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diff --git a/old/69207-0.txt b/old/69207-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 9d5883f..0000000 --- a/old/69207-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3415 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Tibetan Grammar, by H.A. Jäschke - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Tibetan Grammar - -Author: H.A. Jäschke - -Editor: H. Wenzel - -Release Date: October 22, 2022 [eBook #69207] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Jeroen Hellingman and the Online Distributed Proofreading - Team at https://www.pgdp.net/ for Project Gutenberg (This - file was produced from images generously made available by - The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TIBETAN GRAMMAR *** - - -[Transcriber’s note: This Unicode text file includes Tibetan and -Indic scripts. You may need to install a special fonts to read it. -Because Tibetan scripts are not monospaced, tables may appear -misaligned.] - - - - - - - - - TIBETAN GRAMMAR - - BY - - H. A. JÄSCHKE - MORAVIAN MISSIONARY. - - SECOND EDITION - - PREPARED BY - Dr. H. WENZEL. - - - - LONDON: - TRÜBNER & CO., 57 & 59, LUDGATE HILL. - 1883. - - - - - - - - -PREFACE. - - -The present new edition of Mr. Jäschke’s Tibetan Grammar scarcely needs -a word of apology. As the first edition which was lithographed at -Kyelaṅ in 1865 in a limited number of copies has long been out of -print, Dr. Rost urged the author to revise his grammar for the purpose -of bringing it out in an improved form. The latter, prevented by -ill-health from undertaking the task, placed the matter in my hands, -and had the goodness to make over to me his own manuscript notes and -additions to the original work. Without his personal cooperation, -however, I was unable to make any but a very sparing use of these, -adding only a few remarks from Gyalrabs and Milaraspa, with some -further remarks on the local vernacular of Western Tibet. Indeed, -special attention has been paid throughout to this dialect; it is the -one with which the author during his long residence at Kyelaṅ had -become most familiar, and with which the English in India are most -likely to be brought into direct contact. - -Besides the above mentioned additions, I have taken a number of -examples from the Dzaṅlun, to make clearer some of the rules, and, with -the same view, I have altered, here and there, the wording of the -lithographed edition. The order of the paragraphs has been retained -throughout, and only one (23.) has been added for completeness’ sake. - -The system of transliteration is nearly the same as in the Dictionary, -only for ny, ñ is used, and instead of e̱, ä (respectively ā̤) has been -thought to be a clearer representation of the sound intended. For the -niceties of pronunciation the reader is referred to the Dictionary, as -in this Grammar only the general rules have been given. - -Finally I must express my warmest thanks to Dr. Rost, to whose -exertions not only the printing of this Grammar is solely due, but who -also rendered me much help in the correcting of the work. - -Mayence, May 1883. - -H. Wenzel. - - - - - - - - -ABBREVIATIONS. - - - act. = active. - C or CT = Central Tibet, especially the provinces of Ü and Tsaṅ. - cf. = confer, compare. - Dzl. = Dzaṅlun. - e.g. = exempli gratia, for instance. - ET = East Tibet. - fut. = future. - imp. = imperative. - inf. = infinitive. - i.o. = instead of. - Köpp. = Köppen. - Kun. = Kunawur, province under English protection. - Ld. = Ladak, province. - Mil. = Milaraspa. - neutr. = neuter verb. - perf. or pf. = perfect. - pres. = present. - s. = see. - term. = terminative case. - Thgy. = Thar-gyan, scientific treatises. - v. = vide, see. - vulg. = vulgar expression. - W or WT = Western Tibet. - - - - - - - - -CONTENTS. - - -I. Phonology. - Page - 1. Alphabet 1 - 2. Remarks 3 - 3. Vowels 3 - 4. Syllables 4 - 5. Final Consonants 5 - 6. Diphthongs 6 - 7. Compound Consonants 7 - 8. Prefixed Letters 11 - 9. Word; Accent; Quantity 12 - 10. Punctuation 14 - -II. Etymology. - - I. Article. - - 11. Peculiarities of the Tibetan Article 17 - 12. Difference of the Articles 18 - 13. The Indefinite Article 19 - - II. Substantive. - - 14. Number 20 - 15. Declension 21 - - III. Adjective. - - 16. Relation to the Substantive 25 - 17. Comparison 26 - - IV. Numerals. - - 18. Cardinal numerals 28 - 19. Ordinal numerals 31 - 20. Remarks 31 - 21. Distributive numerals 33 - 22. Adverbial numerals 33 - 23. Fractional numerals 33 - - V. Pronouns. - - 24. Personal pronouns 34 - 25. Possessive pronouns 36 - 26. Reflective pronouns 37 - 27. Demonstrative pronouns 37 - 28. Interrogative pronouns 38 - 29. Relative pronouns 38 - - VI. Verb. - - 30. Introduction 40 - 31. Inflection 41 - 32. Infinitive 42 - 33. Participle 43 - 34. Finite Verb 45 - 35. Present 46 - 36. Preterit 47 - 37. Future 48 - 38. Imperative 49 - 39. Intensive 50 - 40. Substantive Verbs 51 - 41. Gerunds and Supines 54 - 42. VII. Adverb 65 - 43. VIII. Postposition 67 - 44. IX. Conjunction 74 - 45. X. Interjection 76 - XI. Derivation: - 46. Derivation of Substantives 77 - 47. Derivation of Adjectives 78 - -III. Syntax. - - 48. Arrangement of Words 80 - 49. Use of the Cases 81 - 50. Simple Sentences 82 - 51. Compound Sentences 83 - -Appendix. - - Phrases 86 - Reading Exercise 92 - Verbs 99 - - - - - - - - -PART I. - -PHONOLOGY. - - -1. The Alphabet. The Tibetan Alphabet was adapted from the Lañc̀ʽa -(ལཱཉ་ཚ) form of the Indian letters by Tʽon-mi-sam-bho-ta (ཐོན་མི་སམ་བྷོ་ཏ) -minister of king Sroṅ-tsan-gam-po (སྲོང་བཙན་སྒམ་པོ་) about the year 632 (s. -Köpp. II, 56). The Indian letters out of which the single Tibetan -characters were formed are given in the following table in their Nāgari -shape. - - surd. aspir. sonant. nasal. - -gutturals. ཀ་ क ka ཁ་ ख kʽa ག་ ग ga ང་ ङ ṅa -palatals. ཅ་ च c̀a ཆ་ छ c̀ʽa ཇ་ ज j̀a ཉ་ ञ ña -dentals. ཏ་ त ta ཐ་ थ tʽa ད་ द da ན་ न na -labials. པ་ प pa ཕ་ फ pʽa བ་ ब ba མ་ म ma -palatal ཙ་ tsa ཚ་ tʽsa ཛ་ dsa -sibilants. -semivowels ཝ་ व wa ཞ་ z̀a ཟ་ za འ་ ˱a - ཡ་ य ya ར་ र ra ལ་ ल la - ཤ་ श s̀a ས་ स sa ཧ་ ह ha - ཨ་ ’a - - -It is seen from this table that several signs have been added to -express sounds that are unknown in Sanscrit. The sibilants ཙ་ ཚ་ ཛ་ -evidently were differentiated from the palatals. But as in transcribing -Sanscrit words the Tibetans substitute their sibilants for the palatals -of the original (as ཙི་ན་ for चीन), we must suppose that the sibilisation -of those consonants, common at present among the Hindus on the Southern -slopes of the Himālaya (who say tsār for चार, four etc.), was in general -use with those Indians from whom the Tib. Alphabet was taken (cf. also -the Afghan څ and ڂ likewise sprung from چ and ج). ཝ་ is -differentiated from བ་, which itself often is pronounced v, as shewn in -the sequel; in transcribing Sanscrit, ब and व both are given, -generally, by བ only. ཞ་ seems to be formed out of ཤ་ to which it is -related in sound. ཟ་ evidently is only the inverted ཇ་. ཨ་ corresponds -with Sanscrit अ. འ་ is newly invented; for its functions see the -following §§.—The letters which are peculiar to Sanscrit are expressed, -in transcribing, in the following manner. a) The linguals, simply by -inverting the signs of the dentals: thus, ཊ་ ट, ཋ་ ठ, ཌ་ ड, ཎ་ ण. b) -The sonant aspirates, by putting ཧ་ under the sonants: thus, གྷ་ घ, ཛྷ་ -झ, ཊྷ་ ढ, དྷ་ ध, བྷ་ भ. [1] - - - -2. Remarks. 1. Regarding the pronunciation of the single letters, as -given above, it is to be born in mind, that surds ཀ་ ཏ་ པ་ are uttered -without the least admixture of an aspiration, viz. as k, t, p are -pronounced in the words skate, stale, spear; the aspirates ཁ་ ཐ་ ཕ་ -forcibly, rather harder than the same in Kate, tale, peer; the sonants -ག་ ད་ བ་ like g, d, b in gate, dale, beer. 2. The same difference of -hardness is to be observed in ཅ་ ཆ་ ཇ་ or c̀, c̀ʽ, j̀ (c̀ʽ occurs in -church; c̀, the same without aspiration; j̀ in judge) and in ཙ་ ཚ་ ཛ་ or -ts, tʽs, ds. 3. ཞ་ is the soft modification of s̀ or the s in leisure -(French j in jamais, but more palatal). 4. ང་ is the English ng in -sing, but occurs in Tibetan often at the commencement of a syllable. 5. -ཉ་ ñ is the Hindi न्य, or the initial sound in the word new, which would -be spelled ཉུ་ ñu. 6. In the dialects of Eastern or Chinese-Tibet, -however, the soft consonants ག་ ད་ བ་ ཇ་ ཛ་, when occurring as -initials, are pronounced with an aspiration, similar to the Hindi घ, ध, -भ, झ, or indeed so that they often scarcely differ from the common -English k, t, p, ch; also ཞ་ and ཟ་ are more difficult to distinguish -from ཤ་ and ས་ than in the Western provinces (Exceptions s. §§ 7. 8). - - - -3. Vowels. 1. Since every consonant sign implies, like its Sanscrit -prototype, a following a, unless some other vowel sign is attached to -it, no particular sign is wanted to denote this vowel, except in some -cases specified in the following §§. The special vowel signs are ེ, -ི, ོ, ུ, pronounced respectively as e, i, o, u are in German, Italian -and most other European languages, viz. ེ like ay in say, or e in ten; -ི like i in machine, tin; ོ like o in so, on; ུ like u in rule, pull. -It ought to be specially remarked that all vowels, including e and o -(unlike the Sanscrit vowels from which they have taken their signs) are -short, since no long vowels at all occur in the Tibetan language, -except under particular circumstances, mentioned below (s. § 9. 5, 6). -2. When vowels are initial, ཨ is used as their base, as is ا in Urdu, -e.g. ཨ་མ་ ama, ‘mother’. 3. འ is originally different from ཨ་, as the -latter denotes the opening of the previously closed throat for -pronouncing a vowel with that slight explosive sound which the Arabs -mean by أ (همزة), as the a in the words: the lily, an endogen, which -would be in Tibetan characters ལི་ལི་ཨན་; འ་ on the contrary is the mere -vowel without that audible opening of the throat (as Arabic ا without -ء), as in Lilian, ལི་ལི་འན་. In Eastern Tibet this difference is -strictly observed; and if the vowel is o or u the intentional exertion -for avoiding the sound of ཨ་ makes it resemble wo and wu: འོ་མ་ ‘the -milk’, almost like wo-ma, འུག་པ་ ‘the owl’ = wug-pa. In western Tibet -this has been obliterated, and འ་ is there spoken just like ཨ་. - - - -4. Syllables. The Tibetan language is monosyllabic, that is to say all -its words consist of one syllable only, which indeed may be variously -composed, though the component parts cannot, in every case, be -recognised in their individuality. The mark for the end of such a -syllable is a dot, called ཚེག་ tʽseg, put at the right side of the upper -part of the closing letter, such as ཀ་ the syllable ka. This tʽseg must -invariably be put at the end of each written syllable, except before a -s̀ad (§ 10), in which case only ང་ ṅa retains its tʽseg. If therefore -such a dot is found after two or more consonants, this will indicate -that all of them, some way or other, form one syllable with only one -vowel in it: ཀ་ར་ ka-ra, ཀར་ kar (cf. §§ 5. 8). - - - -5. Final consonants. 1. Only the following ten: ག་ ང་ ཏ་ ན་ བ་ མ་ འ་ ར་ -ལ་ ས་ (and the four with affixed ས, v. 5) occur at the end of a -syllable. 2. It must be observed, that ག་ ད་ བ་ as finals are never -pronounced like the English g, d, b in leg, bad, cab, but are -transformed differently in the different provinces. In Ladak they sound -like k, t, p e.g. སོག་ = sock, གོད་ = got, ཐོབ་ = top. 3. In all Central -Tibet, moreover, final ད་ and ན་, sometimes even ལ་, modify the sound -of a preceding vowel: a to ä (similar to the English a in hare, man), o -into o̤ (French eu in jeu), u into ṳ (French u in mur). In most of the -other provinces ག་ and ད་ are uttered so indistinctly as to be scarcely -audible, so that སོག་, གོད་ become sŏʼ, gŏʼ. In Tsang even final ལ་ is -scarcely perceptible, and final ག་, particularly after o, is almost -dissolved into a vowel sound = a: སོལ་བ་ so-wa, དཀོན་མཆོག་ kon-choa. [2] -4. Final ས་ is sounded as s only in Northern Ladak; elsewhere it -changes into i or disappears entirely, prolonging, or even modifying at -the same time the preceding vowel. Thus the following words: ནས་ -‘barley’, ཤེས་ ‘know’, རིས་ ‘figure’, ཆོས་ ‘religion’, ལུས་ ‘body’, are -pronounced in Northern Ladak: năs, s̀ĕs, ris, c̀ʽos, lŭs; in Lahoul: nai, -shei, rī, c̀ʽō, lū; in Lhasa, and consequently by everyone who wishes to -speak elegantly: nā̤, s̀ē, rī, c̀ʽō̤, lṳ̄. 5. In some words final ས་ occurs -as a second closing letter (affix), after ག་ ང་ བ་ མ་, as in ནགས་ -‘forest’, གངས་ ‘glacier-ice’, ཐབས་ ‘means’, རམས་ ‘indigo’; these are -pronounced in N. Ladak: nacks, gaṅs, tʽaps, rams, elsewhere nack (in Ü: -nā), gaṅ (ET ghang), tʽap, ram. 6. ན་ before པ་ and མ་ is especially in -ET very often pronounced m, e.g. ཉན་པ་ ñäm-pa, ཉོན་པ་ ñöm-pa, སྙེན་པ་ -ñem-pa. - - - -6. Diphthongs. 1. They occur in Tibetan writing only where one of the -vowels i, o, u have to be added to a word ending with an other vowel -(s. §§ 15. 1; 33. 1; 45. 2). These additional vowels are then always -written འི་, འོ་, འུ་, never ཨི་ etc. (cf. § 3. 3); and the combinations -ai, oi, ui (as in བཀའི་, མགོའི་, བུའི་) are pronounced very much like ā̤, ō̤, -ṳ̄, so that the syllables ནའི་, ཤེའི་, རིའི་, ཆོའི་, ལུའི་ can only in some -vulgar dialects be distinguished from those mentioned in § 5. 4. 2. The -others ao, eo, io, oo, uo, au, eu, iu (བཀའོ་, སྐྱེའོ་, བགྱིའོ་, འགྲོའོ་, འདུའོ་, -གའུ་, བྱེའུ་, ཁྱིའུ་) are pronounced in rapid succession, but each vowel is -distinctly audible. In prosody they are generally regarded as one -syllable, but if the verse should require it they may be counted as -two. - - - -7. Compound consonants. 1. They are expressed in writing by putting one -below the other, in which case several change their original figure. - -Subscribed consonants. 2. The letter y subjoined to another is -represented by the figure ྱ, and occurs in connection with the three -gutturals and labials, and with m, thus ཀྱ་ ཁྱ་ གྱ་ པྱ་ ཕྱ་ བྱ་ མྱ་. The -former three have preserved, in most cases, their original -pronunciation kya, kʽya, gya (the latter in ET: ghya s. § 2. 6). In the -Mongol pronunciation of Tibetan words, however, they have been -corrupted into c̀, c̀ʽ, j̀ respectively, a well known instance of which is -the common pronunciation Kanj̀ur i.o. kangyur, or eleg. ka-gyur -(བཀའ་འགྱུར་). པྱ་, ཕྱ་, བྱ་ are almost everywhere spoken without any -difference from ཅ, ཆ, ཇ (except in the Western dialect before e and i, -where the y is dropped and པ, ཕ, བ alone are pronounced). མྱ is spoken -ny = ཉ. 3. r occurs at the foot of the gutturals, dentals, labials, of -ན, མ, ས, and ཧ, in the shape of ྲ. In some parts of the country, as in -Purig, these combinations are pronounced literally, like kra, khra -etc., but by far the most general custom is to sound them like the -Indian cerebrals, viz. ཀྲ, ཏྲ, པྲ indiscriminately = ट ṭ; ཁྲ, ཐྲ, ཕྲ = ठ ṭh; -གྲ, དྲ, བྲ = ड ḍ (in CT: ḍh); only in the case of བྲ the literal -pronunciation br is not uncommon. In ནྲ and མྲ both letters are -distinctly heard; ཧྲ sounds like shr in shrub, and so does སྲ generally. -In Ü this r is dropped nearly in all cases: thus, ཕྲ pʽa, སྲ sa etc. 4. -Six letters are often found with an ལ beneath: ཀླ་ གླ་ བླ་ ཟླ་ རླ་ སླ་; in -these the ལ alone is pronounced, except in ཟླ་, which sounds da. 5. The -figure ྭ, sometimes found at the foot of a letter is used in Sanscrit -words to express the subscribed व, as in སྭཱ་ཧཱ་ (cf. § 9. 6) for स्वाहा; and -is now pronounced by Tibetans = ō: sōhā; in words originally Tibetan it -now exists merely as an orthographical mark, to distinguish homonyms in -writing, as ཚ་ tʽsa, ‘hot’ and ཚྭ་ tʽsa, ‘salt’; but, as it is spoken, -in some words at least, in Balti (e.g. རྩྭ་ rtswa ‘grass’), it must be -supposed that, in the primitive form of the language, it was generally -heard.—Note. Of such compounds, indeed, as ཕྱྭ་ ‘lot’ it is difficult to -understand, how they can have been pronounced literally, if the v was -not, perhaps, pronounced before the y. - -Superadded consonants. 6. r over another consonant is written ⸆, and 11 -consonants have this sign: རྐ་ རྒ་ རྔ་ རྟ་ རྡ་ རྣ་ རྦ་ རྨ་ རྩ་ རྫ་, above ཉ་ it -preserves its full shape, as better adapted to the form of that letter: -thus, རྙ་. In speaking it is seldom heard except provincially, and in -some instances in compound words after a vowel thus, ཨུ་རྒྱན་ Urgyán, -Urgyén, ancient name of the country of Lahore; རྡོ་རྗེ་ dórje ‘vaj̀ra’. -Ladakees often pronounce it = s: རྟ་ sta ‘horse’ elsewhere ta. 7. -Similar is the usage in those with a superadded ལ (namely: the surds -and sonants of the first four classes, the guttural nasal, and ཧ), -which latter is often softly heard in WT, but entirely dropped -elsewhere, except in the case of ལྷ, which is spoken = ལ in WT, but with -a distinct aspiration = hla or lha in ET. 8. ས is superadded to the -gutturals, dentals and labials with exception of the aspiratae, then ཉ་ -and ཙ་. It is, in many cases, distinctly pronounced in Ladak, but -dropped elsewhere [3]. 9. ག་ ད་ བ་ ཇ་ ཛ་ with any superadded letter -lose the aspiration mentioned in § 2. 6 and sound = g, d, b, j̀, ds. 10. -རྗ་ རྩ་ རྫ་ often lose even the inherent t-sound in pronunciation and are -spoken like j̀, s, z. - - -Examples. - - ཀྱིར་ཀྱིར་ kyir-kyir, round, circular. - ཁྱི་ kʽyi, dog. - གྱེན་ལ་ gyen-la, upwards. - ཕྱུགས་ c̀ʽug(s), Ü: c̀ʽū, cattle. - ཀྱུ་ kyu, hook. - ཁྱོད་ kʽyod, C: kʽyöʼ, you. - ཕྱུག་པོ་ c̀ʽug-po, rich. - ཕྱེད་ W: pʽed, C: c̀ʽĕʼ, half. - བྱ་མོ་ W: j̀á-mo, C: j̀ʽa-mo, hen. - མྱ་ངན་ W: ña-ṅán, C: -ṅän, misery. - ཀྲམ་ ṭam, cabbage. - ཁྲིམས་ ṭʽim(s), judgment. - གྲང་མོ་ W: ḍaṅ-mo, C: ḍʽ°-, cold. - ཕྲུག་གུ་ ṭʽug-gu, child. - སྲན་མ་ s̀ran-ma, srän-ma, pea. - གླ་ la, wages. - རླུང་(པོ་) luṅ(-po), wind. - ཟླ་བ་ da-wa (s. § 11 note), moon. - རྣོན་པོ་ nón-po, C: no̤m-po, sharp. - ལྗང་ཁུ་ jaṅ-kʽu (Ld. lj°), green. - སྐོམ་ (s)kom, thirst. - སྒོ་ (s)go, door. - སྒྱུར་བ་ (s)gyúr-wa, to alter, turn. - སྤྱིན་ W: (s)pin, C: c̀ʽin, glue. - སྤྲེའུ་ ṭe-u, Ld: s̀re-u, monkey. - སྨན་ W: (s)man, C: män, medicine. - བྱེ་མ་ W: bé-ma, C: j̀ʽe-ma, sand. - མྱུར་དུ་ ñur-du, quickly. - ཁྲལ་ ṭʽal, tax. - གྲི་ W: ḍi, ḍʽi (Pur: gri), knife. - དྲང་པོ་ W: ḍaṅ-po, C: ḍʽ°, straight. - བྲག་ ḍag, ḍʽag (brag), rock. - ཧྲུལ་པོ་ s̀rul-po, ragged. - བླ་མ་ lá-ma, priest. - སླ་མོ་ lá-mo, easy. - རྐང་པ་ kaṅ-pa, foot. - རྫུན་ W: zun, C: dsṳn, lie, untruth. - ལྟད་མོ་ tad-mo (Ld. lt°), C: täʼ-mo, spectacle. - སྐྲ་ W: s̀ra [4], C: ṭa, hair. - སྒྲ་ ḍa (vulg.: ra), sound, voice. - སྤུ་ (s)pu, small hair. - སྤྱོད་པ་ W: (s)c̀od-pa, C: c̀öʼ-pa, to behave. - སྦྲུལ་ W: (sb)rul, C: ḍul, snake. - སྨྱོན་པ་ W: ñon-pa, C: ño̤n-pa, mad. - - - -8. Prefixed letters. 1. The five letters ག་ ད་ བ་ མ་ འ་ frequently -occur before the real, radical initials of other words, but are seldom -pronounced, except in similar cases as § 7. 6. ག་ occurs before ཅ་ ཉ་ -ཏ་ ད་ ན་ ཙ་ ཞ་ ཟ་ ཡ་ ཤ་ ས་; ད before the gutturals and labials with -exception of the aspiratae; བ་ before ཀ་ ག་, the palatals, dentals and -palatal sibilants with the same exception as under ད, then ཞ་ ཟ་ ར་ ཤ་ -ས་; མ་ before the gutturals, palatals, dentals and palatal sibilants, -except the surds; འ before the aspiratae and sonants of the five -classes. In CT, to pronounce them in any case, is considered vulgar. 2. -The ambiguity which would arise in case of the prefix standing before -one of the 10 final consonants, as single radical, the vowel being the -unwritten a,—e.g. in the syllable དག་, which, if ད is radical, has to -be pronounced dag, if prefixed gā,—is avoided by adding an འ་ in the -latter case: thus, དགའ་. Other examples are: གད་ gad (gʽäʼ) and གདའ་ -dā; བས་ bas (bā̤, bʽā̤) and བསའ་ sā; མད་ mad (mäʼ) and མདའ་ dā; འགའ་ gā. -This འ་ is added, though the radical be not one of the mentioned -letters; as, བཀའ་ kā. 3. ད་ as a prefix and བ་ as first radical annul -each other, so that only the following sound is heard, as will be seen -in the following examples (དབང་ etc.). 4. Another irregularity is the -nasal pronunciation of the prefixed འ་ in compounds after a vowel, -which is often heard e.g. དགེ་འདུན་ pronounced gen-dún, gen-dṳ́n, but -eleg.: ge-dṳ́n, ‘clergy’; བཀའ་འབུམ་ kam-bum, eleg. ka-búm, ‘the 100 000 -precepts’ (title of a book).—Note. With regard to the aspiration of the -soft consonants in ET the prefixed letters have the same influence as -the superadded ones § 7. 9. - - -Examples. - - གཡག་ yag, bos grunniens. - དཔེ་ཆ་ pé-c̀ʽa (Ld.: spe-c̀ʽa), book. - བཟང་པོ་ záṅ-po, good. - འབབ་པ་ bab-pa, to descend. - དབང་ waṅ, vulg. C: aṅ, power. - དབུས་ Ṳ̄, name of the Lhasa district. - དབེན་པ་ en-pa, solitude. - དབྱིབས་ yib(s), ib, figure. - དཀར་པོ་ kár-po, white. - དགྲ་བོ་ ḍá-wo, enemy. - མངར་མོ་ ṅár-mo, sweet. - བཅུ་བཞི་ c̀ub-z̀i, eleg. c̀u-z̀i, fourteen. - དབུ་ u, resp. head. - དབུགས་ ug(s), C: ug, ū, breath. - དབྱར་ཀ་ yar-ka, summer. - དབྱེ་བ་ ye-wa, e-wa, difference. - - - -9. Word; Accent; Quantity. 1. The peculiarity of the Tibetan mode of -writing in distinctly marking the word-syllables, but not the words -(cf. § 4) composed of two or more of these, sometimes renders it -doubtful what is to be regarded as one word. 2. There exist a great -number of small monosyllables, which serve to denote different shades -of notions, grammatical relations etc., and are postponed to the word -in question; but never alter its original shape, though their own -initials are not seldom influenced by its final consonant (cf. § 15). -3. Such monosyllables may conveniently be regarded as terminations, -forming one word together with the preceding nominal or verbal root. 4. -The accent is, in such cases, most naturally given to the root, or, in -compounds, generally to the latter part of the composition, as: མིག་ -mig, ‘eye’, མིག་གི་ míg-gi, ‘of the eye’; ལག་ lag, ‘hand’, ལག་ཤུབས་ -lag-s̀ub(s), ‘hand-covering, glove’.—5. Equally natural is, in WT, the -quantity of the vowels: accentuated vowels, when closing the syllable, -are comparatively long (though never so long as in the English words -bee, stay, or Hindi راجا etc.), otherwise short, as མི་ mī ‘man’, མི་ལ་ -mī-lă ‘to the man’, but མར་ măr, ‘butter’.—In CT, however, even -accentuated and closing vowels are uttered very shortly: mĭ, mĭ-lă -etc., and long ones occur there only in the case of § 5, 4. 5. and 8, -2., as ལས་ lā̤ ‘work’; ཆོས་ c̀ʽō̤ ‘religion’; མདའ་ dā ‘arrow’; གཟའ་ zā -‘planet’; and in Lhasa especially: ནགས་ nā ‘forest’; ལེགས་པ་ lē-pa -‘good’; རིགས་ rī ‘class, sort’; ལོགས་ lō ‘side’; ལུགས་ lū ‘manner’.—In -Sanscrit words the long vowels are marked by an འ་ beneath the -consonant, as: ནཱ་མ་ (नाम) ‘called’, མཱུ་ལ་ (मूल) ‘root’ (s. § 3). - - - -10. Punctuation. For separating the members of a longer period, a -vertical stroke: །, called ཤད་ s̀ad (s̀äʼ), is used, which corresponds at -once to our comma, semicolon and colon; after the closing of a sentence -the same is doubled; after a longer piece, e.g. a chapter, four s̀ads -are put. No marks of interrogation or exclamation exist in -punctuation.—2. In metrical compositions, the double s̀ad is used for -separating the single verses; in that case the logical partition of the -sentence is not marked (cf. § 4). - - -A list of a few useful words. - - ཀ་ར་ or ཁ་ར་ ká-ra, kʽá-ra, sugar. - ཁང་པ་ kʽaṅ-pa, house. - གང་ W: gaṅ, C: gʽaṅ, which? - གུར་ W: gur, C: gʽur, tent. - ངལ་ ṅal, fatigue. - ཅི་ c̀i, what? - ཆད་པ་ W: c̀ʽad-pa, C: c̀ʽăʼ-pa, punishment. - ཆུང་བ་ c̀ʽuṅ-wa, little. - ཇ་ W: j̀a, C: j̀ʽa, tea. - ཉི་མ་ ñí-ma, sun; day. - ཉུང་མ་ ñúṅ-ma, turnip. - ཏིབ་རིལ་ tíb-ril, tea-pot, kettle. - ཀུན་ W: kun, C: kün, all. - ཁུང་ kʽuṅ, hole. - ག་རུ་ or གར་ W: ga-ru, gar, C: gʽ°, where? - ངན་པ་ ṅan-pa, C: ṅam-pa, bad. - ཆང་, c̀ʽaṅ, beer. - ཆར་པ་ c̀ʽár-pa, rain. - ཆེན་པོ་ c̀ʽen-po, great. - ཉ་ ña, fish. - ཉུང་བ་ ñuṅ-wa, little, few. - ཉེ་མོ་ ñe-mo, near. - ཏོག་ཙེ་ tóg-tse (W), hoe. - ཐག་པ་ tʽag-pa, rope. - ཐོད་པ་ W: tʽód-pa, C: tʽöʼ-pa, skull. - དང་ daṅ, dʽaṅ, and; with. - ནག་པོ nag-po, black. - ནོར་ nor, wealth, property. - ཕན་པ་ pʽan-pa, pʽäm-pa, use, benefit. - བ་ ba, bʽa, cow. - བུ་ bu, bʽu, son. - མེ་ me, fire. - མེད་ med, mĕʼ, there is not. - ཚང་མ་ tʽsaṅ-ma, whole. - ཞོ་ z̀o, s̀ŏ, curdled milk. - འོད་ od, wöʼ, light, shine. - ཡི་གེ་ yí-ge, letter. - ཡོད་ yod, yöʼ, am, is, are. - རི་ ri, hill, mountain. - ལ་ la, mountain-pass. - ལུག་ lug, sheep. - ཐང་ tʽáṅ, the plain. - ད་ W: da, C: dʽa, now. - དུད་པ་ dud-pa, dʽüʼ-pa, smoke. - ནད་ nad, näʼ, disease. - པར་མ་ pár-ma, a printed book. - ཕུག་རོན་ pʽug-rón, -ró̤n, dove. - བལ་ bal, bʽal, wool. - བུ་མོ་ bu-mo, bʽ°, daughter. - མིང་ miṅ, name. - ཙམ་ tsam, how much? - ཞག་ z̀ag, C: s̀ag, day. - འོ་མ་ o-ma, wo-ma, milk. - ཡང་ yaṅ, also. - ཡིན་ yin, am, is, are (cf. § 39). - ར་མ་ ra-ma, goat. - རིན་ rin, price. - ལམ་ lam, road. - ཤ་ s̀a, flesh, meat. - ཤིང་ s̀iṅ, tree, wood. - སུ་ su, who? - ཨ་ཕ་ a-pʽa, (vulg.) father. - རས་ (Ld: ras) rā̤, cotton cloth. - གོས་ (Ld: gos) gō̤, gʽō̤, clothing. - སེམས་ sem, soul. - ཁྲག་ ṭʽag, blood. - སླེབ་པ་ leb-pa, to arrive. - རྩྭ་ W: sa, C: tsa, grass. - སྔོན་པོ་ ṅon-po, ṅo̤m-po, blue. - གཞུ་ z̀u, bow (for shooting). - དགུན་ཀ་ gun-ka, gṳn-ka, winter. - མཚོ་ tʽso, lake. - འདྲི་བ་ ḍi-wa, to ask. - ས་ sa, earth. - སོ་མ་ só-ma, new. - ཨ་མ་ a-ma, (vulg.) mother. - དུས་ (Ld.: dus) dṳ̄, dʽṳ̄, time. - ཐབས་ tʽab(s), means. - བག་ཕྱེ་ W: bag-pʽe, C: bʽag-c̀ʽe, flour. - གྲོ་ ḍo, ḍʽŏ, wheat. - རྒད་པོ་ gad-po, gʽäʼ-po, old. - སྐྱེ་བ་ (s)kye-wa, to be born, grow. - སྙིང་ ñiṅ, heart. - གཟིག་ zig, leopard. - མགྱོགས་པ་ gyog(s)-pa (Ü: gyō-pa), fast, quick. - འབྲི་བ་ ḍi-wa (bri-wa), to write. - - - - - - - - -PART II. - -ETYMOLOGY. - - -CHAPTER I. - -THE ARTICLE. - - -11. Peculiarities of the Tibetan article. 1. What have been called -Articles by Csoma and Schmidt, are a number of little affixes: པ་ བ་ མ་ -པོ་ བོ་ མོ་, and some similar ones, which might perhaps be more adequately -termed denominators, since their principal object is undoubtedly to -represent a given root as a noun, substantive or adjective, as is most -clearly perceptible in the instance of the roots of verbs, to which པ་ -or བ་ impart the notion of the Infinitive and Participle, or the -nearest abstract and nearest concrete nouns that can possibly be formed -from the idea of a verb. These affixes are not, however,—except in this -case—essential to a noun, as many substantives and adjectives and most -of the pronouns are never accompanied by them, and even those which -usually appear connected with them, will drop them upon the slightest -occasion. 2. Almost the only case in which a syntactical use of them, -like that of the English definite Article, is perceptible, is that -mentioned § 20. 3; a formal one, that of distinguishing the Gender, -occurs in a limited number of words, where མོ་ denotes the female, པོ་ -the masculine. Thus: རྒྱལ་པོ་ gyál-po ‘king’, རྒྱལ་མོ་ gyál-mo ‘queen’. Or, -if the word in the masculine (or rather common) gender has no article, -མོ་ is added: སེང་གེ་ séṅ-ge ‘lion’, སེང་གེ་མོ་ ‘lioness’. 3. In most -instances, by far, their only use is to distinguish different meanings -of homonymous roots, e.g. སྟོན་པ་ (s)tón-pa (tó̤n-pa), ‘teacher’; སྟོན་མོ་ -(s)tón-mo (tó̤n-mo) ‘feast’; སྟོན་ཁ་ (s)tón-kʽa (tó̤n-kʽa) ‘autumn’. Even -this advantage, however, is given up, as soon as a composition takes -place, and then the meaning can only be inferred from the context, or -known from usage: མིང་སྟོན་ (from སྟོན་མོ་) ‘name feast’ (given on the -occasion of naming or christening an infant); སྟོན་ཟླ་ (from སྟོན་ཁ་) -‘autumnal month’. In some instances the putting or omitting of these -articles is optional; more frequently the usage varies in different -provinces. 4. The peculiar nature of these affixes is most clearly -shown by the manner in which they are connected with the indefinite -article § 13. - -Note. The affixes བ་ བོ་ are after vowels and after the consonants ང་ ར་ -ལ་ always pronounced wa and wo, instead of ba and bo; thus, དཀའ་བ་ -ka-wa ‘difficult’; རེ་བ་ re-wa ‘hope’; གང་བ་ gaṅ-wa (gh°) ‘full’; ཟེར་བ་ -zer-wa (ser-wa) ‘to say’; མྱལ་བ་ nyal-wa ‘hell’; ཇོ་བོ་ jo-wo (jho-wo) -‘lord, master’. - - - -12. Difference of the Articles among each other. 1. The usage of པ་ བ་ -མ་ is the most general and widest of all, as they occur with all sorts -of substantives and other nouns. པ་ is particularly used for denoting a -man who is in a certain way connected with a certain thing (something -like والا and دار in Hindustāni and Persian): གྲྭ་ ḍa ‘school’, གྲྭ་པ་ -(literally: scholar) ‘disciple, novice’; ཆུ་ c̀ʽu ‘water’, ཆུ་པ་ -‘water-carrier’ (پانى والا); རྟ་ ‘horse’, རྟ་པ་ ‘horseman’; དབུས་ ‘the -province of Ṳ̄’, དབུས་པ་ ‘a man from Ṳ̄’, ཁྱེའུ་ kʽyëu ‘boy’, ལོ་ lo ‘year’, -གཉིས་ ñi(s) ‘two’, hence: ཁྱེའུ་ལོ་གཉིས་པ་ ‘a two years’ boy’. If the -feminine is required མ་ is either added to, or—more commonly—used -instead of, the former: དབུས་མ་ ‘a woman from Ṳ̄’; བུ་མོ་ལོ་གཉིས་མ་ ‘a two -years’ girl’. The performer of an action is more frequently denoted by -པོ་ (or, in more solemn language, པ་པོ་), though, in conversation at -least, མཁན་ kʽan (kʽe̱n), is preferred; བྱེད་པ་ j̀ed-pa ‘to do, make; -doing, making’: བྱེད་པོ་, བྱེད་པ་པོ་, བྱེད་མཁན་ ‘the doer, maker’. 2. The -appendices ཀ་ ཁ་ ག་ occur with a limited number of nouns only, -especially the names of the seasons, with numerals, and some pronouns. -(ཀོ་ seems to be a vulgar form of pronunciation for ཀ་). - - - -13. The indefinite Article. This is the numeral one (§ 13), only -deprived of its prefix, viz.: ཅིག་, which form it retains, if the -preceding word ends with ག་ ད་ བ་, as: ཁབ་ཅིག་ kʽab-c̀ig, a needle; it is -changed to ཤིག་ after ས་, རས་ཤིག་ ras-s̀ig, rä-s̀ig, a cloth; to ཞིག་ z̀ig -(s̀ig) in all other cases. Some authors use ཅིག་ after any termination -indiscriminately. It is, of course, always without accent. The articles -པ་ བ་ etc. are not superseded by the indefinite article e.g. སྟོན་པ་ -‘teacher, the teacher’, སྟོན་པ་ཞིག་ ‘a teacher’. It is used even after a -plurality: thus, ཆུ་མིག་བཞི་ཞིག་དེ་རུ་ཡོད་ ‘there were some four wells’, and -even: མང་ཞིག་གདའ་སྟེ་ ‘there being a multitude of them’ (from Mil.). Very -often it is placed after the interrogative pronouns (v. 27), and -sometimes its original meaning is obscured so much that it occurs even -after known and definite subjects, where one would expect the -demonstrative (see f. i. Dzl. 25, 1. 28, 6. 128, 14). - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER II. - -THE SUBSTANTIVE. - - -14. The Number. The Plural is denoted by adding the word རྣམས་ nam, or, -more rarely, དག་ dag (dʽag), ཚོ་, or a few other words, which originally -were nouns with the common notion of plurality. But this mark of the -Plural is usually omitted, when the plurality of the thing in question -may be known from other circumstances, e.g. when a numeral is added: -thus, མི་ ‘man’, མི་རྣམས་ ‘men’, མི་གསུམ་ ‘three men’. When a substantive is -connected with an adjective, the plural sign is added only once, viz. -after the last of the connected words: མི་བཟང་པོ་རྣམས་ ‘the good men’. - -Note. The conversational language uses the words རྣམས་ etc. seldom, in -WT scarcely ever (an exception s. 24. Remarks), but adds, when -necessary, such words as: all, many, some; two, three, seven, eight, or -other suitable numerals (cf. § 20, 5.). - - - -15. Declension. The regular addition of the different particles or -single sounds by which the cases are formed is the same for all nouns, -whether substantives or adjectives, pronouns or participles. Only in -some cases, in the Dative and Instrumental, the noun itself is changed, -when, ending in a vowel, it admits of a closer connection with the -corrupted case-sign. We may reckon in Tibetan seven cases, expressive -of all the relations, for which cases are used in other languages, viz: -nominative and accusative, genitive, instrumental, dative, locative, -ablative, terminative and vocative. 1. The unaltered form of the noun -has some of the functions of our Nominative and those of the Accusative -and Vocative. 2. The sign of the Genitive is ཀྱི་ after words with the -finals ད་ བ་ ས་; གྱི་ after ན་ མ་ ར་ ལ་, གི་ after ག་ and ང་; after vowels -i is simply added by means of an འ་ thus: འི་, which then will form a -diphthong with the vowel of the noun (cf. § 6), or if, in -versification, two syllables are required, i appears supported by an ཡ་ -forming a distinct word. 3. The Instrumental or Agent is expressed by -the particles ཀྱིས་, གྱིས་ or གིས་ after the respective consonants as -specified above; after vowels simply ས་ is added, or, in verse, -sometimes ཡིས་. - -Note. The instrumental is, in modern pronunciation, except in Northern -Ladak, scarcely discernible from the genitive, and there are but few if -any, even among lamas, who are not liable to confound both cases in -writing. - -In the language of common life, in WT, the different forms of the -particle of the genitive and instrumental, after consonants, ཀྱི་ གྱི་ etc. -are never heard, but everywhere the final consonant is doubled and the -vowel i added to it, thus: ལུས་, G. lus-si (Ld.), lṳ̄-i; ལམ་, G. lam-mi; -གསེར་ (gold), G. ser-ri etc; or, in other words, all nouns ending in -consonants are formed like those ending with ག་ (see the example མིག་). -In those ending with a vowel no irregularity takes place. - -4. The Dative adds indiscriminately the postposition ལ་ la, denoting -the relation of space in the widest sense, expressed by the English -prepositions in, into, at, on, to. 5. The Locative is formed by the -postposition ན་ na ‘in’. 6. The Ablative by ནས་ nā̤ or ལས་ lā̤ ‘from’ -(the latter especially with the meaning: from among), all three -likewise without any discriminating regard to the ending of the noun. -7. The Terminative is expressed by the postpositions རུ་ or ར་ after -vowels; ཏུ་ after final ག་ and བ་ and, in certain words, ད་ ར་ ལ་; སུ་ -after ས་; དུ་ generally after ན་ ར་ ལ་ and the other final consonants. -All these postpositions denote the motion to or into. 8. The Vocative -is not different from the Nominative (as stated above), if not -distinguished by the interjection ཀྱེ་ oh!, and can only be known from -the context. - - - -Examples of declension. As example of the declension of consonantal -nouns we may take 1. for those in s (respectively d, b), ལུས་ lus, lṳ̄, -‘body’; 2. for those in m (n, r, l), ལམ་ lam ‘way’; 3. for those in g -(ṅ), མིག་ mig ‘eye’,—of that of vocalic nouns: 4. ཁ་ kʽa or kʽa-wa -‘snow’. - - -Singular. - - 1. 2. -N. Acc. ལུས་ lus, lṳ̄ ལམ་ lam -Gen. ལུས་ཀྱི་ lus-kyi, lṳ̄-kyi; ལམ་གྱི་ lam-gyi; lam-mi - lus-si, lṳ̄i -Inst. ལུས་ཀྱིས་ lus-kyis, ལམ་གྱིས་ lam-gyis, -gyī; lam-mī - lṳ̄-kyī; lus-sī, lṳ̄ī -Dat. ལུས་ལ་ lus-la, lṳ̄-la ལམ་ལ་ lam-la -Loc. ལུས་ན་ lus-na ལམ་ན་ lam-na -Abl. ལུས་ནས་ lus-nā̤ ལམ་ནས་ lam-nā̤ -Term. ལུས་སུ་ lus-su ལམ་དུ་ lam-du - - 3. 4. -N. Acc. མིག་ mig ཁ་ kʽa; ཁ་བ་ kʽa-wa -Gen. མིག་གི་ mig-gi ཁའི་ kʽai; ཁ་བའི་ kʽa-wai -Inst. མིག་གིས་ mig-gis, -gī ཁས་ kʽā̤; ཁ་བས་ kʽa-wā̤ -Dat. མིག་ལ་ mig-la ཁ་ལ་ kʽa-la; ཁ་བ་ལ་ kʽa-wa-la -Loc. མིག་ན་ mig-na ཁ་ན་ kʽa-na; ཁ་བ་ན་ kʽa-wa-na -Abl. མིག་ནས་ mig-nā̤ ཁ་ནས་ kʽa-nā̤; ཁ་བ་ནས་ - kʽa-wa-nā̤ -Term. མིག་ཏུ་ mig-tu ཁ་རུ་, ཁར་ kʽa-ru, kʽar; - ཁ་བ་རུ་, ཁ་བར་ kʽa-wa-ru, - kʽa-war. - - - -Plural. - -As the plural signs are simply added to the nouns, without affecting -their form, we here only give examples of declension with the two most -frequent plural particles. As example for དག་ the plural of the pron. -དེ་ ‘that’ has been chosen. - - - N. Acc. ལུས་རྣམས་ lus(lṳ̄-)-nam(s) དེ་དག་ de-dag - Gen. ལུས་རྣམས་ཀྱི་ lus-nam(s)-kyi དེ་དག་གི་ de-dag-gi - Inst. ལུས་རྣམས་ཀྱིས་ lus-nam(s)-kyis དེ་དག་གིས་ de-dag-gis - Dat. ལུས་རྣམས་ལ་ lus-nam(s)-la དེ་དག་ལ་ de-dag-la - Loc. ལུས་རྣམས་ན་ lus-nam(s)-na དེ་དག་ན་ de-dag-na - Abl. ལུས་རྣམས་ནས་ lus-nam(s)-nā̤ དེ་དག་ནས་ de-dag-nā̤ - Term. ལུས་རྣམས་སུ་ lus-nam(s)-su དེ་དག་ཏུ་ de-dag-tu - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER III. - -THE ADJECTIVE. - - -16. In the Tibetan language the Adjective is not formally distinguished -from the Substantive, so that many nouns may be used one or the other -way just as circumstances require. [5] The declension, likewise, -follows the same rules as that of substantives. Only two remarks may be -added here. 1. The particles པ་ མ་ པོ་ མོ་ are not very strictly used for -distinguishing the gender, since even in the case of human beings པ་ -and པོ་ are not seldom found connected with feminines, e.g.: བུ་མོ་མཛེས་པ་ -just as well as བུ་མོ་མཛེས་མ་ ‘a fine girl’. 2. The Adjective stands after -the Substantive to which it belongs: thus, རི་མཐོན་པོ་ ri-tʽón-po, C: -ri-tʽo̤n-po, ‘the high hill’, when, of course, the case-signs are joined -to the Adjective: རི་མཐོན་པོའི་ ‘of the high hill’, རི་མཐོན་པོ་རྣམས་ ‘the high -hills’ etc. - -Or the Adjective may be put in the Gen. before the Substantive: -མཐོན་པོའི་རི་, and then the latter only is declined: མཐོན་པོའི་རིའི་, -མཐོན་པོའི་རི་རྣམས་. In the vulgar speech both of C and WT the adjective -sometimes preserves, even in this position, its simple form -(Nominative). A third way of expression, when both are joined together, -without any article, as སྐམ་ས་ instead of ས་སྐམ་པོ་ ‘the dry land’, is -rather a compound substantive, with the same difference of meaning as -‘highland’ and ‘a high land’ in English. - - - -17. Comparison. 1. Special terminations, expressive of the different -degrees of comparison, as in the Aryan languages, do not exist in -Tibetan. There are two particles, however, corresponding to the English -than: བས་, after the final consonants ང་ ར་ ལ་ and after vowels (པས་, -after ག་ ད་ ན་ བ་ མ་ ས་ [6]), and ལས་; these particles follow the word -with which another is compared (like the Hind. سے) and this then -precedes the compared one, finally follows the adjective in the -positive: རྟ་བས་ (or ལས་) ཁྱི་ཆུང་བ་ཡིན་ ‘horse—than dog small is’, just as -in Hindūstāni: گھوڑى سے كتّا چھوٹا ھَى. But also the position usual in -our European languages occurs, thus: -རབ་ཏུ་འབྱུང་བའི་བསོད་ནམས་རི་རབ་ལྷུན་པོ་བས་འཕངས་མཐོའོ་ ‘the merit of becoming a -priest is relatively higher than mount Meru’; -བོད་གྱི་རྒྱལ་པོ་གཞན་ལས་ཆེ་བ་ཡིན་ནོ་ ‘the king of Tibet is greater than the other -ones’. The particle བས་ (པས་) may be put, in the same manner, after -adverbs. Thus, སྔར་བས་གསལ་བར་མཐོང་བར་གྱུར་ཏོ་ ‘(their eyes) became more -keen-sighted than before’. Or, after infinitives, -གཞན་སོང་བ་བས་ནུ་བོས་སོང་ན་ཕན་ ‘it is better (for him) that his younger -brother should go (with him) than another’. ལས་ for itself has the -meaning of ‘more than’, with the negative: ‘not more than’, ‘only’; -thus: ང་ལ་སྲང་གཉིས་ལས་ནི་མི་དགོས་ ‘more than two ounces I do not want’ (cf. -vulg. WT: གསུམ་མན་ན་མེད་ ‘there are not more than (only) three’); or -‘nothing but’, ‘only’, རི་དྭགས་ཤོར་བ་ལས་དགའ་བ་མེད་ ‘there is no pleasure -(for us) but hunting, h. is our only pl.’. - -2. An Adverb which augments the notion of the adjective itself, is -ལྷག་པར་ ‘more’; this can be added ad libitum: རྟ་བས་ཁྱི་ལྷག་པར་ཆུང་བ་ཡིན་. - -3. Another adverb, ཇེ་ means: ‘more and more’, ‘gradually more’, e.g. -ཇེ་ཉེ་ཇེ་ཉེ་སོང་སྟེ་ ‘going nearer and nearer’. 4. ‘The elder—the younger’ -e.g. of two brothers, is simply expressed by: ‘the great—the little’. -5. The Superlative is paraphrased by the same means: ཀུན་ལས་ཆེན་པོ་ or -ཐམས་ཅད་པས་ཆེན་པོ་ ‘greater than all’. Or it is expressed in the following -manner: ཡུལ་གྱི་རྒྱལ་པོའི་ནང་ན་རྒྱལ་པོ་གང་ཆེ་ ‘of (among) the kings of the country -which one is the greatest (prop. great)?’. Adverbs for expressing high -degrees are: ཤིན་ཏུ་ or རབ་ཏུ་ ‘very’, ཀུན་ཏུ་ ‘all’, ཡོངས་སུ་ ‘quite’, མཆོག་ཏུ་ -‘exceedingly’ etc. - -Note. The colloquial language of WT uses སང་ instead of བས་ or ལས་, and -མཱ་ (mā, always with a strong emphasis, perhaps a mutilated form of མངས་ -‘much’) or མང་པོ་ instead of ཤིན་ཏུ་, whereas that of CT employs ལས་ in -the former case, but repeats the adjective in the latter, so that ‘very -large’ is expressed in books by ཤིན་ཏུ་ཆེན་པོ་, in speaking, in WT by mā́ -c̀ʽén-po, in CT by c̀ʽem-po c̀ʽem-po. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER IV. - -THE NUMERALS. - - -18. Cardinals: - - - 1 ༡ གཅིག་ c̀ig - 2 ༢ གཉིས་ ñi(s) - 3 ༣ གསུམ་ sum - 4 ༤ བཞི་ z̀i - 5 ༥ ལྔ་ ṅa - 6 ༦ དྲུག་ W: ḍug, C: ḍhug - 7 ༧ བདུན་ W: dun, C: dhṳn - 8 ༨ བརྒྱད་ W: gyad, C: gyäʼ - 9 ༩ དགུ་ gu - 10 ༡༠ བཅུ་ c̀u, or བཅུ་ཐམ་པ་ c̀u-tʽam-pa - 11 ༡༡ བཅུ་གཅིག་ c̀u-c̀ig - 12 ༡༢ བཅུ་གཉིས་ c̀u-ñí, vulg: c̀ug-ñí(s) - 13 ༡༣ བཅུ་གསུམ་ c̀u-súm, vulg: c̀ug-súm - 14 ༡༤ བཅུ་བཞི་ c̀u-z̀í, vulg: c̀ub-z̀í - 15 ༡༥ བཅོ་ལྔ་ c̀o-ṅá - 16 ༡༦ བཅུ་དྲུག་ c̀u-ḍúg, C: -ḍhúg - 17 ༡༧ བཅུ་བདུན་ c̀u-dún, C: -dṳ́n, vulg: c̀ub-d° - 18 ༡༨ བཅོ་བརྒྱད་ c̀o-gyád, C: -gyäʼ, vulg: c̀ob-g° - 19 ༡༩ བཅུ་དགུ་ c̀u-gú - 20 ༢༠ ཉི་ཤུ་ ñi-s̀u - 21 ༢༡ ཉི་ཤུ་རྩ་གཅིག་ ñi-s̀u-sa-c̀íg, or ཉེར་གཅིག་ - ñer-c̀íg - 30 ༣༠ སུམ་ཅུ་ súm-c̀u - 31 ༣༡ སུམ་ཅུ་རྩ་གཅིག་ sum-c̀u-sa-c̀íg, སོ་གཅིག་ - so-c̀ig - 40 ༤༠ བཞི་བཅུ་ z̀i-c̀u, vulg: z̀ib-c̀u - 41 ༤༡ བཞི་བཅུ་རྩ་གཅིག་ z̀i-c̀u-sa-c̀íg, ཞེ་གཅིག་ - z̀e-c̀íg - 50 ༥༠ ལྔ་བཅུ་ ṅa-c̀u, vulg: ṅab-c̀u - 51 ༥༡ ལྔ་བཅུ་རྩ་གཅིག་ ṅa-c̀u-sa-c̀íg, ང་གཅིག་ - ṅa-c̀ig - 60 ༦༠ དྲུག་ཅུ་ ḍug-c̀u, C: ḍhug-c̀u - 61 ༦༡ དྲུག་ཅུ་རྩ་གཅིག་ ḍug-c̀u-sa-c̀íg, རེ་གཅིག་ - re-c̀íg - 70 ༧༠ བདུན་ཅུ་ dun-c̀u, C: dṳn-c̀u - 71 ༧༡ བདུན་ཅུ་རྩ་གཅིག་ dun-c̀u-sa-c̀íg, དོན་གཅིག་ - don-c̀íg - 80 ༨༠ བརྒྱད་ཅུ་ gyád-c̀u, C: gyäʼ-c̀u - 81 ༨༡ བརྒྱད་ཅུ་རྩ་གཅིག་ gyad-c̀u-sa-c̀íg, གྱ་གཅིག་ - gya-c̀íg - 90 ༩༠ དགུ་བཅུ་ gú-c̀u, vulg: gúb-c̀u - 91 ༩༡ དགུ་བཅུ་རྩ་གཅིག་ gu-c̀u-sa-c̀ig, གོ་གཅིག་ - go-c̀íg (C: gʽo-c̀íg) - 100 ༡༠༠ བརྒྱ་(ཐམ་པ་) gya (tʽám-pa) - 101 ༡༠༡ བརྒྱ་དང་གཅིག་ or བརྒྱ་རྩ་གཅིག་ gya daṅ (or - sa) c̀íg - 200 ༢༠༠ ཉི་བརྒྱ་ ñi-gya, vulg: ñib-gya - 300 ༣༠༠ སུམ་བརྒྱ་ sum-gya - 400 ༤༠༠ བཞི་བརྒྱ་ z̀i-gya, vulg: z̀ib-gya etc. - 1000 ༡༠༠༠ སྟོང་ (s)toṅ - 10 000 ༡༠ ༠༠༠ ཁྲི་ ṭʽi - 100 000 ༡༠༠ ༠༠༠ འབུམ་ bum - 1 000 000 ༡ ༠༠༠ ༠༠༠ ས་ཡ་ sa-ya -10 000 000 ༡༠ ༠༠༠ ༠༠༠ བྱེ་བ་ j̀e-wa - - -There are, as in Sanscrit, names for many more powers of 10, but they -are seldom used. - - - -19. Ordinals. དང་པོ་ W: daṅ-po, C: dʽ° ‘the first’, the rest are simply -formed by adding པ་ to the cardinals, as: གཉིས་པ་, ‘the second’ etc.; -the 21st is ཉི་ཤུ་རྩ་གཅིག་པ་ ‘the twenty-oneth’, not, as in English, ‘the -twenty first’. - - - -20. Remarks. 1. The smaller number postponed indicates, as is seen in § -18, addition, the reverse—multiplication: བཅུ་གསུམ་ 13, སུམ་ཅུ་ 30; but in -the latter case the three first numerals are changed to ཆིག་, ཉི་, སུམ་; -and བཅུ་, as the second part of a compound after consonants, is spelled -ཅུ་. 2. The words ཐམ་པ་ (after full tens up to one hundred), ཕྲག་ (after -hundreds and thousands [7]), ཚོ་ (with still greater numbers), are -optional but frequent additions. རྩ་ is common instead of དང་ ‘and’, to -connect units with tens (s. § 18), but it occurs also with hundreds and -thousands, and not seldom together with དང་, e.g. སྟོང་དང་རྩ་གཉིས་, 1002. -It is used also instead of ཐམ་པ་, as: བཅུ་རྩ་ ten, ཉི་ཤུ་རྩ་ twenty; often -it is standing alone for ཉི་ཤུ་རྩ་, as རྩ་གཉིས་, twenty two. This latter -custom may have caused the belief, common even among educated readers -in C and WT, that རྩ་ must mean twenty, even when connecting a hundred -or thousand to a unit, as they will usually understand the above -mentioned number in the sense of 1022 instead of 1002; but the -authority of printed books, wherever the exact number can be verified -from other circumstances, does not confirm this, which would indeed be -a sadly ambiguous phraseology. 3. ཀ་ added to a cardinal number means -conjunction: གཉིས་ཀ་, the two together, both; གསུམ་ཀ་, the three -together, all three etc. པོ་ means either the same, or represents the -definite article, indicating that the number has been already -mentioned, e.g. མི་ལྔ༌༌༌༌ བཏང་ངོ༌། །མི་ལྔ་པོ་བསླེབ་སྟེ༌༌༌༌, five men were -sent.... The five men arriving etc. 4. པ་ is used, besides forming -Ordinals, to express the notion of ‘containing’, e.g. ཡི་གེ་དྲུག་པ་ ‘that -containing six letters’, viz. the famous formula: ཨོཾ་མ་ཎི་པ་དྨེ་ཧཱུཾ་ om maṇi -padme hum; སུམ་ཅུ་པ་ ‘that containing thirty (letters)’, the Tibetan -alphabet. 5. Such combinations as གཉིས་གསུམ་ etc. are frequently used in -common life, to denote a number approximately, ‘two or three or so’ -(cf. § 14 Note). - - - -21. Distributive numerals. They are expressed by repetition as in -Hind.: དྲུག་དྲུག་ each time six, six for each etc. In composed numerals -only the last member is repeated, thus སུམ་ཅུ་རྩ་གཉིས་གཉིས་ each time thirty -two. - - - -22. Adverbial numerals. 1. Firstly, secondly etc. are formed from the -ordinals as every Adverb is from an Adjective, viz. by adding the -letter ར་, དང་པོར་, གཉིས་པར་ etc. (s. § 41). 2. Multiplicative adverbs, -‘once’, ‘twice’ etc., are expressed by putting ལན་ ‘times’ before the -cardinal: ལན་གཅིག་, ལན་གཉིས་, W: lan-c̀ig, lan-ñi(s), C: län-c̀ig, län-ñī -‘once, twice’ etc.: seldom ཚེར་, ཚར་, ཐེངས་ with the same meaning as ལན་. - - - -23. Fractional numerals are formed by adding ཆ་ ‘part’: thus, བརྒྱའི་ཆ་ ‘a -hundredth part’ etc., but also: བང་མཛོད་གསུམ་ཆ་ཞིག་ ‘one third of the -treasury’. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER V. - -PRONOUNS. - - -24. Personal Pronouns. First person: ང་ ṅa; ངེད་ ṅed, ṅĕʼ; ངོས་ ṅos -(Ld.); ཁོ་བོ་ kʽo-wo, masc., and ཁོ་མོ་ kʽo-mo, fem.; བདག་ dag ‘self’—‘I’; -Second person: ཁྱོད་ kʽyod (kʽyöʼ), ཁྱེད་ kʽyed (kʽyĕʼ) ‘thou, you’; Third -person: ཁོ་ kʽo, ཁོང་ kʽoṅ—‘he, she, it’. - -The plural is formed by adding ཅག་, རྣམས་, ཅག་རྣམས་ or ཚོ་, but very -often, if circumstances show the meaning with sufficient certainty, the -sign of the plural is altogether omitted. The declension is the same as -that of the substantives. - -Remarks: ང་ is the most common and can be used by every body; ངེད་ seems -to be preferred in elegant speech (s. Note); ངོས་ is very common in -modern letter-writing, at least in WT; བདག་ ‘self’, when speaking to -superior persons occurs very often in books, but has disappeared from -common speech, except in the province of Tsaṅ (Ṭas̀ilhunpo) as also the -following; ཁོ་བོ་, ཁོ་མོ་ in easy conversation with persons of equal rank, -or to inferiors. - -2. person. ཁྱོད་ is used in books in addressing even the highest persons, -but in modern conversation only among equals or to inferiors; ཁྱེད་ is -elegant and respectful, especially in books.— - -3. person. ཁོ་ seldom occurs in books, where the demonstr. pron. དེ་ (§ -26) is generally used instead; ཁོང་ is common to both the written and -the spoken language, and used, at least in the latter, as respectful. -But it must be remarked that the pronoun of the third person is in most -cases entirely omitted, even when there is a change of subject.—Instead -of ང་ཅག་ and ཁྱོད་ཅག་ the people of WT use ང་ཞ་ and ཁྱོ་ཞ་; the vulgar -plural of ཁོ་ is ཁོ་པ་.— - -To each of these pronouns may be added: རང་ raṅ or ཉིད་ ñid, ñĭʼ ‘self’, -and in conversational language ང་རང་, ཁྱོད་རང་, ཁོ་རང་ are, perhaps, even -more frequently used than the simple forms, without any difference in -the meaning. ཉིད་ is more prevalent in books, except the compound ཉིད་རང་ -ñi-raṅ, which is in modern speech the usual respectful pronoun of -address, like ‘Sie’ in German. - -Note. The predilection of Eastern Asiatics for a system of ceremonials -in the language is met with also in Tibetan. There is one separate -class of words, which must be used in reference to the honoured person, -when spoken to as well as when spoken of. To this class belong, besides -the pronouns ཉིད་རང་, ཁྱེད་, ཁོང་, all the respectful terms by which the -body or soul, or parts of the same, and all things or persons -pertaining to such a person, and even his actions, must be called. The -terms, most frequently occurring, have special expressions, as སྐུ་ -(s)ku, instead of ལུས་ lus, lṳ̄, ‘body’; དབུ་ u, i.o. མགོ་ go ‘head’; ཐུགས་ -tʽug(s) (Ü: tʽū), i.o. སེམས་ sem(s) ‘soul’, or ཡིད་ yid, yĭʼ, ‘mind’; ཡབ་ -yab, i.o. ཕ་ (vulg: ཨ་ཕ་), ‘father’; ན་བཟའ་ na-za, i.o. གོས་ gos, gō̤, -‘coat’, ‘dress’; ཆིབས་ c̀ʽib(s), i.o. རྟ་ (r)ta, sta ‘horse’; བཞུགས་པ་ -z̀ug(s)-pa (Ü: z̀ū-pa), i.o. སྡོད་པ་ dod-pa, döʼ-pa ‘to sit’; མཛད་པ་ -dzad-pa, dzäʼ-pa i.o. བྱེད་པ་ j̀ed-pa, j̀hĕʼ-pa ‘to make’ and many others. -If there is no such special word, any substantive may be rendered -respectful by adding སྐུ་ or ཐུགས་ respectively (so, སྐུ་ཚེ་ i.o. ཚེ་ -‘lifetime’; ཐུགས་ཁྲོ་བ་ i.o. ཁྲོ་བ་ ‘anger’) and any verb by adding མཛན་པ་, -according to 39, 1. Another class of what might be called elegant terms -are to be used when conversing with an honoured person (or also by a -high person speaking of himself), such as བགྱིད་པ་ gyid-pa, gyĭʼ-pa ‘to -do’; མཆིས་པ་ c̀ʽī-pa ‘to be’; སླད་དུ་ lad-du, läʼ-du i.o. ཕྱིར་དུ་ ‘for the -sake of’, without reference to the said person himself. Even uneducated -people know, and make use of, most of the ‘respectful’ terms, but the -merely ‘elegant’ ones are, at least in WT, seldom or never heard in -conversation. - - - -25. Possessive pronouns. The Possessive is simply expressed by the -Genitive of the Personal, ངའི་, ཁྱོད་ཀྱི་ etc. ‘His’, ‘her’, ‘its’, when -referring to the acting subject (suus), must be expressed by རང་གི་ or -ཉིད་ཀྱི་ ‘his own’; otherwise (ejus) by ཁོའི་, ཁོང་གི་, དེའི་. In C, in the -latter case, ང་ཅན་, ཁྱོད་ཅན་, ཁོ་ཅན་ are used. - - - -26. Reflective and Reciprocal pronouns. 1. The Reflective pronoun, -‘myself’, ‘yourself’ etc. is expressed by རང་, ཉིད་, also བདག་. But in -the case of the same person being the subject and object of an action, -it must be paraphrased, so for ‘he precipitated himself from the rock’ -must be said ‘he precipitated his own body etc.’ རང་གི་ལུས་; for ‘he -rebuked himself’—‘he rebuked his own soul’ རང་གི་སེམས་.—2. The reciprocal -pronoun ‘each other’ or ‘one another’ is rendered by ‘one—one’, as -གཅིག་གིས་གཅིག་བསད་ ‘by one one was killed’, ‘they killed one another’; -གཅིག་ལ་གཅིག་ན་རེ་ ‘to one one said’, ‘they said to each other’. - - - -27. Demonstrative pronouns. 1. འདི་ di, ‘this’; དེ་ de, dhe ‘that’ are -those most frequently used, both in books and speaking. The Plural is -generally formed by དག་, but also by རྣམས་ and ཚོ་. More emphatical are -འདི་ཀ་, འདི་ག་, འདི་ཀོ་, འདི་གོ་, ‘just this’, ‘this same’; དེ་ཀ་ etc. ‘that -same’.—The vulgar dialect also uses ཧ་གྱི་ hắ-gyi and ཕ་གྱི་ pʽắ-gyi for -‘that’, ‘yonder’, and, in WT, ཨི་, ཨི་པོ་ for ‘this’ and ཨ་ for ‘that’; -ཕ་གྱི་ occurs even in books.—2. It is worth remarking that the -distinction of the nearer and remoter relation is, even in common -language, scrupulously observed. If reference is made to an object -already mentioned, དེ་ is used; if to something following, འདི་; e.g. -དེ་སྐད་ཅེས་སྨྲས་སོ་ ‘that speech he said’, ‘thus he said’; འདི་སྐད་ཅེས་སྨྲས་པ་ -‘this speech he said’, ‘he said thus, spoke the following words’. - - - -28. Interrogative pronouns. They are སུ་ su ‘who?’; གང་ gaṅ, ghaṅ -‘which?’; ཅི་ c̀i ‘what?’; to these the indefinite article ཞིག་ is often -added, སུ་ཞིག་ etc. The two former can also assume the plural termination -དག་, སུ་དག, གང་དག་.—In CT གང་ is frequently used instead of ཅི་. - - - -29. Relative pronouns. These are almost entirely wanting in the Tibetan -language, and our subordinate relative clauses must be expressed by -Participles and Gerunds, or a new independent sentence must be begun. -The participle, in such a case, is treated quite as an adjective, being -put either in the Genitive before the substantive, or, in the -Nominative, after: འགྲོ་བའི་ཚོང་པ་རྣམས་ ‘the merchants who would go (with -him)’; ཉག་ཐག་གཡུ་བརྒུས་པ་ ‘the cord on which turquoises are strung’; -འཁྱོས་མ་མང་པོ་ཡོང་བ་ཞིག་ ‘one who gets (unto whom come) many presents’. Cf. -also 33. Only those indefinite sentences which in English are -introduced by ‘he who’, ‘who ever’, ‘that which’, ‘what’ etc. can be -adequately expressed in Tibetan, by using the interrogative pronouns -with the participle (seldom the naked root) of the verb, or adding ན་ -(‘if—’ v. 41, A. 4.) to the latter. Instead of ཅི་ in this case ཇི་ is -written more correctly. Thus: སུ་ལ་དམ་པའི་ཆོས་མཆིས་པ་བདག་ལ་སྟོན་པར་གྱུར་ན་ ‘if -anybody who possesses the good faith teach it me’; -ཁྱོད་སུ་འགྲོ་བ་དག་ཀྱང་འགྲོགས་ཏེ་ ‘when those of you who wish to go are -assembled’; ནོར་བུ་རིན་པོ་ཆེ་འདི་ཇི་འདོད་པ་ཐམས་ཅད་ཆར་བཞིན་དུ་འབེབས་སོ་ ‘this jewel -(cintāmaṇi) will make come down like rain whatever is wished for’; -ཁྱོད་ཅི་ཟེར་ཁྱོད་ཇི་སྨྲས་པ་བཞིན་དུ་བྱའོ་ ‘whatever you may say and ask of me -according to that I will act, or I will grant you whatever you ask’. -བདག་གིས་མཐུ་ཇི་ཡོད་པས་རྒྱ་མཚོའི་ཆུ་བཅུས་ཏེ་ ‘having scooped the water of the sea -with what force I have’; རིན་པོ་ཆེ་ཇི་ལྟ་བུ་ཞིག་རྙེད་པ་བདག་ལ་བསྟན་དུ་གསོལ་ ‘I beg -you to show me what sort of jewel you have found (got)’; -རྒང་གྱེ་རྗེས་གང་རིགས་པར་གསེར་གྱི་བྱེ་མར་གྱུར་ཏོ་ ‘his footprints, in what place -soever they fell (v. lex. s. v. རིགས་), became gold-sand’. - -But the participle is treated as if no relative was preceding, thus -སྔར་ཇི་སྐད་སྨྲས་པ་ལས་མ་ཟློགས་སོ་ ‘he did not recede from (recall) the word he -had spoken before’; vulg., WT, ང་གང་བསྡད་པའི་ཁང་མིག་ ‘the room where I -sat’. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VI. - -THE VERB. - - -30. Introductory remarks. The Tibetan verbs must be regarded as -denoting, not an action, or suffering, or condition of any subject, but -merely a coming to pass, or, in other words, they are all impersonal -verbs, like taedet, miseret etc. in Latin, or it suits etc. in English. -Therefore they are destitute of what is called in our own languages the -active and passive voice, as well as of the discrimination of persons, -and show nothing beyond a rather poor capability of expressing the most -indispensable distinctions of tense and mood. From the same reason the -acting subject of a transitive verb must regularly appear in the -Instrumental case, as the case of the subject of a neuter verb,—which, -in European languages, is the Nominative—, ought to be regarded, from a -Tibetan point of view, as an Accusative expressing the object of an -impersonal verb, just as ‘poenitet me’ is translated by ‘I repent’. But -it will perhaps be easier to say: The subject of a transitive verb, in -Tibetan, assumes regularly the form of the instrumental, of a neuter -verb that of the nominative which is the same as the accusative. Thus, -ངས་ཁྱོད་རྡུང་ is properly: རྡུང་ a beating happens, ཁྱོད་ regarding you, ངས་ by -me = I beat you. In common life the object has often the form of the -dative, ཁྱོད་ལ་, to facilitate the comprehension. But often, in modern -talk as well as in the classical literature, the acting subject, if -known as such from the context, retains its Nominative form. Especially -the verba loquendi are apt to admit this slight irregularity. - - - - -31. Inflection of verbs. This is done in three different ways: - -a) by changing the form of the root. Such different forms are, at most, -four in number, which may be called, according to the tenses of our own -grammar to which they correspond, the Present-, Perfect-, Future-, and -Imperative-roots; e.g. of the Present-root གཏོང་བ་ ‘to give’ the Perfect -root is བཏང་, the Future-root གཏང་, the Imperative root ཐོང་; of འཚག་པ་ -‘to filter, bolt’ respectively: བཙགས་ tsag(s) (Ü: tsā), བཙག་ tsag, ཚོག་ -tʽsog. The Present root, which implies duration, is also occasionally -used for the Imperfect (in the sense of the Latin and Greek languages) -and Future tenses. It is obvious, from the above mentioned instances, -that the inflection of the root consists partly in alterations of the -prefixed letters (so, if the Perfect prefers the prefixed བ, the Future -will have ག or retain the བ), partly in adding a final ས་ (to the -Perfect and Imperative), partly in changing the vowel (particularly in -the Imperative). But also the consonants of the root itself are changed -sometimes: so the aspirates are often converted in the Perfect and -Future into their surds, besides other more irregular changes. Only a -limited number of verbs, however, are possessed of all the four roots, -some cannot assume more than three, some two, and a great many have -only one. To make up in some measure for this deficiency: - -b) some auxiliary verbs have been made available: for the Present tense -ཡིན་, འདུག་, ལགས་ and others, all of which mean ‘to be’ (§ 39); for the -Perfect ཚར་, ཟིན་, སོང་; for the Future འགྱུར་, འོང་, and the substantive -རྒྱུ་. - -c) By adding various monosyllabic affixes, the Infinitive, Participles, -and Gerunds are formed. These affixes as well as the auxiliary verbs -are connected partly with the root, partly with the Infinitive, resp. -its terminative, partly with the Participle. - -Note. The spoken language, at least in WT, recognises even in -four-rooted verbs seldom more than the Perfect root. - - - -32. The Infinitive mood. The syllables པ་ pa or, after the final -consonants ང་ ར་ ལ་ and vowels, བ་ wa are added to the root, whereby it -assumes all the qualities and powers of a noun. In verbs of more roots -than one, each of them can, of course, in this way be converted into a -substantive, or, in other words, each tense has its Infinitive, except -the Imperative. From one-rooted verbs the different Infinitives may be -formed by the above mentioned auxiliaries: thus, the Inf. Perf., by -adding ཡིན་པ་ to the Infinitive of the verb in question, or ཚར་བ་, -ཟིན་པ་, སོང་བ་ to the root, and the Inf. Fut. by adding འགྱུར་བ་ to the -Supine (terminative of the infinitive, 41. B) thus, མཐོང་བར་འགྱུར་བ་ -visurum esse, visum iri. - -Note. The spoken language uses, in WT almost exclusively, a termination -pronounced c̀as in Turig and Balti, c̀es, c̀e in Ladak, c̀e in Lahoul etc., -j̀a in Kunawar, s̀e in Tsaṅ etc., the etymology of which is doubtful, as -it is not to be found in any printed book. Lamas in Ladak and Lahoul -spell it ཅེས་. - - - -33. The Participle. 1. This is in the written language entirely like -the Infinitive ཡིན་པ་ ‘being’, གཏོང་བ་ ‘giving’, བཏང་བ་ ‘having -given’.—2. Whether the meaning is active or passive, however, can only -be inferred from the context, e.g. བཏང་བའི་དངུལ་ is of course ‘the money -given’, but དངུལ་བཏང་བའི་མི་ ‘the man having given, or, that has given, -the money’; the Tibetan participle means nothing but that the action or -condition is connected in some way with a person or thing. But it is -natural that in the present participle the active idea should be the -more frequent one, as well as in the preterit the passive.—3. In the -instance of Intensive verbs (formed with བྱེད་པ་ 38.1) the usage of -scientific authors has strictly connected the active sense with those -formed with བྱེད་, as གཏོང་བྱེད་ toṅ-j̀ed, toṅ-j̀ʽĕʼ, instead of གཏོང་བར་བྱེད་པ་, -‘doing give, giving, giver’, and the passive to those with བྱ་, as -གཏོང་བྱ་ toṅ j̀a, toṅ j̀ʽa i.o. གཏོང་བར་བྱ་བ་ ‘to be given’ (dandus), -བྱ་བ་དང་བྱ་བ་མ་ཡིན་པ་སྟོན་པ་ ‘to teach the things to be done and not to be -done’ (Thgy.).—4. In certain cases, especially with verbs that mean: to -say, ask etc., the Participle is used before the words of the speech, -where we should use the Imperfect: རྒྱལ་པོས་སྨྲས་པ༌༌༌ ‘the king said....’ - -Note. In the spoken language, of WT at least, the Participle is formed -by མཁན་, in the active sense as well as the passive (whereas in books -this syllable occurs only in the meaning of the performer of an action, -s. 12. 1.): དངུལ་བཏང་མཁན་གྱི་མི་ ṅul taṅ kʽan-ni mi (s. 15, Note) ‘the man -giving the money’, བཏང་མཁན་གྱི་དངུལ་ ‘the money given’. -འདས་ཞག་གོན་ཆས་བཙོངས་མཁན་གྱི་བླ་མ་ ‘the lama who brought a coat for sale the -other day’. བུ་མོ་རྗེ་བཙུན་ལ་སྒོ་ཁུང་སྟོན་མཁན་དེ་ ‘the girl who had shewn the door -to his reverence’ (Mil.). The future participle is represented, just as -in English, by the Infinitive (32, Note), so that ‘the sheep to be -killed’, (in books གསོད་པར་བྱ་བའི་ལུག་ or གསོད་བྱའི་ལུག་) is expressed, in the -most Western provinces, by: sád c̀as-si lug, Lad.: sád-c̀es-si lug, Lah. -etc.: sád c̀eï lug, Tsaṅ: söʼ-s̀ē-kyi lug གསོད་ཤེས་ཀྱི་ལུག་, and, most like -the classical language, in Kun.: sód j̀ā̤ lug. - - - -34. The finite verb. 1. The principal verb of a sentence, which always -closes it (48.) receives in written Tibetan in most cases a certain -mark, by which the end of a period may be known. This is, in -affirmative sentences, the vowel o (called by the grammarians: -སླར་སྡུ་བ་), in interrogative ones the syllable am. Before both the -closing consonant of the verb is repeated, or, if it ends with a vowel, -འོ་ and འམ་ are written. The Perfect of the verbs ending in ན་ ར་ ལ་, -which formerly had a ད་ as second final—ད་དྲག་—, assume ཏོ་ and ཏམ་.—2. -These additional syllables are omitted a) in imperative sentences, b) -in the latter member of a double question, c) when the question is -expressed already by an interrogative pronoun or adverb, d) in -coordinate members of a period, with the exception of the last one, e) -commonly, when the principal verb is the verb substantive ཡིན་, ཡོད་ etc. -(40. 1.). - -Examples. a) སོང་ ‘go!’, འདི་རུ་ཤོག་ ‘come here!’.—b) མཐོང་ངམ་མི་མཐོང་ ‘do you -see or not?’—c) དེ་ན་སུ་ཡོད་ ‘who is there?’, ནམ་བསླེབ་ ‘when did (he, you -etc.) arrive?’.—d) ཁང་པ་ཤིག །མི་བསད ། གྲོང་ཁྱེར་ཚང་མ་མེད་པར་བྱས་སོ། ‘the houses -were destroyed, the men killed, the whole town annihilated’.—e) -གཙང་པའི་བྱེ་མ་ལ་གསེར་ཡོད། ‘in the sand of the river is gold’. - -Note. In conversation the o is generally omitted, and the m of the -interrogative termination dropped, so that merely the vowel a is heard, -e.g. the question མཐོང་ངམ་ ‘do (you) see’ and the answer མཐོང་ངོ་ ‘(I) -see’, are commonly spoken in WT: tʽoṅ-ṅa? tʽoṅ. - - - -35. Present Tenses. 1. Simple Present Tense. This is the simple root of -the verb, which will always be found in the dictionary; in WT, as -mentioned above, of verbs with more than one root, only the Perfect -root is in use; if, therefore, stress is laid on the Present -signification, recourse must be had to one of the following -compositions (s. 31. and Note). Thus, མཐོང་ ‘(I, thou, he etc.) see, -seest etc.’, གཏོང་ ‘(I etc.) give’ through all persons; in the end of a -sentence: མཐོང་ངོ༌། གཏོང་ངོ༌།. - -2. Compound Present Tenses. a) འདུག་ (s. 40, 1) is added to the root: -མཐོང་འདུག་ ‘(I) see’, བཏང་འདུག་ ‘(I) give’. This is common in the dialect -of WT especially.—b) The Participle connected with ཡིན་, མཐོང་བ་ཡིན་ ‘I -see’. In WT this, of course, is changed to མཐོང་མཁན་ཡིན་.—c) One of the -Gerunds (41, A) with ཡོད་ or འདུག་, as མཐོང་སྟེ་ (or ནས་ or གི་ or ཞིང་), འདུག་ -or ཡོད་ ‘(I) see, am seeing’; it must, however, be remarked that both -ways of expression, b) and c), are not very frequent.—d) གིན་ཡོད་ or འདུག་ -is the proper form for the compound English present: མཐོང་གིན་འདུག་ ‘(I) -am seeing’, འབྲི་གིན་འདུག་ ‘(I) am writing (just now)’. - - - -36. Preterit Tenses. 1. Simple Preterit, Perfect or Aorist Tense; this -is the Perfect root: བཏང་, at the close of the sentence བཏང་ངོ༌། ‘gave, -have given, was given’; in one-rooted verbs it has, of course, the same -form as the present: མཐོང་(ངོ་) ‘saw, have, or was, seen’. This is the -usual narrative tense like the Greek Aorist or French Parfait -défini.—2. Compound Preterit Tenses.—a) The root with སོང་, བཏང་སོང་ -‘have given, gave, was given’, མཐོང་སོང་ ‘have seen, saw, was seen’; -rarely met with in books, but in general use in the conversation of WT. -In CT བྱུང་ j̀ʽuṅ is used in a similar way: ཁྱིས་རྨུག་བྱུང་ ‘the dog has -bitten’.—b) The root with ཟིན་ (more in books), or ཚར་ (more in common -language), the true Perfect as the tense of accomplished action: -བཏང་ཟིན་, བཏང་ཚར་ ‘have given etc.’, ‘the action of giving is past’, -མི་སོང་ཚར་ ‘the man has already left’.—c) The Participle connected with -ཡིན་ occurs more frequently in the past sense than otherwise. Here, in -the common talk of WT, པ་ is used, even in those cases where the books -have བ་, ཡི་གེ་བཀལ་པ་ཡིན་ yí-ge kál-pa yin, or, contracted, kál-pen, ‘the -letter has been sent off’, in books: བཀལ་བ་ཡིན་ (s. 11, Note), even -གླ་བཏངས་པ་ཡིན་ la táṅs-pa yin, táṅs-pen, ‘the wages have been paid’ i.o. -བཏང་བ་ཡིན་.—d) Gerunds in ཏེ་ (WT) or ནས་ (CT) with ཡོད་ or འདུག་ (the same -as 35. 2. c); also (in Ü Tsaṅ and later books) the mere Perfect root -with ཡོད་, the ཏེ་ or ནས་ being dropped: སོང་ཡོད་ ‘has gone’. - - - -37. Future Tenses. 1. Simple Future. The Future-root, གཏོང་(ངོ་) ‘shall, -will give, be given’.—2. Compound Future. a) The auxiliary verb འགྱུར་བ་ -(to grow, become) added to the Terminative case of the Infinitive: -གཏོང་བར་འགྱུར་(རོ་) ‘shall, will give, be given’, མཐོང་བར་འགྱུར་(རོ་) ‘shall, -will see, be seen’. This is the most common, and, together with the -Simple Future and the Intensive (39.), ༌༌༌བར་བྱའོ་, the only one in use -with the early classical authors in all cases where a special -Future-root is wanted, and even where this exists. It disappears, -however, gradually from the literature of the later period, and is -replaced by the two following compositions.—b) རྒྱུ་ཡིན་ connected with the -root: མཐོང་རྒྱུ་ཡིན་ ‘shall, will see’, གཏོང་རྒྱུ་ཡིན་ ‘shall, will give’ etc. -(རྒྱུ་ is originally a substantive, meaning material, cause, occasion).—c) -the root with འོང་ or ཡོང་, སླེབ་ཡོང་ ‘will arrive’, or, i.o. the root, the -Term. Inf., སླེབ་པར་འོང་.—Both b) and c) are even now in common use in CT, -whereas in WT:—d) ཡིན་ connected with the root is the general form: -མཐོང་ཡིན་ tʽoṅ yin, vulg.: tʽóṅin ‘shall, will see’, བཏང་ཡིན་ táṅin, -‘shall, will give’, བཀལ་ཡིན་ kállin ‘will send’, ཚ་ཡིན་ c̀ʽa yin, c̀ʽa’in, -c̀ʽän ‘will go’.—e) In books the Participle with ཡིན་ (35. 2. b, 36. 2 c) -occurs sometimes also as Future. - - - -38. Imperative mood. 1. This is usually the shortest possible form of -the verb, which often loses its prefixed letters, though in some -instances a final ས་ is added. In many verbs with the vowel a, and in -some with e these vowels are changed into o, besides other alterations -of the consonants. Particularly often the surds or sonants of the other -tense-roots are changed to their aspirates in the Imperative. Thus, ཐོང་ -‘give!’, from གཏོང་བ་; ལྟོས་ Ld: ltos, CT: tō̤ ‘look!’, from ལྟ་བ་; ཐོབ་ -‘throw!’, from འདེབས་པ་. In one-rooted verbs it is, of course, like the -Present, but it can always be sufficiently distinguished by adding the -particle ཅིག་ (ཤིག་ or ཞིག་, according to 13.). This is used in the -classical literature indiscriminately in addressing the highest and the -lowest persons (or, in other words, as well to command, as to pray), -but according to the modern custom of CT only when addressing servants -and inferior people.—2. In forbidding, the Present-root is used with -the negative particle མ་, མ་གཏོང་ ‘do not give!’, མ་ལྟ་ ‘do not look!’, -མ་འདེབས་ ‘do not throw!’—3. In praying or wishing (Precative or -Optative) either the same forms as under 1. are used, or the -Imperatives of འགྱུར་བ་ ‘to come’ or འོང་ ‘to come’ (the latter, ཤོག་, of a -quite different root) are connected with the Termin. Infin. -མཐོང་བར་གྱུར་ཅིག་ or ཤོག་ཅིག་ ‘may (I, you, he etc.) see!’—4. In none of the -three a person is indicated, but it is natural that in commanding and -forbidding the subject will be the second, sometimes the third person; -in the precative also the first person can be understood. - -Note. The common language of WT, acknowledging only the Perfect-root, -changes nothing but the vowel: བཏོང་ ‘give!’ from བཏང་ཅེས་; ལྟོས་ ‘look!’ -from ལྟ་ཅེས་; བཏོབ་ ‘throw!’ from བཏབ་ཅེས་ (Perf. of འདེབས་པ་). Instead of -ཅིག་, which is not much used, བཏོང་ (‘give!’) is often added to the roots -of other verbs (s. 39), thus, བཏོན་བཏོང་ ton toṅ ‘take out!’ from བཏོན་ཅེས་ -(འདོན་པ་). Or the Imperative is paraphrased by དགོས་ gos (Ld.), gō̤, goi -‘must’, added to the root of the verb: བསད་དགོས་ ‘must be killed’.—In CT -the changing of the vowel seems to be usually omitted, but the ཅིག་ is -more used. Here, also, the Perfect root is not so exclusively -preferred. - - - -39. Intensive verbs. 1. Very frequent in books is the connection of the -four-rooted verb བྱེད་པ་ (Pf. བྱས་, Fut. བྱ་, Imp. བྱོས་) ‘to do’, elegantly -བགྱིད་པ་ (Pf. བགྱིས་, Fut. བགྱི་, Imp. གྱིས་), respectfully མཛད་པ་ (Imp. མཛོད་) -with the Term. Inf. of another verb, to intensify the action of the -latter. By this means not only one-rooted verbs can be made to -participate in the advantages of the four-rooted, as མཐོང་བར་བྱེད་ ‘see’, -མཐོང་བར་བྱས་ ‘saw’, མཐོང་བར་བྱ་ ‘shall, will see’, མཐོང་བར་བྱོས་ ‘see!’, but -also several other periphrastical phrases are gained for speaking more -precisely than otherwise would be possible. The Future tense བྱ(འོ)༌ -serves, besides its proper notion of futurity, particularly to express -the English auxiliaries ‘must, ought etc.’: thus, བརྗོད་པར་མི་བྱའོ་ ‘must -not be uttered, ought not to be uttered’, sometimes it may be -translated by the Imperative mood. The spoken language, at least of WT, -is devoid of this convenience, and possesses nothing of the kind except -the above mentioned intensive form of the Imperative, formed by བཏོང་ -(s. 38., Note).—2. Another class of intensive verbs are formed by -connecting two synonyms, as འཇིགས་སྐྲག་པ་ ‘to be afraid’, literally ‘to be -fear-frightened’, and other similar ones. - - - -40. Substantive and Auxiliary Verbs. 1. To be a) ཡིན་པ་, in elegant and -respectful speech ལགས་པ་ lag-pa, Ü: lā-pa (the latter word never used -in WT) is the mere means of connecting the attribute with its subject, -as: མི་འདི་ལ་དྭགས་པ་ཡིན་ ‘this man is a Ladakee’, དེ་ཁྱེད་ལགས་སམ་ ‘is it you, -Sir?’. Therefore the question སུ་ཡིན་ is to be understood ‘who are you’ -or ‘who is he’ etc., the personal pronoun being often let to be -guessed.—ཡིན་ itself is often omitted in daily life in WT as well as in -poetry, e.g. ཨི་ཁུར་རུ་མཱ་ལྕིན་ཏེ་ ‘this load (is) very heavy’ WT. Negatively: -མ་ཡིན་, མིན་ vulg. མན་, resp. མ་ལགས་.—b) ཡོད་པ་ yod-pa, yöʼ-pa, eleg. -མཆིས་པ་ c̀ʽī-pa, resp. བཞུགས་པ་ z̀ug(s)-pa, Ü: z̀ū-pa, negat.: མེད་, མ་མཆིས་, -མི་བཞུགས་ means ‘to exist’, or ‘to be present’, ‘to be found at a place’, -therefore the question སུ་ཡོད་ is to be understood: ‘Who is here? Who is -there?’—ཡོད་ and བཞུགས་པ་ are in general use, མཆིས་པ་ is seldom heard. -When connected with the Dative of a substantive it expresses the -English ‘to have, to have got’, as: ང་ལ་དངུལ་ཡོད་ ‘I have money’; -ང་ལ་ཟུག་ཡོད་ ‘I have pain’. In this case the respectful term is not -གཞུགས་པ་ but མངའ་བ་ ṅa-wa: རྒྱལ་པོ་ལ་སྙུན་མི་མངའ་འམ་ ‘has not the King an -indisposition?’ i.e. ‘is Your Majesty ill?’.—c) འདུག་པ་ dug-pa (eleg. -གདའ་བ་ is seldom heard), resp. བཞུགས་པ་, ‘to be present, stay, be found -at a place’; negat. མི་འདུག་. Both འདུག་པ་ and ཡོད་པ་ can be used instead -of ཡིན་པ་, though not this instead of them.—d) རེད་པ་ rĕʼ-pa = འདུག་པ་, -negat. མ་རེད་ in Spiti and CT, seldom in books.—e) མོད་པ་ mod-pa, möʼ-pa -has a somewhat emphatical sense: ‘to be (something) in a high degree’, -‘to be (somehow) in plenty’. It occurs most frequently in the Gerund -with ཀྱི་ (41.), when it frequently has the sense of ‘though’, but never -with a negative.—f) སྣང་བ་ naṅ-wa, originally ‘to appear, to be visible, -extant’, negat. མི་སྣང་. Sometimes in books, and common in certain -districts.—g) In books the concluding o (34.) is, moreover, found to -represent the verb ‘to be’ in all its meanings, and is capable of being -connected with words of all classes besides verbs, e.g. དང་པོ་འོ་ ‘is the -first’ = དང་པོ་ཡིན་. In a similar manner also the ཅིག་ of the Imperative -(38.) implies the verb ‘to be’.—h) The Preterit root for all these -verbs is སོང་ soṅ ‘was, has been’, and besides also ‘has gone, become’, -which is its original meaning.—For the use of these verbs as -auxiliaries s. 35. sq. - -2. འགྱུར་བ་ originally ‘to be changed, turned into something’ then ‘to -become, to grow’, auxiliary for the Future tense in the old classical -language, as mentioned in 37. Since this can be considered as the -intransitive or passive sense, opposed to བྱེད་པ་ ‘to make, render’, the -connection of འགྱུར་བ་ with the Term. Inf. of another verb must, in many -cases, be rendered by the passive voice in our languages. In WT the -verb ཆ་ཅེས་ c̀ʽa-c̀e ‘to go’ is used in the sense of ‘to become, to grow’. -The Perfect root for both is སོང་ ‘(went), grew, became, has become, is’ -(s. above).—In CT and later books འབྱུང་བ་ is used instead. - -3. ‘must’ is expressed by དགོས་པ་ ‘to be necessary’ (s. 38. Note). In WT -this is used in a very wide sense for any possible modification of the -notion of necessity: ‘I must, should, want to, ought’ and even ‘I will, -wish, beg (for something)’ is nothing but ང་ལ་དགོས་ ‘to me is necessary’ -which may be, in the last mentioned case, rendered somewhat more -politely by adding ཞུ་ z̀u ‘pray!’ ང་ལ་ཨ་ལུ་དགོས་ཞུ་ ‘I want potatoes, -pray!’ is as much to say as ‘Will you kindly give me some potatoes’. In -books and more refined language several other verbs are used in the -same sense, viz. རིགས་པ་ ‘it is right to’ (usually with the Genit. -Infin.), རུང་བ་ ‘it is meet, decent’, འདོད་པ་ ‘to wish, desire’, both -with the Supine; དགའ་བ་ ‘to like’ with the Dat. Inf. The popular -substitute of the last, especially in use in WT, is འཐད་པ་, of similar -meaning, added to the root. - - - -41. Gerunds and Supines. We retain these terms, employed by former -grammarians, but observe that they do not refer to the form, but to the -meaning, as well as that Gerund is not to be understood in the same -signification as in Latin, but as the Gérondif of some French -grammarians, or what Shakespeare calls Past conjunctive participle in -Hindi. These forms are of the greatest importance in Tibetan, being the -only substitutes for most of those subordinate clauses which we are -accustomed to introduce by conjunctions. They are formed by the two -monosyllabic affixes ཏེ་ (so after the closing consonants ན་ ར་ ལ་ ས་); -དེ་ after དེ་, སྟེ་ after ག་ ང་ བ་ མ་ and vowels and ཅིང་ (ཤིང་ or ཞིང་ -according to the same rule as ཅིག་ 13.), both of which are added to the -root, or by the terminations mentioned in 15. as composing the -declension of nouns, which are added partly to the root, partly to the -Infinitive or Participle. - -A. Gerunds. All the following forms can be rendered by the English -Participle ending in ing, but the more accurate distinctions must be -expressed by various conjunctions. - -1. ཏེ་ (དེ་ etc.), the most frequent of all these endings. It is added to -the Present-root as well as to the Perfect-root: གཏོང་སྟེ་ ‘giving’, -བཏོང་སྟེ་ ‘having given’, and stands for all clauses beginning with when, -as, since, after etc. Also in the spoken language of WT it is used most -frequently.—Examples: ཕྲུ་གུ་ཆུས་ཁྱེར་ཏེ་ཤིའོ་ ‘the child, having been carried -away by the water, died’; རྒྱལ་པོ་ཤི་སྟེ་རྒྱལ་སྲས་ཀྱིས་རྒྱལ་ས་བཟུང་ངོ་ ‘the king -having died, the prince occupied the throne (king’s-place)’; -ཆུ་ཆེན་པོ་ཞིག་དེ་རུ་ཡོད་དེ་འགྲུལ་མི་ཐུབ་བོ་ ‘as there is a great water, we cannot -go’. - -2. ཅིང་ (ཤིང་ etc.), of a similar sense, chiefly used for smaller clauses -within a large one, མི་དགའ་ཞིང་ཁྲོས་ཏེ་ ‘when, being displeased, he became -angry’, or ‘growing displeased and angry’. Often it denotes two actions -going on at the same time, or two states of a thing existing together, -and then can only be translated by ‘and’, thus, མཐའ་མེད་ཅིང་མུ་མེད་ -‘without end and boundary’; ཤ་ལ་ཟ་ཞིང་ཁྲག་ལ་འཐུང་བ་ ‘to eat flesh and -drink blood’ [8]. It stands also in a causal sense: ‘by doing etc.’, -as: ཉ་བཤོར་ཞིང་འཚོའོ་ ‘(we) live by catching fish’. These two (1. and 2.) -can also, like the closing o, as mentioned in 40. 1. g, be added to -every class of words, in the sense of being: ཁྱོད་རིགས་ཆེ་ཞིང་མཐོ་བ་སྟེ་ ‘as -you are high(-born), being of a great family’. In conversation, ཅིང་ is -scarcely ever heard. - -3. ནས་ (from, or after, doing something) in temporal clauses with -‘after, when, as’; practically it is very much like ཏེ་, and often -alternating with it. In most cases, in speaking always, it is added to -the root, seldom to the infinitive.—Examples. ནམ་ལངས་ནས་སོང་ ‘when the -night had risen (viz. at daybreak) he went’; ལང་ནས་སོང་ ‘after you will -have risen, go!’ དེ་མཐོང་ནས་སྐད་ཕྱུང་སྟེ་ངུས་སོ་ ‘when I saw that, raising -clamour, I wept’. - -4. ན་ ‘in (doing something)’ again for clauses with ‘since, when, as’, -but in most cases by far for ‘if’ and conditional ‘when’: འགྲོ་ན་ ‘if, -or, when (I) go, or went’; ཤི་ཚར་ན་ ‘when, after (he) has died’, ‘if he -is already dead’; ཤི་ན་ ‘if (he) die, should die’, ‘if (he) died’, ‘when -(he) dies’; བྱེད་ན་ ‘if ... do, did’; བྱ་ན་ ‘if ... were to do’. It is -added to the root, seldom to the infinitive, and as common in talking -as in books. - -5. ལ་ is of more various use. When added to the root, it is very much -like ཅིང་, which it replaces in the conversational language of CT (where -the first example of 2. would be, མ་དགའ་ལ་ཁྲོས་ཏེ་), but does not occur so -often except in imperative or precative sentences, when it is added to -the Imperative root of the subordinate verb, just like other gerunds: -སོང་ལ་ལྟོས་ ‘going look!’, ‘go and look!’ ལོང་ལ་སོང་ ‘rise and go!’. This -particle, like the above-mentioned, implies the verb ‘to be’, -especially when added to adjectives denoting a personal quality. -མི་སྡུག་ལ་ཐུང་ངུ་ཡིན་ཏེ་ ‘being ugly and short’; དབྱིབས་ལེགས་ཤིང་ལྟ་ན་སྡུག་ལ་མཛེས་པ་ -‘pretty, being of a good figure and nice to behold’. When added to the -Infinitive, it denotes: a) of course, the real Dative, or the usual -meanings of the postposition ལ་ with a substantive; thus, -གསོད་པ་ལ་དགའ་བ་ ‘to rejoice at killing, be fond of killing’. b) nearly -the same as ཏེ་ or ‘as’ in English, e.g. -ལམ་གྱི་བར་དུ་ལྷ་རྟེན་ཞིག་ཡོད་པ་ལ་ཤིང་རྟ་ལས་བབ་བོ་ ‘as there was an idol-shrine in -the middle of the way, (she) alighted from (her) chariot’; -རྒྱལ་པོ་ཉིན་རེ་བཞིན་དུ་དེར་ཁྲུས་བྱེད་དུ་འགྲོ་བ་ལ་ ‘as the king went there daily to -bathe’; འཇིག་རྟེན་གྱི་ནང་ན་མི་འོང་བ་ལ་འདི་རུ་འོང་བ་ཅི་ཡིན་ ‘as (it) does not occur -in the (whole) world, what is (its) occurring here, or, how is it that -it occurs here?’. Finally, in the language of common life ལ་ is added -to the repeated root in order to express the English ‘while, whilst’: -ངས་ཤ་གཏུབ་གཏུབ་ལ་ཁྱོད་ཀྱིས་ཤིང་ཁྱོང་ ṅā̤ s̀a tub-túb-la kʽyód-dī (15., Note) s̀iṅ -kʽyoṅ WT, or ཁྱོད་ཀྱིས་ཤིང་བཀུར་ཤོག་ kʽyöʼ-kyī s̀iṅ kur-s̀og CT ‘while I am -cutting the meat into pieces, bring you (some) wood’. - -6. ལས་ added only to the Infinitive, literally ‘out of (the doing)’. -This may mean a) ‘after’, ཉལ་བ་ལས་ལང་བ་ ‘to rise from lying, after -having lain’; དུར་ན་ཞག་གསུམ་འདུག་པ་ལས་དུར་ནས་བྱུང་ ‘after having been three -days in the grave (I) came out of the grave’.—b) ‘while’, in which case -the root of the verb may be repeated, as: སོང་སོང་བ་ལས་བྲམ་ཟེ་ཞིག་དང་ཕྲད་དོ་ -‘out of my walking i.e. when walking along, (I) met with a brahman’; -ང་ཤ་གཏུབ་གཏུབ་པ་ལས་ཁྱོད་ཀྱིས་ཤིང་བཀུར་ཏེ་ཤོག་ (the above mentioned example (s. -ལ་) translated into classical language); c) also the English ‘being -about to’ is, in books, often expressed by this Gerund: -ནང་དུ་སོང་བ་ལས་སྒོ་བཅད་དོ་ ‘when (I) was about to enter, the door was shut’; -ཤི་བ་ལས་ཕྱིར་སོས་པར་གྱུར་ཏོ་ ‘when (I) was going to die, (I) was restored to -life again’. Which of the three is the real meaning, will in most cases -be clear from circumstances. This gerund is not used in talking, at -least in WT. - -7. ཀྱིས་ (གྱིས་ etc.) or ཀྱི་ (གྱི་ etc.), or the Instrumental and Genitive -cases of the root, mean a) ‘by doing something’ or ‘because’, e.g. -དགོས་ཀྱིས་འདོང་ངོ་ ‘we come (here), because it is necessary’. -ཁོ་མོས་གྲོགས་བུ་ཡིས་སྙིང་མ་ཆུང་ཞིག་ ‘since I am resolved to help you, do not be -depressed!’ This, originally, is a function of the Instrumental only, -but in later times the other cases also are used in this meaning.—b) -more frequently they are used adversatively, ‘though’, especially when -connected with མོད་ (40. 1. e), ཅེས་སྨྲས་མོད་ཀྱིས་ཅིས་ཡིད་ཆེས་པར་འགྱུར་ ‘though -(you) did say so, by what shall (I) believe (it)?’ In other cases it -may be left untranslated when the next sentence will commence with -‘but’: ཟས་བཟང་པོ་མི་འདོད་ཀྱིས་ཟས་ཐ་མལ་པ་ཟོས་སོ་ ‘not liking delicate food, he -ate vulgar food’ or ‘he did not like d. f., but preferred v. f.’. This -Gerund is scarcely used in talking, at least in WT. - -8. པས་ (བས་), the Instrumental of the Infinitive, ‘by (doing -something)’ is, of course, the proper expression for ‘because’, but -also very often used indiscriminately for ཏེ་ or ནས་ only for the sake -of varying the mode of speaking: ཤིན་ཏུ་དཀའ་བ་ཡིན་པས་ ‘because it is very -difficult’; ལྟས་པས་ ‘when (he) looked’. - -9. Also གིན་ the proper use of which has been shewn above (35. 2. d.) -must be mentioned once more as it occurs in a similar sense to ཅིང་, -སྨོན་ལམ་འདེབས་གིན་སོང་ཞིག་ ‘walk on praying (preces faciendo)!’; -བྲང་བརྡུང་གིན་ངུས་པས་ ‘beating (her own) breast and weeping’. - -B. Supines. They are expressed simply by the Terminative Case of the -Infinitive or of the Root, མཐོང་བར་ or ཐོང་དུ་ ‘to see’. In many instances -the use of either is optional, in others one is preferred. 1. Their use -is: with adjectives like the Latin supine in u, e.g. བསླབ་ཏུ་དཀའ་བ་ -‘difficult to learn’; with verbs expressing ‘to go, to send’ etc., also -‘to pray’ etc. like that in um: ལེན་ཏུ་སོང་ ‘go to fetch’, གནང་དུ་གསོལ་ ‘(I) -beg (you) to permit,—for permission’. In these cases the root is most -common, but the Inf. བསླབ་པར་, or གནང་བར་, ལེན་པར་ may also be used. 2. -Another use of the Supine is a) with verbs of sensation and, less -frequently, with those of declaration, where we use sentences with -‘that’ or the Participle or Infinitive: མ་འོང་བར་མཐོང་ནས་ ‘seeing (his) -mother coming’ (instead of which, however, འོང་བ་ may be said as well); -༌༌༌བའི་དུས་ལ་བབ་པར་ཤེས་ནས་ ‘knowing that the time of ...ing had arrived’ -(lit: ‘that it had come down to the time’); རྒྱལ་པོའི་བུ་ཡིན་པར་དྲན་ནས་ -‘remembering him to be the king’s son’ or ‘that he was...’.—b) in an -adverbial sense, when we say ‘so that’, especially in negative -sentences, ‘so that not’, ‘without ...ing’, སུས་ཀྱང་མ་ཚོར་བར་ ‘so that -nobody may (did) perceive it’, or ‘without anybody perceiving it’. - -Note 1. The modern language of WT uses in the first instance (B. 1.) -either the simple Infinitive, བསླབ་ཅེས་ཁག་པོ་ (or དཀག་པོ་), or the same -with ལ་, བསླབ་ཅེས་ལ་ཁག་པོ་, or with ཕྱི་ལ་ (for the ཕྱིར་ of the books s. 7. -2.), བསླབ་ཅེས་ཕྱི་ལ་ཁག་པོ་; in the second either the same forms, or a -particular one, which consists in repeating the final consonant of the -root with the vowel a, to which also ལ་ may be added: thus, ལེན་ན་སོང་, -ཁྱོད་རང་ལ་ཐུག་ག་ལ་ཡོངས་སོང་ ‘(I) have come to meet you’; in the third, the -direct Imperative adding ཞུ་ for the sake of civility, དགོངས་ཞུ་ ‘pray -permit!’ - -In the case of B. 2., instead of མ་འོང་བར་མཐོང་ནས་, the expression in -common use will be ཨ་མ་ཡོང་ or ཡོང་ང་མཐོང་ནས་; instead of སུས་ཀྱང་མ་ཚོར་བར་, -either the same form, མ་ཚོར་ར་, or the Gerund, མ་ཚོར་ཏེ་.—In CT those -examples would respectively, stand thus, བསླབ་ཏུ་ or བསླབ་བ་ or -བསླབ་པའི་དོན་དུ་དཀག་པོ་ láb-tu, láb-ba (sounding almost lă-wa), láb-pa̤ -dʽo̤n-dʽu kag-po; in the third instance a peculiar word, ‘rog’, is used, -which is said to be originally the same as གྲོགས་ (རོགས་) ‘friend, -assistant’, and serves now as the respectful substitute of ཅིག་, -Particle of the Imperative, གནང་རོག་ ‘pray permit!’, སྟེར་རོག་ ‘pray give!’ -Instead of མ་ཚོར་ར་ etc. the most usual form in CT will be the simple -Participle, མ་ཤེས་པ་. - -Note 2. All the forms, of course, where པ་ or བ་ are met with might in -certain cases belong to the Participle, and not to the Infinitive. - -Note 3. The reader will have missed any mention of tenses of the class -of Pluperfect, Past Future etc., and, indeed, there exists no form of -the kind, and they can only be rendered by a Gerund, e.g. -ཡི་གེ་བྲིས་ཟིན་ནས་བཀལ་སོང་ ‘when (he) had written the letter, (he) sent (it) -off’; ཡི་གེ་བྲིས་ཟིན་ནས་བཀལ་བར་འགྱུར་ (WT: བཀལ་ཡིན་, CT: བཀལ་རྒྱུ་ཡིན་) ‘when (he) -shall have written the letter, (he) will send (it) off’. Neither have -the Conditional or Subjunctive any special form. Thus, e.g., -འདི་མ་བྱས་ན་མི་འཚོའོ་ ‘if we did not do that, we could not live’ (i.e. we -cannot earn our sustenance in any other manner); ཅིའི་ཕྱེར་ཁྱོད་ཟེར་བ་ནི་མི་ཉན་ -‘why should not I hear (grant) what you say (your wish)?’; -བརྡ་མ་བཀྲོལ་ཞིང་རྟགས་མ་མཐོང་ན་མི་རྟོགས་པར་འདུག་ ‘if (you) had not explained it, -and (we) had not seen the signs, we would not have understood it’; -མིས་མི་རྙེད་པས་སྤྲུལ་པ་ཅིག་བཏག་དགོས་ ‘as a man would not find it, I must send an -emanation’; vulg., WT, ཨི་ཟུག་ཐག་རིང་མ་ཡིན་ན་ངའི་རྩར་འགྲོ་དུ་ཡོང་ཡིན་ ‘if the -distance was not so great, they would come to me (visit me)’. Here may -be added, that also the intention of, or attempt at, doing something is -expressed by the simple verb: thus, བདག་གིས་བཀག་ཡང་མ་བཏུབ་ཀྱིས་ ‘though I -did try to hinder him, I could not’; བདག་གི་ཉེ་གནས་ཆུར་མཆོངས་པ་མཐོང་ནས། -ཆུར་མ་ཕྱིན་པར་རྫུ་འཕྲུལ་གྱི་མཐུས་བླངས་སོ་ ‘as he saw his own disciple on the point -of springing into the water (and that he had sprung off the bank), he -held him back by the force of his magic, so that he did not touch the -water’ (s. 41. B. 2. b.). Especially the gerunds in ལས་ (41. A. 6.) -have often this meaning: བདག་སྲོག་དང་བྲལ་བ་ལས་སྲོག་གི་སྐྱབས་བྱས་སོ་ ‘when I was -about to be parted from life, he saved it’; -སྦྲུལ་ཁྲོས་ནས་གདུག་པ་ཕྱུང་པ་ལས་ཡང་འདི་སྙམས་བསམས་སོ་ ‘the snake, having become -angry, though she intended (or: had at first int.) to let out her -poison, reflected thus’. As will be seen from these examples, the -action, in such cases, is thought to have begun in fact. - - - - -A Survey of the principal forms of the Finite Verb. - -Present: - - -གཏོང་, W བཏང་འདུག་ give -མཐོང་བ་ཡིན་ མཐོང་མཁན་ཡིན་ I see intens. མཐོང་བར་བྱེད་ - C མཐོང་སྟེ་འདུག་ (or ཡོད་) - W མཐོང་གིན་འདུག་ (or ཡོད་); C མཐོང་གི་འདུག་ I am seeing - - -Perfect: - - -བཏང་ W བཏང་སོང་ gave, have given -མཐོང་ C མཐོང་བྱུང་ saw, W སོང་སྟེ་ཡོད་ C སོང་ཡོད་ - went went -བཏང་ཟིན་ བཏང་ཚར་ I have given, intens. མཐོང་བར་བྱས་བཏངས་པ་ཡིན་ has been given - - -Future: - - - གཏང་ W བཏང་ཡིན་ shall, will give - མཐོང་བར་འགྱུར་ C མཐོང་རྒྱུ་ཡིན་ intens. མཐོང་བར་བྱ་ - shall, will see - སླེབ་ཡོང་, སླེབ་པར་འོང་ will arrive - - -Imperative: - - -ཐོང་ W བཏོང་ give! བཏོན་བཏོང་ take out! - བསད་དགོས་ kill! - མཐོང་ཅིག་ see! intens. མཐོང་བར་བྱོས་ -negat. མ་གཏོང་མ་བཏང་ do not -give! མཐོང་བར་མ་བྱེད་ - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VII. - -THE ADVERB. - - -42. We may distinguish three classes of adverbs: 1. Primitive adverbs. -2. Adverbs formed from Adjectives. 3. Adverbs formed from Substantives -or Pronouns. - -1. Very few Primitive Adverbs occur; the most usual are: ད་ ‘now’, ནམ་ -‘when’, སང་ (books and CT) or ཐོ་རེ་ (WT) ‘to morrow’, and a few similar -ones; ཡང་ ‘again’, and the two negatives མི་ and མ་, the latter of which -is used in prohibitive sentences, and with a past tense, as མི་གཏོང་ ‘(I) -do not give’, མི་གཏང་ ‘(I) shall not give’, but: མ་བཏང་ ‘did not give’, -མ་གཏོང་ (WT: མ་བཏང་) ‘do not give!’ The verbs ཡིན་, ལགས་, མཆིས་, རེད་ have -always མ་ instead of མི་ before them (40.). Another particle of this -kind, of a merely formal value, is ནི་, which is added to any word or -group of words in order to single it out and distinctly separate it -from everything that follows. It is, therefore, often very useful in -lessening the great indistinctness of the language, especially so when -separating the subject from the attribute: མི་དེ་ནི་ལ་དྭགས་པ་ཡིན་ ‘that man -is a Ladakee’. (There is scarcely an adequate word to be found in our -modern languages, but the Greek γε, or μεν—δε—, are very similar.) In -talking it is seldom heard, and, when used, in WT pronounced: ནིང་. - -2. Adverbs may be formed from any Adjective by putting it in the -Terminative case. བཟང་པོ་ ‘good’, བཟང་པོར་ ‘well’; རབ་ ‘principal’, རབ་ཏུ་ -‘principally, very’; དྲག་པོ་ ‘violent’, དྲག་པོར་ or དྲག་ཏུ་ ‘violently’. - -3. Nearly all the local Adverbs are formed from Substantives or -Pronouns with some local Postposition: གོང་ ‘the place (space) above, -upper part’, གོང་ན་ ‘above’, གོང་ཏུ་ ‘upwards’, གོང་ནས་ ‘from above -(downwards)’; འདི་ ‘this’, འདི་ན་ ‘in this, here’, འདི་རུ་, འདིར་ ‘hither, -here’ (cf. 15.), འདི་ནས་ ‘hence’; དེ་ ‘that’, དེ་ན་ ‘there’, དེ་རུ, དེར་ -‘thither, there’, དེ་ནས་ ‘from there, thence, then, after that’. - -Note. In talking the simple adjective is used, mostly, instead of its -adverb (2. class): མགྱོགས་པ་ for —པར་ ‘quickly, soon’. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER VIII. - -THE POSTPOSITION. - - -43. There are two kinds of Postpositions: 1. Simple Postpositions. -These are the same that we know already as forming the cases (15). 2. -Compound Postpositions, formed in the manner of local Adverbs (42. 3), -with which they are, indeed, with a few exceptions, identical. - -1. Simple Postpositions. These are: ལ་ (the affix of the Dative), ན་ -(Locative), ནས་ and ལས་ (Ablative), རུ་, ར་, སུ་, ཏུ་, དུ་ (Terminative). - -Their use will be best seen in the following examples: - - - -༎ ལ་ ༎ - -ཕན་དིལ་མེ་ལ་བོར་ WT, ཟངས་མེ་ལ་བཞག་ (inst. of ཞོག་ 38, Note) CT ‘put the -degchi on the fire!’. - -བོང་བུ་ས་ལ་འགྲེའོ་, vulg: འགྲེ་འདུག་, Tsang: བོང་གུ་ས་ལ་འགྲེ་གིས་ ‘the ass rolls -himself on the ground’. - -རྟ་ལ་ཞོན་ཏེ་ (or ནས་) འགྲོ་ ‘having mounted on the horse (he) goes’, or -‘(he) goes on horseback’. - -བྱ་ནས་མཁའ་ལ་འཕུར་རོ་, vulg (WT): ཅི་པ་ (corrupted from མཆིལ་པ་) -ནམ་མཁའ་ལ་འཕུར་འདུག་, CT: བྱ་ནམ་མཁའ་ལ་འཕིར་གིས་འདུག་ ‘the bird flies in the -sky’. - -མཚན་ལ་ཆ་ཡིན་ WT, ནམ་ལ་འགྲོ་རྒྱུ་ཡིན་ CT ‘(we) shall set out at night’. - -དེ་ལ་ཤིན་ཏུ་དགའ་སྟེ་ (books and CT), དེ་ལ་མང་པོ་འཐད་དེ་ WT ‘being very glad at -this’. - -སྨན་ལ་མཁས་པ་ ‘skilful in medicine’. - -ཆང་ལ་བོས་སོ་, vulg: བོས་སོང་ ‘invited him to beer’. - -མགོ་ལ་ཟུག་རག་ག་ WT, འདུག་གམ་ CT ‘is (there) ache in (your) head’, ‘have -you head-ache?’ - - - -༎ ན་, དུ་ etc. ༎ - -ཁྱིམ་ན་ (or དུ་) ཡོད་, vulg: ཁང་པ་ལ་ (or རུ་) ཡོད་ ‘(he) is in the house, at -home’. - -ཁྱིམ་དུ་སོང་, vulg: ཁང་པ་རུ་ (or ལ་) སོང་ ‘go into the house, home!’. - -དུས་ཅིག་ན་, vulg: ཞག་ཅིག་ ‘at a (certain) time, once’. - -ད་སྟེ་ཞག་བདུན་ན་ (books) ‘from to-day in (after) seven days’. - -མས་བུ་པང་པར་ཁྱེར་ཏོ་; WT: ཨ་མས་བུ་ཚ་པང་ལ་ཁུར་ཁྱེར་; CT: ཨ་མས་བུ་པང་ཀར་ཁུར་སོང་ -‘the mother carried the son in (her) arms’. - -དེའི་དུས་སུ་, vulg: དེ་དུས་ ‘at that time’. - -ལོ་བདུན་དུ་ (books, for vulg. see Compound adv.) ‘for seven years’. - -མི་དེ་རྒྱལ་པོར་བཅུག་གོ་ (or བསྐོས་སོ་), W: རྒྱལ་པོ་ལ་བཏག་ ‘(they) made (or selected, -raised) that man to (be) king’. - -ཡོ་བྱད་སྔས་སུ་བཅུག་གོ་, CT: འཁྱོ་བྱད་ (or ཆ་ལག་) སྔས་ལ་བཅུག་ ‘they made (their) -luggage into a pillow, used it as a pillow’. - -གང་དུ་ (or ག་རུ་) འགྲོ་, WT: ག་རུ་ཆ་མཁན་ (s. 35. 2. b, ཡིན་ omitted, 40. 1. -a), CT: ག་ལ་འགྲོ་གིས་ཡིན་ (པ་ or པས་, provincial irregularities 35. 2. c) -‘where are (you) going?’ - -ང་ཏི་ནོར་ (or ཁོག་སར་ལ་) འགྲུལ་འདུག་ (vulg.) ‘I am going to Tino (or -Kʽoksar)’. - - - -༎ ནས་ ༎ - -ཟླ་བ་བརྒྱད་ནས་ ‘after eight months’. - -ཟླ་བ་བརྒྱད་པ་ནས་ ‘from (after) the eighth month’. - -ཐོག་མ་ནས་ (books and CT), WT: མགོ་མ་ནས་ ‘from the beginning’. - - - -༎ ལས་ ༎ - -དཀར་ཁུང་ལས་ ‘from the window, through the window’. - -འཁོར་བ་ལས་འགྲོལ་བ་, vulg: ༌༌༌ནས་བསྒྲལ་བ་ ‘to deliver from the circulation -(transmigration)’. - -པ་གུ་ལས་ཁང་པ་རྩིག་པ་, WT: ནས་, Tsang: པ་གུའི་ནང་རྩིག་པ་ ‘to build a house out -of brick (Ts: a house of brick)’. - -མདོ་ཟ་མ་ཏོག་ལས་ ‘from the sūtra Zamatog’. - -སློབ་མ་ལས་གཅིག་ (vulg: སློབ་མའི་ནང་ནས་གཅིག་) ‘one of (from among) the pupils’. - -ཀུན་ལས་མཁས་པ་ (books and CT), WT: ཚང་མའི་སང་མཁས་པ་ ‘wiser than all, the -wisest, most skilful of all’. - -གཉིས་ལས་མ་ལུས་སོ་ ‘more than two are not left’. - -ང་ལས་མི་འདུག་ ‘more than myself are not’. - - - -Besides these དང་ ‘with’ is to be mentioned as Simple Postposition: -thus, ཁྱེའུ་དང་སྨྲས་ཏེ་, WT: ཁྱོག་ཐོང་དང་ལབ་སྟེ་ ‘speaking (conversing) with the -youth’; ང་དང་ ‘with me’, or, in fuller form, ང་དང་ལྷན་གཅིག་ཏུ་, -ང་དང་བཅས་སུ་ vulg: ང་དང་མཉམ་པོ་ ‘together with me’. In WT it is even used -for the instrumental when the real instrument (tool) of an action is -meant, e.g. རྒྱལ་པོས་བློན་པོ་རལ་གྲིས་བསད་ so in books, but WT: རལ་གྲི་དང་བསད་ -‘the king killed the minister with the sword’. It is, moreover, added -to many Adjectives and Verbs, when we use the Accusative or Dative or -other Prepositions, e.g. དེ་དང་འདྲ་བ་ ‘like (with) that, similar to -that’. With an Infinitive it denotes the synchronism of the action with -another one, ཉི་མ་ཤར་བ་དང་ ‘with the sun rising, at sunrise’; -གཉིད་སོང་བ་དང་ ‘with (on) their going to sleep, when they went to sleep’; -ཅེས་སྨྲས་པ་དང་ཁྱིམ་དུ་སོང་ ‘(with) saying so he went home’ or also ‘he said -so, and went home’. Often it is found with an Imperative, without any -perceptible signification, if it is not to be regarded as a substitute -for ཅིག་ (38): ད་ཟོ་དང་ ‘now eat!’ For its use as a conjunction see the -next chapter. - -2. Compound Postpositions. These may conveniently be grouped in two -classes: a) Local Compound Postpositions, which are virtually the same -as the Local Adverbs specified in 42. 3.: thus, ནང་ན་ ‘in (the midst -of)’, ནང་དུ་ ‘into’ also ‘in’, ནང་ནས་ ‘from, out of’. The most usual -ones will be seen in the following examples: - - - -རྫིང་གི་ནང་ན་ (or དུ་) ཁྲུས་བྱེད་པ་ ‘to bathe in a pond’. - -ཆུའི་ནང་དུ་ཞུགས་ ‘he entered into the water’ (both in books and common -talk). - -ལྷའི་ནང་ན་གཙོ་བོ་ ‘the lord among the gods’. - -ཁང་པའི་ནང་ནས་འཐོན་ (or འབྱུང་) vulg. ‘(he) comes (emerges) out of the -house’. - -སྒོའི་གོང་ཏུ་ (or ན་, or ལ་) ‘above the door’ (books and vulg., but more -usual in WT: སྒོ་ལྟག་, CT སྒོ་ཐོད་). - -ཡབ་ཀྱི་གོང་ཏུ་འདས་, vulg.: ཡབ་ཀྱི་སྔན་ལ་ (or ལྔུན་ལ་, CT also གདོང་ལ་ ‘he died -before his father’. - -པདྨའི་སྟེང་དུ་ (or ན་, or ཐོག་ཏུ་, or ཁ་རུ་) བཞུགས་པ་, vulg., in WT: ཁ་ཐོག་ལ་ -(ཁ་ཐོད་ལ་), CT: དགེང་ལ་ ‘to sit on a lotus-flower’. - -སྒོའི་འགྲམ་དུ་ (or ལ་, or ན་) (books and talk) ‘beside, near the door’. - -ཤིང་གི་དྲུང་དུ་, vulg.: མདུན་ལ་, རྩ་ན་, རྩར་ ‘under a tree’ (literally: ‘in -front, by the side, of a tree’). - -ཞལ་ཆེ་པའི་དྲུང་དུ་ (མདུན་དུ་) འཁྲིད་པ་ ‘to take before the judge’. - -ཟླ་བ་བརྒྱད་ཀྱི་རྗེས་ལ་ CT, རྟིང་ལ་ WT ‘after eight months’. - -ཟླ་བ་གཉིས་ཀྱི་སྔན་ལ་ (or སྔུན་ལ་) vulg. ‘before two months, two months ago’. - -སའི་འོག་ཏུ་གཏེར་སྦེད་པ་ books and CT, WT: སའི་འོག་ལ་གཏེར་སྦ་བ་ ‘to hide a -treasure below the ground’. - -སའི་འོག་ནས་འབྱུང་བ་ CT, WT: སའི་ཡོག་ནས་འཐོན་པ་ ‘to emerge, come out, from -below the ground’. - -ཆུའི་ཕ་རོལ་ན་ books and CT, in CT also: ཕར་ཕྱོགས་པ་, WT: ཕར་ཁ་ལ་, ཕར་ངོས་ལ་ -‘beyond the water, river’. - -ཆུའི་ཚུ་རོལ་ན་ books and CT, WT: ཚུར་ཁ་ལ་ ‘on this side of the water’. - -ཞག་གསུམ་དུ་ (or ནས་) ཐང་དེའི་ཕ་རོལ་ཏུ་ཕྱིན་པར་འགྱུར་རོ་, CT: ཕ་རོལ་ཏུ་སླེབ་ཡོང་, WT: -ཕར་ཁ་ལ་སླེབ་ཡིན་ ‘in (after) three days he will arrive beyond this plain, -will have crossed it’. - -ཁང་པའི་ཕྱོགས་བཞི་རུ་ ‘in the four regions of the house, roundabout’. - -ཡུལ་དེའི་ཕྱོགས་ལ་སོང་ ‘go in the direction of, towards, that village’. - -ལོ་བདུན་གྱི་བར་དུ་, CT: ལོ་བདུན་ཐུག་(པ་), WT: ༌༌༌ཚུག་པ་ ‘for seven years’. - -འདི་ནས་དེའི་བར་དུ་, CT: འདི་ནས་དེ་ཐུག་པ་, WT: ཨི་ནས་ཨ་ཚུག་པ་ ‘from this to -that’. - -ང་ཉུང་ཏི་རུ་ཆ་ཅེས་ཚུག་པ་ WT: ‘till I go to Kullu’. - - - -b) General Compound Postpositions, expressive of the general relations -of things and persons. They are formed in the same manner as the Local -ones, from substantives, adjectives, and even verbs. Their use may be -learned from the following examples: - - - -ངའི་ཕྱིར་(དུ་) or དོན་དུ་ books and CT, WT: ངའི་ཕི་ལ་ ‘for me, in my behalf, -for my sake, on my account’. - -ནད་དེ་ནི་ཅིའི་ཕྱིར་བྱུང་, WT: ཅིའི་ཕི་ལ་ཡོངས་, CT: གང་གི་རོན་དུ་བྱུང་ ‘for what reason -has that illness come? what is the cause of etc.?’. - -སེམས་ཅན་ཐམས་ཅད་ཀྱི་དོན་དུ་ ‘in behalf of all living beings’. - -ཤིང་གི་ཚབ་ལ་རྡོ་ (WT: རྡོ་བ་) བཏོང་ ‘give (apply) stone instead of wood’. - - - -བཞིན་དུ་ ‘according to, like, as’—རྒྱལ་པོའི་བཀའ་བཞིན་དུ་བྱས་ཏེ་ ‘doing according -to the word of the king’; དེ་བཞིན་དུ་ ‘according to that, like that, thus, -so’; སྔ་མ་བཞིན་དུ་ ‘as formerly, as before’; instead of it the dialect of -WT uses ནང་ལྟར་, generally with the Genitive, thus the last example -there would be: སྔན་མའི་ནང་ལྟར་. - -ལྟར་ ‘like’, རི་ལྟར་ ‘like a hill’; འདི་ལྟར་, དེ་ལྟར་ ‘like this, like that, -thus, so’, ཅི་ལྟར་, CT: གང་ལྟར་ ‘like what? how? in what manner?’. - -In the dialect of WT མཚོགས་ or མཚོགས་སེ་ is used instead (which is a -corruption of མཚོངས་, occurring in books with the same meaning): thus, -རི་མཚོགས་སེ་ ‘like a hill’; འདི་མཚོགས་, དེ་མཚོགས་ ‘thus’; or ཟུག་ (properly -ཙུག་), ཨི་ཟུག་, ཨ་ཟུག་ ‘thus’, ག་ཟུག་ ‘how?’. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER IX. - -THE CONJUNCTION. - - -44. The written language possesses very few, the spoken still fewer, -Conjunctions, most of which are coordinative. The common word for ‘and’ -is དང་ which we have seen above in the sense of ‘with’, གསེར་དང༌། -དངུལ་དང༌། ལྕགས་ལ་སོགས་པ་ ‘gold and silver and iron and collection (i.e. -and so on)’, though the position of the s̀ad (10.) after the word དང་ -shows that it is always considered as belonging to the preceding member -of the sentence, similar, in this respect, to the Latin ‘que’; nor can -it in any case begin a sentence. Very seldom, and only in later -literature, it appears as combining two verbs, if not, indeed, the root -ought to be regarded there as abbreviation for the infinitive. Further: -ཡང་ ‘also, too’. When belonging to a single word or notion it is put -after it in an enclitical way like ‘quoque’ in Latin. It is changed -according to the termination of the preceding word, into ཀྱང་ after ག་ -ད་ བ་ ས་ [9], into འང་ often after vowels (cf. 6). Thus: བུ་ཞིག་ཀྱང་ཁྲིད་དེ་ -‘taking also a son (with him)’. When repeated, it has the signification -of Latin ‘et—et—’, མ་ཡང་ཤི། བུ་ཡང་ཤིའོ༎ ‘both mother and son died’. Often, -especially in negative sentences, it means ‘even’, གཅིག་ཀྱང་མ་རྙེད་དོ་ ‘even -one (they) did not find—not even one’. This is the only means for -expressing ‘none, no, nothing’, མི་སུ་ (or གང་) ཡང་མ་འོངས་ (resp. ཡོངས་) -‘nobody came’; དེ་ན་ཅི་ཡང་ (ཅིའང་, or ཅང་) མེད་ ‘there is nothing’ (cf. -29). When combined with verbs, བཙལ་ཡང་མ་རྙེད་དོ་ ‘even searching (they) -did not find’, it serves as another expression for ‘though’ or also -‘but’ (s. 41. A. 7. b): thus, ‘though they searched, they etc.’ or -‘they searched, but they etc.’. Standing for itself (not leaning on the -preceding word) it means ‘again, once more’ (when it is to be regarded -as adverb), དེར་ཡང་འཁམས་ནས་ ‘there (I) fainting once more etc.’. In the -beginning of a sentence it is ‘and, again, moreover’, and may -occasionally be rendered by ‘however, but’. ཡང་ན་, ‘or’; repeated, -ཡང་ན༌༌༌༌ ཡང་ན༌༌༌༌ ‘either—or—’.—‘Or’ is expressed also by the -interrogative affix of the finite verb (34. 1.), འམ་ etc., གསེར་དངུལ་འམ། -ཟངས་ཀྱི་བུམ་པོ་ ‘a bottle of gold, silver, or copper’.—འོན་ཀྱང་ -‘nevertheless, but’, vulg: ཡིན་ཀྱང་ occurs much less frequently in -Tibetan than in the European languages. - -The only Subordinate Conjunctions are: 1. གལ་ཏེ་ ‘if’, introducing -conditional sentences ending in ན་ (41. A. 4). But, as the conditional -force really rests on the closing ན་, the initial གལ་ཏེ་ may be put or -omitted at pleasure; 2. ཅི་སྟེ་ ‘but if’; གལ་ཏེ་ནུས་ན༌༌༌༌ ‘if I can ...’, -ཅི་སྟེ་མི་ནུས་ན་ ‘but if not ...’; this last is found only in books. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER X. - -THE INTERJECTION. - - -45. The most common Interjection is ཀྱེ་, or, repeated, ཀྱེ་ཀྱེ་ ‘oh!, alas!’ -used also before the Vocative. The language of common life uses -instead: ཝ་ wa, or ཝའི་ wä. - - - - - - - - -CHAPTER XI. - -DERIVATION. - - -46. Derivation of Substantives. As most of what belongs under this head -has already been mentioned in 11. and 12. only the formation of -abstract nouns remains to be spoken of. 1. The unaltered adjective may -be used as an abstract noun, especially with the article བ་, as: -གྲང་བ་དྲོ་བར་འགྱུར་ ‘the cold is changed into warmth’.—To this may be added -the pronoun ཉིད་ (གྲང་བ་ཉིད་ ‘ipsum frigidum’); but this is used scarcely -anywhere else than in metaphysical treatises, from whence a few -expressions, such as སྟོང་པ་ཉིད་ ‘the vacuum, the absolute rest in -deliverance from existence’ have become more generally known.—2. In the -case of two correlative ideas existing, frequently the compound of both -is used, esp. in common talk, ཆེ་ཆུང་ ‘size’ (lit. ‘large and small’), -སྦོམ་ཕྲ་ ‘thickness’ (‘thick and thin’), e.g. ཆེ་ཆུང་ནི་ཡུངས་འབྲུ་ཙམ་ ‘the size -as much as a mustard-seed’.—3. ཁྱད་ ‘difference’ (or, sometimes, ཚད་, -ཚོད་ ‘measure’) is added, མཐོ་ཁྱད་ ‘height’, ཕྱུག་ཁྱད་ ‘wealth, riches’.—4. -Mental qualities are in most cases paraphrased by སེམས་, or བློ་ with a -genitive, བཟོད་པའི་སེམས་ ‘mind of suffering, enduring, i.e. patience’, -མཁས་པའི་བློ་ ‘wise mind, wisdom, skill’; དགའ་བའི་སེམས་ ‘mind of rejoicing, -joy’ (vulg: སེམས་དགའ་མོ་), དད་པའི་སེམས་ ‘mind of belief (also ‘a believing -mind’), faith’.—5. Diminutives are formed by adding the termination འུ་, -often with an alteration of the preceding vowel: རྟ་ ‘horse’, རྟེའུ་ -‘little horse, foal’; མི་ ‘man’, མིའུ་ ‘little man, dwarf’; རྡོ་ ‘stone’, -རྡེའུ་ ‘small stone, calculus’. If a word ends with a consonant, only u is -added, and a new syllable formed: ལུག་ ‘sheep’, ལུ་གུ་ ‘lamb’. - - - -47. Derivation of Adjectives. 1. Possessive adjectives are regularly -expressed by adding the syllable ཅན་, or the phrase དང་ལྡན་པ་, abridged -ལྡན་ to any substantive, མགོ་ཅན་ ‘having a head’; མི་མགོ་ཅན་ ‘having the -head of a man’; སྐྲ་ཅན་ ‘having hair, (long-)haired’; རིག་པ་ཅན་, -རིག་པ་དང་ལྡན་པ་ ‘possessing knowledge, learned, wise’; དང་ལྡན་པ་ is never -heard in common talk in WT.—2. Adjectives of appurtenance are generally -expressed by the genitive of the substantive, གསེར་གྱི་ ‘of gold, golden’; -ཤའི་མིག་ ‘the eye of flesh, the carnal, bodily eye’, oppos.: ཤེས་རབ་ཀྱི་མིག་ -‘the eye of knowledge, spiritual eye’.—3. Negative, or privative -adjectives are formed in several ways: a) by the simple negative མི་, -མི་འོས་པ་ ‘unworthy’; མི་རུང་བ་ ‘unfit’; མི་ཐོས་པ་ ‘unheard of’. b) by adding -མེད་ ‘without’, མགོ་མེད་ ‘headless’; སྐྱོན་མེད་ ‘faultless’. c) by adding the -verb བྲལ་(བ་) ‘separated from’, ལུས་དང་བྲལ་བ་, ལུས་བྲལ་ ‘separated from the -body, bodiless’.—4. The English adjectives in -able, -ible are -expressed by རུང་བ་ ‘to be fit’, added to the Supine, or to the simple -Root, འཐང་དུ་རུང་བ་, འཐུང་རུང་ ‘fit for drinking, drinkable’, vulgo: -འཐུང་ཉན་ (from ཉན་པ་ ‘to be able’), འཐུང་ཆོག་ (ཆོག་ ‘permitted, lawful’). - - - - - - - - -PART III. - -SYNTAX. - - -48. Arrangement of words. 1. The invariable rule is this: in a simple -sentence all other words must precede the verb; in a compound one all -the subordinate verbs in the form of gerunds or supines, and all the -coordinate verbs in the form of the root, each closing its own -respective clause, must precede the governing verb (examples s. -below).—2. The order in which the different cases of substantives -belonging to a verb are to be arranged, is rather optional, so that -e.g. the agent may either precede or follow its object. Local and -temporal adverbs or adverbial phrases are, if possible, put at the head -of the sentence.—3. The order of words belonging to a substantive is -this: 1. The Genitive, 2. the governing Substantive, 3. the Adjective -(unless this is itself put, in the genitive, before; 16), 4. the -Pronoun, 5. the Numeral, 6. the indefinite Article: thus, -ངའི་བུ་མོ་ཆུང་ངུ་འདི་ ‘this my little daughter’; གོས་དམར་པོ་ཞིག་ ‘a red gown’; -གོས་དམར་པོ་ or དམར་པོའི་གོས་ ‘the red gown’; རྒྱལ་ཁམས་ཆེན་པོ་འདི་གསུམ་ ‘these -three great kingdoms’. Adverbs precede the word they belong to: -ཤིན་ཏུ་ཆེན་པོ་ ‘very great’; ཤིན་ཏུ་མགྱོགས་པར་ཤོག་ ‘come very quickly’.—4. In -correlative sentences (cf. 29) the Relative precedes the Demonstrative: -གང་ཡོད་པ་དེ་ཐོང་ཞིག་ ‘what there is, give!’ i.e. ‘give whatever you have’, -and in comparative sentences the thing with which another is compared, -ordinarily precedes this (cf. 17). - - - -49. Use of the cases. As the necessary observations about the -instrumental have been made in 30, about the other cases and -postpositions partly in 15, partly in 43, it is only the Accusative, -that requires a few words more, as it is very often used absolutely (as -in Greek). a) Acc. temporalis: མཚན་མོ་ ‘at night’; གསོན་པོའི་ཚེ་ ‘during -(his etc.) lifetime’; དེའི་ཚེ, དེ་དུས་ ‘at that time’; ཉི་མ་གཅིག་བསླབས་ནས་ -‘having studied for one day, after one day’s study’.—b) Acc. modalis: -དབྱིབས་ཟླུམ་པ་ ‘regarding the size, round’; གཏིང་ཟབ་ཁྱད་ཁྲུ་བརྒྱད་པ་ ‘regarding -the depth, eight cubits’ (cf. 12); ཁ་དོག་དུ་བ་ལྟ་བུར་ཡོད་པ་ ‘regarding -colour, being like smoke’ (cf. 50, 1, a); རིགས་མཐུན་པ་ ‘with regard to -(his) birth, equal’ i.e. ‘of equal birth’. Here ནི་ (42. 1) is very -often employed: དབྱིབས་ནི་ཟླུམ་པ་ etc. Nearly in all cases, however, -postpositions may be added, and in talking they are preferred to the -simple Accusative: མཚན་མོ་ལ་, མཚན་ལ་, དེའི་ཚེ་ན་, དབྱིབས་ལ་ etc. - - - -50. Simple Sentences.—1. Affirmative sentences.—a) the attribute being -a noun, the verb: to be, become, remain etc.; མི་འདི་ནི་མཁས་པ་ཡིན་ ‘this -man is wise’; འདི་ནི་མི་མཁས་པ་ཞིག་ཡིན་ ‘this is a wise man’. When the verb -is འགྱུར་བ་ (to become), གནས་པ་ (to remain) etc. the attribute must be -put in the Terminative: སྐྲ་དཀར་པོར་གྱུར་ཏོ་ ‘(his) hair became white’; -རྒྱལ་པོ་ཡི་དམ་ལ་བརྟན་པར་གནས་སོ་, vulg: བརྟན་པོ་གནས་པ་ཡིན་ ‘the king remained -steadfast on his vow’; in some special cases this may take place, even -if the verb is simply ‘to be’: ལུས་གཟུགས་ཐམས་ཅད་མི་འདྲ་སྟེ། -རྐང་པ་འབའ་ཞིག་ཁྲ་བོར་འདུག་གོ་ ‘while his whole shape was like a man’s, his -foot only was piebald’. b) the attribute being any other verb: -རྒྱ་ནག་ཡུལ་གྱི་རྒྱལ་པོ་སྔ་མ་ཞིག་གིས་ཡུལ་དེའི་བྱང་ཕྱོགས་སུ་ལྕགས་རི་ཤིན་ཏུ་ཆེན་པོ་ཞིག་བརྩིགས་སོ་ ‘an -ancient king of China built a very large wall in the north of that -country’. - -2. Interrogative sentences.—a) simple: ཁྱོད་ཀྱི་བུ་ཁང་པ་ལ་འདུག་གམ་ ‘is your -son in the house?’; དེ་རུ་སུ་ཡོད་ ‘who is there?’; ཅི་ལ་ཡོང་ ‘what do you -come for?’, ‘what do you want?’.—རིན་ཙམ་ W (རིན་ག་ཚོད་ C) ‘how much (is) -the price?’. - -Besides the affix am the later literature and the conversational -language of CT has the accentuated interrogative particle ཨེ་ ĕ́, -immediately before the verb: ཐབས་ཨེ་ཡོད་ tʽab ĕ́ yöʼ ‘is there any -means...?’; ལས་འདི་བྱེད་ཨེ་ནུས་ lā̤ di j̀ĕʼ ĕ́ nṳ̄ ‘can you do this work?’. - -The form of a question is also used to express uncertain suppositions -(likely to become realized), as: རྗེད་པ་སྲིད་དམ་ ‘is forgetting possible?’ -for ‘he may possibly have forgotten it’; ཤི་བ་ཡིན་ནམ་ ‘won’t he die?’; -འདི་བདུད་མ་ཡིན་ནམ་ ‘this (apparition) is not the devil, I hope?’. - -b) double: ནང་ན་ཡོད་དམ་མེད་ ‘is (he) within or not?’; -བདག་ལ་སྦྱིན་དུ་རུང་ངམ་མི་རུང་ ‘is it agreeable (to you i.e. do you consent) to -give me (your son) or not?’; ང་འོངས་པ་མི་དགའ་འམ་ཅི་ཉེས་ ‘are you sorry at -my arrival, or what (else) is the matter (with you—because you weep)?’. - -3. Imperative and Optative or Precative sentences do not require any -additional remarks besides what is said in 38. - - - -51. Compound Sentences. After having examined in 41 the different -gerunds as the constituent parts of compound sentences, a few examples -will suffice for illustration. - -1. Compound sentences, for the most part coordinative: རྒྱལ་པོས་ཁྲིམས་བཅའ་སྟེ -[10]། བཟང་ [11]ལ་བྱ་དགའ་སྟེར། ངན་པ་ལ་ཆད་པ་གཅོད [12]། བྲེ་སྲང་གཏན་ལ་ཕབ [13]། -མི་ལ་ཡི་གེ་བསླབས་སོ [14]༎ ‘The king having given a law, the good were given -rewards, the bad punished, measures and weights arranged, and people -taught letters (i.e. reading and writing)’. - -2. subordinate sentences: དེར་ [15]བུད་མེད་གཉིས་ཤིག་ [16]བུ་གཅིག་ལ་རྩོད་དེ། -རྒྱལ་པོ་བློ་ [17]མཁས་པས་བརྟག་ནས་ [18]འདི་སྐད་ཅེས་ [19]བསྒོའོ། -།ཁྱོད་གཉིས་ཀྱིས་བུའི་ལག་པ་རེ་རེ་ནས་བཟུང་སྟེ། དྲོངས་ལ་ [20]གང་གིས་ཐོབ་པ་ [21]བུ་ཁྱེར་ཞིག་ -[22]ཅེས་བསྒོ་བ་དང་ [23]། བུའི་མ་མ་ཡིན་པ་དེས་ནི་ [24]བུ་ལ་སྙིང་རྗེ་མེད་པས་ [25]སྣད་ཀྱིས་ -[26]མི་དོགས་ཏེ། མཐུ་ཇེ་ཡོད་པར་ [27]དྲངས་སོ། -།བུའི་མ་གང་ཡིན་པ་དེ་ནི་བུ་ལ་བྱམས་པས་སྣད་ཀྱིས་དོགས་ཏེ། སྟོབས་ཀྱིས་ཐུབ་ཀྱང་ [28]དྲག་ཏུ་ -[29]མ་ [30]དྲངས་སོ། །རྒྱལ་པོས་དྲག་ཏུ་དྲངས་པ་དེ་ལ། འདི་ནི་ཁྱོད་ཀྱི་བུ་མ་ཡིན་ཏེ། -བུད་མེད་ཅིག་ཤོས་ [31]ཀྱི་བུ་ཡིན་པས་ན [32]། དྲང་པོར་ [33]སྨྲོས་ཤིག་ [34]ཅེས་སྨྲས་པ་དང༌། -དལ་གྱིས་དྲངས་པའི་བུ་ཡིན་པར་གྱུར་ཏེ་ [35]བུ་ཁྱེར་རོ༎ ‘There being certain two women -quarrelling about one boy, the king (being) wise of understanding -having examined (the case) thus ordered: You two, having seized from -each (side) a hand of the boy, pull, and who gets him, (she) may carry -him off.—When he had so spoken, she who was not the boy’s mother, -because she had no compassion for the boy, not fearing (she might) hurt -(him), pulled with what force she had. She who (in truth) was the boy’s -mother, because she had compassion with the boy, fearing (she might) -hurt (him), though she was able by force, did not pull hard. The king -said to her who had pulled hard: “Because this, not being your son, is -the other woman’s son, say (it) outright”. When he had so spoken, as he -had turned out to be the son of the gentle puller, (she) carried off -the boy’. - - - - - - - - -APPENDIX. - - -A COLLECTION OF PHRASES FROM DAILY LIFE, IN THE MODERN DIALECTS, -ROMANIZED. - - -WT kʽyod gá-na̤ yoṅ, Where do you come from? -CT kʽyöʼ gʽá-na̤ yoṅ. -W kʽyod su yin, C kʽyöʼ s. y. Who are you? -W kʽyod (C kʽyöʼ) sṳ̄ [36] yin. [37] Whose (man, servant) are you? -W kʽyod ráṅi miṅ c̀i zer, What is your name? (rule 34. -C kʽyöʼ-kyi míṅ-la gʽaṅ zér-gi 2. c is not always observed) - yöʼ-dʽam. -W kʽyód-di kʽáṅ-pa gá-na yod, Where is your house? -C kʽyöʼ-kyi kʽaṅ-pa gʽá-na yöʼ(-pa). -W kʽyod c̀i-la yoṅ, Why do you come? -C kʽyöʼ gʽaṅ-la yoṅ. (What do you want?) -W c̀i-la ’i-ru dug. Why are you here? -W ṅa s̀ruṅ-te dad. I sit here to watch. -W dī yúl-li miṅ c̀i zer, What is the name of this -C yul dī miṅ-la gʽaṅ zér-ra [38] village? - yim-pa. -W kʽyod-la ḍel-wa [39] z̀ig yód-da, Have you any errand -C kʽyöʼ la dʽo̤n z̀ig yöʼ-dʽam. (business)? -W c̀aṅ med; c̀ʽón-la yoṅ(s), Not any; I have come to no -C c̀aṅ mĕ́ʼ; dʽo̤n-mĕ́ʼ-la yoṅ. purpose. -W da tʽug pa tʽuṅ-c̀e-la Then go home to eat (drink) - kaṅ-pa-la-soṅ. your soup. -W yod: ṅá-la man [40] z̀ig sal [41], Yes: please give me some -C yöʼ: ṅá-la ma̤n z̀ig naṅ [42]-rog. medicine. -W ṅá-la zug [43] yod, Ts sug gyág I am ill (I have got, am - [44]-gī, befallen with, an illness). -Ü ṅá-la ná-tʽsa toṅ [45]-gi dug. -W zúr-mo rag, C - - dug. I feel pain. -W gá-na, C gʽá-na. Where? -W ḍód-pa [46]-la, C ḍʽöʼ-pa-la. In the stomach. -W gó-la zug rag, C - - - yöʼ. I have headache. -W ṅa-z̀a yaṅ-pa-la c̀ʽa-c̀e-la We should have taken a walk, - tʽsan-te rag. but it is too hot. -WC di len. Take this! -W di kʽyer, C di kʽur soṅ. Take this with (you)! -W di kʽyoṅ, C di kʽur s̀og. Bring this! -W di gá-zug c̀o-c̀e, How shall I do this? -C di gʽán-ḍa̤ [47] j̀ĕʼ toṅ (or j̀ĕʼ - gyu) yin (yim-pa). -W dí-zug c̀o mi gos (goi, gō̤), You must not do it in this -C dí-ḍā̤ j̀ĕʼ mi gō̤. way. -W ṅá-la da-ruṅ ó-ma z̀ig gos, I want some more milk. -C ṅá-la dʽa-ruṅ wó-ma s̀ig gō̤. -W i lág-mo c̀o, C di lég-mo j̀ā̤. Clean this! -W bé-ma daṅ ṭu [48]-c̀e, Wash it with sand! -C j̀é-mā̤ ṭʽṳ̄. -W ṅa-la c̀ʽu c̀uṅ zad (C säʼ) c̀ig naṅ Give me some water, please! - [49] z̀ig (C s̀ig). -W lág-pa lág-mo yód-da, Are (your) hands clean? -C lág-pa lég-mo (lā-mo, or tsaṅ-wa) é - yöʼ. -W o-ma tʽsag-rā̤́-la tʽsag toṅ, Filter the milk through the -C wo-ma - - - tʽsag s̀og. filtering cloth! -W tʽab c̀ʽuṅ-se dḗ c̀ʽog-la bor-toṅ, Put the little stove there! -C - - - dʽḗ c̀ʽog (c̀ʽö)-la z̀ag - [50]-c̀ig. -W pʽàn-dil sá-la pʽob [51] (pʽab-toṅ), Put the pot (degc̀i) down on -C saṅ [52] sá-la pʽáb-s̀ig. the ground! -W zaṅ(-bu) me daṅ ñe-mo bor, Put the pot near the fire! -C saṅ me dʽaṅ ñe-mo z̀ag. -W pʽog ton. Take it off! -W ñí-ma gás [53]-sa (gā̤-a) As soon as the sun sets, light - tsám-z̀ig-ga me pʽu [54], a fire! -C - - gā̤ tsam-s̀ig-la - -. -W kar-yol kʽyoṅ-ṅa son. Go to fetch the china! - - - len-na s̀og. Come to take away - -. -W c̀ʽu ḍáṅ-mo [55] daṅ ṭú-na If you wash with cold water, - kar-yól [56] mi dag (or the china does not become - kar-yol lag-mo mi c̀ʽa-yin); clean; wash it well with some - tʽsán-te z̀ig láṅ-te hot (water)! - gyal-la ṭu gos (gō̤), -C c̀ʽu dʽáṅ mō̤ tṳ̄ na kar-yól - mi dag; tʽsám-mo s̀íg - gī lég (lā̤)-pa-ṭṳ̄ s̀og. -W lás (lā̤)-ka tʽsaṅ-ma tʽsar-na̤ Unless all the work is done, - mán-na ma c̀ʽa, don’t go! (or) you must not -C - - - ma̤m-pa ḍo [57] mi c̀ʽog. go. -W sol-c̀óg [58] ṭʽal-ḍig [59] c̀o-a, Shall I make the table ready? -C - - - - j̀ĕʼ gyu yin-na(m). -W o-ná; c̀og-tán tiṅ [60] toṅ, Yes; lay (spread) the cloth! -C yā-ya; c̀og-tá̤n tíṅ-c̀ig. -W tib-ríl li naṅ-na c̀ʽu máṅ-po yód-da Is there much water in the - ñúṅ-ṅu yód, teapot, or little? -C - - gyi-naṅ-na c̀ʽu máṅ-po yöʼ-dʽam - ñúṅ-ṅu yöʼ. -W ñúṅ ṅu z̀ig yod (a-tʽsig man-na (But) a little. - med), -C ñúṅ ṅu s̀ig yöʼ. -W tib-ril c̀ʽu kaṅ [61]-te kʽyoṅ, Fill the teapot with water, -C - - c̀ʽṳ̄ káṅ-nā̤ kʽur s̀og. and bring it! -W tib-ril dzag dug. The kettle leaks. -W kár-yā [62] daṅ j̀ar [63] gos (gō̤), It must be soldered (fastened -C kár-yā̤ (or s̀a-kar-gyī) j̀ar gō̤. with pewter). -W gar-wa̤ [64] tsar [65] kʽyer, Take it to the blacksmith’s. -C kʽur soṅ. -W s̀el-kor gas (gā̤) soṅ, The tumbler (glass-cup) has -C s̀el-pʽor gā̤ soṅ. got a crack. -W ṅā̤ ma zer-na s̀iṅ ma kʽyoṅ, Unless I tell you, do not -C - - ser-na - - kyal [66]. bring wood! -W sab mol-na kʽyoṅ yin, When master commands, I shall -C sa-hib suṅ [67]-na kyal gyu yin. bring. -W sab gá-zug mol, What did you say, sir (did the -C sa-hib gʽaṅ suṅ wa yin. gentleman say)? -W ma pʽaṅ [68]; bud ma c̀ug [69], Don’t cast it away! Do not let -C ma bʽor-wa j̀ʽĕʼ; bʽüʼ ma c̀ug. it slip! -WC rig-pa ḍim [70], Take care! Cautiously! -W kʽa-dar c̀o. -W nán [71]-c̀e man, You must not press! -C ná̤n gyu min. -W ḍás [72]-si (ḍā̤́-i) lág-ma ṭí Put by the remainder of the - [73]-te bor, rice! -C ḍā̤́-kyi lhág-ma tʽsag j̀ʽā̤. -W lag-ma mi dug, c̀aṅ ma There is no remainder; nothing - lus (lṳ̄). is left. -W o-ma lud ma c̀ug, Do not let the milk run over! -C wo-ma lüʼ ma c̀ug. -W c ̀ʽín-pa [74] ma túb [75]-te són-te Not cutting the liver, bring - kʽyoṅ, it as a whole! -C - - - - - tʽsáṅ-ma (or gʽáṅ-mo) - kʽur-s̀og. -W a-lu s̀u-te tub toṅ, Peel the potatoes, and cut -C kyi-u (or ḍo-ma [76]) s̀u-te them in pieces! - tub-c̀ig. - maṅ-po (or yun riṅ-mo) ma gor. Don’t tarry much! -W gyog-pa (C gyog-po, gyō-po) s̀og. Come soon! -W ma j̀ed [77], 1. Do not forget! 2. (I) did -C ma j̀ĕʼ. not forget. -W yid-la zum [78] tʽub-ba, Can you remember it (bear it -C sem-la ṅē tʽub-ba. in mind)? -W yid-la zum gos (gō̤), You must bear it in mind, -C ṅē-pa j̀ʽĕʼ gō̤. (make it certain). - naṅ-du soṅ; naṅ-du s̀og. Go in! Come in! -W naṅ-du kyod [79], Go (or come) in, sir! -C naṅ-du pʽeb. -W dod [80], C däʼ. Sit down! - z̀ug [81]. Please sit down, sir! - - - - - - - - -READING EXERCISE. - -THE STORY OF YUG-PA-C̀AN THE BRAHMAN [82]. - - -༄༅ ༎ཡུལ་ཞིག་ [83]ན་ [84]བྲམ་ཟེ་དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་ཞེས་བྱ་བ་ [85]ཞིག༌འདུག་ [86]སྟེ [87]། -རབ་ཏུ་དབུལ་འཕོངས་པ་བཟའ་བ་དང༌། བགོ་བ་མེད་པ་ [88]ཞིག་གོ [89]། དེས་ཁྱིམ་བདག་ཅིག་ལས་ -[90]བ་གླང་ཞིག་བརྙས་ཏེ། ཉིན་པར་སྤྱད་ནས་བ་གླང་དེ་ཁྲིད་དེ་ཁྱིམ་བདག་དེའི་ཁྱིམ་དུ་སོང་བ་དང༌། -དེ་ན་ [91]ཁྱིམ་བདག་ནི་ཟན་ཟ་སྟེ། དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་གྱིས་བ་གླང་དེ་ཁྱིམ་གྱི་ནང་དུ་བཏང་ [92]བ་དང༌། -བ་གླང་སྒོ་གཞན་དུ་སོང་ནས་སྟོར་རོ༎ ཁྱིམ་བདག་དེ་ཟན་དེ་ཟོས་ནས་ལངས་ [93]པ་དང༌། -དེ་ན་བ་གླང་མ་མཐོང་ནས་དེས་དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་ལ་གླང་ག་རེ་ཞེས་བྱས་པ་ [94]དང༌། ཏེས་སྨྲས་པ། -ཁྱོད་ཀྱི་ཁྱིམ་དུ་བཏང་ངོ༌། །ཁྱོད་ཀྱིས་ངའི་གླང་བོར་གྱིས་ [95]སློར་བྱིན་ཅིག་ [96]ཅེས་སྨྲས་པ་དང༌། -དེས་སྨྲས་པ། ངས་མ་བོར་རོ༎ དེ་ནས་དེ་གཉིས་འགྲོགས་ཏེ། རྒྱལ་པོའི་ཐད་དུ་འདོང་བ་དང༌། -འུ་བུ་ཅག་གི་རིགས་པ་དང་མི་རིགས་པ་རྟོག་པར་འགྱུར་རོ་ [97]ཞེས་སྨྲས་ནས་དེ་གཉིས་དོང་བ་དང༌། -མི་གཞན་ཞིག་གི་རྟ་རྒོད་མ་ཞིག་བྲོས་ནས། དེས་དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་ལ་སྨྲས་པ། རྒོད་མ་མ་བཏང་ -[98]ཞེས་སྨྲས་པ་དང༌། དེས་རྡོ་ཞིག་བླངས་ [99]ཏེ་འཕངས་ -[100]པ་དང་རྟའི་རྐང་པ་ལ་ཕོག་ནས་རྐང་པ་བཅག་ [101]གོ །དེས་སྨྲས་པ། ཁྱོད་ཀྱིས་ངའི་རྟ་བསད་ཀྱིས་ -[102]ངའི་རྟ་བྱིན་ཅིག །ཅིའི་ཕྱིར་རྟ་སྦྱིན། དེས་སྨྲས་པ་ཚུར་ཤོག །རྒྱལ་པོའི་དྲུང་དུ་ [103]འདོང་དང༌། -འུ་བུ་ཅག་གི་ཞལ་ཆེ་གཅོད་དུ་འོང་ངོ་ཞེས་སྨྲས་ནས། དེ་དག་དེར་སོང་བ་དང༌། -དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་དེས་འབྲོས་པར་བརྩམས་ [104]ཏེ། དེས་ [105]རྩིག་པ་ཞིག་གི་སྟེང་ནས་ -[106]མཆོངས་པ་དང༌། དེའི་དྲུང་ན་ཐ་ག་པ་ཞིག་ཐགས་འཐག་ཅིང་འདུག་པ་དེའི་སྟེང་དུ་ལྷུང༌ -[107]ནས་ཐ་ག་པ་དེ་ཚེ་འཕོས་པ་དང༌། ཐ་ག་པའི་ཆུང་མས་དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་དེ་བཟུང༌ [108]ནས། -ཁྱོད་ཀྱིས་ངའི་ཁྱོ་བསད་ཀྱིས་ངའི་ཁྱོ་བྱིན་ཞིག་ཅེས་སྨྲས་པ་དང༌། ངས་ཁྱོད་ཀྱི་ཁྱོ་ཅི་ལྟར་ -[109]སྦྱིན་ཞེས་སྨྲས་ནས། ཚུར་ཤོག་རྒྱལ་པོའི་དྲུང་དུ་འདོང་ངོ༌༎ -དེས་འུ་བུ་ཅག་གི་ཞལ་ཅེ་གཅད་དོ་ཞེས་དོང་བ་ལས། [110] ལམ་གྱི་བར་ན་ཆུ་བོ་གཏིང་ཟབ་པོ་ -[111]ཞིག་ཡོད་དེ། ཆུ་དེའི་ནང་ནས་ཚུར་ [112]ཤང་མཁན་ [113]ཞིག་སྟེའུ་ཁ་ན་འཁྱེར་ཏེ་འོང་ངོ༌། -།དེ་ལ་དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་གྱིས་ཆུའི་གཏིང་ཅི་ཙམ་ཞེས་དྲིས་ [114]པ་དང༌། ཆུའི་གཏིང་ཟབ་བོ་ -[115]ཞེས་སྨྲས་པས་ [116]སྟེའུ་ཆུར་ལྷུང་སྟེ། སྟེའུ་མ་རྙེད་པ་དང༌། དེས་དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་བཟུང་ནས། -ཁྱོད་ཀྱིས་ངའི་སྟེའུ་ཆུར་བསྐྱུར་རོ [117]༎ དེས་སྨྲས་པ་ངས་མ་བསྐྱུར་ཏོ། -།ཚུར་ཤོག་རྒྱལ་པོའི་དྲུང་དུ་འདོང་དང༌། དེས་འུ་བུ་ཅག་གི་ཞལ་ཆེ་གཅད་དོ་ཞེས་སྨྲས་ནས་དོང་ངོ༌། -།དེ་དག་སོང་བ་ལས་ [118] རྒྱལ་པོའི་དྲུང་དུ་ཕྱིན་པ་དང༌། -དེ་དག་རྒྱལ་པོའི་རྐང་པ་ལ་མགོ་བོས་ཕྱག་འཚལ་ཏེ། ཕྱོགས་གཅིག་ཏུ་འདུག་གོ [119] -།དེ་ནས་རྒྱལ་པོས་དེ་དག་ལ་ཁྱོད་ཅི་ལ་འོངས་ཤེས་དྲིས་པ་དང༌། -དེ་དག་གིས་དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་དང་ཁྱིམ་བདག་རྩོད་པ་ [120]དེ་དག་ཐམས་ཅད་སྨྲས་སོ། -།རྒྱལ་པོས་དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་ལ་སྨྲས་པ། ཁྱོད་ཀྱིས་གླང་བརྙས་སམ། །བརྙས་སོ། །འོ་ན་ཕྱིར་བྱིན་ནམ༎ -བདག་གིས་མཐོང་བར་ [121]བྱིན་ཏེ། ཁས་ [122]ནི་མ་བཏང་ངོ༌། །རྒྱལ་པོས་སྨྲས་པ། -དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་དེས་གླང་ཕྱིར་བྱིན་ཏེ་མ་སྨྲས་པས་ན [123]། ལྕེ་ཆོད་ཅིག །ཁྱིམ་བདག་ཀྱང་གླང་འོངས་པར་ -[124]མཐོང་ལ་ [125]མ་བཏགས་ [126]པས་ནི། མིག་ཕྱུང་ [127]ཞིག་ཅེས་བརྗོད་དོ། -།ཁྱིམ་བདག་གིས་སྨྲས་པ། དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་གྱིས་གཅིག་ཏུ་ [128]ནི་བདག་གི་ [129]གླང་ཕྲོགས། གཉིས་སུ་ -[130]བདག་གི་མིག་ཕྱུང་བ་བས [131] དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་རྒྱལ་བར་འགྱུར་ཡང་བླའོ [132]། མི་གཅིག་གིས་ལྷ -[133]། དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་གྱིས་བདག་གི་རྟ་རྒོད་མ་བཀུམ་ [134]མོ་ཞེས་སྨྲས་པ་དང༌། -རྒྱལ་པོས་དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་ལ་ཁྱོད་ཀྱིས་རྟ་ཅི་ལྟར་བསད་ཅེས་དྲིས་ནས། །བདག་ལམ་དུ་ཞུགས་ -[135]ཏེ་མཆིས་པ་ལས། མི་འདིས་རྟ་མ་བཏང་ཞེས་མཆི་ [136]བ་ལས། བདག་གིས་རྟོ་ཞིག་བླངས་ཏེ། -འཕངས་པ་ལ་ [137]རྟ་བཀུམ་མོ། །རྒྱལ་པོས་སྨྲས་པ། རྟ་བདག་གིས་རྟ་མ་བཏང་ཞེས་སྨྲས་པས་ལྕེ་ཆོད་ཅིག -།དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་ནི་ [138]རྡོ་འཕངས་པས་ལག་པ་ཆོད་ཅིག །མི་དེས་སྨྲས་པ། གཅིག་ཏུ་བདག་གི་རྟ་བསད། -གཉིས་སུ་བདག་གི་ལྕེ་གཅད་པ་བས། དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་རྒྱལ་བར་འགྱུར་ཀྱང་བླའོ། །ཐ་ག་པའི་ཆུང་མས་སྨྲས་པ། -དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་གྱིས་བདག་གི་ཁྱོ་བཀུམ་མོ། །དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་གྱིས་སྨྲས་པ། བདག་ལ་དགྲ་མངས་པས་ -[139]འཇིགས་ཏེ་རྩིགས་པ་ལས་བརྒལ་ནས་བྲོས་པ་ལས། ཕག་ན་མི་ཡོད་པ་ [140]མ་མཐོང་སྟེ་གུམ་མོ། -།རྒྱལ་པོས་སྨྲས་པ། སོང་ལ་ [141]འདི་ཉིད་ [142]ཀྱི་ཁྱོ་གྱིས་ [143]ཤིག །དེས་སྨྲས་པ། -གཅིག་ཏུ་བདག་གི་ཁྱོ་བསད། གཉིས་སུ་འདི་ཁྱོ་བྱས་པ་བས [144]། དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་རྒྱལ་པར་འགྱུར་ཀྱང་བླའོ། -།ཤིང་མཁན་གྱིས་སྨྲས་པ། དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་དེ་ [145]བདག་ལ་ཆུའི་གཏིང་ཅེ་ཙམ་ཞེས་དྲིས་པས། -ཁ་ནས་སྟེའུ་ཐོགས་པ་ [146]ཆུར་ལྷུང་ངོ༌། །རྒྱལ་པོས་སྨྲས་པ། -རྫ་ཇི་ཁྱེར་ཡང་ཕྲག་པ་ལ་བཀུར་བའི་རིགས་ཀྱི་ [147]ཁ་ན་ཁྱེར་བས། -ཤིང་མཁན་གྱི་མ་དུན་སོ་གཉིས་ཆོག་ཅིག །དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་ནི་ཆུའི་གཏིང་ཟབ་བམ་ཞེས་པས་ [148]ལྕེ་ཆོད་ཅིག -།ཤིང་མཁན་གྱིས་སྨྲས་པ། གཅིག་ཏུ་བདག་གི་སྟེའུ་སྟོར། གཉིས་སུ་བདག་གི་སོ་བཅག་པ་བས། -དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་རྒྱལ་བར་འགྱུར་ཀྱང་བླའོ། །དེ་དག་སོ་སོ་ནས་ [149]ཞལ་ཆེ་བཅད་དེ། -དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་ཉེས་པ་ཀུན་ལས་ཐར་རོ༎ ༎ - - - - - - - - -A LIST OF THE MORE FREQUENT VERBS [150]. - - -a) Four-rooted verbs. - -Pres. Perf. Fut. Imperv. WT -འགེགས་པ་ བཀག་ དགག་ ཁོག་ stop, kag-c̀e - hinder. -འགེངས་པ་ བཀང་ དགང་ ཁོང་ fill. kaṅ-c̀e -འགེལ་བ་ བཀལ་ དགལ་ ཁོལ་ lade, kal-c̀e - put on - ... -གཅོད་པ་ བཅད་ གཅད་ ཆོད་ cut. c̀ad-c̀e - imprv. c̀od -འཆིང་བ་ བཅིངས་ བཅིང་ ཆིང་ tie, bind. -འཆོ་བ་ } བཅོ(ས)༌ བཅོ་ ཆོས་ make. c̀o-c̀e pf. and -འཆོས་པ་ } imp. c̀os -འཇིག་པ་ (བ)ཤིག་ གཞིག་ ཤིགས་ destroy. s̀ig-c̀e -འཇུག་པ་ བཅུག་ གཞུག་ ཆུག་ put in. c̀ʽug-c̀e -འཇོག་པ་ བཞག་ གཞག་ ཞོག་ put, place. (C: z̀ag-pa) -འཇོག་པ་ བཞོགས་ གཞོག་ ཞོག་ cut. z̀og-c̀e -གཏོང་བ་ བཏང་ གཏང་ ཐོང་ give. taṅ-c̀e imp. toṅ -ལྟ་བ་ བལྟས་ བལྟ་ ལྟོས་ look. (l)ta-c̀e -འདེགས་པ་ བཏེག་ གདེགས་ ཐེག་ lift; weigh. tag-c̀e imp. tog -འདེབས་པ་ བཏབ་ གདབ་ ཐོབ་ throw. tab-c̀e imp. tob -འདོགས་པ་ བཏགས་ གདགས་ ཐོགས་ tie, bind. tag-c̀e imp. tog, - tag toṅ -འདོན་པ་ བཏོན་ གདོན་ ཐོན་ get, drive, ton-c̀e always - out. for འབྱིན་པ་ -འཕེན་པ་ འཕངས་ འཕང་ ཕོང་ throw, hurt. pʽaṅ-c̀e -བྱེད་པ་ བྱས་ བྱ་ བྱོས་ do, make. for it c̀o-c̀e -འབེབས་པ་ ཕབ་ དབབ་ ཕོབ་ bring, let, pʽab-c̀e - down. -འཚག་པ་ { འཚགས་ } བཙག་ ཚོག་ filter, sift. tʽsag-c̀e -བཙགས་ { } -འཚོང་བ་ བཙོངས་ བཙོང་ ཚོང་ sell. tsoṅ-c̀e -འཛིན་པ་ གཟུང་, ཟིན་ གཟུང་ ཟུང་ seize. zum-c̀e -ལེན་པ་ བླངས་ བླང་ ལོང(ས)༌, ལོན་ take. len-c̀e, laṅ-c̀e -སློབ་པ་ བསླབ(ས)༌ བསླབ་ སློབ་ learn; teach. lab-c̀e - - -b) Three-rooted verbs. - -Pres. Perf. Fut. Imperv. WT -འཁུར་བ་ བཀུར་ ཁུར་ carry. kʽur-c̀e -འཁྱོང་བ་ ཁྱོངས་ ཁྱོང་ bring. kʽyoṅ-c̀e for འཁྱེར་བ་ -རྒྱབ་པ་ བརྒྱབ་ རྒྱོབ་ throw, cast. gyab-c̀e imp. - gyob for འདེབས་པ་ -རྒྱུག་པ་ (བ)རྒྱུག(ས)༌ རྒྱུག་ run. gyug-c̀e -གཅོག་པ་ བཅག་ ཆོག་ break. c̀ag-c̀e, imp. c̀og -འཆད་པ་ བཤད་ ཤོད་ tell, explain. s̀ad-c̀e -རྟེན་པ་ བརྟེན་ རྟོན་ hold. ten-c̀e -འདྲེན་པ་ དྲང་ དྲོངས་ draw. to lead: ran-c̀e - to remove: ḍeṅ-c̀e -འབབ་པ་ བབ(ས)༌ བོབ(ས)༌ descend. -འབུད་པ་ ཕུ(ས)༌ དབུ་ ཕུས་ blow (act.). pʽu-c̀e -འབུད་པ་ ཕུད་ དབུད་ ཕུད་ put off, pʽud-c̀e - drop (act.). -འབྱིན་པ་ ཕྱུང་ དབྱུང་ ཕྱུང་ take, pull out. pʽin-c̀e -འབྱེད་པ་ ཕྱེ(ས)༌ དབྱེ་ ཕྱེ(ས)༌ open (act.). pʽe-c̀e, imp. pʽe(s). - -སྨྲ་བ་ སྨྲས་ སྨྲོས་ say. s. ཟེར་བ་ -ལང་བ་ ལངས་ ལོང་ rise. laṅ-c̀e - - -c) Two-rooted verbs. - -Pres. Perf. Imperv. WT -སྐྱེ་བ་ སྐྱེས་ be born. skye-c̀e -སྐྱེད་པ་ བསྐྱེད་ bear, beget. skye-c̀e -འཁྱེར་བ་ ཁྱེར་ ཁྱེར་ carry. kʽyer-c̀e -འགྱུར་བ་ གྱུར་ གྱུར་ become. gyur-c̀e -འགྲོ་བ་ སོང་ སོང་ go; become. [only ḍo-c̀e - in certain sentences. -སྒྱུར་བ་ བསྒྱུར་ སྒྱུར་ alter. gyur-c̀e -ངུ་བ་ ངུས་ weep. ṅu-c̀e -འཆི་བ་ ཤི་ die. s̀i-c̀e -འཆོར་བ་ ཤོར་ flee. s̀or-c̀e -འཇུག་པ་ ཞུགས་ ཞུགས་ enter. z̀ug-c̀e -ཉོ་བ་ ཉོས་ buy. ño-c̀e -སྡོད་པ་ བསྡད་ སྡོད་ sit; stay. dad-c̀e imp. dod -འཕེལ་བ་ ཕེལ་ increase (neutr.) pʽel-c̀e -བླུག་པ་ བླུག(ས)༌ བླུག(ས)༌ pour. lug-c̀e -འབུད་པ་ བུད་ blow (neutr.) pʽu-c̀e -འབོད་པ་ བོས་ བོས་ call. bo-c̀e, imp. bos (boi, bō̤). -འབྱུང་བ་ བྱུང་ appear, originate. j̀uṅ-c̀e -མྱོང་བ་ མྱང་ enjoy. ñaṅ-c̀e -རྩིག་པ་ བརྩིགས་ བརྩིགས་ build up. tsig-c̀e -ཞུ་བ་ ཞུས་ ཞུས་ ask. z̀u-c̀e (j̀u-c̀e) -སླེབ་པ་ བསླེབས་ arrive. leb-c̀e - - - -d) One-rooted verbs. - - WT - དགའ་བ་ be glad, to like. Ld. γa-c̀e, W besides འཐད་པ་ - འགྲིལ་བ་ fall, drop. ḍil-c̀e, also འདྲིལ་(བ་) - མཆོང་བ་, leap, jump. c̀ʽoṅ-c̀e - མཆོངས་པ་ - ཉལ་བ་ lie down. ñal-c̀e - ཐུག་པ་ meet. tʽug-c̀e - ཐུབ་པ་ be able. tʽub-c̀e - ཐོབ་པ་ find, get. tʽob-c̀e - ཐོས་པ་ hear. (tʽsor-c̀e) - མཐོང་བ་ see. tʽoṅ-c̀e - འཐད་པ་ be glad, to like. tʽad-c̀e, nearly always - for དགའ་བ་ and འདོད་པ་ - འཐོན་པ་ come out, go out. tʽon-c̀e, usual for འབྱུང་བ་ - འདོད་པ་ wish, like, desire. rare. - ནུས་པ་ be able. s. ཐུབ་པ་ - གནས་པ་ stay, dwell, remain. nas (nai, nā̤)-c̀e, but - usually: dad-c̀e - འབར་བ་ burn. bar-c̀e - ཚོར་བ་ perceive. tʽsor-c̀e, and usual for - ཐོས་པ་ - མཛད་པ་ do, make (resp.). dzad-c̀e, imp. dzod. - ཟེར་བ་ say. zer-c̀e, usual for - སྨྲ་བ་ - ལུས་པ་ remain, be left. lus-c̀e - ལོག་པ་ turn back, return. log-c̀e - ཤེས་པ་ know. s̀es (s̀ē)-c̀e - (ཧ་)གོ་བ་ understand. há-go-c̀e - - - - - - - - -NOTES - - -[1] A very clear exposition of the ramification of Indian alphabets by -Dr. Haas is to be found in the Publications of the Palaeographical -Society Oriental Series IV, pl. XLIV. - -[2] This is the form in which the word, chosen by the missionaries to -express the Christian “God” (cf. dict.), has found its way into several -popular works. - -[3] This will be indicated in the following examples by including the s -in parentheses, as (s)kom. - -[4] The concurrence of superadded ས་ with a consonant already compound -produces in WT some irregularities, which cannot all be specified here -(see the diction.). The custom of CT, according to which the ས་ is -entirely neglected is in this instance easier to be followed. - -[5] But the vulgar language has a predilection for certain forms of -Adjectives 1. those with the gerundial particle ཏེ་, as: ཚན་ཏེ་ for the -more classical ཚན་ ‘warm’; these seem to be particularly in use in -Tsaṅ: མཛའ་སྟེ་ ‘friendly’, less so in Ü. 2. compound adjectives either by -simple reiteration of the root: རིལ་རིལ་ for རིལ་པོ་ ‘round’, or changing -the vowel at the same time: ཁྲག་ཁྲུག་ ‘complicate’, གཙང་གཙོང་ ‘awry’ etc. -Often they are quadrisyllables after this form: མལ་ལ་མུལ་ལེ་ ‘lukewarm’, -ཆག་ག་ཆོག་གེ་ ‘medley’. - -[6] Some Mscr. and wood-prints, however, prefer, even after these -consonants, the form བས་. - -[7] ཕྲག་ is used especially if the number counting the hundreds, -thousands etc. follows: thus, སྟོང་ཕྲག་ཉི་ཤུ་ ‘of thousands: twenty, 20 -000’; ཁྲི་ཕྲག་དུ་མ་ ‘many ten-thousands’. - -[8] The objects of ཟ་བ་ and འཐུང་བ་ often assume the dative-sign, cf. -English ‘to feed on’. - -[9] This is not very carefully observed even in good mscr. and prints, -where ཡང་ will occur sometimes after ག་ etc., and ཀྱང་ after the other -consonants and even after vowels. - -[10] འཆའ་བ་, perf. བཅའ་ ‘to make’ esp. ‘institute, arrange’; gerund. - -[11] i.o. བཟང་པོ་ལ་. - -[12] ‘to cut’, but ཆད་པ་ (or པས་) གཅོད་པ་ ‘to inflict a punishment’. - -[13] གཏན་ལ་འབེབས་པ་ ‘to set in order, arrange’; perf. ཕབ་. - -[14] སློབ་པ་, perf. བསླབས་ ‘to learn’. - -[15] 42. 3. - -[16] indefin. art. after numerals s. 13. - -[17] Accus. modal., 49. - -[18] རྟོག་པ་, perf. བརྟག་. - -[19] 27. 2. - -[20] འདྲེན་པ་, perf. དྲངས་, imp. དྲོངས་; cf. 41. 5. - -[21] 29. - -[22] འཁྱེར་བ་, perf. and imp. ཁྱེར་. - -[23] 43. 1. - -[24] 42. 1. - -[25] 41. 8. - -[26] the object of the fear usually in the instrumental. - -[27] termin. of inf. used as adverb, 41. B. 2. b. - -[28] 44. - -[29] 42. 2. - -[30] 42. 1. - -[31] ཤོས་ ‘other’, almost always with the indefin. article; 13. fin. - -[32] ན་ is sometimes pleonastically added to པས་ (བས་), to strengthen -its meaning. - -[33] 43.2. - -[34] སྨྲ་བ་, perf. སྨྲས་, imp. སྨྲོས་. - -[35] འགྱུར་བ་, perf. གྱུར་ properly ‘as he has come to be’. - -[36] སུའི་ - -[37] The numbers refer to the notes at the end of the collection, -exhibiting the spelling of some of the words that are most disfigured -in pronunciation. - -[38] vulgar supine 41, Note 1. - -[39] བྲེལ་བ་ - -[40] སྨན་ - -[41] སྩལ་ - -[42] གནང་ - -[43] གཟུག་ - -[44] རྒྱག་ - -[45] གཏོང་ - -[46] གྲོད་ - -[47] ག་འདྲས་ - -[48] འཁྲུ་ - -[49] གནང་ - -[50] བཞག་ - -[51] འབེབས་པ་ iprv. - -[52] ཟངས་ - -[53] རྒས་ - -[54] འབུད་པ་ iprv. - -[55] གྲང་མོ་ - -[56] དཀར་ཡོལ་ - -[57] འགྲོ་ - -[58] གསོལ་ལྕོག་ - -[59] འཕྲལ་འགྲིག་ - -[60] བཏིང་ prf. of འདིང་བ་ - -[61] བཀང་ prf. of འགེངས་པ་ - -[62] དཀར་གཡའ་ - -[63] སྦྱར་ prf. of སྦྱོར་བ་ - -[64] མགར་བའི་ - -[65] རྩར་ - -[66] བསྐྱལ་ prf. of སྐྱེལ་བ་ - -[67] གསུང་ - -[68] འཕང་ iprv. of འཕེན་པ་ - -[69] བཅུག་ prf. of འཇུག་པ་ - -[70] འགྲིམ་ - -[71] གནན་ - -[72] འབྲས་ - -[73] དཀྲི་ - -[74] མཆིན་པ་ - -[75] བཏུབ་ prf. of འཐུབ་པ་ - -[76] གྲོ་མ་ - -[77] རྗེད་ - -[78] ཟུམ་ i.o. བཟུང་ from འཛིན་པ་ - -[79] སྐྱོད་ - -[80] སྡོད་ - -[81] བཞུགས་ - -[82] From the Dzaṅ-lun (མཛངས་བླུན་). - -[83] 13. - -[84] 15, 5. - -[85] བྱེད་པ་, perf. བྱས་, fut. བྱ་, iv. བྱོས་ ‘to make, do’, in some cases: -‘to say, call’, ཞེས་བྱ་བ་ ‘so to be called, so called’.—དབྱུག་པ་ཅན་ is a -translation of the Sanscrit name दण्डिन्. - -[86] 40. 1. c. - -[87] 41. A. 1. - -[88] 40. 1. b and 47. 3. b. - -[89] 34. 1. and 40. 1. g. - -[90] 15. 5. - -[91] 42. 3. - -[92] perf. of གཏོང་བ་ ‘to give; to send, let go’. - -[93] perf. of ལང་བ་ ‘to rise’. - -[94] s. 4). - -[95] 41. A. 7. - -[96] imp. of སྦྱིན་པ་ ‘to give’, སླར༌༌༌ ‘to return’. - -[97] 37. 2. - -[98] གཏོང་བ་ s. 11); ‘don’t let pass’; 38. 2. - -[99] perf. of ལེན་པ་ ‘take, seize’. - -[100] perf. of འཕེན་པ་ ‘to throw, fling’. - -[101] perf. of གཅོག་པ་ ‘to break’. - -[102] s. 14). - -[103] 43. 2. - -[104] perf. of རྩོམ་པ་ ‘to prepare, purpose’. - -[105] rule 30. is not always strictly observed. - -[106] 43. 2. - -[107] perf. of ལྟུང་བ་ ‘to fall’. - -[108] perf. of འཛིན་པ་ ‘to seize’. - -[109] 43. 2. b. - -[110] 41. 6. b41. A. 6. b; ཞེས་ = ཞེས་སྨྲས་ནས་. - -[111] 49. - -[112] ‘from the inner (i.e. other) to this’, ‘across’. - -[113] carpenter (lit. ‘lakṛiwālā’, cf. 12. 1.). - -[114] perf. of འདྲི་བ་ ‘to ask’. - -[115] 40. 1. g. - -[116] 41. A. 8. - -[117] perf. of སྐྱུར་བ་ ‘to throw down’. - -[118] s. 29). - -[119] ‘sat down’. - -[120] if the verb is in the infv., the subject is usually put in the -accus., when we use the genitive. - -[121] ‘returning it so that the owner saw it’; 41. B. 2. b. - -[122] ‘I did not return it with the mouth i.e. by saying anything’. - -[123] ‘because (41. A. 8) that Yugp. did not say it (viz: I give -back)’. - -[124] 41. B. 2. a. - -[125] 41. A. 5. - -[126] perf. of འདོགས་པ་ ‘to tie, fasten’. - -[127] impv. of འབྱིན་པ་ ‘to take out, pull out’ etc. - -[128] ‘firstly’, less frequent and somewhat different from དང་པོར་ (22). - -[129] ‘my’ (24). - -[130] ‘secondly’. - -[131] 17. 1. - -[132] ‘it is better that Y. should be the winner, than that besides -having been robbed of my ox, I should lose my eyes into the bargain’. - -[133] ‘another said: O god! etc.’ (ལྷ་ used in addressing a king like -Sanscr. देव). - -[134] perf. of འགུམ་པ་ ‘to kill’; འགུམ་པ་ ‘to die’ has perf. གུམ་; an -elegant word (24, Note). - -[135] perf. of འཇུག་པ་ ‘to enter’. - -[136] མཆི་བ་, perf. མཆིས་ ‘to go, walk’; eleg. ‘to say’. - -[137] 41. A. 5. b. - -[138] Nomin. for Instrum., s. 30 fin. - -[139] perf. of མང་བ་ ‘to be much, many; to become m.’. - -[140] partic., ‘that a man was concealed (behind it)’. - -[141] 41. A. 5. - -[142] 27. 1. - -[143] imper. of བགྱིད་པ་ eleg. for བྱེད་པ་; ‘go and make the husband of -this same (woman)’. - -[144] ‘than that he should be (my) husband’. - -[145] s. 57). - -[146] partic., ‘the axe which I held from (i.e. with) my mouth’. - -[147] 40. 3 ‘whatever things be carried, it being right to carry them -on the shoulder’. - -[148] for ཞེས་སྨྲས་པས། s. 29). - -[149] ༌༌སོ་སོ་ ‘different, several’, ༌༌ནས་—‘separately, each for -himself’. - -[150] They are here arranged according to the number of the roots, -though these are in many instances, not so strictly observed, even in -printed books, as they ought to be. 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