (cf. 15.), འདི་ནས་ ‘hence’; དེ་ ‘that’, དེ་ན་ ‘there’, དེ་རུ, དེར་ -‘thither, there’, དེ་ནས་ ‘from there, thence, then, after that’. - -Note. In talking the simple adjective is used, mostly, instead of its -adverb (2. class): མགྱོགས་པ་ for —པར་ ‘quickly, soon’. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE POSTPOSITION. - - -43. There are two kinds of Postpositions: 1. Simple Postpositions. -These are the same that we know already as forming the cases (15). 2. -Compound Postpositions, formed in the manner of local Adverbs (42. 3), -with which they are, indeed, with a few exceptions, identical. - -1. Simple Postpositions. These are: ལ་ (the affix of the Dative), ན་ -(Locative), ནས་ and ལས་ (Ablative), རུ་, ར་, སུ་, ཏུ་, དུ་ (Terminative). - -Their use will be best seen in the following examples: - - - -༎ ལ་ ༎ - -ཕན་དིལ་མེ་ལ་བོར་ WT, ཟངས་མེ་ལ་བཞག་ (inst. of ཞོག་ 38, Note) CT ‘put the -degchi on the fire!’. - -བོང་བུ་ས་ལ་འགྲེའོ་, vulg: འགྲེ་འདུག་, Tsang: བོང་གུ་ས་ལ་འགྲེ་གིས་ ‘the ass rolls -himself on the ground’. - -རྟ་ལ་ཞོན་ཏེ་ (or ནས་) འགྲོ་ ‘having mounted on the horse (he) goes’, or -‘(he) goes on horseback’. - -བྱ་ནས་མཁའ་ལ་འཕུར་རོ་, vulg (WT): ཅི་པ་ (corrupted from མཆིལ་པ་) -ནམ་མཁའ་ལ་འཕུར་འདུག་, CT: བྱ་ནམ་མཁའ་ལ་འཕིར་གིས་འདུག་ ‘the bird flies in the -sky’. - -མཚན་ལ་ཆ་ཡིན་ WT, ནམ་ལ་འགྲོ་རྒྱུ་ཡིན་ CT ‘(we) shall set out at night’. - -དེ་ལ་ཤིན་ཏུ་དགའ་སྟེ་ (books and CT), དེ་ལ་མང་པོ་འཐད་དེ་ WT ‘being very glad at -this’. - -སྨན་ལ་མཁས་པ་ ‘skilful in medicine’. - -ཆང་ལ་བོས་སོ་, vulg: བོས་སོང་ ‘invited him to beer’. - -མགོ་ལ་ཟུག་རག་ག་ WT, འདུག་གམ་ CT ‘is (there) ache in (your) head’, ‘have -you head-ache?’ - - - -༎ ན་, དུ་ etc. ༎ - -ཁྱིམ་ན་ (or དུ་) ཡོད་, vulg: ཁང་པ་ལ་ (or རུ་) ཡོད་ ‘(he) is in the house, at -home’. - -ཁྱིམ་དུ་སོང་, vulg: ཁང་པ་རུ་ (or ལ་) སོང་ ‘go into the house, home!’. - -དུས་ཅིག་ན་, vulg: ཞག་ཅིག་ ‘at a (certain) time, once’. - -ད་སྟེ་ཞག་བདུན་ན་ (books) ‘from to-day in (after) seven days’. - -མས་བུ་པང་པར་ཁྱེར་ཏོ་; WT: ཨ་མས་བུ་ཚ་པང་ལ་ཁུར་ཁྱེར་; CT: ཨ་མས་བུ་པང་ཀར་ཁུར་སོང་ -‘the mother carried the son in (her) arms’. - -དེའི་དུས་སུ་, vulg: དེ་དུས་ ‘at that time’. - -ལོ་བདུན་དུ་ (books, for vulg. see Compound adv.) ‘for seven years’. - -མི་དེ་རྒྱལ་པོར་བཅུག་གོ་ (or བསྐོས་སོ་), W: རྒྱལ་པོ་ལ་བཏག་ ‘(they) made (or selected, -raised) that man to (be) king’. - -ཡོ་བྱད་སྔས་སུ་བཅུག་གོ་, CT: འཁྱོ་བྱད་ (or ཆ་ལག་) སྔས་ལ་བཅུག་ ‘they made (their) -luggage into a pillow, used it as a pillow’. - -གང་དུ་ (or ག་རུ་) འགྲོ་, WT: ག་རུ་ཆ་མཁན་ (s. 35. 2. b, ཡིན་ omitted, 40. 1. -a), CT: ག་ལ་འགྲོ་གིས་ཡིན་ (པ་ or པས་, provincial irregularities 35. 2. c) -‘where are (you) going?’ - -ང་ཏི་ནོར་ (or ཁོག་སར་ལ་) འགྲུལ་འདུག་ (vulg.) ‘I am going to Tino (or -Kʽoksar)’. - - - -༎ ནས་ ༎ - -ཟླ་བ་བརྒྱད་ནས་ ‘after eight months’. - -ཟླ་བ་བརྒྱད་པ་ནས་ ‘from (after) the eighth month’. - -ཐོག་མ་ནས་ (books and CT), WT: མགོ་མ་ནས་ ‘from the beginning’. - - - -༎ ལས་ ༎ - -དཀར་ཁུང་ལས་ ‘from the window, through the window’. - -འཁོར་བ་ལས་འགྲོལ་བ་, vulg: ༌༌༌ནས་བསྒྲལ་བ་ ‘to deliver from the circulation -(transmigration)’. - -པ་གུ་ལས་ཁང་པ་རྩིག་པ་, WT: ནས་, Tsang: པ་གུའི་ནང་རྩིག་པ་ ‘to build a house out -of brick (Ts: a house of brick)’. - -མདོ་ཟ་མ་ཏོག་ལས་ ‘from the sūtra Zamatog’. - -སློབ་མ་ལས་གཅིག་ (vulg: སློབ་མའི་ནང་ནས་གཅིག་) ‘one of (from among) the pupils’. - -ཀུན་ལས་མཁས་པ་ (books and CT), WT: ཚང་མའི་སང་མཁས་པ་ ‘wiser than all, the -wisest, most skilful of all’. - -གཉིས་ལས་མ་ལུས་སོ་ ‘more than two are not left’. - -ང་ལས་མི་འདུག་ ‘more than myself are not’. - - - -Besides these དང་ ‘with’ is to be mentioned as Simple Postposition: -thus, ཁྱེའུ་དང་སྨྲས་ཏེ་, WT: ཁྱོག་ཐོང་དང་ལབ་སྟེ་ ‘speaking (conversing) with the -youth’; ང་དང་ ‘with me’, or, in fuller form, ང་དང་ལྷན་གཅིག་ཏུ་, -ང་དང་བཅས་སུ་ vulg: ང་དང་མཉམ་པོ་ ‘together with me’. In WT it is even used -for the instrumental when the real instrument (tool) of an action is -meant, e.g. རྒྱལ་པོས་བློན་པོ་རལ་གྲིས་བསད་ so in books, but WT: རལ་གྲི་དང་བསད་ -‘the king killed the minister with the sword’. It is, moreover, added -to many Adjectives and Verbs, when we use the Accusative or Dative or -other Prepositions, e.g. དེ་དང་འདྲ་བ་ ‘like (with) that, similar to -that’. With an Infinitive it denotes the synchronism of the action with -another one, ཉི་མ་ཤར་བ་དང་ ‘with the sun rising, at sunrise’; -གཉིད་སོང་བ་དང་ ‘with (on) their going to sleep, when they went to sleep’; -ཅེས་སྨྲས་པ་དང་ཁྱིམ་དུ་སོང་ ‘(with) saying so he went home’ or also ‘he said -so, and went home’. Often it is found with an Imperative, without any -perceptible signification, if it is not to be regarded as a substitute -for ཅིག་ (38): ད་ཟོ་དང་ ‘now eat!’ For its use as a conjunction see the -next chapter. - -2. Compound Postpositions. These may conveniently be grouped in two -classes: a) Local Compound Postpositions, which are virtually the same -as the Local Adverbs specified in 42. 3.: thus, ནང་ན་ ‘in (the midst -of)’, ནང་དུ་ ‘into’ also ‘in’, ནང་ནས་ ‘from, out of’. The most usual -ones will be seen in the following examples: - - - -རྫིང་གི་ནང་ན་ (or དུ་) ཁྲུས་བྱེད་པ་ ‘to bathe in a pond’. - -ཆུའི་ནང་དུ་ཞུགས་ ‘he entered into the water’ (both in books and common -talk). - -ལྷའི་ནང་ན་གཙོ་བོ་ ‘the lord among the gods’. - -ཁང་པའི་ནང་ནས་འཐོན་ (or འབྱུང་) vulg. ‘(he) comes (emerges) out of the -house’. - -སྒོའི་གོང་ཏུ་ (or ན་, or ལ་) ‘above the door’ (books and vulg., but more -usual in WT: སྒོ་ལྟག་, CT སྒོ་ཐོད་). - -ཡབ་ཀྱི་གོང་ཏུ་འདས་, vulg.: ཡབ་ཀྱི་སྔན་ལ་ (or ལྔུན་ལ་, CT also གདོང་ལ་ ‘he died -before his father’. - -པདྨའི་སྟེང་དུ་ (or ན་, or ཐོག་ཏུ་, or ཁ་རུ་) བཞུགས་པ་, vulg., in WT: ཁ་ཐོག་ལ་ -(ཁ་ཐོད་ལ་), CT: དགེང་ལ་ ‘to sit on a lotus-flower’. - -སྒོའི་འགྲམ་དུ་ (or ལ་, or ན་) (books and talk) ‘beside, near the door’. - -ཤིང་གི་དྲུང་དུ་, vulg.: མདུན་ལ་, རྩ་ན་, རྩར་ ‘under a tree’ (literally: ‘in -front, by the side, of a tree’). - -ཞལ་ཆེ་པའི་དྲུང་དུ་ (མདུན་དུ་) འཁྲིད་པ་ ‘to take before the judge’. - -ཟླ་བ་བརྒྱད་ཀྱི་རྗེས་ལ་ CT, རྟིང་ལ་ WT ‘after eight months’. - -ཟླ་བ་གཉིས་ཀྱི་སྔན་ལ་ (or སྔུན་ལ་) vulg. ‘before two months, two months ago’. - -སའི་འོག་ཏུ་གཏེར་སྦེད་པ་ books and CT, WT: སའི་འོག་ལ་གཏེར་སྦ་བ་ ‘to hide a -treasure below the ground’. - -སའི་འོག་ནས་འབྱུང་བ་ CT, WT: སའི་ཡོག་ནས་འཐོན་པ་ ‘to emerge, come out, from -below the ground’. - -ཆུའི་ཕ་རོལ་ན་ books and CT, in CT also: ཕར་ཕྱོགས་པ་, WT: ཕར་ཁ་ལ་, ཕར་ངོས་ལ་ -‘beyond the water, river’. - -ཆུའི་ཚུ་རོལ་ན་ books and CT, WT: ཚུར་ཁ་ལ་ ‘on this side of the water’. - -ཞག་གསུམ་དུ་ (or ནས་) ཐང་དེའི་ཕ་རོལ་ཏུ་ཕྱིན་པར་འགྱུར་རོ་, CT: ཕ་རོལ་ཏུ་སླེབ་ཡོང་, WT: -ཕར་ཁ་ལ་སླེབ་ཡིན་ ‘in (after) three days he will arrive beyond this plain, -will have crossed it’. - -ཁང་པའི་ཕྱོགས་བཞི་རུ་ ‘in the four regions of the house, roundabout’. - -ཡུལ་དེའི་ཕྱོགས་ལ་སོང་ ‘go in the direction of, towards, that village’. - -ལོ་བདུན་གྱི་བར་དུ་, CT: ལོ་བདུན་ཐུག་(པ་), WT: ༌༌༌ཚུག་པ་ ‘for seven years’. - -འདི་ནས་དེའི་བར་དུ་, CT: འདི་ནས་དེ་ཐུག་པ་, WT: ཨི་ནས་ཨ་ཚུག་པ་ ‘from this to -that’. - -ང་ཉུང་ཏི་རུ་ཆ་ཅེས་ཚུག་པ་ WT: ‘till I go to Kullu’. - - - -b) General Compound Postpositions, expressive of the general relations -of things and persons. They are formed in the same manner as the Local -ones, from substantives, adjectives, and even verbs. Their use may be -learned from the following examples: - - - -ངའི་ཕྱིར་(དུ་) or དོན་དུ་ books and CT, WT: ངའི་ཕི་ལ་ ‘for me, in my behalf, -for my sake, on my account’. - -ནད་དེ་ནི་ཅིའི་ཕྱིར་བྱུང་, WT: ཅིའི་ཕི་ལ་ཡོངས་, CT: གང་གི་རོན་དུ་བྱུང་ ‘for what reason -has that illness come? what is the cause of etc.?’. - -སེམས་ཅན་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀྱི་དོན་དུ་ ‘in behalf of all living beings’. - -ཤིང་གི་ཚབ་ལ་རྡོ་ (WT: རྡོ་བ་) བཏོང་ ‘give (apply) stone instead of wood’. - - - -བཞིན་དུ་ ‘according to, like, as’—རྒྱལ་པོའི་བཀའ་བཞིན་དུ་བྱས་ཏེ་ ‘doing according -to the word of the king’; དེ་བཞིན་དུ་ ‘according to that, like that, thus, -so’; སྔ་མ་བཞིན་དུ་ ‘as formerly, as before’; instead of it the dialect of -WT uses ནང་ལྟར་, generally with the Genitive, thus the last example -there would be: སྔན་མའི་ནང་ལྟར་. - -ལྟར་ ‘like’, རི་ལྟར་ ‘like a hill’; འདི་ལྟར་, དེ་ལྟར་ ‘like this, like that, -thus, so’, ཅི་ལྟར་, CT: གང་ལྟར་ ‘like what? how? in what manner?’. - -In the dialect of WT མཚོགས་ or མཚོགས་སེ་ is used instead (which is a -corruption of མཚོངས་, occurring in books with the same meaning): thus, -རི་མཚོགས་སེ་ ‘like a hill’; འདི་མཚོགས་, དེ་མཚོགས་ ‘thus’; or ཟུག་ (properly -ཙུག་), ཨི་ཟུག་, ཨ་ཟུག་ ‘thus’, ག་ཟུག་ ‘how?’. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -THE CONJUNCTION. - - -44. The written language possesses very few, the spoken still fewer, -Conjunctions, most of which are coordinative. The common word for ‘and’ -is དང་ which we have seen above in the sense of ‘with’, གསེར་དང༌། -དངུལ་དང༌། ལྕགས་ལ་སོགས་པ་ ‘gold and silver and iron and collection (i.e. -and so on)’, though the position of the s̀ad (10.) after the word དང་ -shows that it is always considered as belonging to the preceding member -of the sentence, similar, in this respect, to the Latin ‘que’; nor can -it in any case begin a sentence. Very seldom, and only in later -literature, it appears as combining two verbs, if not, indeed, the root -ought to be regarded there as abbreviation for the infinitive. Further: -ཡང་ ‘also, too’. When belonging to a single word or notion it is put -after it in an enclitical way like ‘quoque’ in Latin. It is changed -according to the termination of the preceding word, into ཀྱང་ after ག་ -ད་ བ་ ས་ [9], into འང་ often after vowels (cf. 6). Thus: བུ་ཞིག་ཀྱང་ཁྲིད་དེ་ -‘taking also a son (with him)’. When repeated, it has the signification -of Latin ‘et—et—’, མ་ཡང་ཤི། བུ་ཡང་ཤིའོ༎ ‘both mother and son died’. Often, -especially in negative sentences, it means ‘even’, གཅིག་ཀྱང་མ་རྙེད་དོ་ ‘even -one (they) did not find—not even one’. This is the only means for -expressing ‘none, no, nothing’, མི་སུ་ (or གང་) ཡང་མ་འོངས་ (resp. ཡོངས་) -‘nobody came’; དེ་ན་ཅི་ཡང་ (ཅིའང་, or ཅང་) མེད་ ‘there is nothing’ (cf. -29). When combined with verbs, བཙལ་ཡང་མ་རྙེད་དོ་ ‘even searching (they) -did not find’, it serves as another expression for ‘though’ or also -‘but’ (s. 41. A. 7. b): thus, ‘though they searched, they etc.’ or -‘they searched, but they etc.’. Standing for itself (not leaning on the -preceding word) it means ‘again, once more’ (when it is to be regarded -as adverb), དེར་ཡང་འཁམས་ནས་ ‘there (I) fainting once more etc.’. In the -beginning of a sentence it is ‘and, again, moreover’, and may -occasionally be rendered by ‘however, but’. ཡང་ན་, ‘or’; repeated, -ཡང་ན༌༌༌༌ ཡང་ན༌༌༌༌ ‘either—or—’.—‘Or’ is expressed also by the -interrogative affix of the finite verb (34. 1.), འམ་ etc., གསེར་དངུལ་འམ། -ཟངས་ཀྱི་བུམ་པོ་ ‘a bottle of gold, silver, or copper’.—འོན་ཀྱང་ -‘nevertheless, but’, vulg: ཡིན་ཀྱང་ occurs much less frequently in -Tibetan than in the European languages. - -The only Subordinate Conjunctions are: 1. གལ་ཏེ་ ‘if’, introducing -conditional sentences ending in ན་ (41. A. 4). But, as the conditional -force really rests on the closing ན་, the initial གལ་ཏེ་ may be put or -omitted at pleasure; 2. ཅི་སྟེ་ ‘but if’; གལ་ཏེ་ནུས་ན༌༌༌༌ ‘if I can ...’, -ཅི་སྟེ་མི་ནུས་ན་ ‘but if not ...’; this last is found only in books. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -THE INTERJECTION. - - -45. The most common Interjection is ཀྱེ་, or, repeated, ཀྱེ་ཀྱེ་ ‘oh!, alas!’ -used also before the Vocative. The language of common life uses -instead: ཝ་ wa, or ཝའི་ wä. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -DERIVATION. - - -46. Derivation of Substantives. As most of what belongs under this head -has already been mentioned in 11. and 12. only the formation of -abstract nouns remains to be spoken of. 1. The unaltered adjective may -be used as an abstract noun, especially with the article བ་, as: -གྲང་བ་དྲོ་བར་འགྱུར་ ‘the cold is changed into warmth’.—To this may be added -the pronoun ཉིད་ (གྲང་བ་ཉིད་ ‘ipsum frigidum’); but this is used scarcely -anywhere else than in metaphysical treatises, from whence a few -expressions, such as སྟོང་པ་ཉིད་ ‘the vacuum, the absolute rest in -deliverance from existence’ have become more generally known.—2. In the -case of two correlative ideas existing, frequently the compound of both -is used, esp. in common talk, ཆེ་ཆུང་ ‘size’ (lit. ‘large and small’), -སྦོམ་ཕྲ་ ‘thickness’ (‘thick and thin’), e.g. ཆེ་ཆུང་ནི་ཡུངས་འབྲུ་ཙམ་ ‘the size -as much as a mustard-seed’.—3. ཁྱད་ ‘difference’ (or, sometimes, ཚད་, -ཚོད་ ‘measure’) is added, མཐོ་ཁྱད་ ‘height’, ཕྱུག་ཁྱད་ ‘wealth, riches’.—4. -Mental qualities are in most cases paraphrased by སེམས་, or བློ་ with a -genitive, བཟོད་པའི་སེམས་ ‘mind of suffering, enduring, i.e. patience’, -མཁས་པའི་བློ་ ‘wise mind, wisdom, skill’; དགའ་བའི་སེམས་ ‘mind of rejoicing, -joy’ (vulg: སེམས་དགའ་མོ་), དད་པའི་སེམས་ ‘mind of belief (also ‘a believing -mind’), faith’.—5. Diminutives are formed by adding the termination འུ་, -often with an alteration of the preceding vowel: རྟ་ ‘horse’, རྟེའུ་ -‘little horse, foal’; མི་ ‘man’, མིའུ་ ‘little man, dwarf’; རྡོ་ ‘stone’, -རྡེའུ་ ‘small stone, calculus’. If a word ends with a consonant, only u is -added, and a new syllable formed: ལུག་ ‘sheep’, ལུ་གུ་ ‘lamb’. - - - -47. Derivation of Adjectives. 1. Possessive adjectives are regularly -expressed by adding the syllable ཅན་, or the phrase དང་ལྡན་པ་, abridged -ལྡན་ to any substantive, མགོ་ཅན་ ‘having a head’; མི་མགོ་ཅན་ ‘having the -head of a man’; སྐྲ་ཅན་ ‘having hair, (long-)haired’; རིག་པ་ཅན་, -རིག་པ་དང་ལྡན་པ་ ‘possessing knowledge, learned, wise’; དང་ལྡན་པ་ is never -heard in common talk in WT.—2. Adjectives of appurtenance are generally -expressed by the genitive of the substantive, གསེར་གྱི་ ‘of gold, golden’; -ཤའི་མིག་ ‘the eye of flesh, the carnal, bodily eye’, oppos.: ཤེས་རབ་ཀྱི་མིག་ -‘the eye of knowledge, spiritual eye’.—3. Negative, or privative -adjectives are formed in several ways: a) by the simple negative མི་, -མི་འོས་པ་ ‘unworthy’; མི་རུང་བ་ ‘unfit’; མི་ཐོས་པ་ ‘unheard of’. b) by adding -མེད་ ‘without’, མགོ་མེད་ ‘headless’; སྐྱོན་མེད་ ‘faultless’. c) by adding the -verb བྲལ་(བ་) ‘separated from’, ལུས་དང་བྲལ་བ་, ལུས་བྲལ་ ‘separated from the -body, bodiless’.—4. The English adjectives in -able, -ible are -expressed by རུང་བ་ ‘to be fit’, added to the Supine, or to the simple -Root, འཐང་དུ་རུང་བ་, འཐུང་རུང་ ‘fit for drinking, drinkable’, vulgo: -འཐུང་ཉན་ (from ཉན་པ་ ‘to be able’), འཐུང་ཆོག་ (ཆོག་ ‘permitted, lawful’). - - - - - - - - -PART III. - -SYNTAX. - - -48. Arrangement of words. 1. The invariable rule is this: in a simple -sentence all other words must precede the verb; in a compound one all -the subordinate verbs in the form of gerunds or supines, and all the -coordinate verbs in the form of the root, each closing its own -respective clause, must precede the governing verb (examples s. -below).—2. The order in which the different cases of substantives -belonging to a verb are to be arranged, is rather optional, so that -e.g. the agent may either precede or follow its object. Local and -temporal adverbs or adverbial phrases are, if possible, put at the head -of the sentence.—3. The order of words belonging to a substantive is -this: 1. The Genitive, 2. the governing Substantive, 3. the Adjective -(unless this is itself put, in the genitive, before; 16), 4. the -Pronoun, 5. the Numeral, 6. the indefinite Article: thus, -ངའི་བུ་མོ་ཆུང་ངུ་འདི་ ‘this my little daughter’; གོས་དམར་པོ་ཞིག་ ‘a red gown’; -གོས་དམར་པོ་ or དམར་པོའི་གོས་ ‘the red gown’; རྒྱལ་ཁམས་ཆེན་པོ་འདི་གསུམ་ ‘these -three great kingdoms’. Adverbs precede the word they belong to: -ཤིན་ཏུ་ཆེན་པོ་ ‘very great’; ཤིན་ཏུ་མགྱོགས་པར་ཤོག་ ‘come very quickly’.—4. In -correlative sentences (cf. 29) the Relative precedes the Demonstrative: -གང་ཡོད་པ་དེ་ཐོང་ཞིག་ ‘what there is, give!’ i.e. ‘give whatever you have’, -and in comparative sentences the thing with which another is compared, -ordinarily precedes this (cf. 17). - - - -49. Use of the cases. As the necessary observations about the -instrumental have been made in 30, about the other cases and -postpositions partly in 15, partly in 43, it is only the Accusative, -that requires a few words more, as it is very often used absolutely (as -in Greek). a) Acc. temporalis: མཚན་མོ་ ‘at night’; གསོན་པོའི་ཚེ་ ‘during -(his etc.) lifetime’; དེའི་ཚེ, དེ་དུས་ ‘at that time’; ཉི་མ་གཅིག་བསླབས་ནས་ -‘having studied for one day, after one day’s study’.—b) Acc. modalis: -དབྱིབས་ཟླུམ་པ་ ‘regarding the size, round’; གཏིང་ཟབ་ཁྱད་ཁྲུ་བརྒྱད་པ་ ‘regarding -the depth, eight cubits’ (cf. 12); ཁ་དོག་དུ་བ་ལྟ་བུར་ཡོད་པ་ ‘regarding -colour, being like smoke’ (cf. 50, 1, a); རིགས་མཐུན་པ་ ‘with regard to -(his) birth, equal’ i.e. ‘of equal birth’. Here ནི་ (42. 1) is very -often employed: དབྱིབས་ནི་ཟླུམ་པ་ etc. Nearly in all cases, however, -postpositions may be added, and in talking they are preferred to the -simple Accusative: མཚན་མོ་ལ་, མཚན་ལ་, དེའི་ཚེ་ན་, དབྱིབས་ལ་ etc. - - - -50. Simple Sentences.—1. Affirmative sentences.—a) the attribute being -a noun, the verb: to be, become, remain etc.; མི་འདི་ནི་མཁས་པ་ཡིན་ ‘this -man is wise’; འདི་ནི་མི་མཁས་པ་ཞིག་ཡིན་ ‘this is a wise man’. When the verb -is འགྱུར་བ་ (to become), གནས་པ་ (to remain) etc. the attribute must be -put in the Terminative: སྐྲ་དཀར་པོར་གྱུར་ཏོ་ ‘(his) hair became white’; -རྒྱལ་པོ་ཡི་དམ་ལ་བརྟན་པར་གནས་སོ་, vulg: བརྟན་པོ་གནས་པ་ཡིན་ ‘the king remained -steadfast on his vow’; in some special cases this may take place, even -if the verb is simply ‘to be’: ལུས་གཟུགས་ཐམས་ཅད་མི་འདྲ་སྟེ། -རྐང་པ་འབའ་ཞིག་ཁྲ་བོར་འདུག་གོ་ ‘while his whole shape was like a man’s, his -foot only was piebald’. b) the attribute being any other verb: -རྒྱ་ནག་ཡུལ་གྱི་རྒྱལ་པོ་སྔ་མ་ཞིག་གིས་ཡུལ་དེའི་བྱང་ཕྱོགས་སུ་ལྕགས་རི་ཤིན་ཏུ་ཆེན་པོ་ཞིག་བརྩིགས་སོ་ ‘an -ancient king of China built a very large wall in the north of that -country’. - -2. Interrogative sentences.—a) simple: ཁྱོད་ཀྱི་བུ་ཁང་པ་ལ་འདུག་གམ་ ‘is your -son in the house?’; དེ་རུ་སུ་ཡོད་ ‘who is there?’; ཅི་ལ་ཡོང་ ‘what do you -come for?’, ‘what do you want?’.—རིན་ཙམ་ W (རིན་ག་ཚོད་ C) ‘how much (is) -the price?’. - -Besides the affix am the later literature and the conversational -language of CT has the accentuated interrogative particle ཨེ་ ĕ́, -immediately before the verb: ཐབས་ཨེ་ཡོད་ tʽab ĕ́ yöʼ ‘is there any -means...?’; ལས་འདི་བྱེད་ཨེ་ནུས་ lā̤ di j̀ĕʼ ĕ́ nṳ̄ ‘can you do this work?’. - -The form of a question is also used to express uncertain suppositions -(likely to become realized), as: རྗེད་པ་སྲིད་དམ་ ‘is forgetting possible?’ -for ‘he may possibly have forgotten it’; ཤི་བ་ཡིན་ནམ་ ‘won’t he die?’; -འདི་བདུད་མ་ཡིན་ནམ་ ‘this (apparition) is not the devil, I hope?’. - -b) double: ནང་ན་ཡོད་དམ་མེད་ ‘is (he) within or not?’; -བདག་ལ་སྦྱིན་དུ་རུང་ངམ་མི་རུང་ ‘is it agreeable (to you i.e. do you consent) to -give me (your son) or not?’; ང་འོངས་པ་མི་དགའ་འམ་ཅི་ཉེས་ ‘are you sorry at -my arrival, or what (else) is the matter (with you—because you weep)?’. - -3. Imperative and Optative or Precative sentences do not require any -additional remarks besides what is said in 38. - - - -51. Compound Sentences. After having examined in 41 the different -gerunds as the constituent parts of compound sentences, a few examples -will suffice for illustration. - -1. Compound sentences, for the most part coordinative: རྒྱལ་པོས་ཁྲིམས་བཅའ་སྟེ -[10]། བཟང་ [11]ལ་བྱ་དགའ་སྟེར། ངན་པ་ལ་ཆད་པ་གཅོད [12]། བྲེ་སྲང་གཏན་ལ་ཕབ [13]། -མི་ལ་ཡི་གེ་བསླབས་སོ [14]༎ ‘The king having given a law, the good were given -rewards, the bad punished, measures and weights arranged, and people -taught letters (i.e. reading and writing)’. - -2. subordinate sentences: དེར་ [15]བུད་མེད་གཉིས་ཤིག་ [16]བུ་གཅིག་ལ་རྩོད་དེ། -རྒྱལ་པོ་བློ་ [17]མཁས་པས་བརྟག་ནས་ [18]འདི་སྐད་ཅེས་ [19]བསྒོའོ། -།ཁྱོད་གཉིས་ཀྱིས་བུའི་ལག་པ་རེ་རེ་ནས་བཟུང་སྟེ། དྲོངས་ལ་ [20]གང་གིས་ཐོབ་པ་ [21]བུ་ཁྱེར་ཞིག་ -[22]ཅེས་བསྒོ་བ་དང་ [23]། བུའི་མ་མ་ཡིན་པ་དེས་ནི་ [24]བུ་ལ་སྙིང་རྗེ་མེད་པས་ [25]སྣད་ཀྱིས་ -[26]མི་དོགས་ཏེ། མཐུ་ཇེ་ཡོད་པར་ [27]དྲངས་སོ། -།བུའི་མ་གང་ཡིན་པ་དེ་ནི་བུ་ལ་བྱམས་པས་སྣད་ཀྱིས་དོགས་ཏེ། སྟོབས་ཀྱིས་ཐུབ་ཀྱང་ [28]དྲག་ཏུ་ -[29]མ་ [30]དྲངས་སོ། །རྒྱལ་པོས་དྲག་ཏུ་དྲངས་པ་དེ་ལ། འདི་ནི་ཁྱོད་ཀྱི་བུ་མ་ཡིན་ཏེ། -བུད་མེད་ཅིག་ཤོས་ [31]ཀྱི་བུ་ཡིན་པས་ན [32]། དྲང་པོར་ [33]སྨྲོས་ཤིག་ [34]ཅེས་སྨྲས་པ་དང༌། -དལ་གྱིས་དྲངས་པའི་བུ་ཡིན་པར་གྱུར་ཏེ་ [35]བུ་ཁྱེར་རོ༎ ‘There being certain two women -quarrelling about one boy, the king (being) wise of understanding -having examined (the case) thus ordered: You two, having seized from -each (side) a hand of the boy, pull, and who gets him, (she) may carry -him off.—When he had so spoken, she who was not the boy’s mother, -because she had no compassion for the boy, not fearing (she might) hurt -(him), pulled with what force she had. She who (in truth) was the boy’s -mother, because she had compassion with the boy, fearing (she might) -hurt (him), though she was able by force, did not pull hard. The king -said to her who had pulled hard: “Because this, not being your son, is -the other woman’s son, say (it) outright”. When he had so spoken, as he -had turned out to be the son of the gentle puller, (she) carried off -the boy’. - - - - - - - - -APPENDIX. - - -A COLLECTION OF PHRASES FROM DAILY LIFE, IN THE MODERN DIALECTS, -ROMANIZED. - - -WT kʽyod gá-na̤ yoṅ, Where do you come from? -CT kʽyöʼ gʽá-na̤ yoṅ. -W kʽyod su yin, C kʽyöʼ s. y. Who are you? -W kʽyod (C kʽyöʼ) sṳ̄ [36] yin. [37] Whose (man, servant) are you? -W kʽyod ráṅi miṅ c̀i zer, What is your name? (rule 34. -C kʽyöʼ-kyi míṅ-la gʽaṅ zér-gi 2. c is not always observed) - yöʼ-dʽam. -W kʽyód-di kʽáṅ-pa gá-na yod, Where is your house? -C kʽyöʼ-kyi kʽaṅ-pa gʽá-na yöʼ(-pa). -W kʽyod c̀i-la yoṅ, Why do you come? -C kʽyöʼ gʽaṅ-la yoṅ. (What do you want?) -W c̀i-la ’i-ru dug. Why are you here? -W ṅa s̀ruṅ-te dad. I sit here to watch. -W dī yúl-li miṅ c̀i zer, What is the name of this -C yul dī miṅ-la gʽaṅ zér-ra [38] village? - yim-pa. -W kʽyod-la ḍel-wa [39] z̀ig yód-da, Have you any errand -C kʽyöʼ la dʽo̤n z̀ig yöʼ-dʽam. (business)? -W c̀aṅ med; c̀ʽón-la yoṅ(s), Not any; I have come to no -C c̀aṅ mĕ́ʼ; dʽo̤n-mĕ́ʼ-la yoṅ. purpose. -W da tʽug pa tʽuṅ-c̀e-la Then go home to eat (drink) - kaṅ-pa-la-soṅ. your soup. -W yod: ṅá-la man [40] z̀ig sal [41], Yes: please give me some -C yöʼ: ṅá-la ma̤n z̀ig naṅ [42]-rog. medicine. -W ṅá-la zug [43] yod, Ts sug gyág I am ill (I have got, am - [44]-gī, befallen with, an illness). -Ü ṅá-la ná-tʽsa toṅ [45]-gi dug. -W zúr-mo rag, C - - dug. I feel pain. -W gá-na, C gʽá-na. Where? -W ḍód-pa [46]-la, C ḍʽöʼ-pa-la. In the stomach. -W gó-la zug rag, C - - - yöʼ. I have headache. -W ṅa-z̀a yaṅ-pa-la c̀ʽa-c̀e-la We should have taken a walk, - tʽsan-te rag. but it is too hot. -WC di len. Take this! -W di kʽyer, C di kʽur soṅ. Take this with (you)! -W di kʽyoṅ, C di kʽur s̀og. Bring this! -W di gá-zug c̀o-c̀e, How shall I do this? -C di gʽán-ḍa̤ [47] j̀ĕʼ toṅ (or j̀ĕʼ - gyu) yin (yim-pa). -W dí-zug c̀o mi gos (goi, gō̤), You must not do it in this -C dí-ḍā̤ j̀ĕʼ mi gō̤. way. -W ṅá-la da-ruṅ ó-ma z̀ig gos, I want some more milk. -C ṅá-la dʽa-ruṅ wó-ma s̀ig gō̤. -W i lág-mo c̀o, C di lég-mo j̀ā̤. Clean this! -W bé-ma daṅ ṭu [48]-c̀e, Wash it with sand! -C j̀é-mā̤ ṭʽṳ̄. -W ṅa-la c̀ʽu c̀uṅ zad (C säʼ) c̀ig naṅ Give me some water, please! - [49] z̀ig (C s̀ig). -W lág-pa lág-mo yód-da, Are (your) hands clean? -C lág-pa lég-mo (lā-mo, or tsaṅ-wa) é - yöʼ. -W o-ma tʽsag-rā̤́-la tʽsag toṅ, Filter the milk through the -C wo-ma - - - tʽsag s̀og. filtering cloth! -W tʽab c̀ʽuṅ-se dḗ c̀ʽog-la bor-toṅ, Put the little stove there! -C - - - dʽḗ c̀ʽog (c̀ʽö)-la z̀ag - [50]-c̀ig. -W pʽàn-dil sá-la pʽob [51] (pʽab-toṅ), Put the pot (degc̀i) down on -C saṅ [52] sá-la pʽáb-s̀ig. the ground! -W zaṅ(-bu) me daṅ ñe-mo bor, Put the pot near the fire! -C saṅ me dʽaṅ ñe-mo z̀ag. -W pʽog ton. Take it off! -W ñí-ma gás [53]-sa (gā̤-a) As soon as the sun sets, light - tsám-z̀ig-ga me pʽu [54], a fire! -C - - gā̤ tsam-s̀ig-la - -. -W kar-yol kʽyoṅ-ṅa son. Go to fetch the china! - - - len-na s̀og. Come to take away - -. -W c̀ʽu ḍáṅ-mo [55] daṅ ṭú-na If you wash with cold water, - kar-yól [56] mi dag (or the china does not become - kar-yol lag-mo mi c̀ʽa-yin); clean; wash it well with some - tʽsán-te z̀ig láṅ-te hot (water)! - gyal-la ṭu gos (gō̤), -C c̀ʽu dʽáṅ mō̤ tṳ̄ na kar-yól - mi dag; tʽsám-mo s̀íg - gī lég (lā̤)-pa-ṭṳ̄ s̀og. -W lás (lā̤)-ka tʽsaṅ-ma tʽsar-na̤ Unless all the work is done, - mán-na ma c̀ʽa, don’t go! (or) you must not -C - - - ma̤m-pa ḍo [57] mi c̀ʽog. go. -W sol-c̀óg [58] ṭʽal-ḍig [59] c̀o-a, Shall I make the table ready? -C - - - - j̀ĕʼ gyu yin-na(m). -W o-ná; c̀og-tán tiṅ [60] toṅ, Yes; lay (spread) the cloth! -C yā-ya; c̀og-tá̤n tíṅ-c̀ig. -W tib-ríl li naṅ-na c̀ʽu máṅ-po yód-da Is there much water in the - ñúṅ-ṅu yód, teapot, or little? -C - - gyi-naṅ-na c̀ʽu máṅ-po yöʼ-dʽam - ñúṅ-ṅu yöʼ. -W ñúṅ ṅu z̀ig yod (a-tʽsig man-na (But) a little. - med), -C ñúṅ ṅu s̀ig yöʼ. -W tib-ril c̀ʽu kaṅ [61]-te kʽyoṅ, Fill the teapot with water, -C - - c̀ʽṳ̄ káṅ-nā̤ kʽur s̀og. and bring it! -W tib-ril dzag dug. The kettle leaks. -W kár-yā [62] daṅ j̀ar [63] gos (gō̤), It must be soldered (fastened -C kár-yā̤ (or s̀a-kar-gyī) j̀ar gō̤. with pewter). -W gar-wa̤ [64] tsar [65] kʽyer, Take it to the blacksmith’s. -C kʽur soṅ. -W s̀el-kor gas (gā̤) soṅ, The tumbler (glass-cup) has -C s̀el-pʽor gā̤ soṅ. got a crack. -W ṅā̤ ma zer-na s̀iṅ ma kʽyoṅ, Unless I tell you, do not -C - - ser-na - - kyal [66]. bring wood! -W sab mol-na kʽyoṅ yin, When master commands, I shall -C sa-hib suṅ [67]-na kyal gyu yin. bring. -W sab gá-zug mol, What did you say, sir (did the -C sa-hib gʽaṅ suṅ wa yin. gentleman say)? -W ma pʽaṅ [68]; bud ma c̀ug [69], Don’t cast it away! Do not let -C ma bʽor-wa j̀ʽĕʼ; bʽüʼ ma c̀ug. it slip! -WC rig-pa ḍim [70], Take care! Cautiously! -W kʽa-dar c̀o. -W nán [71]-c̀e man, You must not press! -C ná̤n gyu min. -W ḍás [72]-si (ḍā̤́-i) lág-ma ṭí Put by the remainder of the - [73]-te bor, rice! -C ḍā̤́-kyi lhág-ma tʽsag j̀ʽā̤. -W lag-ma mi dug, c̀aṅ ma There is no remainder; nothing - lus (lṳ̄). is left. -W o-ma lud ma c̀ug, Do not let the milk run over! -C wo-ma lüʼ ma c̀ug. -W c ̀ʽín-pa [74] ma túb [75]-te són-te Not cutting the liver, bring - kʽyoṅ, it as a whole! -C - - - - - tʽsáṅ-ma (or gʽáṅ-mo) - kʽur-s̀og. -W a-lu s̀u-te tub toṅ, Peel the potatoes, and cut -C kyi-u (or ḍo-ma [76]) s̀u-te them in pieces! - tub-c̀ig. - maṅ-po (or yun riṅ-mo) ma gor. Don’t tarry much! -W gyog-pa (C gyog-po, gyō-po) s̀og. Come soon! -W ma j̀ed [77], 1. Do not forget! 2. (I) did -C ma j̀ĕʼ. not forget. -W yid-la zum [78] tʽub-ba, Can you remember it (bear it -C sem-la ṅē tʽub-ba. in mind)? -W yid-la zum gos (gō̤), You must bear it in mind, -C ṅē-pa j̀ʽĕʼ gō̤. (make it certain). - naṅ-du soṅ; naṅ-du s̀og. Go in! Come in! -W naṅ-du kyod [79], Go (or come) in, sir! -C naṅ-du pʽeb. -W dod [80], C däʼ. Sit down! - z̀ug [81]. Please sit down, sir! - - - - - - - - -READING EXERCISE. - -THE STORY OF YUG-PA-C̀AN THE BRAHMAN [82]. - - -༄༅ ༎ཡུལ་ཞིག་ [83]ན་ [84]བྲམ་ཟེ་དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་ཞེས་བྱ་བ་ [85]ཞིག༌འདུག་ [86]སྟེ [87]། -རབ་ཏུ་དབུལ་འཕོངས་པ་བཟའ་བ་དང༌། བགོ་བ་མེད་པ་ [88]ཞིག་གོ [89]། དེས་ཁྱིམ་བདག་ཅིག་ལས་ -[90]བ་གླང་ཞིག་བརྙས་ཏེ། ཉིན་པར་སྤྱད་ནས་བ་གླང་དེ་ཁྲིད་དེ་ཁྱིམ་བདག་དེའི་ཁྱིམ་དུ་སོང་བ་དང༌། -དེ་ན་ [91]ཁྱིམ་བདག་ནི་ཟན་ཟ་སྟེ། དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་གྱིས་བ་གླང་དེ་ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ནང་དུ་བཏང་ [92]བ་དང༌། -བ་གླང་སྒོ་གཞན་དུ་སོང་ནས་སྟོར་རོ༎ ཁྱིམ་བདག་དེ་ཟན་དེ་ཟོས་ནས་ལངས་ [93]པ་དང༌། -དེ་ན་བ་གླང་མ་མཐོང་ནས་དེས་དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་ལ་གླང་ག་རེ་ཞེས་བྱས་པ་ [94]དང༌། ཏེས་སྨྲས་པ། -ཁྱོད་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་དུ་བཏང་ངོ༌། །ཁྱོད་ཀྱིས་ངའི་གླང་བོར་གྱིས་ [95]སློར་བྱིན་ཅིག་ [96]ཅེས་སྨྲས་པ་དང༌། -དེས་སྨྲས་པ། ངས་མ་བོར་རོ༎ དེ་ནས་དེ་གཉིས་འགྲོགས་ཏེ། རྒྱལ་པོའི་ཐད་དུ་འདོང་བ་དང༌། -འུ་བུ་ཅག་གི་རིགས་པ་དང་མི་རིགས་པ་རྟོག་པར་འགྱུར་རོ་ [97]ཞེས་སྨྲས་ནས་དེ་གཉིས་དོང་བ་དང༌། -མི་གཞན་ཞིག་གི་རྟ་རྒོད་མ་ཞིག་བྲོས་ནས། དེས་དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་ལ་སྨྲས་པ། རྒོད་མ་མ་བཏང་ -[98]ཞེས་སྨྲས་པ་དང༌། དེས་རྡོ་ཞིག་བླངས་ [99]ཏེ་འཕངས་ -[100]པ་དང་རྟའི་རྐང་པ་ལ་ཕོག་ནས་རྐང་པ་བཅག་ [101]གོ །དེས་སྨྲས་པ། ཁྱོད་ཀྱིས་ངའི་རྟ་བསད་ཀྱིས་ -[102]ངའི་རྟ་བྱིན་ཅིག །ཅིའི་ཕྱིར་རྟ་སྦྱིན། དེས་སྨྲས་པ་ཚུར་ཤོག །རྒྱལ་པོའི་དྲུང་དུ་ [103]འདོང་དང༌། -འུ་བུ་ཅག་གི་ཞལ་ཆེ་གཅོད་དུ་འོང་ངོ་ཞེས་སྨྲས་ནས། དེ་དག་དེར་སོང་བ་དང༌། -དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་དེས་འབྲོས་པར་བརྩམས་ [104]ཏེ། དེས་ [105]རྩིག་པ་ཞིག་གི་སྟེང་ནས་ -[106]མཆོངས་པ་དང༌། དེའི་དྲུང་ན་ཐ་ག་པ་ཞིག་ཐགས་འཐག་ཅིང་འདུག་པ་དེའི་སྟེང་དུ་ལྷུང༌ -[107]ནས་ཐ་ག་པ་དེ་ཚེ་འཕོས་པ་དང༌། ཐ་ག་པའི་ཆུང་མས་དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་དེ་བཟུང༌ [108]ནས། -ཁྱོད་ཀྱིས་ངའི་ཁྱོ་བསད་ཀྱིས་ངའི་ཁྱོ་བྱིན་ཞིག་ཅེས་སྨྲས་པ་དང༌། ངས་ཁྱོད་ཀྱི་ཁྱོ་ཅི་ལྟར་ -[109]སྦྱིན་ཞེས་སྨྲས་ནས། ཚུར་ཤོག་རྒྱལ་པོའི་དྲུང་དུ་འདོང་ངོ༌༎ -དེས་འུ་བུ་ཅག་གི་ཞལ་ཅེ་གཅད་དོ་ཞེས་དོང་བ་ལས། [110] ལམ་གྱི་བར་ན་ཆུ་བོ་གཏིང་ཟབ་པོ་ -[111]ཞིག་ཡོད་དེ། ཆུ་དེའི་ནང་ནས་ཚུར་ [112]ཤང་མཁན་ [113]ཞིག་སྟེའུ་ཁ་ན་འཁྱེར་ཏེ་འོང་ངོ༌། -།དེ་ལ་དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་གྱིས་ཆུའི་གཏིང་ཅི་ཙམ་ཞེས་དྲིས་ [114]པ་དང༌། ཆུའི་གཏིང་ཟབ་བོ་ -[115]ཞེས་སྨྲས་པས་ [116]སྟེའུ་ཆུར་ལྷུང་སྟེ། སྟེའུ་མ་རྙེད་པ་དང༌། དེས་དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་བཟུང་ནས། -ཁྱོད་ཀྱིས་ངའི་སྟེའུ་ཆུར་བསྐྱུར་རོ [117]༎ དེས་སྨྲས་པ་ངས་མ་བསྐྱུར་ཏོ། -།ཚུར་ཤོག་རྒྱལ་པོའི་དྲུང་དུ་འདོང་དང༌། དེས་འུ་བུ་ཅག་གི་ཞལ་ཆེ་གཅད་དོ་ཞེས་སྨྲས་ནས་དོང་ངོ༌། -།དེ་དག་སོང་བ་ལས་ [118] རྒྱལ་པོའི་དྲུང་དུ་ཕྱིན་པ་དང༌། -དེ་དག་རྒྱལ་པོའི་རྐང་པ་ལ་མགོ་བོས་ཕྱག་འཚལ་ཏེ། ཕྱོགས་གཅིག་ཏུ་འདུག་གོ [119] -།དེ་ནས་རྒྱལ་པོས་དེ་དག་ལ་ཁྱོད་ཅི་ལ་འོངས་ཤེས་དྲིས་པ་དང༌། -དེ་དག་གིས་དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་དང་ཁྱིམ་བདག་རྩོད་པ་ [120]དེ་དག་ཐམས་ཅད་སྨྲས་སོ། -།རྒྱལ་པོས་དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་ལ་སྨྲས་པ། ཁྱོད་ཀྱིས་གླང་བརྙས་སམ། །བརྙས་སོ། །འོ་ན་ཕྱིར་བྱིན་ནམ༎ -བདག་གིས་མཐོང་བར་ [121]བྱིན་ཏེ། ཁས་ [122]ནི་མ་བཏང་ངོ༌། །རྒྱལ་པོས་སྨྲས་པ། -དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་དེས་གླང་ཕྱིར་བྱིན་ཏེ་མ་སྨྲས་པས་ན [123]། ལྕེ་ཆོད་ཅིག །ཁྱིམ་བདག་ཀྱང་གླང་འོངས་པར་ -[124]མཐོང་ལ་ [125]མ་བཏགས་ [126]པས་ནི། མིག་ཕྱུང་ [127]ཞིག་ཅེས་བརྗོད་དོ། -།ཁྱིམ་བདག་གིས་སྨྲས་པ། དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་གྱིས་གཅིག་ཏུ་ [128]ནི་བདག་གི་ [129]གླང་ཕྲོགས། གཉིས་སུ་ -[130]བདག་གི་མིག་ཕྱུང་བ་བས [131] དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་རྒྱལ་བར་འགྱུར་ཡང་བླའོ [132]། མི་གཅིག་གིས་ལྷ -[133]། དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་གྱིས་བདག་གི་རྟ་རྒོད་མ་བཀུམ་ [134]མོ་ཞེས་སྨྲས་པ་དང༌། -རྒྱལ་པོས་དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་ལ་ཁྱོད་ཀྱིས་རྟ་ཅི་ལྟར་བསད་ཅེས་དྲིས་ནས། །བདག་ལམ་དུ་ཞུགས་ -[135]ཏེ་མཆིས་པ་ལས། མི་འདིས་རྟ་མ་བཏང་ཞེས་མཆི་ [136]བ་ལས། བདག་གིས་རྟོ་ཞིག་བླངས་ཏེ། -འཕངས་པ་ལ་ [137]རྟ་བཀུམ་མོ། །རྒྱལ་པོས་སྨྲས་པ། རྟ་བདག་གིས་རྟ་མ་བཏང་ཞེས་སྨྲས་པས་ལྕེ་ཆོད་ཅིག -།དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་ནི་ [138]རྡོ་འཕངས་པས་ལག་པ་ཆོད་ཅིག །མི་དེས་སྨྲས་པ། གཅིག་ཏུ་བདག་གི་རྟ་བསད། -གཉིས་སུ་བདག་གི་ལྕེ་གཅད་པ་བས། དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་རྒྱལ་བར་འགྱུར་ཀྱང་བླའོ། །ཐ་ག་པའི་ཆུང་མས་སྨྲས་པ། -དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་གྱིས་བདག་གི་ཁྱོ་བཀུམ་མོ། །དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་གྱིས་སྨྲས་པ། བདག་ལ་དགྲ་མངས་པས་ -[139]འཇིགས་ཏེ་རྩིགས་པ་ལས་བརྒལ་ནས་བྲོས་པ་ལས། ཕག་ན་མི་ཡོད་པ་ [140]མ་མཐོང་སྟེ་གུམ་མོ། -།རྒྱལ་པོས་སྨྲས་པ། སོང་ལ་ [141]འདི་ཉིད་ [142]ཀྱི་ཁྱོ་གྱིས་ [143]ཤིག །དེས་སྨྲས་པ། -གཅིག་ཏུ་བདག་གི་ཁྱོ་བསད། གཉིས་སུ་འདི་ཁྱོ་བྱས་པ་བས [144]། དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་རྒྱལ་པར་འགྱུར་ཀྱང་བླའོ། -།ཤིང་མཁན་གྱིས་སྨྲས་པ། དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་དེ་ [145]བདག་ལ་ཆུའི་གཏིང་ཅེ་ཙམ་ཞེས་དྲིས་པས། -ཁ་ནས་སྟེའུ་ཐོགས་པ་ [146]ཆུར་ལྷུང་ངོ༌། །རྒྱལ་པོས་སྨྲས་པ། -རྫ་ཇི་ཁྱེར་ཡང་ཕྲག་པ་ལ་བཀུར་བའི་རིགས་ཀྱི་ [147]ཁ་ན་ཁྱེར་བས། -ཤིང་མཁན་གྱི་མ་དུན་སོ་གཉིས་ཆོག་ཅིག །དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་ནི་ཆུའི་གཏིང་ཟབ་བམ་ཞེས་པས་ [148]ལྕེ་ཆོད་ཅིག -།ཤིང་མཁན་གྱིས་སྨྲས་པ། གཅིག་ཏུ་བདག་གི་སྟེའུ་སྟོར། གཉིས་སུ་བདག་གི་སོ་བཅག་པ་བས། -དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་རྒྱལ་བར་འགྱུར་ཀྱང་བླའོ། །དེ་དག་སོ་སོ་ནས་ [149]ཞལ་ཆེ་བཅད་དེ། -དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་ཉེས་པ་ཀུན་ལས་ཐར་རོ༎ ༎ - - - - - - - - -A LIST OF THE MORE FREQUENT VERBS [150]. - - -a) Four-rooted verbs. - -Pres. Perf. Fut. Imperv. WT -འགེགས་པ་ བཀག་ དགག་ ཁོག་ stop, kag-c̀e - hinder. -འགེངས་པ་ བཀང་ དགང་ ཁོང་ fill. kaṅ-c̀e -འགེལ་བ་ བཀལ་ དགལ་ ཁོལ་ lade, kal-c̀e - put on - ... -གཅོད་པ་ བཅད་ གཅད་ ཆོད་ cut. c̀ad-c̀e - imprv. c̀od -འཆིང་བ་ བཅིངས་ བཅིང་ ཆིང་ tie, bind. -འཆོ་བ་ } བཅོ(ས)༌ བཅོ་ ཆོས་ make. c̀o-c̀e pf. and -འཆོས་པ་ } imp. c̀os -འཇིག་པ་ (བ)ཤིག་ གཞིག་ ཤིགས་ destroy. s̀ig-c̀e -འཇུག་པ་ བཅུག་ གཞུག་ ཆུག་ put in. c̀ʽug-c̀e -འཇོག་པ་ བཞག་ གཞག་ ཞོག་ put, place. (C: z̀ag-pa) -འཇོག་པ་ བཞོགས་ གཞོག་ ཞོག་ cut. z̀og-c̀e -གཏོང་བ་ བཏང་ གཏང་ ཐོང་ give. taṅ-c̀e imp. toṅ -ལྟ་བ་ བལྟས་ བལྟ་ ལྟོས་ look. (l)ta-c̀e -འདེགས་པ་ བཏེག་ གདེགས་ ཐེག་ lift; weigh. tag-c̀e imp. tog -འདེབས་པ་ བཏབ་ གདབ་ ཐོབ་ throw. tab-c̀e imp. tob -འདོགས་པ་ བཏགས་ གདགས་ ཐོགས་ tie, bind. tag-c̀e imp. tog, - tag toṅ -འདོན་པ་ བཏོན་ གདོན་ ཐོན་ get, drive, ton-c̀e always - out. for འབྱིན་པ་ -འཕེན་པ་ འཕངས་ འཕང་ ཕོང་ throw, hurt. pʽaṅ-c̀e -བྱེད་པ་ བྱས་ བྱ་ བྱོས་ do, make. for it c̀o-c̀e -འབེབས་པ་ ཕབ་ དབབ་ ཕོབ་ bring, let, pʽab-c̀e - down. -འཚག་པ་ { འཚགས་ } བཙག་ ཚོག་ filter, sift. tʽsag-c̀e -བཙགས་ { } -འཚོང་བ་ བཙོངས་ བཙོང་ ཚོང་ sell. tsoṅ-c̀e -འཛིན་པ་ གཟུང་, ཟིན་ གཟུང་ ཟུང་ seize. zum-c̀e -ལེན་པ་ བླངས་ བླང་ ལོང(ས)༌, ལོན་ take. len-c̀e, laṅ-c̀e -སློབ་པ་ བསླབ(ས)༌ བསླབ་ སློབ་ learn; teach. lab-c̀e - - -b) Three-rooted verbs. - -Pres. Perf. Fut. Imperv. WT -འཁུར་བ་ བཀུར་ ཁུར་ carry. kʽur-c̀e -འཁྱོང་བ་ ཁྱོངས་ ཁྱོང་ bring. kʽyoṅ-c̀e for འཁྱེར་བ་ -རྒྱབ་པ་ བརྒྱབ་ རྒྱོབ་ throw, cast. gyab-c̀e imp. - gyob for འདེབས་པ་ -རྒྱུག་པ་ (བ)རྒྱུག(ས)༌ རྒྱུག་ run. gyug-c̀e -གཅོག་པ་ བཅག་ ཆོག་ break. c̀ag-c̀e, imp. c̀og -འཆད་པ་ བཤད་ ཤོད་ tell, explain. s̀ad-c̀e -རྟེན་པ་ བརྟེན་ རྟོན་ hold. ten-c̀e -འདྲེན་པ་ དྲང་ དྲོངས་ draw. to lead: ran-c̀e - to remove: ḍeṅ-c̀e -འབབ་པ་ བབ(ས)༌ བོབ(ས)༌ descend. -འབུད་པ་ ཕུ(ས)༌ དབུ་ ཕུས་ blow (act.). pʽu-c̀e -འབུད་པ་ ཕུད་ དབུད་ ཕུད་ put off, pʽud-c̀e - drop (act.). -འབྱིན་པ་ ཕྱུང་ དབྱུང་ ཕྱུང་ take, pull out. pʽin-c̀e -འབྱེད་པ་ ཕྱེ(ས)༌ དབྱེ་ ཕྱེ(ས)༌ open (act.). pʽe-c̀e, imp. pʽe(s). - -སྨྲ་བ་ སྨྲས་ སྨྲོས་ say. s. ཟེར་བ་ -ལང་བ་ ལངས་ ལོང་ rise. laṅ-c̀e - - -c) Two-rooted verbs. - -Pres. Perf. Imperv. WT -སྐྱེ་བ་ སྐྱེས་ be born. skye-c̀e -སྐྱེད་པ་ བསྐྱེད་ bear, beget. skye-c̀e -འཁྱེར་བ་ ཁྱེར་ ཁྱེར་ carry. kʽyer-c̀e -འགྱུར་བ་ གྱུར་ གྱུར་ become. gyur-c̀e -འགྲོ་བ་ སོང་ སོང་ go; become. [only ḍo-c̀e - in certain sentences. -སྒྱུར་བ་ བསྒྱུར་ སྒྱུར་ alter. gyur-c̀e -ངུ་བ་ ངུས་ weep. ṅu-c̀e -འཆི་བ་ ཤི་ die. s̀i-c̀e -འཆོར་བ་ ཤོར་ flee. s̀or-c̀e -འཇུག་པ་ ཞུགས་ ཞུགས་ enter. z̀ug-c̀e -ཉོ་བ་ ཉོས་ buy. ño-c̀e -སྡོད་པ་ བསྡད་ སྡོད་ sit; stay. dad-c̀e imp. dod -འཕེལ་བ་ ཕེལ་ increase (neutr.) pʽel-c̀e -བླུག་པ་ བླུག(ས)༌ བླུག(ས)༌ pour. lug-c̀e -འབུད་པ་ བུད་ blow (neutr.) pʽu-c̀e -འབོད་པ་ བོས་ བོས་ call. bo-c̀e, imp. bos (boi, bō̤). -འབྱུང་བ་ བྱུང་ appear, originate. j̀uṅ-c̀e -མྱོང་བ་ མྱང་ enjoy. ñaṅ-c̀e -རྩིག་པ་ བརྩིགས་ བརྩིགས་ build up. tsig-c̀e -ཞུ་བ་ ཞུས་ ཞུས་ ask. z̀u-c̀e (j̀u-c̀e) -སླེབ་པ་ བསླེབས་ arrive. leb-c̀e - - - -d) One-rooted verbs. - - WT - དགའ་བ་ be glad, to like. Ld. γa-c̀e, W besides འཐད་པ་ - འགྲིལ་བ་ fall, drop. ḍil-c̀e, also འདྲིལ་(བ་) - མཆོང་བ་, leap, jump. c̀ʽoṅ-c̀e - མཆོངས་པ་ - ཉལ་བ་ lie down. ñal-c̀e - ཐུག་པ་ meet. tʽug-c̀e - ཐུབ་པ་ be able. tʽub-c̀e - ཐོབ་པ་ find, get. tʽob-c̀e - ཐོས་པ་ hear. (tʽsor-c̀e) - མཐོང་བ་ see. tʽoṅ-c̀e - འཐད་པ་ be glad, to like. tʽad-c̀e, nearly always - for དགའ་བ་ and འདོད་པ་ - འཐོན་པ་ come out, go out. tʽon-c̀e, usual for འབྱུང་བ་ - འདོད་པ་ wish, like, desire. rare. - ནུས་པ་ be able. s. ཐུབ་པ་ - གནས་པ་ stay, dwell, remain. nas (nai, nā̤)-c̀e, but - usually: dad-c̀e - འབར་བ་ burn. bar-c̀e - ཚོར་བ་ perceive. tʽsor-c̀e, and usual for - ཐོས་པ་ - མཛད་པ་ do, make (resp.). dzad-c̀e, imp. dzod. - ཟེར་བ་ say. zer-c̀e, usual for - སྨྲ་བ་ - ལུས་པ་ remain, be left. lus-c̀e - ལོག་པ་ turn back, return. log-c̀e - ཤེས་པ་ know. s̀es (s̀ē)-c̀e - (ཧ་)གོ་བ་ understand. há-go-c̀e - - - - - - - - -NOTES - - -[1] A very clear exposition of the ramification of Indian alphabets by -Dr. Haas is to be found in the Publications of the Palaeographical -Society Oriental Series IV, pl. XLIV. - -[2] This is the form in which the word, chosen by the missionaries to -express the Christian “God” (cf. dict.), has found its way into several -popular works. - -[3] This will be indicated in the following examples by including the s -in parentheses, as (s)kom. - -[4] The concurrence of superadded ས་ with a consonant already compound -produces in WT some irregularities, which cannot all be specified here -(see the diction.). The custom of CT, according to which the ས་ is -entirely neglected is in this instance easier to be followed. - -[5] But the vulgar language has a predilection for certain forms of -Adjectives 1. those with the gerundial particle ཏེ་, as: ཚན་ཏེ་ for the -more classical ཚན་ ‘warm’; these seem to be particularly in use in -Tsaṅ: མཛའ་སྟེ་ ‘friendly’, less so in Ü. 2. compound adjectives either by -simple reiteration of the root: རིལ་རིལ་ for རིལ་པོ་ ‘round’, or changing -the vowel at the same time: ཁྲག་ཁྲུག་ ‘complicate’, གཙང་གཙོང་ ‘awry’ etc. -Often they are quadrisyllables after this form: མལ་ལ་མུལ་ལེ་ ‘lukewarm’, -ཆག་ག་ཆོག་གེ་ ‘medley’. - -[6] Some Mscr. and wood-prints, however, prefer, even after these -consonants, the form བས་. - -[7] ཕྲག་ is used especially if the number counting the hundreds, -thousands etc. follows: thus, སྟོང་ཕྲག་ཉི་ཤུ་ ‘of thousands: twenty, 20 -000’; ཁྲི་ཕྲག་དུ་མ་ ‘many ten-thousands’. - -[8] The objects of ཟ་བ་ and འཐུང་བ་ often assume the dative-sign, cf. -English ‘to feed on’. - -[9] This is not very carefully observed even in good mscr. and prints, -where ཡང་ will occur sometimes after ག་ etc., and ཀྱང་ after the other -consonants and even after vowels. - -[10] འཆའ་བ་, perf. བཅའ་ ‘to make’ esp. ‘institute, arrange’; gerund. - -[11] i.o. བཟང་པོ་ལ་. - -[12] ‘to cut’, but ཆད་པ་ (or པས་) གཅོད་པ་ ‘to inflict a punishment’. - -[13] གཏན་ལ་འབེབས་པ་ ‘to set in order, arrange’; perf. ཕབ་. - -[14] སློབ་པ་, perf. བསླབས་ ‘to learn’. - -[15] 42. 3. - -[16] indefin. art. after numerals s. 13. - -[17] Accus. modal., 49. - -[18] རྟོག་པ་, perf. བརྟག་. - -[19] 27. 2. - -[20] འདྲེན་པ་, perf. དྲངས་, imp. དྲོངས་; cf. 41. 5. - -[21] 29. - -[22] འཁྱེར་བ་, perf. and imp. ཁྱེར་. - -[23] 43. 1. - -[24] 42. 1. - -[25] 41. 8. - -[26] the object of the fear usually in the instrumental. - -[27] termin. of inf. used as adverb, 41. B. 2. b. - -[28] 44. - -[29] 42. 2. - -[30] 42. 1. - -[31] ཤོས་ ‘other’, almost always with the indefin. article; 13. fin. - -[32] ན་ is sometimes pleonastically added to པས་ (བས་), to strengthen -its meaning. - -[33] 43.2. - -[34] སྨྲ་བ་, perf. སྨྲས་, imp. སྨྲོས་. - -[35] འགྱུར་བ་, perf. གྱུར་ properly ‘as he has come to be’. - -[36] སུའི་ - -[37] The numbers refer to the notes at the end of the collection, -exhibiting the spelling of some of the words that are most disfigured -in pronunciation. - -[38] vulgar supine 41, Note 1. - -[39] བྲེལ་བ་ - -[40] སྨན་ - -[41] སྩལ་ - -[42] གནང་ - -[43] གཟུག་ - -[44] རྒྱག་ - -[45] གཏོང་ - -[46] གྲོད་ - -[47] ག་འདྲས་ - -[48] འཁྲུ་ - -[49] གནང་ - -[50] བཞག་ - -[51] འབེབས་པ་ iprv. - -[52] ཟངས་ - -[53] རྒས་ - -[54] འབུད་པ་ iprv. - -[55] གྲང་མོ་ - -[56] དཀར་ཡོལ་ - -[57] འགྲོ་ - -[58] གསོལ་ལྕོག་ - -[59] འཕྲལ་འགྲིག་ - -[60] བཏིང་ prf. of འདིང་བ་ - -[61] བཀང་ prf. of འགེངས་པ་ - -[62] དཀར་གཡའ་ - -[63] སྦྱར་ prf. of སྦྱོར་བ་ - -[64] མགར་བའི་ - -[65] རྩར་ - -[66] བསྐྱལ་ prf. of སྐྱེལ་བ་ - -[67] གསུང་ - -[68] འཕང་ iprv. of འཕེན་པ་ - -[69] བཅུག་ prf. of འཇུག་པ་ - -[70] འགྲིམ་ - -[71] གནན་ - -[72] འབྲས་ - -[73] དཀྲི་ - -[74] མཆིན་པ་ - -[75] བཏུབ་ prf. of འཐུབ་པ་ - -[76] གྲོ་མ་ - -[77] རྗེད་ - -[78] ཟུམ་ i.o. བཟུང་ from འཛིན་པ་ - -[79] སྐྱོད་ - -[80] སྡོད་ - -[81] བཞུགས་ - -[82] From the Dzaṅ-lun (མཛངས་བླུན་). - -[83] 13. - -[84] 15, 5. - -[85] བྱེད་པ་, perf. བྱས་, fut. བྱ་, iv. བྱོས་ ‘to make, do’, in some cases: -‘to say, call’, ཞེས་བྱ་བ་ ‘so to be called, so called’.—དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་ is a -translation of the Sanscrit name दण्डिन्. - -[86] 40. 1. c. - -[87] 41. A. 1. - -[88] 40. 1. b and 47. 3. b. - -[89] 34. 1. and 40. 1. g. - -[90] 15. 5. - -[91] 42. 3. - -[92] perf. of གཏོང་བ་ ‘to give; to send, let go’. - -[93] perf. of ལང་བ་ ‘to rise’. - -[94] s. 4). - -[95] 41. A. 7. - -[96] imp. of སྦྱིན་པ་ ‘to give’, སླར༌༌༌ ‘to return’. - -[97] 37. 2. - -[98] གཏོང་བ་ s. 11); ‘don’t let pass’; 38. 2. - -[99] perf. of ལེན་པ་ ‘take, seize’. - -[100] perf. of འཕེན་པ་ ‘to throw, fling’. - -[101] perf. of གཅོག་པ་ ‘to break’. - -[102] s. 14). - -[103] 43. 2. - -[104] perf. of རྩོམ་པ་ ‘to prepare, purpose’. - -[105] rule 30. is not always strictly observed. - -[106] 43. 2. - -[107] perf. of ལྟུང་བ་ ‘to fall’. - -[108] perf. of འཛིན་པ་ ‘to seize’. - -[109] 43. 2. b. - -[110] 41. 6. b41. A. 6. b; ཞེས་ = ཞེས་སྨྲས་ནས་. - -[111] 49. - -[112] ‘from the inner (i.e. other) to this’, ‘across’. - -[113] carpenter (lit. ‘lakṛiwālā’, cf. 12. 1.). - -[114] perf. of འདྲི་བ་ ‘to ask’. - -[115] 40. 1. g. - -[116] 41. A. 8. - -[117] perf. of སྐྱུར་བ་ ‘to throw down’. - -[118] s. 29). - -[119] ‘sat down’. - -[120] if the verb is in the infv., the subject is usually put in the -accus., when we use the genitive. - -[121] ‘returning it so that the owner saw it’; 41. B. 2. b. - -[122] ‘I did not return it with the mouth i.e. by saying anything’. - -[123] ‘because (41. A. 8) that Yugp. did not say it (viz: I give -back)’. - -[124] 41. B. 2. a. - -[125] 41. A. 5. - -[126] perf. of འདོགས་པ་ ‘to tie, fasten’. - -[127] impv. of འབྱིན་པ་ ‘to take out, pull out’ etc. - -[128] ‘firstly’, less frequent and somewhat different from དང་པོར་ (22). - -[129] ‘my’ (24). - -[130] ‘secondly’. - -[131] 17. 1. - -[132] ‘it is better that Y. should be the winner, than that besides -having been robbed of my ox, I should lose my eyes into the bargain’. - -[133] ‘another said: O god! etc.’ (ལྷ་ used in addressing a king like -Sanscr. देव). - -[134] perf. of འགུམ་པ་ ‘to kill’; འགུམ་པ་ ‘to die’ has perf. གུམ་; an -elegant word (24, Note). - -[135] perf. of འཇུག་པ་ ‘to enter’. - -[136] མཆི་བ་, perf. མཆིས་ ‘to go, walk’; eleg. ‘to say’. - -[137] 41. A. 5. b. - -[138] Nomin. for Instrum., s. 30 fin. - -[139] perf. of མང་བ་ ‘to be much, many; to become m.’. - -[140] partic., ‘that a man was concealed (behind it)’. - -[141] 41. A. 5. - -[142] 27. 1. - -[143] imper. of བགྱིད་པ་ eleg. for བྱེད་པ་; ‘go and make the husband of -this same (woman)’. - -[144] ‘than that he should be (my) husband’. - -[145] s. 57). - -[146] partic., ‘the axe which I held from (i.e. with) my mouth’. - -[147] 40. 3 ‘whatever things be carried, it being right to carry them -on the shoulder’. - -[148] for ཞེས་སྨྲས་པས། s. 29). - -[149] ༌༌སོ་སོ་ ‘different, several’, ༌༌ནས་—‘separately, each for -himself’. - -[150] They are here arranged according to the number of the roots, -though these are in many instances, not so strictly observed, even in -printed books, as they ought to be. 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line-height: 180%; -} -:lang(bo-latn) { -font-family: serif; -} -#tbl99 td { -vertical-align: middle; -} -table.border-collapse { -border-collapse: collapse; -} -table.border-collapse td { -padding: 1pt 3pt; -} -.small { -font-size: smaller; -} -.large { -font-size: large; -} -.xlarge { -font-size: x-large; -} -.adCenter { -text-align: center; -} -/* CSS rules generated from @rend attributes in TEI file */ -.xd31e1117 { -text-align:right; -} -.xd31e2396 { -border-left:1px solid black; -} -.xd31e13821 { -vertical-align:top; -} -.xd31e153 { -width:60%; -} -.cover-imagewidth { -width:491px; -} -.titlepage-imagewidth { -width:456px; -} -.tblerrata { -font-size:small; -} -.xd31e11565 { -text-align:center; -} -.tbl64\.1 { -width:100%; -} -.xd31e11669 { -text-align:center; -} -.xd31e17093 { -font-size:smaller; -} -/* ]]> */ </style> -</head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Tibetan Grammar, by H.A. Jäschke</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Tibetan Grammar</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: H.A. Jäschke</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Editor: H. Wenzel</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: October 22, 2022 [eBook #69207]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net/ for Project Gutenberg (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TIBETAN GRAMMAR ***</div> -<div class="front"> -<div class="div1 note transcriberNote"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="main">Transcriber’s Note.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">This book contains text in Tibetan (<span lang="bo">བོད་<wbr></wbr>སྐད་</span>), Devanagari (<span lang="sa" class="deva">देवनागरी</span>), Arabic (<span lang="ar" class="arab">عَرَبِيّ</span>), Urdu (<span lang="ur" class="aran">اُردُو</span>) and Greek (<span lang="el" class="grek">Ελληνικά</span>). You may need to install additional fonts to properly render those languages. I -suggest to use the following freely available fonts: -</p> -<div class="table"> -<table class="xd31e153"> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft cellTop">Tibetan: </td> -<td class="cellTop">Yagpo Tibetan Uni </td> -<td class="cellRight cellTop"><a id="xd31e160" href="#xd31e160ext">link</a>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Devanagari: </td> -<td>Sanskrit 2003 </td> -<td class="cellRight"><a id="xd31e169" href="#xd31e169ext">link</a>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Arabic: </td> -<td>Scheherazade </td> -<td class="cellRight"><a id="xd31e178" href="#xd31e178ext">link</a>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft cellBottom">Urdu: </td> -<td class="cellBottom">Awami Nastaliq </td> -<td class="cellRight cellBottom"><a id="xd31e187" href="#xd31e187ext">link</a>. </td> -</tr> -</table> -</div><p> -</p> -<p>On some devices, fonts may not render correctly, or font sizes may be mismatched. -When using the Firefox browser, you can adjust the default font settings per script. -To do so, open the “Settings” page; select the “General” tab; in the “Fonts and Colors” -section, click the “Advanced” button, and adjust the settings as desired. -</p> -<p>Some ad-blocking software may hide all or parts of the advertisements reproduced here -from the original book. To see them, disable your ad-blocker (no new ads are included -in Project Gutenberg ebooks). -</p> -</div> -</div> -<div class="div1 cover"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divBody"> -<p class="first"></p> -<div class="figure cover-imagewidth"><img src="images/frontcover.jpg" alt="Original Front Cover." width="491" height="720"></div><p> -</p> -</div> -</div> -<div class="titlePage"> -<div class="docTitle"> -<div class="seriesTitle">TRÜBNER’S COLLECTION <br>OF <br>SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS <br>OF THE PRINCIPAL <br>ASIATIC AND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES.</div> -</div> -<div class="byline">EDITED BY <br><span class="docAuthor">REINHOLD ROST, LL.D., <span class="sc">Ph.D.</span></span> </div> -<div class="docTitle"> -<div class="volumeTitle">VII.</div> -<div class="mainTitle">TIBETAN.</div> -</div> -<div class="byline">BY <span class="docAuthor">H. A. JÄSCHKE.</span></div> -</div> -<p></p> -<div class="div1 advertisement"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="main">TRÜBNER’S COLLECTION OF SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS OF THE PRINCIPAL ASIATIC AND EUROPEAN -LANGUAGES.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first adCenter">EDITED BY REINHOLD ROST, LL.D., <span class="sc">Ph.D.</span> -</p> -<p class="adCenter">I. <br><span class="xlarge">HINDUSTANI, PERSIAN, AND ARABIC.</span> <br><span class="sc">By the late E. H. Palmer</span>, M.A. <br><i>Price</i> 5<i>s.</i> -</p> -<p class="adCenter">II. <br><span class="xlarge">HUNGARIAN.</span> <br><span class="sc">By I. Singer.</span> <br><i>Price</i> 4<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> -</p> -<p class="adCenter">III. <br><span class="xlarge">BASQUE.</span> <br><span class="sc">By W. Van Eys.</span> <br><i>Price</i> 3<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> -</p> -<p class="adCenter">IV. <br><span class="xlarge">MALAGASY.</span> <br><span class="sc">By G. W. Parker.</span> <br><i>Price</i> 5<i>s.</i> -</p> -<p class="adCenter">V. <br><span class="xlarge">MODERN GREEK.</span> <br><span class="sc">By E. M. Geldart</span>, M.A. <br><i>Price</i> 2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i> -</p> -<p class="adCenter">VI. <br><span class="xlarge">ROUMANIAN.</span> <br><span class="sc">By R. Torceanu.</span> -</p> -<p class="adCenter">VII. <br><span class="xlarge">TIBETAN.</span> <br><span class="sc">By H. A. Jäschke.</span> -</p> -<p class="adCenter"><i>Grammars of the following are in preparation:—</i> -</p> -<p class="adCenter">Albanese, Anglo-Saxon, Assyrian, Bohemian, Bulgarian, Burmese, Chinese, Cymric and -Gaelic, Danish, Finnish, Hebrew, Malay, Pali, Polish, Russian, Sanskrit, Serbian, -Siamese, Singhalese, Swedish, Turkish. -</p> -<p class="adCenter large"><span class="sc">London: TRÜBNER & CO., Ludgate Hill.</span> -</p> -</div> -</div> -<div class="div1 titlepage"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divBody"> -<p class="first"></p> -<div class="figure titlepage-imagewidth"><img src="images/titlepage.png" alt="Original Title Page." width="456" height="720"></div><p> -</p> -</div> -</div> -<div class="titlePage"> -<div class="docTitle"> -<div class="mainTitle">TIBETAN GRAMMAR</div> -</div> -<div class="byline">BY -<br><span class="docAuthor">H. A. JÄSCHKE</span> <br>MORAVIAN MISSIONARY. -<br>SECOND EDITION -<br>PREPARED BY <br><span class="docAuthor"><span class="sc">Dr.</span> H. WENZEL.</span> </div> -<div class="docImprint">LONDON: <br>TRÜBNER & CO., 57 & 59, LUDGATE HILL. <br><span class="docDate">1883.</span> -<br>[<i>All rights reserved.</i>] </div> -</div> -<p><span class="pageNum" id="pb.v">[<a href="#pb.v">V</a>]</span></p> -<div class="div1 preface"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="main">Preface.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">The present new edition of Mr. <span class="sc">Jäschke’s</span> Tibetan Grammar scarcely needs a word of apology. As the first edition which was -lithographed at Kyelaṅ in 1865 in a limited number of copies has long been out of -print, Dr. <span class="sc">Rost</span> urged the author to revise his grammar for the purpose of bringing it out in an improved -form. The latter, prevented by ill-health from undertaking the task, placed the matter -in my hands, and had the goodness to make over to me his own manuscript notes and -additions to the original work. Without his personal cooperation, however, I was unable -to make any but a very sparing use of these, adding only a few remarks from Gyalrabs -and Milaraspa, with some further remarks on the local vernacular of Western Tibet. -Indeed, special attention has been paid throughout to this dialect; it is the one -with which the author during his long residence at Kyelaṅ had become most familiar, -and with which the English in India are most likely to be brought into direct contact. -</p> -<p>Besides the above mentioned additions, I have taken a number of examples from the -Dzaṅlun, to make clearer some of the rules, and, with the same view, I have altered, -here and there, the wording of the lithographed edition. <span class="pageNum" id="pb.vi">[<a href="#pb.vi">VI</a>]</span>The order of the paragraphs has been retained throughout, and only one (<a href="#s23">23</a>.) has been added for completeness’ sake. -</p> -<p>The system of transliteration is nearly the same as in the Dictionary, only for <i>ny</i>, <i>ñ</i> is used, and instead of <i>e̱</i>, <i>ä</i> (respectively <i>ā̤</i>) has been thought to be a clearer representation of the sound intended. For the niceties -of pronunciation the reader is referred to the Dictionary, as in this Grammar only -the general rules have been given. -</p> -<p>Finally I must express my warmest thanks to Dr. <span class="sc">Rost</span>, to whose exertions not only the printing of this Grammar is solely due, but who -also rendered me much help in the correcting of the work. -</p> -<p class="dateline"><span class="ex">Mayence</span>, May 1883. -</p> -<p class="signed"><span class="sc">H. Wenzel.</span> -</p> -</div> -</div> -<div class="div1 abbreviations"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="main">Abbreviations.</h2> -<table class="splitListTable"> -<tr> -<td> -<ul> -<li>act. = active. </li> -<li>C or CT = Central Tibet, especially the provinces of Ü and Tsaṅ. </li> -<li>cf. = confer, compare. </li> -<li>Dzl. = Dzaṅlun. </li> -<li>e.g. = exempli gratia, for instance. </li> -<li>ET = East Tibet. </li> -<li>fut. = future. </li> -<li>imp. = imperative. </li> -<li>inf. = infinitive. </li> -<li><abbr title="instead of">i.o.</abbr> = instead of. </li> -<li>Köpp. = Köppen. </li> -<li>Kun. = Kunawur, province under English protection. </li> -</ul> -</td> -<td> -<ul> -<li>Ld. = Ladak, province. </li> -<li>Mil. = Milaraspa. </li> -<li>neutr. = neuter verb. </li> -<li>perf. or pf. = perfect. </li> -<li>pres. = present. </li> -<li>s. = see. </li> -<li>term. = terminative case. </li> -<li>Thgy. = Thar-gyan, scientific treatises. </li> -<li>v. = vide, see. </li> -<li>vulg. = vulgar expression. </li> -<li>W or WT = Western Tibet. </li> -</ul> -</td> -</tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pageNum" id="pb.vii">[<a href="#pb.vii">VII</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="toc" class="div1 contents"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="main">Contents.</h2> -<table class="tocList"> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">I.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"> <a href="#pt1">Phonology</a>. -</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"> -</td> -<td class="tocPageNum">Page</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">1.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s1">Alphabet</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">2.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s2">Remarks</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">3.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s3">Vowels</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">4.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s4">Syllables</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">4</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">5.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s5">Final Consonants</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">6.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s6">Diphthongs</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">6</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">7.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s7">Compound Consonants</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">7</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">8.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s8">Prefixed Letters</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">11</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">9.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s9">Word; Accent; Quantity</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">12</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">10.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s10">Punctuation</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">14</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">II.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"> <a href="#pt2">Etymology</a>. -</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">I.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#ch2.1" id="xd31e594">Article</a>. -</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">11.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s11">Peculiarities of the Tibetan Article</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">17</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">12.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s12">Difference of the Articles</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">18</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">13.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s13">The Indefinite Article</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">19</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">II.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#ch2.2" id="xd31e633">Substantive</a>. -</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">14.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s14">Number</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">20</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">15.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s15">Declension</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">21</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">III.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#ch2.3" id="xd31e662">Adjective</a>. -</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">16.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s16">Relation to the Substantive</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">25</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">17.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s17">Comparison</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">26</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">IV.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#ch2.4" id="xd31e691">Numerals</a>. -<span class="pageNum" id="pb.viii">[<a href="#pb.viii">VIII</a>]</span></td> -<td class="tocPageNum"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">18.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s18">Cardinal numerals</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">28</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">19.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s19">Ordinal numerals</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">31</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">20.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s20">Remarks</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">31</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">21.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s21">Distributive numerals</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">33</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">22.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s22">Adverbial numerals</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">33</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">23.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s23">Fractional numerals</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">33</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">V.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#ch2.5" id="xd31e761">Pronouns</a>. -</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">24.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s24">Personal pronouns</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">34</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">25.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s25">Possessive pronouns</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">36</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">26.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s26">Reflective pronouns</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">37</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">27.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s27">Demonstrative pronouns</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">37</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">28.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s28">Interrogative pronouns</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">38</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">29.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s29">Relative pronouns</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">38</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">VI.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#ch2.6" id="xd31e830">Verb</a>. -</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">30.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s30">Introduction</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">40</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">31.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s31">Inflection</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">41</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">32.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s32">Infinitive</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">42</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">33.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s33">Participle</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">43</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">34.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s34">Finite Verb</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">45</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">35.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s35">Present</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">46</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">36.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s36">Preterit</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">47</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">37.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s37">Future</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">48</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">38.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s38">Imperative</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">49</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">39.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s39">Intensive</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">50</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">40.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s40">Substantive Verbs</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">51</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">41.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s41">Gerunds and Supines</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">54</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">42.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#ch2.7" id="xd31e959">VII. <span class="ex">Adverb</span></a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">65</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">43.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#ch2.8" id="xd31e971">VIII. <span class="ex">Postposition</span></a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">67</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">44.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#ch2.9" id="xd31e983">IX. <span class="ex">Conjunction</span></a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">74</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">45.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#ch2.10" id="xd31e995">X. <span class="ex">Interjection</span></a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">76</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#ch2.11" id="xd31e1005">XI. <span class="ex">Derivation</span></a>: </td> -<td class="tocPageNum"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">46.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s46">Derivation of Substantives</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">77</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2"></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">47.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="5"> <a href="#s47">Derivation of Adjectives</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">78</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum">III.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"> <a href="#pt3">Syntax</a>. -</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">48.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s48">Arrangement of Words</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">80</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">49.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s49">Use of the Cases</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">81</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">50.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s50">Simple Sentences</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">82</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tocDivNum">51.</td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"> <a href="#s51">Compound Sentences</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">83</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="7"><a href="#app" id="xd31e1082">Appendix</a>. -</td> -<td class="tocPageNum"></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"><a href="#phrases" id="xd31e1087">Phrases</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">86</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"><a href="#exercise" id="xd31e1094">Reading Exercise</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">92</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td></td> -<td class="tocDivNum"></td> -<td class="tocDivTitle" colspan="6"><a href="#verbs" id="xd31e1101">Verbs</a> </td> -<td class="tocPageNum">99</td> -</tr> -</table> -<p></p> -</div> -</div> -<div class="div1 last-child errata"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="main">Errata.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first transcriberNote">The corrections listed below have been applied to the text. -</p> -<p></p> -<div class="table"> -<table class="tblerrata"> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft cellTop"><span class="seg">Page</span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellTop"> 3, </td> -<td class="cellTop"><span class="seg">line</span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellTop">13 </td> -<td class="cellTop"><span class="seg">read</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight cellTop"><span class="ex">at</span> instead of in. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 4, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 2 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">respectively</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 4, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 7 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">which</span> instead of whom. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 4, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 9 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">under</span> particular. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 4, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">14 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="ar" class="arab">همزة</span> instead of <span lang="ar" class="arab">همرنة</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 4, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">20 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">exertion</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 4, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">21 </td> -<td>dele </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">to</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 5, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 5 </td> -<td>dele </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">down</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 7, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 4 </td> -<td>read </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">succession</span> instead of conjunction. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 7, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 5 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">each</span> instead of either. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 7, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">11 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">subscribed</span> instead of subjoined. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 8, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">11 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">foot</span> for food. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 8, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">12 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">subscribed</span> for subjoined. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 8, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">16 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">homonyms</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 8, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">19 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">language</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 8, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">23 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">over</span> instead of above. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 8, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">24 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">consonants</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 9, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">10 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">case</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">10, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 4 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">judgment</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">11, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 9 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">except</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">12, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">21 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">it</span> instead of is. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">13, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 1 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight">which serve <span class="ex">to denote</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">13, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 7 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">preceding</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">14, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 6 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">exclamation</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">20, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 3 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">indiscriminately</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">20, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 5 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">superseded</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">20, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">19 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">But</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">21, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 5 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">adds</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">23, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 1 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">motion</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">26, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">13 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">terminations</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">26, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"><span class="corr" id="xd31e1767" title="Source: 24">20</span> </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">precedes</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"><span class="corr" id="xd31e1784" title="Source: 26">27</span>, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"><span class="corr" id="xd31e1792" title="Source: 27">3</span> </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight">higher <span class="ex">than</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">33, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 6 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">to</span> denote. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">34, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">14 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">letter-writing</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">36, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 1 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight">The <span class="ex">terms</span> most &c. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">36, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">16 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight">high person <span class="ex">speaking of himself</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">38, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">11 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">ghaṅ</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">39, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">14 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight">you <span class="ex">may</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">40, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 7 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">verbs</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">40, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">21 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">an</span> Accusative. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">40, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">25 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex"><span class="corr" id="xd31e1995" title="Source: neutre">neuter</span></span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">41, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">10 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">form</span> instead of shape. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">41, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">11 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">forms</span> instead of shapes. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">41, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">22 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight">the Perfect <span class="ex">prefers</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">42, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 1 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">Perfect</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">42, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">16 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">recognises</span> instead of acknowledges. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">43, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">20 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">idea</span> instead of notion. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">45, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">14 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight">with <span class="ex">the</span> exception. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">46, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 6 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">which will always be</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">46, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">10 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">to</span> one. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">52, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">15 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight">it <span class="ex">expresses</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">53, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">11 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">found</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">53, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">24 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight">passive <span class="ex">sense, opposed</span> to &c. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">55, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 7 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight">affixes. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">58, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">12 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight">that <span class="ex">it</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">61, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">12 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">king’s</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117">64, </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117"> 8 </td> -<td><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span class="ex">intended</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft cellBottom"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">Page</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellBottom">66, </td> -<td class="cellBottom"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">line</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellBottom">15 </td> -<td class="cellBottom"><span class="seg"><span class="ditto"><span class="s">read</span><span class="d"><span class="i">,,</span></span></span> </span> </td> -<td class="cellRight cellBottom"><span lang="bo">རབ་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span> ‘<span class="ex">principally</span>, very’; </td> -</tr> -</table> -</div><p> -<span class="pageNum" id="pb1">[<a href="#pb1">1</a>]</span> </p> -</div> -</div> -</div> -<div class="body"> -<div id="pt1" class="div0 part"> -<h2 class="label">Part I.</h2> -<h2 class="main">Phonology.</h2> -<p id="s1" class="first"><b>1. The Alphabet.</b> The Tibetan Alphabet was adapted from the <i>Lañc̀ʽa</i> (<span lang="bo">ལཱཉ་<wbr></wbr>ཚ</span>) form of the Indian letters by <i lang="bo-latn">Tʽon-mi-sam-bho-ta</i> (<span lang="bo">ཐོན་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>སམ་<wbr></wbr>བྷོ་<wbr></wbr>ཏ</span>) minister of king <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="corr" id="xd31e2386" title="Source: S̀ron-tsan-gam-po">Sroṅ-tsan-gam-po</span></i> (<span lang="bo">སྲོང་<wbr></wbr>བཙན་<wbr></wbr>སྒམ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span>) about the year 632 (s. Köpp. II, 56). The Indian letters out of which the single -Tibetan characters were formed are given in the following table in their Nāgari shape. -</p> -<p></p> -<div class="table"> -<table class="border-collapse"> -<thead> -<tr class="label"> -<td class="cellHeadLeft cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom"> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan xd31e2396 cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">surd. </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan xd31e2396 cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">aspir. </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan xd31e2396 cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">sonant. </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan xd31e2396 cellHeadRight cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">nasal. </td> -</tr> -</thead> -<tbody> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">gutturals. </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཀ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">क</span> </td> -<td><i>ka</i> </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཁ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">ख</span> </td> -<td><i>kʽa</i> </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ག་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">ग</span> </td> -<td><i>ga</i> </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ང་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">ङ</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i>ṅa</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">palatals. </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཅ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">च</span> </td> -<td><i>c̀a</i> </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཆ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">छ</span> </td> -<td><i>c̀ʽa</i> </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཇ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">ज</span> </td> -<td><i>j̀a</i> </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཉ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">ञ</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i>ña</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">dentals. </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཏ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">त</span> </td> -<td><i>ta</i> </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཐ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">थ</span> </td> -<td><i>tʽa</i> </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ད་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">द</span> </td> -<td><i>da</i> </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ན་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">न</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i>na</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">labials. </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">པ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">प</span> </td> -<td><i>pa</i> </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཕ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">फ</span> </td> -<td><i>pʽa</i> </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">བ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">ब</span> </td> -<td><i>ba</i> </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">མ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">म</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i>ma</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">palatal sibilants. </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཙ་</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td><i>tsa</i> </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཚ་</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td><i>tʽsa</i> </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཛ་</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td><i>dsa</i> </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"> </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="cellRight"> -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td rowspan="3" class="rowspan cellLeft cellBottom">semivowels </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཝ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">व</span> </td> -<td><i>wa</i> </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཞ་</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td><i>z̀a</i> </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཟ་</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td><i>za</i> </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">འ་</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i>˱a</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ཡ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">य</span> </td> -<td><i>ya</i> </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ར་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">र</span> </td> -<td><i>ra</i> </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"><span lang="bo">ལ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="sa" class="deva">ल</span> </td> -<td><i>la</i> </td> -<td class="xd31e2396"> </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="cellRight"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e2396 cellBottom"><span lang="bo">ཤ་</span> </td> -<td class="cellBottom"><span lang="sa" class="deva">श</span> </td> -<td class="cellBottom"><i>s̀a</i> </td> -<td class="xd31e2396 cellBottom"><span lang="bo">ས་</span> </td> -<td class="cellBottom"><span lang="sa" class="deva">स</span> </td> -<td class="cellBottom"><i>sa</i> </td> -<td class="xd31e2396 cellBottom"><span lang="bo">ཧ་</span> </td> -<td class="cellBottom"><span lang="sa" class="deva">ह</span> </td> -<td class="cellBottom"><i>ha</i> </td> -<td class="xd31e2396 cellBottom"><span lang="bo">ཨ་</span> </td> -<td class="cellBottom"> </td> -<td class="cellRight cellBottom"><i>’a</i> </td> -</tr> -</tbody> -</table> -</div><p> -<span class="pageNum" id="pb2">[<a href="#pb2">2</a>]</span></p> -<p>It is seen from this table that several signs have been added to express sounds that -are unknown in Sanscrit. The sibilants <span lang="bo">ཙ་ ཚ་ ཛ་</span> evidently were differentiated from the palatals. But as in transcribing Sanscrit -words the Tibetans substitute their sibilants for the palatals of the original (as -<span lang="bo">ཙི་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> for <span lang="sa" class="deva">चीन</span>), we must suppose that the sibilisation of those consonants, common at present among -the Hindus on the Southern slopes of the Himālaya (who <span class="corr" id="xd31e2789" title="Source: speak">say</span> <i>tsār</i> for <span lang="hi" class="deva">चार</span>, four etc.), was in general use with those Indians from whom the Tib. Alphabet was -taken (cf. also the Afghan <span lang="ar" class="arab">څ</span> and <span lang="ar" class="arab">ڂ</span> likewise sprung from <span lang="ar" class="arab">چ</span> and <span lang="ar" class="arab">ج</span>). <span lang="bo">ཝ་</span> is differentiated from <span lang="bo">བ་</span>, which itself often is pronounced <i>v</i>, as shewn in the sequel; in transcribing Sanscrit, <span lang="sa" class="deva">ब</span> and <span lang="sa" class="deva">व</span> both are given, generally, by <span lang="bo">བ</span> only. <span lang="bo">ཞ་</span> seems to be formed out of <span lang="bo">ཤ་</span> to which it is related in sound. <span lang="bo">ཟ་</span> evidently is only the inverted <span lang="bo">ཇ་</span>. <span lang="bo">ཨ་</span> corresponds with Sanscrit <span lang="sa" class="deva">अ</span>. <span lang="bo">འ་</span> is newly invented; for its functions see the following §§.—The letters which are -peculiar to Sanscrit are expressed, in transcribing, in the following manner. <i>a</i>) The linguals, simply by inverting the signs of the dentals: thus, <span lang="bo">ཊ་</span> <span lang="sa" class="deva">ट</span>, <span lang="bo">ཋ་</span> <span lang="sa" class="deva">ठ</span>, <span lang="bo">ཌ་</span> <span lang="sa" class="deva">ड</span>, <span lang="bo">ཎ་</span> <span lang="sa" class="deva">ण</span>. <i>b</i>) The sonant aspirates, by putting <span lang="bo">ཧ་</span> under the sonants: thus, <span lang="bo">གྷ་</span> <span lang="sa" class="deva">घ</span>, <span lang="bo">ཛྷ་</span> <span lang="sa" class="deva">झ</span>, <span lang="bo">ཊྷ་</span> <span lang="sa" class="deva">ढ</span>, <span lang="bo">དྷ་</span> <span lang="sa" class="deva">ध</span>, <span lang="bo">བྷ་</span> <span lang="sa" class="deva">भ</span>.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e2915src" href="#xd31e2915">1</a> -<span class="pageNum" id="pb3">[<a href="#pb3">3</a>]</span></p> -<p id="s2"><b>2. Remarks.</b> <span>1.</span> Regarding the pronunciation of the single letters, as given above, it is to be born -in mind, that surds <span lang="bo">ཀ་ ཏ་ པ་</span> are uttered without the least admixture of an aspiration, viz. as <i>k</i>, <i>t</i>, <i>p</i> are pronounced in the words <i>skate</i>, <i>stale</i>, <i>spear</i>; the aspirates <span lang="bo">ཁ་ ཐ་ ཕ་</span> forcibly, rather harder than the same in <i>Kate</i>, <i>tale</i>, <i>peer</i>; the sonants <span lang="bo">ག་ ད་ བ་</span> like <i>g</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>b</i> in <i>gate</i>, <i>dale</i>, <i>beer</i>. <span>2.</span> The same difference of hardness is to be observed in <span lang="bo">ཅ་ ཆ་ ཇ་</span> or <i>c̀</i>, <i>c̀ʽ</i>, <i>j̀</i> (<i>c̀ʽ</i> occurs in <i>church</i>; <i>c̀</i>, the same without aspiration; <i>j̀</i> in <i>judge</i>) and in <span lang="bo">ཙ་ ཚ་ ཛ་</span> or <i>ts</i>, <i>tʽs</i>, <i>ds</i>. <span>3.</span> <span lang="bo">ཞ་</span> is the soft modification of <i>s̀</i> or the <i>s</i> in <i>leisure</i> (French <i>j</i> in <i lang="fr">jamais</i>, but more palatal). <span>4.</span> <span lang="bo">ང་</span> is the English <i>ng</i> in <i>sing</i>, but occurs in Tibetan often <span class="corr" id="xd31e3035" title="Corrected by author from: in">at</span> the commencement of a syllable. <span>5.</span> <span lang="bo">ཉ་</span> <i>ñ</i> is the Hindi <span lang="sa" class="deva">न्य</span>, or the initial sound in the word <i>new</i>, which would be spelled <span lang="bo">ཉུ་</span> <i>ñu</i>. <span id="s2.6">6.</span> In the dialects of Eastern or Chinese-Tibet, however, the soft consonants <span lang="bo">ག་ ད་ བ་ ཇ་ ཛ་</span>, when occurring as initials, are pronounced with an aspiration, similar to the Hindi -<span lang="sa" class="deva">घ</span>, <span lang="sa" class="deva">ध</span>, <span lang="sa" class="deva">भ</span>, <span lang="sa" class="deva">झ</span>, or indeed so that they often scarcely differ from the common English <i>k</i>, <i>t</i>, <i>p</i>, <i>ch</i>; also <span lang="bo">ཞ་</span> and <span lang="bo">ཟ་</span> are more difficult to distinguish from <span lang="bo">ཤ་</span> and <span lang="bo">ས་</span> than in the Western provinces (Exceptions s. §§ <a href="#s7.8">7. 8</a>). -</p> -<p id="s3"><b>3. Vowels.</b> <span>1.</span> Since every consonant sign implies, like its Sanscrit prototype, a following <i>a</i>, unless some other vowel sign is attached to it, no particular sign is wanted to -denote this vowel, except in some cases specified in the <span class="pageNum" id="pb4">[<a href="#pb4">4</a>]</span>following §§. The special vowel signs are <span lang="bo"> ེ</span>, <span lang="bo"> ི</span>, <span lang="bo"> ོ</span>, <span lang="bo"> ུ</span>, pronounced <span class="corr" id="xd31e3125" title="Corrected by author from: respectivily">respectively</span> as <i>e</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>u</i> are in German, Italian and most other European languages, viz. <span lang="bo"> ེ</span> like <i>ay</i> in <i>say</i>, or <i>e</i> in <i>ten</i>; <span lang="bo"> ི</span> like <i>i</i> in <i>machine</i>, <i>tin</i>; <span lang="bo"> ོ</span> like <i>o</i> in <i>so</i>, <i>on</i>; <span lang="bo"> ུ</span> like <i>u</i> in <i>rule</i>, <i>pull</i>. It ought to be specially remarked that all vowels, including <i>e</i> and <i>o</i> (unlike the Sanscrit vowels from <span class="corr" id="xd31e3182" title="Corrected by author from: whom">which</span> they have taken their signs) are short, since no long vowels at all occur in the -Tibetan language, except <span class="corr" id="xd31e3185" title="Added by author">under </span>particular circumstances, mentioned below (s. § <a href="#s9.5">9. 5</a>, 6 ). <span>2.</span> When vowels are initial, <span lang="bo">ཨ</span> is used as their base, as is <span lang="ur" class="aran">ا</span> in Urdu, e.g. <span lang="bo">ཨ་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ama</i>, ‘mother’. <span id="s3.3">3.</span> <span lang="bo">འ</span> is originally different from <span lang="bo">ཨ་</span>, as the latter denotes the opening of the previously closed throat for pronouncing -a vowel with that slight explosive sound which the Arabs mean by <span lang="ar" class="arab">أ</span> (<span lang="ar" class="arab"><span class="corr" id="xd31e3224" title="Corrected by author from: همرنة">همزة</span></span>), as the <i>a</i> in the words: the <i>lily, an</i> endogen, which would be in Tibetan characters <span lang="bo">ལི་<wbr></wbr>ལི་<wbr></wbr>ཨན་</span>; <span lang="bo">འ་</span> on the contrary is the mere vowel <i>without</i> that audible opening of the throat (as Arabic <span lang="ar" class="arab">ا</span> without <span lang="ar" class="arab">ء</span>), as in <i>Lilian</i>, <span lang="bo">ལི་<wbr></wbr>ལི་<wbr></wbr>འན་</span><span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span> In Eastern Tibet this difference is strictly observed; and if the vowel is <i>o</i> or <i>u</i> the intentional <span class="corr" id="xd31e3259" title="Corrected by author from: exercion">exertion</span> for avoiding the sound of <span lang="bo">ཨ་</span> makes it resemble <span id="xd31e3266"></span><i>wo</i> and <i>wu</i>: <span lang="bo">འོ་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> ‘the milk’, almost like <i>wo-ma</i>, <span lang="bo">འུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘the owl’ = <i>wug-pa</i>. In western Tibet this has been obliterated, and <span lang="bo">འ་</span> is there spoken just like <span lang="bo">ཨ་</span><span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span> -</p> -<p id="s4"><b>4. Syllables.</b> The Tibetan language is monosyllabic, that is to say all its words consist of one -syllable only, which indeed may be variously composed, though the <span class="pageNum" id="pb5">[<a href="#pb5">5</a>]</span><span class="corr" id="xd31e3294" title="Source: componend">component</span> parts cannot, in every case, be recognised in their individuality. The mark for the -end of such a syllable is a dot, called <span lang="bo">ཚེག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tʽseg</i>, put at the right side of the upper part of the closing letter, such as <span lang="bo">ཀ་</span> the syllable <i>ka</i>. This <i lang="bo-latn">tʽseg</i> must invariably be put <span id="xd31e3312"></span>at the end of <i>each</i> written syllable, except before a <i lang="bo-latn">s̀ad</i> (§ <a href="#s10">10</a>), in which case only <span lang="bo">ང་</span> <i>ṅa</i> retains its <i lang="bo-latn">tʽseg</i>. If therefore such a dot is found after two or more consonants, this will indicate -that all of them, some way or other, form <i>one</i> syllable with only <i>one</i> vowel in it: <span lang="bo">ཀ་<wbr></wbr>ར་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ka-ra</i>, <span lang="bo">ཀར་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kar</i> (cf. §§ 5. 8 ). -</p> -<p id="s5"><b>5. Final consonants.</b> <span>1.</span> Only the following ten: <span lang="bo">ག་ ང་ ཏ་ ན་ བ་ མ་ འ་ ར་ ལ་ ས་</span> (and the four with affixed <span lang="bo">ས</span>, v. 5) occur at the end of a syllable. <span>2.</span> It must be observed, that <span lang="bo">ག་ ད་ བ་</span> as finals are never pronounced like the English <i>g</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>b</i> in <i>leg</i>, <i>bad</i>, <i>cab</i>, but are transformed differently in the different provinces. In Ladak they sound -like <i>k</i>, <i>t</i>, <i>p</i> e.g. <span lang="bo">སོག་</span> = <i>sock</i>, <span lang="bo">གོད་</span> = <i>got</i>, <span lang="bo">ཐོབ་</span> = <i>top</i>. <span>3.</span> In all Central Tibet, moreover, final <span lang="bo">ད་</span> and <span lang="bo">ན་</span>, sometimes even <span lang="bo">ལ་</span>, modify the sound of a <span class="corr" id="xd31e3419" title="Source: preceeding">preceding</span> vowel: <i>a</i> to <i>ä</i> (similar to the English <i>a</i> in <i>hare</i>, <i>man</i>), <i>o</i> into <i>o̤</i> (French <i>eu</i> in <i lang="fr">jeu</i>), <i>u</i> into <i>ṳ</i> (French <i>u</i> in <i lang="fr">mur</i>). In most of the other provinces <span lang="bo">ག་</span> and <span lang="bo">ད་</span> are uttered so indistinctly as to be scarcely audible, so that <span lang="bo">སོག་</span>, <span lang="bo">གོད་</span> become <i lang="bo-latn">sŏʼ</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">gŏʼ</i>. In Tsang even final <span lang="bo">ལ་</span> is scarcely perceptible, and final <span lang="bo">ག་</span>, particularly after <i>o</i>, is almost dissolved into a vowel sound = a: <span lang="bo">སོལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i>so-wa</i>, <span class="pageNum" id="pb6">[<a href="#pb6">6</a>]</span><span lang="bo">དཀོན་<wbr></wbr>མཆོག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kon-choa</i>.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e3492src" href="#xd31e3492">2</a> <span id="s5.4">4.</span> Final <span lang="bo">ས་</span> is sounded as <i>s</i> only in Northern Ladak; elsewhere it changes into <i>i</i> or <span class="corr" id="xd31e3506" title="Source: dissappears">disappears</span> entirely, prolonging, or even modifying at the same time the preceding vowel. Thus -the following words: <span lang="bo">ནས་</span> ‘barley’, <span lang="bo">ཤེས་</span> ‘know’, <span lang="bo">རིས་</span> ‘figure’, <span lang="bo">ཆོས་</span> ‘religion’, <span lang="bo">ལུས་</span> ‘body’, are pronounced in Northern Ladak: <i lang="bo-latn">năs</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">s̀ĕs</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">ris</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽos</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">lŭs</i>; in Lahoul: <i lang="bo-latn">nai</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">shei</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">rī</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽō</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">lū</i>; in Lhasa, and consequently by everyone who wishes to speak elegantly: <i lang="bo-latn">nā̤</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">s̀ē</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">rī</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽō̤</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">lṳ̄</i>. <span id="s5.5">5.</span> In some words final <span lang="bo">ས་</span> occurs as a <span class="ex">second</span> closing letter (affix), after <span lang="bo">ག་ ང་ བ་ མ་</span>, as in <span lang="bo">ནགས་</span> ‘forest’, <span lang="bo">གངས་</span> ‘glacier-ice’, <span lang="bo">ཐབས་</span> ‘means’, <span lang="bo">རམས་</span> ‘indigo’; these are pronounced in N. Ladak: <i lang="bo-latn">nacks</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">gaṅs</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">tʽaps</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">rams</i>, elsewhere <i lang="bo-latn">nack</i> (in Ü: <i lang="bo-latn">nā</i>), <i lang="bo-latn">gaṅ</i> (ET <i lang="bo-latn">ghang</i>), <i lang="bo-latn">tʽap</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">ram</i>. <span>6.</span> <span lang="bo">ན་</span> before <span lang="bo">པ་</span> and <span lang="bo">མ་</span> is especially in ET very often pronounced <i>m</i>, e.g. <span lang="bo">ཉན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñäm-pa</i>, <span lang="bo">ཉོན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñöm-pa</i>, <span class="corr" id="xd31e3657" title="Source: སྙེམ་པ་"><span lang="bo">སྙེན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span></span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñem-pa</i>. -</p> -<p id="s6"><b>6. <span class="corr" id="xd31e3671" title="Source: Dipthongs">Diphthongs</span>.</b> <span>1.</span> They occur in Tibetan writing only where one of the vowels <i>i</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>u</i> have to be added to a word ending with an other vowel (s. §§ <a href="#s15.1">15. 1</a>; <a href="#s33.1">33. 1</a>; 45. 2 ). These additional vowels are then always written <span lang="bo">འི་</span>, <span lang="bo">འོ་</span>, <span lang="bo">འུ་</span>, never <span lang="bo">ཨི་</span> etc. (cf. § <a href="#s3.3">3. 3</a>); and the combinations <i>ai</i>, <i>oi</i>, <i>ui</i> (as in <span lang="bo">བཀའི་</span>, <span lang="bo">མགོའི་</span>, <span lang="bo">བུའི་</span>) are pronounced very much like <i>ā̤</i>, <i>ō̤</i>, <i>ṳ̄</i>, so that the syllables <span lang="bo">ནའི་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཤེའི་</span>, <span lang="bo">རིའི་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཆོའི་</span>, <span class="pageNum" id="pb7">[<a href="#pb7">7</a>]</span><span lang="bo">ལུའི་</span> can only in some vulgar dialects be distinguished from those mentioned in § 5. 4. 2. The others <i>ao</i>, <i>eo</i>, <i>io</i>, <i>oo</i>, <i>uo</i>, <i>au</i>, <i>eu</i>, <i>iu</i> (<span lang="bo">བཀའོ་</span>, <span lang="bo">སྐྱེའོ་</span>, <span lang="bo">བགྱིའོ་</span>, <span lang="bo">འགྲོའོ་</span>, <span lang="bo">འདུའོ་</span>, <span lang="bo">གའུ་</span>, <span lang="bo">བྱེའུ་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཁྱིའུ་</span>) are pronounced in rapid <span class="corr" id="xd31e3795" title="Corrected by author from: conjunction">succession</span>, but <span class="corr" id="xd31e3798" title="Corrected by author from: either">each</span> vowel is distinctly audible. In prosody they are generally regarded as one syllable, -but if the verse should require it they may be counted as two. -</p> -<p id="s7"><b>7. Compound consonants.</b> <span>1.</span> They are expressed in writing by putting one below the other, in which case several -change their original figure. -</p> -<p><span class="ex"><span class="corr" id="xd31e3811" title="Corrected by author from: Subjoined">Subscribed</span> consonants.</span> <span id="s7.2">2.</span> The letter <i>y</i> subjoined to another is represented by the figure <span lang="bo"> ྱ</span>, and occurs in connection with the three gutturals and labials, and with <i>m</i>, thus <span lang="bo">ཀྱ་ ཁྱ་ གྱ་ པྱ་ ཕྱ་ བྱ་ མྱ་</span>. The former three have preserved, in most cases, their original pronunciation <i>kya</i>, <i>kʽya</i>, <i>gya</i> (the latter in ET: <i>ghya</i> s. § <a href="#s2.6">2. 6</a>). In the Mongol pronunciation of Tibetan words, however, they have been corrupted -into <i>c̀</i>, <i>c̀ʽ</i>, <i>j̀</i> respectively, a well known instance of which is the common pronunciation <i>Kanj̀ur</i> i.o. <i>kangyur</i>, or eleg. <i>ka-gyur</i> (<span lang="bo">བཀའ་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་</span>). <span lang="bo">པྱ་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཕྱ་</span>, <span class="corr" id="xd31e3863" title="Source: བྱ"><span lang="bo">བྱ་</span></span> are almost everywhere spoken without any difference from <span lang="bo">ཅ</span>, <span lang="bo">ཆ</span>, <span lang="bo">ཇ</span> (except in the Western dialect before <i>e</i> and <i>i</i>, where the <i>y</i> is dropped and <span lang="bo">པ</span>, <span lang="bo">ཕ</span>, <span lang="bo">བ</span> alone are pronounced). <span lang="bo">མྱ</span> is spoken <i>ny</i> = <span lang="bo">ཉ</span>. <span>3.</span> <i>r</i> occurs at the foot of the gutturals, dentals, labials, of <span lang="bo">ན</span>, <span lang="bo">མ</span>, <span lang="bo">ས</span>, and <span lang="bo">ཧ</span>, in the shape of <span lang="bo"> ྲ</span>. In some parts of the country, as in Purig, these combinations <span class="pageNum" id="pb8">[<a href="#pb8">8</a>]</span>are pronounced literally, like <i>kra</i>, <i>khra</i> etc., but by far the most general custom is to sound them like the Indian cerebrals, -viz. <span lang="bo">ཀྲ</span>, <span lang="bo">ཏྲ</span>, <span lang="bo">པྲ</span> indiscriminately = <span lang="sa" class="deva">ट</span> <i>ṭ</i>; <span lang="bo">ཁྲ</span>, <span lang="bo">ཐྲ</span>, <span lang="bo">ཕྲ</span> = <span lang="sa" class="deva">ठ</span> <i>ṭh</i>; <span lang="bo">གྲ</span>, <span lang="bo">དྲ</span>, <span lang="bo">བྲ</span> = <span lang="sa" class="deva">ड</span> <i>ḍ</i> (in CT: <i>ḍh</i>); only in the case of <span lang="bo">བྲ</span> the literal pronunciation <i>br</i> is not uncommon. In <span lang="bo">ནྲ</span> and <span lang="bo">མྲ</span> both letters are distinctly heard; <span lang="bo">ཧྲ</span> sounds like <i>shr</i> in <i>shrub</i>, and so does <span lang="bo">སྲ</span> generally. In Ü this <i>r</i> is dropped nearly in all cases: thus, <span lang="bo">ཕྲ</span> <i>pʽa</i>, <span lang="bo">སྲ</span> <i>sa</i> etc. <span>4.</span> Six letters are often found with an <span lang="bo">ལ</span> beneath: <span lang="bo">ཀླ་ གླ་ བླ་ ཟླ་ རླ་ སླ་</span>; in these the <span lang="bo">ལ</span> alone is pronounced, except in <span lang="bo">ཟླ་</span>, which sounds <i>da</i>. <span>5.</span> The figure <span lang="bo"> ྭ</span>, sometimes found at the <span class="corr" id="xd31e4039" title="Corrected by author from: food">foot</span> of a letter is used in Sanscrit words to express the <span class="corr" id="xd31e4042" title="Corrected by author from: subjoined">subscribed</span> <span lang="sa" class="deva">व</span>, as in <span lang="bo">སྭཱ་<wbr></wbr>ཧཱ་</span> (cf. § 9. 6 ) for <span lang="sa" class="deva">स्वाहा</span>; and is now pronounced by Tibetans = <i>ō</i>: <i>sōhā</i>; in words originally Tibetan it now exists merely as an orthographical mark, to distinguish -<span class="corr" id="xd31e4062" title="Corrected by author from: homonymes">homonyms</span> in writing, as <span lang="bo">ཚ་</span> <i>tʽsa</i>, ‘hot’ and <span lang="bo">ཚྭ་</span> <i>tʽsa</i>, ‘salt’; but, as it is spoken, in some words at least, in Balti (e.g. <span lang="bo">རྩྭ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">rtswa</i> ‘grass’<span class="corr" id="xd31e4082" title="Not in source">)</span>, it must be supposed that, in the primitive form of the <span class="corr" id="xd31e4085" title="Corrected by author from: lauguage">language</span>, it was generally heard.—<i>Note.</i> Of such compounds, indeed, as <span lang="bo">ཕྱྭ་</span> ‘lot’ it is difficult to understand, how they can have been pronounced literally, -if the <i>v</i> was not, perhaps, pronounced <span class="ex">before</span> the <i>y</i>. -</p> -<p><span class="ex">Superadded consonants.</span> <span>6.</span> <i>r</i> <span class="corr" id="xd31e4109" title="Corrected by author from: above">over</span> another consonant is written <span lang="bo">⸆</span>, and 11 <span class="corr" id="xd31e4115" title="Corrected by author from: contonants">consonants</span> have this sign: <span lang="bo">རྐ་ རྒ་ རྔ་ རྟ་ རྡ་ རྣ་ རྦ་ རྨ་ རྩ་ རྫ་</span>, above <span lang="bo">ཉ་</span> it preserves <span class="pageNum" id="pb9">[<a href="#pb9">9</a>]</span>its full shape, as better adapted to the form of that letter: thus, <span lang="bo">རྙ་</span>. In speaking it is seldom heard except provincially, and in some instances in compound -words after a vowel thus, <span lang="bo">ཨུ་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱན་</span> <i>Urgyán</i>, <i>Urgyén</i>, ancient name of the country of Lahore; <span lang="bo">རྡོ་<wbr></wbr>རྗེ་</span> <i>dórje</i> ‘<i>vaj̀ra</i>’. Ladakees often pronounce it = <i>s</i>: <span lang="bo">རྟ་</span> <i>sta</i> ‘horse’ elsewhere <i>ta</i>. <span>7.</span> Similar is the usage in those with a superadded <span lang="bo">ལ</span> (namely: the surds and sonants of the first four classes, the guttural nasal, and -<span lang="bo">ཧ</span>), which latter is often softly heard in WT, but entirely dropped elsewhere, except -in the <span class="corr" id="xd31e4164" title="Corrected by author from: ease">case</span> of <span lang="bo">ལྷ</span>, which is spoken = <span lang="bo">ལ</span> in WT, but with a distinct aspiration = <i>hla</i> or <i>lha</i> in ET. <span id="s7.8">8.</span> <span lang="bo">ས</span> is superadded to the gutturals, dentals and labials with exception of the aspiratae, -then <span lang="bo">ཉ་</span> and <span lang="bo">ཙ་</span>. It is, in many cases, distinctly pronounced in Ladak, but dropped elsewhere<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e4191src" href="#xd31e4191">3</a>. <span id="s7.9">9.</span> <span lang="bo">ག་ ད་ བ་ ཇ་ ཛ་</span> with any superadded letter lose the aspiration mentioned in § <a href="#s2.6">2. 6</a> and sound = <i>g</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>j̀</i>, <i>ds</i><span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span> <span>10.</span> <span lang="bo">རྗ་ རྩ་ རྫ་</span> often lose even the inherent <i>t</i>-sound in pronunciation and are spoken like <i>j̀</i>, <i>s</i>, <i>z</i>. -</p> -<div class="footnotes"> -<hr class="fnsep"> -<div class="footnote-body"> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e2915"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e2915src">1</a></span> A very clear exposition of the ramification of Indian alphabets by Dr. <span class="ex">Haas</span> is to be found in the Publications of the Palaeographical Society Oriental Series -IV, pl<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span> XLIV. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e2915src" title="Return to note 1 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e3492"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e3492src">2</a></span> This is the form in which the word, chosen by the missionaries to express the Christian -“God” (cf. dict.), has found its way into several popular works. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e3492src" title="Return to note 2 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e4191"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e4191src">3</a></span> This will be indicated in the following examples by including the <i>s</i> in parentheses, as <i>(s)kom</i>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e4191src" title="Return to note 3 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -</div> -</div> -<div class="div1 last-child errata"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divBody"> -<div class="div2 section"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead"> -<h3 class="main">Examples.</h3> -<table class="splitListTable"> -<tr> -<td> -<ul> -<li><span lang="bo">ཀྱིར་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིར་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kyir-kyir</i>, round, circular. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཁྱི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽyi</i>, dog. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">གྱེན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gyen-la</i>, upwards. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཕྱུགས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽug(s)</i>, Ü: <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽū</i>, cattle. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཀྱུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kyu</i>, hook. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽyod</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">kʽyöʼ</i>, you. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཕྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽug-po</i>, rich. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཕྱེད་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">pʽed</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽĕʼ</i>, half. <span class="pageNum" id="pb10">[<a href="#pb10">10</a>]</span></li> -<li><span lang="bo">བྱ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">j̀á-mo</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">j̀ʽa-mo</i>, hen. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">མྱ་<wbr></wbr>ངན་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">ña-ṅán</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">-ṅän</i>, misery. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཀྲམ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṭam</i>, cabbage. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཁྲིམས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṭʽim(s)</i>, <span class="corr" id="xd31e4339" title="Corrected by author from: judgement">judgment</span>. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">གྲང་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">ḍaṅ-mo</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">ḍʽ°-</i><span class="corr" id="xd31e4351" title="Not in source">,</span> cold. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཕྲུག་<wbr></wbr>གུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṭʽug-gu</i>, child. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">སྲན་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">s̀ran-ma, srän-ma</i>, pea. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">གླ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">la</i>, wages. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">རླུང་(པོ་)</span> <i lang="bo-latn">luṅ(-po)</i>, wind. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཟླ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">da-wa</i> (s. § <a href="#s11n">11 note</a>), moon. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">རྣོན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">nón-po</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">no̤m-po</i>, sharp. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ལྗང་<wbr></wbr>ཁུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">jaṅ-kʽu</i> (Ld. <i lang="bo-latn">lj°</i>), green. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">སྐོམ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">(s)kom</i>, thirst. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">སྒོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">(s)go</i>, door. </li> -</ul> -</td> -<td> -<ul> -<li><span lang="bo">སྒྱུར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">(s)gyúr-wa</i>, to alter, turn. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">སྤྱིན་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">(s)pin</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽin</i>, glue. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">སྤྲེའུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṭe-u</i>, Ld: <i lang="bo-latn">s̀re-u</i>, monkey. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">སྨན་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">(s)man</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">män</i>, medicine. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">བྱེ་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">bé-ma</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">j̀ʽe-ma</i>, sand. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">མྱུར་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñur-du</i>, quickly. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཁྲལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṭʽal</i>, tax. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">གྲི་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">ḍi, ḍʽi</i> (Pur: <i lang="bo-latn">gri</i>), knife. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">དྲང་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="corr" id="xd31e4502" title="Source: ḍan-po">ḍaṅ-po</span></i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">ḍʽ°</i>, straight. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">བྲག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ḍag, ḍʽag</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">brag</i>), rock. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཧྲུལ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">s̀rul-po</i>, ragged. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">བླ་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lá-ma</i>, priest. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">སླ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lá-mo</i>, easy. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">རྐང་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kaṅ-pa</i>, foot. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">རྫུན་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">zun</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">dsṳn</i>, lie, untruth. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ལྟད་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tad-mo</i> (Ld. <i lang="bo-latn">lt°</i>), C: <i lang="bo-latn">täʼ-mo</i>, spectacle. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">སྐྲ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">s̀ra</i><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e4576src" href="#xd31e4576">1</a>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">ṭa</i>, hair. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">སྒྲ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ḍa</i> (vulg<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>: <i lang="bo-latn">ra</i>), sound, voice. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">སྤུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">(s)pu</i>, small hair. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">སྤྱོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">(s)c̀od-pa</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">c̀öʼ-pa</i>, to behave. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">སྦྲུལ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">(sb)rul</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">ḍul</i>, snake. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">སྨྱོན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">ñon-pa</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">ño̤n-pa</i>, mad. </li> -</ul> -</td> -</tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pageNum" id="pb11">[<a href="#pb11">11</a>]</span></p> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p id="s8"><b>8. Prefixed letters.</b> <span class="corr" id="xd31e4654" title="Not in source"><span>1.</span> </span>The five letters <span lang="bo">ག་ ད་ བ་ མ་ འ་</span> frequently occur before the real, radical initials of other words, but are seldom -pronounced, except in similar cases as § 7. 6. <span lang="bo">ག་</span> occurs before <span lang="bo">ཅ་ ཉ་ ཏ་ ད་ ན་ ཙ་ ཞ་ ཟ་ ཡ་ ཤ་ ས་</span>; <span lang="bo">ད</span> before the gutturals and labials with exception of the aspiratae; <span lang="bo">བ་</span> before <span lang="bo">ཀ་ ག་</span>, the palatals, dentals and palatal sibilants with the same exception as under <span lang="bo">ད</span>, then <span lang="bo">ཞ་ ཟ་ ར་ ཤ་ ས་</span>; <span lang="bo">མ་</span> before the gutturals, palatals, dentals and palatal sibilants, <span class="corr" id="xd31e4687" title="Corrected by author from: excepted">except</span> the surds; <span lang="bo">འ</span> before the aspiratae and sonants of the five classes. In <span class="corr" id="xd31e4694" title="Source: C.T.">CT</span>, to pronounce them in any case, is considered vulgar. <span id="s8.2">2.</span> The ambiguity which would arise in case of the prefix standing before one of the -10 final consonants, as single radical, the vowel being the unwritten <i>a</i>,—e.g. in the syllable <span lang="bo">དག་</span>, which, if <span lang="bo">ད</span> is radical, has to be pronounced <i>dag</i>, if prefixed <i>gā</i>,—is avoided by adding an <span lang="bo">འ་</span> in the latter case: thus, <span lang="bo">དགའ་</span>. Other examples are: <span lang="bo">གད་</span> <i>gad</i> (<i>gʽäʼ</i>) and <span lang="bo">གདའ་</span> <i>dā</i>; <span lang="bo">བས་</span> <i>bas</i> (<i>bā̤</i>, <i>bʽā̤</i>) and <span lang="bo">བསའ་</span> <i>sā</i>; <span lang="bo">མད་</span> <i>mad</i> (<i>mäʼ</i>) and <span lang="bo">མདའ་</span> <i>dā</i>; <span lang="bo">འགའ་</span> <i>gā</i>. This <span lang="bo">འ་</span> is added, though the radical be not one of the mentioned letters; as, <span lang="bo">བཀའ་</span> <i>kā</i>. <span>3.</span> <span lang="bo">ད་</span> as a prefix and <span lang="bo">བ་</span> as first radical annul each other, so that only the following sound is heard, as -will be seen in the <span class="pageNum" id="pb12">[<a href="#pb12">12</a>]</span>following examples (<span lang="bo">དབང་</span> etc.). <span>4.</span> Another irregularity is the <span class="ex">nasal</span> pronunciation of the prefixed <span lang="bo">འ་</span> in compounds after a vowel, which is often heard e.g. <span lang="bo">དགེ་<wbr></wbr>འདུན་</span> pronounced <i>gen-dún</i>, <i>gen-dṳ́n</i>, but eleg.: <i>ge-dṳ́n</i>, ‘clergy’; <span lang="bo">བཀའ་<wbr></wbr>འབུམ་</span> <i>kam-bum</i>, eleg. <i>ka-búm</i>, ‘the 100 000 precepts’ (title of a book).—<i>Note.</i> With regard to the aspiration of the soft consonants in ET the prefixed letters have -the same influence as the superadded ones § <a href="#s7.9">7. 9</a>. -</p> -</div> -</div> -<div class="div2 section"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead"> -<h3 class="main">Examples.</h3> -<table class="splitListTable"> -<tr> -<td> -<ul> -<li><span lang="bo">གཡག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">yag</i>, <span lang="la">bos grunniens</span>. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">དཔེ་<wbr></wbr>ཆ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">pé-c̀ʽa</i> (Ld<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>: <i lang="bo-latn">spe-c̀ʽa</i>), book. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">བཟང་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">záṅ-po</i>, good. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">འབབ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">bab-pa</i>, to descend. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">དབང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">waṅ</i>, vulg. C: <i lang="bo-latn">aṅ</i>, power. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">དབུས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">Ṳ̄</i>, name of the Lhasa district. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">དབེན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">en-pa</i>, solitude. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">དབྱིབས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">yib(s), ib</i>, figure. </li> -</ul> -</td> -<td> -<ul> -<li><span lang="bo">དཀར་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kár-po</i>, white. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">དགྲ་<wbr></wbr>བོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ḍá-wo</i>, enemy. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">མངར་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅár-mo</i>, sweet. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>བཞི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ub-z̀i</i>, eleg. <i lang="bo-latn">c̀u-z̀i</i>, fourteen. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">དབུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">u</i>, resp. head. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">དབུགས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ug(s)</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">ug, ū</i>, breath. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">དབྱར་<wbr></wbr>ཀ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">yar-ka</i>, summer. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">དབྱེ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ye-wa, e-wa</i>, difference. </li> -</ul> -</td> -</tr> -</table> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p id="s9"><b>9. Word; Accent; Quantity.</b> <span>1.</span> The peculiarity of the Tibetan mode of writing in distinctly marking the word-syllables, -but not the words (cf. § <a href="#s4">4</a>) composed of two or more of these, sometimes renders <span class="corr" id="xd31e4963" title="Corrected by author from: is">it</span> doubtful what is to be regarded as <span class="ex">one word</span>. <span>2.</span> There exist a great number of <span class="pageNum" id="pb13">[<a href="#pb13">13</a>]</span>small monosyllables, which serve <span class="corr" id="xd31e4975" title="Corrected by author from: for denoting">to denote</span> different shades of notions, grammatical relations etc., and are postponed to the -word in question; but never alter its original shape, though their own initials are -not seldom influenced by its final consonant (cf. § <a href="#s15">15</a>). <span>3.</span> Such monosyllables may conveniently be regarded as <span class="ex">terminations</span>, forming <span class="ex">one word</span> together with the <span class="corr" id="xd31e4991" title="Corrected by author from: preceeding">preceding</span> nominal or verbal root. <span>4.</span> The accent is, in such cases, most naturally given to the root, or, in compounds, -generally to the latter part of the composition, as: <span lang="bo">མིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">mig</i>, ‘eye’, <span lang="bo">མིག་<wbr></wbr>གི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">míg-gi</i>, ‘of the eye’; <span lang="bo">ལག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lag</i>, ‘hand’, <span class="corr" id="xd31e5016" title="Source: ལག ཤུབས་"><span lang="bo">ལག་<wbr></wbr>ཤུབས་</span></span> <i lang="bo-latn">lag-s̀ub(s)</i>, ‘hand-covering, glove’.—<span id="s9.5">5.</span> Equally natural is, in <span class="corr" id="xd31e5030" title="Source: W.T.">WT</span>, the <span class="ex">quantity</span> of the vowels: accentuated vowels, when closing the syllable, are comparatively long -(though never so long as in the English words <i>bee</i>, <i>stay</i>, or Hindi <span lang="ur" class="aran">راجا</span> etc.), otherwise short, as <span lang="bo">མི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">mī</i> ‘man’, <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">mī-lă</i> ‘to the man’, but <span lang="bo">མར་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">măr</i>, ‘butter’.—In CT, however, even accentuated and closing vowels are uttered very shortly: -<i lang="bo-latn">mĭ, mĭ-lă</i> etc., and long ones occur there only in the case of § <a href="#s5.4">5, 4</a>. <a href="#s5.5">5</a>. and <a href="#s8.2">8, 2</a>., as <span lang="bo">ལས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lā̤</i> ‘work’; <span lang="bo">ཆོས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽō̤</i> ‘religion’; <span lang="bo">མདའ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">dā</i> ‘arrow’; <span lang="bo">གཟའ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">zā</i> ‘planet’; and in Lhasa especially: <span lang="bo">ནགས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">nā</i> ‘forest’; <span lang="bo">ལེགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lē-pa</i> ‘good’; <span lang="bo">རིགས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">rī</i> ‘class, sort’; <span lang="bo">ལོགས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lō</i> ‘side’; <span lang="bo">ལུགས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lū</i> ‘manner’.—In Sanscrit words the long vowels are marked by an <span lang="bo">འ་</span> beneath the consonant, as: <span lang="bo">ནཱ་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> (<span lang="sa" class="deva">नाम</span>) ‘called’, <span lang="bo">མཱུ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> (<span lang="sa" class="deva">मूल</span>) ‘root’ (s. § <a href="#s3">3</a>). -<span class="pageNum" id="pb14">[<a href="#pb14">14</a>]</span></p> -<p id="s10"><b>10. Punctuation.</b> For separating the members of a longer period, a vertical stroke: <span lang="bo">།</span>, called <span lang="bo">ཤད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">s̀ad</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">s̀äʼ</i>), is used, which corresponds at once to our comma, semicolon and colon; after the -closing of a sentence the same is doubled; after a longer piece, e<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>g. a chapter, four <i lang="bo-latn">s̀ads</i> are put. No marks of interrogation or <span class="corr" id="xd31e5175" title="Corrected by author from: exlamation">exclamation</span> exist in punctuation.—<span>2.</span> In metrical compositions, the double <i lang="bo-latn">s̀ad</i> is used for separating the single verses; in that case the logical partition of the -sentence is not marked (cf. § <a href="#s4">4</a>). -</p> -</div> -</div> -<div class="div2 last-child section"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead"> -<h3 class="main">A list of a few useful words.</h3> -<table class="splitListTable"> -<tr> -<td> -<ul> -<li><span lang="bo">ཀ་<wbr></wbr>ར་</span> or <span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>ར་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ká-ra</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">kʽá-ra</i>, sugar. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཁང་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽaṅ-pa</i>, house. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">གང་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">gaṅ</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">gʽaṅ</i>, which? </li> -<li><span lang="bo">གུར་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">gur</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">gʽur</i>, tent. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ངལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅal</i>, fatigue. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཅི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀i</i>, what? </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཆད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽad-pa</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽăʼ-pa</i>, punishment. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཆུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽuṅ-wa</i>, little. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཇ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">j̀a</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">j̀ʽa</i>, tea. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཉི་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñí-ma</i>, sun; day. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཉུང་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñúṅ-ma</i>, turnip. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཏིབ་<wbr></wbr>རིལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tíb-ril</i>, tea-pot, kettle. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཀུན་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">kun</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">kün</i>, all. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཁུང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽuṅ</i>, hole. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ག་<wbr></wbr>རུ་</span> or <span lang="bo">གར་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">ga-ru</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">gar</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">gʽ°</i>, where? </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ངན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅan-pa</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">ṅam-pa</i>, bad. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཆང་</span>, <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽaṅ</i>, beer. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཆར་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽár-pa</i>, rain. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཆེན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽen-po</i>, great<span class="corr" id="xd31e5357" title="Source: ,">.</span> </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཉ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ña</i>, fish. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཉུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñuṅ-wa</i>, little, few. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཉེ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñe-mo</i>, near. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཏོག་<wbr></wbr>ཙེ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tóg-tse</i> (W), hoe. <span class="pageNum" id="pb15">[<a href="#pb15">15</a>]</span></li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཐག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tʽag-pa</i>, rope. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཐོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">tʽód-pa</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">tʽöʼ-pa</i>, skull. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">དང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">daṅ</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">dʽaṅ</i>, and; with. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ནག་<wbr></wbr>པོ</span> <i lang="bo-latn">nag-po</i>, black. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ནོར་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">nor</i>, wealth, property. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཕན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">pʽan-pa</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">pʽäm-pa</i>, use, benefit. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ba</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">bʽa</i>, cow. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">བུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">bu</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">bʽu</i>, son. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">མེ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">me</i>, fire. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">མེད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">med</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">mĕʼ</i>, there is not. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཚང་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tʽsaṅ-ma</i>, whole. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཞོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">z̀o</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">s̀ŏ</i>, curdled milk. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">འོད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">od</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">wöʼ</i>, light, shine. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཡི་<wbr></wbr>གེ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">yí-ge</i>, letter. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཡོད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">yod</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">yöʼ</i>, am, is, are. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">རི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ri</i>, hill, mountain. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">la</i>, mountain-pass. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ལུག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lug</i>, sheep. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཐང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tʽáṅ</i>, the plain. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ད་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">da</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">dʽa</i>, now. </li> -</ul> -</td> -<td> -<ul> -<li><span lang="bo">དུད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">dud-pa</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">dʽüʼ-pa</i>, smoke. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ནད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">nad</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">näʼ</i>, disease. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">པར་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">pár-ma</i>, a printed book. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཕུག་<wbr></wbr>རོན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">pʽug-rón</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">-ró̤n</i>, dove. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">བལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">bal</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">bʽal</i>, wool. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">བུ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">bu-mo</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">bʽ°</i>, daughter. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">མིང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">miṅ</i>, name. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཙམ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tsam</i>, how much? </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཞག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">z̀ag</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">s̀ag</i>, day. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">འོ་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">o-ma</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">wo-ma</i>, milk. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཡང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">yaṅ</i>, also. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཡིན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">yin</i>, am, is, are (cf. § <a href="#s39">39</a>). </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ར་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ra-ma</i>, goat. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">རིན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">rin</i>, price. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ལམ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lam</i>, road. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཤ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">s̀a</i>, flesh, meat. <span class="pageNum" id="pb16">[<a href="#pb16">16</a>]</span></li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཤིང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">s̀iṅ</i>, tree, wood. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">སུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">su</i>, who? </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཨ་<wbr></wbr>ཕ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">a-pʽa</i>, (vulg.) father. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">རས་</span> (Ld: <i lang="bo-latn">ras</i>) <i lang="bo-latn">rā̤</i>, cotton cloth. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">གོས་</span> (Ld: <i lang="bo-latn">gos</i>) <i lang="bo-latn">gō̤</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">gʽō̤</i>, clothing. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">སེམས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">sem</i>, soul. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཁྲག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṭʽag</i>, blood. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">སླེབ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">leb-pa</i>, to arrive. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">རྩྭ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">sa</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">tsa</i>, grass. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">སྔོན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅon-po</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">ṅo̤m-po</i>, blue. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">གཞུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">z̀u</i>, bow (for shooting). </li> -<li><span lang="bo">དགུན་<wbr></wbr>ཀ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gun-ka</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">gṳn-ka</i>, winter. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">མཚོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tʽso</i>, lake. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">འདྲི་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ḍi-wa</i>, to ask. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">sa</i>, earth. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">སོ་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">só-ma</i>, new. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཨ་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">a-ma</i><span class="corr" id="xd31e5837" title="Not in source">,</span> (vulg.) mother. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">དུས་</span> (Ld<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>: <i lang="bo-latn">dus</i>) <i lang="bo-latn">dṳ̄</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">dʽṳ̄</i>, time. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">ཐབས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tʽab(s)</i>, means. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">བག་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱེ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">bag-pʽe</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">bʽag-c̀ʽe</i>, flour. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">གྲོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ḍo</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">ḍʽŏ</i>, wheat. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">རྒད་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gad-po</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">gʽäʼ-po</i>, old. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">སྐྱེ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">(s)kye-wa</i>, to be born, grow. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">སྙིང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñiṅ</i>, heart. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">གཟིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">zig</i>, leopard. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">མགྱོགས་</span><span class="corr" id="xd31e5916" title="Not in source"><span lang="bo">པ་</span></span> <i lang="bo-latn">gyog(s)-pa</i> (Ü: <i lang="bo-latn">gyō-pa</i>), fast, quick. </li> -<li><span lang="bo">འབྲི་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ḍi-wa</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">bri-wa</i>), to write. </li> -</ul> -</td> -</tr> -</table> -<p><span class="pageNum" id="pb17">[<a href="#pb17">17</a>]</span></p> -</div> -</div> -</div> -<div class="footnotes"> -<hr class="fnsep"> -<div class="footnote-body"> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e4576"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e4576src">1</a></span> The concurrence of superadded <span lang="bo">ས་</span> with a consonant already <span class="pageNum" id="pb11n">[<a href="#pb11n">11</a>]</span>compound produces in <span class="corr" id="xd31e4583" title="Source: W.T">WT</span> some irregularities, which cannot all be specified here (see the diction<span class="corr" id="xd31e4586" title="Source: ">.)</span>. The custom of <span class="corr" id="xd31e4589" title="Source: C.T.">CT</span>, according to which the <span lang="bo">ས་</span> is entirely neglected is in this instance easier to be followed. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e4576src" title="Return to note 1 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -</div> -</div> -</div> -</div> -<div id="pt2" class="div0 part"> -<h2 class="label">Part II.</h2> -<h2 class="main">Etymology.</h2> -<div id="ch2.1" class="div1 errata"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e594">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">Chapter I.</h2> -<h2 class="main">The Article.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p id="s11" class="first"><b>11. Peculiarities of the Tibetan article.</b> <span>1.</span> What have been called <span class="ex">Articles</span> by Csoma and Schmidt, are a number of little affixes: <span lang="bo">པ་ བ་ མ་ པོ་ བོ་ མོ་</span>, and some similar ones, which might perhaps be more adequately termed <span class="ex">denominators</span>, since their principal object is undoubtedly to represent a given root as a <span class="ex">noun</span>, substantive or adjective, as is most clearly perceptible in the instance of the -roots of verbs, to which <span lang="bo">པ་</span> or <span lang="bo">བ་</span> impart the notion of the Infinitive and Participle, or the nearest abstract and nearest -concrete nouns that can possibly be formed from the idea of a verb. These affixes -are not, however,—except in this case—essential to a noun, as many substantives and -adjectives and most of the pronouns are never accompanied by them, and even those -which usually appear connected with them, will drop them upon the slightest occasion. -<span>2.</span> Almost the only case in which a syntactical use of them, like that of the English -definite Article, is perceptible, is that mentioned § <a href="#s20.3">20. 3</a>; a formal one, that of distinguishing the Gender, occurs in a limited number of words, -where <span lang="bo">མོ་</span> denotes the female, <span lang="bo">པོ་</span> the masculine. Thus: <span lang="bo">རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gyál-po</i> ‘king’, <span lang="bo">རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gyál-mo</i> ‘queen’. Or, <span class="pageNum" id="pb18">[<a href="#pb18">18</a>]</span>if the word in the masculine (or rather common) gender has no article, <span lang="bo">མོ་</span> is added: <span lang="bo">སེང་<wbr></wbr>གེ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">séṅ-ge</i> ‘lion’, <span class="corr" id="xd31e6008" title="Source: སེང་གེ་མོ"><span lang="bo">སེང་<wbr></wbr>གེ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span></span> ‘lioness’. <span>3.</span> In most instances, by far, their only use is to distinguish different meanings of -homonymous roots, e.g. <span lang="bo">སྟོན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">(s)tón-pa</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">tó̤n-pa</i>), ‘teacher’; <span lang="bo">སྟོན་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">(s)tón-mo</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">tó̤n-mo</i>)<span id="xd31e6038"></span> ‘feast’; <span lang="bo">སྟོན་<wbr></wbr>ཁ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">(s)tón-kʽa</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">tó̤n-kʽa</i>) ‘autumn’. Even this advantage, however, is given up, as soon as a composition takes -place, and then the meaning can only be inferred from the context, or known from usage: -<span lang="bo">མིང་<wbr></wbr>སྟོན་</span> (from <span lang="bo">སྟོན་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span>) ‘name feast’ (given on the occasion of naming or christening an infant); <span lang="bo">སྟོན་<wbr></wbr>ཟླ་</span> (from <span lang="bo">སྟོན་<wbr></wbr>ཁ་</span>) ‘autumnal month’. In some instances the putting or omitting of these articles is -optional; more frequently the usage varies in different provinces. <span>4.</span> The peculiar nature of these affixes is most clearly shown by the manner in which -they are connected with the indefinite article § <a href="#s13">13</a>. -</p> -<p id="s11n"><i>Note.</i> The affixes <span lang="bo">བ་ བོ་</span> are after vowels and after the consonants <span lang="bo">ང་ ར་ ལ་</span> always pronounced <i lang="bo-latn">wa</i> and <i lang="bo-latn">wo</i>, instead of <i lang="bo-latn">ba</i> and <i lang="bo-latn">bo</i>; thus, <span lang="bo">དཀའ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ka-wa</i> ‘difficult’; <span lang="bo">རེ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">re-wa</i> ‘hope’; <span lang="bo">གང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gaṅ-wa</i> (<i lang="bo-latn"><span class="sic">gh°</span></i>) ‘full’; <span lang="bo">ཟེར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">zer-wa</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">ser-wa</i>) ‘to say’; <span lang="bo">མྱལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">nyal-wa</i> ‘hell’; <span lang="bo">ཇོ་<wbr></wbr>བོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">jo-wo</i> (<i lang="bo-latn"><span class="sic">jho-wo</span></i>) ‘lord, master’. -</p> -<p id="s12"><b>12. Difference of the Articles among each other.</b> <span id="s12.1">1.</span> The usage of <span lang="bo">པ་ བ་ མ་</span> is the most general and widest of all, <span class="pageNum" id="pb19">[<a href="#pb19">19</a>]</span>as they occur with all sorts of substantives and other nouns. <span lang="bo">པ་</span> is particularly used for denoting a man who is in a certain way connected with a -certain thing (something like <span lang="ur" class="aran">والا</span> and <span lang="fa" class="aran">دار</span> in Hindustāni and Persian<span class="corr" id="xd31e6160" title="Not in source">)</span>: <span lang="bo">གྲྭ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ḍa</i> ‘school’, <span lang="bo">གྲྭ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> (literally: scholar) ‘disciple, novice’; <span lang="bo">ཆུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽu</i><span id="xd31e6177"></span> ‘water’, <span lang="bo">ཆུ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘water-carrier’ (<span lang="ur" class="aran">پانى والا</span>); <span lang="bo">རྟ་</span> ‘horse’, <span lang="bo">རྟ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘horseman’; <span lang="bo">དབུས་</span> ‘the province of Ṳ̄’, <span lang="bo">དབུས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘a man from Ṳ̄’, <span lang="bo">ཁྱེའུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽyëu</i> ‘boy’, <span lang="bo">ལོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lo</i> ‘year’, <span lang="bo">གཉིས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñi(s)</i> ‘two’, hence: <span lang="bo">ཁྱེའུ་<wbr></wbr>ལོ་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘a two years’ boy’. If the feminine is required <span lang="bo">མ་</span> is either added to, or—more commonly—used instead of, the former: <span lang="bo">དབུས་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> ‘a woman from Ṳ̄’; <span lang="bo">བུ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་<wbr></wbr>ལོ་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> ‘a two years’ girl’. The performer of an action is more frequently denoted by <span lang="bo">པོ་</span> (or, in more solemn language, <span lang="bo">པ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span>), though, in conversation at least, <span lang="bo">མཁན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽan</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">kʽe̱n</i>), is preferred; <span lang="bo">བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">j̀ed-pa</i> ‘to do, make; doing, making’: <span lang="bo">བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span>, <span lang="bo">བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span>, <span lang="bo">བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>མཁན་</span> ‘the doer, maker’. <span>2.</span> The appendices <span lang="bo">ཀ་ ཁ་ ག་</span> occur with a limited number of nouns only, especially the names of the seasons, with -numerals, and some pronouns. (<span lang="bo">ཀོ་</span> seems to be a vulgar form of pronunciation for <span lang="bo">ཀ་</span>). -</p> -<p id="s13"><b>13. The indefinite Article.</b> This is the numeral <span class="ex">one</span> (§ <a href="#s13">13</a>), only deprived of its prefix, viz<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>: <span lang="bo">ཅིག་</span>, which form it retains, if the preceding word ends with <span lang="bo">ག་ ད་ བ་</span>, as: <span lang="bo">ཁབ་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག་</span> <span class="pageNum" id="pb20">[<a href="#pb20">20</a>]</span><i lang="bo-latn">kʽab-c̀ig</i>, a needle; it is changed to <span lang="bo">ཤིག་</span> after <span lang="bo">ས་</span>, <span lang="bo">རས་<wbr></wbr>ཤིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ras-s̀ig</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">rä-s̀ig</i>, a cloth; to <span lang="bo">ཞིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">z̀ig</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">s̀ig</i>) in all other cases. Some authors use <span lang="bo">ཅིག་</span> after any termination <span class="corr" id="xd31e6329" title="Corrected by author from: indisriminately">indiscriminately</span>. It is, of course, always without accent. The articles <span lang="bo">པ་ བ་</span> etc. are not <span class="corr" id="xd31e6335" title="Corrected by author from: thrown out">superseded</span> by the indefinite article e.g. <span lang="bo">སྟོན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘teacher, the teacher’, <span lang="bo">སྟོན་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་</span> ‘a teacher’. It is used even after a plurality: thus, <span lang="bo">ཆུ་<wbr></wbr>མིག་<wbr></wbr>བཞི་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>རུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་</span> ‘there were some four wells’, and even: <span lang="bo">མང་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>གདའ་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་</span> ‘there being a multitude of them’ (from Mil<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>). Very often it is placed after the interrogative pronouns (v. <a href="#s27">27</a>), and sometimes its original meaning is obscured so much that it occurs even after -known and definite subjects, where one would expect the demonstrative (see <abbr title="for instance">f.i.</abbr> Dzl. 25, 1. 28, 6. 128, 14). -</p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch2.2" class="div1 errata"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e633">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">Chapter II.</h2> -<h2 class="main">The Substantive.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p id="s14" class="first"><b>14. The Number.</b> The Plural is denoted by adding the word <span lang="bo">རྣམས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">nam</i>, or, more rarely, <span lang="bo">དག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">dag</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">dʽag</i>), <span lang="bo">ཚོ་</span>, or a few other words, which originally were nouns with the common notion of plurality. -<span class="corr" id="xd31e6386" title="Corrected by author from: Bus">But</span> this mark of the Plural is usually omitted, when the plurality of the thing in question -may be known from other circumstances, e.g. when a numeral is added: thus, <span lang="bo">མི་</span> ‘man’, <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>རྣམས་</span> ‘men’, <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>གསུམ་</span> ‘three men’. When a substantive is connected with an adjective, the plural sign is -added only once, viz. after the <span class="pageNum" id="pb21">[<a href="#pb21">21</a>]</span>last of the connected words: <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>བཟང་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>རྣམས་</span> ‘the good men’. -</p> -<p id="s14n"><i>Note.</i> The conversational language uses the words <span lang="bo">རྣམས་</span> etc. seldom, in WT scarcely ever (an exception s. <a href="#s24r">24. Remarks</a>), but <span class="corr" id="xd31e6413" title="Corrected by author from: add">adds</span>, when necessary, such words as: all, many, some; two, three, seven, eight, or other -suitable numerals (cf. § <a href="#s20.5">20, 5</a>.). -</p> -<p id="s15"><b>15. Declension.</b> The regular addition of the different particles or single sounds by which the cases -are formed is the same for all nouns, whether substantives or adjectives, pronouns -or participles. Only in some cases, in the Dative and Instrumental, the noun itself -is changed, when, ending in <span class="corr" id="xd31e6423" title="Source: an">a</span> vowel, it admits of a closer connection with the corrupted case-sign. We may reckon -in Tibetan seven cases, expressive of all the relations, for which cases are used -in other languages, viz: nominative and accusative, genitive, instrumental, dative, -locative, ablative, terminative and vocative. <span id="s15.1">1.</span> The unaltered form of the noun has some of the functions of our Nominative and those -of the Accusative and Vocative. <span>2.</span> The sign of the Genitive is <span lang="bo">ཀྱི་</span> after words with the finals <span lang="bo">ད་ བ་ ས་</span>; <span lang="bo">གྱི་</span> after <span lang="bo">ན་ མ་ ར་ ལ་</span>, <span lang="bo">གི་</span> after <span lang="bo">ག་</span> and <span lang="bo">ང་</span>; after vowels <i lang="bo-latn">i</i> is simply added by means of an <span lang="bo">འ་</span> thus: <span lang="bo">འི་</span>, which then will form a diphthong with the vowel of the noun (cf. § <a href="#s6">6</a>), or if, in versification, two syllables are required, <i lang="bo-latn">i</i> appears supported by an <span lang="bo">ཡ་</span> forming a distinct word. <span>3.</span> The Instrumental or Agent is expressed by the particles <span lang="bo">ཀྱིས་</span><span class="corr" id="xd31e6479" title="Not in source">,</span> <span lang="bo">གྱིས་</span> or <span lang="bo">གིས་</span> after the respective <span class="pageNum" id="pb22">[<a href="#pb22">22</a>]</span>consonants as specified above; after vowels simply <span lang="bo">ས་</span> is added, or, in verse, sometimes <span lang="bo">ཡིས་</span><span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span> -</p> -<p id="s15n"><i>Note.</i> The instrumental is, in modern pronunciation, except in Northern Ladak, scarcely -discernible from the genitive, and there are but few if any, even among lamas, who -are not liable to confound both cases in writing. -</p> -<p>In the language of common life, <span class="ex">in WT</span>, the different forms of the particle of the genitive and instrumental, after consonants, -<span lang="bo">ཀྱི་ གྱི་</span> etc. are never heard, but everywhere the final consonant is doubled and the vowel -<i lang="bo-latn">i</i> added to it, thus: <span lang="bo">ལུས་</span>, G. <i lang="bo-latn">lus-si</i> (Ld.), <i lang="bo-latn">lṳ̄-i</i>; <span lang="bo">ལམ་</span><span class="corr" id="xd31e6523" title="Not in source">,</span> G. <i lang="bo-latn">lam-mi</i>; <span lang="bo">གསེར་</span> (gold), G. <i lang="bo-latn">ser-ri</i> etc; or, in other words, all nouns ending in consonants are formed like those ending -with <span lang="bo">ག་</span> (see the example <span lang="bo">མིག་</span>). In those ending with a vowel no irregularity takes place. -</p> -<p><span>4.</span> The Dative adds indiscriminately the postposition <span lang="bo">ལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">la</i>, denoting the relation of space in the widest sense, expressed by the English prepositions -<i>in</i>, <i>into</i>, <i>at</i>, <i>on</i>, <i>to</i>. <span id="s15.5">5.</span> The Locative is formed by the postposition <span lang="bo">ན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">na</i> ‘in’. <span>6.</span> The Ablative by <span lang="bo">ནས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">nā̤</i> or <span lang="bo">ལས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lā̤</i> ‘<i>from</i>’ (the latter especially with the meaning: <i>from among</i>), all three likewise without any discriminating regard to the ending of the noun. -<span>7.</span> The Terminative is expressed by the postpositions <span lang="bo">རུ་</span> or <span lang="bo">ར་</span> after vowels; <span lang="bo">ཏུ་</span> after final <span lang="bo">ག་</span> and <span lang="bo">བ་</span> and, in certain words, <span lang="bo">ད་ ར་ ལ་</span>; <span lang="bo">སུ་</span> after <span lang="bo">ས་</span>; <span lang="bo">དུ་</span> generally after <span lang="bo">ན་ ར་ ལ་</span> and the other final consonants. All these <span class="pageNum" id="pb23">[<a href="#pb23">23</a>]</span>postpositions denote the <span class="corr" id="xd31e6629" title="Corrected by author from: movement">motion</span> <i>to</i> or <i>into</i>. <span>8.</span> The Vocative is not different from the Nominative (as stated above), if not distinguished -by the interjection <span lang="bo">ཀྱེ་</span> <i>oh!</i>, and can only be known from the context. -</p> -<p><b>Examples of declension.</b> As example of the declension of <span class="corr" id="xd31e6648" title="Source: consonontal">consonantal</span> nouns we may take 1. for those in <i lang="bo-latn">s</i> (respectively <i lang="bo-latn">d</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">b</i>), <span lang="bo">ལུས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">lṳ̄</i>, ‘body’; 2. for those in <i lang="bo-latn">m</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">n</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">r</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">l</i>), <span lang="bo">ལམ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lam</i> ‘way’; 3. for those in <i lang="bo-latn">g</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">ṅ</i>), <span lang="bo">མིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">mig</i> ‘eye’,—of that of vocalic nouns: 4. <span lang="bo">ཁ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa</i> or <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-wa</i> ‘snow’. -</p> -<p>Singular. -</p> -<p></p> -<div class="table"> -<table> -<thead> -<tr class="label"> -<td class="cellHeadLeft cellHeadTop"> </td> -<td class="cellHeadTop">1. </td> -<td class="cellHeadRight cellHeadTop">2. -</td> -</tr> -</thead> -<tbody> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft cellBottom">N. Acc. </td> -<td class="cellBottom"><span lang="bo">ལུས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus</i>, <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="corr" id="xd31e6732" title="Source: lū">lṳ̄</span></i> </td> -<td class="cellRight cellBottom"><span lang="bo">ལམ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lam</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Gen. </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus-kyi</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">lṳ̄-kyi</i>; <i lang="bo-latn">lus-si</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">lṳ̄i</i> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ལམ་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lam-gyi</i>; <i lang="bo-latn">lam-mi</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Inst. </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus-kyis</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">lṳ̄-kyī</i>; <i lang="bo-latn">lus-sī</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">lṳ̄ī</i> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ལམ་<wbr></wbr>གྱིས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lam-gyis</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">-gyī</i>; <i lang="bo-latn">lam-mī</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Dat. </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus-la</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">lṳ̄-la</i> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ལམ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lam-la</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Loc. </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus-na</i> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ལམ་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lam-na</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Abl. </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus-nā̤</i> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ལམ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lam-nā̤</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Term. </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>སུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus-su</i> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ལམ་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lam-du</i> -</td> -</tr> -<tr class="label"> -<td class="cellHeadLeft cellHeadBottom"> </td> -<td class="cellHeadBottom">3. </td> -<td class="cellHeadRight cellHeadBottom">4. -</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">N. Acc. </td> -<td><span lang="bo">མིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">mig</i> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ཁ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa</i>; <span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-wa</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Gen. </td> -<td><span lang="bo">མིག་<wbr></wbr>གི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">mig-gi</i> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ཁའི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽai</i>; <span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>བའི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-wai</i> <span class="pageNum" id="pb24">[<a href="#pb24">24</a>]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Inst. </td> -<td><span lang="bo">མིག་<wbr></wbr>གིས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">mig-gis</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">-gī</i> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ཁས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽā̤</i>; <span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>བས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-wā̤</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Dat. </td> -<td><span lang="bo">མིག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">mig-la</i> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-la</i>; <span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-wa-la</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Loc. </td> -<td><span lang="bo">མིག་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">mig-na</i> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-na</i>; <span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-wa-na</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Abl. </td> -<td><span lang="bo">མིག་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">mig-nā̤</i> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-nā̤</i>; <span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-wa-nā̤</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft cellBottom">Term. </td> -<td class="cellBottom"><span lang="bo">མིག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">mig-tu</i> </td> -<td class="cellRight cellBottom"><span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>རུ་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཁར་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-ru</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">kʽar</i>; <span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>རུ་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>བར་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-wa-ru</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-war</i>. </td> -</tr> -</tbody> -</table> -</div><p> -</p> -<p>Plural. -</p> -<p>As the plural signs are simply added to the nouns, without affecting their form, we -here only give examples of declension with the two most frequent plural particles. -As example for <span lang="bo">དག་</span> the plural of the pron. <span lang="bo">དེ་</span> ‘that’ has been chosen. -</p> -<p></p> -<div class="table"> -<table> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft cellTop">N. Acc. </td> -<td class="cellTop"><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>རྣམས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus(lṳ̄-)-nam(s)</i> </td> -<td class="cellRight cellTop"><span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">de-dag</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Gen. </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>རྣམས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus-nam(s)-kyi</i> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>གི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">de-dag-gi</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Inst. </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>རྣམས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus-nam(s)-kyis</i> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>གིས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">de-dag-gis</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Dat. </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>རྣམས་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus-nam(s)-la</i> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">de-dag-la</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Loc. </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>རྣམས་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus-nam(s)-na</i> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">de-dag-na</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Abl. </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>རྣམས་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus-nam(s)-nā̤</i> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">de-dag-nā̤</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft cellBottom">Term. </td> -<td class="cellBottom"><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>རྣམས་<wbr></wbr>སུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus-nam(s)-su</i> </td> -<td class="cellRight cellBottom"><span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">de-dag-tu</i> </td> -</tr> -</table> -</div><p> -<span class="pageNum" id="pb25">[<a href="#pb25">25</a>]</span> </p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch2.3" class="div1 errata"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e662">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">Chapter III.</h2> -<h2 class="main">The Adjective.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p id="s16" class="first"><b>16.</b> In the Tibetan language the Adjective is not formally distinguished from the Substantive, -so that many nouns may be used one or the other way just as circumstances require.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e7203src" href="#xd31e7203">1</a> The declension, likewise, follows the same rules as that of substantives<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span> Only two remarks may be added here. <span>1.</span> The particles <span lang="bo">པ་ མ་ པོ་ མོ་</span> are not very strictly used for distinguishing the gender, since even in the case -of human beings <span lang="bo">པ་</span> and <span lang="bo">པོ་</span> are not seldom found connected with feminines, e.g.: <span lang="bo">བུ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་<wbr></wbr>མཛེས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> just as well as <span lang="bo">བུ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་<wbr></wbr>མཛེས་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> ‘a fine girl’. <span>2<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span></span> The Adjective stands <span class="ex">after</span> the Substantive to which it belongs: thus, <span lang="bo">རི་<wbr></wbr>མཐོན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ri-tʽón-po</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">ri-tʽo̤n-po</i>, ‘the high hill’, when, of course, the case-signs <span class="pageNum" id="pb26">[<a href="#pb26">26</a>]</span>are joined to the Adjective: <span lang="bo">རི་<wbr></wbr>མཐོན་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་</span> ‘of the high hill’, <span lang="bo">རི་<wbr></wbr>མཐོན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>རྣམས་</span> ‘the high hills’ etc. -</p> -<p>Or the Adjective may be put in the Gen. <span class="ex">before</span> the Substantive: <span lang="bo">མཐོན་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>རི་</span>, and then the latter only is declined: <span lang="bo">མཐོན་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>རིའི་</span>, <span lang="bo">མཐོན་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>རི་<wbr></wbr>རྣམས་</span>. In the vulgar speech both of C and WT the adjective sometimes preserves, even in -this position, its simple form (Nominative). A third way of expression, when both -are joined together, without any article, as <span lang="bo">སྐམ་<wbr></wbr>ས་</span> instead of <span lang="bo">ས་<wbr></wbr>སྐམ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> <span class="corr" id="xd31e7320" title="Not in source">‘</span><span class="ex">the dry land</span><span class="corr" id="xd31e7323" title="Not in source">’</span>, is rather a compound substantive, with the same difference of meaning as ‘highland’ -and ‘a high land’ in English. -</p> -<p id="s17"><b>17. Comparison.</b> <span id="s17.1">1.</span> Special <span class="corr" id="xd31e7332" title="Corrected by author from: endings">terminations</span>, expressive of the different degrees of comparison, as in the Aryan languages, do -not exist in Tibetan. There are two particles, however, corresponding to the English -<i>than</i>: <span lang="bo">བས་</span>, after the final consonants <span lang="bo">ང་ ར་ ལ་</span> and after vowels (<span lang="bo">པས་</span>, after <span lang="bo">ག་ ད་ ན་ བ་ མ་ ས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e7349src" href="#xd31e7349">2</a>), and <span lang="bo">ལས་</span>; these particles follow the word with which another is compared (like the Hind. <span lang="ur" class="aran">سے</span>) and this then <span class="corr" id="xd31e7361" title="Corrected by author from: preceeds">precedes</span> the compared one, finally follows the adjective in the positive: <span lang="bo">རྟ་<wbr></wbr>བས་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ལས་</span>) <span lang="bo">ཁྱི་<wbr></wbr>ཆུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> ‘horse—than dog small is’, just as in Hindūstāni: <span lang="ur" class="aran">گھوڑى <span class="corr" id="xd31e7376" title="Source: سى">سے</span> كتّا چھوٹا ھَى</span>. But also the position usual in <span class="pageNum" id="pb27">[<a href="#pb27">27</a>]</span>our European languages occurs, thus: <span lang="bo">རབ་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>འབྱུང་<wbr></wbr>བའི་<wbr></wbr>བསོད་<wbr></wbr>ནམས་<wbr></wbr>རི་<wbr></wbr>རབ་<wbr></wbr>ལྷུན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>བས་<wbr></wbr>འཕངས་<wbr></wbr>མཐོའོ་</span> ‘the merit of becoming a priest is relatively higher <span class="corr" id="xd31e7387" title="Corrected by author from: that">than</span> mount Meru’; <span lang="bo">བོད་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>གཞན་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>ཆེ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>ནོ་</span> ‘the king of Tibet is greater than the other ones’. The particle <span lang="bo">བས་</span> (<span lang="bo">པས་</span>) may be put, in the same manner, after adverbs. Thus, <span lang="bo">སྔར་<wbr></wbr>བས་<wbr></wbr>གསལ་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>གྱུར་<wbr></wbr>ཏོ་</span> ‘(their eyes) became more keen-sighted than before’. Or, after infinitives, <span lang="bo">གཞན་<wbr></wbr>སོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>བས་<wbr></wbr>ནུ་<wbr></wbr>བོས་<wbr></wbr>སོང་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>ཕན་</span> ‘it is better (for him) that his younger brother should go (with him) than another’. -<span lang="bo">ལས་</span> for itself has the meaning of ‘more than’, with the negative: ‘not more than’, ‘only’; -thus: <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>སྲང་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>ནི་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>དགོས་</span> ‘more than two ounces I do not want’ (cf. vulg. WT: <span lang="bo">གསུམ་<wbr></wbr>མན་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>མེད་</span> ‘there are not more than (only) three’); or ‘nothing but’, ‘only’, <span lang="bo">རི་<wbr></wbr>དྭགས་<wbr></wbr>ཤོར་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>དགའ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>མེད་</span> ‘there is no pleasure (for us) but hunting, h. is our only pl<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>’. -</p> -<p>2. An Adverb which augments the notion of the adjective itself, is <span lang="bo">ལྷག་<wbr></wbr>པར་</span> ‘more’; this can be added ad libitum: <span lang="bo">རྟ་<wbr></wbr>བས་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱི་<wbr></wbr>ལྷག་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>ཆུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span>. -</p> -<p><span>3.</span> Another adverb, <span lang="bo">ཇེ་</span> means: ‘more and more’, ‘gradually more’, e.g. <span lang="bo">ཇེ་<wbr></wbr>ཉེ་<wbr></wbr>ཇེ་<wbr></wbr>ཉེ་<wbr></wbr>སོང་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་</span> ‘going nearer and nearer’. <span>4.</span> ‘The elder—the younger’ e.g. of two brothers, is <span class="pageNum" id="pb28">[<a href="#pb28">28</a>]</span>simply expressed by: ‘the great—the little’. <span>5.</span> The Superlative is paraphrased by the same means: <span lang="bo">ཀུན་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>ཆེན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> or <span lang="bo">ཐམས་<wbr></wbr>ཅད་<wbr></wbr>པས་<wbr></wbr>ཆེན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> ‘greater than all’. Or it is expressed in the following manner: <span lang="bo">ཡུལ་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>ནང་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>གང་<wbr></wbr>ཆེ་</span> ‘of (among) the kings of the country which one is the greatest (prop. great)?’. Adverbs -for expressing high degrees are: <span lang="bo">ཤིན་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span> or <span lang="bo">རབ་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span> ‘very’, <span lang="bo">ཀུན་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span> ‘all’, <span lang="bo">ཡོངས་<wbr></wbr>སུ་</span> ‘quite’, <span lang="bo">མཆོག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span> ‘exceedingly’ etc. -</p> -<p><i>Note.</i> The colloquial language of WT uses <span lang="bo">སང་</span> instead of <span lang="bo">བས་</span> or <span lang="bo">ལས་</span>, and <span lang="bo">མཱ་</span> (<i lang="bo-latn">mā</i>, always with a strong emphasis, perhaps a mutilated form of <span lang="bo">མངས་</span> ‘much’) or <span lang="bo">མང་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> instead of <span lang="bo">ཤིན་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span>, whereas that of CT employs <span lang="bo">ལས་</span> in the former case, but repeats the adjective in the latter, so that ‘very large’ -is expressed in books by <span lang="bo">ཤིན་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>ཆེན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span>, in speaking, in WT by <i lang="bo-latn">mā́ c̀ʽén-po</i>, in CT by <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽem-po c̀ʽem-po</i>. -</p> -</div> -<div class="footnotes"> -<hr class="fnsep"> -<div class="footnote-body"> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e7203"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e7203src">1</a></span> But the vulgar language has a predilection for certain forms of Adjectives <span>1.</span> those with the gerundial particle <span lang="bo">ཏེ་</span>, as: <span lang="bo">ཚན་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span> for the more classical <span lang="bo">ཚན་</span> ‘warm’; these seem to be particularly in use in <span class="corr" id="xd31e7217" title="Source: Tsan">Tsaṅ</span>: <span lang="bo">མཛའ་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་</span> ‘friendly’, less so in Ü. <span>2.</span> compound adjectives either by simple reiteration of the root: <span lang="bo">རིལ་<wbr></wbr>རིལ་</span> for <span lang="bo">རིལ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> ‘round’, or changing the vowel at the same time: <span lang="bo">ཁྲག་<wbr></wbr>ཁྲུག་</span> ‘complicate’, <span lang="bo">གཙང་<wbr></wbr>གཙོང་</span> <span class="corr" id="xd31e7240" title="Not in source">‘</span>awry<span class="corr" id="xd31e7242" title="Not in source">’</span> etc<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span> Often they are quadrisyllables after this form: <span lang="bo">མལ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>མུལ་<wbr></wbr>ལེ་</span> ‘lukewarm’, <span lang="bo">ཆག་<wbr></wbr>ག་<wbr></wbr>ཆོག་<wbr></wbr>གེ་</span> ‘medley’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e7203src" title="Return to note 1 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e7349"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e7349src">2</a></span> Some Mscr. and wood-prints, however, prefer, even after these consonants, the form -<span lang="bo">བས་</span>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e7349src" title="Return to note 2 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -</div> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch2.4" class="div1 errata"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e691">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">Chapter IV.</h2> -<h2 class="main">The Numerals.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p id="s18" class="first"><b>18. Cardinals:</b> -</p> -<p></p> -<div class="table"> -<table> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft cellTop"> 1 </td> -<td class="cellTop"><span lang="bo">༡</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight cellTop"><span lang="bo">གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ig</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 2 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༢</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">གཉིས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñi(s)</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 3 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༣</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">གསུམ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">sum</i> <span class="pageNum" id="pb29">[<a href="#pb29">29</a>]</span> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 4 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༤</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཞི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">z̀i</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 5 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༥</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ལྔ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅa</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 6 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༦</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">དྲུག་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">ḍug</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">ḍhug</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 7 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༧</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བདུན་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">dun</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">dhṳn</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 8 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༨</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བརྒྱད་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">gyad</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">gyäʼ</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 9 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༩</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">དགུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gu</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 10 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༡༠</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཅུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀u</i>, or <span lang="bo">བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>ཐམ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀u-tʽam-pa</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 11 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༡༡</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀u-c̀ig</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 12 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༡༢</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀u-ñí</i>, vulg: <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ug-ñí(s)</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 13 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༡༣</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>གསུམ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀u-súm</i>, vulg: <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ug-súm</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 14 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༡༤</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>བཞི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀u-z̀í</i>, vulg: <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ub-z̀í</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 15 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༡༥</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཅོ་<wbr></wbr>ལྔ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀o-ṅá</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 16 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༡༦</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>དྲུག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀u-ḍúg</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">-ḍhúg</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 17 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༡༧</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>བདུན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀u-dún</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">-dṳ́n</i>, vulg: <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ub-d°</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 18 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༡༨</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཅོ་<wbr></wbr>བརྒྱད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀o-gyád</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">-gyäʼ</i>, vulg: <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ob-g°</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 19 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༡༩</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>དགུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀u-gú</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 20 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༢༠</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ཉི་<wbr></wbr>ཤུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñi-s̀u</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 21 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༢༡</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ཉི་<wbr></wbr>ཤུ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñi-s̀u-sa-c̀íg</i>, or <span lang="bo">ཉེར་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñer-c̀íg</i> <span class="pageNum" id="pb30">[<a href="#pb30">30</a>]</span> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 30 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༣༠</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">སུམ་<wbr></wbr>ཅུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">súm-c̀u</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 31 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༣༡</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">སུམ་<wbr></wbr>ཅུ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">sum-c̀u-sa-c̀íg</i>, <span lang="bo">སོ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">so-c̀ig</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 40 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༤༠</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཞི་<wbr></wbr>བཅུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">z̀i-c̀u</i>, vulg: <i lang="bo-latn">z̀ib-c̀u</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 41 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༤༡</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཞི་<wbr></wbr>བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">z̀i-c̀u-sa-c̀íg</i>, <span lang="bo">ཞེ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">z̀e-c̀íg</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 50 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༥༠</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ལྔ་<wbr></wbr>བཅུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅa-c̀u</i>, vulg: <i lang="bo-latn">ṅab-c̀u</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 51 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༥༡</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ལྔ་<wbr></wbr>བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅa-c̀u-sa-c̀íg</i>, <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅa-c̀ig</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 60 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༦༠</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">དྲུག་<wbr></wbr>ཅུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ḍug-c̀u</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">ḍhug-c̀u</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 61 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༦༡</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">དྲུག་<wbr></wbr>ཅུ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ḍug-c̀u-sa-c̀íg</i>, <span lang="bo">རེ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">re-c̀íg</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 70 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༧༠</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བདུན་<wbr></wbr>ཅུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">dun-c̀u</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">dṳn-c̀u</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 71 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༧༡</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བདུན་<wbr></wbr>ཅུ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">dun-c̀u-sa-c̀íg</i>, <span lang="bo">དོན་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">don-c̀íg</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 80 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༨༠</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བརྒྱད་<wbr></wbr>ཅུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gyád-c̀u</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">gyäʼ-c̀u</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 81 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༨༡</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བརྒྱད་<wbr></wbr>ཅུ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gyad-c̀u-sa-c̀íg</i>, <span lang="bo">གྱ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gya-c̀íg</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 90 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༩༠</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">དགུ་<wbr></wbr>བཅུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gú-c̀u</i>, vulg: <i lang="bo-latn">gúb-c̀u</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 91 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༩༡</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">དགུ་<wbr></wbr>བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gu-c̀u-sa-c̀ig</i>, <span lang="bo">གོ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="corr" id="xd31e8126" title="Source: go c̀íg">go-c̀íg</span></i> (C: <i lang="bo-latn">gʽo-c̀íg</i>) </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 100 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༡༠༠</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བརྒྱ་(ཐམ་<wbr></wbr>པ་)</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gya (tʽám-pa)</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 101 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༡༠༡</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བརྒྱ་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> or <span lang="bo">བརྒྱ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gya daṅ</i> (or <i lang="bo-latn">sa</i>) <i lang="bo-latn">c̀íg</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 200 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༢༠༠</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ཉི་<wbr></wbr>བརྒྱ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñi-gya</i>, vulg: <i lang="bo-latn">ñib-gya</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 300 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༣༠༠</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">སུམ་<wbr></wbr>བརྒྱ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">sum-gya</i> <span class="pageNum" id="pb31">[<a href="#pb31">31</a>]</span> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 400 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༤༠༠</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཞི་<wbr></wbr>བརྒྱ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">z̀i-gya</i>, vulg: <i lang="bo-latn">z̀ib-gya</i> etc. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 1000 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༡༠༠༠</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">སྟོང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">(s)toṅ</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 10 000 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༡༠ ༠༠༠</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ཁྲི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṭʽi</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 100 000 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༡༠༠ ༠༠༠</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">འབུམ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">bum</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft"> 1 000 000 </td> -<td><span lang="bo">༡ ༠༠༠ ༠༠༠</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">ས་<wbr></wbr>ཡ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">sa-ya</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="xd31e1117 cellLeft cellBottom">10 000 000 </td> -<td class="cellBottom"><span lang="bo">༡༠ ༠༠༠ ༠༠༠</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight cellBottom"><span lang="bo">བྱེ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">j̀e-wa</i> </td> -</tr> -</table> -</div><p> -</p> -<p>There are, as in Sanscrit, names for many more powers of 10, but they are seldom used. -</p> -<p id="s19"><b>19. Ordinals.</b> <span lang="bo">དང་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> W: <i lang="bo-latn">daṅ-po</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">dʽ°</i> ‘the first’, the rest are simply formed by adding <span lang="bo">པ་</span> to the cardinals, as: <span lang="bo">གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, <span class="corr" id="xd31e8312" title="Not in source">‘</span>the second<span class="corr" id="xd31e8314" title="Not in source">’</span> etc.; the <span class="corr" id="xd31e8316" title="Source: 21.">21st</span> is <span lang="bo">ཉི་<wbr></wbr>ཤུ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘the twenty-oneth’, not, as in English, ‘the twenty first’. -</p> -<p id="s20"><b>20. Remarks.</b> <span>1.</span> The smaller number postponed indicates, as is seen in § <a href="#s18">18</a>, addition, the reverse—multiplication: <span lang="bo">བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>གསུམ་</span> 13, <span lang="bo">སུམ་<wbr></wbr>ཅུ་</span> 30; but in the latter case the three first numerals are changed to <span lang="bo">ཆིག་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཉི་</span>, <span lang="bo">སུམ་</span>; and <span lang="bo">བཅུ་</span>, as the second part of a compound after consonants, is spelled <span lang="bo">ཅུ་</span>. <span>2.</span> The words <span lang="bo">ཐམ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> (after full tens up to one hundred), <span lang="bo">ཕྲག་</span> (after hundreds and thousands<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e8364src" href="#xd31e8364">1</a>), <span class="pageNum" id="pb32">[<a href="#pb32">32</a>]</span><span lang="bo">ཚོ་</span> (with still greater numbers), are optional but frequent additions. <span lang="bo">རྩ་</span> is common instead of <span lang="bo">དང་</span> ‘and’, to connect units with tens (s. § <a href="#s18">18</a>), but it occurs also with hundreds and thousands, and not seldom together with <span lang="bo">དང་</span>, e.g. <span lang="bo">སྟོང་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་</span>, 1002. It is used also instead of <span lang="bo">ཐམ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, as: <span lang="bo">བཅུ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་</span> ten, <span lang="bo">ཉི་<wbr></wbr>ཤུ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་</span> twenty; often it is standing alone for <span lang="bo">ཉི་<wbr></wbr>ཤུ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་</span>, as <span lang="bo">རྩ་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་</span>, twenty two. This latter custom may have caused the belief, common even among educated -readers in C and WT, that <span lang="bo">རྩ་</span> must mean <span class="ex">twenty</span>, even when connecting a hundred or thousand to a unit, as they will usually understand -the above mentioned number in the sense of 1022 instead of 1002; but the authority -of printed books, wherever the exact number can be verified from other circumstances, -does not confirm this, which would indeed be a sadly ambiguous phraseology. <span id="s20.3">3.</span> <span lang="bo">ཀ་</span> added to a cardinal number means conjunction: <span lang="bo">གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>ཀ་</span>, the two together, both; <span lang="bo">གསུམ་<wbr></wbr>ཀ་</span>, the three together, all three etc. <span lang="bo">པོ་</span> means either the same, or represents the definite article, indicating that the number -has been already mentioned, e.g. <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>ལྔ༌༌༌༌ བཏང་<wbr></wbr>ངོ༌། །མི་<wbr></wbr>ལྔ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>བསླེབ་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ༌༌༌༌</span>, five men were sent.… The five men arriving etc. <span>4.</span> <span lang="bo">པ་</span> is used, besides <span class="pageNum" id="pb33">[<a href="#pb33">33</a>]</span>forming Ordinals, to express the notion of ‘containing’, e.g. <span lang="bo">ཡི་<wbr></wbr>གེ་<wbr></wbr>དྲུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘that containing six letters’, viz. the famous formula: <span lang="bo">ཨོཾ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཎི་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དྨེ་<wbr></wbr>ཧཱུཾ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">om maṇi padme hum</i>; <span lang="bo">སུམ་<wbr></wbr>ཅུ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span><span id="xd31e8463"></span> ‘that containing thirty (letters)’, the Tibetan alphabet. <span id="s20.5">5.</span> Such combinations as <span lang="bo">གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>གསུམ་</span> etc. are frequently used in common life, <span class="corr" id="xd31e8472" title="Corrected by author from: so">to</span> denote a number approximately, ‘two or three or so’ (cf. § <a href="#s14n">14 Note</a>). -</p> -<p id="s21"><b>21. Distributive numerals.</b> They are expressed by repetition as in Hind<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>: <span lang="bo">དྲུག་<wbr></wbr>དྲུག་</span> each time six, six for each etc. In composed numerals only the last member is repeated, -thus <span lang="bo">སུམ་<wbr></wbr>ཅུ་<wbr></wbr>རྩ་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་</span> each time thirty two. -</p> -<p id="s22"><b>22. Adverbial numerals.</b> <span>1.</span> Firstly, secondly etc. are formed from the ordinals as every Adverb is from an Adjective, -viz. by adding the letter <span lang="bo">ར་</span>, <span lang="bo">དང་<wbr></wbr>པོར་</span>, <span lang="bo">གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>པར་</span> etc. (s. § <a href="#s41">41</a>). <span>2.</span> Multiplicative adverbs, ‘once’, ‘twice’ etc<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>, are expressed by putting <span lang="bo">ལན་</span> ‘times’ before the cardinal: <span lang="bo">ལན་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span>, <span lang="bo">ལན་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་</span>, W: <i lang="bo-latn">lan-c̀ig</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">lan-ñi(s)</i>, C: <i lang="bo-latn">län-c̀ig</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">län-ñī</i> ‘once, twice’ etc.: seldom <span lang="bo">ཚེར་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཚར་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཐེངས་</span> with the same meaning as <span lang="bo">ལན་</span>. -</p> -<p id="s23"><b>23. Fractional numerals</b> are formed by adding <span lang="bo">ཆ་</span> ‘part’: thus, <span lang="bo">བརྒྱའི་<wbr></wbr>ཆ་</span> ‘a hundredth part’ etc., but also: <span lang="bo">བང་<wbr></wbr>མཛོད་<wbr></wbr>གསུམ་<wbr></wbr>ཆ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་</span> ‘one third of the treasury’. -<span class="pageNum" id="pb34">[<a href="#pb34">34</a>]</span> </p> -</div> -<div class="footnotes"> -<hr class="fnsep"> -<div class="footnote-body"> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e8364"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e8364src">1</a></span> <span lang="bo">ཕྲག་</span> is used especially if the number counting the hundreds, <span class="pageNum" id="pb32n">[<a href="#pb32n">32</a>]</span>thousands etc. follows: thus, <span class="corr" id="xd31e8370" title="Source: སྟོང་ཕྲག་ཉི་ཤུ"><span lang="bo">སྟོང་<wbr></wbr>ཕྲག་<wbr></wbr>ཉི་<wbr></wbr>ཤུ་</span></span> ‘of thousands: twenty, 20 000’; <span lang="bo">ཁྲི་<wbr></wbr>ཕྲག་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> ‘many ten-thousands’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e8364src" title="Return to note 1 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -</div> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch2.5" class="div1 errata"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e761">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">Chapter V.</h2> -<h2 class="main">Pronouns.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p id="s24" class="first"><b>24. Personal Pronouns.</b> First person: <span lang="bo">ང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅa</i>; <span lang="bo">ངེད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅed</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">ṅĕʼ</i>; <span lang="bo">ངོས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅos</i> (Ld<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>); <span lang="bo">ཁོ་<wbr></wbr>བོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽo-wo</i>, masc., and <span lang="bo">ཁོ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽo-mo</i>, fem.; <span lang="bo">བདག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">dag</i> ‘self’—‘I’; Second person: <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽyod</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">kʽyöʼ</i>), <span lang="bo">ཁྱེད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽyed</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">kʽyĕʼ</i>) ‘thou, you’; Third person: <span lang="bo">ཁོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽo</i>, <span lang="bo">ཁོང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽoṅ</i>—‘he, she, it’. -</p> -<p>The plural is formed by adding <span lang="bo">ཅག་</span>, <span lang="bo">རྣམས་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཅག་<wbr></wbr>རྣམས་</span> or <span lang="bo">ཚོ་</span>, but very often, if circumstances show the meaning with sufficient certainty, the -sign of the plural is altogether omitted. The declension is the same as that of the -substantives. -</p> -<p id="s24r"><span class="ex">Remarks</span>: <span lang="bo">ང་</span> is the most common and can be used by every body; <span lang="bo">ངེད་</span> seems to be preferred in elegant speech (s. <a href="#s24n">Note</a>); <span lang="bo">ངོས་</span> is very common in modern <span class="corr" id="xd31e8678" title="Corrected by author from: letter writing">letter-writing</span>, at least in WT; <span lang="bo">བདག་</span> ‘self’, when speaking to superior persons occurs very often in books, but has disappeared -from common speech, except in the province of Tsaṅ (<i lang="bo-latn">Ṭas̀ilhunpo</i>) as also the following; <span lang="bo">ཁོ་<wbr></wbr>བོ་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཁོ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span> in easy conversation with persons of equal rank, or to inferiors. -</p> -<p><span class="ex">2. person.</span> <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་</span> is used in books in addressing even <span class="ex">the highest persons</span>, but in modern conversation only among equals or to inferiors; <span lang="bo">ཁྱེད་</span> is elegant and respectful, especially in books.— -<span class="pageNum" id="pb35">[<a href="#pb35">35</a>]</span></p> -<p><span class="ex">3. person.</span> <span lang="bo">ཁོ་</span> seldom occurs in books, where the demonstr. pron. <span lang="bo">དེ་</span> (§ <a href="#s26">26</a>) is generally used instead; <span lang="bo">ཁོང་</span> is common to both the written and the spoken language, and used, at least in the -latter, as respectful. But it must be remarked that the pronoun of the third person -is in most cases entirely omitted, even when there is a change of subject.—Instead -of <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>ཅག་</span> and <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཅག་</span> the people of WT use <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>ཞ་</span> and <span lang="bo">ཁྱོ་<wbr></wbr>ཞ་</span>; the vulgar plural of <span lang="bo">ཁོ་</span> is <span lang="bo">ཁོ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>.— -</p> -<p>To each of these pronouns may be added: <span lang="bo">རང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">raṅ</i> or <span lang="bo">ཉིད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñid</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">ñĭʼ</i> ‘self’, and in conversational language <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>རང་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>རང་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཁོ་<wbr></wbr>རང་</span> are, perhaps, even more frequently used than the simple forms, without any difference -in the meaning. <span lang="bo">ཉིད་</span> is more prevalent in books, except the compound <span lang="bo">ཉིད་<wbr></wbr>རང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ñi-raṅ</i>, which is <span class="ex">in modern speech</span> the usual respectful pronoun of address, like ‘<span lang="de">Sie</span>’ in German. -</p> -<p id="s24n"><i>Note.</i> The predilection of Eastern Asiatics for a system of ceremonials in the language -is met with also in Tibetan. There is one separate class of words, which must be used -in reference to the honoured person, when spoken to as well as when spoken of. To -this class belong, besides the pronouns <span lang="bo">ཉིད་<wbr></wbr>རང་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཁྱེད་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཁོང་</span>, all the <span class="ex">respectful</span> terms by which the body or soul, or parts of the same, and all things or persons -pertaining to such a person, and <span class="pageNum" id="pb36">[<a href="#pb36">36</a>]</span>even his actions, must be called. The <span class="corr" id="xd31e8804" title="Corrected by author from: notions">terms</span>, most frequently occurring, have special expressions, as <span lang="bo">སྐུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">(s)ku</i>, instead of <span lang="bo">ལུས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lus</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">lṳ̄</i>, ‘body’; <span lang="bo">དབུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">u</i>, i.o. <span lang="bo">མགོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">go</i> ‘head’; <span lang="bo">ཐུགས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tʽug(s)</i> (Ü: <i lang="bo-latn">tʽū</i>), i.o. <span lang="bo">སེམས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">sem(s)</i> ‘soul’, or <span lang="bo">ཡིད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">yid</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">yĭʼ</i>, ‘mind’; <span lang="bo">ཡབ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">yab</i>, i.o. <span lang="bo">ཕ་</span> (vulg: <span lang="bo">ཨ་<wbr></wbr>ཕ་</span>), ‘father’; <span lang="bo">ན་<wbr></wbr>བཟའ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">na-za</i>, i.o. <span lang="bo">གོས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gos</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">gō̤</i>, ‘coat’, ‘dress’; <span lang="bo">ཆིབས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽib(s)</i>, i.o. <span lang="bo">རྟ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">(r)ta</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">sta</i> ‘horse’; <span lang="bo">བཞུགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">z̀ug(s)-pa</i> (Ü: <i lang="bo-latn">z̀ū-pa</i>), i.o. <span lang="bo">སྡོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">dod-pa</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">döʼ-pa</i> ‘to sit’; <span lang="bo">མཛད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">dzad-pa</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">dzäʼ-pa</i> i.o. <span lang="bo">བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">j̀ed-pa</i>, <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="sic">j̀hĕʼ-pa</span></i> ‘to make’ and many others. If there is no such special word, any substantive may -be rendered respectful by adding <span lang="bo">སྐུ་</span> or <span lang="bo">ཐུགས་</span> respectively (so, <span lang="bo">སྐུ་<wbr></wbr>ཚེ་</span> i.o. <span lang="bo">ཚེ་</span> ‘lifetime’; <span lang="bo">ཐུགས་<wbr></wbr>ཁྲོ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> i.o. <span lang="bo">ཁྲོ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘anger’) <span class="corr" id="xd31e8962" title="Not in source">and </span>any verb by adding <span lang="bo">མཛན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, according to <a href="#s39.1">39, 1</a>. Another class of what might be called <span class="ex">elegant</span> terms are to be used when conversing with an honoured person (or also by a high person -<span class="corr" id="xd31e8974" title="Corrected by author from: himself in his own speech">speaking of himself</span>), such as <span lang="bo">བགྱིད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gyid-pa</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">gyĭʼ-pa</i> ‘to do’; <span lang="bo">མཆིས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽī-pa</i><span id="xd31e8992"></span> ‘to be’; <span lang="bo">སླད་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lad-du</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">läʼ-du</i> i.o. <span lang="bo">ཕྱིར་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> ‘for the sake of’, <span class="ex">without</span> reference to the said person himself. Even uneducated people know, and make use of, -most of the ‘respectful’ terms, but the merely ‘elegant’ ones are, at least in WT, -seldom or never heard in conversation. -</p> -<p id="s25"><b>25. Possessive pronouns.</b> The Possessive is simply <span class="pageNum" id="pb37">[<a href="#pb37">37</a>]</span>expressed by the Genitive of the Personal, <span lang="bo">ངའི་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་</span> etc. ‘His’, ‘her’, ‘its’, when referring to the acting subject (<span lang="la">suus</span>), must be expressed by <span lang="bo">རང་<wbr></wbr>གི་</span> or <span lang="bo">ཉིད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་</span> ‘his own’; otherwise (<span lang="la">ejus</span>) by <span lang="bo">ཁོའི་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཁོང་<wbr></wbr>གི་</span>, <span lang="bo">དེའི་</span>. In C, in the latter case, <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཁོ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་</span> are used. -</p> -<p id="s26"><b>26. Reflective and Reciprocal pronouns.</b> <span>1.</span> The Reflective pronoun, ‘myself’, ‘yourself’ etc. is expressed by <span lang="bo">རང་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཉིད་</span>, also <span lang="bo">བདག་</span>. But in the case of the same person being the subject <span class="ex">and</span> object of an action, it must be paraphrased, so for ‘he precipitated himself from -the rock’ must be said ‘he precipitated his own body etc.’ <span lang="bo">རང་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>ལུས་</span>; for ‘he rebuked himself’—‘he rebuked his own soul’ <span lang="bo">རང་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>སེམས་</span><span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>—2. The reciprocal pronoun ‘each other’ or ‘one another’ is rendered by ‘one—one’, -as <span lang="bo">གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>གིས་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>བསད་</span> ‘by one one was killed’, ‘they killed one another’; <span lang="bo">གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>རེ་</span> ‘to one one said’, ‘they said to each other’. -</p> -<p id="s27"><b>27. Demonstrative pronouns.</b> <span id="s27.1">1.</span> <span lang="bo">འདི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">di</i>, ‘this’; <span lang="bo">དེ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">de</i>, <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="sic">dhe</span></i> ‘that’ are those most frequently used, both in books and speaking. The Plural is -generally formed by <span lang="bo">དག་</span>, but also by <span lang="bo">རྣམས་</span> and <span lang="bo">ཚོ་</span>. More emphatical are <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>ཀ་</span>, <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>ག་</span>, <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>ཀོ་</span>, <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>གོ་</span>, ‘just this’, ‘this same’; <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>ཀ་</span> etc. ‘that same’.—The vulgar dialect also uses <span lang="bo">ཧ་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">hắ-gyi</i> <span class="pageNum" id="pb38">[<a href="#pb38">38</a>]</span>and <span lang="bo">ཕ་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">pʽắ-gyi</i> for ‘that’, ‘yonder’, and, in WT, <span lang="bo">ཨི་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཨི་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> for ‘this’ and <span lang="bo">ཨ་</span> for ‘that’; <span lang="bo">ཕ་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་</span> occurs even in books.—<span id="s27.2">2.</span> It is worth remarking that the distinction of the nearer and remoter relation is, -even in common language, scrupulously observed. If reference is made to an object -already mentioned, <span lang="bo">དེ་</span> is used; if to something following, <span lang="bo">འདི་</span>; e.g. <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>སྐད་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span> ‘that speech he said’, ‘thus he said’; <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>སྐད་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘this speech he said’, ‘he said thus, spoke the following words’. -</p> -<p id="s28"><b>28. Interrogative pronouns.</b> They are <span lang="bo">སུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">su</i> ‘who?’; <span lang="bo">གང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gaṅ</i>, <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="corr" id="xd31e9195" title="Corrected by author from: gh.">ghaṅ</span></i> ‘which?’; <span lang="bo">ཅི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀i</i> ‘what?’; to these the indefinite article <span lang="bo">ཞིག་</span> is often added, <span lang="bo">སུ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་</span> etc. The two former can also assume the plural termination <span lang="bo">དག་</span>, <span lang="bo">སུ་<wbr></wbr>དག</span>, <span lang="bo">གང་<wbr></wbr>དག་</span>.—In CT <span lang="bo">གང་</span> is frequently used instead of <span lang="bo">ཅི་</span><span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span> -</p> -<p id="s29"><b>29. Relative pronouns.</b> These are almost entirely wanting in the Tibetan language, and our subordinate relative -clauses must be expressed by Participles <span class="corr" id="xd31e9232" title="Source: und">and</span> Gerunds, or a new independent sentence must be begun. The participle, in such a case, -is treated quite as an adjective, being put either in the Genitive before the substantive, -or, in the Nominative, after: <span lang="bo">འགྲོ་<wbr></wbr>བའི་<wbr></wbr>ཚོང་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>རྣམས་</span> ‘the merchants who would go (with him)’; <span lang="bo">ཉག་<wbr></wbr>ཐག་<wbr></wbr>གཡུ་<wbr></wbr>བརྒུས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘the cord on which turquoises are strung’; <span lang="bo">འཁྱོས་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>མང་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་</span> <span class="pageNum" id="pb39">[<a href="#pb39">39</a>]</span>‘one who gets (unto whom come) many presents’. Cf. also <a href="#s33">33</a>. Only those indefinite sentences which in English are introduced by ‘he who’, ‘who -ever’, ‘that which’, ‘what’ etc. can be adequately expressed in Tibetan, by using -the interrogative pronouns with the participle (seldom the naked root) of the verb, -or adding <span lang="bo">ན་</span> (‘if—’ v. <a href="#s41.a.4">41, A. 4.</a>) to the latter. Instead of <span lang="bo">ཅི་</span> in this case <span lang="bo">ཇི་</span> is written more correctly. Thus: <span lang="bo">སུ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>དམ་<wbr></wbr>པའི་<wbr></wbr>ཆོས་<wbr></wbr>མཆིས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>སྟོན་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>གྱུར་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> ‘if anybody who possesses the good faith teach it me’; <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>སུ་<wbr></wbr>འགྲོ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱང་<wbr></wbr>འགྲོགས་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span> ‘when those of you who wish to go are assembled’; <span lang="bo">ནོར་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>རིན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>ཆེ་<wbr></wbr>འདི་<wbr></wbr>ཇི་<wbr></wbr>འདོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཐམས་<wbr></wbr>ཅད་<wbr></wbr>ཆར་<wbr></wbr>བཞིན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>འབེབས་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span> ‘this jewel (<i>cintāmaṇi</i>) will make come down like rain whatever is wished for’; <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཅི་<wbr></wbr>ཟེར་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཇི་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>བཞིན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>བྱའོ་</span> ‘whatever you <span class="corr" id="xd31e9277" title="Corrected by author from: way">may</span> say and ask of me according to that I will act, or I will grant you whatever you -ask’. <span lang="bo">བདག་<wbr></wbr>གིས་<wbr></wbr>མཐུ་<wbr></wbr>ཇི་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་<wbr></wbr>པས་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱ་<wbr></wbr>མཚོའི་<wbr></wbr>ཆུ་<wbr></wbr>བཅུས་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span> ‘having scooped the water of the sea with what force I have’; <span lang="bo">རིན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>ཆེ་<wbr></wbr>ཇི་<wbr></wbr>ལྟ་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>རྙེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>བསྟན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>གསོལ་</span> ‘I beg you to show me what sort of jewel you have found (got)’; <span lang="bo">རྒང་<wbr></wbr>གྱེ་<wbr></wbr>རྗེས་<wbr></wbr>གང་<wbr></wbr>རིགས་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>གསེར་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>བྱེ་<wbr></wbr>མར་<wbr></wbr>གྱུར་<wbr></wbr>ཏོ་</span> ‘his footprints, in what place soever they fell (v. lex. s. v. <span lang="bo">རིགས་</span>), became gold-sand’. -<span class="pageNum" id="pb40">[<a href="#pb40">40</a>]</span></p> -<p>But the participle is treated as if no relative was preceding, thus <span lang="bo">སྔར་<wbr></wbr>ཇི་<wbr></wbr>སྐད་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཟློགས་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span> ‘he did not recede from (recall) the word he had spoken before’; vulg., WT, <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>གང་<wbr></wbr>བསྡད་<wbr></wbr>པའི་<wbr></wbr>ཁང་<wbr></wbr>མིག་</span> ‘the room where I sat’. -</p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch2.6" class="div1 errata"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e830">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">Chapter VI.</h2> -<h2 class="main">The Verb.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p id="s30" class="first"><b>30. Introductory remarks.</b> The Tibetan <span class="corr" id="xd31e9310" title="Corrected by author from: verb">verbs</span> must be regarded as denoting, not an action, or suffering, or condition of any subject, -but merely a <span class="ex">coming to pass</span>, or, in other words, they are all <span class="ex">impersonal</span> verbs, like <i lang="la">taedet</i>, <i lang="la">miseret</i> etc. in Latin, or <i>it suits</i> etc. in English. Therefore they are destitute of what is called in our own languages -the active and passive voice, as well as of the discrimination of persons, and show -nothing beyond a rather poor capability of expressing the most indispensable distinctions -of tense and mood. From the same reason the acting subject of a transitive verb must -regularly appear in the <span class="ex">Instrumental</span> case, as the case of the subject of a <span class="corr" id="xd31e9331" title="Source: neutral">neuter</span> verb,—which, in European languages, is the Nominative—, ought to be regarded, from -a Tibetan point of view, as <span class="corr" id="xd31e9334" title="Added by author">an </span>Accusative expressing the object of an impersonal verb, just as ‘poenitet me’ is translated -by ‘I repent’. But it will perhaps be easier to say: The subject of a transitive verb, -in Tibetan, assumes regularly the form of the instrumental, of a <span class="corr" id="xd31e9337" title="Corrected by author from: neutral">neuter</span> verb that of the nominative which is the same as the accusative. Thus, <span lang="bo">ངས་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>རྡུང་</span> is properly: <span class="pageNum" id="pb41">[<a href="#pb41">41</a>]</span><span lang="bo">རྡུང་</span> a beating happens, <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་</span> regarding you, <span lang="bo">ངས་</span> by me = I beat you. In common life the object has often the form of the dative, <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span>, to facilitate the comprehension. But often, in modern talk as well as in the classical -literature, the acting subject, if known as such from the context, retains its Nominative -form. Especially the verba loquendi are apt to admit this slight irregularity. -</p> -<p id="s31"><b>31. Inflection of verbs.</b> This is done in three different ways: -</p> -<p><span><i>a</i>)</span> by changing the <span class="corr" id="xd31e9366" title="Corrected by author from: shape">form</span> of the root. Such different <span class="corr" id="xd31e9369" title="Corrected by author from: shapes">forms</span> are, at most, four in number, which may be called, according to the tenses of our -own grammar to which they correspond, the Present-, Perfect-, Future-, and Imperative-roots; -e.g. of the Present-root <span lang="bo">གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to give’ the Perfect root is <span lang="bo">བཏང་</span>, the Future-root <span lang="bo">གཏང་</span>, the Imperative root <span lang="bo">ཐོང་</span>; of <span lang="bo">འཚག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to filter, bolt’ respectively: <span lang="bo">བཙགས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tsag(s)</i> (Ü: <i lang="bo-latn">tsā</i>), <span lang="bo">བཙག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tsag</i>, <span lang="bo">ཚོག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tʽsog</i>. The Present root, which implies duration, is also occasionally used for the Imperfect -(in the sense of the Latin and Greek languages) and Future tenses. It is obvious, -from the above mentioned instances, that the inflection of the root consists partly -in alterations of the prefixed letters (so, if the Perfect <span class="corr" id="xd31e9410" title="Corrected by author from: likes">prefers</span> the prefixed <span lang="bo">བ</span>, the Future will have <span lang="bo">ག</span> or retain the <span lang="bo">བ</span>), partly in adding a final <span lang="bo">ས་</span> (to the Perfect and Imperative), partly in changing the vowel (particularly in the -Imperative). But also the consonants of the root itself are changed <span class="pageNum" id="pb42">[<a href="#pb42">42</a>]</span>sometimes: so the aspirates are often converted in the <span class="corr" id="xd31e9428" title="Corrected by author from: Perfet">Perfect</span> and Future into their surds, besides other more irregular changes. Only a limited -number of verbs, however, are possessed of all the four roots, some cannot assume -more than three, some two, and a great many have only one. To make up in some measure -for this deficiency: -</p> -<p><span><i>b</i>)</span> some auxiliary verbs have been made available: for the Present tense <span lang="bo">ཡིན་</span>, <span lang="bo">འདུག་</span>, <span lang="bo">ལགས་</span> and others, all of which mean ‘to be’ (§ <a href="#s39">39</a>); for the Perfect <span lang="bo">ཚར་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཟིན་</span>, <span lang="bo">སོང་</span>; for the Future <span lang="bo">འགྱུར་</span>, <span lang="bo">འོང་</span>, and the substantive <span lang="bo">རྒྱུ་</span><span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span> -</p> -<p><span><i>c</i>)</span> By adding various monosyllabic affixes, the Infinitive, Participles, and Gerunds -are formed. These affixes as well as the auxiliary verbs are connected partly with -the root, partly with the Infinitive, resp. its terminative, partly with the Participle. -</p> -<p id="s31n"><i>Note.</i> The spoken language, at least in WT, <span class="corr" id="xd31e9476" title="Corrected by author from: acknowledges">recognises</span> even in four-rooted verbs seldom more than the Perfect root. -</p> -<p id="s32"><b>32. The Infinitive mood.</b> The syllables <span lang="bo">པ་</span> <i>pa</i> or, after the final consonants <span lang="bo">ང་ ར་ ལ་</span> and vowels, <span lang="bo">བ་</span> <i>wa</i> are added to the root, whereby it assumes all the qualities and powers of a noun. -In verbs of more roots than one, each of them can, of course, in this way be converted -into a substantive, or, in other words, each tense has its Infinitive, except the -Imperative. From one-rooted verbs the different Infinitives may be formed by the above -mentioned auxiliaries: thus, the Inf. Perf., by adding <span lang="bo">ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> to the Infinitive of <span class="pageNum" id="pb43">[<a href="#pb43">43</a>]</span>the verb in question, or <span lang="bo">ཚར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཟིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, <span lang="bo">སོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> to the root, and the Inf. Fut. by adding <span lang="bo">འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> to the Supine (terminative of the infinitive, <a href="#s41.b">41. B</a>) thus, <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <span lang="la">visurum esse, visum iri</span>. -</p> -<p id="s32n"><i>Note.</i> The spoken language uses, in WT almost exclusively, a termination pronounced <i lang="bo-latn">c̀as</i> in Turig and Balti, <i lang="bo-latn">c̀es</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">c̀e</i> in Ladak, <i lang="bo-latn">c̀e</i> in Lahoul etc., <i lang="bo-latn">j̀a</i> in Kunawar, <i lang="bo-latn">s̀e</i> in Tsaṅ etc., the etymology of which is doubtful, as it is not to be found in any -printed book. Lamas in Ladak and Lahoul spell it <span lang="bo">ཅེས་</span>. -</p> -<p id="s33"><b>33. The Participle.</b> <span id="s33.1">1.</span> This is in the written language entirely like the Infinitive <span lang="bo">ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘being’, <span lang="bo">གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘giving’, <span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘having given’.—<span>2.</span> Whether the meaning is active <span class="corr" id="xd31e9569" title="Source: and">or</span> passive, however, can only be inferred from the context, e.g. <span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>བའི་<wbr></wbr>དངུལ་</span> is of course ‘the money given’, but <span lang="bo">དངུལ་<wbr></wbr>བཏང་<wbr></wbr>བའི་<wbr></wbr>མི་</span> ‘the man having given, or, that has given, the money’; the Tibetan participle means -nothing but that the action or condition is connected in some way with a person or -thing. But it is natural that in the present participle the active <span class="corr" id="xd31e9578" title="Corrected by author from: notion">idea</span> should be the more frequent one, as well as in the preterit the passive.—<span>3.</span> In the instance of Intensive verbs (formed with <span lang="bo">བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <a href="#s38.1">38.1</a>) the usage of scientific authors has strictly connected the active sense with those -formed with <span lang="bo">བྱེད་</span>, as <span lang="bo">གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>བྱེད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">toṅ-j̀ed</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">toṅ-j̀ʽĕʼ</i>, instead of <span lang="bo">གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, <span class="corr" id="xd31e9607" title="Not in source">‘</span>doing give, giving, <span class="pageNum" id="pb44">[<a href="#pb44">44</a>]</span>giver<span class="corr" id="xd31e9611" title="Not in source">’</span>, and the passive to those with <span lang="bo">བྱ་</span>, as <span lang="bo">གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>བྱ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">toṅ j̀a</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">toṅ j̀ʽa</i> i.o. <span lang="bo">གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>བྱ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to be given’ (dandus), <span lang="bo">བྱ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>བྱ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>སྟོན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to teach the things to be done and not to be done’ (Thgy<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>).—<span>4.</span> In certain cases, especially with verbs that mean: to say, ask etc.<span class="corr" id="xd31e9637" title="Not in source">,</span> the Participle is used before the words of the speech, where we should use the Imperfect: -<span lang="bo">རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ༌༌༌</span> ‘the king said.…’ -</p> -<p><i>Note.</i> In the spoken language, of WT at least, the Participle is formed by <span lang="bo">མཁན་</span>, in the active sense as well as the passive (whereas in books this syllable occurs -only in the meaning of the performer of an action<span class="corr" id="xd31e9650" title="Not in source">,</span> s. <a href="#s12.1">12. 1</a>.): <span lang="bo">དངུལ་<wbr></wbr>བཏང་<wbr></wbr>མཁན་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>མི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅul taṅ kʽan-ni mi</i> (s. <a href="#s15n">15, Note</a>) ‘the man giving the money’, <span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>མཁན་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>དངུལ་</span> ‘the money given’. <span lang="bo">འདས་<wbr></wbr>ཞག་<wbr></wbr>གོན་<wbr></wbr>ཆས་<wbr></wbr>བཙོངས་<wbr></wbr>མཁན་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>བླ་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> ‘the lama who brought a coat for sale the other day’. <span lang="bo">བུ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་<wbr></wbr>རྗེ་<wbr></wbr>བཙུན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>སྒོ་<wbr></wbr>ཁུང་<wbr></wbr>སྟོན་<wbr></wbr>མཁན་<wbr></wbr>དེ་</span> ‘the girl who had shewn the door to his reverence’ (Mil<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>). The future participle is represented, just as in English, by the Infinitive (<a href="#s32n">32, Note</a>), so that ‘the sheep to be killed’, (in books <span lang="bo">གསོད་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>བྱ་<wbr></wbr>བའི་<wbr></wbr>ལུག་</span> or <span lang="bo">གསོད་<wbr></wbr>བྱའི་<wbr></wbr>ལུག་</span>) is expressed, in the most Western provinces, by: <i lang="bo-latn">sád c̀as-si lug</i>, Lad.: <i lang="bo-latn">sád-c̀es-si lug</i>, Lah. etc.: <i lang="bo-latn">sád c̀eï lug</i>, Tsaṅ: <i lang="bo-latn">söʼ-s̀ē-kyi lug</i> <span lang="bo">གསོད་<wbr></wbr>ཤེས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>ལུག་</span>, and, most like the classical language, in Kun.: <i lang="bo-latn">sód j̀ā̤ lug</i>. -<span class="pageNum" id="pb45">[<a href="#pb45">45</a>]</span></p> -<p id="s34"><b>34. The finite verb.</b> <span id="s34.1">1.</span> The principal verb of a sentence, which always closes it (<a href="#s48">48</a>.) receives in written Tibetan in most cases a certain mark, by which the end of a -period may be known. This is, in affirmative sentences, the vowel <i>o</i> (called by the grammarians: <span lang="bo">སླར་<wbr></wbr>སྡུ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span>), in interrogative ones the syllable <i>am</i>. Before both the closing consonant of the verb is repeated, or, if it ends with a -vowel, <span lang="bo">འོ་</span> and <span lang="bo">འམ་</span> are written. The Perfect of the verbs ending in <span lang="bo">ན་ ར་ ལ་</span>, which formerly had a <span lang="bo">ད་</span> as second final—<span lang="bo">ད་<wbr></wbr>དྲག་</span>—, assume <span lang="bo">ཏོ་</span> and <span lang="bo">ཏམ་</span>.—<span>2.</span> These additional syllables are omitted <span><i>a</i>)</span> in imperative sentences, <span><i>b</i>)</span> in the latter member of a double question, <span id="s34.2.c"><i>c</i>)</span> when the question is expressed already by an interrogative pronoun or adverb, <span><i>d</i>)</span> in coordinate members of a period, with <span class="corr" id="xd31e9766" title="Added by author">the </span>exception of the last one, <span><i>e</i>)</span> commonly, when the principal verb is the verb substantive <span lang="bo">ཡིན་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཡོད་</span> etc. (<a href="#s40.1">40. 1</a>.). -</p> -<p><i>Examples.</i> <i>a</i>) <span lang="bo">སོང་</span> ‘go!’, <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>རུ་<wbr></wbr>ཤོག་</span> ‘come here!’.—<i>b</i>) <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ངམ་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>མཐོང་</span> ‘do you see or not?’—<i>c</i>) <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>སུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་</span> ‘who is there?’, <span lang="bo">ནམ་<wbr></wbr>བསླེབ་</span> ‘when did (he, you etc.) arrive?’.—<i>d</i>) <span lang="bo">ཁང་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཤིག །མི་<wbr></wbr>བསད ། གྲོང་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱེར་<wbr></wbr>ཚང་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>མེད་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>བྱས་<wbr></wbr>སོ།</span> ‘the houses were destroyed, the men killed, the whole town annihilated’.—<i>e</i>) <span lang="bo">གཙང་<wbr></wbr>པའི་<wbr></wbr>བྱེ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>གསེར་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད།</span> ‘in the sand of the river is gold’. -</p> -<p><i>Note.</i> In conversation the <i>o</i> is generally omitted, and <span class="pageNum" id="pb46">[<a href="#pb46">46</a>]</span>the <i>m</i> of the interrogative termination dropped, so that merely the vowel <i>a</i> is heard, e.g. the question <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ངམ་</span> ‘do (you) see’ and the answer <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ངོ་</span> ‘(I) see’, are commonly spoken in WT: <i lang="bo-latn">tʽoṅ-ṅa? tʽoṅ.</i> -</p> -<p id="s35"><b>35. Present Tenses.</b> <span>1.</span> Simple Present Tense. This is the simple root of the verb, which <span class="corr" id="xd31e9846" title="Corrected by author from: always will">will always</span> be found in the dictionary; in WT, as mentioned above, of verbs with more than one -root, only the Perfect root is in use; if, therefore, stress is laid on the Present -signification, recourse must be had <span class="corr" id="xd31e9849" title="Corrected by author from: te">to</span> one of the following compositions<span id="xd31e9852"></span> (s. <a href="#s31">31</a>. and <a href="#s31n">Note</a>). Thus, <span lang="bo">མཐོང་</span> ‘(I, thou, he etc.) see, seest etc.’, <span lang="bo">གཏོང་</span> ‘(I etc.) give’ through all persons; in the end of a sentence: <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ངོ༌། གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>ངོ༌།</span><span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span> -</p> -<p><span>2.</span> Compound Present Tenses. <span><i>a</i>)</span> <span lang="bo">འདུག་</span> (s. <a href="#s40.1">40, 1</a>) is added to the root: <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span> ‘(I) see’, <span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span> ‘(I) give’. This is common in the dialect of WT especially.—<span id="s35.2.b"><i>b</i>)</span> The Participle connected with <span lang="bo">ཡིན་</span>, <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> ‘I see’. In WT this, of course, is changed to <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>མཁན་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span><span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>—<span id="s35.2.c"><i>c</i>)</span> One of the Gerunds (<a href="#s41.a">41, A</a>) with <span lang="bo">ཡོད་</span> or <span lang="bo">འདུག་</span>, as <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ནས་</span> or <span lang="bo">གི་</span> or <span lang="bo">ཞིང་</span>), <span lang="bo">འདུག་</span> or <span lang="bo">ཡོད་</span> ‘(I) see, am seeing’; it must, however, be remarked that both ways of expression, -<i>b</i>) and <i>c</i>), are not very frequent.—<span id="s35.2.d"><i>d</i>)</span> <span lang="bo">གིན་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་</span> or <span lang="bo">འདུག་</span> is the proper form for the compound <span class="pageNum" id="pb47">[<a href="#pb47">47</a>]</span>English present: <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>གིན་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span> ‘(I) am seeing’, <span lang="bo">འབྲི་<wbr></wbr>གིན་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span> ‘(I) am writing (just now)’. -</p> -<p id="s36"><b>36. Preterit Tenses.</b> <span>1.</span> Simple Preterit, Perfect or Aorist Tense; this is the Perfect root: <span lang="bo">བཏང་</span>, at the close of the sentence <span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>ངོ༌།</span> ‘gave, have given, was given’; in one-rooted verbs it has, of course, the same form -as the present: <span lang="bo">མཐོང་(ངོ་)</span> ‘saw, have, or was, seen’. This is the usual narrative tense like the Greek Aorist -or French Parfait défini.—<span>2.</span> Compound Preterit Tenses.—<span><i>a</i>)</span> The root with <span lang="bo">སོང་</span>, <span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span> ‘have given, gave, was given’, <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span> ‘have seen, saw, was seen’; rarely met with in books, but in general use in the conversation -of WT. In CT <span lang="bo">བྱུང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">j̀ʽuṅ</i> is used in a similar way: <span lang="bo">ཁྱིས་<wbr></wbr>རྨུག་<wbr></wbr>བྱུང་</span> ‘the dog has <span class="corr" id="xd31e10005" title="Source: bit">bitten</span>’.—<span><i>b</i>)</span> The root with <span lang="bo">ཟིན་</span> (more in books), or <span lang="bo">ཚར་</span> (more in common language), the true Perfect as the tense of accomplished action: -<span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>ཟིན་</span>, <span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>ཚར་</span> ‘have given etc.’, ‘the action of giving is past’, <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>སོང་<wbr></wbr>ཚར་</span> ‘the man has already left<span class="corr" id="xd31e10028" title="Not in source">’</span>.—<span id="s36.2.c"><i>c</i>)</span> The Participle connected with <span lang="bo">ཡིན་</span> occurs more frequently in the past sense than otherwise. Here, in the common talk -of WT, <span lang="bo">པ་</span> is used, even in those cases where the books have <span lang="bo">བ་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཡི་<wbr></wbr>གེ་<wbr></wbr>བཀལ་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">yí-ge kál-pa yin</i>, or, contracted, <i lang="bo-latn">kál-pen</i>, ‘the letter has been sent off’, in books: <span lang="bo">བཀལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> (s. <a href="#s11n">11, Note</a>), even <span lang="bo">གླ་<wbr></wbr>བཏངས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> <span class="pageNum" id="pb48">[<a href="#pb48">48</a>]</span><i lang="bo-latn">la táṅs-pa yin</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">táṅs-pen</i>, ‘the wages have been paid’ i.o. <span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span>.—<span><i>d</i>)</span> Gerunds in <span lang="bo">ཏེ་</span> (WT) or <span lang="bo">ནས་</span> (CT) with <span lang="bo">ཡོད་</span> or <span lang="bo">འདུག་</span> (the same as <a href="#s35.2.c">35. 2. <i>c</i></a>); also (in Ü Tsaṅ and later books) the mere Perfect root with <span lang="bo">ཡོད་</span>, the <span lang="bo">ཏེ་</span> or <span lang="bo">ནས་</span> being dropped: <span lang="bo">སོང་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་</span> ‘has gone’. -</p> -<p id="s37"><b>37. Future Tenses.</b> <span>1.</span> Simple Future. The Future-root, <span lang="bo">གཏོང་(ངོ་)</span> ‘shall, will give, be given’.—<span id="s37.2">2.</span> Compound Future. <span><i>a</i>)</span> The auxiliary verb <span lang="bo">འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> (to grow, become) added to the Terminative case of the Infinitive: <span lang="bo">གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་(རོ་)</span> ‘shall, will give, be given’, <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་(རོ་)</span> ‘shall, will see, be seen’. This is the most common, and, together with the Simple -Future and the Intensive (<a href="#s39">39</a>.), <span lang="bo">༌༌༌བར་<wbr></wbr>བྱའོ་</span>, the only one in use with the early classical authors in all cases where a special -Future-root is wanted, and even where this exists. It <span class="corr" id="xd31e10140" title="Source: dissappears">disappears</span>, however, gradually from the literature of the later period, and is replaced by the -two following compositions.—<span><i>b</i>)</span> <span lang="bo">རྒྱུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> connected with the root: <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> ‘shall, will see’, <span lang="bo">གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> ‘shall, will give’ etc. (<span lang="bo">རྒྱུ་</span> is originally a substantive, meaning <i>material</i>, <i>cause</i>, <i>occasion</i>).—<span><i>c</i>)</span> the root with <span lang="bo">འོང་</span> or <span lang="bo">ཡོང་</span>, <span lang="bo">སླེབ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོང་</span> ‘will arrive’, or, i.o. the root, the Term. Inf., <span lang="bo">སླེབ་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>འོང་</span>.—Both <i>b</i>) and <i>c</i>) are even now in common <span class="pageNum" id="pb49">[<a href="#pb49">49</a>]</span>use in CT, whereas in WT:—<span><i>d</i>)</span> <span lang="bo">ཡིན་</span> connected with the root is the general form: <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tʽoṅ yin</i>, vulg.: <i lang="bo-latn">tʽóṅin</i> ‘shall, will see’, <span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">táṅin</i>, ‘shall, will give’, <span lang="bo">བཀལ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kállin</i> ‘will send’, <span lang="bo">ཚ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽa yin</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽa’in</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽän</i> ‘will go’.—<span><i>e</i>)</span> In books the Participle with <span lang="bo">ཡིན་</span> (<a href="#s35.2.b">35. 2. <i>b</i></a>, <a href="#s36.2.c">36. 2 <i>c</i></a>) occurs sometimes also as Future. -</p> -<p id="s38"><b>38. Imperative mood.</b> <span id="s38.1">1.</span> This is usually the shortest possible form of the verb, which often loses its prefixed -letters, though in some instances a final <span lang="bo">ས་</span> is added. In many verbs with the vowel <i>a</i>, and in some with <i>e</i> these vowels are changed into <i>o</i>, besides other alterations of the consonants. Particularly often the surds or sonants -of the other tense-roots are changed to their aspirates in the Imperative. Thus, <span lang="bo">ཐོང་</span> ‘give!’, from <span lang="bo">གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span>; <span lang="bo">ལྟོས་</span> Ld: <i lang="bo-latn">ltos</i>, CT: <i lang="bo-latn">tō̤</i> ‘look!’, from <span lang="bo">ལྟ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span>; <span lang="bo">ཐོབ་</span> ‘throw!’, from <span lang="bo">འདེབས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>. In one-rooted verbs it is, of course, like the Present, but it can always be sufficiently -distinguished by adding the particle <span lang="bo">ཅིག་</span> (<span lang="bo">ཤིག་</span> or <span lang="bo">ཞིག་</span>, according to <a href="#s13">13</a>.). This is used in the classical literature indiscriminately in addressing the highest -and the lowest persons (or, in other words, as well to command, as to pray), but according -to the modern custom of CT only when addressing servants and inferior people.—<span id="s38.2">2.</span> In <span class="ex">forbidding</span>, the Present-root is used with the negative particle <span lang="bo">མ་</span>, <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>གཏོང་</span> ‘do not give!’, <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>ལྟ་</span> ‘do <span class="pageNum" id="pb50">[<a href="#pb50">50</a>]</span>not look!’, <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>འདེབས་</span> ‘do not throw!’—<span>3.</span> In <span class="ex">praying</span> or <span class="ex">wishing</span> (Precative or Optative) either the same forms as under 1. are used, or the Imperatives -of <span lang="bo">འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to come’ or <span lang="bo">འོང་</span> ‘to come’ (the latter, <span lang="bo">ཤོག་</span>, of a quite different root) are connected with the Termin. Infin. <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>གྱུར་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག་</span> or <span lang="bo">ཤོག་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག་</span> ‘may (I, you, he etc.) see!’—<span>4.</span> In none of the three a person is indicated, but it is natural that in commanding -and forbidding the subject will be the second, sometimes the third person; in the -precative also the first person can be understood. -</p> -<p id="s38n"><i>Note.</i> The common language of WT, acknowledging only the Perfect-root, changes nothing but -the vowel: <span lang="bo">བཏོང་</span> ‘give!’ from <span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་</span>; <span lang="bo">ལྟོས་</span> ‘look!’ from <span lang="bo">ལྟ་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་</span>; <span lang="bo">བཏོབ་</span> ‘throw!’ from <span lang="bo">བཏབ་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་</span> (Perf. of <span lang="bo">འདེབས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>). Instead of <span lang="bo">ཅིག་</span>, which is not much used, <span lang="bo">བཏོང་</span> (<span class="corr" id="xd31e10383" title="Not in source">‘</span>give!<span class="corr" id="xd31e10385" title="Not in source">’</span>) is often added to the roots of other verbs (s. <a href="#s39">39</a>), thus, <span lang="bo">བཏོན་<wbr></wbr>བཏོང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ton toṅ</i> ‘take out!’ from <span lang="bo">བཏོན་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་</span> (<span lang="bo">འདོན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>). Or the Imperative is paraphrased by <span lang="bo">དགོས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gos</i> (Ld<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>)<span class="corr" id="xd31e10412" title="Source: .">,</span> <i lang="bo-latn">gō̤</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">goi</i> ‘must’, added to the root of the verb: <span lang="bo">བསད་<wbr></wbr>དགོས་</span> ‘must be killed’.—In CT the changing of the vowel seems to be usually omitted, but -the <span lang="bo">ཅིག་</span> is more used. Here, also, the Perfect root is not so exclusively preferred. -</p> -<p id="s39"><b>39. Intensive verbs.</b> <span id="s39.1">1.</span> Very frequent in books is the <span class="pageNum" id="pb51">[<a href="#pb51">51</a>]</span>connection of the four-rooted verb <span lang="bo">བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> (Pf. <span lang="bo">བྱས་</span>, Fut. <span lang="bo">བྱ་</span>, Imp. <span lang="bo">བྱོས་</span>) ‘to do’, elegantly <span lang="bo">བགྱིད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> (Pf. <span lang="bo">བགྱིས་</span>, Fut. <span lang="bo">བགྱི་</span>, Imp. <span lang="bo">གྱིས་</span>), respectfully <span lang="bo">མཛད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> (Imp. <span lang="bo">མཛོད་</span>) with the Term. Inf. of another verb, to intensify the action of the latter. By this -means not only one-rooted verbs can be made to participate in the advantages of the -four-rooted, as <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>བྱེད་</span> ‘see’, <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>བྱས་</span> ‘saw’, <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>བྱ་</span> ‘shall, will see’, <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>བྱོས་</span> ‘see!’, but also several other periphrastical phrases are gained for speaking more -precisely than otherwise would be possible. The Future tense <span lang="bo">བྱ(འོ)༌</span> serves, besides its proper notion of futurity, particularly to express the English -auxiliaries ‘must, ought etc.’: thus, <span lang="bo">བརྗོད་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>བྱའོ་</span> ‘must not be uttered, ought not to be uttered’, sometimes it may be translated by -the Imperative mood. The spoken language, at least of WT, is devoid of this convenience, -and possesses nothing of the kind except the above mentioned intensive form of the -Imperative, formed by <span lang="bo">བཏོང་</span> (s. <a href="#s38n">38., Note</a>).—2. Another class of intensive verbs are formed by connecting two <span class="corr" id="xd31e10494" title="Source: synonymes">synonyms</span>, as <span lang="bo">འཇིགས་<wbr></wbr>སྐྲག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to be afraid’, literally ‘to be fear-frightened’, and other similar ones. -</p> -<p id="s40"><b>40. Substantive and Auxiliary Verbs.</b> <span id="s40.1">1.</span> <span class="ex">To be</span> <span id="s40.1.a"><i>a</i>)</span> <span lang="bo">ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, in elegant and respectful speech <span lang="bo">ལགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lag-pa</i>, Ü: <i lang="bo-latn">lā-pa</i> (the latter word never used in WT) is the mere means <span class="pageNum" id="pb52">[<a href="#pb52">52</a>]</span>of connecting the attribute with its subject, as: <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>འདི་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>དྭགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> ‘this man is a Ladakee’, <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱེད་<wbr></wbr>ལགས་<wbr></wbr>སམ་</span> ‘is it you, Sir?’. Therefore the question <span lang="bo">སུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> is to be understood ‘who are you’ or ‘who is he’ etc., the personal pronoun being -often let to be guessed.—<span lang="bo">ཡིན་</span> itself is often omitted in daily life in WT as well as in poetry, e.g. <span lang="bo">ཨི་<wbr></wbr>ཁུར་<wbr></wbr>རུ་<wbr></wbr>མཱ་<wbr></wbr>ལྕིན་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span> ‘this load (is) very heavy’ WT. Negatively: <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span>, <span lang="bo">མིན་</span> vulg. <span lang="bo">མན་</span>, resp. <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>ལགས་</span>.—<span id="s40.1.b"><i>b</i>)</span> <span lang="bo">ཡོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">yod-pa</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">yöʼ-pa</i>, eleg. <span lang="bo">མཆིས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽī-pa</i>, resp. <span lang="bo">བཞུགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">z̀ug(s)-pa</i>, Ü: <i lang="bo-latn">z̀ū-pa</i>, negat.: <span lang="bo">མེད་</span>, <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>མཆིས་</span>, <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>བཞུགས་</span> means ‘to exist’, or ‘to be present’, ‘to be found at a place’, therefore the question -<span lang="bo">སུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་</span> is to be understood: ‘Who is here? Who is there?’—<span lang="bo">ཡོད་</span> and <span lang="bo">བཞུགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> are in general use, <span lang="bo">མཆིས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> is seldom heard. When connected with the Dative of a substantive it <span class="corr" id="xd31e10610" title="Corrected by author from: replaces">expresses</span> the English ‘to have, to have got’, as: <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>དངུལ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་</span> ‘I have money’; <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཟུག་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་</span> ‘I have pain’. In this case the <span class="ex">respectful</span> term is not <span lang="bo">གཞུགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> but <span lang="bo">མངའ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅa-wa</i>: <span lang="bo">རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>སྙུན་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>མངའ་<wbr></wbr>འམ་</span> ‘has not the King an indisposition?’ i.e. ‘is Your Majesty ill?’.—<span id="s40.1.c"><i>c</i>)</span> <span lang="bo">འདུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">dug-pa</i> (eleg. <span lang="bo">གདའ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> is seldom heard), resp. <span lang="bo">བཞུགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, ‘to be present, stay, be found at a place’; negat. <span class="pageNum" id="pb53">[<a href="#pb53">53</a>]</span><span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span>. Both <span lang="bo">འདུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> and <span lang="bo">ཡོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> can be used instead of <span lang="bo">ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, though not this instead of them.—<span><i>d</i>)</span> <span lang="bo">རེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">rĕʼ-pa</i> = <span lang="bo">འདུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, negat. <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>རེད་</span> in Spiti and CT, seldom in books.—<span id="s40.1.e"><i>e</i>)</span> <span lang="bo">མོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">mod-pa</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">möʼ-pa</i> has a somewhat emphatical sense: ‘to be (something) in a high degree’, ‘to be (somehow) -in plenty’. It occurs most frequently in the Gerund with <span lang="bo">ཀྱི་</span> (<a href="#s41">41</a>.), when it frequently has the sense of ‘though’, but never with a negative.—<span><i>f</i>)</span> <span lang="bo">སྣང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">naṅ-wa</i>, originally ‘to appear, to be visible, extant’, negat. <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>སྣང་</span>. Sometimes in books, and common in certain districts.—<span id="s40.1.g"><i>g</i>)</span> In books the concluding <i>o</i> (<a href="#s34">34</a>.) is, moreover, <span class="corr" id="xd31e10726" title="Corrected by author from: fouud">found</span> to represent the verb ‘to be’ in all its meanings, and is capable of being connected -with words of all classes besides verbs, e.g. <span lang="bo">དང་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>འོ་</span> ‘is the first’ = <span lang="bo">དང་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span>. In a similar manner also the <span lang="bo">ཅིག་</span> of the Imperative (<a href="#s38">38</a>.) implies the verb ‘to be’.—<span><i>h</i>)</span> The Preterit root for all these verbs is <span lang="bo">སོང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">soṅ</i> ‘was, has been’, and besides also ‘has gone, become’, which is its original meaning.—For -the use of these verbs as auxiliaries s. <a href="#s35">35</a>. sq. -</p> -<p><span>2.</span> <span lang="bo">འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> originally ‘to be changed, turned into something’ then ‘to become, to grow’, auxiliary -for the Future tense in the old classical language, as mentioned in <a href="#s37">37</a>. Since this can be considered as the intransitive or passive <span class="corr" id="xd31e10766" title="Corrected by author from: notion, opposite">sense, opposed</span> to <span lang="bo">བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to make, render’, the connection <span class="pageNum" id="pb54">[<a href="#pb54">54</a>]</span>of <span lang="bo">འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> with the Term. Inf. of another verb must, in many cases, be rendered by the passive -voice in our languages. In WT the verb <span lang="bo">ཆ་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽa-c̀e</i> ‘to go’ is used in the sense of ‘to become, to grow’. The Perfect root for both is -<span lang="bo">སོང་</span> ‘(went), grew, became, has become, is’ (s. above).—In CT and later books <span lang="bo">འབྱུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> is used instead. -</p> -<p><span id="s40.3">3.</span> ‘<span class="ex">must</span>’ is expressed by <span lang="bo">དགོས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to be necessary’ (s. <a href="#s38n">38. Note</a>). In WT this is used in a very wide sense for any possible modification of the notion -of necessity: ‘I must, should, want to, ought’ and even ‘I will, wish, beg (for something)’ -is nothing but <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>དགོས་</span> ‘to me is necessary’ which may be, in the last mentioned case, rendered somewhat -more politely by adding <span lang="bo">ཞུ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">z̀u</i> ‘pray!’ <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཨ་<wbr></wbr>ལུ་<wbr></wbr>དགོས་<wbr></wbr>ཞུ་</span> ‘I want potatoes, pray!’ is as much to say as ‘Will you kindly give me some potatoes’. -In books and more refined language several other verbs are used in the same sense, -viz. <span lang="bo">རིགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘it is right to’ (usually with the Genit. Infin.), <span lang="bo">རུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘it is meet, decent’, <span lang="bo">འདོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to wish, desire’, both with the Supine; <span lang="bo">དགའ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to like’ with the Dat. Inf. The popular substitute of the last, especially in use -in WT, is <span lang="bo">འཐད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, of similar meaning, added to the root. -</p> -<p id="s41"><b>41. Gerunds and Supines.</b> We retain these terms, employed by former grammarians, but observe that they do not -refer to the <span class="ex">form</span>, but to the <span class="ex">meaning</span>, as well as that Gerund is not to be understood in the same signification <span class="pageNum" id="pb55">[<a href="#pb55">55</a>]</span>as in Latin, but as the Gérondif of some French grammarians, or what Shakespeare calls -Past conjunctive participle in Hindi. These forms are of the greatest importance in -Tibetan, being the only substitutes for most of those subordinate clauses which we -are accustomed to introduce by conjunctions. They are formed by the two monosyllabic -<span class="corr" id="xd31e10844" title="Corrected by author from: appendices">affixes</span> <span lang="bo">ཏེ་</span> (so after the closing consonants <span lang="bo">ན་ ར་ ལ་</span> <span class="corr" id="xd31e10854" title="Source: ས"><span lang="bo">ས་</span></span><span class="corr" id="xd31e10861" title="Not in source">)</span>; <span lang="bo">དེ་</span> after <span class="corr" id="xd31e10866" title="Source: དེ"><span lang="bo">དེ་</span></span>, <span lang="bo">སྟེ་</span> after <span lang="bo">ག་ ང་ བ་</span> <span class="corr" id="xd31e10881" title="Source: མ"><span lang="bo">མ་</span></span> and vowels and <span lang="bo">ཅིང་</span> (<span lang="bo">ཤིང་</span> or <span lang="bo">ཞིང་</span> according to the same rule as <span lang="bo">ཅིག་</span> <a href="#s13">13</a>.), both of which are added to the root, or by the terminations mentioned in 15. as -composing the declension of nouns, which are added partly to the root, partly to the -Infinitive or Participle. -</p> -<p><span id="s41.a">A.</span> <span class="ex">Gerunds.</span> All the following forms can be rendered by the English Participle ending in <i>ing</i>, but the more accurate distinctions must be expressed by various conjunctions. -</p> -<p><span id="s41.a.1">1.</span> <span lang="bo">ཏེ་</span> (<span lang="bo">དེ་</span> etc.), the most frequent of all these endings. It is added to the Present-root as -well as to the Perfect-root: <span lang="bo">གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་</span> ‘giving’, <span lang="bo">བཏོང་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་</span> ‘having given’, and stands for all clauses beginning with <i>when</i>, <i>as</i>, <i>since</i>, <i>after</i> etc. Also in the spoken language of WT it is used most frequently.—Examples: <span lang="bo">ཕྲུ་<wbr></wbr>གུ་<wbr></wbr>ཆུས་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱེར་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་<wbr></wbr>ཤིའོ་</span> ‘the child, having been carried away by the water, died’; <span lang="bo">རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>ཤི་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>སྲས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>ས་<wbr></wbr>བཟུང་<wbr></wbr>ངོ་</span> ‘the king having died, the prince occupied <span class="pageNum" id="pb56">[<a href="#pb56">56</a>]</span>the throne (<span class="corr" id="xd31e10948" title="Source: kings-place">king’s-place</span>)’; <span lang="bo">ཆུ་<wbr></wbr>ཆེན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>རུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>འགྲུལ་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>ཐུབ་<wbr></wbr>བོ་</span> ‘as there is a great water, we cannot go’. -</p> -<p><span>2.</span> <span lang="bo">ཅིང་</span> (<span lang="bo">ཤིང་</span> etc.), of a similar sense, chiefly used for smaller clauses within a large one, <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>དགའ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིང་<wbr></wbr>ཁྲོས་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span> ‘when, being displeased, he became angry’, or ‘growing displeased and angry’. Often -it denotes two actions going on at the same time, or two states of a thing existing -together, and then can only be translated by ‘and’, thus, <span lang="bo">མཐའ་<wbr></wbr>མེད་<wbr></wbr>ཅིང་<wbr></wbr>མུ་<wbr></wbr>མེད་</span> ‘without end and boundary’; <span lang="bo">ཤ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཟ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིང་<wbr></wbr>ཁྲག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>འཐུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to eat flesh and drink blood’<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e10974src" href="#xd31e10974">1</a>. It stands also in a causal sense: ‘by doing etc.’, as: <span lang="bo">ཉ་<wbr></wbr>བཤོར་<wbr></wbr>ཞིང་<wbr></wbr>འཚོའོ་</span> ‘(we) live by catching fish’. These two (1. and 2.) can also, like the closing <i>o</i>, as mentioned in <a href="#s40.1.g">40. 1. <i>g</i></a>, be added to every class of words, in the sense of <i>being</i>: <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>རིགས་<wbr></wbr>ཆེ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིང་<wbr></wbr>མཐོ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་</span> ‘as you are high(-born), being of a great family’. In conversation, <span lang="bo">ཅིང་</span> is scarcely ever heard. -</p> -<p><span>3.</span> <span lang="bo">ནས་</span> (from, or after, doing something) in temporal clauses with ‘after, when, as’; practically -it is very much like <span lang="bo">ཏེ་</span>, and often alternating with it. In most cases, in speaking always, it is added to -the root, seldom to the infinitive.<span class="pageNum" id="pb57">[<a href="#pb57">57</a>]</span>—<i>Examples.</i> <span lang="bo">ནམ་<wbr></wbr>ལངས་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span> ‘when the night had risen (viz. at daybreak) he went’; <span lang="bo">ལང་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span> ‘after you will have risen, go!’ <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>སྐད་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱུང་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་<wbr></wbr>ངུས་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span> ‘when I saw that<span class="sic">,</span> raising clamour, I wept’. -</p> -<p><span id="s41.a.4">4.</span> <span lang="bo">ན་</span> ‘in (doing something)’ again for clauses with ‘since, when, as’, but in most cases -by far for ‘if’ and conditional ‘when’: <span lang="bo">འགྲོ་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> ‘if, or, when (I) go, or went’; <span lang="bo">ཤི་<wbr></wbr>ཚར་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> ‘when, after (he) has died’, ‘if he is already dead’; <span lang="bo">ཤི་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> ‘if (he) die, should die’, ‘if (he) died’, ‘when (he) dies’; <span lang="bo">བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> ‘if … do, did’; <span lang="bo">བྱ་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> ‘if … were to do’. It is added to the root, seldom to the infinitive, and as common -in talking as in books. -</p> -<p><span id="s41.a.5">5.</span> <span lang="bo">ལ་</span> is of more various use. When added to the root, it is very much like <span lang="bo">ཅིང་</span>, which it replaces in the conversational language of CT (where the first example -of 2. would be, <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>དགའ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཁྲོས་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span>), but does not occur so often except in imperative or precative sentences, when it -is added to the Imperative root of the subordinate verb, just like other gerunds: -<span lang="bo">སོང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ལྟོས་</span> ‘going look!’, ‘go and look!’ <span lang="bo">ལོང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span> ‘rise and go!’. This particle, like the above-mentioned, implies the verb ‘to be’, -especially when added to adjectives denoting a personal quality. <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>སྡུག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཐུང་<wbr></wbr>ངུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span> ‘being ugly and short’; <span lang="bo">དབྱིབས་<wbr></wbr>ལེགས་<wbr></wbr>ཤིང་<wbr></wbr>ལྟ་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>སྡུག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>མཛེས་</span><span class="pageNum" id="pb58">[<a href="#pb58">58</a>]</span><span lang="bo">པ་</span> ‘pretty, being of a good figure and nice to behold’. When added to the Infinitive, -it denotes: <span><i>a</i>)</span> of course, the real Dative, or the usual meanings of the postposition <span lang="bo">ལ་</span> with a substantive; thus, <span lang="bo">གསོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>དགའ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to rejoice at killing, be fond of killing’. <span id="s41.a.5.b"><i>b</i>)</span> nearly the same as <span lang="bo">ཏེ་</span> or ‘as’ in English, e.g. <span lang="bo">ལམ་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>ལྷ་<wbr></wbr>རྟེན་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཤིང་<wbr></wbr>རྟ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>བབ་<wbr></wbr>བོ་</span> ‘as there was an idol-shrine in the middle of the way, (she) alighted from (her) -chariot’; <span lang="bo">རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>ཉིན་<wbr></wbr>རེ་<wbr></wbr>བཞིན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>དེར་<wbr></wbr>ཁྲུས་<wbr></wbr>བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>འགྲོ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> ‘as the king went there daily to bathe’; <span lang="bo">འཇིག་<wbr></wbr>རྟེན་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>ནང་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>འོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>འདི་<wbr></wbr>རུ་<wbr></wbr>འོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ཅི་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> ‘as (it) does not occur in the (whole) world, what is (its) occurring here, or, how -is it that <span class="corr" id="xd31e11106" title="Corrected by author from: is">it</span> occurs here?’. Finally, in the language of common life <span lang="bo">ལ་</span> is added to the repeated root in order to express the English ‘while, whilst’: <span lang="bo">ངས་<wbr></wbr>ཤ་<wbr></wbr>གཏུབ་<wbr></wbr>གཏུབ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>ཤིང་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོང་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">ṅā̤ s̀a tub-túb-la kʽyód-dī</i> (<a href="#s15n">15., Note</a>) <i lang="bo-latn">s̀iṅ kʽyoṅ</i> WT, or <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>ཤིང་<wbr></wbr>བཀུར་<wbr></wbr>ཤོག་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">kʽyöʼ-kyī s̀iṅ kur-s̀og</i> CT ‘while I am cutting the meat into pieces, bring you (some) wood’. -</p> -<p><span id="s41.a.6">6.</span> <span lang="bo">ལས་</span> added only to the Infinitive, literally ‘out of (the doing)’. This may mean <span><i>a</i>)</span> ‘<span class="ex">after</span>’, <span lang="bo">ཉལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>ལང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to rise from lying, after having lain’; <span lang="bo">དུར་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>ཞག་<wbr></wbr>གསུམ་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>དུར་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>བྱུང་</span> ‘after having been three days in <span class="pageNum" id="pb59">[<a href="#pb59">59</a>]</span>the grave (I) came out of the grave’.—<span id="s41.a.6.b"><i>b</i>)</span> ‘<span class="ex">while</span>’, in which case the root of the verb may be repeated, as: <span lang="bo">སོང་<wbr></wbr>སོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>བྲམ་<wbr></wbr>ཟེ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>ཕྲད་<wbr></wbr>དོ་</span> ‘out of my walking i.e. when walking along, (I) met with a brahman’; <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>ཤ་<wbr></wbr>གཏུབ་<wbr></wbr>གཏུབ་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>ཤིང་<wbr></wbr>བཀུར་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་<wbr></wbr>ཤོག་</span> (the above mentioned example (s. <span lang="bo">ལ་</span>) translated into classical language); <span><i>c</i>)</span> also the English ‘being about to’ is, in books, often expressed by this Gerund: <span lang="bo">ནང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>སོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>སྒོ་<wbr></wbr>བཅད་<wbr></wbr>དོ་</span> ‘when (I) was about to enter, the door was shut’; <span lang="bo">ཤི་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱིར་<wbr></wbr>སོས་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>གྱུར་<wbr></wbr>ཏོ་</span> ‘when (I) was going to die, (I) was restored to life again’. Which of the three is -the real meaning, will in most cases be clear from circumstances. This gerund is not -used in talking, at least in WT. -</p> -<p><span id="s41.a.7">7.</span> <span lang="bo">ཀྱིས་</span> (<span lang="bo">གྱིས་</span> etc.) or <span lang="bo">ཀྱི་</span> (<span lang="bo">གྱི་</span> etc.), or the Instrumental and Genitive cases of the root, mean <span><i>a</i>)</span> ‘by doing something’ or ‘because’, e.g. <span lang="bo">དགོས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>འདོང་<wbr></wbr>ངོ་</span> ‘we come (here), because it is necessary’. <span lang="bo">ཁོ་<wbr></wbr>མོས་<wbr></wbr>གྲོགས་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིས་<wbr></wbr>སྙིང་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཆུང་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་</span> ‘since I am resolved to help you, do not be depressed!’ This, originally, is a function -of the Instrumental only, but in later times the other cases also are used in this -meaning.—<span id="s41.a.7.b"><i>b</i>)</span> more frequently they are used adversatively, ‘though’, especially when connected -with <span lang="bo">མོད་</span> (<a href="#s40.1.e">40. 1. <i>e</i></a>), <span lang="bo">ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>མོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>ཅིས་<wbr></wbr>ཡིད་<wbr></wbr>ཆེས་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་</span> ‘though (you) did <span class="pageNum" id="pb60">[<a href="#pb60">60</a>]</span>say so, by what shall (I) believe (it)?’ In other cases it may be left untranslated -when the next sentence will commence with ‘but’: <span lang="bo">ཟས་<wbr></wbr>བཟང་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>འདོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>ཟས་<wbr></wbr>ཐ་<wbr></wbr>མལ་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཟོས་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span> ‘not liking delicate food, he ate vulgar food’ or ‘he did not like d. f., but preferred -v. f.’. This Gerund is scarcely used in talking, at least in WT. -</p> -<p><span id="s41.a.8">8.</span> <span lang="bo">པས་</span> (<span lang="bo">བས་</span>), the Instrumental of the Infinitive, ‘by (doing something)’ is, of course, the proper -expression for ‘because’, but also very often used indiscriminately for <span lang="bo">ཏེ་</span> or <span lang="bo">ནས་</span> only for the sake of varying the mode of speaking: <span lang="bo">ཤིན་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>དཀའ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>པས་</span> ‘because it is very difficult’; <span lang="bo">ལྟས་<wbr></wbr>པས་</span> ‘when (he) looked’. -</p> -<p><span>9.</span> Also <span lang="bo">གིན་</span> the proper use of which has been shewn above (<a href="#s35.2.d">35. 2. <i>d</i>.</a>) must be mentioned once more as it occurs in a similar sense to <span lang="bo">ཅིང་</span>, <span lang="bo">སྨོན་<wbr></wbr>ལམ་<wbr></wbr>འདེབས་<wbr></wbr>གིན་<wbr></wbr>སོང་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་</span> ‘walk on praying (preces faciendo)!’; <span lang="bo">བྲང་<wbr></wbr>བརྡུང་<wbr></wbr>གིན་<wbr></wbr>ངུས་<wbr></wbr>པས་</span> ‘beating (her own) breast and weeping’. -</p> -<p><span id="s41.b">B.</span> <span class="ex">Supines.</span> They are expressed simply by the Terminative Case of the Infinitive or of the Root, -<span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་</span> or <span lang="bo">ཐོང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> ‘to see’. In many instances the use of either is optional, in others one is preferred. -<span id="s41.b.1"><span class="corr" id="xd31e11288" title="Not in source">1.</span></span> Their use is: with adjectives like the Latin supine in <i>u</i>, e.g. <span lang="bo">བསླབ་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>དཀའ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘difficult to learn’; with verbs expressing ‘to go, to send’ etc., <span class="pageNum" id="pb61">[<a href="#pb61">61</a>]</span>also ‘to pray’ etc. like that in <i lang="bo-latn">um</i>: <span lang="bo">ལེན་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span> ‘go to fetch’, <span lang="bo">གནང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>གསོལ་</span> ‘(I) beg (you) to permit,—for permission’. In these cases the root is most common, -but the Inf. <span lang="bo">བསླབ་<wbr></wbr>པར་</span>, or <span lang="bo">གནང་<wbr></wbr>བར་</span>, <span lang="bo">ལེན་<wbr></wbr>པར་</span> may also be used. <span id="s41.b.2">2.</span> Another use of the Supine is <span id="s41.b.2.a"><i>a</i>)</span> with verbs of sensation and, less frequently, with those of declaration, where we -use sentences with ‘that’ or the Participle or Infinitive: <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>འོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> ‘seeing (his) mother coming’ (instead of which, however, <span lang="bo">འོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> may be said as well); <span lang="bo">༌༌༌བའི་<wbr></wbr>དུས་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>བབ་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>ཤེས་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> ‘knowing that the time of … ing had arrived’ (lit: ‘that it had come down to the -time’); <span lang="bo">རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>དྲན་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> ‘remembering him to be the <span class="corr" id="xd31e11337" title="Corrected by author from: kings">king’s</span> son’ or ‘that he was …’.—<span id="s41.b.2.b"><i>b</i>)</span> in an adverbial sense, when we say ‘so that’, especially in negative sentences, ‘so -that not’<span class="corr" id="xd31e11344" title="Not in source">,</span> ‘without … ing’, <span lang="bo">སུས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱང་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཚོར་<wbr></wbr>བར་</span> ‘so that nobody may (did) perceive it’, or ‘without anybody perceiving it<span class="corr" id="xd31e11350" title="Source: .’">’.</span> -</p> -<p id="s41n1"><i>Note 1.</i> The modern language of WT uses in the first instance (<a href="#s41.b.1">B. 1</a>.) either the simple Infinitive, <span lang="bo">བསླབ་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>ཁག་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">དཀག་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span>), or the same with <span lang="bo">ལ་</span>, <span lang="bo">བསླབ་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཁག་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span>, or with <span lang="bo">ཕྱི་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> (for the <span lang="bo">ཕྱིར་</span> of the books s. <a href="#s7.2">7. 2</a>.), <span lang="bo">བསླབ་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱི་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཁག་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span>; in the second either the same forms, or a particular one, which consists in repeating -the final consonant <span class="pageNum" id="pb62">[<a href="#pb62">62</a>]</span>of the root with the vowel <i>a</i>, to which also <span lang="bo">ལ་</span> may be added: thus, <span lang="bo">ལེན་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>རང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཐུག་<wbr></wbr>ག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོངས་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span> ‘(I) have come to meet you’; in the third, the direct Imperative adding <span lang="bo">ཞུ་</span> for the sake of civility, <span lang="bo">དགོངས་<wbr></wbr>ཞུ་</span> ‘pray permit!’ -</p> -<p>In the case of <a href="#s41.b.2">B. 2</a>., instead of <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>འོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span><span class="corr" id="xd31e11411" title="Source: ;">,</span> the expression in common use will be <span lang="bo">ཨ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོང་</span> or <span lang="bo">ཡོང་<wbr></wbr>ང་<wbr></wbr>མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span>; instead of <span lang="bo">སུས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱང་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཚོར་<wbr></wbr>བར་</span>, either the same form, <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>ཚོར་<wbr></wbr>ར་</span>, or the Gerund, <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>ཚོར་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span>.—In CT those examples would respectively, stand thus, <span lang="bo">བསླབ་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span> or <span lang="bo">བསླབ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> or <span lang="bo">བསླབ་<wbr></wbr>པའི་<wbr></wbr>དོན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>དཀག་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">láb-tu</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">láb-ba</i> (sounding almost <i lang="bo-latn">lă-wa</i>), <i lang="bo-latn">láb-pa̤ dʽo̤n-dʽu kag-po</i>; in the third instance a peculiar word, ‘<i lang="bo-latn">rog</i>’, is used, which is said to be originally the same as <span lang="bo">གྲོགས་</span> (<span lang="bo">རོགས་</span>) ‘friend, assistant’, and serves now as the respectful substitute of <span lang="bo">ཅིག་</span>, Particle of the Imperative, <span lang="bo">གནང་<wbr></wbr>རོག་</span> ‘pray permit!’, <span lang="bo">སྟེར་<wbr></wbr>རོག་</span> ‘pray give!’ Instead of <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>ཚོར་<wbr></wbr>ར་</span> etc. the most usual form in CT will be the simple Participle, <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>ཤེས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>. -</p> -<p><i>Note 2.</i> All the forms, of course, where <span lang="bo">པ་</span> or <span lang="bo">བ་</span> are met with might in certain cases belong to the Participle, and not to the Infinitive. -</p> -<p><i>Note 3.</i> The reader will have missed any mention of tenses of the class of Pluperfect, Past -Future etc., and, <span class="pageNum" id="pb63">[<a href="#pb63">63</a>]</span>indeed, there exists no form of the kind, and they can only be rendered by a Gerund, -e.g. <span lang="bo">ཡི་<wbr></wbr>གེ་<wbr></wbr>བྲིས་<wbr></wbr>ཟིན་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>བཀལ་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span> ‘when (he) had written the letter, (he) sent (it) off’; <span lang="bo">ཡི་<wbr></wbr>གེ་<wbr></wbr>བྲིས་<wbr></wbr>ཟིན་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>བཀལ་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་</span> (WT: <span lang="bo">བཀལ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span>, CT: <span lang="bo">བཀལ་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span>) ‘when (he) shall have written the letter, (he) will <span class="corr" id="xd31e11504" title="Source: sent">send</span> (it) off’. Neither have the Conditional or Subjunctive any special form. Thus, e.g., -<span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>བྱས་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>འཚོའོ་</span> ‘if we did not do that, we could not live<span class="corr" id="xd31e11510" title="Not in source">’</span> (i.e. we cannot earn our sustenance in any other manner); <span lang="bo">ཅིའི་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱེར་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཟེར་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ནི་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>ཉན་</span> ‘why should not I hear (grant) what you say (your wish)?’; <span lang="bo">བརྡ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>བཀྲོལ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིང་<wbr></wbr>རྟགས་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>རྟོགས་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span> ‘if (you) had not explained it, and (we) had not seen the signs, we would not have -understood it’; <span lang="bo">མིས་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>རྙེད་<wbr></wbr>པས་<wbr></wbr>སྤྲུལ་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག་<wbr></wbr>བཏག་<wbr></wbr>དགོས་</span> ‘as a man would not find it, I must send an emanation’; vulg., WT, <span lang="bo">ཨི་<wbr></wbr>ཟུག་<wbr></wbr>ཐག་<wbr></wbr>རིང་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>ངའི་<wbr></wbr>རྩར་<wbr></wbr>འགྲོ་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོང་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> ‘if the distance was not so great, they would come to me (visit me)’. Here may be -added, that also the intention of, or attempt at, doing something is expressed by -the simple verb: thus, <span lang="bo">བདག་<wbr></wbr>གིས་<wbr></wbr>བཀག་<wbr></wbr>ཡང་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>བཏུབ་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་</span> ‘though I did try to hinder him, I could not’; <span lang="bo">བདག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>ཉེ་<wbr></wbr>གནས་<wbr></wbr>ཆུར་<wbr></wbr>མཆོངས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ནས། ཆུར་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱིན་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>རྫུ་<wbr></wbr>འཕྲུལ་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>མཐུས་<wbr></wbr>བླངས་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span> ‘as he saw his own disciple <span class="pageNum" id="pb64">[<a href="#pb64">64</a>]</span>on <span class="ex">the point of</span> springing into the water (and that he <span class="ex">had</span> sprung off the bank), he held him back by the force of his magic, so that he did -not touch the water’ (s. <a href="#s41.b.2.b">41. B. 2. b</a>.). Especially the gerunds in <span lang="bo">ལས་</span> (<a href="#s41.a.6">41. A. 6</a>.) have often this meaning: <span lang="bo">བདག་<wbr></wbr>སྲོག་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>བྲལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>སྲོག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>སྐྱབས་<wbr></wbr>བྱས་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span> ‘when I was <span class="ex">about</span> to be parted from life, he saved it’; <span lang="bo">སྦྲུལ་<wbr></wbr>ཁྲོས་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>གདུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱུང་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>ཡང་<wbr></wbr>འདི་<wbr></wbr>སྙམས་<wbr></wbr>བསམས་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span> ‘the snake, having become angry, though she <span class="ex"><span class="corr" id="xd31e11560" title="Corrected by author from: intented">intended</span></span> (or: had at first int.) to let out her poison, reflected thus’. As will be seen from -these examples, the action, in such cases, is thought to have begun in fact. -</p> -<div class="div2 last-child section"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#toc">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead"> -<h3 class="main">A Survey of the principal forms of the Finite Verb.</h3> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first xd31e11565">Present: -</p> -<p></p> -<div class="table"> -<table class="tbl64.1"> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft cellTop"><span lang="bo">གཏོང་</span>, </td> -<td class="cellTop">W </td> -<td class="cellRight cellTop"><span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span> give </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>མཁན་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> I see intens. <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>བྱེད་</span> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"> </td> -<td>C </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ཡོད་</span>) </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft cellBottom"> </td> -<td class="cellBottom">W </td> -<td class="cellRight cellBottom"><span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>གིན་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ཡོད་</span>); C <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span> I am seeing </td> -</tr> -</table> -</div><p> -</p> -<p class="xd31e11565">Perfect: -</p> -<p></p> -<div class="table"> -<table class="tbl64.1"> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft cellTop"><span lang="bo">བཏང་</span> </td> -<td class="cellTop">W </td> -<td colspan="5" class="colspan cellRight cellTop"><span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span> gave, have given </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">མཐོང་</span> </td> -<td>C </td> -<td><span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བྱུང་</span> saw, </td> -<td>W </td> -<td><span lang="bo">སོང་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་</span> </td> -<td>C </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">སོང་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་</span> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"> </td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="xd31e11669">went </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="cellRight xd31e11669">went </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>ཟིན་</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td colspan="5" class="colspan cellRight"><span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>ཚར་</span> I have given, <span class="ex">intens.</span> <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>བྱས་</span> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft cellBottom"> </td> -<td class="cellBottom"> </td> -<td colspan="5" class="colspan cellRight cellBottom"><span lang="bo">བཏངས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> has been given </td> -</tr> -</table> -</div><p> -<span class="pageNum" id="pb65">[<a href="#pb65">65</a>]</span></p> -<p class="xd31e11565">Future: -</p> -<p></p> -<div class="table"> -<table class="tbl64.1"> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft cellTop"><span lang="bo">གཏང་</span> </td> -<td class="cellTop">W </td> -<td class="cellRight cellTop"><span lang="bo">བཏང་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> shall, will give </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་</span> </td> -<td>C </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> <span class="ex">intens.</span> <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>བྱ་</span> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"> </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="cellRight">shall, will see </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft cellBottom"> </td> -<td class="cellBottom"> </td> -<td class="cellRight cellBottom"><span lang="bo">སླེབ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོང་</span>, <span lang="bo">སླེབ་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>འོང་</span> will arrive </td> -</tr> -</table> -</div><p> -</p> -<p class="xd31e11565">Imperative: -</p> -<p></p> -<div class="table"> -<table class="tbl64.1"> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft cellTop"><span lang="bo">ཐོང་</span> </td> -<td class="cellTop">W </td> -<td class="cellRight cellTop"><span lang="bo">བཏོང་</span> give! <span lang="bo">བཏོན་<wbr></wbr>བཏོང་</span> take out! <span lang="bo">བསད་<wbr></wbr>དགོས་</span> kill! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"> </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག་</span> see! <span class="ex">intens.</span> <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>བྱོས་</span> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan cellLeft cellRight cellBottom"><span class="ex">negat.</span> <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>བཏང་</span> do not give! <span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>བྱེད་</span> </td> -</tr> -</table> -</div><p> -</p> -</div> -</div> -</div> -<div class="footnotes"> -<hr class="fnsep"> -<div class="footnote-body"> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e10974"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e10974src">1</a></span> The objects of <span lang="bo">ཟ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> and <span lang="bo">འཐུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> often assume the dative-sign, cf. English ‘to feed on’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e10974src" title="Return to note 1 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -</div> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch2.7" class="div1 errata"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e959">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">Chapter VII.</h2> -<h2 class="main">The Adverb.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first"><b>42.</b> We may distinguish three classes of adverbs: 1. Primitive adverbs. 2. Adverbs formed -from Adjectives. 3. Adverbs formed from Substantives or Pronouns. -</p> -<p><span id="s42.1">1.</span> Very few Primitive Adverbs occur; the most usual are: <span lang="bo">ད་</span> ‘now’, <span lang="bo">ནམ་</span> ‘when’, <span lang="bo">སང་</span> (books and CT) or <span lang="bo">ཐོ་<wbr></wbr>རེ་</span> (WT) ‘to morrow’, and a few similar ones; <span lang="bo">ཡང་</span> ‘again’, and the two negatives <span lang="bo">མི་</span> and <span lang="bo">མ་</span>, the latter of which is used in prohibitive sentences, and with a past tense, as -<span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>གཏོང་</span> ‘(I) do not give’, <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>གཏང་</span> ‘(I) shall not give’, but: <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>བཏང་</span> ‘did not give’, <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>གཏོང་</span> (WT: <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>བཏང་</span>) ‘do not <span class="pageNum" id="pb66">[<a href="#pb66">66</a>]</span>give!’ The verbs <span lang="bo">ཡིན་</span>, <span lang="bo">ལགས་</span>, <span lang="bo">མཆིས་</span>, <span lang="bo">རེད་</span> have always <span lang="bo">མ་</span> instead of <span lang="bo">མི་</span> before them (<a href="#s40">40.</a>). Another particle of this kind, of a merely formal value, is <span lang="bo">ནི་</span>, which is added to any word or group of words in order to single it out and distinctly -separate it from everything that follows. It is, therefore, often very useful in lessening -the great indistinctness of the language, especially so when separating the subject -from the attribute: <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>ནི་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>དྭགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> ‘that man is a Ladakee’. (There is scarcely an adequate word to be found in our modern -languages, but the Greek <span class="trans" title="ge"><span lang="grc" class="grek">γε</span></span>, or <span class="trans" title="men"><span lang="grc" class="grek">μεν</span></span>—<span class="trans" title="de"><span lang="grc" class="grek">δε</span></span>—, are very similar.) In talking it is seldom heard, and, when used, in WT pronounced: -<span lang="bo">ནིང་</span>. -</p> -<p><span id="s42.2">2.</span> Adverbs may be formed from any Adjective by putting it in the Terminative case. <span lang="bo">བཟང་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> ‘good’, <span lang="bo">བཟང་<wbr></wbr>པོར་</span> ‘well’; <span lang="bo">རབ་</span> ‘principal’, <span lang="bo">རབ་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span> ‘<span class="corr" id="xd31e11927" title="Corrected by author from: principal">principally</span>, very’; <span lang="bo">དྲག་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> ‘violent’, <span lang="bo">དྲག་<wbr></wbr>པོར་</span> or <span lang="bo">དྲག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span> ‘violently’. -</p> -<p><span id="s42.3">3.</span> Nearly all the <span class="ex">local</span> Adverbs are formed from Substantives or Pronouns with some local Postposition: <span lang="bo">གོང་</span> ‘the place (space) above, upper part’, <span lang="bo">གོང་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> ‘above’, <span lang="bo">གོང་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span> ‘upwards’, <span lang="bo">གོང་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> ‘from above (downwards)’; <span lang="bo">འདི་</span> ‘this’, <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> ‘in this, here’, <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>རུ་</span>, <span lang="bo">འདིར་</span> ‘hither, here’ (cf. <a href="#s15">15.</a>), <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> ‘hence’; <span lang="bo">དེ་</span> ‘that’, <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> ‘there’, <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>རུ</span>, <span lang="bo">དེར་</span> ‘thither, there’, <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> ‘from there, thence, then, after that’. -<span class="pageNum" id="pb67">[<a href="#pb67">67</a>]</span></p> -<p><i>Note.</i> In talking the simple adjective is used, mostly, instead of its adverb (2. class): -<span lang="bo">མགྱོགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> for —<span lang="bo">པར་</span> ‘quickly, soon’. -</p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch2.8" class="div1 errata"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e971">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">Chapter VIII.</h2> -<h2 class="main">The Postposition.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p id="s43" class="first"><b>43.</b> There are two kinds of Postpositions: 1. Simple Postpositions. These are the same -that we know already as forming the cases (<a href="#s15">15</a>). 2. Compound Postpositions, formed in the manner of local Adverbs (<a href="#s42.3">42. 3</a>), with which they are, indeed, with a few exceptions, identical. -</p> -<p><span id="s43.1">1.</span> <span class="ex">Simple Postpositions.</span> These are: <span lang="bo">ལ་</span> (the affix of the Dative), <span lang="bo">ན་</span> (Locative), <span lang="bo">ནས་</span> and <span lang="bo">ལས་</span> (Ablative), <span lang="bo">རུ་</span>, <span lang="bo">ར་</span>, <span lang="bo">སུ་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཏུ་</span>, <span lang="bo">དུ་</span> (Terminative). -</p> -<p>Their use will be best seen in the following examples: -</p> -<p class="xd31e11565"><span lang="bo">༎ ལ་ ༎</span> -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ཕན་<wbr></wbr>དིལ་<wbr></wbr>མེ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>བོར་</span> WT, <span lang="bo">ཟངས་<wbr></wbr>མེ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>བཞག་</span> (inst. of <span lang="bo">ཞོག་</span> <a href="#s38n">38, Note</a>) CT ‘put the degchi on the fire!’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">བོང་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>ས་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>འགྲེའོ་</span>, vulg: <span lang="bo">འགྲེ་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span>, Tsang: <span lang="bo">བོང་<wbr></wbr>གུ་<wbr></wbr>ས་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>འགྲེ་<wbr></wbr>གིས་</span> ‘the ass rolls himself on the ground’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">རྟ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཞོན་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ནས་</span>) <span lang="bo">འགྲོ་</span> ‘having mounted on the horse (he) goes’, or ‘(he) goes on horseback’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">བྱ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>མཁའ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>འཕུར་<wbr></wbr>རོ་</span>, vulg (WT): <span lang="bo">ཅི་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> (corrupted from <span class="pageNum" id="pb68">[<a href="#pb68">68</a>]</span><span lang="bo">མཆིལ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>) <span lang="bo">ནམ་<wbr></wbr>མཁའ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>འཕུར་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span>, CT: <span lang="bo">བྱ་<wbr></wbr>ནམ་<wbr></wbr>མཁའ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>འཕིར་<wbr></wbr>གིས་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span> ‘the bird flies in the sky’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">མཚན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཆ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> WT, <span lang="bo">ནམ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>འགྲོ་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> CT ‘(we) shall set out at night’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཤིན་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>དགའ་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་</span> (books and CT), <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>མང་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>འཐད་<wbr></wbr>དེ་</span> WT ‘being very glad at this’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">སྨན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>མཁས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘skilful in medicine’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ཆང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>བོས་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span>, vulg: <span lang="bo">བོས་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span> ‘invited him to beer’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">མགོ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཟུག་<wbr></wbr>རག་<wbr></wbr>ག་</span> WT, <span lang="bo">འདུག་<wbr></wbr>གམ་</span> CT ‘is (there) ache in (your) head’, ‘have you head-ache?’ -</p> -<p class="xd31e11565"><span lang="bo">༎ ན་</span>, <span lang="bo">དུ་</span> etc. <span lang="bo">༎</span> -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ཁྱིམ་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> (or <span lang="bo">དུ་</span>) <span lang="bo">ཡོད་</span>, vulg: <span lang="bo">ཁང་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">རུ་</span>) <span lang="bo">ཡོད་</span> ‘(he) is in the house, at home’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ཁྱིམ་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span>, vulg: <span lang="bo">ཁང་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>རུ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ལ་</span>) <span lang="bo">སོང་</span> ‘go into the house, home!’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">དུས་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span>, vulg: <span lang="bo">ཞག་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག་</span> ‘at a (certain) time, once’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ད་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་<wbr></wbr>ཞག་<wbr></wbr>བདུན་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> (books) ‘from to-day in (after) seven days’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">མས་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>པང་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱེར་<wbr></wbr>ཏོ་</span>; WT: <span lang="bo">ཨ་<wbr></wbr>མས་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཚ་<wbr></wbr>པང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཁུར་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱེར་</span>; CT: <span lang="bo">ཨ་<wbr></wbr>མས་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>པང་<wbr></wbr>ཀར་<wbr></wbr>ཁུར་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span> ‘the mother carried the son in (her) arms’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">དེའི་<wbr></wbr>དུས་<wbr></wbr>སུ་</span>, vulg: <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>དུས་</span> ‘at that time’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ལོ་<wbr></wbr>བདུན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> (books, for vulg. see Compound adv.) ‘for seven years’. -<span class="pageNum" id="pb69">[<a href="#pb69">69</a>]</span></p> -<p><span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོར་<wbr></wbr>བཅུག་<wbr></wbr>གོ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">བསྐོས་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span>), W: <span lang="bo">རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>བཏག་</span> ‘(they) made (or selected, raised) that man to (be) king’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ཡོ་<wbr></wbr>བྱད་<wbr></wbr>སྔས་<wbr></wbr>སུ་<wbr></wbr>བཅུག་<wbr></wbr>གོ་</span>, CT: <span lang="bo">འཁྱོ་<wbr></wbr>བྱད་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ཆ་<wbr></wbr>ལག་</span>) <span lang="bo">སྔས་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>བཅུག་</span> ‘they made (their) luggage into a pillow, used it as a pillow’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">གང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ག་<wbr></wbr>རུ་</span>) <span lang="bo">འགྲོ་</span>, WT: <span lang="bo">ག་<wbr></wbr>རུ་<wbr></wbr>ཆ་<wbr></wbr>མཁན་</span> (s. <a href="#s35.2.b">35. 2. <i>b</i></a>, <span lang="bo">ཡིན་</span> omitted, <a href="#s40.1.a">40. 1. <i>a</i></a>), CT: <span lang="bo">ག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>འགྲོ་<wbr></wbr>གིས་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> (<span lang="bo">པ་</span> or <span lang="bo">པས་</span>, provincial irregularities <a href="#s35.2.c">35. 2. <i>c</i></a>) ‘where are (you) going?’ -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>ཏི་<wbr></wbr>ནོར་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ཁོག་<wbr></wbr>སར་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span>) <span lang="bo">འགྲུལ་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span> (vulg.) ‘I am going to Tino (or Kʽoksar)’. -</p> -<p class="xd31e11565"><span lang="bo">༎ ནས་ ༎</span> -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ཟླ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>བརྒྱད་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> ‘after eight months’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ཟླ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>བརྒྱད་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> ‘from (after) the eighth month’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ཐོག་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> (books and CT), WT: <span lang="bo">མགོ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> ‘from the beginning’. -</p> -<p class="xd31e11565"><span lang="bo">༎ ལས་ ༎</span> -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">དཀར་<wbr></wbr>ཁུང་<wbr></wbr>ལས་</span> ‘from the window, through the window’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">འཁོར་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>འགྲོལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span>, vulg: <span lang="bo">༌༌༌ནས་<wbr></wbr>བསྒྲལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to deliver from the circulation (transmigration)’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">པ་<wbr></wbr>གུ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>ཁང་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>རྩིག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, WT: <span lang="bo">ནས་</span>, Tsang: <span lang="bo">པ་<wbr></wbr>གུའི་<wbr></wbr>ནང་<wbr></wbr>རྩིག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to build a house out of brick (Ts: a house of brick)’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">མདོ་<wbr></wbr>ཟ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཏོག་<wbr></wbr>ལས་</span> ‘from the sūtra Zamatog’. -<span class="pageNum" id="pb70">[<a href="#pb70">70</a>]</span></p> -<p><span lang="bo">སློབ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span> (vulg: <span lang="bo">སློབ་<wbr></wbr>མའི་<wbr></wbr>ནང་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་</span>) ‘one of (from among) the pupils’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ཀུན་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>མཁས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> (books and CT), WT: <span lang="bo">ཚང་<wbr></wbr>མའི་<wbr></wbr>སང་<wbr></wbr>མཁས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘wiser than all, the wisest, most skilful of all’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ལུས་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span> ‘more than two are not left’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་</span> ‘more than myself are not’. -</p> -<p>Besides these <span lang="bo">དང་</span> ‘with’ is to be mentioned as Simple Postposition: thus, <span lang="bo">ཁྱེའུ་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span>, WT: <span lang="bo">ཁྱོག་<wbr></wbr>ཐོང་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>ལབ་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་</span> ‘speaking (conversing) with the youth’; <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>དང་</span> ‘with me’, or, in fuller form, <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>ལྷན་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span>, <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>བཅས་<wbr></wbr>སུ་</span> vulg: <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>མཉམ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> ‘together with me’. In WT it is even used for the instrumental when the real instrument -(tool) of an action is meant, e.g. <span lang="bo">རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོས་<wbr></wbr>བློན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>རལ་<wbr></wbr>གྲིས་<wbr></wbr>བསད་</span> so in books, but WT: <span lang="bo">རལ་<wbr></wbr>གྲི་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>བསད་</span> ‘the king killed the minister with the sword’. It is, moreover, added to many Adjectives -and Verbs, when we use the Accusative or Dative or other Prepositions, e.g. <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>འདྲ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘like (with) that, similar to that’. With an Infinitive it denotes the synchronism -of the action with another one, <span lang="bo">ཉི་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཤར་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>དང་</span> ‘with the sun rising, at sunrise’; <span lang="bo">གཉིད་<wbr></wbr>སོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>དང་</span> ‘with (on) their going to sleep, when they went to sleep’; <span lang="bo">ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱིམ་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span> ‘(with) saying so he went home’ or also ‘he said so, and went home’. Often it is -found with <span class="pageNum" id="pb71">[<a href="#pb71">71</a>]</span>an Imperative, without any perceptible signification, if it is not to be regarded -as a substitute for <span lang="bo">ཅིག་</span> (<a href="#s38">38</a>): <span lang="bo">ད་<wbr></wbr>ཟོ་<wbr></wbr>དང་</span> ‘now eat!’ For its use as a conjunction see the next chapter. -</p> -<p><span id="s43.2">2.</span> <span class="ex">Compound Postpositions.</span> These may conveniently be grouped in two classes: <span><i>a</i>)</span> Local Compound Postpositions, which are virtually the same as the Local Adverbs specified -in <a href="#s42.3">42. 3</a>.: thus, <span lang="bo">ནང་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> ‘in (the midst of)’, <span lang="bo">ནང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> ‘into’ also ‘in’, <span lang="bo">ནང་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> ‘from, out of’. The most usual ones will be seen in the following examples: -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">རྫིང་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>ནང་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> (or <span lang="bo">དུ་</span>) <span lang="bo">ཁྲུས་<wbr></wbr>བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to bathe in a pond’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ཆུའི་<wbr></wbr>ནང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>ཞུགས་</span> ‘he entered into the water’ (both in books and common talk). -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ལྷའི་<wbr></wbr>ནང་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>གཙོ་<wbr></wbr>བོ་</span> ‘the lord among the gods’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ཁང་<wbr></wbr>པའི་<wbr></wbr>ནང་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>འཐོན་</span> (or <span lang="bo">འབྱུང་</span>) vulg. ‘(he) comes (emerges) out of the house’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">སྒོའི་<wbr></wbr>གོང་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ན་</span>, or <span lang="bo">ལ་</span>) ‘above the door’ (books and vulg., but more usual in WT: <span lang="bo">སྒོ་<wbr></wbr>ལྟག་</span>, CT <span lang="bo">སྒོ་<wbr></wbr>ཐོད་</span>). -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ཡབ་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>གོང་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>འདས་</span>, vulg.: <span lang="bo">ཡབ་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>སྔན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ལྔུན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span>, CT also <span lang="bo">གདོང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> ‘he died before his father’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">པདྨའི་<wbr></wbr>སྟེང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ན་</span>, or <span lang="bo">ཐོག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span>, or <span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>རུ་</span>) <span lang="bo">བཞུགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, vulg., in WT: <span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>ཐོག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> (<span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>ཐོད་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span>), CT: <span lang="bo">དགེང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> ‘to sit on a lotus-flower’. -<span class="pageNum" id="pb72">[<a href="#pb72">72</a>]</span></p> -<p><span lang="bo">སྒོའི་<wbr></wbr>འགྲམ་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ལ་</span>, or <span lang="bo">ན་</span>) (books and talk) ‘beside, near the door’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ཤིང་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>དྲུང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span>, vulg.: <span lang="bo">མདུན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span>, <span lang="bo">རྩ་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span>, <span lang="bo">རྩར་</span> ‘under a tree’ (literally: ‘in front, by the side, of a tree’). -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ཞལ་<wbr></wbr>ཆེ་<wbr></wbr>པའི་<wbr></wbr>དྲུང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> (<span lang="bo">མདུན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span>) <span lang="bo">འཁྲིད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to take before the judge’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ཟླ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>བརྒྱད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>རྗེས་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> CT, <span lang="bo">རྟིང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> WT ‘after eight months’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ཟླ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>སྔན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">སྔུན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span>) vulg. ‘before two months, two months ago’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">སའི་<wbr></wbr>འོག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>གཏེར་<wbr></wbr>སྦེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> books and CT, WT: <span lang="bo">སའི་<wbr></wbr>འོག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>གཏེར་<wbr></wbr>སྦ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to hide a treasure below the ground’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">སའི་<wbr></wbr>འོག་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>འབྱུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> CT, WT: <span lang="bo">སའི་<wbr></wbr>ཡོག་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>འཐོན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to emerge, come out, from below the ground’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ཆུའི་<wbr></wbr>ཕ་<wbr></wbr>རོལ་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> books and CT, in CT also: <span lang="bo">ཕར་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱོགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, WT: <span lang="bo">ཕར་<wbr></wbr>ཁ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཕར་<wbr></wbr>ངོས་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> ‘beyond the water, river’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ཆུའི་<wbr></wbr>ཚུ་<wbr></wbr>རོལ་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> books and CT, WT: <span lang="bo">ཚུར་<wbr></wbr>ཁ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> ‘on this side of the water’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ཞག་<wbr></wbr>གསུམ་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">ནས་</span>) <span lang="bo">ཐང་<wbr></wbr>དེའི་<wbr></wbr>ཕ་<wbr></wbr>རོལ་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱིན་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>རོ་</span>, CT: <span lang="bo">ཕ་<wbr></wbr>རོལ་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>སླེབ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོང་</span>, WT: <span lang="bo">ཕར་<wbr></wbr>ཁ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>སླེབ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> ‘in (after) three days he will arrive beyond this plain, will have crossed it’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ཁང་<wbr></wbr>པའི་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱོགས་<wbr></wbr>བཞི་<wbr></wbr>རུ་</span> ‘in the four regions of the house, roundabout’. -<span class="pageNum" id="pb73">[<a href="#pb73">73</a>]</span></p> -<p><span lang="bo">ཡུལ་<wbr></wbr>དེའི་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱོགས་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>སོང་</span> ‘go in the direction of, towards, that village’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ལོ་<wbr></wbr>བདུན་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span>, CT: <span lang="bo">ལོ་<wbr></wbr>བདུན་<wbr></wbr>ཐུག་(པ་)</span>, WT: <span lang="bo">༌༌༌ཚུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘for seven years’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>དེའི་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span>, CT: <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>ཐུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, WT: <span lang="bo">ཨི་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>ཨ་<wbr></wbr>ཚུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘from this to that’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>ཉུང་<wbr></wbr>ཏི་<wbr></wbr>རུ་<wbr></wbr>ཆ་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>ཚུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> WT<span class="corr" id="xd31e12651" title="Source: ,">:</span> ‘till I go to Kullu’. -</p> -<p><span id="s43.2.b"><i>b</i>)</span> General Compound Postpositions, expressive of the general relations of things and -persons. They are formed in the same manner as the Local ones, from substantives, -adjectives, and even verbs. Their use may be learned from the following examples: -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ངའི་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱིར་(དུ་)</span> or <span lang="bo">དོན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> books and CT, WT: <span lang="bo">ངའི་<wbr></wbr>ཕི་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> ‘for me, in my behalf, for my sake, on my account’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ནད་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>ནི་<wbr></wbr>ཅིའི་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱིར་<wbr></wbr>བྱུང་</span>, WT: <span lang="bo">ཅིའི་<wbr></wbr>ཕི་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོངས་</span>, CT: <span lang="bo">གང་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>རོན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>བྱུང་</span> ‘for what reason has that illness come? what is the cause of etc.?’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">སེམས་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>ཐམས་<wbr></wbr>ཅད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>དོན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> ‘in behalf of all living beings’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ཤིང་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>ཚབ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>རྡོ་</span> (WT: <span lang="bo">རྡོ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span>) <span lang="bo">བཏོང་</span> ‘give (apply) stone instead of wood’. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">བཞིན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> ‘according to, like, as’—<span lang="bo">རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>བཀའ་<wbr></wbr>བཞིན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>བྱས་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span> ‘doing according to the word of the king’; <span lang="bo">དེ་</span><span class="pageNum" id="pb74">[<a href="#pb74">74</a>]</span><span lang="bo">བཞིན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> ‘according to that, like that, thus, so’; <span lang="bo">སྔ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>བཞིན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span> ‘as formerly, as before’; instead of it the dialect of WT uses <span lang="bo">ནང་<wbr></wbr>ལྟར་</span>, generally with the Genitive, thus the last example there would be: <span lang="bo">སྔན་<wbr></wbr>མའི་<wbr></wbr>ནང་<wbr></wbr>ལྟར་</span>. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">ལྟར་</span> ‘like’, <span lang="bo">རི་<wbr></wbr>ལྟར་</span> ‘like a hill’; <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>ལྟར་</span>, <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>ལྟར་</span> ‘like this, like that, thus, so<span class="corr" id="xd31e12730" title="Not in source">’</span>, <span lang="bo">ཅི་<wbr></wbr>ལྟར་</span>, CT: <span lang="bo">གང་<wbr></wbr>ལྟར་</span> ‘like what? how? in what manner?’. -</p> -<p>In the dialect of WT <span lang="bo">མཚོགས་</span> or <span lang="bo">མཚོགས་<wbr></wbr>སེ་</span> is used instead (which is a corruption of <span lang="bo">མཚོངས་</span>, occurring in books with the same meaning): thus, <span lang="bo">རི་<wbr></wbr>མཚོགས་<wbr></wbr>སེ་</span> ‘like a hill’; <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>མཚོགས་</span>, <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>མཚོགས་</span> ‘thus’; or <span lang="bo">ཟུག་</span> (properly <span lang="bo">ཙུག་</span>), <span lang="bo">ཨི་<wbr></wbr>ཟུག་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཨ་<wbr></wbr>ཟུག་</span> ‘thus’, <span lang="bo">ག་<wbr></wbr>ཟུག་</span> ‘how?’. -</p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch2.9" class="div1 errata"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e983">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">Chapter IX.</h2> -<h2 class="main">The Conjunction.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p id="s44" class="first"><b>44.</b> The written language possesses very few, the spoken still fewer, Conjunctions, most -of which are coordinative. The common word for ‘and’ is <span lang="bo">དང་</span> which we have seen above in the sense of ‘with’, <span lang="bo">གསེར་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། དངུལ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། ལྕགས་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>སོགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘gold and silver and iron and collection (i.e. and so on)’, though the position of -the <i lang="bo-latn">s̀ad</i> (<a href="#s10">10</a>.) <span class="ex">after</span> the word <span lang="bo">དང་</span> shows that it is always considered as belonging to the preceding member of the sentence, -similar, <span class="ex">in <span class="pageNum" id="pb75">[<a href="#pb75">75</a>]</span>this respect</span>, to the Latin ‘<span lang="la">que</span>’; nor can it in any case begin a sentence. Very seldom, and only in later literature, -it appears as combining two verbs, if not, indeed, the root ought to be regarded there -as abbreviation for the infinitive. Further: <span lang="bo">ཡང་</span> ‘also, too’. When belonging to a single word or notion it is put after it in an enclitical -way like ‘<span lang="la">quoque</span>’ in Latin. It is changed according to the termination of the preceding word, into -<span lang="bo">ཀྱང་</span> after <span lang="bo">ག་ ད་ བ་ ས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e12822src" href="#xd31e12822">1</a>, into <span lang="bo">འང་</span> often after vowels (cf. <a href="#s6">6</a>). Thus: <span lang="bo">བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱང་<wbr></wbr>ཁྲིད་<wbr></wbr>དེ་</span> ‘taking also a son (with him)’. When repeated, it has the signification of Latin -‘<span lang="la">et—et—</span>’, <span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>ཡང་<wbr></wbr>ཤི། བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡང་<wbr></wbr>ཤིའོ༎</span> ‘both mother and son died’. Often, especially in negative sentences, it means ‘even’, -<span lang="bo">གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱང་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>རྙེད་<wbr></wbr>དོ་</span> ‘even one (they) did not find—not even one’. This is the only means for expressing -‘none, no, nothing’, <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>སུ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">གང་</span>) <span lang="bo">ཡང་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>འོངས་</span> (resp. <span lang="bo">ཡོངས་</span><span class="corr" id="xd31e12865" title="Not in source">)</span> ‘nobody came’; <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>ཅི་<wbr></wbr>ཡང་</span> (<span lang="bo">ཅིའང་</span>, or <span lang="bo">ཅང་</span>) <span lang="bo">མེད་</span> ‘there is nothing’ (cf. <a href="#s29">29</a>). When combined with verbs, <span lang="bo">བཙལ་<wbr></wbr>ཡང་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>རྙེད་<wbr></wbr>དོ་</span> ‘even searching (they) did not find’, it serves as another expression for ‘though’ -or also ‘but’ (s. <a href="#s41.a.7.b">41. A. 7. <i>b</i></a>): thus, ‘though they searched, they etc.’ or ‘they searched, but they etc.’. Standing -<span class="pageNum" id="pb76">[<a href="#pb76">76</a>]</span>for itself (not leaning on the preceding word) it means ‘again, once more’ (when it -is to be regarded as adverb), <span lang="bo">དེར་<wbr></wbr>ཡང་<wbr></wbr>འཁམས་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> ‘there (I) fainting once more etc.’. In the beginning of a sentence it is ‘and, again, -moreover’, and may occasionally be rendered by ‘however, but’. <span lang="bo">ཡང་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span>, ‘or’; repeated, <span lang="bo">ཡང་<wbr></wbr>ན༌༌༌༌ ཡང་<wbr></wbr>ན༌༌༌༌</span> ‘either—or—’.—‘Or’ is expressed also by the interrogative affix of the finite verb -(<a href="#s34.1">34. 1</a>.), <span lang="bo">འམ་</span> etc., <span lang="bo">གསེར་<wbr></wbr>དངུལ་<wbr></wbr>འམ། ཟངས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>བུམ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> ‘a bottle of gold, silver, or copper’.—<span lang="bo">འོན་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱང་</span> ‘nevertheless, but’, vulg: <span lang="bo">ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱང་</span> occurs much less frequently in Tibetan than in the European languages. -</p> -<p>The only <span class="ex">Subordinate Conjunctions</span> are: <span>1.</span> <span lang="bo">གལ་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span> ‘if’, introducing conditional sentences ending in <span lang="bo">ན་</span> (<span class="corr" id="xd31e12931" title="Source: 40. 1. A. 4"><a href="#s41.a.4">41. A. 4</a></span>). But, as the conditional force really rests on the closing <span lang="bo">ན་</span>, the initial <span lang="bo">གལ་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span> may be put or omitted at pleasure; <span>2.</span> <span lang="bo">ཅི་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་</span> ‘but if’; <span lang="bo">གལ་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་<wbr></wbr>ནུས་<wbr></wbr>ན༌༌༌༌</span> ‘if I can …’, <span lang="bo">ཅི་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>ནུས་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span> ‘but if not …’; this last is found only in books. -</p> -</div> -<div class="footnotes"> -<hr class="fnsep"> -<div class="footnote-body"> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e12822"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e12822src">1</a></span> This is not very carefully observed even in good mscr. and prints, where <span lang="bo">ཡང་</span> will occur sometimes after <span lang="bo">ག་</span> etc., and <span lang="bo">ཀྱང་</span> after the other consonants and even after vowels. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e12822src" title="Return to note 1 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -</div> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch2.10" class="div1 errata"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e995">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">Chapter X.</h2> -<h2 class="main">The Interjection.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first"><b>45.</b> The most common Interjection is <span lang="bo">ཀྱེ་</span>, or, repeated, <span lang="bo">ཀྱེ་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱེ་</span> ‘oh!, alas!’ used also before the Vocative. The language of common life uses instead: -<span lang="bo">ཝ་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">wa</i>, or <span lang="bo">ཝའི་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">wä</i>. -<span class="pageNum" id="pb77">[<a href="#pb77">77</a>]</span> </p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="ch2.11" class="div1 last-child errata"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e1005">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="label">Chapter XI.</h2> -<h2 class="main">Derivation.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p id="s46" class="first"><b>46. Derivation of Substantives.</b> As most of what belongs under this head has already been mentioned in <a href="#s11">11</a>. and <a href="#s12">12</a>. only the formation of abstract nouns remains to be spoken of. <span>1.</span> The unaltered adjective may be used as an abstract noun, especially with the article -<span lang="bo">བ་</span>, as: <span lang="bo">གྲང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>དྲོ་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་</span> ‘the cold is changed into warmth’.—To this may be added the pronoun <span lang="bo">ཉིད་</span> (<span lang="bo">གྲང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ཉིད་</span> ‘ipsum frigidum’); but this is used scarcely anywhere else than in metaphysical treatises, -from whence a few expressions, such as <span lang="bo">སྟོང་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཉིད་</span> ‘the vacuum, the absolute rest in deliverance from existence’ have become more generally -known.—<span>2.</span> In the case of two correlative ideas existing, frequently the compound of both is -used, esp. in common talk, <span lang="bo">ཆེ་<wbr></wbr>ཆུང་</span> ‘size’ (lit. ‘large and small’), <span lang="bo">སྦོམ་<wbr></wbr>ཕྲ་</span> ‘thickness’ (‘thick and thin’), e.g. <span lang="bo">ཆེ་<wbr></wbr>ཆུང་<wbr></wbr>ནི་<wbr></wbr>ཡུངས་<wbr></wbr>འབྲུ་<wbr></wbr>ཙམ་</span> ‘the size as much as a mustard-seed’.—<span>3.</span> <span lang="bo">ཁྱད་</span> ‘difference’ (or, sometimes, <span lang="bo">ཚད་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཚོད་</span> ‘measure’) is added, <span lang="bo">མཐོ་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱད་</span> ‘height’, <span lang="bo">ཕྱུག་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱད་</span> ‘wealth, riches’.—<span>4.</span> Mental qualities are in most cases paraphrased by <span lang="bo">སེམས་</span>, or <span lang="bo">བློ་</span> with a genitive, <span lang="bo">བཟོད་<wbr></wbr>པའི་<wbr></wbr>སེམས་</span> ‘mind of suffering, enduring, i.e. patience’, <span lang="bo">མཁས་<wbr></wbr>པའི་<wbr></wbr>བློ་</span> ‘wise mind, wisdom, skill’; <span lang="bo">དགའ་<wbr></wbr>བའི་<wbr></wbr>སེམས་</span> ‘mind of rejoicing, <span class="pageNum" id="pb78">[<a href="#pb78">78</a>]</span>joy’ (vulg: <span lang="bo">སེམས་<wbr></wbr>དགའ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span>), <span lang="bo">དད་<wbr></wbr>པའི་<wbr></wbr>སེམས་</span> ‘mind of belief (also ‘a believing mind’), faith’.—<span>5.</span> <span class="ex">Diminutives</span> are formed by adding the termination <span lang="bo">འུ་</span>, often with an alteration of the preceding vowel: <span lang="bo">རྟ་</span> ‘horse’, <span lang="bo">རྟེའུ་</span> ‘little horse, foal’; <span lang="bo">མི་</span> ‘man’, <span lang="bo">མིའུ་</span> ‘little man, dwarf’; <span lang="bo">རྡོ་</span> ‘stone’, <span lang="bo">རྡེའུ་</span> ‘small stone, calculus’. If a word ends with a consonant, only <i>u</i> is added, and a new syllable formed: <span lang="bo">ལུག་</span> ‘sheep’, <span lang="bo">ལུ་<wbr></wbr>གུ་</span> ‘lamb’. -</p> -<p id="s47"><b>47. Derivation of Adjectives.</b> <span>1.</span> <span class="ex">Possessive</span> adjectives are regularly expressed by adding the syllable <span lang="bo">ཅན་</span>, or the phrase <span lang="bo">དང་<wbr></wbr>ལྡན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, abridged <span lang="bo">ལྡན་</span> to any substantive, <span lang="bo">མགོ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་</span> ‘having a head’; <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>མགོ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་</span> ‘having the head of a man’; <span lang="bo">སྐྲ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་</span> ‘having hair, (long-)haired’; <span lang="bo">རིག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་</span>, <span lang="bo">རིག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>ལྡན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘possessing knowledge, learned, wise’; <span lang="bo">དང་<wbr></wbr>ལྡན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> is never heard in common talk in WT.—<span>2.</span> Adjectives of appurtenance are generally expressed by the genitive of the substantive, -<span lang="bo">གསེར་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་</span> ‘of gold, golden’; <span lang="bo">ཤའི་<wbr></wbr>མིག་</span> ‘the eye of flesh, the carnal, bodily eye’, oppos.: <span lang="bo">ཤེས་<wbr></wbr>རབ་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>མིག་</span> ‘the eye of knowledge, spiritual eye’.—<span>3.</span> Negative, or privative adjectives are formed in several ways: <span><i>a</i>)</span> by the simple negative <span lang="bo">མི་</span>, <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>འོས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘unworthy’; <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>རུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘unfit’; <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>ཐོས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘unheard of’. <span id="s47.3.b"><i>b</i>)</span> by adding <span lang="bo">མེད་</span> ‘without’<span class="corr" id="xd31e13192" title="Not in source">,</span> <span class="pageNum" id="pb79">[<a href="#pb79">79</a>]</span><span lang="bo">མགོ་<wbr></wbr>མེད་</span> ‘headless’; <span lang="bo">སྐྱོན་<wbr></wbr>མེད་</span> ‘faultless’. <span><i>c</i>)</span> by adding the verb <span lang="bo">བྲལ་(བ་)</span> ‘separated from’, <span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>བྲལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span>, <span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>བྲལ་</span> ‘separated from the body, bodiless’.—<span>4.</span> The English adjectives in <i>-able</i>, <i>-ible</i> are expressed by <span lang="bo">རུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to be fit’, added to the Supine, or to the simple Root, <span lang="bo">འཐང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>རུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span>, <span lang="bo">འཐུང་<wbr></wbr>རུང་</span> ‘fit for drinking, drinkable’, <span class="ex">vulgo</span>: <span lang="bo">འཐུང་<wbr></wbr>ཉན་</span> (from <span lang="bo">ཉན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to be able’), <span lang="bo">འཐུང་<wbr></wbr>ཆོག་</span> (<span lang="bo">ཆོག་</span> ‘permitted, lawful’). -<span class="pageNum" id="pb80">[<a href="#pb80">80</a>]</span> </p> -</div> -</div> -</div> -<div id="pt3" class="div0 last-child part"> -<h2 class="label">Part III.</h2> -<h2 class="main">Syntax.</h2> -<p id="s48" class="first"><b>48. Arrangement of words.</b> <span>1.</span> The invariable rule is this: in a simple sentence all other words must precede the -verb; in a compound one all the subordinate verbs in the form of gerunds or supines, -and all the coordinate verbs in the form of the root, each closing its own respective -clause, must precede the governing verb (examples s. below).—<span>2.</span> The order in which the different cases of substantives belonging to a <span class="ex">verb</span> are to be arranged, is rather optional, so that e.g. the agent may either precede -or follow its object. Local and temporal adverbs or adverbial phrases are, if possible, -put at the head of the sentence.—<span>3.</span> The order of words belonging to a substantive is this: <span class="small">1<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span></span> The Genitive, <span class="small">2.</span> the governing Substantive, <span class="small">3.</span> the Adjective (unless this is itself put, in the genitive, before; <a href="#s16">16</a>), <span class="small">4.</span> the Pronoun, <span class="small">5.</span> the Numeral, <span class="small">6.</span> the indefinite Article: thus, <span lang="bo">ངའི་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་<wbr></wbr>ཆུང་<wbr></wbr>ངུ་<wbr></wbr>འདི་</span> ‘this my little daughter’; <span lang="bo">གོས་<wbr></wbr>དམར་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་</span> ‘a red gown’; <span lang="bo">གོས་<wbr></wbr>དམར་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> or <span lang="bo">དམར་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>གོས་</span> ‘the red gown’; <span lang="bo">རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>ཁམས་<wbr></wbr>ཆེན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>འདི་<wbr></wbr>གསུམ་</span> ‘these three great kingdoms’. Adverbs precede the word they belong to: <span lang="bo">ཤིན་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>ཆེན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span> ‘very great’; <span lang="bo">ཤིན་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>མགྱོགས་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>ཤོག་</span> ‘come very quickly’.—<span class="pageNum" id="pb81">[<a href="#pb81">81</a>]</span><span>4.</span> In correlative sentences (cf. <a href="#s29">29</a>) the Relative precedes the Demonstrative: <span lang="bo">གང་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>ཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་</span> ‘what there is, give!’ i.e. ‘give whatever you have’, and in comparative sentences -the thing with which another is compared, ordinarily precedes this (cf. <a href="#s17">17</a>). -</p> -<p id="s49"><b>49. Use of the cases.</b> As the necessary observations about the instrumental have been made in <a href="#s30">30</a>, about the other cases and postpositions partly in <a href="#s15">15</a>, partly in <a href="#s43">43</a>, it is only the Accusative, that requires a few words more, as it is very often used -absolutely (as in Greek). <span><i>a</i>)</span> <span class="ex">Acc. temporalis</span>: <span lang="bo">མཚན་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span> ‘at night’; <span lang="bo">གསོན་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>ཚེ་</span> ‘during (his etc.) lifetime’; <span lang="bo">དེའི་<wbr></wbr>ཚེ</span>, <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>དུས་</span> ‘at that time’; <span lang="bo">ཉི་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>བསླབས་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span> ‘having studied for one day, after one day’s study’.—<span><i>b</i>)</span> <span class="ex">Acc. modalis</span>: <span lang="bo">དབྱིབས་<wbr></wbr>ཟླུམ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘regarding the size, round’; <span lang="bo">གཏིང་<wbr></wbr>ཟབ་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱད་<wbr></wbr>ཁྲུ་<wbr></wbr>བརྒྱད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘regarding the depth, eight cubits’ (cf. <a href="#s12">12</a>); <span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>དོག་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ལྟ་<wbr></wbr>བུར་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘regarding colour, being like smoke’ (cf. <a href="#s50.1.a">50, 1, <i>a</i></a>); <span lang="bo">རིགས་<wbr></wbr>མཐུན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘with regard to (his) birth, equal’ i.e<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span> ‘of equal birth’. Here <span lang="bo">ནི་</span> (<a href="#s42.1">42. 1</a>) is very often employed: <span lang="bo">དབྱིབས་<wbr></wbr>ནི་<wbr></wbr>ཟླུམ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> etc. Nearly in all cases, however, postpositions may be added, and in talking they -are preferred to the simple Accusative: <span lang="bo">མཚན་<wbr></wbr>མོ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span>, <span lang="bo">མཚན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span>, <span lang="bo">དེའི་<wbr></wbr>ཚེ་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span>, <span lang="bo">དབྱིབས་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span> etc. -<span class="pageNum" id="pb82">[<a href="#pb82">82</a>]</span></p> -<p id="s50"><b>50. Simple Sentences.</b>—<span>1.</span> <span class="ex">Affirmative sentences.</span>—<span id="s50.1.a"><i>a</i>)</span> the attribute being a noun, the verb: <i>to be</i>, <i>become</i>, <i>remain</i> etc.; <span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>འདི་<wbr></wbr>ནི་<wbr></wbr>མཁས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> ‘this man is wise’; <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>ནི་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>མཁས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> ‘this is a wise man’. When the verb is <span lang="bo">འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> (to become), <span lang="bo">གནས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> (to remain) etc. the attribute must be put in the Terminative: <span lang="bo">སྐྲ་<wbr></wbr>དཀར་<wbr></wbr>པོར་<wbr></wbr>གྱུར་<wbr></wbr>ཏོ་</span> ‘(his) hair became white’; <span lang="bo">རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>ཡི་<wbr></wbr>དམ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>བརྟན་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>གནས་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span>, <span class="ex">vulg</span>: <span lang="bo">བརྟན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>གནས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་</span> ‘the king remained steadfast on his vow’; in some special cases this may take place, -even if the verb is simply ‘to be’: <span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>གཟུགས་<wbr></wbr>ཐམས་<wbr></wbr>ཅད་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>འདྲ་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ། རྐང་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>འབའ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>ཁྲ་<wbr></wbr>བོར་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་<wbr></wbr>གོ་</span> ‘while his whole shape was like a man’s, his foot only was piebald’. <span><i>b</i>)</span> the attribute being any other verb: <span lang="bo">རྒྱ་<wbr></wbr>ནག་<wbr></wbr>ཡུལ་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>སྔ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>གིས་<wbr></wbr>ཡུལ་<wbr></wbr>དེའི་<wbr></wbr>བྱང་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱོགས་<wbr></wbr>སུ་<wbr></wbr>ལྕགས་<wbr></wbr>རི་<wbr></wbr>ཤིན་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>ཆེན་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>བརྩིགས་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span> ‘an ancient king of China built a very large wall in the north of that country’. -</p> -<p><span>2.</span> <span class="ex">Interrogative sentences.</span>—<span><i>a</i>)</span> <span class="ex">simple</span>: <span lang="bo">ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཁང་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་<wbr></wbr>གམ་</span> ‘is your son in the house?’; <span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>རུ་<wbr></wbr>སུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་</span> ‘who is there?’; <span lang="bo">ཅི་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོང་</span> ‘what do you come for?’, ‘what do you want?’.—<span lang="bo">རིན་<wbr></wbr>ཙམ་</span> W (<span lang="bo">རིན་<wbr></wbr>ག་<wbr></wbr>ཚོད་</span> C) ‘how much (is) the price?’. -</p> -<p>Besides the affix <i>am</i> the later literature and the conversational <span class="pageNum" id="pb83">[<a href="#pb83">83</a>]</span>language of CT has the accentuated interrogative particle <span lang="bo">ཨེ་</span> <i>ĕ́</i>, immediately before the verb: <span lang="bo">ཐབས་<wbr></wbr>ཨེ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">tʽab ĕ́ yöʼ</i> ‘is there any means …?’; <span lang="bo">ལས་<wbr></wbr>འདི་<wbr></wbr>བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>ཨེ་<wbr></wbr>ནུས་</span> <i lang="bo-latn">lā̤ di j̀ĕʼ ĕ́ nṳ̄</i> ‘can you do this work?’. -</p> -<p>The form of a question is also used to express uncertain suppositions (likely to become -realized), as: <span lang="bo">རྗེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>སྲིད་<wbr></wbr>དམ་</span> ‘is forgetting possible?’ for ‘he may possibly have forgotten it’; <span lang="bo">ཤི་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>ནམ་</span> ‘won’t he die?’; <span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>བདུད་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>ནམ་</span> ‘this (apparition) is not the devil, I hope?’. -</p> -<p><span><i>b</i>)</span> <span class="ex">double</span>: <span lang="bo">ནང་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་<wbr></wbr>དམ་<wbr></wbr>མེད་</span> ‘is (he) within or not?’; <span lang="bo">བདག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>སྦྱིན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>རུང་<wbr></wbr>ངམ་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>རུང་</span> ‘is it agreeable (to you i.e. do you consent) to give me (your son) or not?’; <span lang="bo">ང་<wbr></wbr>འོངས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>དགའ་<wbr></wbr>འམ་<wbr></wbr>ཅི་<wbr></wbr>ཉེས་</span> ‘are you sorry at my arrival, or what (else) is the matter (with you—because you -weep)?’. -</p> -<p><span>3.</span> Imperative and Optative or Precative sentences do not require any additional remarks -besides what is said in <a href="#s38">38</a>. -</p> -<p id="s51"><b>51. Compound Sentences.</b> After having examined in <a href="#s41">41</a> the different gerunds as the constituent parts of compound sentences, a few examples -will suffice for illustration. -</p> -<p><span>1.</span> Compound sentences, for the most part coordinative: <span lang="bo">རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོས་<wbr></wbr>ཁྲིམས་<wbr></wbr>བཅའ་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13577src" href="#xd31e13577">1</a><span lang="bo">། བཟང་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13588src" href="#xd31e13588">2</a><span lang="bo">ལ་<wbr></wbr>བྱ་<wbr></wbr>དགའ་<wbr></wbr>སྟེར། ངན་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span><span class="pageNum" id="pb84">[<a href="#pb84">84</a>]</span><span lang="bo">ཆད་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>གཅོད</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13598src" href="#xd31e13598">3</a><span lang="bo">། བྲེ་<wbr></wbr>སྲང་<wbr></wbr>གཏན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཕབ</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13612src" href="#xd31e13612">4</a><span lang="bo">། མི་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཡི་<wbr></wbr>གེ་<wbr></wbr>བསླབས་<wbr></wbr>སོ</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13621src" href="#xd31e13621">5</a><span lang="bo">༎</span> ‘The king having given a law, the good were given rewards, the bad punished, measures -and weights arranged, and people taught letters (i.e. reading and writing)’. -</p> -<p><span>2.</span> subordinate sentences: <span lang="bo">དེར་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13637src" href="#xd31e13637">6</a><span lang="bo">བུད་<wbr></wbr>མེད་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>ཤིག་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13643src" href="#xd31e13643">7</a><span lang="bo">བུ་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>རྩོད་<wbr></wbr>དེ། རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>བློ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13650src" href="#xd31e13650">8</a><span lang="bo">མཁས་<wbr></wbr>པས་<wbr></wbr>བརྟག་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13657src" href="#xd31e13657">9</a><span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>སྐད་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13667src" href="#xd31e13667">10</a><span lang="bo">བསྒོའོ། །ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>བུའི་<wbr></wbr>ལག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>རེ་<wbr></wbr>རེ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>བཟུང་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ། དྲོངས་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13673src" href="#xd31e13673">11</a><span lang="bo">གང་<wbr></wbr>གིས་<wbr></wbr>ཐོབ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13688src" href="#xd31e13688">12</a><span lang="bo">བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱེར་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13694src" href="#xd31e13694">13</a><span lang="bo">ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>བསྒོ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>དང་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13703src" href="#xd31e13703">14</a><span lang="bo">། བུའི་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དེས་<wbr></wbr>ནི་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13709src" href="#xd31e13709">15</a><span lang="bo">བུ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>སྙིང་<wbr></wbr>རྗེ་<wbr></wbr>མེད་<wbr></wbr>པས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13715src" href="#xd31e13715">16</a><span lang="bo">སྣད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13721src" href="#xd31e13721">17</a><span lang="bo">མི་<wbr></wbr>དོགས་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ། མཐུ་<wbr></wbr>ཇེ་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་<wbr></wbr>པར་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13725src" href="#xd31e13725">18</a><span lang="bo">དྲངས་<wbr></wbr>སོ། །བུའི་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>གང་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>ནི་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>བྱམས་<wbr></wbr>པས་<wbr></wbr>སྣད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>དོགས་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ། སྟོབས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>ཐུབ་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱང་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13735src" href="#xd31e13735">19</a><span lang="bo">དྲག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13741src" href="#xd31e13741">20</a><span class="pageNum" id="pb85">[<a href="#pb85">85</a>]</span><span lang="bo">མ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13749src" href="#xd31e13749">21</a><span lang="bo">དྲངས་<wbr></wbr>སོ། །རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོས་<wbr></wbr>དྲག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>དྲངས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>ལ། འདི་<wbr></wbr>ནི་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ། བུད་<wbr></wbr>མེད་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག་<wbr></wbr>ཤོས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13755src" href="#xd31e13755">22</a><span lang="bo">ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>པས་<wbr></wbr>ན</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13764src" href="#xd31e13764">23</a><span lang="bo">། དྲང་<wbr></wbr>པོར་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13776src" href="#xd31e13776">24</a><span lang="bo">སྨྲོས་<wbr></wbr>ཤིག་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13782src" href="#xd31e13782">25</a><span lang="bo">ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། དལ་<wbr></wbr>གྱིས་<wbr></wbr>དྲངས་<wbr></wbr>པའི་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཡིན་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>གྱུར་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13795src" href="#xd31e13795">26</a><span lang="bo">བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱེར་<wbr></wbr>རོ༎</span> ‘There being certain two women quarrelling about one boy, the king (being) wise of -understanding having examined (the case) thus ordered: You two, having seized from -each (side) a hand of the boy, pull, and who gets him, (she) may carry him off.—When -he had so spoken, she who was not the boy’s mother, because she had no compassion -for the boy, not fearing (she might) hurt (him), pulled with what force she had. She -who (in truth) was the boy’s mother, because she had compassion with the boy, fearing -(she might) hurt (him), though she was able by force, did not pull hard. The king -said to her who had pulled hard: <span class="corr" id="xd31e13805" title="Not in source">“</span>Because this, not being your son, is the other woman’s son, say (it) outright<span class="corr" id="xd31e13807" title="Source: ’">”</span>. When he had so spoken, as he had turned out to be the son of the gentle puller, -(she) carried off the boy’. -<span class="pageNum" id="pb86">[<a href="#pb86">86</a>]</span> </p> -<div class="footnotes"> -<hr class="fnsep"> -<div class="footnote-body"> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13577"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13577src">1</a></span> <span lang="bo">འཆའ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span>, perf. <span lang="bo">བཅའ་</span> ‘to make’ esp. ‘institute, <span class="pageNum" id="pb84n">[<a href="#pb84n">84</a>]</span>arrange’; gerund. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13577src" title="Return to note 1 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13588"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13588src">2</a></span> i.o. <span lang="bo">བཟང་<wbr></wbr>པོ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13588src" title="Return to note 2 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13598"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13598src">3</a></span> ‘to cut’, but <span lang="bo">ཆད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> (or <span lang="bo">པས་</span>) <span lang="bo">གཅོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to inflict a punishment’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13598src" title="Return to note 3 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13612"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13612src">4</a></span> <span lang="bo">གཏན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>འབེབས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to set in order, arrange’; perf. <span lang="bo">ཕབ་</span>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13612src" title="Return to note 4 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13621"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13621src">5</a></span> <span lang="bo">སློབ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, perf. <span lang="bo">བསླབས་</span> ‘to learn’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13621src" title="Return to note 5 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13637"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13637src">6</a></span> <a href="#s42.3">42. 3</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13637src" title="Return to note 6 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13643"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13643src">7</a></span> indefin. art. after numerals s. <a href="#s13">13</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13643src" title="Return to note 7 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13650"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13650src">8</a></span> Accus. modal., <a href="#s49">49</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13650src" title="Return to note 8 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13657"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13657src">9</a></span> <span lang="bo">རྟོག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, perf. <span lang="bo">བརྟག་</span>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13657src" title="Return to note 9 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13667"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13667src">10</a></span> <a href="#s27.2">27. 2</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13667src" title="Return to note 10 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13673"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13673src">11</a></span> <span lang="bo">འདྲེན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, perf. <span lang="bo">དྲངས་</span>, imp. <span lang="bo">དྲོངས་</span>; cf. 41. 5 . <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13673src" title="Return to note 11 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13688"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13688src">12</a></span> <a href="#s29">29</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13688src" title="Return to note 12 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13694"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13694src">13</a></span> <span lang="bo">འཁྱེར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span>, perf. and imp. <span lang="bo">ཁྱེར་</span>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13694src" title="Return to note 13 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13703"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13703src">14</a></span> <a href="#s43.1">43. 1</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13703src" title="Return to note 14 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13709"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13709src">15</a></span> <a href="#s42.1">42. 1.</a> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13709src" title="Return to note 15 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13715"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13715src">16</a></span> 41. 8 . <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13715src" title="Return to note 16 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13721"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13721src">17</a></span> the object of the fear usually in the instrumental. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13721src" title="Return to note 17 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13725"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13725src">18</a></span> termin. of inf<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span> used as adverb, <a href="#s41.b.2.b">41. B. 2. <i>b</i></a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13725src" title="Return to note 18 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13735"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13735src">19</a></span> <a href="#s44">44</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13735src" title="Return to note 19 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13741"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13741src">20</a></span> <a href="#s42.2">42. 2</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13741src" title="Return to note 20 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13749"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13749src">21</a></span> <a href="#s42.1">42. 1</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13749src" title="Return to note 21 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13755"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13755src">22</a></span> <span lang="bo">ཤོས་</span> ‘other’, almost always with the indefin. article; <a href="#s13">13</a>. fin. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13755src" title="Return to note 22 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13764"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13764src">23</a></span> <span lang="bo">ན་</span> is sometimes pleonastically added to <span lang="bo">པས་</span> (<span lang="bo">བས་</span>), to strengthen its meaning. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13764src" title="Return to note 23 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13776"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13776src">24</a></span> <a href="#s43.2">43.2</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13776src" title="Return to note 24 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13782"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13782src">25</a></span> <span lang="bo">སྨྲ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span>, perf. <span lang="bo">སྨྲས་</span>, imp. <span lang="bo">སྨྲོས་</span>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13782src" title="Return to note 25 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13795"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13795src">26</a></span> <span lang="bo">འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span>, perf. <span lang="bo">གྱུར་</span> properly ‘as he has come to be’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13795src" title="Return to note 26 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -</div> -</div> -</div> -</div> -<div class="back"> -<div id="app" class="div1 appendix"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e1082">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead"> -<h2 class="main">Appendix.</h2> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<div id="phrases" class="div2 section"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e1087">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead"> -<h3 class="main">A collection of phrases from daily life, in the modern dialects, romanized.</h3> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first"></p> -<div class="table"> -<table> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft cellTop">WT </td> -<td class="cellTop"><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyod gá-na̤ yoṅ</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight cellTop">Where do you come from? </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">CT </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyöʼ gʽá-na̤ yoṅ</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyod su yin</i>, C <i lang="bo-latn">kʽyöʼ s. y.</i> </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Who are you? </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyod</i> (C <i lang="bo-latn">kʽyöʼ</i>) <i lang="bo-latn">sṳ̄<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13862src" href="#xd31e13862">1</a> yin</i>.<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13867src" href="#xd31e13867">2</a> </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Whose (man, servant) are you? </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyod ráṅi miṅ c̀i zer</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">What is your name? (rule <a href="#s34.2.c">34. 2. <i>c</i></a> is not always observed) </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyöʼ-kyi míṅ-la <span class="corr" id="xd31e13891" title="Source: gʽan">gʽaṅ</span> zér-gi yöʼ-dʽam</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyód-di kʽáṅ-pa gá-na yod</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Where is your house? </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyöʼ-kyi kʽaṅ-pa gʽá-na yöʼ(-pa)</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyod <span class="ex">c̀i-la</span> yoṅ</i>, </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Why do you come? </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyöʼ <span class="ex">gʽaṅ</span>-la yoṅ</i>. </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">(What do you want?) </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">c̀i-la ’i-ru dug</i>. </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Why are you here? </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">ṅa s̀ruṅ-te dad</i>. </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">I sit here to watch. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">dī yúl-li <span class="ex">miṅ</span> c̀i zer</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">What is the <span class="ex">name</span> of this village? </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">yul dī <span class="ex">miṅ</span>-la gʽaṅ zér-ra<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13978src" href="#xd31e13978">3</a> yim-pa</i>. <span class="pageNum" id="pb87">[<a href="#pb87">87</a>]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyod-la <span class="ex">ḍel-wa</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e13994src" href="#xd31e13994">4</a> z̀ig yód-da</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Have you any <span class="ex">errand</span> (<span class="ex">business</span>)? </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyöʼ la <span class="ex">dʽo̤n</span> z̀ig yöʼ-dʽam</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">c̀aṅ med; <span class="ex">c̀ʽón-la</span> yoṅ(s)</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Not any; I have come <span class="ex">to no purpose</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">c̀aṅ mĕ́ʼ; <span class="ex">dʽo̤n-mĕ́ʼ-la</span> yoṅ</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">da tʽug pa tʽuṅ-c̀e-la kaṅ-pa-la-soṅ</i>. </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Then go home to eat (drink) your soup. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">yod: ṅá-la man<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14058src" href="#xd31e14058">5</a> z̀ig <span class="ex">sal</span></i><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14064src" href="#xd31e14064">6</a>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Yes: please give me some medicine. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">yöʼ: ṅá-la ma̤n z̀ig <span class="ex">naṅ<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14078src" href="#xd31e14078">7</a>-rog</span></i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">ṅá-la <span class="ex">zug</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14091src" href="#xd31e14091">8</a> yod</i>, Ts <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">sug</span> gyág<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14100src" href="#xd31e14100">9</a>-gī</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">I am <span class="ex">ill</span> (I have got, am befallen with, an <span class="ex">illness</span>)<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">Ü </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">ṅá-la <span class="ex">ná-tʽsa</span> toṅ<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14124src" href="#xd31e14124">10</a>-gi dug</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">zúr-mo</span> rag</i>, C <i lang="bo-latn">- - dug</i>. </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">I feel <span class="ex">pain</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">gá-na</i>, C <i lang="bo-latn">gʽá-na</i>. </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Where? </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">ḍód</span>-pa<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14166src" href="#xd31e14166">11</a>-la</i>, C <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">ḍʽöʼ</span>-pa-la</i>. </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">In the stomach. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">gó</span>-la zug rag</i>, C <i lang="bo-latn">- - - yöʼ</i>. </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">I have headache. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">ṅa-z̀a yaṅ-pa-la c̀ʽa-c̀e-la tʽsan-te rag</i>. </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">We should have taken a walk, but it is too hot. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">WC </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">di <span class="ex">len</span></i>. </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight"><span class="ex">Take</span> this! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">di <span class="ex">kʽyer</span></i>, C <i lang="bo-latn">di <span class="ex">kʽur soṅ</span></i>. </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight"><span class="ex">Take</span> this <span class="ex">with</span> (you)! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">di <span class="ex">kʽyoṅ</span></i>, C <i lang="bo-latn">di <span class="ex">kʽur s̀og</span></i>. </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight"><span class="ex">Bring</span> this! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">di <span class="ex">gá-zug</span> c̀o-c̀e</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">How shall I do this? </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">di gʽán-ḍa̤<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14272src" href="#xd31e14272">12</a> j̀ĕʼ toṅ</i> (or <i lang="bo-latn">j̀ĕʼ gyu</i>) <i lang="bo-latn">yin</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">yim-pa</i>). </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">dí-zug</span> c̀o mi gos</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">goi</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">gō̤</i>), </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">You must not do it in this way. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">dí-ḍā̤</span> j̀ĕʼ mi gō̤</i>. <span class="pageNum" id="pb88">[<a href="#pb88">88</a>]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">ṅá-la <span class="ex">da-ruṅ</span> ó-ma z̀ig gos</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">I want some more milk. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">ṅá-la <span class="ex">dʽa-ruṅ</span> wó-ma s̀ig gō̤</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">i <span class="ex">lág-mo c̀o</span></i>, C <i lang="bo-latn">di lég-mo j̀ā̤</i>. </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight"><span class="ex">Clean</span> this! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">bé-ma daṅ</span> ṭu<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14359src" href="#xd31e14359">13</a>-c̀e</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Wash it with sand! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">j̀é-mā̤</span> ṭʽṳ̄</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">ṅa-la <span class="ex">c̀ʽu c̀uṅ zad</span></i> (C <i lang="bo-latn">säʼ</i>) <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">c̀ig</span> naṅ<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14391src" href="#xd31e14391">14</a> z̀ig</i> (C <i lang="bo-latn">s̀ig</i>). </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Give me <span class="ex">some water</span>, please! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">lág-pa <span class="ex">lág-mo</span> yód-da</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Are (your) hands clean? </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">lág-pa <span class="ex">lég-mo</span></i> (<i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">lā-mo</span></i>, or <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">tsaṅ-wa</span></i>) <i lang="bo-latn">é yöʼ</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">o-ma <span class="ex">tʽsag-rā̤́-la</span> tʽsag toṅ</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Filter the milk through the <span class="ex">filtering cloth</span>! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">wo-ma - - - tʽsag s̀og</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">tʽab</span> c̀ʽuṅ-se dḗ c̀ʽog-la bor-toṅ</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Put the little <span class="ex">stove</span> there! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">- - - dʽḗ c̀ʽog (c̀ʽö)-la z̀ag<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14479src" href="#xd31e14479">15</a>-c̀ig</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">pʽàn-dil</span> sá-la pʽob<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14492src" href="#xd31e14492">16</a></i> (<i lang="bo-latn">pʽab-toṅ</i>), </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Put the <span class="ex">pot</span> (<i lang="bo-latn">degc̀i</i>) down on the ground! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">saṅ</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14515src" href="#xd31e14515">17</a> sá-la pʽáb-s̀ig</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">zaṅ(-bu) me daṅ <span class="ex">ñe-mo</span> bor</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Put the pot <span class="ex">near</span> the fire! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">saṅ me dʽaṅ <span class="ex">ñe-mo</span> z̀ag</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">pʽog ton</i>. </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Take it off! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">ñí-ma gás<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14561src" href="#xd31e14561">18</a>-sa (gā̤-a) <span class="ex">tsám-z̀ig-ga</span> me pʽu<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14568src" href="#xd31e14568">19</a></i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight"><span class="ex">As soon as</span> the sun sets, light a fire! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">- - gā̤ <span class="ex">tsam-s̀ig-la</span> - -</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">kar-yol kʽyoṅ-ṅa son</i>. </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Go to fetch the china! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"> </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">- - len-na s̀og</i>. </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Come to take away - -. <span class="pageNum" id="pb89">[<a href="#pb89">89</a>]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽu ḍáṅ-mo<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14612src" href="#xd31e14612">20</a> daṅ <span class="ex">ṭú</span>-na kar-yól<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14619src" href="#xd31e14619">21</a> mi dag</i> (or <i lang="bo-latn">kar-yol lag-mo mi c̀ʽa-yin</i>); <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">tʽsán-te</span> z̀ig láṅ-te gyal-la ṭu gos</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">gō̤</i>), </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">If you <span class="ex">wash</span> with cold water, the china does not become clean; wash it well with some <span class="ex">hot</span> (water)! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽu dʽáṅ mō̤ <span class="ex">tṳ̄</span> na kar-yól mi dag; <span class="ex">tʽsám-mo</span> s̀íg gī lég (lā̤)-pa-ṭṳ̄ s̀og</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">lás (lā̤)-ka tʽsaṅ-ma tʽsar-na̤ <span class="ex">mán-na</span> ma c̀ʽa</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Unless all the work is done, don’t go! (or) you must not go. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">- - - <span class="ex">ma̤m-pa</span> ḍo<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14677src" href="#xd31e14677">22</a> mi c̀ʽog</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">sol-c̀óg<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14688src" href="#xd31e14688">23</a> ṭʽal-ḍig<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14692src" href="#xd31e14692">24</a> c̀o-a</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Shall I make the table ready? </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">- - - - j̀ĕʼ gyu yin-na(m)</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">o-ná; c̀og-tán <span class="ex">tiṅ</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14714src" href="#xd31e14714">25</a> toṅ</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Yes; <span class="ex">lay</span> (<span class="ex">spread</span>) the cloth! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">yā-ya; c̀og-tá̤n <span class="ex">tíṅ</span>-c̀ig</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">tib-ríl</span> li naṅ-na c̀ʽu máṅ-po yód-da ñúṅ-ṅu yód</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Is there much water in the <span class="ex">teapot</span>, or little? </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">- - gyi-naṅ-na c̀ʽu máṅ-po yöʼ-dʽam ñúṅ-ṅu yöʼ</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">ñúṅ ṅu z̀ig yod (a-tʽsig man-na med)</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">(But) a little. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">ñúṅ ṅu s̀ig yöʼ</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">tib-ril c̀ʽu <span class="ex">kaṅ<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14786src" href="#xd31e14786">26</a>-te</span> kʽyoṅ</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight"><span class="ex">Fill</span> the teapot with water, and bring it! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">- - c̀ʽṳ̄ <span class="ex">káṅ-nā̤</span> kʽur s̀og</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">tib-ril <span class="ex">dzag</span> dug</i>. </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">The kettle <span class="ex">leaks</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">kár-yā</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14831src" href="#xd31e14831">27</a> daṅ j̀ar<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14835src" href="#xd31e14835">28</a> gos (gō̤)</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">It must be soldered (fastened with <span class="ex">pewter</span>). </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">kár-yā̤</span></i> (or <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">s̀a-kar-gyī</span></i>) <i lang="bo-latn">j̀ar gō̤</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">gar-wa̤</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14870src" href="#xd31e14870">29</a> tsar<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14874src" href="#xd31e14874">30</a> kʽyer</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Take it to the <span class="ex">blacksmith’s</span>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">kʽur soṅ</i>. <span class="pageNum" id="pb90">[<a href="#pb90">90</a>]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">s̀el-kor</span> gas (gā̤) soṅ</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">The tumbler (<span class="ex">glass-cup</span>) has got a crack. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">s̀el-pʽor</span> gā̤ soṅ</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">ṅā̤ ma zer-na <span class="ex">s̀iṅ</span> ma kʽyoṅ</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Unless I tell you, do not bring <span class="ex">wood</span>! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">- - ser-na - - kyal<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14937src" href="#xd31e14937">31</a></i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">sab <span class="ex">mol</span>-na kʽyoṅ yin</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">When master <span class="ex">commands</span>, I shall bring. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">sa-hib <span class="ex">suṅ</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e14967src" href="#xd31e14967">32</a>-na kyal gyu yin</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">sab gá-zug <span class="ex">mol</span></i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">What did you <span class="ex">say</span>, sir (did the gentleman say)? </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">sa-hib gʽaṅ <span class="ex">suṅ</span> wa yin</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">ma <span class="ex">pʽaṅ</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15004src" href="#xd31e15004">33</a>; bud ma c̀ug<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15011src" href="#xd31e15011">34</a></i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Don’t cast it away! Do not let it slip! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">ma <span class="ex">bʽor</span>-wa j̀ʽĕʼ; bʽüʼ ma c̀ug</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">WC </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">rig-pa ḍim<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15037src" href="#xd31e15037">35</a></i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Take care! Cautiously! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">kʽa-dar c̀o</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">nán</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15057src" href="#xd31e15057">36</a>-c̀e man</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">You must not press! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">ná̤n</span> gyu min</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">ḍás<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15079src" href="#xd31e15079">37</a>-si (ḍā̤́-i) lág-ma <span class="ex">ṭí<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15085src" href="#xd31e15085">38</a>-te bor</span></i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight"><span class="ex">Put by</span> the remainder of the rice! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">ḍā̤́-kyi lhág-ma <span class="ex">tʽsag j̀ʽā̤</span></i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">lag-ma</span> mi dug, c̀aṅ ma <span class="ex">lus</span></i> (<i lang="bo-latn"><span class="corr" id="xd31e15115" title="Source: lū">lṳ̄</span></i>). </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">There is no <span class="ex">remainder</span>; nothing is left. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">o-ma <span class="ex">lud</span> ma c̀ug</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Do not let the milk run over! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">wo-ma <span class="ex">lüʼ</span> ma c̀ug</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽín-pa<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15151src" href="#xd31e15151">39</a> ma túb<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15155src" href="#xd31e15155">40</a>-te <span class="ex">són-te</span> kʽyoṅ</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Not cutting the liver, bring it as a <span class="ex">whole</span>! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">- - - - - <span class="ex">tʽsáṅ-ma</span></i> (or <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">gʽáṅ-mo</span></i>) <i lang="bo-latn">kʽur-s̀og</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">a-lu</span> s̀u-te tub toṅ</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Peel the <span class="ex">potatoes</span>, and cut them in pieces! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">kyi-u</span></i> (or <i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">ḍo-ma</span></i><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15213src" href="#xd31e15213">41</a>) <i lang="bo-latn">s̀u-te tub-c̀ig</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"> </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">maṅ-po</i> (or <i lang="bo-latn">yun riṅ-mo</i>) <i lang="bo-latn">ma <span class="ex">gor</span></i>. </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Don’t <span class="ex">tarry</span> much! <span class="pageNum" id="pb91">[<a href="#pb91">91</a>]</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">gyog-pa</i> (C <i lang="bo-latn">gyog-po</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">gyō-po</i>) <i lang="bo-latn">s̀og</i>. </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Come soon! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">ma j̀ed</i><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15265src" href="#xd31e15265">42</a>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">1. Do not forget! 2. (I) did not forget. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">ma j̀ĕʼ</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">yid-la zum</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15285src" href="#xd31e15285">43</a> tʽub-ba</i>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Can you <span class="ex">remember</span> it (<span class="ex">bear it in mind</span>)? </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">sem-la</span> ṅē tʽub-ba</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">yid-la zum gos</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">gō̤</i>), </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">You must bear it in mind, (make it <span class="ex">certain</span>). </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn"><span class="ex">ṅē-pa</span> j̀ʽĕʼ gō̤</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"> </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">naṅ-du soṅ</i>; <i lang="bo-latn">naṅ-du s̀og</i>. </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Go in! Come in! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">naṅ-du kyod</i><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15356src" href="#xd31e15356">44</a>, </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan xd31e13821 cellRight">Go (or come) in, sir! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">C </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">naṅ-du pʽeb</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft">W </td> -<td><i lang="bo-latn">dod</i><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15375src" href="#xd31e15375">45</a>, C <i lang="bo-latn">däʼ</i>. </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight">Sit down! </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft cellBottom"> </td> -<td class="cellBottom"><i lang="bo-latn">z̀ug</i><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15390src" href="#xd31e15390">46</a>. </td> -<td class="xd31e13821 cellRight cellBottom">Please sit down, sir! </td> -</tr> -</table> -</div><p> -<span class="pageNum" id="pb92">[<a href="#pb92">92</a>]</span> </p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="exercise" class="div2 section"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e1094">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead"> -<h3 class="main">Reading Exercise.</h3> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first">The Story of <i lang="bo-latn">Yug-pa-c̀an</i> the Brahman<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15406src" href="#xd31e15406">47</a>. -</p> -<p><span lang="bo">༄༅ ༎ཡུལ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15418src" href="#xd31e15418">48</a><span lang="bo">ན་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15424src" href="#xd31e15424">49</a><span lang="bo">བྲམ་<wbr></wbr>ཟེ་<wbr></wbr>དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>བྱ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="n92.4src" href="#n92.4">50</a><span lang="bo">ཞིག</span><span class="corr" id="xd31e15457" title="Not in source"><span lang="bo">༌</span></span><span lang="bo">འདུག་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15462src" href="#xd31e15462">51</a><span lang="bo">སྟེ</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15470src" href="#xd31e15470">52</a><span lang="bo">། རབ་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>དབུལ་<wbr></wbr>འཕོངས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>བཟའ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། བགོ་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>མེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15476src" href="#xd31e15476">53</a><span lang="bo">ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>གོ</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15487src" href="#xd31e15487">54</a><span lang="bo">། དེས་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱིམ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག་<wbr></wbr>ལས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15498src" href="#xd31e15498">55</a><span lang="bo">བ་<wbr></wbr>གླང་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>བརྙས་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ། ཉིན་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>སྤྱད་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>གླང་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>ཁྲིད་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱིམ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>དེའི་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱིམ་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>སོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། དེ་<wbr></wbr>ན་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15504src" href="#xd31e15504">56</a><span lang="bo">ཁྱིམ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>ནི་<wbr></wbr>ཟན་<wbr></wbr>ཟ་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ། དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>གྱིས་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>གླང་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱིམ་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>ནང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>བཏང་</span><a class="noteRef" id="n92.11src" href="#n92.11">57</a><span lang="bo">བ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། བ་<wbr></wbr>གླང་<wbr></wbr>སྒོ་<wbr></wbr>གཞན་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>སོང་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>སྟོར་<wbr></wbr>རོ༎ ཁྱིམ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>ཟན་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>ཟོས་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>ལངས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15518src" href="#xd31e15518">58</a><span lang="bo">པ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། དེ་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>གླང་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>དེས་<wbr></wbr>དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>གླང་<wbr></wbr>ག་<wbr></wbr>རེ་<wbr></wbr>ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>བྱས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15525src" href="#xd31e15525">59</a><span lang="bo">དང༌། ཏེས་</span><span class="pageNum" id="pb93">[<a href="#pb93">93</a>]</span><span lang="bo">སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱིམ་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>བཏང་<wbr></wbr>ངོ༌། །ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>ངའི་<wbr></wbr>གླང་<wbr></wbr>བོར་<wbr></wbr>གྱིས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="n93.14src" href="#n93.14">60</a><span lang="bo">སློར་<wbr></wbr>བྱིན་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15541src" href="#xd31e15541">61</a><span lang="bo">ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། དེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། ངས་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>བོར་<wbr></wbr>རོ༎ དེ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>འགྲོགས་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ། རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>ཐད་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>འདོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། འུ་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཅག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>རིགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>རིགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>རྟོག་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>རོ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15552src" href="#xd31e15552">62</a><span lang="bo">ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>དོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། མི་<wbr></wbr>གཞན་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>རྟ་<wbr></wbr>རྒོད་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>བྲོས་<wbr></wbr>ནས། དེས་<wbr></wbr>དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། རྒོད་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>བཏང་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15558src" href="#xd31e15558">63</a><span lang="bo">ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། དེས་<wbr></wbr>རྡོ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>བླངས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15570src" href="#xd31e15570">64</a><span lang="bo">ཏེ་<wbr></wbr>འཕངས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15577src" href="#xd31e15577">65</a><span lang="bo">པ་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>རྟའི་<wbr></wbr>རྐང་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཕོག་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>རྐང་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>བཅག་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15584src" href="#xd31e15584">66</a><span lang="bo">གོ །དེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>ངའི་<wbr></wbr>རྟ་<wbr></wbr>བསད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15591src" href="#xd31e15591">67</a><span lang="bo">ངའི་<wbr></wbr>རྟ་<wbr></wbr>བྱིན་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག །ཅིའི་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱིར་<wbr></wbr>རྟ་<wbr></wbr>སྦྱིན། དེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཚུར་<wbr></wbr>ཤོག །རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>དྲུང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15599src" href="#xd31e15599">68</a><span lang="bo">འདོང་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། འུ་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཅག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>ཞལ་<wbr></wbr>ཆེ་<wbr></wbr>གཅོད་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>འོང་<wbr></wbr>ངོ་<wbr></wbr>ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>ནས། དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>དེར་<wbr></wbr>སོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>དེས་<wbr></wbr>འབྲོས་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>བརྩམས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15605src" href="#xd31e15605">69</a><span lang="bo">ཏེ། དེས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15612src" href="#xd31e15612">70</a><span lang="bo">རྩིག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>གི་</span><span class="pageNum" id="pb94">[<a href="#pb94">94</a>]</span><span lang="bo">སྟེང་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15622src" href="#xd31e15622">71</a><span lang="bo">མཆོངས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། དེའི་<wbr></wbr>དྲུང་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>ཐ་<wbr></wbr>ག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>ཐགས་<wbr></wbr>འཐག་<wbr></wbr>ཅིང་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དེའི་<wbr></wbr>སྟེང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>ལྷུང༌</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15629src" href="#xd31e15629">72</a><span lang="bo">ནས་<wbr></wbr>ཐ་<wbr></wbr>ག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>ཚེ་<wbr></wbr>འཕོས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། ཐ་<wbr></wbr>ག་<wbr></wbr>པའི་<wbr></wbr>ཆུང་<wbr></wbr>མས་<wbr></wbr>དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>བཟུང༌</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15636src" href="#xd31e15636">73</a><span lang="bo">ནས། ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>ངའི་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོ་<wbr></wbr>བསད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>ངའི་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོ་<wbr></wbr>བྱིན་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། ངས་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོ་<wbr></wbr>ཅི་<wbr></wbr>ལྟར་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15643src" href="#xd31e15643">74</a><span lang="bo">སྦྱིན་<wbr></wbr>ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>ནས། ཚུར་<wbr></wbr>ཤོག་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>དྲུང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>འདོང་<wbr></wbr>ངོ༌༎ དེས་<wbr></wbr>འུ་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཅག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>ཞལ་<wbr></wbr>ཅེ་<wbr></wbr>གཅད་<wbr></wbr>དོ་<wbr></wbr>ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>དོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ལས།</span><a class="noteRef" id="n94.29src" href="#n94.29">75</a><span lang="bo"> ལམ་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>ཆུ་<wbr></wbr>བོ་<wbr></wbr>གཏིང་<wbr></wbr>ཟབ་<wbr></wbr>པོ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15669src" href="#xd31e15669">76</a><span lang="bo">ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་<wbr></wbr>དེ། ཆུ་<wbr></wbr>དེའི་<wbr></wbr>ནང་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>ཚུར་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15675src" href="#xd31e15675">77</a><span lang="bo">ཤང་<wbr></wbr>མཁན་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15680src" href="#xd31e15680">78</a><span lang="bo">ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>སྟེའུ་<wbr></wbr>ཁ་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>འཁྱེར་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་<wbr></wbr>འོང་<wbr></wbr>ངོ༌། །དེ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>གྱིས་<wbr></wbr>ཆུའི་<wbr></wbr>གཏིང་<wbr></wbr>ཅི་<wbr></wbr>ཙམ་<wbr></wbr>ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>དྲིས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15689src" href="#xd31e15689">79</a><span lang="bo">པ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། ཆུའི་<wbr></wbr>གཏིང་<wbr></wbr>ཟབ་<wbr></wbr>བོ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15696src" href="#xd31e15696">80</a><span lang="bo">ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15703src" href="#xd31e15703">81</a><span lang="bo">སྟེའུ་<wbr></wbr>ཆུར་<wbr></wbr>ལྷུང་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ། སྟེའུ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>རྙེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། དེས་<wbr></wbr>དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>བཟུང་<wbr></wbr>ནས། ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>ངའི་<wbr></wbr>སྟེའུ་<wbr></wbr>ཆུར་<wbr></wbr>བསྐྱུར་<wbr></wbr>རོ</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15709src" href="#xd31e15709">82</a><span lang="bo">༎ དེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ངས་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>བསྐྱུར་<wbr></wbr>ཏོ། །ཚུར་<wbr></wbr>ཤོག་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>དྲུང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>འདོང་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། དེས་<wbr></wbr>འུ་<wbr></wbr>བུ་<wbr></wbr>ཅག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>ཞལ་<wbr></wbr>ཆེ་<wbr></wbr>གཅད་<wbr></wbr>དོ་<wbr></wbr>ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>དོང་</span><span class="pageNum" id="pb95">[<a href="#pb95">95</a>]</span><span lang="bo">ངོ༌། །དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>སོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15720src" href="#xd31e15720">83</a><span lang="bo"> རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>དྲུང་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོའི་<wbr></wbr>རྐང་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>མགོ་<wbr></wbr>བོས་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱག་<wbr></wbr>འཚལ་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ། ཕྱོགས་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>འདུག་<wbr></wbr>གོ</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15727src" href="#xd31e15727">84</a><span lang="bo"> །དེ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོས་<wbr></wbr>དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཅི་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>འོངས་<wbr></wbr>ཤེས་<wbr></wbr>དྲིས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>གིས་<wbr></wbr>དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>དང་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱིམ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>རྩོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15731src" href="#xd31e15731">85</a><span lang="bo">དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>ཐམས་<wbr></wbr>ཅད་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>སོ། །རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོས་<wbr></wbr>དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>གླང་<wbr></wbr>བརྙས་<wbr></wbr>སམ། །བརྙས་<wbr></wbr>སོ། །འོ་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱིར་<wbr></wbr>བྱིན་<wbr></wbr>ནམ༎ བདག་<wbr></wbr>གིས་<wbr></wbr>མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བར་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15735src" href="#xd31e15735">86</a><span lang="bo">བྱིན་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ། ཁས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15743src" href="#xd31e15743">87</a><span lang="bo">ནི་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>བཏང་<wbr></wbr>ངོ༌། །རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>དེས་<wbr></wbr>གླང་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱིར་<wbr></wbr>བྱིན་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པས་<wbr></wbr>ན</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15748src" href="#xd31e15748">88</a><span lang="bo">། ལྕེ་<wbr></wbr>ཆོད་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག །ཁྱིམ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱང་<wbr></wbr>གླང་<wbr></wbr>འོངས་<wbr></wbr>པར་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15755src" href="#xd31e15755">89</a><span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15762src" href="#xd31e15762">90</a><span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>བཏགས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15768src" href="#xd31e15768">91</a><span lang="bo">པས་<wbr></wbr>ནི། མིག་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱུང་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15775src" href="#xd31e15775">92</a><span lang="bo">ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>བརྗོད་<wbr></wbr>དོ། །ཁྱིམ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>གིས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>གྱིས་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15783src" href="#xd31e15783">93</a><span lang="bo">ནི་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>གི་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15793src" href="#xd31e15793">94</a><span lang="bo">གླང་</span><span class="pageNum" id="pb96">[<a href="#pb96">96</a>]</span><span lang="bo">ཕྲོགས། གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>སུ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15803src" href="#xd31e15803">95</a><span lang="bo">བདག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>མིག་<wbr></wbr>ཕྱུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་<wbr></wbr>བས</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15807src" href="#xd31e15807">96</a><span lang="bo"> དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>ཡང་<wbr></wbr>བླའོ</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15813src" href="#xd31e15813">97</a><span lang="bo">། མི་<wbr></wbr>གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>གིས་<wbr></wbr>ལྷ</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15820src" href="#xd31e15820">98</a><span lang="bo">། དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>གྱིས་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>རྟ་<wbr></wbr>རྒོད་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>བཀུམ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15830src" href="#xd31e15830">99</a><span lang="bo">མོ་<wbr></wbr>ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>དང༌། རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོས་<wbr></wbr>དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོད་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱིས་<wbr></wbr>རྟ་<wbr></wbr>ཅི་<wbr></wbr>ལྟར་<wbr></wbr>བསད་<wbr></wbr>ཅེས་<wbr></wbr>དྲིས་<wbr></wbr>ནས། །བདག་<wbr></wbr>ལམ་<wbr></wbr>དུ་<wbr></wbr>ཞུགས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15849src" href="#xd31e15849">100</a><span lang="bo">ཏེ་<wbr></wbr>མཆིས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལས། མི་<wbr></wbr>འདིས་<wbr></wbr>རྟ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>བཏང་<wbr></wbr>ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>མཆི་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15856src" href="#xd31e15856">101</a><span lang="bo">བ་<wbr></wbr>ལས། བདག་<wbr></wbr>གིས་<wbr></wbr>རྟོ་<wbr></wbr>ཞིག་<wbr></wbr>བླངས་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ། འཕངས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15869src" href="#xd31e15869">102</a><span lang="bo">རྟ་<wbr></wbr>བཀུམ་<wbr></wbr>མོ། །རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། རྟ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>གིས་<wbr></wbr>རྟ་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>བཏང་<wbr></wbr>ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པས་<wbr></wbr>ལྕེ་<wbr></wbr>ཆོད་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག །དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>ནི་</span><a class="noteRef" id="n96.57src" href="#n96.57">103</a><span lang="bo">རྡོ་<wbr></wbr>འཕངས་<wbr></wbr>པས་<wbr></wbr>ལག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཆོད་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག །མི་<wbr></wbr>དེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>རྟ་<wbr></wbr>བསད། གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>སུ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>ལྕེ་<wbr></wbr>གཅད་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>བས། དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱང་<wbr></wbr>བླའོ། །ཐ་<wbr></wbr>ག་<wbr></wbr>པའི་<wbr></wbr>ཆུང་<wbr></wbr>མས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་</span><span class="pageNum" id="pb97">[<a href="#pb97">97</a>]</span><span lang="bo">གྱིས་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོ་<wbr></wbr>བཀུམ་<wbr></wbr>མོ། །དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>གྱིས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། བདག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>དགྲ་<wbr></wbr>མངས་<wbr></wbr>པས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15887src" href="#xd31e15887">104</a><span lang="bo">འཇིགས་<wbr></wbr>ཏེ་<wbr></wbr>རྩིགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>བརྒལ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>བྲོས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལས། ཕག་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>མི་<wbr></wbr>ཡོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15896src" href="#xd31e15896">105</a><span lang="bo">མ་<wbr></wbr>མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>སྟེ་<wbr></wbr>གུམ་<wbr></wbr>མོ། །རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། སོང་<wbr></wbr>ལ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15900src" href="#xd31e15900">106</a><span lang="bo">འདི་<wbr></wbr>ཉིད་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15906src" href="#xd31e15906">107</a><span lang="bo">ཀྱི་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོ་<wbr></wbr>གྱིས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15913src" href="#xd31e15913">108</a><span lang="bo">ཤིག །དེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོ་<wbr></wbr>བསད། གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>སུ་<wbr></wbr>འདི་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱོ་<wbr></wbr>བྱས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>བས</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15926src" href="#xd31e15926">109</a><span lang="bo">། དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པར་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱང་<wbr></wbr>བླའོ། །ཤིང་<wbr></wbr>མཁན་<wbr></wbr>གྱིས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>དེ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15930src" href="#xd31e15930">110</a><span lang="bo">བདག་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>ཆུའི་<wbr></wbr>གཏིང་<wbr></wbr>ཅེ་<wbr></wbr>ཙམ་<wbr></wbr>ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>དྲིས་<wbr></wbr>པས། ཁ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་<wbr></wbr>སྟེའུ་<wbr></wbr>ཐོགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15937src" href="#xd31e15937">111</a><span lang="bo">ཆུར་<wbr></wbr>ལྷུང་<wbr></wbr>ངོ༌། །རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>པོས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ། རྫ་<wbr></wbr>ཇི་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱེར་<wbr></wbr>ཡང་<wbr></wbr>ཕྲག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ལ་<wbr></wbr>བཀུར་<wbr></wbr>བའི་<wbr></wbr>རིགས་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱི་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15941src" href="#xd31e15941">112</a><span lang="bo">ཁ་<wbr></wbr>ན་<wbr></wbr>ཁྱེར་<wbr></wbr>བས། ཤིང་<wbr></wbr>མཁན་<wbr></wbr>གྱི་<wbr></wbr>མ་<wbr></wbr>དུན་<wbr></wbr>སོ་<wbr></wbr>གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>ཆོག་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག །དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>ནི་<wbr></wbr>ཆུའི་<wbr></wbr>གཏིང་<wbr></wbr>ཟབ་<wbr></wbr>བམ་<wbr></wbr>ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>པས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15948src" href="#xd31e15948">113</a><span lang="bo">ལྕེ་<wbr></wbr>ཆོད་<wbr></wbr>ཅིག །ཤིང་<wbr></wbr>མཁན་<wbr></wbr>གྱིས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པ།</span> <span class="pageNum" id="pb98">[<a href="#pb98">98</a>]</span><span lang="bo">གཅིག་<wbr></wbr>ཏུ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>སྟེའུ་<wbr></wbr>སྟོར། གཉིས་<wbr></wbr>སུ་<wbr></wbr>བདག་<wbr></wbr>གི་<wbr></wbr>སོ་<wbr></wbr>བཅག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>བས། དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>རྒྱལ་<wbr></wbr>བར་<wbr></wbr>འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>ཀྱང་<wbr></wbr>བླའོ། །དེ་<wbr></wbr>དག་<wbr></wbr>སོ་<wbr></wbr>སོ་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span><a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15962src" href="#xd31e15962">114</a><span lang="bo">ཞལ་<wbr></wbr>ཆེ་<wbr></wbr>བཅད་<wbr></wbr>དེ། དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་<wbr></wbr>ཉེས་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཀུན་<wbr></wbr>ལས་<wbr></wbr>ཐར་<wbr></wbr>རོ༎ ༎</span> -<span class="pageNum" id="pb99">[<a href="#pb99">99</a>]</span> </p> -</div> -</div> -<div id="verbs" class="div2 last-child section"><span class="pageNum">[<a href="#xd31e1101">Contents</a>]</span><div class="divHead"> -<h3 class="main">A list of the more frequent verbs<a class="noteRef" id="xd31e15977src" href="#xd31e15977">115</a>.</h3> -</div> -<div class="divBody"> -<p class="first xd31e11565"><i>a</i>) Four-rooted verbs. -</p> -<p></p> -<div class="table" id="tbl99"> -<table class="tbl64.1"> -<thead> -<tr class="label"> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellHeadLeft cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Pres. </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Perf. </td> -<td class="cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Fut. </td> -<td class="cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Imperv. </td> -<td class="cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom"> </td> -<td class="cellHeadRight cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">WT -</td> -</tr> -</thead> -<tbody> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འགེགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཀག་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">དགག་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཁོག་</span> </td> -<td>stop, hinder. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">kag-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འགེངས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཀང་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">དགང་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཁོང་</span> </td> -<td>fill. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">kaṅ-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འགེལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཀལ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">དགལ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཁོལ་</span> </td> -<td>lade, put on … </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">kal-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">གཅོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཅད་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">གཅད་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཆོད་</span> </td> -<td>cut. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">c̀ad-c̀e</i> <br>imprv. <i lang="bo-latn">c̀od</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཆིང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཅིངས་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">བཅིང་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཆིང་</span> </td> -<td>tie, bind. </td> -<td class="cellRight"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཆོ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan rightbrace"><img src="images/rbrace2.png" alt="}" width="12" height="60"></td> -<td colspan="3" rowspan="2" class="rowspan colspan"><span lang="bo">བཅོ(ས)༌</span> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan"><span lang="bo">བཅོ་</span> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan"><span lang="bo">ཆོས་</span> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan">make. </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">c̀o-c̀e</i> <br>pf. and imp. <i lang="bo-latn">c̀os</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཆོས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཇིག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">(བ)ཤིག་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">གཞིག་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཤིགས་</span> </td> -<td>destroy. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">s̀ig-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཇུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཅུག་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">གཞུག་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཆུག་</span> </td> -<td>put in. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽug-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཇོག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཞག་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">གཞག་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཞོག་</span> </td> -<td>put, place. </td> -<td class="cellRight">(C: <i lang="bo-latn">z̀ag-pa</i>) </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཇོག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཞོགས་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">གཞོག་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཞོག་</span> </td> -<td>cut. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">z̀og-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཏང་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">གཏང་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཐོང་</span> </td> -<td>give. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">taṅ-c̀e</i> <br>imp. <i lang="bo-latn">toṅ</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ལྟ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བལྟས་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">བལྟ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ལྟོས་</span> </td> -<td>look. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">(l)ta-c̀e</i> <span class="pageNum" id="pb100">[<a href="#pb100">100</a>]</span> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འདེགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཏེག་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">གདེགས་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཐེག་</span> </td> -<td>lift; weigh. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">tag-c̀e</i> imp. <i lang="bo-latn">tog</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td id="debspa" colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འདེབས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཏབ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">གདབ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཐོབ་</span> </td> -<td>throw. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">tab-c̀e</i> imp. <i lang="bo-latn">tob</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འདོགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཏགས་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">གདགས་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཐོགས་</span> </td> -<td>tie, bind. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">tag-c̀e</i> imp. <i lang="bo-latn">tog</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">tag toṅ</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འདོན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཏོན་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">གདོན་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཐོན་</span> </td> -<td>get, drive, out. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">ton-c̀e</i> <br>always for <a href="#byinpa"><span lang="bo">འབྱིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span></a> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཕེན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">འཕངས་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">འཕང་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཕོང་</span> </td> -<td>throw, hurt. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">pʽaṅ-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བྱས་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">བྱ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">བྱོས་</span> </td> -<td>do, make. </td> -<td class="cellRight">for it <i lang="bo-latn">c̀o-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འབེབས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">ཕབ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">དབབ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཕོབ་</span> </td> -<td>bring, let, down. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">pʽab-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" rowspan="2" class="rowspan colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཚག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan leftbrace"><img src="images/lbrace2.png" alt="{" width="12" height="60"></td> -<td><span lang="bo">འཚགས་</span> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan rightbrace"><img src="images/rbrace2.png" alt="}" width="12" height="60"></td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan"><span lang="bo">བཙག་</span> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan"><span lang="bo">ཚོག་</span> </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan">filter, sift. </td> -<td rowspan="2" class="rowspan cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">tʽsag-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><span lang="bo">བཙགས་</span> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཚོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བཙོངས་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">བཙོང་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཚོང་</span> </td> -<td>sell. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">tsoṅ-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཛིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">གཟུང་</span>, <span lang="bo">ཟིན་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">གཟུང་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཟུང་</span> </td> -<td>seize. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">zum-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ལེན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan"><span lang="bo">བླངས་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">བླང་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ལོང(ས)</span><span class="corr" id="xd31e16579" title="Not in source"><span lang="bo">༌</span></span>, <span lang="bo">ལོན་</span> </td> -<td>take. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">len-c̀e</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">laṅ-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td colspan="2" class="colspan cellLeft cellBottom"><span lang="bo">སློབ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td colspan="3" class="colspan cellBottom"><span lang="bo">བསླབ(ས)༌</span> </td> -<td class="cellBottom"><span lang="bo">བསླབ་</span> </td> -<td class="cellBottom"><span lang="bo">སློབ་</span> </td> -<td class="cellBottom">learn; teach. </td> -<td class="cellRight cellBottom"><i lang="bo-latn">lab-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -</tbody> -</table> -</div><p> -</p> -<p class="xd31e11565"><i>b</i>) Three-rooted verbs. -</p> -<p></p> -<div class="table"> -<table class="tbl64.1"> -<thead> -<tr class="label"> -<td class="cellHeadLeft cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Pres. </td> -<td class="cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Perf. </td> -<td class="cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Fut. </td> -<td class="cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Imperv. </td> -<td class="cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom"> </td> -<td class="cellHeadRight cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">WT -</td> -</tr> -</thead> -<tbody> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཁུར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">བཀུར་</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཁུར་</span> </td> -<td>carry. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">kʽur-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཁྱོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཁྱོངས་</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཁྱོང་</span> </td> -<td>bring. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyoṅ-c̀e</i> for <a href="#khyerba"><span lang="bo">འཁྱེར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span></a> <span class="pageNum" id="pb101">[<a href="#pb101">101</a>]</span> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">རྒྱབ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">བརྒྱབ་</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">རྒྱོབ་</span> </td> -<td>throw, cast. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">gyab-c̀e</i> imp. <i lang="bo-latn">gyob</i> for <a href="#debspa"><span lang="bo">འདེབས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span></a> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">རྒྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">(བ)རྒྱུག(ས)༌</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">རྒྱུག་</span> </td> -<td>run. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">gyug-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">གཅོག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">བཅག་</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཆོག་</span> </td> -<td>break. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">c̀ag-c̀e</i>, imp. <i lang="bo-latn">c̀og</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཆད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">བཤད་</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཤོད་</span> </td> -<td>tell, explain. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">s̀ad-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">རྟེན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">བརྟེན་</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">རྟོན་</span> </td> -<td>hold. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">ten-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འདྲེན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">དྲང་</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">དྲོངས་</span> </td> -<td>draw. </td> -<td class="cellRight">to lead: <i lang="bo-latn">ran-c̀e</i> <br>to remove: <i lang="bo-latn">ḍeṅ-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འབབ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">བབ(ས)༌</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">བོབ(ས)༌</span> </td> -<td>descend. </td> -<td class="cellRight"> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འབུད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཕུ(ས)༌</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">དབུ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཕུས་</span> </td> -<td>blow (act.). </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">pʽu-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འབུད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཕུད་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">དབུད་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཕུད་</span> </td> -<td>put off, drop (act.). </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">pʽud-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td id="byinpa" class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འབྱིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཕྱུང་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">དབྱུང་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཕྱུང་</span> </td> -<td>take, pull out. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">pʽin-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འབྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཕྱེ(ས)༌</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">དབྱེ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཕྱེ(ས)༌</span> </td> -<td>open (act.). </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">pʽe-c̀e</i>, imp. <i lang="bo-latn">pʽe(s)</i>. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">སྨྲ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">སྨྲས་</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">སྨྲོས་</span> </td> -<td>say. </td> -<td class="cellRight">s. <a href="#zerba"><span lang="bo">ཟེར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span></a> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft cellBottom"><span lang="bo">ལང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td class="cellBottom"><span lang="bo">ལངས་</span> </td> -<td class="cellBottom"> </td> -<td class="cellBottom"><span lang="bo">ལོང་</span> </td> -<td class="cellBottom">rise. </td> -<td class="cellRight cellBottom"><i lang="bo-latn">laṅ-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -</tbody> -</table> -</div><p> -</p> -<p class="xd31e11565"><i>c</i>) Two-rooted verbs. -</p> -<p></p> -<div class="table"> -<table class="tbl64.1"> -<thead> -<tr class="label"> -<td class="cellHeadLeft cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Pres. </td> -<td class="cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Perf. </td> -<td class="cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">Imperv. </td> -<td class="cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom"> </td> -<td class="cellHeadRight cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom">WT -</td> -</tr> -</thead> -<tbody> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">སྐྱེ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">སྐྱེས་</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td>be born. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">skye-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">སྐྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">བསྐྱེད་</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td>bear, beget. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">skye-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td id="khyerba" class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཁྱེར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཁྱེར་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཁྱེར་</span> </td> -<td>carry. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">kʽyer-c̀e</i> <span class="pageNum" id="pb102">[<a href="#pb102">102</a>]</span> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འགྱུར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">གྱུར་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">གྱུར་</span> </td> -<td>become. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">gyur-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འགྲོ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">སོང་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">སོང་</span> </td> -<td>go; become. <br><span class="xd31e17093">[only in certain sentences.</span> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">ḍo-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">སྒྱུར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">བསྒྱུར་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">སྒྱུར་</span> </td> -<td>alter. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">gyur-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ངུ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ངུས་</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td>weep. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">ṅu-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཆི་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཤི་</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td>die. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">s̀i-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཆོར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཤོར་</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td>flee. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">s̀or-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཇུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཞུགས་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཞུགས་</span> </td> -<td>enter. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">z̀ug-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ཉོ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཉོས་</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td>buy. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">ño-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">སྡོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">བསྡད་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">སྡོད་</span> </td> -<td>sit; stay. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">dad-c̀e</i> imp. <i lang="bo-latn">dod</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཕེལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཕེལ་</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td>increase (neutr.) </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">pʽel-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">བླུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">བླུག(ས)༌</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">བླུག(ས)༌</span> </td> -<td>pour. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">lug-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འབུད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">བུད་</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td>blow (neutr.) </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">pʽu-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འབོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">བོས་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">བོས་</span> </td> -<td>call. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">bo-c̀e</i>, imp. <i lang="bo-latn">bos</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">boi</i>, <i lang="bo-latn">bō̤</i>). </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འབྱུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">བྱུང་</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td>appear, originate. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">j̀uṅ-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">མྱོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">མྱང་</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td>enjoy. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">ñaṅ-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">རྩིག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">བརྩིགས་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">བརྩིགས་</span> </td> -<td>build up. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">tsig-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ཞུ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཞུས་</span> </td> -<td><span lang="bo">ཞུས་</span> </td> -<td>ask. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">z̀u-c̀e</i> (<i lang="bo-latn">j̀u-c̀e</i>) </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft cellBottom"><span lang="bo">སླེབ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td class="cellBottom"><span lang="bo">བསླེབས་</span> </td> -<td class="cellBottom"> </td> -<td class="cellBottom">arrive. </td> -<td class="cellRight cellBottom"><i lang="bo-latn">leb-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -</tbody> -</table> -</div><p> -<span class="pageNum" id="pb103">[<a href="#pb103">103</a>]</span></p> -<p class="xd31e11565"><i>d</i>) One-rooted <span class="corr" id="xd31e17407" title="Source: verb">verbs</span>. -</p> -<p></p> -<div class="table"> -<table class="tbl64.1"> -<thead> -<tr class="label"> -<td class="cellHeadLeft cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom"> </td> -<td class="cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom"> </td> -<td class="cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom"> </td> -<td class="cellHeadRight cellHeadTop cellHeadBottom"> WT -</td> -</tr> -</thead> -<tbody> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">དགའ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td>be glad, to like. </td> -<td>Ld. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">γa-c̀e</i>, W besides <span lang="bo">འཐད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འགྲིལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td>fall, drop. </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">ḍil-c̀e</i>, also <span lang="bo">འདྲིལ་(བ་)</span> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">མཆོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span>, <span lang="bo">མཆོངས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td>leap, jump. </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">c̀ʽoṅ-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ཉལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td>lie down. </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">ñal-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ཐུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td>meet. </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">tʽug-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td id="thubpa" class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ཐུབ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td>be able. </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">tʽub-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ཐོབ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td>find, get<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">tʽob-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ཐོས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td>hear. </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="cellRight">(<i lang="bo-latn">tʽsor-c̀e</i>) </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">མཐོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td>see. </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">tʽoṅ-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཐད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td>be glad, to like. </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">tʽad-c̀e</i>, nearly always for <span lang="bo">དགའ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> and <span lang="bo">འདོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འཐོན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td>come out, go out. </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">tʽon-c̀e</i>, usual for <span lang="bo">འབྱུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འདོད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td>wish, like, desire. </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="cellRight">rare. </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ནུས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td>be able. </td> -<td> s. </td> -<td class="cellRight"><a href="#thubpa"><span lang="bo">ཐུབ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span></a> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">གནས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td>stay, dwell, remain. </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">nas (nai, nā̤)-c̀e</i>, but usually: <i lang="bo-latn">dad-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">འབར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td>burn. </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">bar-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ཚོར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td>perceive. </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">tʽsor-c̀e</i>, and usual for <span lang="bo">ཐོས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">མཛད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td>do, make (resp.)<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span> </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="cellRight"><i lang="bo-latn">dzad-c̀e</i>, imp. <i lang="bo-latn">dzod</i>. <span class="pageNum" id="pb104">[<a href="#pb104">104</a>]</span> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td id="zerba" class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ཟེར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td>say. </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="cellRight"> <i lang="bo-latn">zer-c̀e</i>, usual for <span lang="bo">སྨྲ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ལུས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td>remain, be left. </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="cellRight"> <i lang="bo-latn">lus-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ལོག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td>turn back, return. </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="cellRight"> <i lang="bo-latn">log-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft"><span lang="bo">ཤེས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> </td> -<td>know. </td> -<td> </td> -<td class="cellRight"> <i lang="bo-latn">s̀es (s̀ē)-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="cellLeft cellBottom"><span lang="bo">(ཧ་)གོ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> </td> -<td class="cellBottom">understand. </td> -<td class="cellBottom"> </td> -<td class="cellRight cellBottom"> <i lang="bo-latn">há-go-c̀e</i> </td> -</tr> -</tbody> -</table> -</div><p> -</p> -</div> -</div> -</div> -<div class="footnotes"> -<hr class="fnsep"> -<div class="footnote-body"> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13862"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13862src">1</a></span> <span lang="bo">སུའི་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13862src" title="Return to note 1 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13867"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13867src">2</a></span> The numbers refer to the notes at the end of the collection, exhibiting the spelling -of some of the words that are most disfigured in pronunciation. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13867src" title="Return to note 2 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13978" lang="en"> -<p class="footnote" lang="en"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13978src">3</a></span> vulgar supine <a href="#s41n1">41, Note 1</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13978src" title="Return to note 3 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e13994"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e13994src">4</a></span> <span lang="bo">བྲེལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e13994src" title="Return to note 4 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14058"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14058src">5</a></span> <span lang="bo">སྨན་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14058src" title="Return to note 5 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14064"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14064src">6</a></span> <span lang="bo">སྩལ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14064src" title="Return to note 6 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14078"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14078src">7</a></span> <span lang="bo">གནང་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14078src" title="Return to note 7 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14091"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14091src">8</a></span> <span lang="bo">གཟུག་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14091src" title="Return to note 8 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14100"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14100src">9</a></span> <span lang="bo">རྒྱག་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14100src" title="Return to note 9 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14124"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14124src">10</a></span> <span lang="bo">གཏོང་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14124src" title="Return to note 10 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14166"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14166src">11</a></span> <span lang="bo">གྲོད་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14166src" title="Return to note 11 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14272"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14272src">12</a></span> <span lang="bo">ག་<wbr></wbr>འདྲས་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14272src" title="Return to note 12 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14359"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14359src">13</a></span> <span lang="bo">འཁྲུ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14359src" title="Return to note 13 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14391"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14391src">14</a></span> <span lang="bo">གནང་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14391src" title="Return to note 14 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14479"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14479src">15</a></span> <span lang="bo">བཞག་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14479src" title="Return to note 15 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14492"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14492src">16</a></span> <span lang="bo">འབེབས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> iprv. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14492src" title="Return to note 16 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14515"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14515src">17</a></span> <span lang="bo">ཟངས་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14515src" title="Return to note 17 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14561"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14561src">18</a></span> <span lang="bo">རྒས་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14561src" title="Return to note 18 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14568"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14568src">19</a></span> <span lang="bo">འབུད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> iprv. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14568src" title="Return to note 19 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14612"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14612src">20</a></span> <span lang="bo">གྲང་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14612src" title="Return to note 20 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14619"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14619src">21</a></span> <span lang="bo">དཀར་<wbr></wbr>ཡོལ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14619src" title="Return to note 21 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14677"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14677src">22</a></span> <span lang="bo">འགྲོ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14677src" title="Return to note 22 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14688"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14688src">23</a></span> <span lang="bo">གསོལ་<wbr></wbr>ལྕོག་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14688src" title="Return to note 23 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14692"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14692src">24</a></span> <span lang="bo">འཕྲལ་<wbr></wbr>འགྲིག་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14692src" title="Return to note 24 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14714"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14714src">25</a></span> <span lang="bo">བཏིང་</span> prf. of <span lang="bo">འདིང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14714src" title="Return to note 25 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14786"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14786src">26</a></span> <span lang="bo">བཀང་</span> prf. of <span lang="bo">འགེངས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14786src" title="Return to note 26 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14831"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14831src">27</a></span> <span lang="bo">དཀར་<wbr></wbr>གཡའ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14831src" title="Return to note 27 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14835"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14835src">28</a></span> <span lang="bo">སྦྱར་</span> prf. of <span lang="bo">སྦྱོར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14835src" title="Return to note 28 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14870"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14870src">29</a></span> <span lang="bo">མགར་<wbr></wbr>བའི་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14870src" title="Return to note 29 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14874"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14874src">30</a></span> <span lang="bo">རྩར་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14874src" title="Return to note 30 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14937"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14937src">31</a></span> <span lang="bo">བསྐྱལ་</span> prf. of <span lang="bo">སྐྱེལ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14937src" title="Return to note 31 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e14967"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e14967src">32</a></span> <span lang="bo">གསུང་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e14967src" title="Return to note 32 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15004"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15004src">33</a></span> <span lang="bo">འཕང་</span> iprv. of <span lang="bo">འཕེན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15004src" title="Return to note 33 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15011"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15011src">34</a></span> <span lang="bo">བཅུག་</span> prf. of <span lang="bo">འཇུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15011src" title="Return to note 34 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15037"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15037src">35</a></span> <span lang="bo">འགྲིམ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15037src" title="Return to note 35 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15057"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15057src">36</a></span> <span lang="bo">གནན་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15057src" title="Return to note 36 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15079"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15079src">37</a></span> <span lang="bo">འབྲས་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15079src" title="Return to note 37 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15085"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15085src">38</a></span> <span lang="bo">དཀྲི་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15085src" title="Return to note 38 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15151"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15151src">39</a></span> <span lang="bo">མཆིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15151src" title="Return to note 39 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15155"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15155src">40</a></span> <span lang="bo">བཏུབ་</span> prf. of <span lang="bo">འཐུབ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15155src" title="Return to note 40 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15213"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15213src">41</a></span> <span lang="bo">གྲོ་<wbr></wbr>མ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15213src" title="Return to note 41 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15265"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15265src">42</a></span> <span lang="bo">རྗེད་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15265src" title="Return to note 42 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15285"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15285src">43</a></span> <span lang="bo">ཟུམ་</span> i.o. <span lang="bo">བཟུང་</span> from <span lang="bo">འཛིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15285src" title="Return to note 43 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15356"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15356src">44</a></span> <span lang="bo">སྐྱོད་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15356src" title="Return to note 44 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15375"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15375src">45</a></span> <span lang="bo">སྡོད་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15375src" title="Return to note 45 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15390"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15390src">46</a></span> <span lang="bo">བཞུགས་</span> <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15390src" title="Return to note 46 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15406"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15406src">47</a></span> From the <i lang="bo-latn">Dzaṅ-lun</i> (<span lang="bo">མཛངས་<wbr></wbr>བླུན་</span>). <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15406src" title="Return to note 47 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15418"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15418src">48</a></span> <a href="#s13">13</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15418src" title="Return to note 48 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15424"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15424src">49</a></span> <a href="#s15.5">15, 5</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15424src" title="Return to note 49 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="n92.4"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#n92.4src">50</a></span> <span lang="bo">བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>, perf. <span lang="bo">བྱས་</span>, fut. <span lang="bo">བྱ་</span>, iv. <span lang="bo">བྱོས་</span> ‘to make, do’<span class="corr" id="xd31e15443" title="Not in source">,</span> in some cases: ‘to say, call’, <span lang="bo">ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>བྱ་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘so to be called, so called’.—<span lang="bo">དབྱུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་<wbr></wbr>ཅན་</span> is a translation of the Sanscrit name <span lang="sa" class="deva">दण्डिन्</span>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#n92.4src" title="Return to note 50 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15462"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15462src">51</a></span> <a href="#s40.1.c">40. 1. <i>c</i></a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15462src" title="Return to note 51 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15470"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15470src">52</a></span> <a href="#s41.a.1">41. A. 1</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15470src" title="Return to note 52 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15476"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15476src">53</a></span> <a href="#s40.1.b">40. 1. <i>b</i></a> and <a href="#s47.3.b">47. 3. <i>b</i></a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15476src" title="Return to note 53 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15487"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15487src">54</a></span> <a href="#s34.1">34. 1</a>. and <a href="#s40.1">40. 1</a>. <i>g</i>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15487src" title="Return to note 54 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15498"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15498src">55</a></span> <a href="#s15.5">15. 5</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15498src" title="Return to note 55 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15504"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15504src">56</a></span> <a href="#s42.3">42. 3</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15504src" title="Return to note 56 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="n92.11"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#n92.11src">57</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to give; to send, let go’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#n92.11src" title="Return to note 57 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15518"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15518src">58</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">ལང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to rise’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15518src" title="Return to note 58 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15525"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15525src">59</a></span> s. <a href="#n92.4">50</a>). <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15525src" title="Return to note 59 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="n93.14"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#n93.14src">60</a></span> <a href="#s41.a.7">41. A. 7</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#n93.14src" title="Return to note 60 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15541"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15541src">61</a></span> imp. of <span lang="bo">སྦྱིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to give’, <span lang="bo">སླར༌༌༌</span> ‘to return’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15541src" title="Return to note 61 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15552"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15552src">62</a></span> <a href="#s37.2">37. 2</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15552src" title="Return to note 62 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15558"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15558src">63</a></span> <span lang="bo">གཏོང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> s. <a href="#n92.11">57</a>); ‘don’t let pass’; <a href="#s38.2">38. 2</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15558src" title="Return to note 63 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15570"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15570src">64</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">ལེན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘take, seize’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15570src" title="Return to note 64 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15577"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15577src">65</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">འཕེན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to throw, fling’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15577src" title="Return to note 65 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15584"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15584src">66</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">གཅོག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to break’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15584src" title="Return to note 66 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15591"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15591src">67</a></span> s. <a href="#n93.14">60</a>). <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15591src" title="Return to note 67 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15599"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15599src">68</a></span> <a href="#s43.2">43. 2</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15599src" title="Return to note 68 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15605"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15605src">69</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">རྩོམ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to prepare, purpose’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15605src" title="Return to note 69 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15612"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15612src">70</a></span> rule <a href="#s30">30</a>. is not always strictly observed. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15612src" title="Return to note 70 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15622"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15622src">71</a></span> <a href="#s43.2">43. 2</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15622src" title="Return to note 71 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15629"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15629src">72</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">ལྟུང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to fall’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15629src" title="Return to note 72 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15636"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15636src">73</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">འཛིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to seize’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15636src" title="Return to note 73 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15643"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15643src">74</a></span> <a href="#s43.2.b">43. 2. <i>b</i></a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15643src" title="Return to note 74 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="n94.29"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#n94.29src">75</a></span> <span class="corr" id="xd31e15651" title="Source: 41. 6. b"><a href="#s41.a.6.b">41. A. 6. <i>b</i></a></span>; <span lang="bo">ཞེས་</span> = <span lang="bo">ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>ནས་</span>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#n94.29src" title="Return to note 75 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15669"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15669src">76</a></span> <a href="#s49">49</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15669src" title="Return to note 76 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15675"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15675src">77</a></span> ‘from the inner (i.e. other) to this’, ‘across’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15675src" title="Return to note 77 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15680"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15680src">78</a></span> carpenter (lit. ‘<i>lakṛiwālā</i>’, cf. <a href="#s12.1">12. 1</a>.). <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15680src" title="Return to note 78 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15689"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15689src">79</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">འདྲི་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to ask’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15689src" title="Return to note 79 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15696"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15696src">80</a></span> <a href="#s40.1.g">40. 1. <i>g</i></a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15696src" title="Return to note 80 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15703"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15703src">81</a></span> <a href="#s41.a.8">41. A. 8</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15703src" title="Return to note 81 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15709"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15709src">82</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">སྐྱུར་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to throw down’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15709src" title="Return to note 82 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15720"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15720src">83</a></span> s. <a href="#n94.29">75</a>). <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15720src" title="Return to note 83 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15727"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15727src">84</a></span> ‘sat down’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15727src" title="Return to note 84 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15731"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15731src">85</a></span> if the verb is in the infv., the subject is usually put in the accus., when we use -the genitive. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15731src" title="Return to note 85 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15735"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15735src">86</a></span> ‘returning it so that the owner saw it’; <a href="#s41.b.2.b">41. B. 2. <i>b</i></a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15735src" title="Return to note 86 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15743"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15743src">87</a></span> ‘I did not return it with the mouth i.e. by saying anything’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15743src" title="Return to note 87 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15748"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15748src">88</a></span> ‘because (<a href="#s41.a.8">41. A. 8</a>) that Yugp. did not say it (viz: I give back)’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15748src" title="Return to note 88 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15755"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15755src">89</a></span> <a href="#s41.b.2.a">41. B. 2. <i>a</i></a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15755src" title="Return to note 89 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15762"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15762src">90</a></span> <a href="#s41.a.5">41. A. 5</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15762src" title="Return to note 90 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15768"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15768src">91</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">འདོགས་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to tie, fasten’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15768src" title="Return to note 91 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15775"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15775src">92</a></span> impv. of <span lang="bo">འབྱིན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to take out, pull out’ etc. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15775src" title="Return to note 92 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15783"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15783src">93</a></span> ‘firstly’, less frequent and somewhat different from <span lang="bo">དང་<wbr></wbr>པོར་</span> (<a href="#s22">22</a>). <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15783src" title="Return to note 93 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15793"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15793src">94</a></span> ‘my’ (<a href="#s24">24</a>). <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15793src" title="Return to note 94 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15803"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15803src">95</a></span> ‘secondly’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15803src" title="Return to note 95 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15807"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15807src">96</a></span> <a href="#s17.1">17. 1</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15807src" title="Return to note 96 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15813"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15813src">97</a></span> ‘it is better that Y. should be the winner, than that besides having been robbed of -my ox, I should lose my eyes into the bargain<span class="corr" id="xd31e15815" title="Not in source">’</span>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15813src" title="Return to note 97 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15820"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15820src">98</a></span> ‘another said: O god! etc.’ (<span lang="bo">ལྷ་</span> used in addressing a king like Sanscr. <span lang="sa" class="deva">देव</span>). <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15820src" title="Return to note 98 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15830"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15830src">99</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">འགུམ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to kill’; <span lang="bo">འགུམ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to die’ has perf. <span lang="bo">གུམ་</span>; an <span class="ex">elegant</span> word (<a href="#s24n">24, Note</a>). <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15830src" title="Return to note 99 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15849"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15849src">100</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">འཇུག་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> ‘to enter’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15849src" title="Return to note 100 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15856"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15856src">101</a></span> <span lang="bo">མཆི་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span><span class="corr" id="xd31e15859" title="Not in source">,</span> perf. <span lang="bo">མཆིས་</span> ‘to go, walk’; <span class="ex">eleg.</span> ‘to say’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15856src" title="Return to note 101 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15869"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15869src">102</a></span> <a href="#s41.a.5.b">41. A. 5. <i>b</i></a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15869src" title="Return to note 102 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="n96.57"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#n96.57src">103</a></span> Nomin. for Instrum., s. <a href="#s30">30</a> fin. <a class="fnarrow" href="#n96.57src" title="Return to note 103 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15887"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15887src">104</a></span> perf. of <span lang="bo">མང་<wbr></wbr>བ་</span> ‘to be much, many; to become m<span class="corr" title="Not in source">.</span>’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15887src" title="Return to note 104 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15896"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15896src">105</a></span> partic., ‘that a man was concealed (behind it)’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15896src" title="Return to note 105 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15900"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15900src">106</a></span> <a href="#s41.a.5">41. A. 5</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15900src" title="Return to note 106 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15906"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15906src">107</a></span> <a href="#s27.1">27. 1</a>. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15906src" title="Return to note 107 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15913"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15913src">108</a></span> imper. of <span lang="bo">བགྱིད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span> <span class="ex">eleg.</span> for <span lang="bo">བྱེད་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span>; ‘go and make the husband of this same (woman)’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15913src" title="Return to note 108 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15926"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15926src">109</a></span> ‘than that he should be (my) husband’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15926src" title="Return to note 109 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15930"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15930src">110</a></span> s. <a href="#n96.57">103</a>). <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15930src" title="Return to note 110 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15937"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15937src">111</a></span> partic., ‘the axe which I held from (i.e. with) my mouth’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15937src" title="Return to note 111 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15941"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15941src">112</a></span> <a href="#s40.3">40. 3</a> ‘whatever things be carried, it being right to carry them on the shoulder’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15941src" title="Return to note 112 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15948"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15948src">113</a></span> for <span lang="bo">ཞེས་<wbr></wbr>སྨྲས་<wbr></wbr>པས།</span> s. <a href="#n94.29">75</a>). <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15948src" title="Return to note 113 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15962"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15962src">114</a></span> <span lang="bo">༌༌སོ་<wbr></wbr>སོ་</span> ‘different, several’, <span lang="bo">༌༌ནས་</span>—‘separately, each for himself’. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15962src" title="Return to note 114 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -<div class="fndiv" id="xd31e15977"> -<p class="footnote"><span class="fnlabel"><a class="noteRef" href="#xd31e15977src">115</a></span> They are here arranged according to the number of the roots, though these are in many -instances, not so strictly observed, even in printed books, as they ought to be. It -should especially be remarked that the mute <span lang="bo">ས་</span> in the perf. and imp. is in most cases either put or omitted very arbitrarily. <a class="fnarrow" href="#xd31e15977src" title="Return to note 115 in text.">↑</a></p> -</div> -</div> -</div> -</div> -<div class="transcriberNote"> -<h2 class="main">Colophon</h2> -<h3 class="main">Availability</h3> -<p class="first">This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project -Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at <a class="seclink xd31e44" title="External link" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/">www.gutenberg.org</a>. -</p> -<p>This eBook is produced by the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at <a class="seclink xd31e44" title="External link" href="https://www.pgdp.net/">www.pgdp.net</a>. -</p> -<h3 class="main">Metadata</h3> -<table class="colophonMetadata" summary="Metadata"> -<tr> -<td><b>Title:</b></td> -<td>Tibetan Grammar</td> -<td></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><b>Author:</b></td> -<td>Heinrich August Jäschke (1817–1883)</td> -<td>Info <span class="externalUrl">https://viaf.org/viaf/61583153/</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><b>Editor:</b></td> -<td>Heinrich Wenzel (1855–1893)</td> -<td>Info <span class="externalUrl">https://viaf.org/viaf/34630954/</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><b>File generation date:</b></td> -<td>2022-10-22 21:02:37 UTC</td> -<td></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><b>Language:</b></td> -<td>English</td> -<td></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><b>Original publication date:</b></td> -<td>1883</td> -<td></td> -</tr> </table> -<h3 class="main">Revision History</h3> -<ul> -<li>2021-09-25 Started. </li> -</ul> -<h3 class="main">External References</h3> -<p>Project Gutenberg does not use active external links in its ebooks. -The following URLs are shown purely for information. If so desired, you can copy and -paste them into the address-bar of your browser. -</p> -<table class="externalReferenceTable"> -<tr> -<th>Page</th> -<th>URL</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><a class="pageref" id="xd31e160ext" href="#xd31e160">N.A.</a></td> -<td><span class="externalUrl">http://www.buddism.ru/YagpoFont/</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><a class="pageref" id="xd31e169ext" href="#xd31e169">N.A.</a></td> -<td><span class="externalUrl">https://omkarananda-ashram.org/Sanskrit/itranslator2003.htm#dls</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><a class="pageref" id="xd31e187ext" href="#xd31e187">N.A.</a></td> -<td><span class="externalUrl">https://software.sil.org/awami/</span></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td><a class="pageref" id="xd31e178ext" href="#xd31e178">N.A.</a></td> -<td><span class="externalUrl">https://software.sil.org/scheherazade/</span></td> -</tr> -</table> -<h3 class="main">Corrections</h3> -<p>The following corrections have been applied to the text:</p> -<table class="correctionTable" summary="Overview of corrections applied to the text."> -<tr> -<th>Page</th> -<th>Source</th> -<th>Correction</th> -<th>Edit distance</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e1767">N.A.</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">24</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">20</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e1784">N.A.</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">26</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">27</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e1792">N.A.</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">27</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">3</td> -<td class="bottom">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e1995">N.A.</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">neutre</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">neuter</td> -<td class="bottom">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e2386">1</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="bo-latn">S̀ron-tsan-gam-po</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="bo-latn">Sroṅ-tsan-gam-po</td> -<td class="bottom">2 / 0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e2789">2</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">speak</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">say</td> -<td class="bottom">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><i title="33 occurrences">Passim. -</i></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"> -[<i>Not in source</i>] -</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">.</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3035">3</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">in</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">at</td> -<td class="bottom">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3125">4</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">respectivily</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">respectively</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3182">4</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">whom</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">which</td> -<td class="bottom">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3185">4</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"> -[<i>Not in source</i>] -</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">under </td> -<td class="bottom">6</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3224">4</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="ar">همرنة</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="ar">همزة</td> -<td class="bottom">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3259">4</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">exercion</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">exertion</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3266">4</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">to </td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"> -[<i>Deleted</i>] -</td> -<td class="bottom">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3294">5</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">componend</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">component</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3312">5</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">down </td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"> -[<i>Deleted</i>] -</td> -<td class="bottom">5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3419">5</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4991">13</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">preceeding</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">preceding</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3506">6</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10140">48</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">dissappears</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">disappears</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3657">6</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">སྙེམ་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">སྙེན་<wbr></wbr>པ་</span></td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3671">6</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">Dipthongs</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">Diphthongs</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3795">7</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">conjunction</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">succession</td> -<td class="bottom">8</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3798">7</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">either</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">each</td> -<td class="bottom">4</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3811">7</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">Subjoined</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">Subscribed</td> -<td class="bottom">4</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e3863">7</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">བྱ</span></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">བྱ་</span></td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4039">8</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">food</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">foot</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4042">8</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">subjoined</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">subscribed</td> -<td class="bottom">4</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4062">8</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">homonymes</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">homonyms</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4082">8</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6160">19</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10861">55</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e12865">75</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"> -[<i>Not in source</i>] -</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">)</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4085">8</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">lauguage</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">language</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4109">8</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">above</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">over</td> -<td class="bottom">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4115">8</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">contonants</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">consonants</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4164">9</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">ease</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">case</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4339">10</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">judgement</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">judgment</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4351">10</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e5837">16</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6479">21</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6523">22</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9637">44</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9650">44</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e11344">61</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e13192">78</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e15443">92</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e15859">96</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"> -[<i>Not in source</i>] -</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">,</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4502">10</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="bo-latn">ḍan-po</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="bo-latn">ḍaṅ-po</td> -<td class="bottom">1 / 0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4583">11</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">W.T</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">WT</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4586">11</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"> </td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">.)</td> -<td class="bottom">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4589">11</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4694">11</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">C.T.</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">CT</td> -<td class="bottom">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4654">11</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"> -[<i>Not in source</i>] -</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span>1.</span> </td> -<td class="bottom">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4687">11</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">excepted</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">except</td> -<td class="bottom">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4963">12</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e11106">58</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">is</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">it</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e4975">13</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">for denoting</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">to denote</td> -<td class="bottom">5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e5016">13</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">ལག ཤུབས་</span></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">ལག་<wbr></wbr>ཤུབས་</span></td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e5030">13</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">W.T.</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">WT</td> -<td class="bottom">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e5175">14</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">exlamation</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">exclamation</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e5357">14</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">,</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">.</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e5916">16</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"> -[<i>Not in source</i>] -</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">པ་</span></td> -<td class="bottom">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6008">18</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">སེང་<wbr></wbr>གེ་<wbr></wbr>མོ</span></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">སེང་<wbr></wbr>གེ་<wbr></wbr>མོ་</span></td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6038">18</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6177">19</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e8463">33</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e8992">36</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9852">46</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">,</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"> -[<i>Deleted</i>] -</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6329">20</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">indisriminately</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">indiscriminately</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6335">20</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">thrown out</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">superseded</td> -<td class="bottom">10</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6386">20</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">Bus</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">But</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6413">21</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">add</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">adds</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6423">21</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">an</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">a</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6629">23</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">movement</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">motion</td> -<td class="bottom">5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6648">23</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">consonontal</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">consonantal</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e6732">23</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e15115">90</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="bo-latn">lū</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="bo-latn">lṳ̄</td> -<td class="bottom">2 / 0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e7217">25</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">Tsan</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">Tsaṅ</td> -<td class="bottom">1 / 0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e7240">25</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e7320">26</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e8312">31</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9607">43</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10383">50</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"> -[<i>Not in source</i>] -</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">‘</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e7242">25</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e7323">26</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e8314">31</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9611">44</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10028">47</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10385">50</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e11510">63</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e12730">74</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e15815">96</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"> -[<i>Not in source</i>] -</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">’</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e7332">26</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">endings</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">terminations</td> -<td class="bottom">8</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e7361">26</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">preceeds</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">precedes</td> -<td class="bottom">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e7376">26</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="ur">سى</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="ur">سے</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e7387">27</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">that</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">than</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e8126">30</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="bo-latn">go c̀íg</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="bo-latn">go-c̀íg</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e8316">31</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">21.</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">21st</td> -<td class="bottom">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e8370">32</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">སྟོང་<wbr></wbr>ཕྲག་<wbr></wbr>ཉི་<wbr></wbr>ཤུ</span></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">སྟོང་<wbr></wbr>ཕྲག་<wbr></wbr>ཉི་<wbr></wbr>ཤུ་</span></td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e8472">33</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">so</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">to</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e8678">34</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">letter writing</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">letter-writing</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e8804">36</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">notions</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">terms</td> -<td class="bottom">5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e8962">36</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"> -[<i>Not in source</i>] -</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">and </td> -<td class="bottom">4</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e8974">36</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">himself in his own speech</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">speaking of himself</td> -<td class="bottom">19</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9195">38</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="bo-latn">gh.</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="bo-latn">ghaṅ</td> -<td class="bottom">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9232">38</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">und</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">and</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9277">39</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">way</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">may</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9310">40</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e17407">103</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">verb</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">verbs</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9331">40</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9337">40</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">neutral</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">neuter</td> -<td class="bottom">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9334">40</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"> -[<i>Not in source</i>] -</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">an </td> -<td class="bottom">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9366">41</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">shape</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">form</td> -<td class="bottom">5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9369">41</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">shapes</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">forms</td> -<td class="bottom">5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9410">41</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">likes</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">prefers</td> -<td class="bottom">5</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9428">42</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">Perfet</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">Perfect</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9476">42</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">acknowledges</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">recognises</td> -<td class="bottom">9</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9569">43</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">and</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">or</td> -<td class="bottom">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9578">43</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">notion</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">idea</td> -<td class="bottom">6</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9766">45</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"> -[<i>Not in source</i>] -</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">the </td> -<td class="bottom">4</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9846">46</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">always will</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">will always</td> -<td class="bottom">10</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e9849">46</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">te</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">to</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10005">47</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">bit</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">bitten</td> -<td class="bottom">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10412">50</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">.</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">,</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10494">51</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">synonymes</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">synonyms</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10610">52</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">replaces</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">expresses</td> -<td class="bottom">6</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10726">53</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">fouud</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">found</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10766">53</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">notion, opposite</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">sense, opposed</td> -<td class="bottom">9</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10844">55</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">appendices</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">affixes</td> -<td class="bottom">6</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10854">55</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">ས</span></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">ས་</span></td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10866">55</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">དེ</span></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">དེ་</span></td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10881">55</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">མ</span></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">མ་</span></td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e10948">56</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">kings-place</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">king’s-place</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e11288">60</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"> -[<i>Not in source</i>] -</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">1.</td> -<td class="bottom">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e11337">61</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">kings</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">king’s</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e11350">61</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">.’</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">’.</td> -<td class="bottom">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e11411">62</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">;</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">,</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e11504">63</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">sent</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">send</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e11560">64</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">intented</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">intended</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e11927">66</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">principal</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">principally</td> -<td class="bottom">2</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e12651">73</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">,</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">:</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e12931">76</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">40. 1. A. 4</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">41. A. 4</td> -<td class="bottom">3</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e13805">85</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"> -[<i>Not in source</i>] -</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">“</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e13807">85</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">’</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">”</td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e13891">86</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="bo-latn">gʽan</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="bo-latn">gʽaṅ</td> -<td class="bottom">1 / 0</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e15457">92</a>, <a class="pageref" href="#xd31e16579">100</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"> -[<i>Not in source</i>] -</td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en"><span lang="bo">༌</span></td> -<td class="bottom">1</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="width20"><a class="pageref" href="#xd31e15651">94</a></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">41. 6. <i>b</i></td> -<td class="width40 bottom" lang="en">41. A. 6. <i>b</i></td> -<td class="bottom">3</td> -</tr> -</table> -<h3 class="main">Abbreviations</h3> -<p>Overview of abbreviations used.</p> -<table class="abbreviationTable" summary="Overview of abbreviations used."> -<tr> -<th>Abbreviation</th> -<th>Expansion</th> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="bottom">f.i.</td> -<td class="bottom">for instance</td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="bottom">i.o.</td> -<td class="bottom">instead of</td> -</tr> -</table> -</div> -</div> -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TIBETAN GRAMMAR ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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