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-<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of A handbook of systematic botany, by Johannes Eugenius Warming</p>
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
-at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
-are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
-country where you are located before using this eBook.
-</div>
-
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: A handbook of systematic botany</p>
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Johannes Eugenius Warming</p>
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Translator: Michael Cresse Potter</p>
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Contributor: Emil Friedrich Knoblauch</p>
-<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: July 21, 2022 [eBook #68580]</p>
-<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p>
-  <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Peter Becker, Karin Spence and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p>
-<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HANDBOOK OF SYSTEMATIC BOTANY ***</div>
-
-<h1><span class="smaller">A HANDBOOK</span><br />
-
-<span class="sm">OF</span><br />
-
-SYSTEMATIC BOTANY</h1>
-
-<p class="center p2 xs">BY</p>
-
-<p class="center">DR. E. WARMING</p>
-
-<p class="center p0"><i>Professor of Botany in the University of Copenhagen</i></p>
-
-<p class="center sm"><span class="smcap">With a Revision of the Fungi by</span><br />
-
-DR. E. KNOBLAUCH,<br />
-
-<span class="xs"><i>Karlsruhe</i></span></p>
-
-<p class="center p2"><span class="smcap">Translated and Edited by</span><br />
-
-M. C. POTTER, M.A. F.L.S.</p>
-
-<p class="center xs"><i>Professor of Botany in the University of Durham<br />
-College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne<br />
-Author of “An Elementary Text-book of Agricultural Botany”</i></p>
-
-<p class="center p1 xs">WITH 610 ILLUSTRATIONS</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="a003">
-    <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/a003.jpg"
-    alt="" />
-  </div>
-
-<p class="center sm"><b>London</b></p>
-
-<p class="center">SWAN SONNENSCHEIN &amp; CO</p>
-
-<p class="center sm">NEW YORK: MACMILLAN &amp; CO</p>
-
-<p class="center sm">1895</p>
-
-
-
-<p class="smcap xs p6 center">Butler &amp; Tanner,<br />
-The Selwood Printing Works,<br />
-Frome, and London.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[v]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="gesperrt">PREFACE.</h2>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="a009_deco">
-    <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/a009_deco.jpg"
-    alt="" />
-  </div>
-
-<p>The present translation of Dr. E. Warming’s <i>Haandbog i den
-Systematiske Botanik</i> is taken from the text of the 3rd Danish
-Edition (1892), and from Dr. Knoblauch’s German Edition (1890), and
-the book has been further enriched by numerous additional notes which
-have been kindly sent to me by the author. Dr. Warming’s work has long
-been recognised as an original and important contribution to Systematic
-Botanical Literature, and I have only to regret that the pressure
-of other scientific duties has delayed its presentation to English
-readers. Dr. Warming desires me to record his high appreciation of the
-careful translation of Dr. Knoblauch, and his obligation to him for a
-number of corrections and improvements of which he has made use in the
-3rd Danish Edition. In a few instances I have made slight additions
-to the text; these, however, appear as footnotes, or are enclosed in
-square brackets.</p>
-
-<p>In the present Edition the Thallophytes have been revised and
-rearranged from notes supplied to me by Dr. Knoblauch, to whom I am
-indebted for the Classification of the Fungi, according to the more
-recent investigations of Brefeld. The Bacteria have been revised by
-Dr. Migula, the Florideæ rearranged after Schmitz, and the Taphrinaceæ
-after Sadebeck. The main body of the text of the Algæ and Fungi remains
-as it was originally written by Dr. Wille and Dr. Rostrup in the Danish
-Edition, though in many places considerable alterations and additions
-have been made. For the sake of comparison a tabular key to the
-Classification adopted in the Danish Edition is given in the Appendix.</p>
-
-<p>In the Angiosperms I have retained the sequence of orders in the Danish
-original, and have not rearranged them according to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">[vi]</span> the systems
-more familiar to English students. In any rearrangement much of the
-significance of Dr. Warming’s valuable and original observations
-would have been lost, and also from a teacher’s point of view I have
-found this system of great value. Although at present it may not be
-completely satisfactory, yet as an attempt to explain the mutual
-relationships, development and retrogression of many of the orders, it
-may be considered to have a distinct advantage over the more artificial
-systems founded upon Jussieu’s Divisions of Polypetalæ, Gamopetalæ, and
-Apetalæ.</p>
-
-<p>With reference to the principles of the systematic arrangement adopted,
-I may here insert the following brief communication from the author
-(dated March, 1890), which he has requested me to quote from the
-preface of Dr. Knoblauch’s edition:&mdash;“Each form which, on comparative
-morphological considerations, is clearly less simple, or can be shown
-to have arisen by reduction or through abortion of another type having
-the same fundamental structure, or in which a further differentiation
-and division of labour is found, will be regarded as younger, and
-as far as possible, and so far as other considerations will admit,
-will be reviewed later than the ‘simpler,’ more complete, or richer
-forms. For instance, to serve as an illustration: <span class="smcap">Epigyny</span>
-and <span class="smcap">Perigyny</span> are less simple than <span class="smcap">Hypogny</span>; the
-Epigynous <i>Sympetalæ</i>, <i>Choripetalæ</i>, <i>Monocotyledones</i>
-are, therefore, treated last, the <i>Hydrocharitaceæ</i> are
-considered last under the <i>Helobieæ</i>, etc. <span class="smcap">Zygomorphy</span>
-is younger than <span class="smcap">Actinomorphy</span>; the <i>Scitamineæ</i> and
-<i>Gynandræ</i> therefore follow after the <i>Liliifloræ</i>, the
-<i>Scrophulariaceæ</i> after the <i>Solanaceæ</i>, <i>Linaria</i> after
-<i>Verbascum</i>, etc. <span class="smcap">Forms with united leaves</span> indicate
-younger types than those with free leaves; hence the <i>Sympetalæ</i>
-come after the <i>Choripetalæ</i>, the <i>Sileneæ</i> after the
-<i>Alsineæ</i>, the <i>Malcaceæ</i> after the <i>Sterculiaceæ</i> and
-<i>Tiliaceæ</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<p>“<span class="smcap">Acyclic</span> (spiral-leaved) flowers are older than cyclic
-(verticillate-leaved) with a definite number, comparing, of
-course, only those with the same fundamental structure. The
-<i>Veronica</i>-type must be considered as younger, for example, than
-<i>Digitalis</i> and <i>Antirrhinum</i>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[vii]</span> these again as younger than
-<i>Scrophularia</i>; <i>Verbascum</i>, on the contrary, is the least
-reduced, and therefore considered as the oldest form. Similarly the
-one-seeded, nut-fruited <i>Ranunculaceæ</i> are considered as a later
-type (with evident abortion) than the many-seeded, folicular forms of
-the Order; the <i>Paronychieæ</i> and <i>Chenopodiaceæ</i> as reduced
-forms of the <i>Alsineæ</i> type; and the occurrence of few seeds in
-an ovary as generally arising through reduction of the many-seeded
-forms. The <i>Cyperaceæ</i> are regarded as a form derived from the
-<i>Juncaceæ</i> through reduction, and associated with this, as is
-so often the case, there is a complication of the inflorescence; the
-<i>Dipsacaceæ</i> are again regarded as a form proceeding from the
-<i>Valerianaceæ</i> by a similar reduction, and these in their turn
-as an offshoot from the <i>Caprifoliaceæ</i>, etc. Of course these
-principles of systematic arrangement could only be applied very
-generally; for teaching purposes they have often required modification.”</p>
-
-<p>In preparing the translation considerable difficulty has been
-experienced in finding a satisfactory rendering of several terms which
-have no exact equivalent in English. I may here especially mention the
-term Vorblatt (Forblad) which I have translated by the term bracteole,
-when it clearly applied to the first leaf (or leaves) on a pedicel; but
-in discussing questions of general morphology a term was much needed
-to include both vegetative and floral shoots, and for this I have
-employed the term “Fore-leaf.” Also, the term “Floral-leaf” has been
-adopted as an equivalent of “Hochblatt,” and the term “bract” has been
-limited to a leaf subtending a flower. I have followed Dr. E. L. Mark
-in translating the word “Anlage” by “Fundament.”</p>
-
-<p>At the end of the book will be found a short appendix giving an outline
-of some of the earlier systems of Classification, with a more complete
-account of that of Hooker and Bentham.</p>
-
-<p>In a book of this character it is almost impossible to avoid some
-errors, but it is hoped that these will be comparatively few. In
-correcting the proof-sheets I have received invaluable assistance
-from Dr. Warming and Dr. Knoblauch, who have kindly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">[viii]</span> read through
-every sheet, and to whom I am greatly indebted for many criticisms
-and suggestions. I have also to thank Mr. I. H. Burkill for his kind
-assistance in looking over the proofs of the Monocotyledons and
-Dicotyledons, and Mr. Harold Wager for kindly reading through the
-proofs of the Algæ and Fungi. My thanks are also especially due to Mr.
-E. L. Danielsen, and I wish to take this opportunity of acknowledging
-the very considerable help which I have received from him in
-translating from the Original Danish.</p>
-
-<p class="r2 p0">M. C. POTTER.</p>
-
-<p class="p-min"><i>January, 1895.</i></p>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[ix]</span></p>
-
-<h2>TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class="center">BEING THE SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION ADOPTED IN
- THE PRESENT VOLUME.</p>
-
-<p class="center">(<i>The Algæ and Fungi rearranged in co-operation with Dr. E.
-Knoblauch, the other Divisions as in the 3rd Danish Edition.</i>)</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/a009_deco.jpg"
-    alt="" />
-  </div>
-
-<table summary="contents" class="smaller">
-  <tr>
-    <th></th>
-    <th class="pag">PAGE</th>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr">DIVISION I. THALLOPHYTA</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht">A. Sub-Division. Myxomycetes, Slime-Fungi</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht">B. Sub-Division. Algæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 1. <span class="smcap">Syngeneticæ</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">&emsp;„&emsp;2. <span class="smcap">Dinoflagellata</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">&emsp;„&emsp;3. <span class="smcap">Diatomeæ</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">&emsp;„&emsp;4. <span class="smcap">Schizophyta</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 1. Schizophyceæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp; 2. Bacteria</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 5. <span class="smcap">Conjugatæ</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">&emsp;„&emsp;6. <span class="smcap">Chlorophyceæ</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 1. Protococcoideæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. Confervoideæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;3. Siphoneæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 7. <span class="smcap">Characeæ</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">&emsp;„&emsp;8. <span class="smcap">Phæophyceæ (Olive-Brown Seaweeds)</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 1. Phæosporeæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. Cyclosporeæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 9. <span class="smcap">Dictyotales</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">&emsp;„&emsp;10. <span class="smcap">Rhodophyceæ (Red Seaweeds)</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 1. Bangioideæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. Florideæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht">C. Sub-Division. Fungi</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 1. <span class="smcap">Phycomycetes</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">Sub-Class 1. <i>Zygomycetes</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp; 2. <i>Oomycetes</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 1. Entomophthorales</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. Chytridiales</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;3. Mycosiphonales<span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">[x]</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 2. <span class="smcap">Mesomycetes</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">Sub-Class 1. <i>Hemiasci</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;2. <i>Hemibasidii</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 3. <span class="smcap">Mycomycetes</span> (<span class="smcap">Higher Fungi</span>)</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">Sub-Class 1. <i>Ascomycetes</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht3">Series 1. Exoasci</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht3">&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;2. Carpoasci</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 1. Gymnoascales</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. Perisporiales</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;3. Pyrenomycetes</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;4. Hysteriales</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;5. Discomycetes</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;6. Helvellales</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht5">Ascolichenes</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">Sub-Class 2. <i>Basidiomycetes</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht3">Series 1. Protobasidomycetes</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht3">&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;2. Autobasidiomycetes</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 1. Dacryomycetes</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. Hymenomycetes</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;3. Phalloideæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;4. Gasteromycetes</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht5">Basidiolichenes</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Fungi Imperfecti</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr1">DIVISION II. MUSCINEÆ (MOSSES)</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 1. <span class="smcap">Hepaticæ</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 1. Marchantieæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. Anthoceroteæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;3. Jungermannieæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 2. <span class="smcap">Musci frondosi</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 1. Sphagneæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. Schizocarpeæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;3. Cleistocarpeæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;4. Stegocarpeæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr1">DIVISION III. PTERIDOPHYTA</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 1. <span class="smcap">Filicinæ</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">Sub-Class 1. <i>Filices</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 1. Eusporangiatæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. Leptosporangiatæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">Sub-Class 2. <i>Hydropterideæ</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 2. <span class="smcap">Equisetinæ (Horsetails)</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">Sub-Class 1. <i>Isosporous Equisetinæ</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;2. <i>Heterosporous Equisetinæ</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_225">225</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 3. <span class="smcap">Lycopodinæ (Club Mosses)</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">Sub-Class 1. <i>Lycopodieæ</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;2. <i>Selaginelleæ</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">[xi]</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1"><span class="smcap">Transition from the Cryptogams to the Phanerogams</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">Asexual Generation of the Cormophytes</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">Sexual Generation; Fertilisation</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr1">DIVISION IV. GYMNOSPERMÆ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_251">251</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 1. <span class="smcap">Cycadeæ</span> (<span class="smcap">Cycads</span>)</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">&emsp;„&emsp;2. <span class="smcap">Coniferæ</span> (<span class="smcap">Pine-Trees</span>)</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_255">255</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 1. Taxoideæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_259">259</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. Pinoideæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_262">262</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 3. <span class="smcap">Gneteæ</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_270">270</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht5">Fossil Gymnosperms</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_271">271</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr1">DIVISION V. ANGIOSPERMÆ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_273">273</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 1. <span class="smcap">Monocotyledones</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_274">274</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 1. Helobieæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_278">278</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. Glumifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_283">283</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;3. Spadicifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_297">297</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;4. Enantioblastæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_308">308</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;5. Liliifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;6. Scitamineæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_323">323</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;7. Gynandræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_328">328</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 2. <span class="smcap">Dicotyledones</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_334">334</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">Sub-Class 1. <i>Choripetalæ</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_337">337</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 1. Salicifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_337">337</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. Casuarinifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_339">339</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;3. Quercifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_340">340</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;4. Juglandifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_349">349</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;5. Urticifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_351">351</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;6. Polygonifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_358">358</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;7. Curvembryæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_363">363</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;8. Cactifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_375">375</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;9. Polycarpicæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_377">377</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;10. Rhœadinæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_393">393</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;11. Cistifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_406">406</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;12. Gruinales</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_416">416</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;13. Columniferæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_421">421</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;14. Tricoccæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_430">430</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;15. Terebinthinæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_435">435</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;16. Aesculinæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_439">439</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;17. Frangulinæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_443">443</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;18. Thymelæinæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_448">448</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;19. Saxifraginæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_451">451</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;20. Rosifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_456">456</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;21. Leguminosæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_466">466</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;22. Passiflorinæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_475">475</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;23. Myrtifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_482">482</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;24. Umbellifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_490">490</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;25. Hysterophyta<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">[xii]</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_498">498</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">Sub-Class 2. <i>Sympetalæ</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_504">504</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr"><i>A. Pentacyclicæ</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_506">506</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 26. Bicornes</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_506">506</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;27. Diospyrinæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_510">510</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;28. Primulinæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_511">511</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr"><i>B. Tetracyclicæ</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_514">514</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 29. Tubifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_514">514</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;30. Personatæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_517">517</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;31. Nuculiferæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_531">531</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;32. Contortæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_541">541</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;33. Rubiales</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_548">548</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;34. Dipsacales</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_556">556</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;35. Campanulinæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_560">560</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;36. Aggregatæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_564">564</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Appendix</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_574">574</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Index</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_593">593</a></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2 class="smaller">CORRIGENDA.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<ul>
-  <li class="hangingindent">Page 9, line 12 from top, for <i>Hydrodicton</i> read <i>Hydrodictyon</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;14, lines 1 and 2 from top, for <i>as in the preceding case</i> read <i>in this case</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;14,&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;2 and 15 from top, for <i>zygote</i> read <i>oospore</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;88, line 15 from bottom, for <i>Periphyses</i> read <i>periphyses</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;124,&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;7&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;for <i>Chæromyces</i> read <i>Choiromyces</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;142,&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;2&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;and in Fig. 137, for <i>Bœomyces</i> read <i>Bæomyces</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;152,&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;2&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;top, for <i>Pirus</i> read <i>Pyrus</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;152,&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;5&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;for <i>Crategus</i> read <i>Cratægus</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;216, Fig. 215, for <i>Salvina</i> read <i>Salvinia</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;306, line 6 from top, for <i>Pista</i> read <i>Pistia</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;316,&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;26&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;after Dracæna insert a comma.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;337,&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;13&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;for <i>end</i> read <i>beginning</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;483,&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;11&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;bottom, for <i>Lagerstrœmia</i> read <i>Lagerstrœmeria</i>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>For ä, ö and ü read æ, œ and ue throughout.</p>
-
-<p>The following are not officinal in the British Pharmacopœia:&mdash;page
-316, <i>Dracæna</i> (Dragon’s-blood), <i>Smilax glabra</i>; p.
-321, “Orris-root”; p. 326, species of <i>Curcuma</i>, <i>Alpinia
-officinarum</i>; p. 333, <i>Orchis</i>-species (“Salep”). On page <a href="#Page_296">296</a>,
-par. 4, only Pearl Barley is offic. in the Brit. Phar.</p>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[1]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="smaller">CLASSIFICATION OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.</h2>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>The Vegetable Kingdom is arranged in 5 Divisions.</p>
-
-<p>Division I.&mdash;<b>Thallophyta</b>, <b>Stemless Plants</b>, or those which
-are composed of a “thallus,” <i>i.e.</i> organs of nourishment which
-are not differentiated into root (in the sense in which this term is
-used among the higher plants), stem, or leaf. Vascular bundles are
-wanting. Conjugation and fertilisation in various ways; among most of
-the Fungi only vegetative multiplication.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In contradistinction to the Thallophytes all other plants are
-called “Stem-plants” (“Cormophyta”), because their shoots are
-leaf-bearing stems. The name Thallophyta (Stemless-plants) is
-to some extent unsuitable, since many of the higher Algæ are
-differentiated into stem and leaf.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Thallophytes are again separated into 3 sub-divisions, namely:</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li class="hangingindent1">Sub-Division <b>A.</b>&mdash;<b>Myxomycetes, Slime-Fungi</b>, with only 1 class.</li>
-  <li>Sub-Division <b>B.</b>&mdash;<b>Algæ</b>, with 10 classes:</li>
-  <li class="i3">Class 1. Syngeneticæ.</li>
-  <li class="i3">&emsp;„&emsp;2. Dinoflagellata, Peridinea.</li>
-  <li class="i3">&emsp;„&emsp;3. Diatomeæ, Diatoms.</li>
-  <li class="i3">&emsp;„&emsp;4. Schizophyta, Fission Algæ.</li>
-  <li class="i3">&emsp;„&emsp;5. Conjugatæ.</li>
-  <li class="i3">&emsp;„&emsp;6. Chlorophyceæ, Green Algæ.</li>
-  <li class="i3">&emsp;„&emsp;7. Characeæ, Stone-worts.</li>
-  <li class="i3">&emsp;„&emsp;8. Phæophyceæ, Brown Algæ.</li>
-  <li class="i3">&emsp;„&emsp;9. Dictyotales.</li>
-  <li class="i3">&emsp;„&ensp;10. Rhodophyceæ, Red Algæ.</li>
-  <li>Sub-Division <b>C.</b>&mdash;<b>Fungi</b>, with 3 classes:</li>
-  <li class="i3">Class 1. Phycomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i3">&emsp;„&emsp;2. Mesomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i3">&emsp;„&emsp;3. Mycomycetes, Higher Fungi.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Division II.&mdash;<b>Bryophyta or Muscineæ, Mosses.</b> These have
-leaf-bearing shoots, but neither true roots nor vascular<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[2]</span> bundles. The
-lowest Mosses have, however, a thallus. Fertilisation is accomplished
-by means of self-motile, spirally coiled spermatozoids, through the
-agency of water. From the fertilised oosphere a “fruit-body” (capsule)
-with unicellular organs of reproduction (spores) is produced. The spore
-on germination gives rise to the vegetative system, which bears the
-organs of sexual reproduction; and this system is divided into two
-stages&mdash;the protonema, and the leaf-bearing plant produced on it.</p>
-
-<p>Alternation of generations:</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li class="hangingindent2">&ensp;I. The protonema and the entire nutritive system which
-                                     bears the organs of sexual reproduction.</li>
-  <li>II. The capsule-like sporangium, with spores.</li>
-  <li>&ensp;2 Classes: 1. Hepaticæ, Liverworts.</li>
-  <li class="i5">2. Musci, Leafy Mosses.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Division III.&mdash;<b>Pteridophyta or Vascular Cryptogams</b>, <b>Fern-like
-Plants</b> having leaf-bearing shoots, true roots, and vascular bundles
-with tracheides and sieve-tubes. Fertilisation as in the Mosses. From
-the fertilised oosphere the leaf-bearing shoot arises, which bears
-on its leaves the reproductive organs, the spores, in capsule-like
-sporangia. From the germination of the spore a small prothallium is
-formed, which bears the sexual reproductive organs.</p>
-
-<p>Alternation of generations:</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li class="hangingindent2">&ensp;I. Prothallium with organs of sexual reproduction.</li>
-  <li>II. Leaf-bearing shoot with capsule-like sporangia.</li>
-  <li>&ensp;3 Classes: 1. Filicinæ, True Ferns.</li>
-  <li class="i5">2. Equisetinæ, Horsetails.</li>
-  <li class="i5">3. Lycopodinæ, Club-mosses.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Division IV.&mdash;<b>Gymnospermæ.</b> The vegetative organs are in the
-main similar to those in the 3rd Division; special shoots are modified
-into flowers for the service of reproduction. From the oosphere, which
-is fertilised by means of the pollen-tube, the leaf-bearing plant is
-derived; this passes the first period of its life as an embryo in
-the seed, and continues its development when the germination of the
-seed takes place. The organs corresponding to the spores of the two
-preceding Divisions, are called respectively the pollen-grain and
-embryo-sac. The pollen-grains are multicellular; i.e. they contain
-an indistinct prothallium. In the embryo-sac a prothallium, rich in
-reserve material (endosperm),<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[3]</span> with female organs of reproduction, is
-developed <span class="allsmcap">BEFORE FERTILISATION</span>. The pollen-grains are carried
-by means of the wind to the ovules; these enclose the embryo-sac, and
-are situated on the open fruit-leaf (carpel), which has no stigma.</p>
-
-<p>Alternation of generations:</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>&ensp;I. Prothallium = Endosperm in ovule.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent2">II. Leaf-bearing plant, with flowers which produce the pollen-sac
-and ovule.</li>
-  <li>&ensp;3 Classes: 1. Cycadeæ.</li>
-  <li class="i5">2. Coniferæ.</li>
-  <li class="i5">3. Gnetaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Division V.&mdash;<b>Angiospermæ</b>. The members of this group are very
-similar to those of Division IV. The ovules are, however, encased in
-closed fruit-leaves (ovary), which have a special portion (stigma)
-adapted for the reception and germination of the pollen-grains. The
-pollen-grains are bicellular, but with only a membrane separating
-the two nuclei; they are carried to the stigma by animals (chiefly
-insects), by the wind, or by some other means. Endosperm is not formed
-till <span class="allsmcap">AFTER FERTILISATION</span>. Alternation of generations in
-the main as in the Gymnosperms, but less distinct; while the sexual
-generation, the prothallium, with the organs of fertilisation, is also
-strongly reduced.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li class="hangingindent1">2 Classes:<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> 1. Monocotyledones. Embryo with one seed-leaf.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent3">2. Dicotyledones. Embryo with two seed-leaves.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>For a long time the vegetable kingdom has been divided
-into. <span class="smcap">Cryptogams</span> (so called because their organs
-of reproduction remained for some time undiscovered), and
-<span class="smcap">Phanerogams</span> or Flowering-plants which have evident
-sexual organs.</p>&emsp;
-
-<p>The first three divisions belong to the Cryptogams, and the
-third and fourth divisions to the Phanerogams. This arrangement
-has no systematic value, but is very convenient in many ways.</p>
-
-<p>The Cryptogams are also known as Spore-plants, since they
-multiply by unicellular organs (spores), and the Phanerogams in
-contradistinction are called Seed-plants (Spermaphyta), since
-they multiply by seeds, multicellular bodies, the most important
-part of which is the embryo (a plant in its infancy). Mosses,
-Ferns, and Gymnosperms are together known as Archegoniatæ, since
-they possess in common a female organ of distinct structure, the
-Archegonium.</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[4]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="smaller">DIVISION I.<br />
-<span class="subhed">THALLOPHYTA.</span></h2></div>
-
-<p>The thallus in the simplest forms is unicellular; in the majority,
-however, it is built up of many cells, which in a few instances are
-exactly similar; but generally there is a division of labour, so
-that certain cells undertake certain functions and are constructed
-accordingly, while others have different work and corresponding
-structure. Vessels or similar high anatomical structures are seldom
-formed, and the markings on the cell-wall are with few exceptions very
-simple. The Myxomycetes occupy quite an isolated position; their organs
-of nourishment are naked masses of protoplasm (plasmodia).</p>
-
-<p>As regards the external form, the thallus may be entirely without
-special prominences (such as branches, members), but when such are
-present they are all essentially alike in their origin and growth,
-that is, disregarding the hair-structures which may be developed. A
-shoot of a Seaweed or of a Lichen, etc., is essentially the same as any
-other part of the plant; only among the highest Algæ (Characeæ, certain
-Siphoneæ, <i>Sargassum</i>, and certain Red Seaweeds) do we find the
-same differences between the various external organs of the plant body
-as between stem and leaf, so that they must be distinguished by these
-names.</p>
-
-<p><i>Roots</i> of the same structure and development as in the
-Seed-plants are not found, but <i>organs of attachment</i> (rhizoids
-and haptera) serve partly the biological functions of the root.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Systematic division of the Thallophytes</span>. To the Thallophytes
-belong three sub-divisions&mdash;Slime-Fungi, Algæ, and Fungi. Formerly
-the Thallophytes were divided into Algæ, Fungi, and Lichens. But this
-last group must be placed among the Fungi, since they are really
-Fungi, which live symbiotically with Algæ. The <i>Slime-Fungi</i>
-must be separated from the true Fungi as a distinct subdivision. The
-<i>Algæ</i> possess a colouring substance, which is generally green,
-brown, or red, and by means of which they are able to build up organic
-compounds from carbonic acid and water. The Bacteria, especially,
-form an exception to the Algæ in this respect; like the Fungi and
-Slime-Fungi they have as a rule no such colouring material, but must
-have organic carbonaceous food; these plants form no starch, and
-need no light<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[5]</span> for their vegetation (most Fungi require light for
-fructification). The Myxomycetes, Bacteria, and Fungi derive their
-nourishment either as <i>saprophytes</i> from dead animal or vegetable
-matter, or as <i>parasites</i> from living animals or plants (hosts),
-in which they very often cause disease.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>A remark, however, must be made with regard to this division.
-Among the higher plants so much stress is not laid upon the
-biological relations as to divide them into “green” and
-“non-green”; <i>Cuscuta</i> (Dodder), a parasite, is placed
-among the Convolvulaceæ, <i>Neottia</i> and <i>Corallorhiza</i>,
-saprophytes, belong to the Orchidacere, although they live
-like Fungi, yet their relations live as Algæ. In the same
-manner there are some colourless parasitic or saprophytic
-forms among the Algæ, and stress must be laid upon the fact
-that not only the Blue-green Algæ, but also the Bacteria,
-which cannot assimilate carbonic-acid, belong to the Algæ
-group, Schizophyceæ. The reason for this is that systematic
-classifications must be based upon the relationship of form,
-development, and reproduction, and from this point of view we
-must regard the Bacteria as being the nearer relatives of the
-Blue-green Algæ. All the Thallophytes, which are designated
-Fungi (when the entire group of Slime-Fungi is left out), form
-in some measure a connected series of development which only
-in the lower forms (Phycomycetes) is related to the Algæ, and
-probably through them has taken its origin from the Algæ;
-the higher Fungi have then developed independently from this
-beginning. The distinction of colour referred to is therefore
-not the only one which separates the Algæ from the Fungi, but it
-is almost the only characteristic mark by which we can at once
-distinguish the two great sub-divisions of the Thallophytes.</p>
-
-<p>The first forms of life on earth were probably “Protistæ,”
-which had assimilating colour material, or in other words, they
-were Algæ because they could assimilate purely inorganic food
-substances, and there are some among these which belong to the
-simplest forms of all plants. Fungi and Slime-Fungi must have
-appeared later, because they are dependent on other plants which
-assimilate carbon.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h2 class="smaller"><i>Sub-Division I.</i>&mdash;<b>MYXOMYCETES, SLIME-FUNGI.</b></h2>
-
-<p>The Slime-Fungi occupy quite an isolated position in the Vegetable
-Kingdom, and are perhaps the most nearly related to the group of
-Rhizopods in the Animal Kingdom. They live in and on organic remains,
-especially rotten wood or leaves, etc., on the surface of which their
-sporangia may be found.</p>
-
-<p>They are organisms without chlorophyll, and in their vegetative
-condition are masses of protoplasm without cell-wall
-(<i>plasmodia</i>). They multiply by means of <i>spores</i>, which
-in the true Slime-Fungi<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[6]</span> are produced in sporangia, but in some
-others<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> free. The spores are round cells (Fig. <a href="#fig1">1</a> <i>a</i>) which
-in all the true Slime-Fungi are surrounded by a cell-wall. The wall
-bursts on germination, and the contents float out in the water which
-is necessary for germination. They move about with swimming and
-hopping motions like swarmspores (<i>e</i>, <i>f</i>), having a cilia
-at the front end and provided with a cell-nucleus and a pulsating
-vacuole. Later on they become a little less active, and creep about
-more slowly, while they continue to alter their form, shooting out
-arms in various places and drawing them in again (<i>g</i>, <i>h</i>,
-<i>i</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>l</i>, <i>m</i>); in this stage they are called
-<i>Myxamœbæ</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig1" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig1.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;<i>a-l</i> Development of
-“<i>Fuligo</i>” from spore to Myxamœba; <i>a-m</i> are magnified 300
-times; <i>m</i> is a Myxamœba of <i>Lycogala epidendron</i>; <i>l´</i>
-three Myxamœbæ of <i>Physarum album</i> about to unite; <i>o</i>, a
-small portion of plasmodium, magnified 90 times.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig2" style="width: 475px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig2.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;The plasmodium (<i>a</i>) of
-<i>Stemonitis fusca</i>, commencing to form into sporangia (<i>b</i>);
-drawn on July 9. The dark-brown sporangia were completely formed by the
-next morning; <i>c-e</i> shows the development of their external form.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig3" style="width: 289px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig3.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Four sporangia of <i>Stemonitis
-fusca</i>, fixed on a branch. <i>a</i> The plasmodium.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig4" style="width: 252px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig4.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Sporangium of <i>Arcyria
-incarnata</i>. <i>B</i> closed; <i>C</i> open; <i>p</i> wall of
-sporangium; <i>cp</i> capilitium.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The Myxamœba grows whilst taking up nourishment from the material in
-which it lives, and multiplies by division. At a later stage a larger
-or smaller number of Myxamœbæ may be seen to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[7]</span> coalesce and form large
-masses of protoplasm, <i>plasmodia</i>, which in the “Flowers of Tan”
-may attain the size of the palm of a hand, or even larger, but in most
-others are smaller. The plasmodia are independent, cream-like masses of
-protoplasm, often containing grains of carbonate of lime and colouring
-matter (the latter yellow in the Flowers of Tan). They creep about in
-the decaying matter in which they live, by means of amœboid movements,
-internal streamings of the protoplasm continually taking place; finally
-they creep out to the surface, and very often attach themselves to
-other objects, such as Mosses, and form sporangia (Fig. <a href="#fig2">2</a>). These are
-stalked or sessile and are generally cylindrical (Fig. <a href="#fig3">3</a>), spherical
-or pear-shaped (Fig. <a href="#fig4">4</a>); they rarely attain a larger size than that of
-a pin’s head, and are red, brown, white, blue, yellow, etc., with a
-very delicate wall. In some genera may be found a “Capillitium” (Fig.
-<a href="#fig4">4</a> <i>cp</i>), or network of branched fine strands between the spores.
-Flowers of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[8]</span> Tan (<i>Fuligo septica</i>) has a fruit-body composed
-of many sporangia (an Æthalium), which has the appearance of flat,
-irregular, brown cakes, inside the fragile external layer of which a
-loose powder, the spores, is found. It generally occurs on heaps of
-tanners’ bark, and appears sometimes in hot-beds in which that material
-is used, and is destructive by spreading itself over the young plants
-and choking them.</p>
-
-<p>All the motile stages may pass into <i>resting stages</i>, the small
-forms only surrounding themselves with a wall, but the large ones at
-the same time divide in addition into polyhedral cells. When favourable
-conditions arise, the walls dissolve and the whole appears again as a
-naked (free-moving) mass of protoplasm.</p>
-
-<p>To the genuine Slime-Fungi belong: <i>Arcyria</i>, <i>Trichia</i>,
-<i>Didymium</i>, <i>Physarum</i>, <i>Stemonitis</i>, <i>Lycogala</i>,
-<i>Fuligo</i>, <i>Spumaria</i>, <i>Reticularia</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Some genera wanting a sporangium-wall belong to the Slime-Fungi:
-<i>Ceratiomyxa</i>, whose fruit-body consists of polygonal plates, each
-bearing stalked spores; <i>Dictyostelium</i>, in which the swarm-stage
-is wanting and which has stalked spores. <i>Plasmodiophora brassicæ</i>
-preys upon the roots of cabbages and other cruciferous plants, causing
-large swellings. <i>Pl. alni</i> causes coral-shaped outgrowths on the
-roots of the Alder (<i>Alnus</i>). <i>Phytomyxa leguminosarum</i> may
-be found in small knobs (tubercles) on the roots of leguminous plants.
-It is still uncertain whether it is this Fungus or Bacteria which is
-the cause of the formation of these tubercles.</p>
-
-
-<h2 class="smaller"><i>Sub-Division</i> II.&mdash;<b>ALGÆ</b>.</h2>
-
-<p><b>Mode of Life.</b> The Algæ (except most of the Bacteria) are
-themselves able to form their organic material by the splitting up of
-the carbonic acid contained in the water, or air in some cases, and for
-this purpose need light. The majority live in water, fresh or salt, but
-many are present on damp soil, stones, bark of trees, etc.</p>
-
-<p>With the exception of the Bacteria, no saprophytes have actually been
-determined to belong to this group, and only very few true parasites
-(for instance, <i>Phyllosiphon arisari</i>, <i>Mycoidea</i>, etc.),
-but a good many are found epiphytic or endophytic on other Algæ, or
-water plants, and on animals (for instance, certain <i>Schizophyceæ</i>
-and <i>Protococcoideæ</i>; <i>Trichophilus welckeri</i> in the hairs
-of <i>Bradypus</i>, the Sloth), and several species in symbiotic
-relation to various<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[9]</span> Fungi (species of Lichen), to Sponges (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Trentepohlia spongiophila</i>, <i>Struvea delicatula</i>), and to
-sundry Infusoria and other lower animals as Radiolarias, <i>Hydra</i>,
-etc. (the so-called <i>Zoochlorella</i> and <i>Zooxantella</i>, which
-are perhaps partly stages in development of various Green and Brown
-Algæ).</p>
-
-<p><b>Vegetative Organs.</b> The cells in all the Algæ (excepting certain
-reproductive cells) are surrounded by a membrane which (with the
-exception of the Bacteria) consists of pure or altered cellulose,
-sometimes forming a gelatinous covering, at other times a harder one,
-with deposits of chalk or silica formed in it. The cell-nucleus,
-which in the Schizophyta is less differentiated, may be one or more
-(<i>e.g. Hydrodictyon</i>, <i>Siphoneæ</i>) in each cell.
-Excepting in the majority of the Bacteria, <i>colour materials</i> (of
-which <i>chlorophyll</i>, or modifications of it, always seems to be
-found) occur, which either permeate the whole cytoplasm surrounding
-the cell-nucleus, as in most of the coloured Schizophyta, or are
-contained in certain specially formed small portions of protoplasm
-(chromatophores).</p>
-
-<p>The individual at a certain stage of development consists nearly always
-of only one cell; by its division multicellular individuals may arise,
-or, if the daughter-cells separate immediately after the division, as
-in many of the simplest forms, the individual will, during the whole
-course of its existence, consist of only a single cell (unicellular
-Algæ). In multicellular individuals the cells may be more or less
-firmly connected, and all the cells of the individual may be exactly
-alike, or a division of labour may take place, so that certain cells
-undertake certain functions, and are constructed accordingly; this
-may also occur in parts of the cell in the large unicellular and
-multinuclear Algæ (Siphoneæ, p. <a href="#Page_62">62</a>).</p>
-
-<p>The cells in most of the Algæ belong to the <i>parenchymatous</i>
-form; these, however, in the course of their growth, may very often
-become somewhat oblong; in many Algæ (particularly Fucoideæ and
-Florideæ) occur, moreover, <i>hyphæ-like threads</i>, which are very
-long, often branched, and are either formed of a single cell, or,
-more frequently, of a row of cells, having a well-pronounced apical
-growth. The parenchymatous as well as the hyphæ-like cells may, in the
-higher Algæ (especially in certain Fucoideæ and Florideæ), be further
-differentiated, so that they form well-defined anatomico-physiological
-systems of tissue, <i>i.e.</i> assimilating, conducting, storing, and
-mechanical.</p>
-
-<p>With regard to <i>the external form</i>, the thallus may present no<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span>
-differentiation, as in many unicellular Algæ, or in multicellular Algæ
-of the lower order, which are then either equally developed in all
-directions (<i>e.g. Pleurococcus</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig47">47</a>), or form flat
-cell-plates (<i>Merismopedium</i>) or threads (<i>Oscillaria</i>,
-Fig. <a href="#fig21">21</a>). The first step in the way of differentiation appears as a
-difference between apex and base (<i>Rivularia</i>, <i>Porphyra</i>);
-but the division of labour may proceed so that differences may arise
-between vegetative and reproductive cells (<i>Œdogonium</i>, Fig.
-<a href="#fig54">54</a>); hairs and organs of attachment (rhizoids and haptera), which
-biologically serve as roots, are developed, and even leaves in certain
-forms of high order, belonging to different classes (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Caulerpa</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig59">59</a>; <i>Characeæ</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig61">61</a>; <i>Sargassum</i>,
-Fig. <a href="#fig72">72</a>; and many Florideæ).</p>
-
-<p><b>The non-sexual reproduction</b> takes place <i>vegetatively</i>, in
-many instances, simply by division into two, and more or less complete
-separation of the divisional products (Diatomaceæ, Desmidiaceæ (Fig.
-<a href="#fig36">36</a>), many Fission-plants, etc.), or by detached portions of the thallus
-(<i>e.g. Caulerpa</i>, <i>Ulva lactuca</i>, etc.; among many
-Schizophyceæ, small filaments known as <i>hormogonia</i> are set free),
-or <i>asexually</i> by special reproductive cells (<i>spores</i>)
-set free from the thallus; these may be either <i>stationary</i>
-or <i>motile</i>. The stationary reproductive cells (spores) may
-either be devoid of cell-wall (tetraspores of the Florideæ), or may
-possess a cell-wall; in the latter case they may be formed directly
-from the vegetative cells, generally by the thickening of the walls
-(<i>akinetes</i>), or only after a process of re-juvenescence
-(<i>aplanospores</i>). Aplanospores, as well as akinetes, may either
-germinate immediately or may become resting-cells, which germinate only
-after a period of rest.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The motile asexual reproductive cells</span> are spherical, egg- or
-pear-shaped, naked, <i>swarmspores</i> (<i>zoospores</i>), which have
-arisen in other cells (<i>zoosporangia</i>), and propel themselves
-through the water by means of cilia; or they are <i>Phyto-Amœbæ</i>,
-which have no cilia and creep on a substratum by means of pseudopodia.
-The cilia, which are formed from the protoplasm (in the Bacteria,
-however, from the membrane), are mostly situated at the pointed and
-colourless end, which is directed forwards when in motion, and are
-1, 2 (Fig. <a href="#fig5">5</a> <i>B</i>), 4 or more. Both the cilia in the Brown Algæ
-are attached to one side (Fig. <a href="#fig65">65</a>); they are occasionally situated
-in a circle round the front end (<i>Œdogonium</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig6">6</a> <i>a</i>,
-and <i>Derbesia</i>), or are very numerous and situated in pairs
-distributed over a large part or nearly the whole of the zoospore
-(<i>Vaucheria</i>). Besides being provided with one or more nuclei<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span>
-(<i>Vaucheria</i>), they may also have a red “eye spot” and vacuoles,
-which are sometimes pulsating, <i>i.e.</i> they appear and reappear
-at certain intervals. The swarmspores move about in the water in
-irregular paths, and apparently quite voluntarily, revolving round
-their longer axes; but they come to the surface of the water in great
-numbers either because of their dependence on light, or driven by
-warm currents in the water, or attracted by some passing mass of food
-material. The swarmspores germinate, each forming a new plant, as their
-movement ceases they surround themselves with a cell-wall, grow, and
-then divide; in Fig. <a href="#fig6">6</a> <i>b</i>, two may be seen in the condition of
-germination, and about to attach themselves by means of the front end,
-which has been developed into haptera (see also Fig. <a href="#fig5">5</a> <i>B</i>, lowest
-figure).</p>
-
-<p><b>The sexual reproduction</b> here, probably in all cases, consists in
-the coalescence of two masses of protoplasm, that is, in the fusion of
-their nuclei.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig5" style="width: 581px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig5.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;<i>Cladophora glomerata. A</i>
-The lower cells are full of swarmspores, whilst from the upper one the
-greater part have escaped through the aperture <i>m</i>. <i>B</i> Free
-and germinating swarmspores.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig6" style="width: 351px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig6.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;<i>Œdogonium</i>: <i>a</i> (free),
-<i>b</i> germinating swarmspores.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig7" style="width: 548px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig7.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;<i>Zanardinia collaris.</i>
-<i>A</i> Male gametangia (the small-celled) and female gametangia
-(large-celled). <i>C</i> Female gamete. <i>D</i> Male gamete. <i>B</i>
-<i>E</i> Fertilisation. <i>F</i> Zygote. <i>G</i> Germinating zygote.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The simplest and lowest form is termed <b>conjugation</b>, or
-<b>isogamous</b> fertilisation, and is characterized by the fact
-that the two coalescing cells (termed gametes) are equal, or almost
-equal, in shape and size (the female gamete in the <i>Cutleriaceæ</i>,
-<i>e.g. Zanardinia<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[12]</span> collaris</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig7">7</a>, is considerably
-larger than the male gamete). The cell in which the <i>gametes</i>
-are developed is called a <i>gametaugium</i>, and the reproductive
-cell formed by their union&mdash;which generally has a thick wall and only
-germinates after a short period of rest&mdash;is termed a <i>zygote</i> or
-<i>zygospore</i>. The conjugation takes place in two ways:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>(<i>a</i>) In the one way the gametes are motile cells
-(<i>planogametes</i>, <i>zoogametes</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig8">8</a>), which unite in pairs
-during their swarming hither and thither in the water; during this
-process they lie side by side (Fig. <a href="#fig8">8</a> <i>d</i>), generally at first
-touching at the clear anterior end, and after a time they coalesce
-and become a motionless <i>zygote</i>, which surrounds itself with
-a cell-wall (Fig. <a href="#fig8">8</a> <i>e</i>). This form of conjugation is found in
-<i>Ulothrix</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig8">8</a> <i>d</i>), <i>Acetabularia</i>, and other Algæ
-(Figs. <a href="#fig45">45</a>, <a href="#fig56">56</a>, <a href="#fig66">66</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig8" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig8.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;<i>Ulothrix zonata</i>: a portion
-of a thread with zoospores, of which two are formed in each cell
-(zoosporangium), the dark spots upon them are the “red eye-spots”; 1,
-2, 3, 4 depict successive stages in the development of the zoospores;
-<i>b</i> a single zoospore, at <i>v</i> the pulsating vacuole; <i>c</i>
-portion of a thread with gametes, of which sixteen are formed in
-each gametangium; <i>d</i> gametes free and in conjugation; <i>e</i>
-conjugation has been effected, and the formed zygotes are in the
-resting condition.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>(<i>b</i>) Among other Algæ (<i>e.g. Diatomaceæ</i> and
-<i>Conjugatæ</i>), the conjugating cells continue to be surrounded
-by the cell-wall of the mother-cell (<i>aplanogametes</i> in an
-<i>aplanogametangium</i>); the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span> aplanogametangia generally grow out
-into short branches, which lie close together and touch one another,
-the wall at the point of contact is then dissolved (Fig. <a href="#fig39">39</a>). Through
-the aperture thus formed, the aplanogametes unite, as in the first
-instance, and form a rounded zygote, which immediately surrounds itself
-with a cell-wall. Various modifications occur; compare Figs. <a href="#fig37">37</a>, <a href="#fig39">39</a>,
-<a href="#fig41">41</a>, <a href="#fig43">43</a>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig9" style="width: 513px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig9.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 center sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;Fertilisation in the Bladder-wrack
-(<i>Fucus vesiculosus</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig10" style="width: 414px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig10.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;<i>Sphæroplea annulina.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The highest form of the sexual reproduction is the <b>Egg- or
-Oogamous</b> fertilisation. The two coalescing cells are in the
-main unlike each other in form as well as size. The one which is
-considered as the male, and is known as the <i>spermatozoid</i>
-(<i>antherozoid</i>), developes as a rule in large numbers in each
-mother-cell (<i>antheridium</i>); they are often self-motile (except
-in the Florideæ, where they are named <i>spermatia</i>), and are
-many times smaller than the other kind, the female, which is known
-as the <i>egg-cell</i>, (<i>oosphere</i>). The egg-cell is always a
-motionless, spherical, primordial cell which can either float about
-freely in the water, as in the Fucaceæ (Fig. <a href="#fig9">9</a>), or is surrounded by a
-cell-wall (<i>oogonium</i>); generally only one oosphere is to be found
-in each oogonium, but several occur in <i>Sphæroplea</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig10">10</a>). The
-result<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span> of the spermatozoid coalescing with the egg-cell is, as in this
-case, the formation of a oospore, which generally undergoes a period of
-rest before germination (the Florideæ are an exception, a fruit-body,
-<i>cystocarp</i>, being produced as the result of coalescence).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>An example of fertilisation is afforded by the Alga,
-<i>Sphæroplea annulina</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig10">10</a>). The filamentous thallus
-is formed of cylindrical cells with many vacuoles (<i>r</i> in
-<i>A</i>); some cells develope egg-cells (<i>B</i>), others
-spermatozoids (<i>C</i>), the latter in a particularly large
-number. The egg-cells are spherical, the spermatozoids of a
-club- or elongated pear-shape with two cilia at the front end
-(<i>G</i>; <i>E</i> is however a swarmspore). The spermatozoids
-escape from their cells through apertures in the wall (<i>o</i>
-in <i>C</i>) and enter through similar apertures (<i>o</i> in
-<i>B</i>) to the egg-cells. The colourless front end of the
-spermatozoid is united at first with the “receptive spot” of the
-egg-cell (see <i>F</i>), and afterwards completely coalesces
-with it. The result is the formation of a oospore with wart-like
-excrescences (<i>D</i>).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The female (<i>parthenogenesis</i>) or male (<i>androgenesis</i>)
-sexual cell may, sometimes without any preceding fertilisation,
-form a new individual (<i>e.g. Ulothrix zonata</i>,
-<i>Cylindrocapsa</i>, etc.).</p>
-
-<p><b>Systematic division of the Algæ.</b> The Algæ are divided into the
-following ten classes:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Syngeneticæ</span>; 2. <span class="smcap">Dinoflagellata</span>, or
-<span class="smcap">Peridinea</span>; 3. <span class="smcap">Diatomaceæ</span>; 4. <span class="smcap">Schizophyta,
-Fission-algæ</span>; 5. <span class="smcap">Conjugatæ</span>; 6. <span class="smcap">Chlorophyceæ,
-Green-algæ</span>; 7. <span class="smcap">Characeæ, Stone-worts</span>;
-8. <span class="smcap">Phæophyceæ</span>; 9. <span class="smcap">Dictyotales</span>; 10.
-<span class="smcap">Rhodophyceæ</span>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Among the lowest forms of the Algæ, the Syngeneticæ, the
-Dinoflagellata, and the unicellular Volvocaceæ (Chlamydomoneæ),
-distinct transitional forms are found approaching the animal kingdom,
-which can be grouped as animals or plants according to their method of
-taking food or other characteristics. Only an artificial boundary can
-therefore be drawn between the animal and vegetable kingdoms. In the
-following pages only those forms which possess <i>chromatophores</i>,
-and have <i>no mouth</i>, will be considered as Algæ.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Class 1. <b>Syngeneticæ.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The individuals are uni- or multicellular, free-swimming or motionless.
-The cells (which in the multicellular forms are loosely connected
-together, often only by mucilaginous envelopes) are naked or surrounded
-by a mucilaginous cell-wall, in which silica is never embedded. They
-contain one cell-nucleus, one or more pulsating<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[15]</span> vacuoles, and one to
-two band- or plate-like chromatophores with a brown or yellow colour,
-and sometimes a pyrenoid.</p>
-
-<p>Reproduction takes place by vegetative division, or asexually by
-zoospores, akinetes (or aplanospores?). Sexual reproduction is unknown.
-They are all fresh water forms.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>To this class may perhaps be assigned the recently arranged
-and very little known orders of <i>Calcocytaceæ</i>,
-<i>Murracytaceæ</i>, <i>Xanthellaceæ</i>, and
-<i>Dictyochaceæ</i>, which partly occur in the free condition in
-the sea, in the so-called “Plankton,” and partly symbiotic in
-various lower marine animals.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <i>Syngeneticæ</i> are closely related to certain forms in the
-animal kingdom, as the Flagellatæ.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Chrysomonadinaceæ.</b> Individuals, uni- or
-multicellular, swimming in free condition, naked or surrounded
-by a mucilaginous covering. The cells are generally oval or
-elongated, with 2 (rarely only 1) cilia, almost of the same
-length, and generally with a red “eye-spot” at their base, and
-with 2 (rarely 1 only) band-shaped chromatophores. Reproduction
-by the longitudinal division of the individual cells either
-during the swarming, or during a resting stage; in the
-multicellular forms also by the liberation of one or more cells,
-which in the latter case are connected together.</p>
-
-<p>A. Unicellular: <i>Chromulina</i>, <i>Cryptoglena</i>,
-<i>Microglena</i>, <i>Nephroselmis</i>.</p>
-
-<p>B. Multicellular: <i>Uroglena</i>, <i>Syncrypta</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig11">11</a>),
-<i>Synura</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig11" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig11.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 11.&mdash;<i>Syncrypta volvox</i>: the
-multicellular individual is surrounded by a mucilaginous granular
-envelope.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Among the unicellular Chrysomonadinaceæ are probably classed
-some forms which are only stages in the development of the
-multicellular, or of other <i>Syngeneticæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Chrysopyxaceæ</b> are unicellular, and differ
-mainly from the preceding in being attached either on a
-slime-thread (<i>Stylochrysalis</i>), or enclosed in an
-envelope (<i>Chrysopyxis</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig12">12</a>). They have two cilia,
-and multiply by longitudinal (<i>Chrysopyxis</i>) or transverse
-division, and the swarming of one of the daughter-individuals
-(zoospore). Division may also take place in a motionless stage
-(<i>palmella-stage</i>).</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig12" style="width: 243px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig12.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;<i>Chrsopyxis bipes</i>: <i>m</i>
-envelope, <i>Ec</i> chromatophore, <i>cv</i> contractile vacuole.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Dinobryinaceæ.</b> The individuals are originally
-attached, uni- or multicellular; each individual cell is
-distinctly contractile, and fixed at the bottom of a cup-shaped,
-open envelope. Cilia 2, but of unequal length. Asexual
-reproduction by zoospores, which are formed by straight or
-oblique longitudinal division of the mother-cell, during a
-palmella-stage which is produced in the winter aplanospores.
-<i>Epipyxis</i>, <i>Dinobryon</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[16]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Hydruraceæ.</b> The individuals are attached,
-without cilia, multicellular, branched, and with apical
-growth. The cells are spherical, but in the final stage almost
-spindle-shaped, and embedded in large masses of mucilage.
-Asexual reproduction by zoospores which are tetrahedric, with 1
-cilia, and by resting akinetes. <i>Hydrurus</i> is most common
-in mountain brooks.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h3>Class 2. <b>Dinoflagellata.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The individuals are of a very variable form, but always unicellular,
-and floating about in free condition. The cell is <i>dorsiventral</i>,
-<i>bilateral</i>, <i>asymmetric</i> and generally surrounded by a
-colourless membrane, which has <i>no silica</i> embedded in it, but
-is formed of a substance allied to <i>cellulose</i>. The membrane,
-which externally is provided with pores and raised borders, easily
-breaks up into irregularly-shaped pieces. In the forms which have
-longitudinal and cross furrows, <i>two cilia</i> are fixed where these
-cross each other, and project through a cleft in the membrane; one of
-these cilia <i>projects freely</i> and is directed longitudinally to
-the front or to the rear, the other one <i>stretches crosswise</i>
-and lies close to the cell, often in a furrow (cross furrow). The
-chromatophores are coloured brown or green and may either be two
-parallel (<i>Exuviella</i>), or several radially placed, discs, which
-sometimes may coalesce and become a star-shaped chromatophore. The
-coloring material (pyrrophyl) consists, in addition to a modification
-of chlorophyl, also of <i>phycopyrrin</i> and <i>peridinin</i>;
-this colour is sometimes more or less masked by the products of
-assimilation which consist of yellow, red or colourless oil (?)
-and starch. Cell-nucleus one: in <i>Polydinida</i> several nuclei
-are found; contractile vacuoles many, which partly open in the
-cilia-cleft (Fig. <a href="#fig13">13</a> <i>gs</i>). In some an eye-spot, coloured red by
-hæmatochrome, is found. Pyrenoids occur perhaps in <i>Exuviella</i> and
-<i>Amphidinium</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The reproduction</span> takes place as far as is known at present,
-only by division. This, in many salt water forms, may take place in
-the swarming condition, and, in that case, is always parallel to the
-longitudinal axis. The daughter-individuals, each of which retains half
-of the original shell, sometimes do not separate at once from each
-other, and thus chains (<i>e.g.</i> in <i>Ceratium</i>) of several
-connected individuals may be formed. In others, the division occurs
-after the cilia have been thrown off and the cell-contents rounded. The
-daughter-cells then adopt entirely new cell-walls. A palmella-stage
-(motionless division-stage) sometimes appears to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[17]</span> take place, and also
-aplanospores (?) with one or two horn-like elongations (<i>e.g.</i> in
-<i>Peridinium cinctum</i> and <i>P. tabulatum</i>); at germination one,
-or after division, two or more, new individuals may be formed.</p>
-
-<p>Sexual reproduction has not been observed with certainty.</p>
-
-<p>The Dinoflagellata move forward or backward, turning round their
-longitudinal axes; in their motion they are influenced by the action
-of light. The motion possibly may be produced only by the transverse
-cilium, which vibrates rapidly; whilst the longitudinal cilium moves
-slowly, and is supposed to serve mainly as a steering apparatus. They
-live principally in salt water, but also in fresh.</p>
-
-<p>Besides the coloured forms, which are able to make their own organic
-compounds by the splitting up of the carbonic acid contained
-in the water, there are a few colourless forms (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Gymnodinium spirale</i>), or such as do not possess chromatophores
-(<i>Polykrikos</i>); these appear to live saprophytically, and may be
-able to absorb solid bodies with which they come in contact.</p>
-
-<p>Dinoflagellata occur in the “Plankton” of the open sea, where they form
-together with Diatomaceæ the basis for the animal life. It is known
-with certainty that some salt water forms (like the <i>Noctiluca</i>,
-which belongs to the animal kingdom and to which they are perhaps
-related) produce light, known as phosphorescence.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig13" style="width: 516px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig13.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i> and <i>B Glenodinium
-cinctum</i>. <i>A</i> seen from the ventral side, <i>B</i> from behind;
-<i>fg</i> transverse cilium; <i>g</i> longitudinal cilium; <i>ch</i>
-chromatophores; <i>a</i> starch; <i>n</i> cell-nucleus; <i>v</i>
-vacuole; <i>oc</i> eye-spot; <i>C Ceratium tetraceros</i>
-from the ventral side; <i>r</i> the right, <i>b</i> the posterior
-horn; <i>lf</i> longitudinal furrow; <i>gs</i> cilium-cleft; <i>v</i>
-vacuole; <i>g</i> longitudinal cilium. (<i>A</i> and <i>B</i> mag. 450
-times, <i>C</i> 337 times.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Dinoflagellata</i> (<i>Peridinea</i>, <i>Cilioflagellata</i>)
-are allied through their lowest form (<i>Exuviella</i>) to the
-Syngeneticæ and especially to the order Chrysomonadinaceæ. They
-may be divided into three orders.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Adinida.</b> Without transverse or longitudinal
-furrows, but enclosed in two shells, and with two
-parallel chromatophores in each cell. <i>Exuviella</i>,
-<i>Prorocentrum</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Dinifera.</b> With tranverse and generally
-longitudinal furrow. Many radially-placed, disc-formed
-chromatophores. The most common genera are&mdash;<i>Ceratium</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig13">13</a>), <i>Peridinium</i>, <i>Glenodinium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig13">13</a>),
-<i>Gymnodinium</i>, <i>Dinophysis</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Polydinida.</b> With several transverse furrows,
-no chromatophores, and several cell-nuclei. Only one
-genus&mdash;<i>Polykrikos</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span></p>
-
-<p>The order <i>Polydinida</i> deviates in a high degree from the
-other Dinoflagellata, not only by its many tranverse furrows,
-each with its own transverse cilium, and by the absence of
-chromatophores, but also in having several cell-nuclei and a
-kind of stinging capsule, which otherwise does not occur within
-the whole class. It may therefore be questionable whether this
-order should really be placed in the vegetable kingdom.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h3>Class 3. <b>Diatomeæ.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The individuals&mdash;each known as a <i>frustule</i>&mdash;assume very
-various forms and may be unicellular or multicellular, but present
-no differentiation; many similar cells may be connected in chains,
-embedded in mucilaginous masses, or attached to mucilaginous
-stalks. The cells are bilateral or centric, often asymmetrical,
-slightly dorsiventral and have no cilia; those living in the free
-condition have the power of sliding upon a firm substratum. The cell
-contains 1 cell-nucleus and 1–2 plate-shaped or several disc-shaped
-chromatophores. The colouring material “<i>Melinophyl</i>” contains,
-in addition to a modification of chlorophyl, a brown colouring matter,
-<i>diatomin</i>. 1 or 2 pyrenoids sometimes occur. Starch is wanting
-and the first product of assimilation appears to be a kind of oil (?).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig14" style="width: 289px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig14.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;<i>Pinnularia</i>: <i>B</i>, from the
-edge, shows the valves fitting together; <i>A</i>, a valve.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig15" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig15.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;Various Diatomaceæ. A <i>Diatoma
-vulgare</i>. B <i>Tabellaria flocculosa</i>. C <i>Navicula tumida</i>
-(lateral views). D <i>Gomphonema constrictum</i> (lateral views). E
-<i>Navicula west[=i][=i]</i> (lateral views).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The cell-walls are <i>impregnated with silica</i> to such a degree that
-they are imperishable and are therefore able to contribute in a great
-measure to the formation of the earth’s crust. The structure of their
-cell-wall is most peculiar and <i>differs from all other plants</i>
-(except certain Desmidiaceæ); it does not consist of a single piece
-but is made up of two&mdash;the “shells”&mdash;(compare <i>Exuviella</i> and
-<i>Prorocentrum</i> among the Dinoflagellata) which are fitted into
-each other, one being a little larger than the other and embracing its
-edge, like a box with its lid (Fig. <a href="#fig14">14</a> <i>B</i>). The two parts which
-correspond to the bottom and lid of the box are known as <i>valves</i>.
-Along the central line of the valves a longitudinal <i>rib</i> may
-often be found, interrupted at its centre by a small cleft (perhaps
-homologous with the cilia-cleft of the Dinoflagellata), through which
-the protoplasm is enabled to communicate with the exterior (Fig. <a href="#fig14">14</a>
-<i>A</i>). It is principally by reason of the valves, which bear
-numerous fine, transverse ribs, striæ or warts, etc. (Figs. <a href="#fig14">14</a>, <a href="#fig15">15</a>,
-<a href="#fig17">17</a>), that the Diatomeæ have become so well known and employed as test
-objects in microscopical science. When the division takes place, the
-two shells are separated a little from each other, and after the
-cell-contents have divided into two masses, two new shells are formed,
-one fitting into the larger valve, the other one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[19]</span> into the smaller
-valve of the original frustule. The latter cell (frustule) is thus,
-upon the whole, smaller than the mother-cell, and as the cells do not
-increase in size, some frustules are smaller than the ones from which
-they are derived, and thus, by repeated divisions, it follows that
-smaller and smaller frustules are produced. This continued diminution
-in size is, however, compensated for by the formation, when the cells
-have been reduced to a certain minimum, of <i>auxospores</i>, 2–3 times
-larger. These may either be formed <i>asexually</i> by the protoplasm
-of a cell increasing, rounding off and surrounding itself with a
-new wall (<i>e.g. Melosira</i>) or after <i>conjugation</i>,
-which may take place with various modifications: 1. Two individuals
-unite after the secretion of a quantity of mucilage, and the valves
-then commence to separate from each other, on the side which the two
-individuals turn towards each other. The protoplasmic bodies now
-release themselves from their cell-wall, and each rounds off to form
-an ellipsoidal mass; these two protoplasmic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span> masses (gametes) coalesce
-to form a zygote, the cell-nuclei and chromatophores also fusing
-together. The zygote increases in size, and surrounds itself with a
-firm, smooth, siliceous wall&mdash;the <i>perizonium</i>. The auxospores,
-whichever way they arise, are not resting stages. The germination of
-the zygote commences by the protoplasm withdrawing itself slightly from
-the cell-wall and constructing first the larger valve, and later on the
-smaller one; finally the membrane of the zygote bursts (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Himantidium</i>). 2. The conjugation occurs in a similar manner, but
-the protoplasm of the cells divides transversely before conjugation
-into two daughter-cells. Those lying opposite one another conjugate
-(Fig. <a href="#fig16">16</a>) and form two zygotes. The formation of the perizonium, and
-germination take place as in the preceding instance (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Epithemia</i>). 3. Two cells place themselves parallel to each
-other, and each of the two cell-contents, without coalescing, becomes
-an auxospore. The formation of the wall takes place as in the preceding
-case. This is found in the Naviculeæ, Cymbelleæ, the Gomphonemeæ
-(<i>e.g. Frustulia</i>, <i>Cocconema</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig16" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig16.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;Conjugation of <i>Cymbella
-variabilis</i>. <i>A</i>, The protoplasm in the two cells has divided
-into two masses; <i>B</i> these masses coalesce in pairs; the cells
-(<i>B C</i>) enclosed in a mucilaginous matrix. <i>C</i>
-<i>D</i> Auxospores and their formation.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The Diatomaceæ may be found in salt as well as in fresh water
-(often in such masses that the colour of the water or mud becomes
-yellow or brown; in the same manner the genera <i>Chætoceros</i>,
-<i>Rhizosolenia</i>, <i>Coscinodiscus</i>, and several others, form
-large slime-masses, “Plankton” on the surface of the sea), on damp soil
-and in dust blown by the wind. They occur as fossils in the recent
-formations, often in large deposits (siliceous earth, mountain meal),
-as in the cement lime in Jutland, the alluvial deposits beneath Berlin,
-in clay strata beneath peat bogs, in guano, etc.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span> These accumulations
-of fossilized diatoms are used in the manufacture of dynamite and in
-various manufactures.</p>
-
-<p>The Diatomaceæ appear nearest to, and must be placed as a group
-co-ordinate with the Dinoflagellata, as they doubtless may be supposed
-to derive their origin from forms resembling <i>Exuviella</i>, and to
-have lost the cilia. The resemblances to the Desmidiaceæ which are
-striking in many respects, can only be conceived as analogies, and
-cannot be founded upon homologies, and it is therefore impossible to
-regard them as proof of genetic relationship. The family contains only
-one order.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig17" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig17.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span>&mdash;Various Diatomeæ. <i>A Synedra
-radians. B Epithemia turgida</i> (from the two different sides).
-<i>C Cymbella cuspidata. D Cocconeis pediculus</i> (on the right
-several situated on a portion of a plant, on the left a single one more
-highly magnified).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Diatomaceæ.</b> This order may be divided into two
-sub-orders, viz.&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>Sub-Order 1. <b>Placochromaticæ.</b> The chromatophores are discoid,
-large, 1 or 2 in each cell; the structure of the valves is bilateral
-and always without reticulate markings. The following groups belong to
-this sub-order: <i>Gomphonemeæ</i>, <i>Cymbelleæ</i>, <i>Amphoreæ</i>,
-<i>Achnantheæ</i>, <i>Cocconeideæ</i>, <i>Naviculeæ</i>,
-<i>Amphipleureæ</i>, <i>Plagiotropideæ</i>, <i>Amphitropideæ</i>,
-<i>Nitzchieæ</i>, <i>Surirayeæ</i>, and <i>Eunotieæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Sub-Order 2. <b>Coccochromaticæ.</b> The chromatophores are granular,
-small and many in each cell. The structure of the cells is zygomorphic
-or centric, often with reticulate markings. The following groups
-belong to this sub-order: <i>Fragilarieæ</i>, <i>Meridieæ</i>,
-<i>Tabellarieæ</i>, <i>Licmophoreæ</i>, <i>Biddulphieæ</i>,
-<i>Anguliferæ</i>, <i>Eupodisceæ</i>, <i>Coscinodisceæ</i>, and
-<i>Melosireæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Class 4. <b>Schizophyta, Fission-Algæ.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The individuals are 1&mdash;many celled; the thallus consists in many of a
-single cell, in others of chains of cells, the cells dividing in only
-one definite direction (Figs. <a href="#fig18">18</a>, <a href="#fig21">21</a>). In certain Fission-Algæ the
-cell-chain branches (Fig. <a href="#fig30">30</a>) and a difference between the anterior
-and the posterior ends of the chain is marked; in some, the cells may
-be united into the form of flat plates by the cell-division taking
-place in two directions; and in others into somewhat cubical masses, or
-rounded lumps of a less decided form, by the divisions taking place in
-three directions; or less defined masses may be formed by the divisions
-taking place in all possible directions.</p>
-
-<p>The cell-walls rarely contain cellulose, they often swell considerably
-(Figs. <a href="#fig20">20</a>, <a href="#fig22">22</a>), and show distinct stratifications, or they are almost
-completely changed into a mucilaginous mass in which the protoplasts
-are embedded, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Nostoc</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig22">22</a>), and in the
-“Zooglœa” stage of the Bacteria (Fig. <a href="#fig27">27</a>). Sexual reproduction is
-wanting. Vegetative reproduction by division and the separation of
-the divisional products by the splitting of the cell-wall or its
-becoming mucilaginous; among the Nostocaceæ, Lyngbyaceæ, Scytonemaceæ,
-etc., “Hormogonia” are found; in <i>Chamæsiphon</i> and others single
-reproductive akinetes are formed. Many Fission-Algæ conclude the
-growing period by the formation of resting akinetes or aplanospores.</p>
-
-<p>The Schizophyta may be divided into 2 families:</p>
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Schizophyceæ.</span></p>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">Bacteria.</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 1. <b>Schizophyceæ,<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> Blue-Green Algæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>All the Blue-green Algæ are able to assimilate carbon by means of
-a colouring material containing chlorophyll (cyanophyll); but the
-chlorophyll in this substance is masked by a blue (phycocyan), or
-red (phycoerythrin, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Trichodesmium erythræum</i>
-in the Red Sea) colouring matter which may be extracted from them
-in cold water after death. The colouring matter, in most of them,
-permeates the whole of the protoplasm (excepting the cell-nucleus),
-but in a few (<i>e.g. Glaucocystis</i>, <i>Phragmonema</i>),
-slightly developed chromatophores are to be found. Where the cells are
-united into filaments (cell-chains) a differentiation into apex and
-base (<i>Rivulariaceæ</i>) may take place, and also between ordinary
-vegetative cells and heterocysts; these latter cannot divide, and are
-distinguished<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span> from the ordinary vegetative cells (Fig. <a href="#fig22">22</a> <i>h</i>) by
-their larger size, yellow colour, and poverty of contents. Branching
-sometimes occurs and is either true or spurious.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig18" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig18.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>&mdash;<i>Microcoleus lyngbyanus</i>:
-<i>a</i> portion of a filament, the thick sheath encloses only one
-cell-chain; in one place a cell is drawn out by the movement of
-the cell-chain; <i>b</i> the cell-chain has divided into two parts
-(“hormongonia”) which commence to separate from each other.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The cell-chain in the spurious branching divides into two parts, of
-which either one or both grow beyond the place of division (Fig.
-<a href="#fig18">18</a>) and often out to both sides (<i>e.g. Scytonema</i>), the
-divisions however, always take place transversely to the longitudinal
-direction of the cell-chain. In the true branching a cell elongates
-in the direction transverse to the cell-chain, and the division
-then takes place nearly at right angles to the former direction
-(<i>Sirosiphoniaceæ</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig19" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig19.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>&mdash;<i>Cylindrospermum majus</i>:
-<i>a</i> resting akinete with heterocyst; <i>b-d</i> germinating
-stages of a resting akinete; <i>e</i> filament with two heterocysts
-and the formation of new akinetes; <i>f</i> part of a filament with a
-heterocyst, and mature resting akinete.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Cilia are wanting, but the filaments are sometimes self-motile
-(<i>e.g.</i> hormogonia in <i>Nostoc</i>) and many partly turn round
-their axes, partly slide forward or backward (<i>Oscillaria</i>).</p>
-
-<p>Reproduction takes place by spores and hormogonia in addition<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[24]</span> to
-simple cell-division. Hormogonia are peculiar fragments of a cell-chain
-capable of motion, and often exhibit a vigorous motion in the sheath,
-until at last they escape and grow into a new individual (Fig. <a href="#fig18">18</a>).
-The spores are reproductive akinetes (<i>Chamæsiphon</i>, etc.) or
-resting akinetes; these latter arise by the vegetative cells enlarging
-and constructing a thick cell-wall (Fig. <a href="#fig19">19</a> <i>e f</i>). On
-germination, this cell-wall bursts and the new cell-chain elongates in
-the same longitudinal direction as before (Fig. <a href="#fig19">19</a> <i>b c</i>).
-Many (<i>e.g. Oscillaria</i>) may however winter in their
-ordinary vegetative stage. Aplanospores are wanting.</p>
-
-<p>The Fission-Algæ are very prevalent in fresh water and on damp soil,
-less so in salt water; they also often occur in water which abounds in
-decaying matter. Some are found in warm springs with a temperature as
-high as 50° C.</p>
-
-<p>The Family may be divided into 2 sub-families:</p>
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Homocysteæ</span> (heterocysts are wanting): <i>Chroococcaceæ</i>,
-<i>Lyngbyaceæ</i> and <i>Chamœsiphonaceæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">Heterocysteæ</span> (heterocysts present): <i>Nostocaceæ</i>,
-<i>Rivulariaceæ</i>, <i>Scytonemaceæ</i> and <i>Sirosiphoniaceæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Chroococcaceæ.</b> The individuals are 1&mdash;many-celled,
-but all the cells are uniform, united to form plates or irregular
-masses, often surrounded by a mucilaginous cell-wall, but never forming
-cell-chains. Multiplication by division and sometimes by resting
-akinetes, but reproductive akinetes are wanting. <i>Chroococcus</i>,
-<i>Aphanocapsa</i>, <i>Glœocapsa</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig20">20</a>), <i>Cœlosphærium</i>,
-<i>Merismopedium</i>, <i>Glaucocystis</i>, <i>Oncobyrsa</i>,
-<i>Polycystis</i>, <i>Gomphosphæria</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig20" style="width: 509px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig20.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span>&mdash;<i>Glœocapsa atrata</i>: <i>A</i>,
-<i>B</i>, <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>, <i>E</i> various stages of development.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig21" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig21.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>&mdash;<i>Oscillaria</i>; <b>a</b> terminal, <b>b</b>
-central portion of a filament.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Lyngbyaceæ (Oscillariaceæ).</b> The cells are discoid (Fig.
-<a href="#fig21">21</a>), united to straight or spirally twisted, free filaments, which are
-unbranched, or with spurious branching. The ends of the cell-chains
-are similar. Heterocysts absent. Reproduction by synakinetes, resting
-akinetes are wanting. <i>Oscillaria</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig21">21</a>), <i>Spirulina</i>,
-<i>Lyngbya</i>, <i>Microcoleus</i>, <i>Symploca</i>, <i>Plectonema</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Chamæsiphonaceæ.</b> The individuals are 1&mdash;many-celled,
-attached, unbranched filaments with differentiation into apex and
-base, without heterocysts. Multiplication by reproductive akinetes;
-resting akinetes are wanting. <i>Dermocarpa</i>, <i>Clastidium</i>,
-<i>Chamæsiphon</i>, <i>Godlewskia</i>, <i>Phragmonema</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Nostocaceæ.</b> The individuals are formed of
-multicellular, unbranched filaments, without differentiation into apex
-and base; heterocysts present. Reproduction by synakinetes and resting
-akinetes.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig22" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig22.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span>&mdash;<i>Nostoc verrucosum. A</i>
-The plant in its natural size; an irregularly folded jelly-like
-mass. <i>B</i> One of the cell-chains enlarged, with its heterocysts
-(<i>h</i>), embedded in its mucilaginous sheath.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Some genera are not mucilaginous, <i>e.g. Cylindrospermum</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig19">19</a>). The cell-chains in others, <i>e.g. Nostoc</i>,
-wind in between one another and are embedded in large structureless
-jelly-like masses, which may attain the size of a plum or even larger
-(Fig. <a href="#fig22">22</a>); sometimes they are found floating in the water, sometimes
-attached to other bodies. Other genera as follows: <i>Aphanizomenon</i>
-and <i>Anabæna</i> (in lakes and smaller pieces of water);
-<i>Nodularia</i> is partly pelagic. Some occur in the intercellular
-spaces of higher plants, thus <i>Nostoc</i>-forms are found in
-<i>Anthoceros</i>, <i>Blasia</i>, <i>Sphagnum</i>, <i>Lemna</i>, and
-in the roots of <i>Cycas</i> and <i>Gunnera</i>; <i>Anabæna</i> in
-<i>Azolla</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Rivulariaceæ.</b> The individuals are multicellular
-filaments, with differentiation into apex and base; spurious branching,
-and a heterocyst at the base of each filament, reproduction by
-synakinetes and resting akinetes, rarely by simple reproductive
-akinetes. <i>Rivularia</i>, <i>Glœotrichia</i>, <i>Isactis</i>,
-<i>Calothrix</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Scytonemaceæ.</b> The individuals are formed
-of multicellular filaments with no longitudinal division;
-differentiation into apex and base very slight or altogether
-absent;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[26]</span> branching spurious; heterocysts present. Reproduction by
-synakinetes, rarely by resting akinetes and ordinary reproductive
-akinetes. <i>Tolypothrix</i>, <i>Scytonema</i>, <i>Hassalia</i>,
-<i>Microchæte</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Sirosiphoniaceæ.</b> The individuals are formed of
-multicellular threads with longitudinal divisions; true branching
-and heterocysts, and often distinct differentiation into apex and
-base. Reproduction by synakinetes, rarely by resting akinetes and
-ordinary reproductive akinetes. <i>Hapalosiphon</i>, <i>Stigonema</i>,
-<i>Capsosira</i>, <i>Nostocopsis</i>, <i>Mastigocoleus</i>.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 2. <b>Bacteria.</b><a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></h4>
-
-<p>The Bacteria (also known as Schizomycetes, and Fission-Fungi) are the
-smallest known organisms, and form a parallel group to the Blue-green
-Algæ, but separated from these Algæ by the absence of their colouring
-material; chlorophyll is only found in a few Bacteria.</p>
-
-<p>The various forms under which the vegetative condition of the Bacteria
-appear, are termed as follows:</p>
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Globular forms, cocci</span> (Figs. <a href="#fig27">27</a>, <a href="#fig30">30</a> <i>c</i>): spherical or
-ellipsoidal, single cells, which, however, are usually loosely massed
-together and generally termed “<i>Micrococci</i>.”</p>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">Rod-like forms</span>: more or less elongated bodies; the shorter
-forms have been styled “<i>Bacterium</i>” (in the narrower sense of the
-word), and the term “<i>Bacillus</i>” has been applied to longer forms
-which are straight and cylindrical (Figs. <a href="#fig28">28</a>, <a href="#fig29">29</a>, <a href="#fig30">30</a> <i>E</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig23" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig23.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>&mdash;<i>Spirillum sanguineum.</i> Four
-specimens. One has two cilia at the same end, the sulphur grains are
-seen internally.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>3. <span class="smcap">Thread-like forms</span>: unbranched, long, round filaments,
-resembling those of <i>Oscillaria</i>, are possessed by
-<i>Leptothrix</i> (very thin, non-granular filaments; Fig. <a href="#fig30">30</a> <i>A</i>,
-the small filaments) and <i>Beggiatoa</i> (thicker filaments, with
-strong, refractile grains or drops of sulphur (Fig. <a href="#fig31">31</a>); <span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span>often
-self-motile). Branched filaments, with false branching like many
-<i>Scytonemaceæ</i>, are found in <i>Cladothrix</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig30">30</a> <i>B</i>,
-<i>G</i>).</p>
-
-<p>4. <span class="smcap">Spiral forms</span>: Rod-like or filamentous bodies, which more or
-less strongly resemble a corkscrew with a spiral rising to the left.
-In general these are termed <i>Spirilla</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig23">23</a>); very attenuated
-spirals, <i>Vibriones</i> (standing next to Fig. <a href="#fig30">30</a> <i>M</i>); if
-the filaments are slender and flexible with a closely wound spiral,
-<i>Spirochætæ</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig24">24</a>).</p>
-
-<p>5. The <span class="smcap">Merismopedium-form</span>, consisting of rounded cells
-arranged in one plane, generally in groups of four, and produced by
-divisions perpendicular to each other.</p>
-
-<p>6. The <span class="smcap">Sarcina-form</span>, consisting of roundish cells which are
-produced by cellular division in all the three directions of space,
-united into globular or ovoid masses (“parcels”) <i>e.g. Sarcina
-ventriculi</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig25">25</a>, <a href="#fig26">26</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig24" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig24.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span>&mdash;<i>Spirochæte obermeieri</i>, in
-active motion (<i>b</i>) and shortly before the termination of the
-fever (<i>c</i>); a blood corpuscles.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>All Bacteria are unicellular. In the case of the micrococci this is
-self-evident, but in the “rod,” “thread,” and “spiral” Bacteria, very
-often numerous cells remain united together and their individual
-elements can only be recognised by the use of special reagents.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig25" style="width: 347px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig25.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span>&mdash;<i>Sarcina ventriculi.</i> One
-surface only is generally seen. Those cells which are drawn with double
-contour are seen with the correct focus, and more distinctly than those
-cells lying deeper drawn with single contour.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig26" style="width: 414px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig26.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span>&mdash;<i>Sarcina minuta</i>: <i>a-d</i>
-successive stages of one individual (from 4–10 p.m.); <i>f</i> an
-individual of 32 cells.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The condition termed “Zooglœa,” which reminds us of <i>Nostoc</i>,
-is produced by the cells becoming strongly mucilaginous. A number
-of individuals in active division are found embedded in a mass of
-mucilage, which either contains only one, or sometimes more, of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span>
-the above-named forms. The individuals may eventually swarm out and
-continue their development in an isolated condition. Such mucilaginous
-masses occur especially upon moist vegetables (potatoes, etc.), on
-the surface of fluids with decaying raw or cooked materials, etc. The
-mucilaginous envelope is thrown into folds when the Bacteria, with
-their mucilaginous cell-walls, multiply so rapidly that there is no
-more room on the surface of the fluid.</p>
-
-<p>The cells of the Bacteria are constructed like other plant-cells in
-so far as their diminutive size has allowed us to observe them. The
-cell-wall only exceptionally shows the reactions of cellulose (in
-<i>Sarcina</i>, <i>Leuconostoc</i>; also in a Vinegar-bacterium,
-<i>Bacterium xylinum</i>); a mucilaginous external layer is always
-present. The body of the cell mostly appears to be an uniform
-or finely granulated protoplasm. Very few species (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Bacillus virens</i>) contain chlorophyll; others are coloured red
-(purple sulphur Bacteria); the majority are colourless. <i>Bacillus
-amylobacter</i> shows a reaction of a starch-like material when
-treated with iodine before the spore-formation. Some Bacteria
-contain sulphur (see p. <a href="#Page_37">37</a>). The body, which has been described as a
-<i>cell-nucleus</i>, is still of a doubtful nature.</p>
-
-<p>Artificial colourings with aniline dyes (especially methyl-violet,
-gentian-violet, methylene-blue, fuchsin, Bismarck-brown and Vesuvin)
-play an important part in the investigations of Bacteria.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Movement.</span> Many Bacteria are self-motile; the long
-filaments of <i>Beggiatoa</i> exhibit movements resembling those
-of <i>Oscillaria</i>. In many motile forms the presence of cilia
-or flagella has been proved by the use of stains; many forms have
-one, others several cilia attached at one or both ends (Fig. <a href="#fig23">23</a>) or
-distributed irregularly over the whole body; the cilia are apparently
-elongations of the mucilaginous covering and not, as in the other Algæ
-of the protoplasm. In <i>Spirochæte</i> the movement is produced by
-the flexibility of the cell itself. Generally speaking, the motion
-resembles that of swarm-cells (<i>i.e.</i> rotation round the long axis
-and movement in irregular paths); but either end has an equal power of
-proceeding forwards.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The swarming motion must not be confounded with the hopping
-motion of the very minute particles under the microscope
-(Brownian movement).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Vegetative reproduction</span> takes place by continued transverse<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span>
-division; hence the name “Fission-Fungi” or “Fission-Algæ,” has been
-applied to the Bacteria.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Spores.</span> The spores are probably developed in two ways. In
-the <span class="allsmcap">ENDOSPOROUS</span> species (Figs. <a href="#fig28">28</a>, <a href="#fig29">29</a>), the spore arises
-as a new cell inside the mother-cell. The spores are strongly
-refractile, smaller than the mother-cell, and may be compared to
-the aplanospores of other Algæ. In addition to these there are
-the <span class="allsmcap">ARTHROSPOROUS</span> species in which the cells, just as in
-<i>Nostoc</i> and other Blue-green Algæ, assume the properties of
-spores without previously undergoing an endogenous new construction,
-and are able to germinate and form new vegetative generations (Fig.
-<a href="#fig27">27</a>). The formation of spores very often commences when the vegetative
-development begins to be restricted.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig27" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig27.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span>&mdash;<i>Leuconostoc mesenterioides</i>:
-<i>a</i> a zooglœa, natural size; <i>b</i> cross section of zooglœa;
-<i>c</i> filaments with spores; <i>d</i> mature spores; <i>e-i</i>
-successive stages of germination; in <i>e</i> portions of the ruptured
-spore-wall are seen on the external side of the mucilaginous covering.
-(<i>b-i</i> magnified 520.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The spores germinate as in <i>Nostoc</i> by the bursting of the
-external layer of the cell-wall, either by a transverse or longitudinal
-cleft, but always in the same way, in the same species (Fig. <a href="#fig28">28</a>,
-example of transverse cleft).</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Distribution.</span> Bacteria and their germs capable of development,
-are found everywhere, in the air (dust), in surface water, and in
-the superficial layers of the soil. The number varies very much in
-accordance with the nature of the place, season, etc. They enter,
-together with air and food, into healthy animals and occur always in
-their alimentary tract.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Growth and reproduction</span> depend upon the conditions of
-temperature. There is a certain minimum, optimum and maximum for each
-species; for instance (in degrees Centigrade)&mdash;</p>
-
-<table summary="bacteria" class="smaller">
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht"></td>
-    <td class="ctr">Minim.</td>
-    <td class="ctr">Opt.</td>
-    <td class="ctr">Maxim.</td>
-    <td></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht"><i>Bacillus subtilis</i></td>
-    <td class="right">+ 6</td>
-    <td class="right">c. 30</td>
-    <td class="right">+ 50</td>
-    <td class="cht"></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht"><i>B. anthracis</i></td>
-    <td class="right">15</td>
-    <td class="right">20–25</td>
-    <td class="right">43</td>
-    <td class="cht"></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht"><i>Spirillum choleræ asiaticæ</i></td>
-    <td class="right">8</td>
-    <td class="right">37</td>
-    <td class="right">40</td>
-    <td class="cht">(but grows only feebly if under 16°).</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht"><i>Bacterium tuberculosis</i></td>
-    <td class="right">28</td>
-    <td class="right">37–38</td>
-    <td class="right">42</td>
-    <td class="cht"></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig28" style="width: 564px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig28.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span>&mdash;<i>Bacillus megaterium</i>: <i>a</i>
-outline of a living, vegetative cell-rod; <i>b</i> a living, motile,
-pair of rods; <i>p</i> a similar 4-celled rod after the effects
-of iodine alcohol; <i>c</i> a 5-celled rod in the first stages of
-spore-formation; <i>d-f</i> successive stages of spore-formation in one
-and the same pair of rods (in the course of an afternoon); <i>r</i>
-a rod with mature spores; <i>g<sup>1</sup>–g<sup>3</sup></i> three stages of a 5-celled
-rod, with spores sown in nutritive solution; <i>h<sup>1</sup>–h<sup>2</sup></i>, <i>i</i>,
-<i>k</i>, <i>l</i> stages of germination; <i>m</i> a rod in the act of
-transverse division, grown out from a spore which had been sown eight
-hours previously. (After de Bary; <i>a</i> mag. 250, the other figures
-600 times).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig29" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig29.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>&mdash;<i>Bacillus amylobacter.</i> Motile
-rods, partly cylindrical and without spores, partly swollen into
-various special shapes and with spore-formation in the swelling.
-<i>s</i> Mature spore, with thick mucilaginous envelope. (After de
-Bary; mag. 600 times, with the exception of <i>s</i>, which is more
-highly magnified.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The functions of life cease on a slight excess of the maximum or
-minimum temperature, numbness setting in when either of these limits is
-passed. <i>Crenothrix</i>-threads provided with mucilaginous envelopes
-may, according to Zopf, sustain a temperature of-10°. Some Bacteria are
-said to be able to resist the exposure to as low a temperature as-110°
-for a short time. It is not known at what degree of cold the death of
-the Bacteria occurs: the greatest degree of heat which the vegetative
-cells can<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span> withstand is about the same as that for other vegetative
-plant-cells, namely, about 50–60° C. Certain Bacteria, <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>B. thermophilus</i>, grow and thrive vigorously at 70° C. Many
-spores, on the contrary, are able to bear far higher temperatures (in
-several species a temperature for some duration of above 100°, those
-of <i>Bacillus subtilis</i>, for instance, can withstand for hours a
-temperature of 100° in nutrient solutions; the spores remain capable of
-development after exposure to a dry heat of 123° C.).</p>
-
-<p>The <i>Desiccation</i> of the air, if prolonged, kills many forms when
-in the vegetative condition. The spores however can bear a much longer
-period of dryness, some even several years.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Oxygen.</span> Some species cannot live without a supply of free
-oxygen (<i>Aerobic</i>), <i>e.g.</i> the Vinegar-bacteria, the
-Hay-bacilli, the Anthrax-bacilli, the Cholera-<i>Microspira</i>.
-Other species again thrive vigorously without supply of free
-oxygen, and are even checked in their development by the admission
-of air (<i>Anaerobic</i>), <i>e.g.</i> the butyric acid Bacterium
-(<i>Clostridium butyricium</i> = <i>Bacillus amylobacter</i>). A
-distinction may be drawn between obligate and facultative aerobics
-and obligate and facultative anaerobics. Several Bacteria, producing
-fermentation, may grow without the aid of oxygen when they are living
-in a solution in which they can produce fermentation; but, if this is
-not the case, they can only grow when a supply of oxygen is available.
-A great number of the pathogenic Bacteria belong to the facultative
-anaerobics.</p>
-
-<p>A luminous Bacterium (<i>Bacillus phosphorescens</i>) which in the
-presence of a supply of oxygen gives a bluish-white light, has been
-found in sea-water. Phosphorescent Bacteria have frequently been
-observed upon decaying sea-fish, as well as on the flesh of other
-animals; by transferring the Bacteria from cod fish to beef, etc., the
-latter may be made luminous.</p>
-
-<p><i>Organic carbon compounds</i> are indispensable for all Bacteria,
-(except, as it appears, for the nitrifying organisms), as they can
-only obtain the necessary supplies of <i>carbon</i> from this source.
-The supplies of <i>nitrogen</i>, which also they cannot do without,
-can be obtained equally as well from organic compounds as from
-inorganic salts, such as saltpetre or ammonia-compounds. The various
-“ash-constituents” are also essential for their nourishment.</p>
-
-<p>While Moulds and Yeast-Fungi grow best in an acid substratum, the
-<i>Bacteria</i>, on the other hand, generally thrive <i>best</i> in a
-<i>neutral</i> or slightly <i>alkaline</i> one.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span></p>
-
-<p>In <i>sterilization</i>, <i>disinfection</i>, and <i>antisepsis</i>,
-means are employed by which the Bacteria are killed, or checked in
-their development, for instance, by heat (ignition, cooking, hot
-vapours, hot air, etc.), or poisons (acids, corrosive sublimate). The
-process of preserving articles of food, in which they are boiled and
-then hermetically sealed, aims at destroying the Bacteria, or the
-spores of those which already may be present in them, and excluding all
-others.</p>
-
-<p>As the Bacteria are unable to assimilate carbon from the carbonic acid
-of the air, but must obtain it from the carbon-compounds already in
-existence in the organic world, they are either <i>saprophytes</i> or
-<i>parasites</i>. Some are exclusively either the one or the other,
-<i>obligate</i> saprophytes or parasites. But there are transitional
-forms among them, some of which are at ordinary times saprophytes,
-but may, when occasion offers, complete their development wholly
-or partly as parasites&mdash;<i>facultative parasites</i>; others are
-generally parasitic, but may also pass certain stages of development as
-saprophytes&mdash;<i>facultative saprophytes</i>.</p>
-
-<p>All chlorophyll-free organisms act in a transforming and disturbing
-manner on the organic compounds from which they obtain their
-nourishment, and while they themselves grow and multiply, they produce,
-each after its kind, compounds of a less degree of complexity,
-<i>i.e.</i> they produce <i>fermentation</i>, <i>putrefaction</i>,
-sometimes the formation of <i>poisons</i>, and in living beings often
-<i>disease</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Those organisms which produce fermentation are called <i>ferments</i>;
-this word, however, is also employed for similar transformations in
-purely chemical materials (inorganic ferments or enzymes). Many organic
-(“living”) ferments, among which are Yeast-cells and Bacteria, give
-off during their development certain inorganic and soluble ferments
-(enzymes) which may produce other transformations without themselves
-being changed. Different organisms may produce in the same substratum
-different kinds of transformation; alcoholic fermentation may for
-instance be produced by different species of Fungi, but in different
-proportions, and the same species produces in different substrata,
-different transformations (<i>e.g.</i> the Vinegar-bacteria oxydize
-diluted alcohol to vinegar, and eventually to carbonic acid and water).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In the study of Bacteria it is absolutely necessary to sterilize
-the vessels employed in cultivation, the apparatus, and nutrient
-solutions, <i>i.e.</i> to free them from Bacteria germs and
-also to preserve the cultures from the intrusion of any foreign
-germs (“pure-cultures”). A firm, transparent, nutritive medium
-is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span> frequently employed. This may be prepared by adding to
-the nutrient solutions (broth) either gelatine, or&mdash;when the
-Bacteria are to be cultivated at blood-heat&mdash;serum of sheep’s or
-calf’s blood, agar-agar or carragen; serum alone may in itself
-serve as a nutrient medium. The so-called “plate-cultures” are
-frequently employed, <i>i.e.</i> the germs are isolated by
-shaking them with the melted liquid nutrient gelatine, which
-is then spread on a glass plate and allowed to coagulate; when
-later on the individual germs grow into colonies, these remain
-separate in the solid substratum and it is easy to pursue
-their further development. Similar plate-cultures may also be
-cultivated in test-tubes and on microscopic slides. The slides
-and glass plates must be placed in “moist chambers” free from
-Bacteria. By sowing a few cells (if possible one) using a fine
-platinum wire, pure cultures for further investigation may be
-obtained.</p>
-
-<p>In order to prove the relationship between pathogenic Bacteria
-and certain diseases, the experimental production of pathogenic
-Bacteria by the inoculation of Bacteria from pure cultures into
-healthy animals, is very important.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>It has not so far been possible to establish a <i>classification</i>
-of the Bacteria, as the life-history of many species, has not yet
-been sufficiently investigated.<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> The opinions of botanists are at
-variance, in many cases, about the forms of growth of a particular
-kind. Some species are pleomorphic (many-formed) while others possess
-only one form.</p>
-
-<p>The following Bacteria are <b>Saprophytes</b>:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><i>Cladothrix dichotoma</i> is common in stagnant and running water
-which is impregnated with organic matter; the cell-chains have false
-branching. According to Zopf, <i>Leptothrix ochracea</i> is one of
-the forms of this species which, in water containing ferrous iron
-(<i>e.g.</i> as FeCO<sub>3</sub>), regularly embeds ferric-oxide in its sheath
-by means of the activity of the protoplasm. <i>Leptothrix ochracea</i>
-and other Iron-bacteria, according to Winogradsky (1888), do not
-continue their growth in water free from protoxide of iron; while
-they multiply enormously in water which contains this salt of iron.
-The large masses of ochre-coloured slime, found in meadows, bogs, and
-lakes, are probably due to the activity of the Iron-bacteria.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig30" style="width: 571px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig30.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 center sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span>&mdash;<i>Cladothrix dichotoma.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Those forms which, according to Zopf’s views, represent the forms of
-development of <i>Cladothrix dichotoma</i> are placed together in
-Fig. <a href="#fig30">30</a>. A represents a group of plants, seventy times magnified,
-attached to a Vaucheria. The largest one is branched like a tree,
-with branches of ordinary form; a specimen with spirally twisted
-branches is seen to the right of the figure, at the lower part some
-small <i>Leptothrix</i>-like forms. <i>B</i> shows the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span> manner of
-branching and an incipient <i>Coccus</i>-formation. <i>C</i> a
-<i>Coccus</i>-mass whose exit from the sheath has been observed.
-<i>D</i> the same mass as <i>C</i> after the course of a day, the
-Cocci having turned into <i>rods</i>. <i>E</i> a group of Cocci in
-which some have developed into shorter or longer rods. <i>F</i> one of
-these rods before<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span> and after treatment with picric acid, which causes
-the chain-like structure to become apparent. <i>G</i> a portion of a
-plant with conspicuous sheath, two lateral branches are being formed.
-<i>H</i> part of a plant, whose cells have divided and form Cocci.
-The original form of the cells in which the Cocci are embedded may
-still be recognised. I. <i>Leptothrix</i>-filaments with conspicuous
-mucilaginous sheath, from which a series of rods is about to emerge;
-the rod near the bottom is dead, and has remained lying in the sheath.
-<i>K</i> part of a plant which is forming Cocci, those at the top are
-in the zooglœa-stage, at the base they are elongating to form rods
-and <i>Leptothrix</i>-filaments. <i>L</i> a portion of a branched
-<i>Cladothrix</i>, which divides into motile <i>Bacillus</i>-forms; the
-rays at the free ends indicate the currents which the cilia produce
-in the water. <i>M</i> a spirally-twisted, swarming filament, before
-and after division into halves. <i>N</i> part of a tree-like zooglœa
-with Cocci and short rods.&mdash;All of these spirilla, zooglœa, etc.,
-which Zopf has connected with <i>Clad. dichotoma</i>, are according to
-Winogradsky, independent organisms.</p>
-
-<p><i>Micrococcus ureæ</i> produces <i>urinal fermentation</i>
-(transformation of urinal matter into ammonium carbonate); aerobic;
-round cells generally united to form bent chains or a zooglœa.&mdash;Several
-other kinds of Bacteria have the same action as this one: in damp soil
-containing ammonia-compounds, <i>saltpetre-formations</i> are produced
-by <i>M. nitrificans</i> and several different kinds of Bacteria.</p>
-
-<p><i>Micrococcus prodigiosus</i> is found on articles of food containing
-starch; “bleeding bread” is caused by this Bacterium, which has the
-power of forming a red pigment; it also occurs in milk, and produces
-lactic acid.</p>
-
-<p><i>Leuconostoc mesenterioides</i> is the frog-spawn Bacterium (Fig. <a href="#fig27">27</a>)
-which is found in sugar manufactories, and has the power of producing
-a viscous fermentation in saccharine solutions which have been derived
-from plants, <i>e.g.</i> in beetroot-sugar manufactories, where large
-accumulations of mucilage are formed at the expense of the sugar, with
-an evolution of carbonic acid. The cell-rows, resembling somewhat a
-pearl necklace, have thick mucilaginous cell-walls, and form white
-“Nostoc”-lumps. The mucilage eventually deliquesces and the cells
-separate from each other; arthrospores?&mdash;Similar viscous deteriorations
-occur in beer and wine, which may then be drawn out into long, string
-like filaments&mdash;“ropiness.”</p>
-
-<p><i>Bacterium aceti</i>, the Vinegar-bacterium, oxidizes alcohol into<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span>
-acetic acid (acetous-fermentation) and forms a greyish covering of
-Bacteria (“Vinegar-mother”) on the surface of the liquid; the acetic
-acid formed, becomes by continued oxidization by <i>B. aceti</i>, again
-transformed into carbonic acid and water. Aerobic; short cylindrical
-cells, often united into chains, or to form a zooglœa; sometimes also
-rod-and spindle-shaped. The Vinegar-bacteria and other kinds with
-ball- or rod-forms sometimes become swollen, spindle-shaped, or oval
-links; they are supposed to be diseased forms<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> (“Involution-forms”).</p>
-
-<p><i>Bacillus lacticus</i> (<i>Bacterium acidi lactici</i>, Zopf) is
-always found in milk which has stood for some time, and in sour foods
-(cabbage, cucumbers, etc.); it turns the milk sour by producing lactic
-acid fermentation in the sugar contained in the milk; the lactic acid
-formed, eventually causes the coagulation of the casein. It resembles
-the Vinegar-bacteria, occurring as small cylindrical cells, rarely in
-short rows; not self-motile.&mdash;Several other Bacteria appear to act in
-the same way, some occurring in the mouth of human beings; some of
-these Bacteria give to butter its taste and flavour.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>kefir-grains</i> which are added to milk for the preparation of
-kefir, contain in large numbers a Bacterium (<i>Dispora caucasica</i>)
-in the zooglœa-form, a Yeast-fungus, and <i>Bacillus lacticus</i>.
-Kefir is a somewhat alcoholic sour milk, rich in carbonic acid; it is
-a beverage manufactured by the inhabitants of the Caucasus, from the
-milk of cows, goats, or sheep, and is sometimes used as a medicine. In
-the production of kefir, lactic acid fermentation takes place in one
-part of the sugar contained in the milk, and alcoholic fermentation
-in another part, and the casein which had become curdled is partially
-liquefied (peptonised) by an enzyme of a Zooglœa-bacterium.</p>
-
-<p><i>Bacillus amylobacter</i> (<i>Bacillus butyricus</i>), the
-Butyric-acid-bacterium (Fig. <a href="#fig29">29</a>), is a very common anaerobic which
-produces fermentation in sugar and lactic-acid salts, and whose
-principal product is <i>butyric acid</i>. It destroys articles of
-food and (together with other species) plays a part in the butyric
-acid fermentation which is necessary in the making of cheese; it is
-very active wherever portions of plants are decaying, in destroying
-the cellulose in the cell-walls of herbaceous plants, and is thus
-useful in the preparation of flax and hemp. The cells are self-motile,
-generally cylindrical, sometimes united into short rows; endosporous;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[37]</span>
-the spore-forming cells swell, assume very different forms, and show
-granulose reaction. The germ-tube grows out in the direction of the
-long axis of the spore.</p>
-
-<p><i>Bacillus subtilis</i>, the Hay-bacillus, is developed in all
-decoctions of hay; a slender, aerobic, self-motile Bacillus;
-endosporous (aplanospores); the spore-wall ruptures transversely on
-germination.</p>
-
-<p><i>Crenothrix kuehniana</i> occurs in the springs of many baths, in
-wells, in water or drain-pipes.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig31" style="width: 341px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig31.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span>&mdash;<i>Beggiatoa alba</i>: <i>a</i> from
-a fluid containing abundance of sulphuretted hydrogen; <i>b</i> after
-lying 24 hours in a solution devoid of sulphuretted hydrogen; <i>c</i>
-after lying an additional 48 hours in a solution devoid of sulphuretted
-hydrogen, by this means the transverse walls and vacuoles have become
-visible.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Beggiatoa</i> (parallel with the Blue-green Alga <i>Oscillaria</i>).
-Long filaments formed of cylindrical cells which are attached by
-one of the ends, but which are nearly always free when observed.
-The filaments, like those of <i>Oscillaria</i>, describe conical
-figures in their revolutions, the free filaments slide upwards and
-parallel with one another; sheaths are wanting; strongly refractive
-sulphur drops are found in the interior. The Beggiatoas are the most
-prevalent <i>Sulphur-bacteria</i>. They occur, very commonly in large
-numbers, wherever plant or animal remains are decaying in water in
-which sulphuretted hydrogen is being formed; thus, for example, <i>B.
-alba</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig31">31</a>) occurs frequently as a white covering or slimy
-film on mud containing organic remains. <span class="smaller"><i>B. mirabilis</i> is
-remarkable for its size and its strong peristaltic movements.</span> The
-Sulphur-bacteria oxidize the sulphuretted hydrogen, and accumulate
-sulphur in the shape of small granules of soft amorphic sulphur, which
-in the living cell never passes over into the crystalline state. They
-next oxidize this sulphur into sulphuric acid, which is immediately
-rendered neutral by absorbed salts of calcium, and is given off in
-the form of a sulphate, thus CaCO<sub>3</sub> is principally changed into
-CaSO<sub>4</sub>. In the absence of sulphur the nutritive processes are
-suspended, and consequently death occurs either sooner or later. The
-Sulphur-bacteria may exist and multiply in a fluid which only contains
-traces of organic matter, in which organisms devoid of chlorophyll are
-not able to exist. The Beggiatoas very frequently form white, bulky
-masses in sulphur wells and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[38]</span> in salt water, the traces of organic
-material which the sulphur water contains proving sufficient for them.
-<span class="smaller">The cellulose-fermentation, to which the sulphur wells in all
-probability owe their origin, mainly procures them suitable conditions
-for existence. The CaCO<sub>3</sub> and H<sub>2</sub>S, formed during the cellulose
-fermentation by the reduction of CaSO<sub>4</sub> is again changed into
-CaSO<sub>4</sub> and CO<sub>2</sub> by the Sulphur-bacteria (Winogradsky, 1887).&mdash;Other
-Sulphur-bacteria, the so-called purple Sulphur-bacteria, <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>B. roseo-persicina</i>, <i>Spirillum sanguineum</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig23">23</a>),
-<i>Bacterium sulfuratum</i>, etc., have their protoplasm mixed with a
-red colouring matter (bacterio-purpurin) which, like chlorophyll, has
-the power, in the presence of light, of giving off oxygen (as proved
-by T. W. Englemann, 1888, in oxygen-sensitive Bacteria). The three
-purple Sulphur-bacteria mentioned, are, according to Winogradsky, not
-pleomorphic kinds but embrace numerous species.</span></p>
-
-<p>Many <i>Spirilli</i> (<i>Spirillum tenue</i>, <i>S. undula</i>, <i>S.
-plicatile</i>, and others) are found prevalent in decaying liquids.</p>
-
-<p>Bacteria (especially Bacilli) are the cause of many substances emitting
-a foul odour, and of various changes in milk.</p>
-
-<p><b>Parasitic Bacteria</b> live in other living organisms; but the
-relation between “host” and parasite may vary in considerable
-degree. Some parasites do no injury to their host, others produce
-dangerous contagious diseases; some choose only a special kind as
-host, others again live equally well in many different ones. There
-are further specific and individual differences with regard to the
-<i>predisposition</i> of the host, and every individual has not the
-same receptivity at all times.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The harmless parasites of human beings.</span> Several of the above
-mentioned saprophytes may also occur in the alimentary canal of human
-beings; <i>e.g.</i>, the Hay-bacillus, the Butyric-acid-bacillus,
-etc.; but the gastric juice prevents the development of others, at
-all events in their vegetative condition. <i>Sarcina ventriculi</i>,
-“packet-bacterium,” is only known to occur in the stomach and
-intestines of human beings, and makes its appearance in certain
-diseases of the stomach (dilation of the stomach, etc.) in great
-numbers, without, however, being the cause of the disease. It occurs in
-somewhat cubical masses of roundish cells (Fig. <a href="#fig25">25</a>).</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Less dangerous parasites.</span> In the mouth, especially between
-and on the teeth, a great many Bacteria are to be found (more than
-fifty species are known), <i>e.g. Leptothrix buccalis</i> (long,
-brittle, very thin filaments which are united into bundles), Micrococci
-in large lumps, <i>Spirochæte cohnii</i>, etc. Some of them are known
-to be injurious, as they contribute in various ways to the decay of
-the teeth (<i>caries dentium</i>); a <i>Micrococcus</i>, for instance,
-forms lactic acid<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span> in materials containing sugar and starch, and the
-acid dissolves the lime salts in the external layers of the teeth:
-those parts of the teeth thus deprived of lime are attacked by other
-Bacteria, and become dissolved. Inflammation in the tissues at the root
-of a tooth, is probably produced by septic materials which have been
-formed by Bacteria in the root-canal.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Dangerous Parasites.</span> In a large number of the infectious
-diseases of human beings and animals, it has been possible to prove
-that parasitic Bacteria have been the cause of the disease. Various
-pathogenic Bacteria of this nature, belonging to the coccus, rod, and
-spiral Bacteria groups, are mentioned in the following:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><b>Pathogenic Micrococci.</b> <i>Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus</i>
-produces abscesses of various natures (boils, suppurative processes in
-internal organs). The same effects are produced by&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><i>Streptococcus pyogenes</i>, which is the most frequent cause of
-malignant puerperal fever; it is perhaps identical with&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><i>Streptococcus erysipelatis</i>, which is the cause of erysipelas in
-human beings.</p>
-
-<p><i>Diplococcus pneumoniæ</i> (A. Fränkel) is the cause of pneumonia,
-and of the epidemic cerebro-spinal meningitis.</p>
-
-<p><i>Gonococcus</i> (Neisser) is the cause of gonorrhea and inflammation
-of the eyes.</p>
-
-<p><b>Pathogenic Rod-Bacteria.</b> <i>Bacterium choleræ gallinarum</i>,
-an aerobic, facultative parasite which produces fowl-cholera among
-poultry; it is easily cultivated on various substrata as a saprophyte.
-The disease may be conveyed both through wounds and by food, and may
-also be communicated to mammals.</p>
-
-<p><i>Bacillus anthracis</i>, the <i>Anthrax bacillus</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig32">32</a>),
-chiefly attacks mammals, especially herbivorous animals (house mice,
-guinea-pigs, rabbits, sheep, cattle), in a less degree omnivorous
-animals (including human beings), and in a still less degree the
-Carnivores. Aerobic. Cylindrical cells, 3–4 times as long as broad,
-united into long rod-like bodies, which may elongate into long, bent,
-and twisted filaments. Not self-motile. Endosporous. Germination
-takes place without the throwing off of any spore-membrane (compare
-Hay-bacillus p. <a href="#Page_37">37</a> which resembles it). Contagion may take place
-both by introduction into wounds, and from the mucous membrane of
-the intestines or lungs, both by vegetative cells and by spores; in
-intestinal anthrax, however, only by spores. The Bacillus multiplies as
-soon as it has entered the blood, and the anthrax disease commences.
-The Bacilli not only give off poison,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span> but also deprive the blood
-of its oxygen. Vegetative cells only occur in living animals. This
-species is a <i>facultative parasite</i> which in the first stage is a
-saprophyte, and only in this condition forms spores.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig32" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig32.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span>&mdash;<i>Anthrax bacillus</i>
-(<i>Bacillus anthracis</i>) with red (<i>b</i>) and white (<i>a</i>)
-blood-corpuscles.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig33" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig33.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span>&mdash;<i>Anthrax bacillus.</i> The
-formation of the spores; magnified 450 times.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Bacillus tuberculosis</i> produces tuberculosis in human beings,
-also in domestic animals (<i>perlsucht</i>). It is a distinct parasite,
-but may also live saprophytically. It is rod-formed, often slightly
-bent, and is recognised principally by its action with stains (when
-stained with an alkaline solution of methyl-blue or carbolic fuchsin,
-it retains the colour for a long time even in solutions of mineral
-acids, in contrast with the majority of well-known Bacteria): it
-probably forms spores which are able to resist heat, dryness, etc.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Bacillus lepræ</i> produces leprosy; <i>Bacillus mallei</i>
-produces glanders; <i>Bacillus tetani</i>, tetanus (the tetanus
-bacillus is very common in soil; anaerobic); <i>Bacillus
-diphtheriæ</i>, diphtheria; <i>Bacillus typhosus</i>, typhoid
-fever, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>Pathogenic Spiral Bacteria.</b> <i>Spirochæte obermeieri</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig24">24</a>) produces intermittent fever (febris recurrens); it makes its
-appearance in the blood during the attacks of fever, but it is not to
-be found during intervals when there is no fever. Obligate parasite.</p>
-
-<p><i>Spirillum choleræ asiaticæ</i> (<i>Microspira comma</i>) without
-doubt produces Asiatic cholera; an exceedingly motile spirillum, which
-is also found in short, bent rods (known as the “Comma-bacillus”),<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span> it
-lives in the intestines of those attacked by the disease, and gives off
-a strong poison which enters the body. It is easily cultivated as a
-saprophyte.</p>
-
-<p>A great many circumstances seem to show that a number of other
-infectious diseases (syphilis, small-pox, scarlet-fever, measles,
-yellow-fever, etc.) owe their origin to parasitic Bacteria, but this
-has not been proved with certainty in all cases.</p>
-
-<p>It has been possible by means of special cultivations (ample supply
-of oxygen, high temperature, antiseptic materials) to produce from
-the parasitic Bacteria described above (<i>e.g.</i> the fowl-cholera
-and the anthrax Bacteria) <i>physiological varieties</i> which are
-distinct from those appearing in nature and possess a less degree of
-“virulence,” <i>i.e.</i> produce fever and less dangerous symptoms
-in those animals which are inoculated with them. The production
-of such physiological varieties has come to be of great practical
-importance from the fact that they are used as vaccines, <i>i.e.</i>
-these harmless species produce in the animals inoculated with them
-<i>immunity</i> from the malignant infectious Bacteria from which
-they were derived. This immunity is effected by the change of the
-products of one or more of the Bacteria, but we do not yet know
-anything about the way in which they act on the animal organism. The
-white blood corpuscles, according to the Metschnikoff, play the part
-of “Phagocytes” by absorbing and destroying the less virulent Bacteria
-which have entered the blood, and by so doing they are gradually
-enabled to overcome those of a more virulent nature.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig34" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig34.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span>&mdash;<i>a</i> and <i>b</i> The
-same blood-cell of a Frog: <i>a</i> in the act of engulfing an
-anthrax-bacillus; <i>b</i> after an interval of a few minutes when the
-bacillus has been absorbed.</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h3>Class 5. <b>Conjugatæ.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The Algæ belonging to this class have chlorophyll, and pyrenoids
-round which starch is formed. The cells divide only in one direction,
-they live solitarily, or united to form filaments which generally
-float freely (seldom attached). Swarm-cells are wanting. <i>The
-fertilisation is isogamous (conjugation) and takes place by means
-of aplanogametes.</i> The zygote, after a period of rest, produces,
-immediately on germination, one or more new vegetative<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span> individuals;
-sometimes akinetes or aplanospores are formed in addition. They only
-occur in fresh or slightly brackish water.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Desmidiaceæ.</b> The cells generally present markings on
-the outer wall, and are mostly divided into two symmetrical halves by a
-constriction in the middle, or there is at least a symmetrical division
-of the protoplasmic cell-contents. The cell-wall consists nearly always
-of two layers, the one overlapping the other (Fig. <a href="#fig35">35</a> <i>C</i>). The
-cells either live solitarily or are united into unbranched filaments.
-The mass of protoplasm formed by the fusion of the two conjugating
-cells becomes the zygote, which on germination produces one (or after
-division 2, 4 or 8) new vegetative individual. The chromatophores are
-either star-, plate-, or band-shaped, and regularly arranged round the
-long axis of the cell.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig35" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig35.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span>&mdash;A Cell of <i>Gymnozyga
-brebissonii</i>, external view showing the distribution of the pores.
-<i>B A</i> portion of the membrane of <i>Staurastrum bicorne</i>
-with pores containing protoplasmic projections. <i>C</i> Cell-wall of
-<i>Hyalotheca mucosa</i> during cell-division: the central part, being
-already formed, shows the connection with the divisional wall.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The Desmidiaceæ are not able to swim independently, many species,
-however, show movements of different kinds by rising and sliding
-forward on the substratum. These movements, which are partly dependent
-upon, and partly independent of light and the force of gravitation, are
-connected with the protrusion of a mucilaginous stalk. The mucilage,
-which sometimes surrounds the whole individual, may acquire a prismatic
-structure, it is secreted by the protoplasmic threads which project
-through certain pores definitely situated in the walls (Fig. <a href="#fig35">35</a>
-<i>A</i>, <i>B</i>).</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Vegetative multiplication</span> takes places by division. A good
-example of this is found in <i>Cosmarium botrytis</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig36">36</a>
-<i>A-D</i>). The nucleus and chromatophores divide, and simultaneously
-the central indentation becomes deeper, the outer wall is then ruptured
-making a circular aperture through which the inner wall protrudes
-forming a short, cylindrical canal between the two halves to which it
-is attached (Fig. <a href="#fig36">36</a> <i>C</i>). After elongation the canal is divided
-by a central transverse wall, which commences as a ring round its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span>
-inner surface and gradually forms a complete septum. The dividing wall
-gradually splits, and the two individuals separate from each other,
-each one having an old and a new half. The two daughter-cells bulge
-out, receive a supply of contents from the parent-cells, and gradually
-attain their mature size and development (Fig. <a href="#fig36">36</a> <i>B-D</i>).
-Exceptions to this occur in some forms.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig36" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig36.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span>&mdash;<i>Cosmarium botrytis. A-D</i>
-Different stages of cell-division.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig37" style="width: 700px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig37.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span>&mdash;<i>Cosmarium meneghinii</i>:
-<i>a-c</i> same individual seen from the side, from the end, and from
-the edge; <i>d-f</i> stages of conjugation; <i>g-i</i> germination of
-the zygote.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Conjugation</span> takes place in the simplest way in
-<i>Mesotænium</i>, where the two conjugating cells unite by a short
-tube (conjugation-canal), which is not developed at any particular
-point. The aplanogametes merge together after the dissolution of the
-dividing wall, like two drops of water, almost without any trace of
-preceding contraction, so that the cell-wall of the zygote generally
-lies in close contact with the conjugating cells. The conjugating cells
-in the others lie either transversely (<i>e.g. Cosmarium</i>,
-Fig. <a href="#fig37">37</a> <i>d</i>; <i>Staurastrum</i>, etc.), or parallel to one
-another (<i>e.g. Penium</i>, <i>Closterium</i>, etc.), and
-emit a short conjugation-canal (Fig. <a href="#fig37">37</a> <i>d</i>) from the centre of
-that side of each cell which is turned towards the other one. These
-canals touch, become spherical, and on the absorption of the dividing
-wall the aplanogametes coalesce in the swollen conjugation-canal
-(Fig. <a href="#fig37">37</a> <i>e</i>), which is often surrounded by a mucilaginous
-envelope. The zygote, which is often spherical, is surrounded by a
-thick cell-wall, consisting of three layers; the outermost of these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span>
-sometimes bears thorn-like projections, which in some species are
-simple (Fig. <a href="#fig37">37</a> <i>f</i>), in others branched or variously marked; in
-some, however, it remains always smooth (<i>e.g. Tetmemorus</i>,
-<i>Desmidium</i>). Deviation from this mode of conjugation may occur
-within certain genera (<i>e.g. Closterium</i>, <i>Penium</i>).
-Upon germination the contents of the zygote emerge, surrounded by
-the innermost layers of the wall (Fig. <a href="#fig37">37</a> <i>g</i>, <i>h</i>) and
-generally divide into two parts which develop into two new individuals,
-placed transversely to each other (Fig. <a href="#fig37">37</a> <i>i</i>); these may have a
-somewhat more simple marking than is generally possessed by the species.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig38" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig38.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span>&mdash;Desmidiaceæ. <i>A Closterium
-moniliferum</i>; <i>B Penium crassiusculum</i>; <i>C</i>
-<i>Micrasterias truncata</i> (front and end view); <i>D Euastrum
-elegans</i>; <i>E Staurastrum muticum</i> (end view).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The most frequent genera are:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><i>A.</i> Solitary cells: <span class="smcap">Mesotænium</span>, <span class="smcap">Penium</span>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig38">38</a> <i>B</i>), <span class="smcap">Cylindrocystis</span>, <span class="smcap">Euastrum</span>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig38">38</a> <i>D</i>), <span class="smcap">Micrasterias</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig38">38</a> <i>C</i>),
-<span class="smcap">Cosmarium</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig36">36</a>, <a href="#fig37">37</a>), <span class="smcap">Xanthidium</span>,
-<span class="smcap">Staurastrum</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig38">38</a> <i>E</i>), <span class="smcap">Pleurotænium</span>,
-<span class="smcap">Docidium</span>, <span class="smcap">Tetmemorus</span>, <span class="smcap">Closterium</span>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig38">38</a> <i>A</i>), <span class="smcap">Spirotænia</span>.</p>
-
-<p><i>B.</i> Cells united into filaments: <span class="smcap">Sphærozosma</span>,
-<span class="smcap">Desmidium</span>, <span class="smcap">Hyalotheca</span>, <span class="smcap">Gymnozyga</span>,
-<span class="smcap">Ancylonema</span>, <span class="smcap">Gonatozygon</span>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Zygnemaceæ.</b> Cell-wall without markings. The cells are
-cylindrical, not constricted in the centre, and (generally) united into
-simple, unbranched filaments. The whole contents of the conjugating
-cells take part in the formation of the zygote, which on germination
-grows out directly into a new filament.</p>
-
-<p><i>Spirogyra</i> is easily recognised by its spiral chlorophyll band;
-<i>Zygnema</i> has two star-like chromatophores in each cell (Fig. <a href="#fig40">40</a>);
-both these genera are very common Algæ in ponds and ditches.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig39" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig39.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span>&mdash;<i>Spirogyra longata. A</i>
-At the commencement of conjugation, the conjugation-canals begin to
-protrude at <i>a</i> and touch one another at <i>b</i>; the spiral
-chlorophyll band and cell-nuclei (<i>k</i>) are shown. <i>B</i> A more
-advanced stage of conjugation; <i>a</i>, <i>a’</i> the rounded female
-and male aplanogametes: in <i>b’</i> the male aplanogamete is going
-over to and uniting with the female aplanogamete (<i>b</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig40" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig40.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.</span>&mdash;A cell of <i>Zygnema</i>. <i>S</i>
-Pyrenoid.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig41" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig41.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.</span>&mdash;<i>Zygnema insigne</i>, with zygote.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig42" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig42.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span>&mdash;Germinating zygote of <i>Spirogyra
-jugalis</i>: the young plant is still unicellular; the end which
-is still in the wall of the zygote is elongated and root-like; the
-chromatophore divides and forms the spiral band.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The conjugation among the Zygnemaceæ takes place in the following
-manner: the cells of two filaments, lying side by side, or two cells,
-the one being situated above the other in the same filament (Fig. <a href="#fig41">41</a>),
-push out small protuberances opposite each other (Fig. <a href="#fig39">39</a> <i>A</i>,
-<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>); these finally meet, and the dividing wall is
-absorbed so that a tube is formed connecting one cell with the other;
-the protoplasmic contents round off, and the whole of these contents
-of one of the cells glides through the conjugation-tube and coalesces
-with that of the other (Fig. <a href="#fig39">39</a> <i>B</i>), the aggregate mass then
-rounds off, surrounds itself with a cell-wall, and becomes a zygote.
-A distinct difference<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[46]</span> may be found between the cells in the two
-filaments, those in the one whose protoplasmic contents pass over being
-cylindrical, while those of the recipient one are more barrel-shaped,
-and of a larger diameter. The former may be regarded as a male, the
-latter as a female plant. The zygote germinates after a period of rest,
-and grows out into a new filament (Fig. <a href="#fig42">42</a>).</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Mesocarpaceæ.</b> The cell-walls are glabrous,
-unconstricted in the centre, and united into simple unbranched
-filaments. The chromatophore consists of an axial chlorophyll-plate,
-with several pyrenoids. The zygote is formed by the coalescence
-of two cells (Fig. <a href="#fig43">43</a>) (sometimes three or four), but the whole
-protoplasmic contents of the cells do not take part in this process,
-a portion always remaining behind; the aplanogametes coalesce in
-the conjugation-canal. The zygote thus formed appears incapable of
-germination until after 3–5 divisions. Of the cells so formed, only one
-is fertile, the sterile cells, according to Pringsheim, constituting
-a rudimentary sporocarp. The germinating cells grow out into a new
-filament. In this order, conjugation has been observed between two
-cells of the same filament. The Mesocarpaceæ thrive best in water which
-contains lime.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig43" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig43.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span>&mdash;Mougeotia calcarea. Cells showing
-various modes of conjugation: at <i>m</i> tripartition; <i>pg</i>
-quadripartition; <i>s</i> quinquipartilion of the zygote.</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h3>Class 6. <b>Chlorophyceæ (Green Algæ).</b></h3>
-
-<p>These Algæ are coloured green by chlorophyll, seldom in combination
-with other colouring matter, and then especially with red. The product
-of assimilation is frequently starch, which generally accumulates round
-certain specially formed portions of protoplasm termed pyrenoids.
-The thallus is uni- or multicellular; in the higher forms (certain
-Siphoneæ) the organs of vegetation attain differentiation into stem
-and leaf. The asexual reproduction takes place in various ways; the
-sexual reproduction is effected by conjugation of motile gametes, or
-by oogamous fertilisation. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span> swarm-cells (zoospores, gametes, and
-spermatozoids) are constructed symetrically, and have true protoplasmic
-cilia, these generally being attached to the front end of the
-swarm-cells. Most of these Algæ live in water (fresh or salt); some are
-found upon damp soil, stones, or tree-stems, and some live enclosed in
-other plants.</p>
-
-<p>The Class is divided into three families:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Protococcoideæ</span>: Volvocaceæ, Tetrasporaceæ, Chlorosphæraceæ,
-Pleurococcaceæ, Protococcaceæ, Hydrodictyaceæ.</p>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">Confervoideæ</span>: Ulvaceæ, Ulothricaceæ, Chætophoraceæ,
-Mycoideaceæ, Cylindrocapsaceæ, Œdogoniaceæ, Coleochætaceæ,
-Cladophoraceæ, Gomontiaceæ, Sphæropleaceæ.</p>
-
-<p>3. <span class="smcap">Siphoneæ</span>: Botrydiaceæ, Bryopsidaceæ, Derbesiaceæ,
-Vaucheriaceæ, Phyllosiphonaceæ, Caulerpaceæ, Codiaceæ, Valoniaceæ,
-Dasycladaceæ.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 1. <b>Protococcoideæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The Algæ which belong to this group are uni- or multicellular with
-the cells more or less firmly connected, sometimes in a definite,
-sometimes in an indefinite form (Fig. <a href="#fig47">47</a>). Colonies are formed either
-by division or by small unicellular individuals becoming united in a
-definite manner; the colonies formed in this latter way are termed
-<i>Cœnobia</i>. Apical cells and branching are absent. Multiplication
-by division; asexual reproduction by zoospores, rarely by akinetes.
-Sexual reproduction may be wanting, or it takes place by isogamous,
-rarely by oogamous fertilisation.</p>
-
-<p>Some are attached by means of a stalk to other objects
-(<i>Characium</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig49">49</a>), others occur as “Endophytes” in the
-tissues of certain Mosses or Phanerogams, <i>e.g. Chlorochytrium
-lemnæ</i>, in <i>Lemna trisulca</i>; <i>Endosphæra</i>, in the
-leaves of <i>Potamogeton</i>, <i>Mentha aquatica</i>, and <i>Peplis
-portula</i>; <i>Phyllobium</i>, in the leaves of <i>Lysimachia
-nummularia</i>, <i>Ajuga</i>, <i>Chlora</i>, and species of Grasses;
-<i>Scotinosphæra</i> in the leaves of <i>Hypnum</i> and <i>Lemna
-trisulca</i>; the majority, however, live free in water and in damp
-places. Many species which were formerly considered to belong to this
-family have been proved to be higher Algæ in stages of development.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Volvocaceæ.</b> The individuals in this order are either
-uni- or multicellular, and during the essential part of their life are
-free-swimming organisms. They are generally encased in a mucilaginous
-envelope, through which 2–6 cilia project from every<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span> cell. The
-vegetative reproduction takes place by the division of all, or a few,
-of the cells of the individual; in some a palmella-stage is found in
-addition. The sexual reproduction takes place by isogamous or oogamous
-fertilisation.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The Volvocaceæ may be considered to include the original forms
-of the Chlorophyceæ, because, among other reasons, the motile
-stage is here the most prominent; they also form the connecting
-link between the animal Flagellata, and forms intermediate to
-the <i>Syngeneticæ</i> may perhaps be found amongst them. Three
-series of green Algæ may be supposed to have taken their origin
-from the Volvocaceæ: <span class="smcap">Conjugateæ</span> (<i>Desmidiaceæ</i>)
-which have lost the swarming stage, but whose conjugation
-is the nearest to the fertilisation in <i>Chlamydomonas
-pulvisculus</i>: the <span class="smcap">Protococcaceæ</span> in which the
-vegetative divisions have disappeared, while the swarming
-stage continues to be present, though of shorter duration; and
-<span class="smcap">Tetrasporaceæ</span>, in which the vegetative divisions are
-more prominent, whilst the swarming stage is less so.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A. <span class="smcap">Unicellular Individuals.</span> The principle genera are:
-<i>Chlamydomonas</i>, <i>Sphærella</i>, <i>Phacotus</i>.&mdash;<i>Sphærella
-nivalis</i> is the Alga which produces the phenomenon of “Red Snow,”
-well known on high mountains and on ice and snow fields in the polar
-regions. The red colouring matter which appears in this and other green
-Algæ, especially in the resting cells, is produced by the alteration of
-the chlorophyll.</p>
-
-<p><i>Phacotus lenticularis</i> has an outer covering incrusted with
-lime, which, at death, or after division, opens out into two halves.
-Species may be found among <i>Chlamydomonas</i>, in which conjugation
-takes place between gametes of similar size without cell-wall, but in
-<i>C. pulvisculus</i> conjugation takes place between male and female
-aplanogametes which are surrounded by a mucilaginous envelope.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig44" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig44.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.</span>&mdash;<i>Gonium pectorale.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig45" style="width: 700px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig45.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.</span>&mdash;<i>Pandorina morum.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>B. <span class="smcap">Multicellular Individuals.</span> The most important genera
-are <i>Gonium</i>, <i>Stephanosphæra</i>, <i>Pandorina</i>,
-<i>Eudorina</i>, <i>Volvox</i>.&mdash;<i>Gonium</i> has 4 or 16
-cells arranged in a definite pattern in a flat plate (Fig. <a href="#fig44">44</a>).
-<i>Pandorina</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig45">45</a>), has 16 cells arranged in a sphere (Fig. <a href="#fig45">45</a>
-<i>A</i>). The vegetative reproduction takes place in this way: each
-cell, after having rounded off, and after the withdrawal of the cilia,
-divides itself<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span> into 16 new ones (Fig. <a href="#fig45">45</a> <i>B</i>), each forming a
-new individual, which soon grows to the size of the mother-individual.
-It was in this Alga that the conjugation of self-motile gametes was
-first discovered by Pringsheim, 1869. When conjugation is about to take
-place, each cell divides into sixteen, as in vegetative reproduction,
-but the 16 × 16 cells all separate from one another (Fig. <a href="#fig45">45</a> <i>C</i>,
-female gametes, and <i>D</i>, male gametes), and swarm solitarily in
-the water. The male are, most frequently, smaller than the female, but
-otherwise they are exactly alike; they are more or less pear-shaped,
-with a colourless anterior end, 2 cilia, a red “eye-spot,” etc. After
-swarming for some time they approach each other, two and two, generally
-a large and a smaller one, and come into contact at their colourless
-end; in a few moments they coalesce and become one cell (Fig. <a href="#fig45">45</a>
-<i>E</i>, <i>F</i>), this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[50]</span> has at first a large colourless anterior
-end, 4 cilia, and 2 “eye-spots” (Fig. <a href="#fig45">45</a> <i>G</i>), but these soon
-disappear and the cell becomes uniformly dark-green and spherical, and
-surrounds itself with a thick cell-wall, losing at the same time its
-power of motion: the zygote (Fig. <a href="#fig45">45</a> <i>H</i>) is formed, and becomes
-later on a deep red colour. On the germination of the zygote, the
-protoplasmic cell-contents burst open the wall (Fig. <a href="#fig45">45</a> <i>J</i>), and
-emerge as a large swarmspore (Fig. <a href="#fig45">45</a> <i>K</i>) which divides into 16
-cells, and the first small individual is formed (Fig. <a href="#fig45">45</a> <i>L</i>,
-<i>M</i>).</p>
-
-<p><i>Eudorina</i> is like <i>Pandorina</i> in structure, but stands
-somewhat higher, since the contrast between the conjugating sexual
-cells is greater, the female one being a motionless oosphere.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig46" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig46.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span>&mdash;<i>Volvox globator</i>, sexual
-individual: <i>a</i> antheridia which have formed spermatozoids;
-<i>b</i> oogonia.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The highest stage of development is found in <i>Volvox</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig46">46</a>).
-The cells are here arranged on the circumference of a sphere, and
-enclose a cavity filled with mucilage. The number of these cells may
-vary from 200–22,000, of which the majority are vegetative and not
-reproductive, but some become large, motionless oospheres (Fig. <a href="#fig46">46</a>
-<i>b</i>); others, which may appear as solitary individuals, divide
-and form disc-shaped masses of from 8–256 small spermatozoids<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[51]</span> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig46">46</a> <i>a</i>). After the oosphere has been fertilised by these, the
-oospore surrounds itself by a thick, sometimes thorny cell-wall, and
-on germination becomes a new individual of few cells. A few cells
-conspicuous by their larger size may be found (1–9, but generally 8)
-in certain individuals, and these provide the vegetative reproduction,
-each forming by division a new individual.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Tetrasporaceæ</b> reproduce both by vegetative
-divisions and swarmspores, some have also gamete-conjugation.
-The principal genera are: <i>Tetraspora</i>, <i>Apiocystis</i>,
-<i>Dactylococcus</i>, <i>Dictyosphærium</i>, <i>Chlorangium</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Chlorosphæraceæ.</b> <i>Chlorosphæra.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Pleurococcaceæ.</b> In this order the swarm-stages and
-sexual reproduction are entirely absent. Vegetative reproduction
-by division. The principal genera are: <i>Pleurococcus</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig47">47</a>), <i>Scenedesmus</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig48">48</a>), <i>Raphidium</i>,
-<i>Oocystis</i>, <i>Schizochlamys</i>, <i>Crucigenia</i>,
-<i>Selenastrum</i>.&mdash;<i>Pleurococcus vulgaris</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig47">47</a>) is one of
-the most common Algæ throughout the world, occurring as green coverings
-on tree-stems, and damp walls, and it is one of the most common
-lichen-gonidia.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig47" style="width: 229px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig47.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span>&mdash;<i>Pleurococcus vulgaris.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig48" style="width: 289px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig48.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.</span>&mdash;<i>Scenedesmus quadricauda.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Protococcaceæ.</b> The cells are motionless, free or
-affixed on a stalk (<i>e.g. Characium</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig49">49</a>), either
-separate or loosely bound to one another; they never form multicellular
-individuals. Multiplication by division is nearly always wanting.
-Reproduction takes place by swarmspores, which have 1 or 2 cilia, and
-sexual reproduction in some by gamete-conjugation. The principal genera
-are: <i>Chlorococcum</i>, <i>Chlorochytrium</i>, <i>Chlorocystis</i>,
-<i>Scotinosphæra</i>, <i>Endosphæra</i>, <i>Phyllobium</i>,
-<i>Characium</i>, <i>Ophiocytium</i>, <i>Sciadium</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig49" style="width: 317px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig49.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.</span>&mdash;<i>Characium strictum. A</i>
-The cell-contents have divided into many swarmspores. <i>B</i>
-Swarmspores escaping.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Hydrodictyaceæ.</b> The individuals are unicellular but
-several unite after the zoospore-stage into definitely formed families
-(cœnobia). Ordinary vegetative division is wanting, but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[52]</span> asexual
-reproduction takes place by zoospores (or by motionless cells without
-cilia), which unite and form a family similar to the mother-family,
-inside the mother-cell, or in a mucilaginous envelope. Where sexual
-reproduction is found it takes place by gamete-conjugation. The
-principal genera are: <i>Pediastrum</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig50">50</a>), <i>Cœlastrum</i>,
-<i>Hydrodictyon</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig51">51</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig50" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig50.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5O.</span>&mdash;<i>Pediastrum asperum.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig51" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig51.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.</span>&mdash;<i>Hydrodictyou reticulatum.</i>
-<i>A</i> A cell where the zoospores are on the point of arranging
-themselves to form a net. <i>B</i> A cell with gametes swarming out.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The cœnobium of <i>Hydrodictyon reticulatum</i> (Water-net) is formed
-of a large number of cells which are cylindrical, and attached to one
-another by the ends (Fig. <a href="#fig51">51</a>). The asexual reproduction takes place by
-zoospores, which are formed in large numbers (7,000–20,000) in each
-mother-cell, within which they move about for a time, and then come to
-rest and arrange themselves into a new net (Fig. <a href="#fig51">51</a> <i>A</i>) which
-is set free by the dissolution of the wall of the mother-cell, grows,
-and becomes a new cœnobium. The sexual reproduction takes place by
-gamete-conjugation. The gametes are formed in the same manner as the
-zoospores, but in larger numbers (30,000–100,000), and swarm out of
-the mother-cell (Fig. <a href="#fig51">51</a> <i>B</i>). The zygote forms, on germination,
-2–5 large zoospores, each with one or two cilia, these generally
-swarm about for a time, and after a period of rest become irregular
-thorny bodies (polyhedra); their contents again divide into zoospores,
-the thorny external coating of the polyhedra is cast off, and the
-zoospores, surrounded by the dilated internal coating, unite to form a
-small family, which produces several others in the manner described.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 2. <b>Confervoideæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The individuals are always multicellular, the cells firmly bound
-together and united into unbranched or branched filaments, expansions,
-or masses of cells which grow by intercallary divisions or have
-apical growth. In the first seven orders the cells are uninuclear,
-but the cells of the remaining three orders contain several nuclei.
-Asexual reproduction by zoospores, akinetes or aplanospores. Sexual
-reproduction by isogamous or oogamous fertilisation.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The Confervoideæ, through the Ulvaceæ, are connected with the
-Tetrasporaceæ, and from the <i>Coleochætaceæ</i>, which is
-the most highly developed order, there are the best reasons
-for supposing that the Mosses have taken their origin.
-The <i>Cladophoraceæ</i> show the nearest approach to the
-<i>Siphoneæ</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Ulvaceæ.</b> The thallus consists of one or two layers
-of parenchymatous cells, connected together to form either a
-flat membrane (<i>Monostroma</i>, <i>Ulva</i>) or a hollow tube
-(<i>Enteromorpha</i>), and may be either simple, lobed, or branched.
-Reproduction takes place by detached portions of the thallus; or
-asexually by zoospores or akinetes. Gamete-conjugation is known to take
-place in some members of this order, the zygote germinating without any
-resting-stage. The majority are found in salt or brackish water.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig52" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig52.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.</span>&mdash;<i>Ulothrix zonata</i>: a portion
-of a filament with zoospores, which are formed two in each cell
-(zoosporangium); the dark spots are the red “eye-spots”; 1, 2, 3, 4,
-denote successive stages in the development of the zoospores; <i>b</i>
-a single zoospore, <i>v</i> the pulsating vacuole; <i>c</i> portion
-of a filament with gametes, sixteen are produced in each gametangium;
-<i>d</i> free gametes, solitary or in the act of conjugation; <i>e</i>
-the conjugation is completed, and the formed zygote has assumed the
-resting-stage.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Ulothricaceæ.</b> The thallus consists normally of a simple
-unbranched filament (sometimes a small expansion consisting of one
-layer of cells is formed, as in <i>Schizomeris</i> and <i>Prasiola</i>
-which were formerly described as separate genera). Asexual reproduction
-takes place by means of zoospores (with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span> 1, 2, or 4 cilia), akinetes or
-aplanospores; the last named may germinate immediately, or only after
-a period of rest. Sexual reproduction takes place by the conjugation
-of gametes of about the same size, each having two cilia (Fig. <a href="#fig52">52</a>
-<i>d</i>). The zygote of <i>Ulothrix</i>, on germination, produces a
-brood of zoospores which swarm for a time and then elongate to become
-<i>Ulothrix</i>-filaments (alternation of generations). The gametes
-may also germinate without conjugation in the same manner as the
-zoospores. The principal genera are: <i>Ulothrix</i>, <i>Hormidium</i>,
-<i>Conferva</i>, <i>Microspora</i>.&mdash;<i>Ulothrix zonata</i> is
-very common in running fresh water. Nearly all the species of
-<i>Hormidium</i> occur on damp soil, tree-stems and stones.</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Chætophoraceæ.</b> The thallus consists of a single,
-branched, erect or creeping filament of cells, often surrounded by
-mucilage. The cells have only one nucleus. Asexual reproduction
-by zoospores with 2 or 4 cilia, by akinetes, or aplanospores. In
-many, conjugation between gametes with 2 cilia may be found. They
-approach on one side, Ulothricaceæ, and on the other, Mycoideaceæ.
-The principal genera are: <i>Stigeoclonium</i>, <i>Draparnaldia</i>,
-<i>Chætophora</i>, <i>Entoderma</i>, <i>Aphanochæte</i>,
-<i>Herposteiron</i>, <i>Phæothamnion</i>, <i>Chlorotylium</i>,
-<i>Trichophilus</i>, <i>Gongrosira</i>, <i>Trentepohlia</i>. Most of
-the species of <i>Trentepohlia</i> are coloured red by the presence of
-a red colouring material, which occurs in addition to the chlorophyll.
-They are aerial Algæ which live on stones (<i>T. jolithus</i>, “violet
-stone,” so named on account of its violet-like odour in rainy weather),
-on bark and old wood (<i>T. umbrina</i>), or on damp rocks (<i>T.
-aurea</i>). <i>Trichophilus welckeri</i> lives in the hair of Bradypus.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Mycoideaceæ.</b> The thallus is discoid, consisting
-of one or more cell-layers, and is always attached. Asexual
-reproduction by zoospores with 2 or 4 cilia. Sexual reproduction
-in some species by the conjugation of gametes with 2 cilia. This
-order forms the connecting link between <i>Chætophoraceæ</i>
-and <i>Coleochætaceæ</i>. The species occur in fresh water
-(<i>Chætopeltis</i>) as well as in salt (<i>Pringsheimia</i>),
-on the carapace of tortoises (<i>Dermatophyton</i> =
-<i>Epiclemmydia</i>), or endophytic between the cuticle and the
-epidermal cells of the leaves of tropical plants, destroying the
-leaf-tissue (<i>Mycoidea</i>).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Cylindrocapsaceæ.</b> The thallus consists of a simple
-(rarely, in parts, formed of many rows) unbranched filament, attached
-in the young condition, which has short cells with a single nucleus,
-and is enveloped in a thick envelope with a laminated structure.
-Asexual reproduction by zoospores with 2 cilia, which are formed 1,
-2, or 4 in each vegetative cell. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span> antheridia are produced by a
-single cell, or a group of cells, in a filament, dividing several times
-without increasing in size. Two egg-shaped spermatozoids, each with 2
-cilia (Fig. <a href="#fig53">53</a> <i>D</i>), are formed in each antheridium, and escape
-through an aperture in the side; in the first stages they are enclosed
-in a bladder-like membrane (Fig. <a href="#fig53">53</a> <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>). Other cells
-of the filament swell out and form oogonia (Fig. <a href="#fig53">53</a> <i>A</i>), which
-resemble those of <i>Œdogonium</i>. After fertilisation, the oospore
-surrounds itself with a thick wall, and assumes a reddish colour. The
-germination is unknown. The unfertilised oospheres remain green, divide
-often into 2–4 daughter-cells, and grow into new filaments.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig53" style="width: 532px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig53.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.</span>&mdash;<i>Cylindrocopsa involuta.</i>
-<i>A</i> Oogonium with oosphere (<i>o</i>) surrounded by spermatozoids
-(<i>s</i>). <i>B</i> Two antheridia, each with two spermatozoids.
-<i>C</i> Spermatozoids surrounded by their bladder-like membrane.
-<i>D</i> Free spermatozoid.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>This order, which only includes one genus, <i>Cylindrocapsa</i>, forms
-the connecting link between <i>Ulothricaceæ</i> and <i>Œdogoniaceæ</i>.
-The few species (4) occur only in fresh water.</p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Œdogoniaceæ.</b> The thallus consists of branched
-(<i>Bulbochæte</i>) or unbranched (<i>Œdogonium</i>) filaments,
-attached in the early stages. The cells may be longer or shorter,
-and have one nucleus. Asexual reproduction by zoospores, which have
-a chaplet of cilia round the base of the colourless end (Fig. <a href="#fig6">6</a>
-<i>a</i>). Sexual reproduction takes place by oogamous fertilisation.
-On the germination of the oospore, 4 zoospores are formed (Fig. <a href="#fig54">54</a>
-<i>F</i>). They occur only in fresh or slightly brackish water. The
-division<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[56]</span> of the cells takes place in quite a peculiar and unusual
-manner. At the upper end of the cell which is about to divide, a
-ring-shaped thickening of soft cellulose is formed transversely round
-the wall; the cell-nucleus of the mother-cell and the protoplasm then
-divide by a transverse wall into two portions of similar size, and the
-cell-wall bursts transversely along the central line of the thickened
-ring. The cell-wall thus divides into two parts&mdash;the upper one short,
-the “cap,” and the lower one much longer, the “sheath.” The portions
-of the original cell-wall now separate from each other, the cellulose
-ring extending, and supplying an additional length of cell-wall between
-them. The cap and sheath will project a little in front of the piece
-thus inserted. The dividing wall between the two new cells is formed
-near to the uppermost edge of the sheath, and gradually becomes thicker
-and firmer. The inserted piece of wall forms the larger part of the
-wall of the upper cell: the remainder is formed by the cap. This mode
-of division is repeated exactly in the same way, and new caps are
-formed close below the first one, one for every division.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig54" style="width: 439px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig54.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.</span>&mdash;<i>A Œdogonium ciliatum.</i>
-<i>A</i> Female plant with three oogonia (<i>og</i>) and dwarf-males
-(<i>m</i>). <i>B</i> An oogonium with spermatozoid (<i>z</i>) seen
-entering the oosphere (<i>o</i>) having passed through an aperture
-near the summit of the oogonium; <i>m</i> dwarf-male. <i>C</i> Ripe
-oospore. <i>D Œdogonium gemelliparum. F</i> Portion of
-a male filament from which spermatozoids (<i>z</i>) are emerging.
-<i>E</i> Portion of filament of <i>Bulbochæte</i>; the upper oogonium
-still encloses the oospore, in the central one the oospore is escaping
-while the lower one is empty. <i>F</i> Four zoospores developed from an
-oospore. <i>G</i> Zoospore germinating.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span></p>
-
-<p>Fertilisation takes place in the following way. The oogonium is a
-large ellipsoidal, swollen cell (<i>og</i>, in Fig. <a href="#fig54">54</a> <i>A</i>),
-whose contents are rounded off into an oosphere with a colourless
-receptive-spot (see <i>B</i>); an aperture is formed in the wall of
-the oogonium, through which the spermatozoids are enabled to enter
-(<i>B</i>). The spermatozoids are produced either directly, as in
-<i>D</i> (in pairs), in basal cells of the filament, or indirectly.
-In the latter case a swarmspore (<i>androspore</i>) is formed which
-comes to rest, attaches itself to an oogonium, germinates, and gives
-rise to a filament of a very few cells&mdash;<i>dwarf-male</i> (<i>A</i>,
-<i>B</i>, <i>m</i>). The spermatozoids are formed in the upper cell
-of the dwarf-male (<i>m</i>), and are set free by the summit of the
-antheridium lifting off like a lid. On the germination of the oospore
-(<i>C</i>), which takes place in the following spring, 4 zoospores are
-produced (<i>F</i>) (<i>i.e.</i> the sexual generation); these swarm
-about for a time, and ultimately grow into new filaments.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig55" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig55.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.</span>&mdash;<i>Coleochæte pulvinata. A</i>
-A portion of a thallus with organs of reproduction; <i>a</i> oogonium
-before, <i>b</i> after fertilisation; <i>c</i> an antheridium, closed;
-<i>d</i> open, with emerging spermatozoid. <i>B</i> Ripe oogonium,
-with envelope. <i>C</i> Germination of the oospore. <i>D</i> Zoospore.
-<i>E</i> Spermatozoid.</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Coleochætaceæ.</b> The thallus is always attached, and of a
-disc- or cushion-shape, formed by the dichotomous branching of filaments
-of cells united in a pseudo-parenchymatous manner. Each cell has only
-one nucleus. Asexual reproduction by zoospores with 2 cilia (Fig. <a href="#fig55">55</a>
-<i>D</i>), which may arise in all the cells. Sexual reproduction by
-oogamous fertilisation. The spermatozoids resemble the swarmspores,
-but are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[58]</span> smaller (<i>E</i>), and originate singly (in the species
-figured) in small conical cells (<i>c</i>, <i>d</i> in <i>A</i>). The
-oogonia are developed at the extremities of certain branches: they are
-bottle-shaped cells with very long and thin necks (<i>trichogyne</i>),
-open at the end (<i>a</i> in <i>A</i>); at the base of each oogonium
-is a spherical oosphere. The spermatozoids reach the oosphere through
-the trichogyne, or through an aperture in the wall when the trichogyne
-is absent, and fertilisation having taken place, the oogonium becomes
-surrounded by a cell-layer (envelope), which grows out from the cells
-near its base (<i>b</i> in <i>A</i>), and in this way a kind of fruit
-is formed (<i>B</i>) (<i>spermocarp</i>, <i>cystocarp</i>).</p>
-
-<p>The oospore, next spring, divides and forms a parenchymatous
-tissue (homologous with the Moss-sporophyte); this bursts open the
-envelope (<i>C</i>), and a zoospore (homologous with the spores of
-the Moss-capsule) arises in each of the cells, and produces a new
-<i>Coleochæte</i>. We have then, in this case, a still more distinct
-alternation of generations than in <i>Œdogonium</i>. Only one genus,
-<i>Coleochæte</i>, is known, but it contains several species, all
-living in fresh water.</p>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Cladophoraceæ.</b> This order is probably derived from
-the Ulothricaceæ. The thallus consists of a single, unbranched or
-branched filament, generally with an apical cell. The cells have each
-2 or more nuclei. Asexual reproduction by zoospores with 2 or 4 cilia,
-and by akinetes. Conjugation of gametes with 2 cilia is found in some
-genera. They occur in salt as well as in fresh water. The principal
-genera are: <i>Urospora</i>, <i>Chætomorpha</i>, <i>Rhizoclonium</i>,
-<i>Cladophora</i>; of the last named genus the species <i>C. lanosa</i>
-and <i>C. rupestris</i> are common in salt water; <i>C. fracta</i> and
-<i>C. glomerata</i> in fresh water.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 9. <b>Gomontiaceæ.</b> <i>Gomontia polyrrhiza</i>, the
-only species hitherto known, is found on old calcareous shells
-of certain salt water Molluscs.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 10. <b>Sphæropleaceæ.</b> The thallus consists of free,
-unbranched filaments, with very elongated multinuclear cells. The
-vegetative cells form no zoospores. Sexual reproduction by oogamous
-fertilisation (see page <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, Fig. <a href="#fig10">10</a> <i>B</i>). The oospore has a thick
-wall (Fig. <a href="#fig10">10</a> <i>D</i>) studded with warts, and assumes a colour
-resembling red lead. It germinates only in the following spring, and
-produces 1–8 zoospores, each with 2 cilia (Fig. <a href="#fig10">10</a> <i>E</i>), which
-grow into new filaments. Only one species, <i>Sphæroplea annulina</i>,
-is known.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 3. <b>Siphoneæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The thallus has apical growth, and in the vegetative condition
-consists generally of one single (in the Valoniaceæ most frequently
-of more) multinuclear cell, which may be much branched, and whose
-separate parts in the higher forms (<i>e.g. Bryopsis</i>,
-Fig. <a href="#fig57">57</a>; <i>Caulerpa</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig59">59</a>, etc.) may be differentiated to
-perform the various physiological functions (as root, stem and leaf).
-Vegetative multiplication by detached portions of the thallus (gemmæ);
-asexual reproduction by zoospores, akinetes, or aplanospores. Sexual
-reproduction by gamete-conjugation, rarely by oogamous fertilisation.
-The zygote or oospore germinates as a rule without any resting-stage.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig56" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig56.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.</span>&mdash;<i>Botrydium granulatum</i>: <i>a</i>
-an entire plant forming swarmspores; <i>b</i> swamspores; <i>c</i>
-an individual with gametangia; <i>d</i>, gamete; <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>,
-<i>g</i> conjugation; <i>h</i> zygote seen from above; <i>i</i> the
-same in a lateral view.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Most of the Siphoneæ occur in salt water or on damp soil. Many
-(<i>e.g. Dasycladaceæ</i>) are very much incrusted with lime,
-and occur, in the fossilized condition, in the deposits from the
-Cretaceous period to the present time. The Siphoneæ are connected
-by their lowest forms (<i>Botrydiaceæ</i> or <i>Valonia</i>) with
-the Protococcaceæ, but show also, through the Valoniaceæ, points of
-relationship to the <i>Cladophoraceæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Botrydiaceæ.</b> The thallus in the vegetative condition
-is unicellular, club-shaped, with a small single (<i>Codiolum</i>)
-or repeatedly dichotomously branched system of colourless rhizoids
-(<i>Botrydium</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig56">56</a> <i>a</i>), by which it is attached to
-objects immersed in salt water (<i>Codiolum</i>) or to damp clay
-soil (<i>Botrydium</i>). Asexual reproduction by zoospores with one
-(<i>Botrydium</i>) or two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span> cilia, and by aplanospores. The sexual
-reproduction is only known in <i>Botrydium</i>, and takes place in the
-following manner: in the part of the thallus which is above ground
-and in an active vegetative condition, several round cells (Fig. <a href="#fig56">56</a>
-<i>c</i>) are formed, which may be green or red according as they
-grow under water, or exposed to the strong light of the sun. These
-cells must be considered as “gametangia” as they produce many gametes
-(<i>d</i>) provided with two cilia. The zygote (<i>h</i>, <i>i</i>)
-formed by the conjugation (<i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>) may either
-germinate immediately, or become a thick-walled resting-cell of an
-irregular, angular form.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Bryopsidaceæ.</b> The thallus in the vegetative
-condition is unicellular, and consists at the lower extremity of
-branched rhizoids, while the upper portion is prolonged into a
-stem-like structure of unlimited growth, producing, acropetally,
-branches and leaf-like structures. The latter have limited
-growth, and are separated by a cross wall from the stem, and
-become gametangia, or drop off. The gametes have two cilia, and
-are of two kinds: the female, which are green and large and the
-male, which are of brownish colour and smaller. Zoospores or
-any other method of asexual reproduction are unknown. Only one
-genus, <i>Bryopsis</i>, living in salt water.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig57" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig57.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span>&mdash;<i>Bryopsis plumosa</i>. A the plant,
-natural size. B A portion (enlarged) which shows the growing point (v),
-and the leaves derived from it in acropetal succession.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Derbesiaceæ.</b> Only one genus, <i>Derbesia</i>,
-living in saltwater. The zoospores, which are formed in a few
-lateral, swollen zoosporangia, possess one nucleus which has
-arisen through the coalescence of several, and they resemble
-the zoospores of <i>Œdogonium</i> by having a circle of cilia
-attached at the base of the colourless spot.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Vaucheriaceæ.</b> The thallus consists, in the vegetative
-condition, of a single irregularly or dichotomously branched cell,
-without differentiation into stem or leaf; root-like organs of
-attachment may however occur. Asexual reproduction by zoospores, which
-are formed singly in the extremity of a branch cut off by a transverse
-wall. They contain many nuclei, and bear small cilia situated in pairs,
-which give the appearance of a fine “pile” covering the whole or a
-great part of the surface. Akinetes,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[61]</span> aplanospores, and phytoamœbæ
-(naked masses of protoplasm, without cilia, which creep like an amœba
-on a substratum) may occur under certain conditions.</p>
-
-<p>The sexual reproductive organs are formed on short lateral branches,
-and are separated from the vegetative cell (Fig. <a href="#fig58">58</a> <i>A</i>) by
-cell-walls. Numerous spermatozoids, each with two cilia, are developed
-in the coiled antheridium (<i>A</i>, <i>b</i>). The oogonium is a
-thick, egg-shaped, often oblique cell, with its protoplasm rounded into
-an oosphere, which has a hyaline “receptive-spot” (<i>A</i>, <i>a</i>)
-immediately beneath the aperture formed in the wall of the oogonium.
-A slimy mass, which serves to receive the spermatozoids, is formed
-in some species in this aperture. The spermatozoids when liberated
-swim towards and enter the oosphere, which then immediately surrounds
-itself with a thick cell-wall. The mature oospore (<i>B</i>) contains
-a large quantity of oil. At germination the outer cell-wall bursts and
-a new plant is formed. There is only one genus, <i>Vaucheria</i>, with
-species living in salt as well as in fresh water and on damp soil.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig58" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig58.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.</span>&mdash;<i>Vaucheria sessilis</i>. <i>A</i>
-Fertilisation; <i>b</i> the antheridia; <i>a</i> the oogonia; <i>a</i>
-the receptive spot. <i>B</i> Oospore.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Phyllosiphonaceæ</b> are parasites in the leaves and
-stalks of Flowering-plants.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Caulerpaceæ.</b> The thallus has distinct differentiation
-into root, stem and leaf-like members (Fig. <a href="#fig59">59</a>); it is unicellular.
-Within the cell, strong, branched threads of cellulose extend from one
-side to the other serving as stays to support the thallus. Reproduction
-takes place by detached portions of the thallus; no other modes of
-reproduction are known. This order may most approximately be classed
-with the <i>Bryopsidaceæ</i>. The genus <i>Caulerpa</i> consists of
-more than seventy species which inhabit the tropical seas.</p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Codiaceæ.</b> The thallus has various forms, but without<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span>
-distinct differentiation in stem- or leaf-structures, sometimes
-(<i>e.g. Halimeda</i>) it is very much incrusted with lime.
-In the early stages it is unicellular (later, often multicellular),
-very much branched, with the branches, at any rate partly, so
-united or grown in amongst one another (Fig. <a href="#fig60">60</a>) that an apparently
-parenchymatous cellular body is formed. Akinetes or aplanospores are
-wanting; zoospores (or gametes?) may be developed in some species,
-however, in special swollen sporangia. Fertilisation similar to that
-in <i>Bryopsis</i> occurs perhaps in <i>Codium</i>. They are all salt
-water forms.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Valoniaceæ.</b> The thallus is generally
-multicellular, without differentation into stem- or
-leaf-structures, but the cells are sometimes united together
-and form a leaf-like reticulate expansion (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Anadyomene</i>). Zoospores are known in some, and they
-are then formed directly in the vegetative cells. In others
-(<i>e.g. Valonia</i>), a mass of protoplasm, which
-maybe separated through the damaging of a cell, can surround
-itself with a cell-wall, and grow into a new plant. No other
-modes of reproduction are known. The most important genera
-are: <i>Valonia</i>, <i>Siphonocladus</i>, <i>Chamædoris</i>,
-<i>Struvea</i>, <i>Microdictyon</i>, <i>Anadyomene</i>. They are
-all salt water forms.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig59" style="width: 417px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig59.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.</span>&mdash;<i>Caulerpa prolifera</i> (natural size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>As already pointed out, the <i>Valoniaceæ</i> occupy a
-somewhat central position among the Siphoneæ, and present
-points of similarity and contrast with the <i>Botrydiaceæ</i>
-and the <i>Bryopsidaceæ</i> through <i>Valonia</i>, with the
-<i>Dasycladaceæ</i> through <i>Chamædoris</i>, and also with
-the <i>Cladophoraceæ</i> through <i>Siphonocladus</i>, and
-<i>Struvea</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 9. <b>Dasycladaceæ.</b> The thallus consists of an axile
-longitudinal cell, destitute of transverse walls, attached at the base
-by root-like organs of attachment, and producing acropetally whorls of
-united, single or branched, leaf-like structures with limited growth.
-Asexual reproduction is wanting. Sexual reproduction by conjugation
-of gametes which arise in separate, fertile leaves, either directly
-or from aplanospores, which develope into gametangia. The principal
-genera are: <i>Acetabularia</i>, <i>Dasycladus</i>, <i>Neomeris</i>,
-<i>Cymopolia</i>. All marine.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig60" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig60.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 60.</span>&mdash;<i>Halimeda opuntia.</i> Plant
-(natural size). <i>B</i> Part of a longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The curiously shaped <i>Acetabularia mediterranea</i> grows
-gregariously on limestone rocks, and shells of mussels in the
-Mediterranean; it resembles a minute umbrella with a small stem,
-sometimes as much as nine centimetres in height, and a shade which
-may be more than one centimetre in diameter. The cell-membrane is
-thick, and incrusted with carbonate and oxalate of lime. Only the
-lower, root-like part of the thallus, which penetrates the calcareous
-substratum survives the winter, and may grow up into a new plant. The
-sterile leaves, which drop off early, are dichotomously branched and
-formed of cylindrical cells separated from each other by cross-walls,
-but they are not grown together. The shade is formed by a circle of
-70–100 club-shaped rays (fertile leaves) grown together, in each
-ray 40–80 aplanospores are formed, which become liberated at the
-breaking of the shade, and later on are changed to gametangia (compare
-<i>Botrydium</i>) which open by a lid and allow a large number of
-egg-shaped gametes with two cilia to escape. Gametes from various<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span>
-gametangia conjugate with one another; the product of the conjugation
-swarms about for some time, rounds off, and then surrounds itself with
-a cell-wall. The zygote germinates after a period of rest and then
-produces a sexual plant. The aplanospores (gametangia) thus represent
-the sexual generation.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Class 7. <b>Characeæ.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The thallus has a stem with nodes and internodes; and whorls of leaves,
-on which may be developed the antheridia and oogonia, are borne at
-the nodes. Vegetative reproduction by bulbils and accessory shoots.
-Zoospores are wanting. The antheridia are spherical, and contain a
-number of filaments in which the spirally coiled spermatozoids, each
-with two cilia, are formed. The oogonium is situated terminally, and
-is at first naked, but becomes later on surrounded by an investment,
-and forms after fertilisation the so-called “fruit.” The oospore, after
-a period of rest, germinates by producing a “proembryo,” from which
-the young sexual plant arises as a lateral branch. The Characeæ are
-distinguished by the structure of their vegetative system as well as by
-the spirally-coiled spermatozoids, and stand as an isolated group among
-the Thallophytes, of which, however, the Siphoneæ appear to be their
-nearest relations. They were formerly, but wrongly, placed near the
-Mosses. The class contains only one order, the Characeæ.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Characeæ.</b> Algæ with a peculiar odour, often incrusted
-with lime, and of a brittle nature. They generally grow gregariously
-in large masses at the bottom of fresh and brackish water, and are
-from a few inches to more than a foot in height. The stem has long
-internodes which in <i>Nitella</i> are formed of one cylindrical cell;
-in <i>Chara</i> of a similar cell, but closely surrounded by a cortical
-layer of smaller ones. The protoplasm in contact with the cell-wall
-exhibits in a well-marked degree the movement of rotation (cyclosis),
-carrying the chlorophyll corpuscles along with it. The internodes are
-separated from each other by a layer of small cells (nodal cells)
-from which the leaves are produced. The leaves are borne in whorls of
-from 5–12 which regularly alternate with one another as in the higher
-verticillate plants; a branch is borne in the axil of the first formed
-leaf of each whorl (Fig. <a href="#fig61">61</a> <i>A</i>, <i>n</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig61" style="width: 632px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig61.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.</span>&mdash;<i>Chara fragilis. A</i>
-Portion of a plant, natural size. <i>B</i> Portion of a leaf <i>b</i>,
-with leaflets β′-β′′; <i>a</i> antheridium; <i>c</i> oogonium. <i>C</i>
-A shield.&mdash;<i>Nitella flexilis. D</i> Filament from antheridium
-with spermatozoids. <i>E</i> Free spermatozoids.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The leaves are constructed in the same manner as the stem; they are
-divided into a series of joints, but have only a limited<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span> power of
-growth; their terminal cell, too, is not enclosed by a cortex. Leaflets
-are borne at their nodes. The growth of the stem is unlimited, and
-proceeds by means of an apical cell (Fig. <a href="#fig62">62</a> <i>s</i>). The apical cell
-divides into a segment-cell and a new apical cell. The segment-cell
-then divides by a transverse wall into two cells, one lying above the
-other; the lower one, without any further division, becomes one of the
-long, cylindrical, internodal cells (Fig. <a href="#fig62">62</a> <i>in</i>), and the upper
-one (Fig. <a href="#fig62">62</a> <i>n</i>) divides by vertical walls to form the nodal
-cells. The cortical cells (Fig. <a href="#fig62">62</a> <i>r</i>) which surround the long
-internodal cells of <i>Chara</i>, are derived from the divisions of the
-nodal cells; the cells covering the upper portion of an internodal cell
-being derived from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span> node immediately above it, and those in the
-lower part of the internode from the node below it.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig62" style="width: 580px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig62.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.</span>&mdash;<i>Chara fragilis</i>: <i>s</i>
-apical cell; <i>n</i>, <i>n</i> nodal cells; <i>in</i> internodal
-cells; <i>bl</i>, <i>bl</i> leaves; <i>r</i>, <i>r</i> the cortical
-cells.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig63" style="width: 384px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig63.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.</span>&mdash;Oogonium of <i>Chara</i>: <i>k</i>
-“crown”; <i>u</i> receptive spot; <i>s</i> spermatozoids.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The organs of reproduction are very conspicuous by their colour and
-form. They are always situated on the leaves, the plants being very
-frequently monœcious. The antheridia (Fig. <a href="#fig61">61</a> <i>B</i>, <i>a</i>) are
-modified leaflets or the terminal cell of a leaf; they are spherical
-and become red when mature. Their wall consists of 8 “shields,”
-<i>i.e.</i> of plate-like cells, 4 of which cover the upper half, and
-are triangular; the 4 round the lower half, to which the stalk of the
-antheridia is attached, being quadrilateral, with sides of unequal
-length. The shields (Fig. <a href="#fig61">61</a> <i>C</i>) have dentated edges, with the
-teeth fitting into one another, and their faces ornamented with ridges.
-From the centre of the internal face of each shield (<i>C</i>) a
-cylindrical cell, the <i>manubrium</i>, projects nearly as far as the
-centre of the antheridium; at the inner end of each of the manubria a
-spherical cell, the <i>capitulum</i>, is situated. Each capitulum bears
-six secondary capitula, from each of which four long coiled filaments
-(<i>C</i>, <i>D</i>) project into the cavity of the antheridium. These
-filaments are divided by transverse walls into from 100–200 discoid
-cells, in each of which a biciliated, coiled spermatozoid is developed
-(<i>D</i>, <i>E</i>) from the nucleus. The spermatozoids escape from
-their mother-cell and are set free by the shields separating from one
-other.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span></p>
-
-<p>The female organ of reproduction (Fig. <a href="#fig61">61</a> <i>B</i>, 63) is a small
-modified shoot, whose apical cell functions as an oogonium, its
-protoplasm forming the oosphere, which has a colourless receptive-spot
-at the summit (Fig. <a href="#fig63">63</a> <i>u</i>). The oogonium is situated on a nodal
-cell, from which 5 cells grow out in a circle and coil round the
-oogonium, covering it with a close investment. These cells divide
-once or twice at the top, so that 5 or 10 small cells are cut off,
-which project above the oogonium and form the so-called “crown”
-(Fig. <a href="#fig63">63</a> <i>k</i>). The crown either drops off at fertilisation, or
-its cells separate to form a central canal for the passage of the
-spermatozoids. The wall of the oosphere<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> above the receptive spot
-becomes mucilaginous, and allows the spermatozoid to fuse with the
-oosphere. The oospore, on germination (Fig. <a href="#fig64">64</a> <i>sp</i>), becomes a
-small filamentous plant of limited growth (Fig. <a href="#fig64">64</a> <i>i</i>, <i>d</i>,
-<i>q</i>, <i>pl</i>)&mdash;the proembryo&mdash;and from this, as a lateral
-outgrowth, the sexual generation is produced.</p>
-
-<p>The order is divided into two sub-orders:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>A. <span class="smcap">Nitelleæ.</span> The crown consists of 10 cells; cortex absent:
-<i>Nitella</i>, <i>Tolypella</i>.</p>
-
-<p>B. <span class="smcap">Chareæ.</span> The crown consists of 5 cells; cortex present:
-<i>Tolypellopsis</i>, <i>Lamprothamnus</i>, <i>Lychnothamnus</i>,
-<i>Chara</i>.</p>
-
-<p><i>Chara crinita</i> is parthenogenetic; in large districts of Europe
-only female plants are found, yet oospheres are formed capable of
-germination.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig64" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig64.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.</span>&mdash;<i>Chara fragilis.</i> Germinating
-oospore (<i>sp</i>); <i>i</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>pl</i>, form
-together the proembryo rhizoids (<i>w′</i>) are formed at <i>d</i>;
-<i>w′</i> the so-called tap-root; at <i>g</i> are the first leaves of
-the sexual plant, which appears as a lateral bud.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>About 40 species of fossilized <i>Chara</i>, determined by their
-carpogonia, are known in the geological formations from the Trias up to
-the present day.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Class 8. <b>Phæophyceæ (Olive-Brown Seaweeds).</b></h3>
-
-<p>The Phæophyceæ are Algæ, with chromatophores in which the chlorophyll
-is masked by a brown colour (phycophæin). The product of assimilation
-is a carbohydrate (fucosan), <i>never true starch</i>. In the highest
-forms (<i>Fucaceæ</i>), the thallus presents differentiation into
-stem, leaf, and root-like structures. The asexual reproduction takes
-place by means of zoospores. The sexual reproduction is effected by
-the coalescence of motile gametes, or by oogamous fertilisation. The
-swarm-cells are <i>monosymmetric</i>, each moved by two cilia which are
-true protoplasmic structures, and generally <i>attached laterally</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig65">65</a>). The Phæophyceæ are almost entirely saltwater forms; a few
-species of <i>Lithoderma</i> live in fresh water.</p>
-
-<p>The class is divided into two families:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Phæosporeæ</span>: 1 Sub-Family, Zoogonicæ; 2 Sub-Family, Acinetæ.</p>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">Cyclosporeæ</span>: Fucaceæ.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 1. <b>Phæosporeæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The family consists of multicellular plants, whose cells are firmly
-united together to form a thallus; this, in the simplest cases, may be
-a branched filament of cells (<i>Ectocarpus</i>), or, in the highest,
-may resemble a stem with leaves (<i>Laminariaceæ</i>), while all
-transitional forms may be found between these two. The thallus grows by
-intercalary divisions (<i>e.g. Ectocarpus</i>), or by an apical
-cell (<i>e.g. Sphacelaria</i>); pseudo-parenchymatous tissue may
-sometimes be formed by cells, which were originally distinct, becoming
-united together. The size of the thallus varies; in some species it is
-quite small&mdash;almost microscopical,&mdash;while in the largest it is many
-metres in length.</p>
-
-<p>The vegetative cells in the lower forms are nearly uniform, but
-in those which are more highly developed (<i>Laminariaceæ</i> and
-<i>Fucaceæ</i>), they are sometimes so highly differentiated that
-mechanical, assimilating, storing and conducting systems may be found;
-the last named systems are formed of long cells with perforated,
-transverse walls, which bear a strong resemblance to the sieve-tubes in
-the higher plants.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig65" style="width: 407px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig65.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 65.</span>&mdash;Swarmspore of <i>Cutleria
-multifida</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The colouring matter in the living cells (“phæophyl”) contains<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span>
-chlorophyll; but this is concealed by a brown (“phycophæin”), and a
-yellow (“phycoxanthin”) colouring material, and hence all these Algæ
-are a lighter or darker <i>yellow-brown</i>. Starch is not formed.
-Asexual reproduction takes place, (1) by zoospores which arise in
-unilocular zoosporangia, and are monosymmetric, with two cilia attached
-laterally at the base of the colourless anterior end (Fig. <a href="#fig65">65</a>), the
-longer one being directed forwards and the shorter backwards; or (2) by
-aplanospores (?).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig66" style="width: 357px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig66.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 66.</span>&mdash;<i>Ectocarpus siliculosus</i>. <i>I
-a-f</i> A female gamete in the various stages of coming to rest.
-<i>II</i> A motionless female gamete surrounded by male gametes. <i>III
-a-e</i> Stages in the coalescence of male and female gametes.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig67" style="width: 508px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig67.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.</span>&mdash;<i>Zanardinia collaris</i>. <i>A</i>
-Male gametangia (the smaller celled) and female gametangia (the larger
-celled). <i>C</i> Female gamete. <i>D</i> Male gamete. <i>B</i>,
-<i>E</i> Fertilisation. <i>F</i> Zygote. <i>G</i> Germinating zygote.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Sexual reproduction has only been discovered in a few cases, and takes
-place by means of gametes (oogamous fertilisation perhaps occurs in the
-Tilopteridæ). The gametes have the same structure as the zoospores,
-and arise in multilocular gametangia; these, like the zoosporangia,
-are outgrowths from the external surface, or arise as modifications
-from it. The conjugating gametes may be similar (<i>e.g. Ectocarpus
-pusillus</i>), or there may be a more or less pronounced difference of
-sex, an indication of which is found in <i>Ectocarpus siliculosus</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig66">66</a>). When the gametes in this species have swarmed for a time,
-some, which are generally larger,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[70]</span> are seen to attach themselves
-by one of the cilia, which by degrees is shortened to form a kind
-of stalk (compare the upper gamete in Fig. <a href="#fig66">66</a> <i>II</i>); these
-are the female gametes, which now become surrounded by a number of
-males endeavouring to conjugate with them, but only one succeeds in
-effecting fertilisation. The protoplasm of the two gametes coalesces
-(Fig. <a href="#fig66">66</a> <i>III</i>), and a zygote (<i>e</i>) is formed. The male
-gametes which do not conjugate may germinate, but the plants derived
-from them are much weaker than those produced by the zygotes. Strongly
-pronounced sexual differences are found in the Cutleriaceæ, in which
-order the male and female gametes arise in separate gametangia (Fig.
-<a href="#fig67">67</a> <i>A</i>). The male gametes (Fig. <a href="#fig67">67</a> <i>D</i>) are much smaller
-than the female gamete (Fig. <a href="#fig67">67</a> <i>C</i>); the latter, after swarming
-for a short time, withdraws the cilia, and is then ready to become
-fertilised (Fig. <a href="#fig67">67</a> <i>B</i>, <i>E</i>), thus we have here a distinct
-transition to the oogamous fertilisation which is found in the Fucaceæ.
-Alternation of generations is rarely found.</p>
-
-<p>1. Sub-Family. <b>Zoogonicæ.</b></p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Reproduction by means of gametes and zoospores.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Ectocarpaceæ.</b> The thallus consists of single or
-branched filaments with intercalary growth, extending vertically from a
-horizontal, branched filament or a disc, but sometimes it is reduced to
-this basal portion only. Zoosporangia and gametangia (for fertilisation
-see Fig. <a href="#fig66">66</a>) are either outgrowths or arise by the transformation of
-one or several of the ordinary cells. The most common genera are:
-<i>Ectocarpus</i> and <i>Pylaiella</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Choristocarpaceæ.</b> <i>Choristocarpus</i>,
-<i>Discosporangium</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Sphacelariaceæ.</b> The thallus consists of small,
-parenchymatous, more or less ramified shoots, presenting a feather-like
-appearance. In the shoots, which grow by means of an apical cell (Fig.
-<a href="#fig68">68</a> <i>S</i>), a cortical layer, surrounding a row of central cells, is
-present. Sporangia and gametangia are outgrowths from the main stem or
-its branches. <i>Sphacelaria</i>, <i>Chætopteris</i> are common forms.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig68" style="width: 378px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig68.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.</span>&mdash;Apex of the thallus of <i>Chætopteris
-plumosa</i>. <i>S</i> Apical cell.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Encoeliaceæ.</b> <i>Punctaria</i>,
-<i>Asperococcus</i>, <i>Phyllitis fascia</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Striariaceæ.</b> <i>Striaria</i>, <i>Phlœospora</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Dictyosiphonaceæ.</b> <i>Dictyosiphon.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Desmarestiaceæ.</b> <i>Desmarestia aculeata</i> is
-common.</p>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Myriotrichiaceæ.</b> <i>Myriotrichia.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 9. <b>Elachistaceæ.</b> <i>Elachista fucicola</i> is a
-common epiphyte on species of <i>Fucus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 10. <b>Chordariaceæ.</b> The shoot-systems are often
-surrounded by mucilage. <i>Chordaria</i>; <i>Leathesia
-difformis</i> occurs as rounded, brown-green masses of the size
-of a nut, generally attached to other Seaweeds.</p>
-
-<p>Order 11. <b>Stilophoraceæ.</b> <i>Stilophora rhizodes</i> is
-common.</p>
-
-<p>Order 12. <b>Spermatochnaceæ.</b> <i>Spermatochnus paradoxus</i>
-is common.</p>
-
-<p>Order 13. <b>Sporochnaceæ.</b> <i>Sporochnus.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 14. <b>Ralfsiaceæ.</b> <i>Ralfsia verrucosa</i> is common
-as a red-brown incrustation on stones and rocks at the water’s
-edge.</p>
-
-<p>Order 15. <b>Lithodermataceæ.</b> Some species of the genus
-<i>Lithoderma</i> occur in fresh water.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig69" style="width: 297px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig69.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.</span>&mdash;<i>Laminaria digitata</i> (much
-reduced in size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 16. <b>Laminariaceæ.</b> The thallus is more or less leathery,
-and has generally a root-like lower part (Fig. <a href="#fig69">69</a>) which serves to
-attach it, and a stalk or stem-like part, terminated by a large
-leaf-like expansion. Meristematic cells are situated at the base of
-the leaf, and from these the new leaves are derived. The older leaf
-thus pushed away by the intercalary formation of the younger ones, soon
-withers (Fig. <a href="#fig69">69</a>). Gametes are wanting. Zoosporangia are developed from
-the lower part of a simple, few-celled sporangiophore, which is an
-outgrowth from a surface-cell and has a large club-formed apical cell.
-The sporangia are aggregated into closely packed sori, which cover
-the lower part of the terminal leaf, or occur on special, smaller,
-lateral, fertile fronds (<i>Alaria</i>). Most of the species belonging
-to this order live in seas of moderate or cold temperature and occur
-in the most northern regions that have yet been explored, forming
-their organs of reproduction during the cold and darkness of the
-arctic night. <i>Laminaria</i> is destitute of a midrib and has only
-one terminal leaf.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span> <i>L. digitata</i> has a broad leaf, which, by the
-violence of the waves, is torn into a number of palmate strips (Fig.
-<a href="#fig69">69</a>). <i>L. saccharina</i> has a small, undivided leaf. <i>Alaria</i>
-has a midrib and special fertile fronds. <i>A. esculenta</i> occurs
-plentifully on the west coast of Norway and on the shores of Great
-Britain. <i>Chorda filum</i>, a common seaweed, is thick, unbranched,
-and attains a length of several metres, without any strong demarcation
-between stalk and leaf. Some attain quite a gigantic size, <i>e.g.
-Macrocystis pyrifera</i>, whose thallus is said sometimes to be more
-than 300 metres in length. The <i>Lessonia</i>-species, like the above,
-form submarine forests of seaweed on the south and south-west coasts
-of South America, the Cape, and other localities in the Southern
-Hemisphere.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> The large Laminarias, where they occur in great
-numbers, are, like the Fuci, used for various purposes, for
-example, in the production of iodine and soda, and as an article
-of food (<i>Laminaria saccharina</i>, <i>Alaria esculenta</i>,
-etc.). <i>Laminaria saccharina</i> contains a large quantity of
-sugar (mannit) and is in some districts used in the preparation
-of a kind of syrup; in surgical operations it is employed for
-the distension of apertures and passages, as for instance the
-ear-passage. It is by reason of the anatomical peculiarities
-and structure of the cell-walls, that they are employed for
-this purpose. The cell-walls are divided into two layers, an
-inner one which has very little power of swelling, and an
-outer one, well developed and almost gelatinous&mdash;the so-called
-“intercellular substance”&mdash;which shrivels up when dried, but can
-absorb water and swell to about five times its size. The stalks
-of <i>Laminaria clustoni</i> are officinal.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 17. <b>Cutleriaceæ.</b> The thallus is formed by the union of the
-originally free, band-shaped shoots. The growth is intercalary. Sexual
-reproduction by the conjugation of male and female gametes. An asexual
-generation of different appearance, which produces zoospores, arises
-from the germination of the zygote. <i>Cutleria</i>, <i>Zanardinia</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Sub-Family 2. <b>Acinetæ.</b></p>
-
-<p>Branched, simple cell-rows with intercalary growth. The organs
-of reproduction are partly uni-and partly multicellular; in the
-unicellular ones a cell without cilia is formed, which may be destitute
-of a cell-wall, but has one nucleus (oosphere?), or which has a
-cell-wall and contains several (generally four) nuclei (aplanospores?);
-in the multicellular, monosymmetric swarm-cells with two cilia
-(spermatozoids?) are formed. The fertilisation has not been observed.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Tilopteridaceæ.</b> <i>Haplospora</i>, <i>Tilopteris</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 2. <b>Cyclosporeæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The individuals are multicellular, with growth by an apical cell.
-The thallus&mdash;often bilateral&mdash;is differentiated into a root-like
-structure (attachment-disc), and stem, sometimes also into leaves
-(<i>Sargassum</i>). Sometimes a differentiation occurs into various
-tissue-systems, viz. an external assimilating tissue, a storing tissue,
-a mechanical tissue of thickened, longitudinal, parenchymatous,
-strengthening cells, and a conducting tissue of sieve-cells, or of
-short sieve-tubes with perforated walls. Colouring material, as in
-Phæosporeæ. Vegetative reproduction can only take place by means of
-detached portions of the thallus (<i>Sargassum</i>), which are kept
-floating by means of bladders (Fig. <a href="#fig70">70</a> <i>A</i>, <i>a</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig72">72</a>).
-Zoospores are wanting.</p>
-
-<p>The sexual reproduction takes place by oogamous fertilisation. The
-oogonia and antheridia are formed inside special organs (conceptacles),
-and are surrounded by paraphyses. The conceptacles (Fig. <a href="#fig70">70</a> <i>B</i>,
-Fig. <a href="#fig71">71</a> <i>b</i>) are small, pear-shaped or spherical depressions,
-produced by a special ingrowth of the surface cells of the thallus,
-and their mouths (<i>ostioles</i>) project like small warts; they are
-either situated near the end of the ordinary branches of the thallus
-(<i>Fucus serratus</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig71">71</a> <i>a</i>) which may be swollen on this
-account (<i>Fucus vesiculosus</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig70">70</a> <i>A</i>, <i>b</i>), or on
-special short branches (<i>Ascophyllum</i>, <i>Sargassum</i>). The
-vertical section of a conceptacle is seen in Fig. <a href="#fig70">70</a> <i>B</i> (see also
-Fig. <a href="#fig71">71</a> <i>b</i>) where, in addition to the paraphyses, oogonia only
-are seen (<i>F. vesiculosus</i> is diœcious&mdash;male plant, yellow-brown;
-female plant, olive-brown); but in some species antheridia, together
-with oogonia, are produced in the same conceptacle. The oogonia are
-large, almost spherical cells, situated on a short stalk, in each of
-which are formed from 1–8 (in <i>Fucus</i>, 8; in <i>Ascophyllum</i>,
-4; in <i>Halidrys</i>, 1; in <i>Pelvetia</i>, 2) rounded, immotile
-oospheres. The wall of the oogonium ruptures, and the oospheres,
-still enclosed in the inner membrane, are ejected through the mouth
-of the conceptacle, and float about in the water, being finally set
-free by the bursting of the inner membrane. The antheridia are oblong
-cells (Fig. <a href="#fig70">70</a> <i>C</i>, <i>a</i>), many of which are produced on
-the same branched antheridiophore (Fig. <a href="#fig70">70</a> <i>C</i>); the numerous
-spermatozoids are provided with 2 cilia and are very small (Fig.
-<a href="#fig70">70</a> <i>D</i>, two antheridia surrounded by spermatozoids, one being
-open). The spermatozoids, still enclosed by the inner membrane of the
-antheridium, are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span> similarly set free, and fertilisation takes place in
-the water, numerous spermatozoids collecting round the oosphere (Fig.
-<a href="#fig70">70</a> <i>E</i>), which is many times larger, and by their own motion
-causing it to rotate. After fertilisation, the oospore surrounds itself
-with a cell-wall and germinates immediately, attaching itself (Fig. <a href="#fig70">70</a>
-<i>F</i>) to some object, and by cell-division grows into a new plant.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig70" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig70.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.</span>&mdash;<i>Fucus vesiculosus. A</i>
-Portion of thallus with swimming bladders (<i>a</i>) and conceptacles
-(<i>b</i>). <i>B</i> Section of a female conceptacle; <i>h</i>
-the mouth; <i>p</i> the inner cavity; <i>s</i> oogonia. <i>C</i>
-Antheridiophore; <i>a</i> antheridium; <i>p</i> sterile cells. <i>D</i>
-Antheridia out of which the spermatozoids are escaping. <i>E</i>
-Fertilisation. <i>F</i> Germinating oospore.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig71" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig71.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span>&mdash;<i>Fucus serratus</i>. <i>a</i>
-Portion of a male plant which has been exposed to the action of the
-open air for some time; small orange-yellow masses, formed by the
-antheridia, are seen outside the mouths of the male conceptacles (nat.
-size). <i>b</i> Cross section through the end of a branch of a female
-plant, showing the female conceptacles (× 4).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig72" style="width: 218px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig72.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.</span>&mdash;<i>Sargassum bacciferum</i>. A
-portion of the thallus, natural size.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Fucaceæ.</b> The following species are common on our
-coasts: <i>Fucus vesiculosus</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig70">70</a>) has a thallus with an
-entire margin, and with bladders arranged in pairs; <i>F. serratus</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig71">71</a>) without bladders, but with serrated margin; <i>Ascophyllum
-nodosum</i> has strap-like shoots, which here and there are swollen
-to form bladders; <i>Halidrys siliquosa</i> has its swimming bladders
-divided by transverse walls; <i>Himanthalia lorea</i>, which is found
-on the west coast of Norway, and the south coast of England, has a
-small perennial, button-shaped part, from the centre of which proceeds
-the long and sparsely branched, strap-like, annual shoot, which bears
-the conceptacles. The Gulf-weed (<i>Sargassum bacciferum</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig72">72</a>)
-is well known historically from the voyage of Columbus; it is met with
-in large, floating, detached masses in all oceans, and is found most
-abundantly in the Atlantic, off the Canary Islands and the Azores,
-and towards the Bermudas. The stalked, spherical air-bladders are
-the characteristic feature of this genus. The thallus is more highly
-developed than in <i>Fucus</i>, and there is a contrast between the
-stem and leaf-like parts. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span> portions which are found floating are
-always barren, only those attached are fertile.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> The Fucaceæ, like the Laminariaceæ, are used
-as manure (the best kinds being <i>Fucus vesiculosus</i> and
-<i>Ascophyllum nodosum</i>), for burning to produce kelp, and
-as food for domestic animals (<i>Ascophyllum nodosum</i> is
-especially used for this purpose).</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h3>Class 9. <b>Dictyotales.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The plants in this class are multicellular, and brown, with apical
-growth, new cells being derived either from a flat apical cell, or from
-a border of apical cells. The thallus is flat, leaf- or strap-shaped,
-attached by haptera, which are either found only at the base, or
-on the whole of the lower expansion of the thallus. The cells are
-differentiated into the following systems of tissues: an external,
-small-celled layer of assimilating cells, generally one cell in
-thickness, and an internal, large-celled layer of one or only a few
-cells in thickness, forming the mechanical and conducting tissues.
-All the reproductive cells are motionless. Asexual reproduction by
-naked, motionless spores (tetraspores) which are formed 1–4 in each
-tetrasporangium, the latter being outgrowths from the surface cells
-of special, sexless individuals. Zoospores are wanting. The sexual
-organs are of two kinds, oogonia and antheridia, which are formed from
-the surface cells, either on the same or different individuals. The
-oogonia are spherical or oval, and are generally placed close together;
-each contains one oosphere, which on maturity is ejected into the
-surrounding water, and is then naked and motionless. The antheridia
-are formed of longitudinal cells, united in groups, whose contents
-by repeated divisions&mdash;transverse and longitudinal&mdash;are divided into
-a large number of small, colourless, motionless spermatia&mdash;round or
-elongated&mdash;which are set free by the dissolution of the wall of the
-antheridium. The process of fertilisation has not yet been observed.</p>
-
-<p>The Dictyotales, in having tetraspores and spermatia, deviate
-considerably from the Phæophyceæ, but may be classed near to the
-Tilopteridæ, in which there are asexual spores with 4 cell-nuclei,
-which may be considered as an indication of the formation of
-tetraspores.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Dictyotaceæ.</b> <i>Dictyota dichotoma</i> which has
-a thin, regularly dichotomously divided thallus, occurs on the
-coasts of the British Isles. <i>Padina</i> is found on the south
-coast.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[77]</span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Class 10. <b>Rhodophyceæ (Red Seaweeds).</b></h3>
-
-<p>The plants comprised in this class are multicellular; they are
-simple or branched filaments, or expansions consisting of 1 to
-several layers of cells; the thallus may be differentiated (as in
-many <i>Florideæ</i>), to resemble stem, root, and leaf. The cells
-contain a distinctly differentiated nucleus (sometimes several), and
-distinct chromatophores, coloured by rhodophyll. The chlorophyll of
-the chromatophores is generally masked by a red colouring matter
-(phycoerythrin), which may be extracted in cold, fresh water; or rarely
-by phycocyan. Pyrenoids occur in some. Starch is never formed in the
-chromatophores themselves, but a modification&mdash;Florideæ starch&mdash;may
-be found in the colourless protoplasm. Asexual reproduction by motile
-or motionless spores (tetraspores) which are devoid of cilia and of
-cell-wall. Swarmspores are never found.</p>
-
-<p>Sexual reproduction is wanting, or takes place by the coalescence of
-a spermatium and a more or less developed female cell. The spermatia
-are naked masses of protoplasm, devoid of cilia and chromatophores.
-The female cell (carpogonium) is enclosed by a cell-wall, and after
-fertilisation forms a number of spores, either with or without
-cell-walls (carpospores), which grow into new individuals.</p>
-
-<p>The Rhodophyceæ may be divided into two families:</p>
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Bangioideæ.</span></p>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">Florideæ.</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 1. <b>Bangioideæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The thallus consists of a branched or unbranched cell-filament, formed
-of a single row or of many rows of cells, or of an expansion, one or
-two layers of cells in thickness, but without conspicuous pores for the
-intercommunication of the cells. The growth of the thallus is chiefly
-intercalary. The star-like chromatophores contain chlorophyll and are
-coloured blue-green with phycocyan, or reddish with phycoerythrin;
-all these colouring matters are occasionally found in the same cell
-(<i>Bangia</i>-species). Asexual reproduction by tetraspores, without
-cilia, but capable of amœboid movements.</p>
-
-<p>Sexual reproduction is wanting, or takes place by the coalescence of a
-spermatium with a carpogonium, which is only slightly differentiated
-from the vegetative cells, and is devoid of a trichogyne.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span> The
-carpospores are destitute of cell-wall and arise directly by the
-division of the fertilised oosphere. The Bangioideæ occur chiefly in
-salt water.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Goniotrichaceæ.</b>&mdash;The thallus consists of a
-branched cell-filament without rhizoids. Tetraspores are
-formed directly from the entire contents of the mother-cell,
-without any preceding division. Fertilisation unknown.
-<i>Asterocystis</i>, <i>Goniotrichum</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>Goniotrichaceæ</i>, through the blue-green
-<i>Asterocystis</i>, are allied to the Myxophyceæ, and through
-<i>Goniotrichum</i> to the <i>Porphyraceæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Porphyraceæ.</b>&mdash;The thallus is formed of an
-expansion consisting of a layer of 1–2 cells, which, at the
-base, are attached to the substratum by means of a special
-form of haptera (<i>Porphyra</i>, <i>Diploderma</i>); or of
-unbranched (very rarely slightly branched) filaments, attached
-at the base by haptera (<i>Bangia</i>): or it extends from a
-prostrate cell-disc (various species of <i>Erythrotrichia</i>).
-Tetraspores are formed after one or more divisions of the
-mother-cell, either from the whole or only a part of its
-contents; they possess amœboid movements, or have a jerky,
-sliding-forward motion. The antheridia have the same appearance
-as the vegetative cells, but divide several times, and several
-spermatia are formed, either simultaneously from the whole
-contents (<i>Porphyra</i>, <i>Bangia</i>), or the spermatia
-are successively formed from a part of the contents of the
-antheridium (<i>Erythrotrichia</i>). The carpogonium is without
-a trichogyne, but the oosphere has a colourless spot which may
-sometimes rise a little above the surface of the thallus, and
-may be considered as an early stage in the development of the
-trichogyne. The spermatia form a canal through the membrane of
-the carpogonium, and their contents coalesce with the oosphere
-at its colourless spot. The fertilised oosphere divides on
-germination into a number of carpospores, which are set free as
-naked, motionless masses of protoplasm, which grow and give rise
-to new individuals (alternation of generations).</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 2. <b>Florideæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The thallus has one or more apical cells, grows principally by apical
-growth, and may be differentiated into root, stem, and leaf. The
-chromatophores vary in form, but have a red or brownish colour, due
-to chlorophyll and phycoerythrin. Asexual reproduction by motionless
-tetraspores, which generally arise by the division into four of the
-contents of the tetrasporangium. The carpogonium has a trichogyne,
-and the carpospores, which are formed indirectly from the fertilised
-oosphere, possess a cell-wall.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig73" style="width: 443px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig73.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.</span>&mdash;<i>Callithamnion elegans</i>:
-<i>a</i> a plant with tetraspores (× 20); <i>b</i> apex of a branch
-with tetraspores(× 250).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig74" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig74.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.</span>&mdash;<i>Polysiphonia variegata</i>:
-<i>a</i> a portion of a male plant with antheridia; <i>b</i> spermatia;
-<i>c</i> transverse section of thallus.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The thallus may assume very different forms. In the simplest
-species it is filamentous and formed of single, branched rows of
-cells (<i>Callithamnion</i>, etc., Fig. <a href="#fig73">73</a>). <i>Ceramium</i> has a
-filamentous thallus, generally dichotomously forked (Fig. <a href="#fig75">75</a>), or
-sometimes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span> pinnately branched, which, at the nodes, or throughout
-its entire length, is covered by a layer of small cortical cells.
-<i>Polysiphonia</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig74">74</a>) has a filamentous, much branched thallus,
-made up of a central cylindrical cell, surrounded by a layer of
-other cells, cortical cells, which in length and position correspond
-to the central ones. In many of the Red Algæ the vegetative organs
-are differentiated into stems and leaves, the former having, as in
-<i>Chara</i>, unlimited growth in length, whilst the latter soon attain
-their full development. <i>Chondrus</i> has a fleshy, gelatinous
-thallus, without nodes; it is repeatedly forked into flat branches
-of varying thickness. <i>Furcellaria</i> has a forked thallus with
-thick branches and without nodes. The thallus of <i>Delesseria</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig76">76</a>) consists of branches, often bearing leaf-like structures,
-with a midrib and lateral ribs springing from it. These ribs persist
-through the winter, and at the commencement of the succeeding period of
-vegetation the lateral ribs become the starting points for new leaves.
-In <i>Corallina</i> the thallus is pinnately branched, and divided
-into nodes and internodes. The name has been given to this genus from
-the fact that the thallus is incrusted with carbonate of lime to such
-a degree that it becomes very hard, and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span> whole plant adopts a
-coral-like appearance. Other genera which are similarly incrusted, and
-have a leaf-like or even crustaceous thallus (such as <i>Melobesia</i>,
-<i>Lithothamnion</i>), are included in this family.</p>
-
-<p>In some instances the cells of the thallus may be found
-<i>differentiated</i> into more or less well defined tissues, so that
-it is possible to find special assimilating, mechanical, and conducting
-tissues, the last named in some cases having the double function of
-conducting and of serving as a reservoir in which starch is found as a
-reserve material. The cells of the Florideæ, which are formed by the
-division of a mother-cell into two daughter-cells of unequal size, have
-always larger or smaller pits in the cell-walls, and the thin cell-wall
-separating two pits from each other is perforated by a number of small
-holes. These pits are particularly developed in the conducting tissues,
-but sieve-tubes are very rarely to be found.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig75" style="width: 382px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig75.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.</span>&mdash;<i>Ceramium diaphanum</i> (nat.
-size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig76" style="width: 345px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig76.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.</span>&mdash;<i>Delesseria sanguinea</i> (about ⅓).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Tetraspores</i> may be wanting (<i>e.g. Lemanea</i>) or may
-often arise on special, non-sexual individuals. In some (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Batrachospermum</i>) only one tetraspore is formed in each
-tetrasporangium, but the number is generally four, which may be formed
-tetrahedrally (Fig. <a href="#fig73">73</a>) or by divisional walls perpendicular to each
-other, or even in a single row. The tetrasporangia in some species are
-free (Fig. <a href="#fig73">73</a>), but in the majority they are embedded in the thallus.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig77" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig77.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 77.</span>&mdash;<i>A Lejolisia
-mediterranea</i>: <i>r</i> haptera; <i>s</i> longitudinal section
-through a cystocarp; <i>p</i> the empty space left by the liberated
-spore (<i>t</i>). <i>B-E Nemalion multifidum</i>: <i>a</i>
-antheridia; <i>b</i> procarpium with trichogyne, to which two spermatia
-are adhering.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The sexual reproduction (discovered by Thuret and Bornet,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span> 1867)
-differs in the essential points from that of all other plants,
-and approaches most nearly to the sexual reproduction of the
-<i>Bangioideæ</i>. The sexual cells are developed from the
-terminal cells (never nodal cells) of the branched cell-filaments,
-which constitute the thallus. The mother-cells of the spermatia
-(<i>spermatangia</i>) are generally arranged in a group, in the
-so-called <i>antheridia</i> (Figs.<a href="#fig74"> 74</a>, <a href="#fig77">77</a> <i>A</i>, <i>a</i>). On
-becoming ripe the membrane of the spermatangium ruptures and the
-<i>spermatia</i> emerge as spherical or ovoid, naked (a little later
-they may possess a cell-wall) masses of protoplasm which are not
-endowed with the power of motion, and hence are carried passively by
-the current of the water in which they may happen to be, to the female
-cell. This latter is analogous with the oogonium of the Green Algæ. The
-female reproductive organ is termed the <i>procarpium</i>, and consists
-of two parts, a lower swollen portion&mdash;the <i>carpogonium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig77">77</a>
-<i>b</i> in <i>A</i> and <i>B</i>)&mdash;which contains the cell-nucleus,
-and an upper filamentous prolongation&mdash;the <i>trichogyne</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig77">77</a>
-<i>B</i>)&mdash;which is homologous with the colourless receptive spot of
-the oosphere of the Green Algæ, and the <i>Porphyraceæ</i>. In the
-sexual reproduction of the majority of the Florideæ, a very important
-part is played by certain special cells, rich in cell-contents&mdash;the
-<i>auxiliary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[82]</span> cells</i>. These are either dispersed in the interior of
-the thallus, or are arranged together in pairs with the cell-filament
-which bears the carpogonium, and are generally united with this to
-form an independent multicellular <i>procarpium</i>. The spermatia
-attach themselves firmly to the trichogyne and surround themselves
-with a cell-wall. The dividing wall at the point of contact is
-perforated, and the nucleus of the spermatium probably travels
-through the trichogyne to the swollen part of the procarpium&mdash;the
-<i>carpogonium</i>&mdash;and fuses with its nucleus. After fertilisation the
-trichogyne withers (Fig. <a href="#fig77">77</a> <i>C</i>), but the lower portion of the
-procarpium, constituting the <i>fertilised oosphere</i>, grows out and
-forms in various ways, first a tuft of spore-forming filaments known as
-<i>gonimoblasts</i>, and finally the <i>carpospores</i>. These latter
-form a new asexual generation (compare the germination of the oospore
-of <i>Œdogonium</i> and <i>Coleochæte</i>).</p>
-
-<p>The gonimoblasts may arise in three ways:&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>1. In the <i>Nemalionales</i>, branched filaments grow out from
-the oosphere and form an upright, compressed or expanded tuft of
-spore-forming filaments.</p>
-
-<p>2. In the <i>Cryptonemiales</i>, several branched or unbranched
-filaments (<i>ooblastema-filaments</i>) grow out from the
-oosphere, and conjugate in various ways with the auxiliary
-cells. The gonimoblasts are then formed from the single cells
-produced by the conjugation.</p>
-
-<p>3. In the <i>Gigartinales</i> and <i>Rhodymeniales</i> the
-oosphere conjugates with an auxiliary cell by means of a short
-ooblastema-filament, and from this auxiliary cell a gonimoblast
-is produced.</p>
-
-<p>The motionless <i>carpospores</i>, which sometimes in the early
-stages are naked, and afterwards invested with a cell-wall,
-are developed from the terminal cells (and perhaps also from
-some of the other cells) of the branches of the gonimoblast.
-The gonimoblasts constitute sharply defined parts of the
-plant in which the carpospores arise. These parts are called
-<i>cystocarps</i> and are either naked (Fig. <a href="#fig77">77</a> <i>E</i>),
-or surrounded by a covering (pericarp or involucre, Fig.
-<a href="#fig77">77</a> <i>A</i>) formed in different ways. On this account the
-Florideæ were formerly divided into <span class="smcap">Gymnosporeæ</span>
-(<i>Batrachospermum</i>, <i>Nemalion</i>, <i>Ceramium</i>, etc.)
-and <span class="smcap">Angiosporeæ</span> (<i>Farcellaria</i>, <i>Lejolisia</i>,
-<i>Delesseria</i>, <i>Melobesia</i>, etc.).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Florideæ are divided into four sub-families:&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Sub-Family 1. <b>Nemalionales.</b> The fertilised oosphere
-produces directly the gonimoblast.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Lemaneaceæ.</b> Algæ of brownish colour and living
-in fresh water. They lack tetraspores, and the very sparingly
-branched fertile filaments, composed of many rows of cells, grow
-out from a proembryo, which consists of a single row of cells
-bearing branches. <i>Lemanea fluviatilis</i>, often found on
-rocks and stones in quickly flowing streams.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Helminthocladiaceæ.</b> Tetraspores are generally
-wanting (<i>e.g.</i> in <i>Nemalion</i>) or arise one in each
-tetrasporangium (<i>e.g. Batrachospermum</i>) and it
-is only in <i>Liagora</i> that four cruciate tetraspores are
-formed. <i>Chantransia corymbifera</i> consists of simple,
-branched cell-rows, and is an independent species. Several
-other <i>Chantransia-forms</i>, living in fresh water, are
-“proembryos” of species of the genus <i>Batrachospermum</i>.
-The germinating carpospore grows out into filaments and forms
-a so-called proembryo which, if not shaded, attains only a
-small size, but when growing in shady situations presents a
-much greater development. These highly developed proembryos
-have been described as species of <i>Chantransia</i>. The
-proembryo can reproduce by division, or by tetraspores which
-are developed singly in the sporangia; in <i>B. vagum</i> and
-<i>B. sporulans</i> which do not possess fully developed female
-reproductive organs, the proembryos serve almost entirely to
-reproduce the species. The young <i>Batrachospermum</i>-plant
-arises from the end of an upright filament of the proembryo.
-The proembryo is generally persistent, and continually produces
-new <i>Batrachospermums</i>. These latter bear the sexual
-reproductive organs and also whorls of branches: the central
-row of cells is enclosed by cells growing from the base of the
-whorls of branches, and from these cortical cells secondary
-proembryos are developed. In this alternation of shoots there is
-really no alternation of generations, since the proembryo and
-the shoots with the sexual reproductive organs are parts of the
-same thallus.</p>
-
-<p>Several species of <i>Batrachospermum</i> have a bluish green
-or verdigris colour. <i>Nemalion multifidum</i> has a brown-red
-thallus, slightly branched, which is attached to rocks near the
-water’s edge.</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Chætangiaceæ.</b> <i>Galaxaura</i> has a thallus
-thickly incrusted with lime.</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Gelidiaceæ.</b> <i>Naccaria, Gelidium.</i></p>
-
-<p>Sub-Family 2. <b>Gigartinales.</b> The fertilised auxiliary
-cell grows towards the thallus, to produce the gonimoblasts.
-Procarpia generally present.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Acrotylaceæ.</b> <i>Acrotylus.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Gigartinaceæ.</b> <i>Gigartina</i>,
-<i>Phyllophora</i>, <i>Ahnfeltia</i>; <i>Chondrus crispus</i>,
-with dark red, dichotomously branched thallus, is common on the
-coasts of Scandinavia and Great Britain.</p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Rhodophyllidaceæ.</b> <i>Rhodophyllis</i>,
-<i>Euthora</i>; <i>Cystoclonium purpurascens</i> is common,
-and sometimes the ends of its branches may be modified into
-tendril-like haptera.</p>
-
-<p>Sub-Family 3. <b>Rhodymeniales.</b> The fertilised auxiliary
-cell forms the gonimoblast on the side away from the thallus.
-Procarpia are abundantly produced.</p>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Sphærococcaceæ.</b> <i>Gracilaria.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 9. <b>Rhodymeniaceæ.</b> <i>Rhodymenia palmata</i> is
-a common species. <i>Lomentaria</i>, <i>Chylocladia</i>,
-<i>Plocamium</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 10. <b>Delesseriaceæ.</b> <i>Delesseria sanguinea</i>;
-<i>D. alata</i> and <i>D. sinuosa</i> are handsome forms which
-are not uncommon.</p>
-
-<p>Order 11. <b>Bonnemaisoniaceæ.</b> <i>Bonnemaisonia.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 12. <b>Rhodomelaceæ.</b> <i>Rhodomela</i>,
-<i>Odonthalia</i>; <i>Polysiphonia</i>, of which many species
-are to be found on the coasts of Great Britain, has a
-filamentous, richly branched thallus consisting of a central row
-of cells surrounded<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span> by a varying number of cortical cells of
-similar size&mdash;the so-called “siphons.”</p>
-
-<p>Order 13. <b>Ceramiaceæ.</b> Pretty Algæ, often branched
-dichotomously, or unilaterally pinnate. <i>Spermothamnion,
-Griffithsia, Callithamnion, Ceramium, Ptilota.</i></p>
-
-<p>Sub-Family 4. <b>Cryptonemiales.</b> The cells formed by the
-coalescence of the auxiliary cells and the ooblastema-filaments,
-produce the gonimoblasts. The <i>carpogonium-filaments</i> and
-the auxiliary cells are scattered singly in the thallus.</p>
-
-<p>Order 14. <b>Gloiosiphoniaceæ.</b> <i>Gloiopeltis.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 15. <b>Grateloupiaceæ.</b> <i>Halymenia, Cryptonemia.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 16. <b>Dumontiaceæ.</b> <i>Dumontia, Dudresnaya.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 17. <b>Nemastomaceæ.</b> <i>Furcellaria</i>, which has
-dichotomously branched, round shoots, is common on the coasts of
-Great Britain.</p>
-
-<p>Order 18. <b>Rhizophyllidaceæ.</b> <i>Polyides, Rhizophyllis.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 19. <b>Squamariaceæ.</b> The Algæ belonging to this order
-form crust-like coverings on stones, mussel-shells, and on other
-Algæ, but are not themselves incrustated: <i>Petrocelis</i>,
-<i>Cruoria</i>, <i>Peyssonellia</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 20. <b>Corallinaceæ.</b> Partly crustaceous, partly
-erect, branched Algæ, thickly incrusted with lime, so that a
-few species (<i>Lithothamnia</i>, also called <i>Nullipora</i>)
-occur in fossilized condition from Jurassic to Tertiary periods.
-<i>Melobesia, Lithophyllum, Lithothamnion, Corallina.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> “Carragen” is the thallus of <i>Chondrus crispus</i>
-(Irish Moss) and <i>Gigartina mamillosa</i>. It is a common article of
-food on the coasts of Ireland, and swells to a jelly when cooked. It
-is officinal. <i>Rhodymenia palmata</i> is generally eaten as food in
-Ireland and in some places on the west coast of Norway; it is also used
-as food for sheep and hence is termed “Sheep-seaweed.” Agar-Agar is the
-jelly obtained from species of <i>Gelidium</i> and <i>Gigartina</i>
-growing in China and Japan.</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2 class="smaller">Sub-Division III. <b>FUNGI.</b></h2>
-</div>
-
-
-<p><b>Mode of Life.</b> The Fungi have no chlorophyll, and are thus
-unable in any stage of their existence to assimilate carbon; they
-must therefore live as <i>saprophytes</i> or <i>parasites</i>. There
-is, however, no strong line of demarcation between these; many Fungi
-commence as true parasites, but only attain their full development
-upon or in dead plants or animals (<i>Rhytisma</i>, <i>Empusa</i>).
-Many saprophytes may occasionally appear as parasites, and are then
-designated “<i>facultative parasites</i>” (<i>Nectria cinnabarina</i>,
-<i>Lophodermium pinastri</i>), in contradistinction to those which
-only<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span> appear as parasites, “<i>obligate parasites</i>” (Mildew,
-Brand-and Rust-Fungi, <i>Cordyceps</i>).</p>
-
-<p>The parasites which live on the surface of the host-plant are termed
-<i>epiphytic</i> (Mildew, <i>Fusicladium</i>); and those living
-in its tissues are termed <i>endophytic</i> (<i>Ustilago</i>,
-<i>Peronospora</i>). <i>Epizoic</i> (<i>Oidium tonsurans</i>,
-<i>Laboulbenia</i>) and <i>endozoic</i> Fungi (<i>Cordyceps</i>,
-<i>Entomophthora</i>), are distinguished, in the same manner, as those
-which live on the surface or in the interior of animals. The Fungi
-designated <i>pathogenic</i> are especially those which produce disease
-in human beings and in animals.</p>
-
-<p>Most of the diseases of plants are attributed to the parasitic Fungi.
-These force their way into the host-plant by piercing the outer wall of
-the epidermis, as in the Potato-disease; or by growing in through the
-stomata, <i>e.g.</i> the summer generations of the Rust of Wheat; or
-they can only penetrate through a wound, <i>e.g. Nectria</i>.
-Some effect an entrance into the host-plant by the secretion of a
-poisonous matter or ferment, which softens and destroys the cell-walls
-(<i>Sclerotinia</i>). Some Yeast and Mould Fungi secrete ferments
-(enzymes), which, for example, convert cane-sugar into a sugar capable
-of fermentation.</p>
-
-<p>The relation of the parasitic Fungus to the host-plant is mainly of
-two kinds. In the one case, the cell-contents are destroyed, the
-protoplasm is killed, and the cellular tissue becomes discoloured and
-dies (<i>Peronospora</i>, <i>Armillaria mellea</i>, <i>Polyporus</i>);
-in the other case, the parasite has an irritating effect on the
-cellular tissue, whereby the affected organ grows more rapidly and
-becomes larger than normal, producing <i>hypertrophy</i>. Such
-malformations are termed <i>Fungi-galls</i> (Mycocecidia); in this
-manner “witches’ brooms” are produced by <i>Æcidium</i>, “pocket-plum”
-by <i>Taphrina</i>, and other deformities by <i>Exobasidium</i> and
-<i>Cystopus candidus</i>. This hypertrophy may either be produced by
-a vigorous cell-multiplication, which is most frequently the case,
-or by the enlargement of the individual cells (<i>Synchytrium</i>,
-<i>Calyptospora</i>). The relation between host and Fungus among the
-Lichens is of a very peculiar nature, termed “<i>symbiosis</i>.”</p>
-
-<p><b>Vegetative Organs.</b> The vegetative parts of a Fungus are
-termed its <i>mycelium</i>.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> This is formed of a mass of long,
-cylindrical, branched cells resembling threads (and hence termed
-<i>hyphæ</i>), which have a continued apical growth. The mycelium,
-in its early development, shows a well-marked difference between
-the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span> two main groups of true Fungi: in the <i>Phycomycetes</i>, or
-Algal Fungi, the mycelium has no transverse walls, and is therefore
-unicellular, while in the <i>Mesomycetes</i> and <i>Mycomycetes</i>
-it is provided with dividing walls, which gradually arise during
-growth, in the youngest hyphæ; intercalary transverse walls may also
-be formed at a later period. In the hyphæ of some of the Higher
-Fungi (<i>Hymenomycetes</i>), connections may be formed between two
-contiguous cells of the same hypha, by a protuberance growing out from
-an upper cell just above the transverse wall, and forming a junction
-with the cell below. These are known as <i>clamp-connections</i>; they
-appear to be of use in affording communication between the two cells.</p>
-
-<p>The hyphæ of Fungi, where they come in contact with one another, often
-grow together, so that <b>H</b>-formed combinations (fusions) are
-produced, which give rise to very compact felted tissue. When the hyphæ
-are not only closely interwoven, but also united and provided with
-many transverse walls, the mycelium assumes the appearance of a tissue
-with isodiametric cells, and is then termed <i>pseudo-parenchyma</i>.
-The hyphæ-walls are sometimes very much thickened, and composed of
-several layers, and the external layers, by the absorption of water,
-may often swell very much and become mucilaginous. In some instances
-the walls are colourless, in others coloured, the most frequent colour
-being brown. The cell-contents may also be coloured, and in that case
-are generally yellow; this colour is chiefly connected with the fat
-(oil) which may be found in abundance in the Fungi, whilst starch is
-invariably absent in all the true Fungi.</p>
-
-<p>The mycelium assumes many different forms; sometimes it appears
-as a thread-like, cobwebby, loose tissue, less frequently as firm
-strands, thin or thick membranes, horn-like plates or tuber-like
-bodies. The <i>thread-like</i> mycelium may, in the parasitic Fungi,
-be intercellular or intracellular, according as it only extends into
-the interstices between the cells or enters into the cells proper.
-In the first case there are generally found haustoria, or organs of
-suction (<i>e.g.</i> among the <i>Peronosporaceæ</i>; <i>Taphrina</i>,
-on the contrary, has no haustoria); but haustoria are also found
-among the epiphytic Fungi (<i>e.g.</i> Erysiphaceæ). Intracellular
-mycelia are found in the Rust-Fungi, in <i>Claviceps purpurea</i>,
-<i>Entomophthora</i>, etc. In spite of its delicate structure, this
-mycelium may live a long time, owing to the circumstance that it
-continues to grow peripherally, while the older parts gradually die off
-(“fairy rings”).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>String-like</i> mycelia may be found, for example, in
-<i>Phallus</i>, <i>Coprinus</i>, and are formed of hyphæ, which run
-more or less parallel to each other. <i>Membrane-like</i> mycelia
-are chiefly to be found in Fungi growing on tree-stems (Polyporaceæ
-and Agaricaceæ); they may have a thickness varying from that of the
-finest tissue-paper to that of thick leather, and may extend for
-several feet. The peculiar horny or leather-like strands and plates
-which, for instance, appear in <i>Armillaria mellea</i>, are known as
-<i>Rhizomorpha</i>; they may attain a length of more than fifty feet.
-The <i>tuber-like</i> mycelia or <i>sclerotia</i> play the part of
-resting mycelia, since a store of nourishment is accumulated in them,
-and after a period of rest they develope organs of reproduction. The
-sclerotia are hard, spherical, or irregular bodies, from the size
-of a cabbage seed to that of a hand, internally white or greyish,
-with a brown or black, pseudo-parenchymatous, external layer.
-Sclerotia only occur in the higher Fungi, and are found both in
-saprophytes, <i>e.g. Coprinus</i>, and in parasites, <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Claviceps</i> (Ergot), <i>Sclerotinia</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>Reproduction.</b> <span class="smcap">Sexual reproduction</span> is found only
-among the lower Fungi which stand near to the Algæ, the Algal-Fungi,
-and takes place by the same two methods as in the Algæ, namely by
-<i>conjugation</i> and by the <i>fertilisation</i> of the egg-cell in
-the oogonium.</p>
-
-<p>The majority of Fungi have only <span class="allsmcap">ASEXUAL</span> reproduction.
-The most important methods of this kind of reproduction are the
-<i>sporangio-fructification</i> and the <i>conidio-fructification</i>.</p>
-
-<p>In the <span class="allsmcap">SPORANGIO-FRUCTIFICATION</span> the <i>spores</i> (endospores)
-<i>arise inside</i> a mother-cell, the sporangium (Fig. <a href="#fig80">80</a>). Spores
-without a cell-wall, which move in water by means of cilia and hence
-are known as <i>swarmspores</i> or <i>zoospores</i>, are found among
-the Oomycetes, the sporangia in which these are produced being called
-swarm-sporangia or zoosporangia (Figs. <a href="#fig86">86</a>, <a href="#fig87">87</a>, <a href="#fig91">91</a>, <a href="#fig94">94</a>).</p>
-
-<p>In the <span class="allsmcap">CONIDIO-FRUCTIFICATION</span> the <i>conidia</i> (exospores)
-arise on special hyphæ (conidiophores), or directly from the
-mycelium. When conidiophores are present, the conidia are developed
-upon them terminally or laterally, either in a basipetal succession
-(in many Fungi, for example in <i>Penicillium</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig111">111</a>,
-<i>Erysiphe</i>, <i>Cystopus</i>), or acropetally (in which method
-the chains of conidia are often branched; examples, <i>Pleospora
-vulgaris</i>, <i>Hormodendron cladosporioides</i>). All conidia
-are at first unicellular, sometimes at a later stage they become
-two-celled or multicellular through the formation of partition-walls
-(<i>Piptocephalis</i>). The conidia with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span> thick, brown cell-walls,
-and contents rich in fats (<i>resting conidia</i>), can withstand
-unfavourable external conditions for a much longer period than conidia
-with thin walls and poor in contents.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">SPORANGIA</span> arise either from the ordinary cells of the
-mycelium (<i>Protomyces</i>), or are borne on special hyphæ. They are
-generally spherical (<i>Mucor</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig80">80</a>; Saprolegniaceæ), egg-,
-pear-, or club-shaped (Ascomycetes), more rarely they are cylindrical
-or spindle-shaped. While among the Phycomycetes the size, form, and
-number of spores are indefinite in each species, in the Ascomycetes
-the sporangia (<i>asci</i>) have a definite size, form, and number of
-spores. The spores of the Ascomycetes are known as ascospores.</p>
-
-<p>The sporangio-fructification is found under three main forms.</p>
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Free Sporangiophores</span> which are either single (<i>Mucor</i>,
-Fig. <a href="#fig78">78</a>), or branched (<i>Thamnidium</i>).</p>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">Sporangial-layers.</span> These are produced by a number of
-sessile or shortly-stalked sporangia, being formed close together like
-a palisade (<i>Taphrina</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig105">105</a>).</p>
-
-<p>3. <span class="smcap">Sporangiocarps.</span> These consist usually of many sporangia
-enclosed in a covering, they are found only in the Carpoasci, and
-are also known as <i>ascocarps</i>. The parts of an ascocarp are the
-<i>covering</i> (<i>peridium</i>), and the <i>hymenium</i>, which is
-in contact with the inner wall of the peridium, and is generally made
-up of asci, and sterile, slender hyphæ. The latter either penetrate
-between the asci and are branched and multicellular (<i>paraphyses</i>,
-Figs. <a href="#fig103">103</a> <i>d</i>, <a href="#fig123">123</a>, <a href="#fig125">125</a>, <a href="#fig129">129</a>), or clothe those parts of the inner
-wall which bear no asci (<i>periphyses</i>; among many peronocarpic
-Ascomycetes, <i>e.g. Chætomium</i>, <i>Sordaria</i>,
-<i>Stictosphæra hoffmanni</i>). The ascocarps are produced directly
-from the mycelium, or from a <i>stroma</i>, that is a vegetative body
-of various forms, in which they may be embedded (Figs. <a href="#fig116">116</a> <i>B</i>,
-<i>C</i>).</p>
-
-<p>Among the conidio-fructifications there are, in the same way, three
-divisions.</p>
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Free conidiophores</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig109">109</a>). The form of the
-conidiophores, the shape, and number of its spores are various. In the
-most highly developed Fungi, the Basidiomycetes, there are, however,
-special more highly developed conidiophores, the <i>basidia</i>, which
-have a definite form and spores of a definite shape and number. The
-conidia borne on basidia are called <i>basidiospores</i>.</p>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">Conidial-layers.</span> (<i>a</i>) The <span class="allsmcap">SIMPLEST</span>
-case of this is found when the conidiophores arise directly from
-the mycelium, parallel<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span> to one another, and form a flat body
-(<i>e.g. Exobasidium vaccinii</i>, <i>Hypochnus</i>; among the
-Phycomycetes, <i>Empusa muscæ</i> and <i>Cystopus</i>). (<i>b</i>)
-In a <span class="allsmcap">HIGHER</span> form the conidial-layers are thick, felted
-threads (<i>stroma</i>) inserted between the mycelium and the
-<i>hymenium</i> (<i>i.e.</i> the region of the conidiophores). Examples
-are found in a section of the Pyrenomycetes (Fig. <a href="#fig122">122</a>). (<i>c</i>)
-The <span class="allsmcap">HIGHEST</span> form has the <i>basidial-layer</i>, that is a
-conidial-layer with more highly developed conidiophores (basidia). The
-basidial-layer, with stroma, and the hymenium (region of the basidia),
-forms the basidio-fructification, which is branched in the Clavariaceæ,
-and hat-shaped in other Hymenomycetes (in these groups the hymenium is
-confined to the lower side of the pileus).</p>
-
-<p>The hymenium of the conidial-layer and basidial-layer is composed
-entirely of conidiophores, or of conidiophores and sterile hyphæ
-(<i>paraphyses</i>) which are probably always unicellular. Paraphyses
-are found in <i>Entomophthora radicans</i>, and in certain
-Basidiomycetes (<i>e.g. Corticium</i>).</p>
-
-<p>3. <span class="smcap">Conidiocarps</span> (<i>pycnidia</i>). A special covering
-surrounds the conidia-forming elements. The inner side of this covering
-(<i>peridium</i>) bears the hymenium, <i>i.e.</i> those elements
-from which the conidia are abstricted. The conidiocarps arise either
-immediately from the hyphæ or from a <i>stroma</i> in which they
-are generally embedded. Conidiocarps are entirely wanting in the
-Phycomycetes. On the other hand they are found among the Ascomycetes
-and Basidiomycetes, and in the latter group the conidiocarps contain
-more highly differentiated conidiophores (basidia) and are known
-as <i>basidiocarps</i>. Conidiocarps with simple conidiophores,
-are found only among the Basidiomycetes, in the Uredinaceæ, and in
-<i>Craterocolla cerasi</i>. In the Ascomycetes (Figs. <a href="#fig120">120</a> <i>d</i>,
-<i>e</i>; <a href="#fig117">117</a> <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>; <a href="#fig123">123</a> <i>a</i>; <a href="#fig124">124</a> <i>b</i>)
-the conidiocarps are visible, as points, to the naked eye, while
-the basidiocarps of the Basidiomycetes (Figs. <a href="#fig170">170</a>, <a href="#fig171">171</a>, <a href="#fig173">173–176</a>,
-<a href="#fig178">178–180</a>) vary from the size of a pea to that of a child’s head. The
-“spermogonia” of the Ascomycetes and Lichenes, are conidiocarps with
-small conidia (<i>microconidia</i>) which germinate sometimes more
-slowly than other conidia, and formerly were erroneously considered as
-male reproductive cells, and called spermatia.</p>
-
-<p>The conidia of the Fungi are not primitive structures. The comparison
-of the sporangia and conidia among the Zygomycetes, and among the
-species of the genus <i>Peronospora</i> shows, that the conidia
-are aberrant formations, and that they have arisen through<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[90]</span> the
-degeneration of the sporangium, which, by the reduction of its spores
-to one, has itself become a spore.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In the genera <i>Thamnidium</i> and <i>Chætocladium</i>
-the gradual diminution of the sporangia, and the reduction
-of the number of spores can be distinctly followed. In
-<i>Thamnidium</i> the number of spores is often reduced to one,
-which is <i>free</i> in the sporangium. In <i>Chætocladium</i>
-however the sporangia are typically <i>one-spored</i>, the
-spore is always united with the sporangium, and the two
-become a single body, the so-called <i>conidium</i>, which is
-in reality a closed sporangium. How close is the connection
-between the sporangia and conidia of <i>Thamnidium</i> and
-<i>Chætocladium</i>, is seen from the fact that, in the
-conidial stage of <i>Chætocladium</i> the same whorl-form of
-branching appears as in the sporangial stages of <i>Thamnidium
-chætocladioides</i>, and also, that the conidia of <i>Ch.
-fresenianum</i> throw off the former sporangium-wall
-(exosporium), while <i>Ch. jonesii</i> germinates without
-shedding its exosporium. The Phycomycetes have doubtless
-sprung from Water-Algæ and inherit the sporangia from them. On
-this supposition, as the Phycomycetes assumed a terrestrial
-mode of life, the sporangia would become adapted to the
-distribution of the spores by means of the air, the sporangia
-would become small, contain dust-like spores, and would
-eventually become closed-sporangia, <i>i.e.</i> conidia. The
-conidia are a terrestrial method for the multiplication of
-Fungi. In the Hemiasci and the Ascomycetes the sporangia are
-still preserved, but in every instance they are adapted to
-terrestrial spore-distribution, their spores being set free
-on the destruction of the sporangium-wall (generally shot
-out) and distributed through the air. For further examples of
-spore-distribution see below, p. <a href="#Page_91">91–93</a>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The reproduction of Fungi is accomplished not only by spores and
-conidia, but also sometimes by <i>chlamydospores</i>. These are
-fundaments<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> of sporangiophores and conidiophores, which have
-taken on a resting condition in the form of a spore, and are able
-to germinate and produce carpophores. In the formation of the
-chlamydospores the hyphæ accumulate reserve materials at the expense
-of the neighbouring cells; in the undivided hyphæ of the Phycomycetes
-transverse walls are formed, and finally the chlamydospores are
-set free by the decay of the empty cells connecting them with the
-mycelium. One must distinguish between <i>oidia</i> and <i>true
-chlamydospores</i>. The former are more simple, the latter are a
-somewhat more differentiated form of carpophore fundaments, which serve
-for propagation in the same manner as spores. In <i>Chlamydomucor
-racemosus</i> the chlamydospores grow out into the air and form
-differentiated carpophores. In the Autobasidiomycetes they only
-germinate vegetatively, and not with the formation of fructifications.
-From <i>Chlamydomucor</i> up to the Autobasidiomycetes the successive
-development of the fructification,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span> which is interrupted by the
-formation of the chlamydospores, degenerates more and more. Among
-certain Ustilagineæ the chlamydospores (brand-spores) no longer
-germinate with the production of fructifications. In the Uredinaceæ,
-only one of the three chlamydospore-forms has the property of producing
-fructifications on germination; the other forms only germinate
-vegetatively, like ordinary spores, and in the same manner as the
-chlamydospores of the Autobasidiomycetes. In the Hemibasidii, and the
-Uredinaceæ, in <i>Protomyces</i>, the chlamydospores are the chief
-means of reproduction. They are found also among the Ascomycetes.</p>
-
-<p>The sporangia and the conidia of the Fungi have their common origin
-in the sporangia of the Phycomycetes. The asci (and the Ascomycetes
-which are characterised by these bodies) are descended from the
-sporangia-forming, lower Fungi; the basidia (and the Basidiomycetes)
-from those which bear conidia. <i>The sporangia of the Phycomycetes
-are the primitive form and the starting point for all the reproductive
-forms of the Fungi.</i> The chlamydospores appear besides in all
-classes of Fungi as supplementary forms of reproduction, and are of
-no importance in determining relationships. Although the expression
-“fruit” must essentially be applied to true Phanerogams, yet, through
-usage, the term “<i>fruit-forms</i>,” is employed to designate the
-forms or means of reproduction of Fungi, and the organs of reproduction
-are known as <i>organs of fructification</i>, the sporangiophores and
-conidiophores as <i>fruit-bearers</i> (<i>carpophores</i>), and the
-sporangiocarps, conidiocarps, and basidiocarps as “<i>fruit-bodies</i>.”</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The majority of Fungi have more than one method of reproduction,
-often on various hosts (Uredinaceæ). Species with one, two,
-or more than two methods of reproduction are spoken of as
-having monomorphic, dimorphic, or pleomorphic fructification.
-Monomorphic, <i>e.g.</i> the Tuberaceæ; dimorphic, <i>Mucor</i>,
-<i>Piptocephalis</i>, Saprolegniaceæ, <i>Penicillium
-crustaceum</i>; pleomorphic, <i>Puccinia graminis</i>,
-<i>Capnodium salicinum</i> (in the last species there are five
-methods of reproduction: yeast-like conidia, free conidiophores,
-conidiocarps with small and large conidia, and ascocarps).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>The liberation and distribution of the spores and conidia.</b> The
-spores and conidia, on account of their small size and lightness, are
-spread far and wide by currents in the air, but in addition to this
-method, insects and other animals frequently assist in disseminating
-them. The liberation of the conidia is occasionally effected by the
-complete shrinking away of the conidiophore, but more frequently by
-abstriction from the conidiophores, either by their gradually tapering
-to a point, or by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[92]</span> dissolution of a cross-wall (generally of a
-mucilaginous nature). The individual links of conidia-chains are
-detached from one another in the same way, or often by means of small,
-intercalary cells, which are formed at the base of the individual
-links, and becoming slimy, dissolve upon the maturity of the spores.
-Special contrivances for ejecting the spores and conidia may often
-be found. In <i>Peronospora</i> the cylindrical fruit-hyphæ in the
-dry condition become strap-shaped and also twisted. These are very
-hygroscopic, and the changes of form take place so suddenly, that
-the spores are violently detached and shot away. In <i>Empusa</i> a
-peculiar squirting mechanism may be found (Fig. <a href="#fig85">85</a>). Each club-shaped
-hypha which projects from the body of the fly, bears a conidium at its
-apex; a vacuole, which grows gradually larger, is formed in the slimy
-contents of the hypha, and the pressure thereby eventually becomes so
-great that the hypha bursts at its apex, and the conidium is shot into
-the air. By a similar mechanism, the spores of many of the Agaricaceæ
-are cast away from the parent-plants. In the case of <i>Pilobolus</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig84">84</a>) the entire sporangium is thrown for some distance into the
-air by a similar contrivance, the basal region of the sporangium
-having, by the absorption of water, been transformed into a slimy layer
-which is readily detached. <i>Sphærobolus</i>, a Gasteromycete, has
-a small, spherical fruit-body (basidiocarp), the covering of which,
-when ripe, suddenly bursts, and the basidiospores contained in it are
-forcibly ejected.</p>
-
-<p><i>The spores which are enclosed in asci</i> are, in some instances,
-set free from the mother-cell (ascus) prior to their complete
-development (<i>Elaphomyces</i>, <i>Eurotium</i>). In the case of the
-majority of the Pyrenomycetes and Truffles, the asci swell by the
-absorption of water into a slimy mass, which gradually disappears,
-so that the spores lie free in the fruit-body; they either remain
-there till the fruit-body decays, as in those which have no aperture
-(Perisporiaceæ, Tuberaceæ), or the slimy mass, by its growth, is
-forced out through the aperture of the sporocarp, taking the spores
-with it (<i>Nectria</i>). The ejection of the spores by mechanical
-means takes place in a number of Ascomycetes, and should many spores
-be simultaneously ejected, a dust-cloud may be seen with the naked
-eye to arise in the air from the fruit-body. This is the case in the
-larger species of <i>Peziza</i>, <i>Helvella</i>, <i>Rhytisma</i>,
-when suddenly exposed to a damp current of air. A distinction is
-drawn between a simultaneous ejection of all the spores contained in
-the ascus, and an ejection at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span> intervals (successive), when only one
-spore at a time is thrown out. The first of these methods is the most
-frequent, and is brought about by the ascus being lined with a layer of
-protoplasm, which absorbs water to such a degree that the elastic walls
-are extended at times to double their original size. The spores are
-forced up against the free end of the ascus, a circular rupture is made
-at this point, and the elastic walls contract, so that the fluid with
-the spores is ejected. Special means may in some instances be found
-to keep the spores together, and compel their simultaneous ejection.
-Thus, a tough slime may surround all the spores (<i>Saccobolus</i>),
-or a chain-apparatus, similarly formed of tough slime; or there may
-be a hooked appendage from each end of the spores which hooks into
-the appendage of the next spore (<i>Sordaria</i>). The paraphyses
-occurring between the asci in many Ascomycetes, also play a part
-in the distribution of the spores, by reason of the pressure they
-exercise. The asci in some of the Pyrenomycetes, which are provided
-with jar-shaped fruit-bodies, elongate to such an extent that, without
-becoming detached from their bases, they reach the mouth of the
-fruit-body one at a time, burst and disperse their spores, and so make
-room for those succeeding. An ejection of the spores at intervals from
-the ascus is rarer. It takes place, for instance, in <i>Pleospora</i>,
-whose asci have a double wall. The external wall, by absorption of
-water, at last becomes ruptured, and the internal and more elastic
-membrane forces itself out in the course of a few seconds to one of two
-or three times greater length and thickness, so that one spore after
-another is forcibly ejected from a narrow aperture at the end of the
-ascus.</p>
-
-<p><b>Germination of spores</b> (conidia and chlamydospores). In many
-spores may be found one or more <i>germ-pores</i>, <i>i.e.</i> thinner
-places, either in the inner membrane (uredospores, <i>Sordaria</i>) or
-in the external membrane (teleutospores in Rust-Fungi), through which
-the germination takes place. Generally this does not occur till the
-spores have been set free: in some Ascomycetes germination commences
-inside the ascus (<i>Taphrina</i>, <i>Sclerotinia</i>). The different
-ways in which the spores germinate may be classified into three groups.</p>
-
-<p>I. <span class="smcap">The ordinary germination</span> occurs by the spore emitting a
-germ-tube, which immediately developes into a mycelium. In spores with
-a double wall it is only the inner membrane which forms the germ-tube.
-In swarmspores a single wall is formed after the withdrawal of the
-cilia, and this, by direct elongation,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[94]</span> becomes the germ-tube. The
-protoplasm accumulated in the spore enters the hypha, which, in pure
-water, can only grow as long as the reserve nourishment lasts.</p>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Germination with promycelium</span> differs only by the
-circumstance that the hypha developed from the germ-tube has a very
-limited growth, and hence it does not immediately develope into a
-mycelium, but produces conidia (Rust-and Brand-Fungi). This promycelium
-must only be regarded as an advanced development of a conidiophore or
-basidium.</p>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">The yeast-formation</span> of conidia consists in the
-production of outgrowths, very much constricted at their bases,
-from one or more places. Each of the conidia formed in this manner
-may again germinate in the same way. When sufficient nourishment
-is present, a branched chain of such conidia is formed, and these
-are finally detached from one another. Yeast-like buddings from the
-conidia are produced in various Fungi, <i>e.g. Ascoidea</i>,
-<i>Protomyces</i>, Ustilagineæ, Ascomycetes, Tremellaceæ, etc. In the
-Ustilagineæ these conidia are an important element in the development.
-The budding conidia of <i>Exobasidium</i> forms a “mould” on the
-nutritive solution. The yeast-like conidia are not to be confounded
-with the “Mucor-yeast” (comp. Mucoraceæ). For <i>Saccharomyces</i> see
-Appendix to the Fungi, page <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</p>
-
-<p>In a compound spore (<i>i.e.</i> when a mass of spores are associated
-together) each spore germinates on its own account. There are
-sometimes, however, certain among them which do not germinate, but
-yield their contents to those which do.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>length of time</i> for which conidia can retain their power
-of germination is shortest (being only a few weeks) in those having
-thin walls and containing a large supply of water (Peronosporaceæ,
-Uredinaceæ). In many spores a resting period is absolutely necessary
-before they are able to germinate (resting spores). It has been
-observed in some spores and conidia, that the faculty of germinating
-may be preserved for several years if the conditions necessary
-for germination remain absent (Ustilagineæ, <i>Eurotium</i>,
-<i>Penicillium</i>).</p>
-
-<p>The optimum, minimum and maximum temperatures required for the
-germination of the spores has been decided in the case of a good many
-Fungi. A large portion of the most common Fungi have their optimum at
-20°C., minimum at 1–2°C, maximum at 40°C. In the case of pathogenic
-Fungi the optimum is adapted to the temperature of the blood. Fungi
-living in manure, whose<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span> spores are often adapted to germinate in
-the alimentary canals of warm-blooded animals, have an optimum
-corresponding to the temperature of these animals, but with a little
-margin.</p>
-
-<p><b>Systematic Division.</b>&mdash;The lowest class of the Fungi is that
-of the <span class="smcap">Phycomycetes</span>, which have an unicellular mycelium,
-sexual and asexual reproduction, and have doubtless sprung from
-sporangia-bearing, lower Green Algæ. From the Phycomycetes (and
-certainly from the Zygomycetes) spring two well defined branches,
-each with numerous distinct species; to the one branch belong
-the <span class="smcap">Hemiasci</span> and the <span class="smcap">Ascomycetes</span>, to the other
-the <span class="smcap">Hemibasidii</span> and the BASIDIOMYCETES. Ascomycetes and
-Basidiomycetes may be united under the title of <span class="smcap">Mycomycetes</span> or
-<span class="smcap">Higher Fungi</span>. The Hemiasci and the Hemibasidii constitute the
-class of <span class="smcap">Mesomycetes</span>. The Hemiasci are an intermediate form
-between Zygomycetes and Ascomycetes; the Hemibasidii a similar group
-between the Zygomycetes and Basidiomycetes. Mesomycetes and Mycomycetes
-have only asexual reproduction; sexual reproduction is wanting. Their
-mycelium is multicellular.</p>
-
-<p>Up to the present time about 39,000 species have been described.</p>
-
-<p>Review of the divisions of the Fungi:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>Class I.&mdash;<b>Phycomycetes (Algal-Fungi).</b></p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Sub-Class 1. <b>Zygomycetes.</b></li>
-  <li>Sub-Class 2. <b>Oomycetes.</b></li>
-  <li class="i2">Family 1. <span class="smcap">Entomophthorales</span>.</li>
-  <li class="i2">Family 2. <span class="smcap">Chytridiales</span>.</li>
-  <li class="i2">Family 3. <span class="smcap">Mycosiphonales</span>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Class II. <b>Mesomycetes.</b></p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Sub-Class 1. <b>Hemiasci.</b></li>
-  <li>Sub-Class 2. <b>Hemibasidii (Brand-Fungi).</b></li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Class III.&mdash;<b>Mycomycetes (Higher Fungi).</b></p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Sub-Class 1. <b>Ascomycetes.</b></li>
-  <li class="i1">Series 1. <b>Exoasci.</b></li>
-  <li class="i1">Series 2. <b>Carpoasci.</b></li>
-  <li class="i2">Family 1. <span class="smcap">Gymnoascales</span>. }</li>
-  <li class="i2">Family 2. <span class="smcap">Perisporiales</span>.&emsp;}Angiocarpic Exoasci.</li>
-  <li class="i2">Family 3. <span class="smcap">Pyrenomycetes</span>. }</li>
-  <li class="i2">Family 4. <span class="smcap">Hysteriales</span>.&emsp;}</li>
-  <li class="i2">Family 5. <span class="smcap">Discomycetes</span>. } Hemiangiocarpic Exoasci.</li>
-  <li class="i2">Family 6. <span class="smcap">Helvellales</span>. Gymnocarpic (?) Exoasci.</li>
-  <li>Additional: <span class="smcap">Ascolichenes</span>. Lichen-forming Ascomycetes.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span></li>
-  <li>Sub-Class 2. <b>Basidiomycetes.</b></li>
-  <li class="hangingindent4">Series 1.&mdash;Protobasidiomycetes. Partly gymnocarpic, partly angiocarpic.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Series 2. Autobasidiomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i2">Family 1. <span class="smcap">Dacryomycetes</span>. Gymnocarpic.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent5">Family 2. <span class="smcap">Hymenomycetes</span>. Partly gymnocarpic, partly hemiangiocarpic.</li>
-  <li class="i2">Family 3. <span class="smcap">Phalloideæ</span>. Hemiangiocarpic.</li>
-  <li class="i2">Family 4. <span class="smcap">Gasteromycetes</span>. Angiocarpic.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">Additional: <span class="smcap">Basidiolichenes</span>. Lichen-forming Basidiomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">Additional to the Fungi: <span class="smcap">Fungi Imperfecti</span>. Incompletely known
-(<i>Saccharomyces</i>, <i>Oidium</i>-forms, etc.).</li>
-</ul>
-
-
-<h3>Class 1. <b>Phycomycetes (Algal-Fungi).</b><a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></h3>
-
-<p>This group resembles <i>Vaucheria</i> and the other Siphoneæ among the
-Algæ.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Organs of Nutrition.</span> The mycelium is formed of a single
-cell, often thread-like and abundantly branched (Fig. <a href="#fig78">78</a>). Vegetative
-propagation by chlamydospores and oidia. Asexual reproduction by
-endospores (sometimes <i>swarmspores</i>) and conidia. Sexual
-reproduction by conjugation of two hyphæ as in the Conjugatæ, or
-by fertilisation of an egg-cell in an oogonium. On this account
-the class of the Phycomycetes is divided into two sub-classes:
-<span class="smcap">Zygomycetes</span> and <span class="smcap">Oomycetes</span>.</p>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class I. <b>Zygomycetes.</b></h3>
-
-<p>Sexual reproduction takes place by zygospores, which function as
-resting-spores, and arise in consequence of <i>conjugation</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig81_82">81</a>); in the majority of species these are rarely found, and only
-under special conditions. The most common method of reproduction is
-by endospores, by acrogenous conidia, by chlamydospores, or by oidia.
-<i>Swarmspores are wanting.</i> Parasites and saprophytes (order 6
-and 7). The zygospores are generally produced when the formation
-of sporangia has ceased; <i>e.g.</i> by the suppression of the
-sporangial-hyphæ (<i>Mucor mucedo</i>), or by the diminution of oxygen;
-<i>Pilobolus crystallinus</i> forms zygospores, when the sporangia are
-infected with saprophytic <i>Piptocephalis</i> or <i>Pleotrachelus</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> Asexual reproduction only by sporangia.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Mucoraceæ.</b> The spherical sporangia contain many spores.
-The zygospore is formed between two unicellular branches (gametes).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span></p>
-
-<p>The unicellular mycelium (Fig. <a href="#fig78">78</a>) of the Mucoraceæ branches
-abundantly, and lives, generally, as a saprophyte on all sorts
-of dead organic remains. Some of these Fungi are known to be
-capable of producing <i>alcoholic fermentation</i>, in common with
-the Saccharomyces. This applies especially to <i>Chlamydomucor
-racemosus</i> (<i>Mucor racemosus</i>), when grown in a saccharine
-solution, and deprived of oxygen; the mycelium, under such conditions,
-becomes divided by transverse walls into a large number of small cells.
-Many of these swell out into spherical or club-shaped cells, and when
-detached from one another become chlamydospores, which abstrict new
-cells of similar nature (Fig. 79). These chlamydospores were formerly
-erroneously termed “mucor-yeast,” but they must not be confounded with
-the yeast-conidia (page 94). They are shortened hyphæ, and are not
-conidia of definite size, shape, and point of budding. Oidia are also
-found in <i>Chlamydomucor</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig78" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig78.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 78.</span>&mdash;<i>Mucor mucedo.</i> A mycelium
-which has sprung from one spore, whose position is marked by the *:
-<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i> are three sporangia in different stages of
-development; <i>a</i> is the youngest one, as yet only a short, thick,
-erect branch; <i>b</i> is commencing to form a sporangium which is
-larger in <i>c</i>, but not yet separated from its stalk.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[98]</span></p>
-
-<p>The Mucoraceæ, in addition to the chlamydospores and oidia, have a more
-normal and ordinary method of reproduction; viz., by <i>spores</i>
-which are formed without any sexual act. <i>Mucor</i> has round
-sporangia; from the mycelium one or more long branches, sometimes
-several centimetres in length, grow vertically into the air; the apex
-swells (Figs. <a href="#fig78">78</a>, <a href="#fig80">80</a>) into a sphere which soon becomes separated
-from its stalk by a transverse wall; in the interior of this sphere
-(sporangium) a number of spores are formed which eventually are set
-free by the rupture of the wall. The transverse wall protrudes into
-the sporangium and forms the well-known columella (Fig. <a href="#fig80">80</a> <i>d</i>,
-<i>e</i>). The formation of spores takes place in various ways among
-the different genera.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig79" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig79.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.</span>&mdash;Chlamydospores of <i>Chlamydomucor
-racemosus</i> (× 375 times.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig80" style="width: 700px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig80.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 80.</span>&mdash;<i>Mucor mucedo</i>: <i>a</i> a spore
-commencing to germinate (× 300 times); <i>b</i> a germinating spore
-which has formed a germ-tube from each end (× 300 times); <i>c</i>
-the apex of a young sporangium before the formation of spores has
-commenced; the stalk is protruded in the sporangium in the form of a
-column: on the wall of the sporangium is found a very fine incrustation
-of lime in the form of thorn-like projections; <i>d</i> a sporangium in
-which the formation of spores has commenced; <i>e</i> a sporangium, the
-wall of which is ruptured, leaving a remnant attached to the base of
-the columella as a small collar. A few spores are seen still adhering
-to the columella.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Sexual Reproduction</span> by conjugation takes place in the
-following manner. The ends of two hyphæ meet (Fig. <a href="#fig81_82">81</a>) and become
-more or less club-shaped; the ends of each of these are cut off by a
-cell-wall, and two new small cells (Fig. <a href="#fig81_82">81</a> <i>A</i>) are thus formed,
-these coalesce and give rise to a new cell which becomes the very
-thick-walled zygote (zygospore), and germinates after<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span> period of rest,
-producing a new hypha, which bears a sporangium (Fig. <a href="#fig81_82">81</a> <i>E</i>).</p>
-
-<p><i>Mucor mucedo</i>, Pin-mould, resembles somewhat in appearance
-<i>Penicillium crustaceum</i> and is found growing upon various organic
-materials (bread, jam, dung, etc.).</p>
-
-<p><i>Pilobolus</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig83">83</a>, <a href="#fig84">84</a>) grows on manure. Its sporangium (Fig.
-<a href="#fig84">84</a> <i>a″</i>) is formed during the night and by a peculiar mechanism
-(page <a href="#Page_92">92</a>) is shot away from the plant in the course of the day. This
-generally takes place in the summer, between eight and ten a.m. The
-sporangium is shot away to a height which may be 300 times greater than
-that of the plant itself, and by its stickiness it becomes attached to
-portions of plants, etc., which are in the vicinity. If these are eaten
-by animals, the spores pass into the alimentary canal and are later
-on, sometimes even in a germinating condition, passed out with the
-excrement, in which they form new mycelia.</p>
-
-<p><i>Phycomyces nitens</i> (“Oil-mould”) is the largest of the Mould
-Fungi; its sporangiophores may attain the height of 10–30 c.m.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Rhizopaceæ.</b> <i>Rhizopus nigricans</i> (<i>Mucor
-stolonifer</i>) which lives on decaying fruits containing sugar,
-on bread, etc., has, at the base of the sporangiophores, tufts of
-rhizoids, <i>i.e.</i> hyphæ, which function as organs of attachment.
-From these, “runners” are produced which in a similar manner develope
-sporangiophores and rhizoids.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig81_82" style="width: 418px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig81_82.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Figs. 81, 82.</span>&mdash;<i>Mucor mucedo</i>: <i>A-C</i>
-stages in the formation of the zygote; D zygote; E germination of
-zygote: the exospore has burst, and the endospore grown into a hypha
-bearing a sporangium.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Thamnidiaceæ.</b> On the same sporangiophore, in addition
-to a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span> large, terminal, many-spored sporangium, many smaller, lateral
-sporangia are formed with a few spores. Thamnidium.</p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> Asexual reproduction by sporangia and conidia.</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Choanephoraceæ.</b> <i>Choanephora</i> with creeping
-endophytic mycelium, and perpendicular sporangiophores.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Mortierellaceæ.</b> <i>Mortierella polycephala</i>
-produces on the same mycelium conidia and sporangiophores. <i>M.
-rostafinskii</i> has a long stalked sporangiophore, which is surrounded
-at its base by a covering of numerous felted hyphæ.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig83" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig83.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 83.</span>&mdash;<i>Pilobolus.</i> Mycelium (<i>a</i>,
-<i>a</i>), with a sporangiophore (<i>A</i>) and the fundament of
-another (<i>B</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig84" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig84.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 84.</span>&mdash;<i>Pilobolus.</i> Sporangium
-(<i>a″</i>) with stalk (<i>a-c</i>), which is covered by many small
-drops of water pressed out by turgescence.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>C.</b> Asexual reproduction only by conidia.</p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Chætocladiaceæ.</b> The conidia are abstricted singly and
-acrogenously. <i>Chætocladium</i> is a parasite on the larger Mucoraceæ.</p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Piptocephalidaceæ.</b> The conidia are formed acrogenously
-and in a series, by transverse divisions. The zygospore arises at the
-summit of the conjugating hyphæ, which are curved so as to resemble
-a pair of tongs. <i>Piptocephalis</i> and <i>Syncephalis</i> live
-parasitically on the larger Mucoraceæ.</p>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class 2. <b>Oomycetes.</b></h3>
-
-<p>Sexual reproduction is oogamous with the formation of brown,
-thick-walled <i>oospores</i> which germinate after a period of rest.
-Asexual reproduction by conidia and <i>swarmspores</i>. Parasites,
-seldom saprophytes.</p>
-
-<p>The oospores are large spores which are formed from the egg-cell
-(oosphere) of the <i>oogonium</i> (oosporangium, Fig. <a href="#fig89">89</a>, <a href="#fig95">95</a>). A branch
-of the mycelium attaches itself to the oogonium and forms at its apex
-the so-called “<i>antheridium</i>” (pollinodium<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>): this sends one or
-more slender prolongations (fertilising tubes) through the wall of the
-oogonium to the egg-cell.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[101]</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig85" style="width: 507px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig85.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 85.</span>&mdash;<i>Empusa muscæ</i> (Fly-mould). I.
-A fly killed by the fungus, surrounded by a white layer of conidia.
-II. The conidiophores (<i>t</i>) projecting from the body of the fly.
-Some of the conidia, a few of which have developed secondary conidia,
-are attached to the hairs (mag. 80 times). III. A perfect hypha.
-IV. A hypha in the act of ejecting a conidium (<i>c</i>), enveloped
-in a sticky slime (<i>g</i>). V. A conidium which has developed a
-secondary conidium (<i>sc</i>). VI. A branched hypha produced by
-cultivation. VII. A secondary conidium which has produced a small
-mycelium (<i>m</i>). VIII. A conidium germinating on the fly’s body.
-IX. Mycelium. X. Conidia germinating like yeast in the fatty tissue of
-the fly. (III.-VII. and IX. magnified 300 times; VIII. and X. magnified
-500 times.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>A fertilisation, a passage of the contents of the antheridium to
-the egg-cell, has as yet only been observed in <i>Pythium</i>;
-in <i>Phytophthora</i> only one small mass of protoplasm
-passes through the fertilising tube to the egg-cell; in
-<i>Peronospora</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[102]</span> and the Saprolegniaceæ no protoplasm can be
-observed to pass through the fertilising tube, so that in these
-instances <i>parthenogenesis</i> takes place; <i>Saprolegnia
-thuretii</i>, etc., have generally even no antheridia, but
-nevertheless form normal oospores. Fertilisation of the egg-cell
-by means of self-motile <i>spermatozoids</i> is only found in
-<i>Monoblepharis sphærica</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> Asexual reproduction by conidia only.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 1. <b>Entomophthorales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The mycelium is richly branched. The family is a transitional step to
-the conidia-bearing Zygomycetes, since the oospores of many members of
-this family arise, and are formed, like zygospores.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Entomophthoraceæ.</b> Mycelium abundantly developed. This
-most frequently lives parasitically in living insects, causing their
-death. The conidiophores forming the conidial-layer project from the
-skin, and abstrict a proportionately large conidium which is ejected
-with considerable force, and by this means transferred to other
-insects. These become infected by the entrance of the germ-tube into
-their bodies. The spherical, brown resting-spores develope inside the
-bodies of insects and germinate by emitting a germ-tube.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Genera</span>: <i>Empusa</i> has a good many species which
-are parasitic on flies, moths, grasshoppers, plant-lice. The
-conidia emit a germ-tube which pierces the skin of the insect; a
-number of secondary conidia are then produced inside its body,
-by division or by gemmation similar to that taking place in
-yeast, each of which grows and becomes a long unbranched hypha,
-and these eventually fill up the body of the animal, causing
-distension and death. Each of these hyphæ projects through the
-skin, and abstricts a conidium, which is ejected by a squirting
-contrivance. The best known species is <i>E. muscæ</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig85">85</a>), which makes its appearance epidemically towards autumn on
-the common house-fly, and shows itself by the dead flies which
-are found on the windows and walls attached by their probosces,
-distended wings, and legs. They have swollen abdomen, broad
-white belts of hyphæ between the abdominal rings, and are
-surrounded by a circle of whitish dust formed by the ejected
-conidia.&mdash;<i>Entomophthora</i> sends out, at definite places,
-from the mycelium hidden in the insect’s body, bundles of hyphæ,
-which serve the purpose of holding fast the dead insects, the
-ramifications attaching themselves to the substratum: the
-conidiophores are branched, the conidia are ejected by the
-divisional walls between the hyphæ and the conidia dividing into
-two layers, those which terminate the hyphæ suddenly expanding
-and throwing the conidia into the air. <i>E. radicans</i> makes
-its appearance epidemically on caterpillars.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> Asexual reproduction by zoospores or conidia.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 2. <b>Chytridiales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>In this family the mycelium is very sparsely developed or is
-wanting. The entire plant consists principally or entirely of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[103]</span>
-single zoosporangium whose zoospores have generally one cilium. The
-resting-spores arise either directly from the zoosporangium, which,
-instead of forming zoospores, surrounds itself by a thick cell-wall; or
-they are formed by the conjugation of two cells (in which case they are
-spoken of as oospores). Microscopic Fungi, parasitic on water plants
-(especially Algæ) or small aquatic animals, seldom on land plants.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Olpidiaceæ.</b> Without mycelium. Swarmspores and
-resting-spores.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In the <i>Olpidieæ</i>, the swarmspores, probably, most
-frequently form themselves into a plasmodium (naked mass of
-protoplasm) which may become a single zoosporangium or a resting
-sporangium. <i>Olpidium trifolii</i> occurs in <i>Trifolium
-repens</i>.&mdash;In the <i>Synchytrieæ</i> the plasmodium emerging
-from the swarmspores breaks up either at once, or after a
-period of rest, into smaller plasmodia, each of which will
-become a zoosporangium. <i>Synchytrium anemones</i> is found on
-<i>Anemone nemorosa</i>; <i>S. mercurialis</i> on <i>Mercurialis
-perennis</i>; <i>S. aureum</i> on many plants, particularly
-<i>Lysimachia nummularia</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig86" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig86.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 86.</span>&mdash;<i>Chytridium lagenula.</i>
-Zoosporangium <i>a</i> before, <i>b</i> after the liberation of the
-swarmspores.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig87" style="width: 377px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig87.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 87.</span>&mdash;<i>Obelidium mucronatum</i>: <i>m</i>
-mycelium; <i>s</i> swarmspores.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Rhizidiaceæ.</b> Mycelium present. Zoospores and
-resting-spores.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Chytridium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig86">86</a>). <i>Obelidium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig87">87</a>)
-is bicellular; the one cell is the mycelium, the other
-the zoosporangium; found on insects. The species of
-<i>Cladochytrium</i> are intercellular parasites on marsh
-plants. <i>Physoderma.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Zygochytriaceæ.</b> Mycelium present. Zoospores and
-oospores. The latter are the product of the conjugation of two cells
-(Fig. <a href="#fig88">88</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Polyphagus euglenæ</i> on <i>Euglena viridis</i>.
-<i>Urophlyctis pulposa</i> on species of <i>Chenopodium</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 3. <b>Mycosiphonales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The mycelium is bladder-like or branched. Zoospores. Sexual
-reproduction by oospores, which are produced in oogonia. The latter are
-fertilised, in some forms, by the antheridium.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Ancylistaceæ.</b> The entire bladder-like mycelium
-is used for the construction of zoosporangia, oogonia, or
-antheridia. <i>Lagenedium</i> is parasitic on <i>Spirogyra</i>,
-etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Peronosporaceæ.</b> Almost entirely <i>parasites</i>.
-The unicellular, often very long and abundantly branched mycelium
-lives in the intercellular spaces of living plants, especially in the
-green portions, and these are more or less destroyed and deformed
-in consequence. Special small branches (<i>suction-organs</i>,
-“<i>haustoria</i>”) are pushed into the cells in order to abstract
-nourishment from them. Both oospores and conidia germinate either
-immediately, or they develope into sporangia with swarmspores, having
-always two cilia. Only one oospore is formed in each oogonium; its
-contents (Fig. <a href="#fig89">89</a>) divide into a centrally placed egg-cell and the
-“periplasm” surrounding it; this is of a paler colour and on the
-maturity of the oospore forms its thick, brown, external covering.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig88" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig88.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 88.</span>&mdash;<i>Polyphagus euglenæ. A</i>
-with smooth, <i>B</i> with thorny oospores; <i>m</i> and <i>f</i> the
-two conjugating cells.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig89" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig89.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 89.</span>&mdash;<i>Peronospora alsinearum.</i>
-Mycelium with egg-cell and antheridium.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig90" style="width: 454px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig90.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 90.</span>&mdash;<i>Phytophthora infestans</i>
-(strongly magnified). Cross section through a small portion of a
-Potato-leaf (the under side turned upwards): <i>a</i> the mycelium;
-<i>b b</i> two conidiophores projecting through a stoma; <i>c</i>
-conidia; <i>e</i> the spongy tissue of the leaf; <i>g</i> the
-epidermis.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>The Potato-fungus</i> (<i>Phytophthora infestans</i>) is of great
-interest. Its thallus winters in the Potato-tuber; other organs for
-passing the winter, such as oospores, are not known. When the tuber
-germinates, the Fungus-hyphæ penetrate the young shoot and keep pace
-with the aerial growth and development of the plant. The conidiophores
-emerge through the stomata, especially on the under side of the leaves;
-they branch like a tree (Fig. <a href="#fig90">90</a>), and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[105]</span> appear to the naked eye as a
-fine mould on the surface of the plant. The disease soon makes itself
-known by the brown colouring of those parts of the plant which are
-attacked, and by their withering. An ovoid conidium arises at first
-by the formation of a dividing wall at the apex of each branch of
-the conidiophore<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[106]</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig90">90</a> <i>c c</i>), and immediately underneath
-it another is formed, which pushes the first to one side, and so on.
-These conidia sometimes germinate directly, and form a mycelium, but
-most frequently their protoplasm divides into many small masses, each
-of which becomes a pear-shaped zoospore provided with two cilia (Fig.
-<a href="#fig91">91</a>). Water is required for their germination, and when the ripe conidia
-are placed in a drop of water the swarm-cells are formed in the course
-of about five hours. They swarm about in rain and dewdrops in the
-Potato-fields, and are carried with the water to the Potato-plants
-and to the tubers in the soil. The wind also very easily conveys
-the conidia to healthy Potato-fields and infects them. The enormous
-quantity of conidia and swarm-cells that may be formed in the course of
-a summer explains the rapid spreading of the disease; and the preceding
-makes it clear why wet summers are favourable to its existence. When
-the swarm-cells germinate, they round off, and then surround themselves
-with a cell-wall which grows out into the germ-tube, and <i>pierces
-through the epidermis</i> of the host-plant (Fig. <a href="#fig92">92</a>). Having entered
-the host, a new mycelium is formed. The potato disease, since 1845, has
-been rampant in Europe; it has, no doubt, been introduced from America,
-which, it must be remembered, is the home of the Potato-plant.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig91" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig91.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 91.</span>&mdash;<i>Phytophthora infestans</i>:
-<i>a-c</i> conidia detached; in <i>c</i> the swarm-cells are leaving
-the mother-cell; <i>d</i> two free-swimming swarm-cells.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig92" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig92.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 92.</span>&mdash;<i>Phytophthora infestans.</i>
-Cross section through a portion of a Potato-stalk. Two germinating
-conidia (<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>) piercing the epidermis, and the mycelium
-penetrating the cells.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The conidia exhibit various characters which are employed
-for the separation of the genera. <i>Pythium</i> is the
-most simple form. The contents of the terminally-formed
-conidia emerge as a spherical mass and divide into
-swarmspores. <i>P. de Baryanum</i> lives in the seedlings
-of many different Flowering-plants, which it completely
-destroys.&mdash;<i>Phytophthora</i> is distinguished by the
-circumstance that the sparsely-branched conidiophores
-bear, sympodially, chains of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[107]</span> conidia. Besides the
-Potato-fungus (see above), <i>Ph. fagi</i> belongs to this
-group; it developes oospores very abundantly, and does
-great harm to seedlings of the Beech, Sycamore, and Pine
-trees.&mdash;<i>Peronospora</i> generally has conidiophores
-which are repeatedly forked, and bear a conidium on each
-of the most extreme ramifications. Many do great harm to
-their host-plants. <i>P. viticola</i>, on Vines, and <i>P.
-nivea</i>, on umbelliferous plants, have swarmspores, which
-are absent in the following species of this genus: <i>P.
-sparsa</i>, on Roses; <i>P. gangliformis</i>, on composites;
-<i>P. alsinearum</i>, on Stitchwort; <i>P. parasitica</i>,
-on cruciferous plants; <i>P. viciæ</i>, on Vetches and Peas;
-<i>P. schachtii</i>, on Beets; <i>P. violacea</i>, on the
-flowers of <i>Scabiosa</i>; <i>P. radii</i>, on the ray-florets
-of <i>Matricaria</i>.&mdash;<i>Cystopus</i> (<i>Albugo</i>) has
-the conidia developed in chains, which form a cohesive white
-layer underneath the epidermis of the host-plant. <i>Cystopus
-candidus</i>, on cruciferous plants, especially Shepherd’s
-Purse and <i>Brassica</i>; the germination commences on the
-cotyledons, and from this point the mycelium developes together
-with the host-plant; <i>C. cubicus</i>, on the leaves of
-Compositæ.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig93" style="width: 262px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig93.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 93.</span>&mdash;A fly overgrown with
-<i>Saprolegnia</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig94" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig94.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 94.</span>&mdash;Formation of swarmspores in a
-<i>Saprolegnia</i>: a germinating swarmspores.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Saprolegniaceæ</b>, <i>Water-Fungi</i> which live as
-saprophytes on organic remains lying in water, for instance, on dead
-flies (Fig. <a href="#fig93">93</a>), worms, remains of plants; but they may also make their
-appearance on living animals, being frequently found, for example, on
-the young trout in rearing establishments.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig95" style="width: 235px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig95.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 95.</span>&mdash;Oogonium with two antheridia,
-<i>Achlya racemosa</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The thallus is a single, long and branched cell. It has one portion
-which serves as root, and lives in the substratum, where it ramifies
-abundantly for the purpose of absorbing nourishment; and another
-portion projecting freely in the water, and sending out hyphæ on all
-sides (Fig. <a href="#fig93">93</a>). The asexual reproduction takes place by swarmspores
-(Fig. <a href="#fig94">94</a>), which are developed in large sporangia; these swarmspores
-generally possess two cilia, and on germination grow into new plants.
-The entire protoplasm<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span> in the oogonium is formed into one or more
-oospheres, without any surrounding “periplasm.” The oospheres may not
-be fertilised (p. <a href="#Page_100">100</a>), and then develope parthenogenetically.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Genera: <i>Saprolegnia</i>, whose swarmspores disperse
-immediately after having left the sporangium. <i>S. ferax</i>
-is the cause of a disease in fish (“Salmon disease”)
-and in the crayfish.&mdash;<i>Achlya</i>, whose swarmspores
-accumulate in a hollow ball before the mouth of the
-sporangium.&mdash;<i>Leptomitus</i> has strongly indented hyphæ,
-causing a “linked” appearance. <i>L. lacteus</i> is frequent in
-the waste matter from sugar factories.&mdash;<i>Monoblepharis</i>
-deviates from the others by the greater development of its
-fertilising process; the oosphere, situated in an open oogonium,
-becoming fertilised by self-motile spermatozoids, which are
-provided with a cilium at the posterior end.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h3>Class 2. <b>Mesomycetes.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The Mesomycetes are intermediate forms between the Phycomycetes and
-the Higher Fungi. In the vegetative organs, and in the multicellular
-hyphæ, they resemble the Higher Fungi; the methods of reproduction,
-however, show the characters of the Phycomycetes, namely sporangia
-and conidiophores of varying size and with varying number of spores;
-definite and typically formed asci and basidia are not present. Sexual
-reproduction is wanting. The <span class="smcap">Hemiasci</span> are transitional
-between the Phycomycetes and the Ascomycetes, the <span class="smcap">Hemibasidii</span>
-(Brand-Fungi) form the transition to the Basidiomycetes.</p>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class 1. <b>Hemiasci.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The Hemiasci are Fungi with <i>sporangia</i> which, <i>although
-resembling asci</i>, yet have <i>not</i>, however, <i>a definite form
-and a definite number of spores</i>. Besides endospores, conidia,
-chlamydospores and oidia are found.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Ascoideaceæ.</b> <i>Ascoidea rubescens</i> forms
-irregular, reddish-brown masses in the sap issuing from felled
-Beeches. It has <i>free sporangia</i>, which resemble asci in
-their structure, in the development and ejection, and in the
-definite shape and size of the spores. The formation of the
-sporangia takes place when the nutriment is nearly exhausted,
-and resembles that of the conidia, since they are developed
-from the end of a hypha which enlarges, and the swelling
-becomes separated by a transverse wall. Within the sporangia
-numerous spores of a cap-like form are developed, which
-are set free through an opening at the apex. Sporangia are
-formed successively at the apex of the same hypha, the second
-commencing to develope as the first is dehiscing. Conidia and
-sporangia are not formed simultaneously; the former may be
-considered as closed sporangia.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Protomycetaceæ.</b> <i>Protomyces pachydermus</i>
-causes hard swellings on the stems and leaf-stalks of the
-Cichorieæ (<i>Taraxacum</i>, etc.). These swellings<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span> consist
-of <i>chlamydospores</i> (resting-spores), which germinate and
-become free, ascus-like sporangia, with numerous small spores.
-In nutritive solutions the chlamydospores form conidia with
-yeast-like buddings. <i>P. macrosporus</i> on <i>Ægopodium</i>,
-and other Umbelliferæ.</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Thelebolaceæ.</b> <i>Thelebolus stercoreus</i>, is
-found on the dung of deer, hares, and rabbits, and has <i>closed
-sporangia</i>, which resemble asci in their shape and regular
-construction, and in the ejection of spores. The covering
-encloses only one sporangium, even where the sporangia arise
-close together.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>This order, by reason of the covering of the sporangia, forms the
-transition from the Hemiasci to the Carpoasci, while the two first
-supply an intermediate step to the Exoasci.</p>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class 2. <b>Hemibasidii, Brand-Fungi.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The Brand-Fungi (also known as <span class="smcap">Ustilagineæ</span>) are Fungi with
-<i>basidia-like conidiophores</i>, which, however, have not yet
-advanced to a definite form or number of conidia. They are true
-parasites, whose mycelium spreads itself in the intercellular spaces of
-Flowering plants. The mycelium is colourless, quickly perishable, has
-transverse walls at some distance from each other (Fig. <a href="#fig96">96</a>), and sends
-out haustoria into the cells of the host-plant.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig96" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig96.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 96.</span>&mdash;<i>Entyloma ranunculi.</i> 1. Cross
-section of a portion of a leaf of <i>Ficaria</i> permeated by the
-mycelium; a bundle of hyphæ with conidia emerging from a stoma; in one
-of the cells are found four brand-spores. 2. A brand-spore developed in
-the middle of a hypha.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>It most frequently happens that the germ-tube enters the host-plant at
-its most tender age, that is, during the germination of the seed; the
-mycelium then wanders about in the tissues of the shoot<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span> during its
-growth, until it reaches that part of the plant where the spores are to
-be formed. The spore-formation takes place in the same way in all those
-species whose brand-spores are developed in the floral parts of the
-host-plant. Many Brand-Fungi have, however, a more local occurrence,
-and the mycelium is restricted to a smaller area of the leaf or stem.
-Those organs of the host-plant in which the brand-spores are developed
-often become strongly hypertrophied. In perennial plants the mycelium
-winters very often in the rhizome.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig97" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig97.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 97.</span>&mdash;<i>Doassansia alismatis.</i> 1. A
-fruit-body, formed by a covering of oblong hyphæ, which encloses a mass
-of brand-spores, and is embedded in the leaf-tissue of the host-plant;
-20 times natural size. 2. A germinating brand-spore, 500 times natural
-size. 3. Three connected resting-spores, 400 times natural size. 4. Two
-conidia grown together, 600 times natural size.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The brand-spores are the winter resting-spores of the Brand-Fungi.
-They arise in the tissues of the host-plant, which is often destroyed,
-and become free through the rupture of the epidermis; they are
-thick-walled, generally brown or violet, and very often possess warts,
-spines, or reticulate markings. Fruit-bodies, that is enclosed organs
-of reproduction, are found in few genera (<i>Sphacelotheca</i>,
-<i>Graphiola</i>; <i>Doassansia</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig97">97</a>). In <i>Tolyposporium</i>,
-<i>Tuburcinia</i>, <i>Thecaphora</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig102">102</a>), etc., the
-brand-spores are united into a <i>ball of spores</i>. On germination
-the brand-spores behave as <i>chlamydospores</i>, namely, as the
-fundament of conidiophores, by emitting a short germ-tube, <i>i.e.</i>
-a conidiophore (“promycelium”). The <span class="smcap">Ustilaginaceæ</span> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig99">99</a>, 2) have a short <i>transversely divided</i> conidiophore,
-with <i>laterally</i> developed conidia (comp. the basidia of the
-Protobasidiomycetes). The conidiophores of the <span class="smcap">Tilletiaceæ</span> are
-undivided (unicellular promycelia), and bear the conidia terminally,
-and so resemble the basidia of the Autobasidiomycetes.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig98" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig98.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 98.</span>&mdash;<i>Tuburcinia.</i> 1. <i>T.
-trientalis.</i> Hyphæ, some of which bear conidia at the apex, forcing
-themselves out between the epidermal cells on the under side of the
-leaf; 320 times natural size. 2. <i>T. trientalis.</i> A ball of spores
-in which some of the individual brand-spores are about to germinate;
-520 times natural size. 3. <i>T. primulicola</i>: various forms of
-conidia (500 times natural size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In <i>Tilletia</i>, <i>Entyloma</i>, <i>Neovossia</i>,
-<i>Tuburcinia</i>, the brand-spores germinate and form
-basidia-like conidiophores with spindle-shaped conidia; their
-mycelium, on the other hand, produces later only single,
-sickle-shaped conidia, so that two kinds of conidia are found,
-as in a few Basidiomycetes. In some species, <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Ustilago hordei</i>, the brand-spores only germinate
-vegetatively and form a mycelium. In nutritive solutions
-(solutions of dung, etc.) where they live as <i>saprophytes</i>,
-the brand-spores of many species emit germ-tubes, and on these,
-<i>yeast-like conidia</i> are produced by repeated budding,
-which grow into mycelia only when the nutritive solution is
-exhausted. These conidia have not the power of producing
-alcoholic fermentation. The very numerous conidia, which are
-found in the dung of herbivorous animals, are probably the
-yeast-conidia of Brand-Fungi. The brand-spores, which are
-eaten by animals with the grain and hay, pass into the dung
-and without doubt give rise to a very rich multiplication of
-yeast-conidia.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig99" style="width: 557px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig99.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 99.</span>&mdash;<i>Ustilago.</i> 1. Formation of
-brand-spores. 2. Germinating brand-spore of <i>U. perennans</i>.
-3. Germinating brand-spore of <i>U. cardui</i> (after Brefeld). 4.
-<i>U. filiformis. a</i> A brand-spore with developed basidium;
-<i>b</i> another, with a conidium; <i>c</i> with two conidia; <i>d</i>
-with two conidia placed diametrically opposite to each other; <i>e</i>,
-detached conidia which are growing into hyphæ.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig100" style="width: 449px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig100.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 100.</span>&mdash;<i>Tilletia tritici</i>: <i>a</i>
-an ear of Wheat in which all the grains are attacked by Stinkbrand;
-<i>b</i> a blighted corn surrounded by the chaff; <i>c</i> a blighted
-corn grown together with a stamen; <i>d</i> the same cut across;
-<i>e</i> a brand-spore; <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>h</i> germinating
-brand-spores; <i>i</i> germinating conidia; <i>j</i> the mycelium;
-<i>k</i>-<i>k</i> brand-spore-forming mycelium-threads. (<i>c-h</i>
-magnified 400 times; <i>i-k</i> 300 times.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span></p><div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The conidia (also called “sporidia”) of many species unite
-generally into an H-form (Figs. <a href="#fig97">97</a>, 4; <a href="#fig100">100</a> h; <a href="#fig101">101</a>, 4). This
-union in pairs does not, however, take place with a view<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span> to
-germination, there is no fusion of nuclei, and therefore in this
-“fusion” there is no sexual act.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Ustilaginaceæ.</b> Conidiophores with transverse
-walls and lateral conidia.&mdash;<i>Ustilago</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig99">99</a>) generally
-developes its spores in the floral organs of its host-plant, the
-ovary or anthers, where they arise from hyphæ, and form a slimy
-mass which when mature becomes a black dust.</p>
-
-<p>To this order belong <i>U. avenæ</i>, parasitic on Oats,
-<i>U. hordei</i> and <i>U. nuda</i> (<i>U. jenseni</i>), on
-Barley; these are the usual cause of “Smut” on cereals. <i>U.
-hypodytes</i> on straw of <i>Elymus</i> and <i>Agropyrum</i>.
-<i>U. filiformis</i> in the leaves of <i>Glyceria</i>. <i>U.
-caricis</i> transforms the fruits of various species of
-<i>Carex</i> into black, dusty balls. <i>U. violacea</i>
-developes its violet spore-powder in the anthers of the
-Caryophyllaceæ. <i>U. tragopogonis</i>, transforms entire
-inflorescences of <i>Tragopogon</i> into a black-violet mass.
-Among the largest are <i>U. grandis</i>, which causes the large
-swollen nodes in the stem of <i>Phragmites</i>, and the Maize
-Blight, <i>U. maydis</i>, which produces outgrowths about the
-size of a hand on the spadix of the Maize.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Tilletiaceæ.</b> Conidiophores undivided, generally
-several conidia arise at their apices.&mdash;<i>Tilletia tritici</i>,
-the <i>Stinkbrand on Wheat</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig100">100</a>). The mycelium lives
-in Wheat-plants, producing its spores in the ovary after the
-whole interior of this body has been destroyed by the mycelium,
-with the exception of the external layer of the wall of the
-ovary, which remains essentially unaltered and encloses the
-closely packed, firm mass of spores (Fig. 100 <i>d</i>). The
-grains of Wheat thus attacked are shorter and thicker than the
-sound ones, and the ears show the presence of this Fungus by
-their erect position, and the wide separation of the chaff (Fig.
-<a href="#fig100">100</a> <i>a</i>). The unpleasant odour of the ovary prior to the
-ripening of the spores, has given the name “Stinkbrand,” and,
-in like manner, its hardness when it encloses the ripe spores,
-is the reason of its being also called “Stonebrand.” On account
-of this hardness, the diseased grains are readily harvested
-together with the healthy ones, which become infected by the
-spores at the threshing. <i>T. lævis</i> (<i>T. fœtens</i>) also
-occurs on Wheat and has smooth brand-spores.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig101" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig101.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 101.</span>&mdash;<i>Urocystis.</i> 1, <i>U.
-covalloides</i>. A spore-ball, magnified 450 times. 2–4, <i>U.
-anemones</i>: 2–3, brand-spores which are about to germinate (magnified
-450 times). 4, Conidia, the two in a state of fusion, a third with
-vacuoles and division-wall, magnified 500 times.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Entyloma</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig96">96</a>), a genus with numerous species,
-which appear in spots on the leaves of the host-plant, and
-<i>Tuburcinia</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig98">98</a>), which makes its appearance on the
-Primulaceæ, produce white conidia-spots on the surface of the
-host-plant. The first-named has single spores, the latter has
-its spores closely massed together.&mdash;<i>Urocystis</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig101">101</a>) has its spores surrounded by a number of small and lighter
-coloured barren spores. <i>U. occulta</i>, Rye-stem Blight,
-forms its spores in long streaks in the stems and leaves of
-the Rye, and does considerable damage. <i>U. cepulæ<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[114]</span></i> on
-Onions. <i>U. violæ</i> forms large dark-violet swellings in the
-leaf-stalk and stems of Violets.&mdash;<i>Thecaphora</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig102">102</a>)
-appears in seedlings of <i>Convolvulus</i> and <i>Astragalus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>As a means of protection against the Smut-Fungi which make their
-appearance on the different cereals, a submersion of the grains
-in a solution of blue vitriol (½%) for twelve hours, or better
-still, submerging for five minutes in water heated to 53–55°
-<i>C</i> (Jensen’s method) is employed.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig102" style="width: 470px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig102.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 102.</span>&mdash;<i>Thecaphora.</i> 1, <i>T.
-convolvuli</i>, a ball of spores, one of the brand-spores has emitted a
-septate branched conidiophore (× 520). 2, <i>T. affinis</i>, a ball of
-spores (× 520).</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h3>Class 3. <b>Mycomycetes, Higher Fungi.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The <span class="smcap">Mycomycetes</span> are not entirely aquatic in habit; they have
-hyphæ with <i>transverse walls</i>, but <i>no sexual reproductive
-organs</i>. The asexual reproduction takes place in very different
-ways; by endospores (in asci), conidia, basidiospores, chlamydospores,
-and oidia. Swarmspores are never found.</p>
-
-<p>Two chief methods of reproduction may be distinguished, and
-hence the class may be divided into two large sub-classes:&mdash;the
-<span class="smcap">Ascomycetes</span> (with asci), and the <span class="smcap">Basidiomycetes</span> (with
-basidia).</p>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class 1. <b>Ascomycetes.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The main characteristic which distinguishes the Ascomycetes is the
-<i>ascus</i>; a name given to a sporangium of a definite shape and
-size, and containing a definite number of spores. The shape is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span>
-generally club-like or spherical, the number of spores 8 (in some 2, 4,
-16 or more), see Figs. <a href="#fig103">103</a>, <a href="#fig105">105</a>, <a href="#fig108">108</a>, <a href="#fig110">110</a>, <a href="#fig113">113</a>, <a href="#fig116">116</a>, <a href="#fig120">120</a>, <a href="#fig121">121</a>, <a href="#fig123">123</a>, <a href="#fig129">129</a>.</p>
-
-<p>In the lowest forms, the <span class="smcap">Exoasci</span>, the ascus springs directly
-from the mycelium without the formation of a fruit-body (<i>i.e.</i>
-ascocarp). In the higher forms, which contain many species, the
-<span class="smcap">Carpoasci</span>, the asci are united and form ascocarps which may
-be more or less enclosed (angiocarpic, hemiangiocarpic, and probably
-gymnocarpic).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig103" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig103.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 103.</span>&mdash;Endogenous formation of spores
-in <i>Peziza confluens</i>. In the youngest asci there is only one
-nucleus (<i>b</i>, <i>e</i>); this divides into two (<i>f</i>); and
-the division is repeated so that there are 4 nuclei in <i>c</i> and 8
-in <i>g</i>. These surround themselves with protoplasm and a cell-wall
-(<i>h</i>, <i>i</i>). The protoplasm of the mother-cell is not entirely
-used up.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The hyphæ of the <i>Mycelium</i> in some remain free, in others they
-are felted together and form thick strands or flat, cushion-like bodies
-(compare in particular the stromata of the Pyrenomycetes). Some species
-form <i>sclerotia</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig116">116</a>, <a href="#fig128">128</a>).</p>
-
-<p>Asexual reproduction by means of <i>conidia</i> is known in many
-species as the principal means of reproduction, and the one which
-affords the most rapid means of distribution. The conidia may be
-produced on conidiophores (Fig. <a href="#fig109">109</a>), in conidial-layers (Fig. <a href="#fig122">122</a>),
-and often in conidiocarps (pycnidia, Figs. <a href="#fig120">120</a> <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[116]</span>
-<a href="#fig123">123</a> <i>a</i>; <a href="#fig124">124</a> <i>b.</i>). These last occur partly as the so-called
-“spermogonia” (that is, pycnidia with microconidia). The conidiophores
-never approach the basidia.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In many species the ascospores germinate and form conidia
-immediately (<i>Nectria cinnabarina</i>, <i>Sclerotinia</i>,
-<i>Taphrina</i>, etc.), sometimes while they are still in
-the ascus and before their ejection (<i>Taphrina</i>, Fig.
-<a href="#fig105">105</a> <i>a</i>). In many instances the conidia by means of
-continued budding can, for a longer or shorter time, produce
-yeast-conidia, <i>e.g. Taphrina</i>. In many other cases
-the conidia arise from the germ-tubes of the ascospores, or at
-any part of the mycelium. The unripe asci of <i>Taphrina</i>,
-when placed in water, develop conidia at their apices. The
-<i>Sclerotinia</i>-species produce numerous conidia whose
-germination has never been observed. The formation of conidia
-and asci sometimes takes place on the same fruit-body. In
-<i>Heterosphæria patella</i> the conidia and asci are developed
-successively in the same fruit-body; in the ascocarps of
-<i>Dermatea frangula</i> and <i>Sclerotinia sclerotiorum</i> the
-formation of conidia may take place. The ascocarps frequently
-arise from the conidial-layers (<i>Nectria cinnabarina</i>,
-etc.). This relationship of the two forms of reproduction to
-each other may be explained by considering that both have
-descended phylogenetically from sporangia.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Sometimes <i>chlamydospores</i> and <i>oidia</i> also appear in
-the Ascomycetes; on germination, however, they do not, as in
-<i>Protomyces</i>, form sporangia, and on this account cannot be
-distinctly distinguished from conidia.</p>
-
-<p>The asci are morphologically the highest form of reproduction and
-are always found at the close of the development of these Fungi; the
-accessory forms of reproduction are first developed, but a well-defined
-alternation of generations does not occur.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In the Ascomycetes there are more than 11,000 described species,
-which can be classed as follows:&mdash;</p>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Series 1. <span class="smcap">Exoasci.</span> Only one order.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;2. <span class="smcap">Carpoasci.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">Family 1. <i>Gymnoascales</i>,  }</li>
-  <li class="i4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. <i>Perisporiales</i>,&ensp;&nbsp;} Angiocarpic Carpoasci.</li>
-  <li class="i4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;3. <i>Pyrenomycetes</i>, }</li>
-  <li>&emsp;&ensp;&emsp;</li>
-  <li class="i4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;4. <i>Hysteriales</i>,&ensp;&nbsp;}</li>
-  <li class="i4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;5. <i>Discomycetes</i>,} Hemiangiocarpic Carpoasci.</li>
-  <li class="i4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;6. <i>Helvellales</i>, Gymnocarpic (?) Carpoasci.</li>
-  <li>Additional <i>Ascolichenes</i>: Lichen-forming Ascomycetes.</li>
-</ul>
-</div>
-
-<h5>Series 1. <b>Exoasci.</b></h5>
-
-<p>Ascomycetes with <span class="allsmcap">FREE ASCI</span>; sometimes also conidia,
-chlamydospores and oidia. One order.</p>
-
-<p>Order. <b>Taphrinaceæ.</b> Of the genera belonging to this order,
-<i>Taphrina</i>, <i>Endomyces</i>, and <i>Ascocorticium</i>, the first
-is most important.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[117]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Endomyces decipiens</i> is a parasite in the fruit-body
-of <i>Armillaria mellea</i>; <i>E. magnusii</i> lives in the
-gelatinous, fermenting exudations of Oak-trees; <i>Ascocorticium
-albidum</i> is found under the bark of the Fir-tree.
-<i>Endomyces</i> has chlamydospores and oidia.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The species of <i>Taphrina</i> are parasites, whose free asci may
-be found in great numbers, generally closely pressed together,
-on the parts of plants which they have attacked. The asci are
-developed directly from the ascogenous cells of a fertile, generally
-sub-cuticular, hypha, which arises from the sterile mycelium. The
-latter arises from the germinating ascospore, and may hibernate in the
-tissues of its host, particularly in the winter buds, and then with
-the commencement of the next period of vegetation it continues its
-growth side by side with that of its host. The hyphæ ramify in the
-intercellular spaces or beneath the cuticle, but have no haustoria. The
-ascospores (Fig. <a href="#fig105">105</a> <i>A</i>) and unripe asci may produce conidia.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig104" style="width: 280px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig104.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 104.</span>&mdash;<i>Taphrina</i> (<i>Exoascus</i>)
-<i>pruni</i>. Yeast-like budding of a germinating spore (× 600).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig105" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig105.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 105.</span>&mdash;<i>Taphrina betulina</i>: <i>a</i>
-ascus filled with conidia; <i>b</i> germinating spores (× 600).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Very remarkable appearances, and swellings of the attacked
-tissues, are produced when the mycelium is perennial; for
-example, the “Witches’-brooms” and “Pockets.” The hard,
-hollow, stoneless plums, known as “Pocket” or “Bladder” Plums,
-are produced by considerable changes in the tissues of the
-fruit; these are caused particularly by <i>T. pruni</i> on
-several species of <i>Prunus</i>. The “Witches’-brooms,” on
-the contrary, are deformations of entire twigs or branches,
-and often attain a very large size. They occur on <i>Alnus
-incana</i>, caused by <i>T. epiphylla</i>; on <i>Carpinus
-betulus</i>, by <i>T. carpini</i>; on Cherry-trees, by <i>T.
-cerasi</i>; on Plum-trees, by <i>T. insititiæ</i>; on Birches,
-by <i>T. turgida</i> and <i>T. betulina</i>. <i>T. deformans</i>
-attacks the leaves of the Peach, and causes them to curl.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[118]</span></p>
-
-<p>When a perennial mycelium is wanting, the infection is confined
-as a rule to white or yellow spots on the leaves, <i>e.g.</i>
-the commonest, <i>T. sadebeckii</i>, on <i>Alnus glutinosa</i>,
-and <i>T. aurea</i> on species of <i>Populus</i>. <i>T. alni
-incanæ</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig106">106</a>) causes considerable hypertrophies on the
-pistillate catkins of the Alder, which may be compared to the
-“pockets” of <i>Prunus</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig106" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig106.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 106.</span>&mdash;<i>Taphrina alni incanæ</i> on the
-Alder (nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h5>Series 2. <b>Carpoasci.</b></h5>
-
-<p>The Carpoasci are Ascomycetes, whose asci are enclosed in fruit-bodies,
-<i>i.e. ascocarps</i>. The accessory means of reproduction are free
-conidiophores (Fig. <a href="#fig109">109</a>), conidial-layers (Fig. <a href="#fig122">122</a>), conidiocarps
-(Fig. <a href="#fig120">120</a> <i>D</i>, <i>E</i>, etc.), chlamydospores and oidia.</p>
-
-<p>For the different methods of distributing the ascospores, see p. <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p>
-
-<p>Of the six families of the Carpoasci, the first
-three&mdash;<i>Gymnoascales</i>, <i>Perisporiales</i>, and
-<i>Pyrenomycetes</i>&mdash;are <span class="allsmcap">ANGIOCARPIC</span> (that is, the ascocarp
-remains closed throughout its existence, and does not dehisce
-when ripe); the fourth and fifth families (<i>Hysteriales</i> and
-<i>Discomycetes</i>), on the other hand, are <span class="allsmcap">HEMIANGIOCARPIC</span>
-(the ascocarp, here also called an <i>apothecium</i>, is closed in the
-early stages, but opens at the commencement of ripening and exposes
-a hymenium of crowded asci); the family of <i>Helvellales</i> has
-probably <span class="allsmcap">GYMNOCARPIC</span> (or hemiangiocarpic) fruit-bodies.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 1. <b>Gymnoascales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The ascocarps are surrounded by a <i>spongy and incomplete
-envelope</i>. One order, poor in species.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[119]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order <b>Gymnoascaceæ</b>.&mdash;The ascocarps are borne sometimes
-solitarily, or sometimes coiled together. <i>Gymnoascus
-reessii</i> forms small bodies about 1 mm. in diameter on
-old horse-dung, which at first are white and afterwards
-orange-red.&mdash;<i>Ctenomyces serratus</i> lives on the old
-feathers in birds’ nests.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 2. <b>Perisporiales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The ascocarps are surrounded by a <i>complete envelope</i> without
-any opening: the fruit-bodies are cleistocarpic; the spores are only
-liberated after the disintegration of the fruit-bodies. Paraphyses
-are wanting. The two first orders have in addition the means of
-reproduction by conidia.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Erysiphaceæ, Mildews.</b> The Fungi belonging to this order
-are epiphytic parasites, whose mycelium, somewhat resembling a cobweb,
-may be seen on the leaves and other green portions of plants (see
-Figs. <a href="#fig107">107</a>, <a href="#fig108">108</a>). The hyphæ ramify in all directions upon the surface
-of their host, and emit haustoria which penetrate the epidermal cells,
-and thus derive the necessary nutriment. The Mildew-Fungi thus belong
-to the obligate parasites, and during their growth dwarf and destroy
-the portions of their host on which they live. The reproduction takes
-place in the first instance by abstriction of conidio-chains from the
-end of special branches (Fig. <a href="#fig108">108</a> <i>c</i>, a hypha is seen in the act
-of detaching a conidium). The conidia may germinate immediately, and
-thus quickly reproduce their species. When present in large numbers
-they appear as a white meal covering the surface of the plant on which
-the fungus is found. Later on appear the dark brown, spheroid ascocarps
-(Fig. <a href="#fig108">108</a> <i>a</i>) which, although small, are generally just visible
-to the naked eye as black specks.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig107" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig107.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 107.</span>&mdash;<i>Erysiphe cichoracearum</i>:
-<i>a</i> mycelium-threads; <i>b</i> sterile hypha (“pollinodium”);
-<i>c</i> fertile hypha (ascogone or archicarp); <i>d</i> and <i>e</i>
-young ascocarps.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>A characteristic feature of the Mildew-Fungi is the thin,
-pseudo-parenchymatous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span> covering of the ascocarp, enclosing <i>one</i>
-(<i>Podosphæra</i> and <i>Sphærotheca</i>; compare <i>Thelebolus</i>
-among the Hemiasci) or <i>a few</i> asci (Fig. <a href="#fig108">108</a> <i>c</i>),
-which do not form any hymenium, but are irregularly placed. The
-cells of the ascocarp-envelope are often prolonged into hair-like
-appendages. The ascocarps are developed from the mycelium at places
-where two hyphæ cross each other (Fig. <a href="#fig107">107</a>). At these places two
-short and erect hyphæ are produced side by side. The one from the
-lower hypha (Fig. <a href="#fig107">107</a> <i>c</i>) assumes an ellipsoidal shape, and is
-known as the <i>archicarp</i> or <i>ascogone</i>, while the other
-(“<i>pollinodium</i>”) arches over the ascogone. From the latter
-one ascus may be at once developed (<i>Sphærotheca</i>, etc.), or
-after its division several asci may be produced, each developed from
-one division. The sterile hypha (termed “pollinodium,” since it was
-formerly, but erroneously, supposed to fertilise the ascogone) produces
-a number of branches, and forms the pseudo-parenchymatous envelope of
-one cell in thickness, enclosing the asci.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig108" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig108.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 108.</span>&mdash;<i>Erysiphe communis.</i> A small
-portion of a leaf with this Fungus growing upon it (considerably
-magnified). The hyphæ b and d do not belong to this Fungus, but are
-reproductive organs of a pyrenomycetous Fungus parasitic upon it
-(<i>Cicinnobolus</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Many plants, both cultivated and wild, are attacked by various<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[121]</span> species
-of Mildew. A common means of prevention against their attacks is to
-dust the diseased parts with sulphur.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig109" style="width: 509px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig109.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 109.</span>&mdash;<i>Eurotium glaucum</i>: α portion
-of mycelium lying horizontally; β vertically-placed conidiophore;
-the mycelium gives rise to another branch near α; the conidia are
-abstricted from short flask-shaped cells; <i>b</i> a ripe conidium;
-<i>c</i>, <i>d</i> germinating conidia; <i>e</i> spirally-twisted
-hypha, commencement of an ascocarp; <i>f</i> a stage later; <i>g</i>
-still later, the hypha at the base of the coil has given off branches
-which are applied to it; <i>h</i>, <i>i</i> sections of young
-ascocarps.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Sphærotheca pannosa</i> occurs on the leaves of Roses, and
-on the fruit of Peaches and Apricots. <i>S. castagnei</i> on
-<i>Humulus</i>, <i>Cucumis</i>, etc.&mdash;<i>Erysiphe tuckeri</i>
-grows on the leaves and fruit of the Vine; it spins its
-hyphæ over the bunches of grapes, curtails their growth,
-and causes them to burst, and to become decayed and rotten
-(Grape-disease). The Fungus was first noticed in England
-in 1845, and later was found in all countries where grapes
-are grown. It is only known in the conidial form (“Oidium
-tuckeri”). Many other species of <i>Erysiphe</i> are found
-on herbaceous plants.&mdash;<i>Microsphæra</i> has appendages
-which are repeatedly forked at their extremities. <i>M.
-grossulariæ</i> on <i>Ribes grossularia</i>.&mdash;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span><i>Uncinula</i>
-has appendages with spirally-coiled extremities; on <i>Salix</i>
-and <i>Acer</i>.&mdash;<i>Phyllactinia</i> has a circle of
-bristle-like appendages with dilated bases. <i>P. guttata</i> on
-<i>Corylus</i>, <i>Fraxinus</i>, <i>Fagus</i>, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Perisporiaceæ</b>, Moulds and Mildews. A group of Fungi
-widely distributed and found in all situations. Usually they have a
-well-developed surface mycelium, and small, round, seldom conspicuous
-ascocarps, containing ovoid, pulley-like spores. They are partly
-saprophytic, partly parasitic, in the latter condition having a brown
-mycelium.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig110" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig110.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 110.</span>&mdash;<i>Eurotium glaucum</i>: <i>a</i>
-longitudinal section of a half-ripe ascocarp, bounded externally by
-a well-defined layer of cells, enclosing asci in various stages of
-development; <i>b</i> a semi-ripe, <i>c</i> an almost ripe ascus;
-<i>d</i> and <i>e</i> spores seen from the edge and side; <i>f</i>
-germinating spore twenty-two hours after been sown in plum juice.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Eurotium glaucum</i> (= <i>E. herbariorum</i>, Figs. <a href="#fig109">109</a>, <a href="#fig110">110</a>)
-and <i>E. repens</i> live on dead organic matter, preserved fruits,
-etc. The conidial forms of both species are known as “Moulds” (Fig.
-<a href="#fig109">109</a>), and formerly were described under the name “<i>Aspergillus
-glaucus</i>.” The conidia for some time remain attached to each other
-in chains (Fig. <a href="#fig109">109</a> <i>a</i>); they are abstricted from sterigmata
-arranged radially on the spherical, swollen end of the conidiophore.
-The small yellow or brownish ascocarps are frequently found in
-herbaria, especially when the specimens have been insufficiently dried.
-<i>Aspergillus fumigatus</i> and others are pathogenic, causing mycosis
-in warm-blooded animals.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig111" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig111.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 111.</span>&mdash;<i>Penicillium crustaceum</i>:
-<i>a</i> conidia (× 300); <i>b</i> germination of conidia; <i>c</i>
-small portion of mycelium, produced from a conidium at *, with five
-conidiophores; <i>d</i> young conidiophore (× 630), a flask-shaped cell
-is abstricting a conidium; <i>e</i> the same conidiophore after 9–10
-hours.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig112" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig112.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 112.</span>&mdash;<i>Penicillium crustaceum</i>:
-<i>a</i> two spirally-coiled hyphæ arise from the mycelium, from one
-of which (archicarp) the asci are produced; <i>b</i> a further step in
-the development of the ascocarp; the branching archicarp is surrounded
-by sterile hyphæ; <i>c</i> section of young ascocarp; the larger
-hyphæ in the centre are the ascogenous hyphæ; these are enclosed by a
-pseudo-parenchyma of sterile hyphæ (× 300); <i>d</i> series of ripe
-asci with spores; <i>e</i> four ascopores seen laterally; <i>f</i>
-germinating ascospores (× 800).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Penicillium crustaceum</i> (<i>P. glaucum</i>, Figs. <a href="#fig111">111</a>, <a href="#fig112">112</a>) is
-an exceedingly common “Mould.” Its mycelium appears very frequently on
-any organic matter which is permitted to remain untouched, and soon
-covers it with a dense mass of blue-green<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span> conidiophores. These branch
-at their summits and bear flask-shaped cells from which the conidia
-are abstricted. The ascocarps which, both in size and colour, resemble
-grains of sand, have only<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span> been obtained in luxuriant cultivation with
-a limited supply of oxygen.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Capnodium salicinum</i> (<i>Fumago salicina</i>,
-<i>Cladosporium fumago</i>), a common Mildew, forms dark
-overgrowths on the leaves and branches of various shrubs
-(Poplars, Elms, Willows) and on Hops. The conidia appear in
-various forms, as on conidiophores, in conidiocarps with
-large multicellular conidia, and in conidiocarps with small
-unicellular conidia; in nutritive solutions yeast-like conidia
-are also developed.&mdash;<i>Apiosporium pinophilum</i> produces
-mildew on the leaves of <i>Abies alba</i> and <i>Picea
-excelsa</i>. (The conidial-forms were formerly described as
-“<i>Antennaria pinophila</i>”).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Tuberaceæ, Truffles.</b> The Fungi belonging to this
-order are entirely subterranean. The mycelium is filamentous, and
-partly parasitic upon the roots of plants, especially trees, in its
-neighbourhood; it is then known as <i>Mycorhiza</i>. The fruit-body
-is relatively large, in some cases about the size of a hen’s egg.
-Internally it is traversed by a number of winding passages (Fig. <a href="#fig113">113</a>
-<i>a</i>), the walls of which are coated with the asci. The asci
-(<i>b</i>) contain only a small number of spores, and these are set
-free by the putrefaction of the fruit-body. Conidia are unknown.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig113" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig113.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 113.</span>&mdash;<i>Tuber melanosporum</i>: <i>a</i>
-fruit-body (nat. size), a portion having been removed to show the
-internal structure; <i>b</i> an ascus with ascospores.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Tuber melanosporum</i>, <i>T. brumale</i>, <i>T. æstivum</i>,
-and other species are edible. <i>Terfezia leonis</i> and
-<i>Choiromyces mæandriformis</i> are also edible. The Truffles
-are always found in woods and under trees, and disappear when
-these are destroyed. France and Italy produce the best and
-the largest number of Truffles, which are hunted by specially
-trained dogs and pigs.</p>
-
-<p>In <i>Elaphomyces</i> (Stag-Truffle) the fruit-body has a corky
-external layer, and is inedible. Some of the species are found
-in this country. <i>E. granulatus</i> is parasitic on the roots
-of the Fir.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[125]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 3. <b>Pyrenomycetes.</b></h4>
-
-<p>In this family the hymenium is enclosed in small fruit-bodies,
-<i>perithecia</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig120">120</a> <i>b</i>), which appear to the naked eye
-as small dots. In shape they resemble a globe or a flask with a narrow
-mouth, through which the spores are ejected (peronocarpic ascocarps).
-Different kinds of reproduction&mdash;conidia, pycnidia (chiefly with
-microconidia), chlamydospores, and perithecia&mdash;are found in the same
-species. The various stages in the life-history of these Fungi are so
-dissimilar, that formally they were considered to be different genera.
-Ergot furnishes a very good example.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig114" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig114.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 114.</span>&mdash;A small portion of an ovary attacked
-with <i>Claviceps purpurea</i> (<i>Sphacelia</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig115" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig115.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 115.</span>&mdash;An ovary with the conidial stage of
-<i>Claviceps purpurea</i> (<i>Sphacelia</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>This family may be subdivided into 3 sub-families.</p>
-
-
-<h4 class="smaller">Sub-Family 1. <b>Hypocreales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The perithecia are <i>pale, fleshy, brightly coloured</i>, and
-generally aggregated on a stroma. Conidia and chlamydospores occur very
-frequently. Only one order.</p>
-
-<p>Order. <b>Hypocreaceæ.</b> In this order the majority are parasites
-upon Flowering-plants (<i>Nectria</i>, <i>Polystigma</i>,
-<i>Epichloë</i>, <i>Claviceps</i>); but some are parasites upon
-Fungi (<i>Hypomyces</i>, <i>Melanospora</i>), or upon insects
-(<i>Cordyceps</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig116" style="width: 545px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig116.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 116.</span>&mdash;<i>Claviceps purpurea. A</i>
-Sclerotium with stromata (<i>cl</i>) (× by 2). <i>B</i> Stroma
-divided longitudinally to show the perithecia (<i>cp</i>). <i>C</i> A
-perithecium with the surrounding hyphæ (<i>hy</i>). <i>D</i> An ascus
-ruptured, with the eight filamentous ascospores emerging.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The most important member of this order is the <span class="smcap">Ergot</span>
-(<i>Claviceps purpurea</i>, Figs. <a href="#fig114">114</a>, <a href="#fig115">115</a>, <a href="#fig116">116</a>). This Fungus is
-found in the flowers of many species of Grasses, especially the
-Rye, attacking and destroying the ovaries. In the <span class="allsmcap">FIRST</span> or
-<span class="allsmcap">CONIDIAL STAGE</span> of the attack, the ovaries are found covered
-with a white, irregularly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span> folded mycelium (Fig. <a href="#fig114">114</a> <i>m</i>, Fig.
-<a href="#fig115">115</a>), formed of numerous hyphæ woven together and penetrating the wall
-of the ovary. From these a number of hyphæ (Fig. <a href="#fig114">114</a> <i>a</i>) project
-into the air and abstrict from their apices the conidia (<i>b</i>)
-which serve as reproductive organs. The mycelium also secretes a
-sticky, stinking fluid (honey-dew) in which the conidia are embedded
-in great numbers. The honey-dew exudes from the bases of the glumes,
-and is greedily sought by flies, which thus carry the conidia to
-other ovaries. In this manner fresh ears are infected, which might
-escape were the conidia only distributed by the wind. This stage
-formerly was regarded as an independent Fungus, known as <i>Sphacelia
-segetum</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig115">115</a>). On germination, the conidia produce either
-a new mycelium (Fig. <a href="#fig114">114</a> <i>d</i>, <i>c</i>), or new conidia. The
-<span class="allsmcap">SECOND</span> or <span class="allsmcap">SCLEROTIUM STAGE</span> is the one in which the
-Fungus passes the winter. The mycelium penetrates deeper and deeper
-into the attacked ovaries, their tissues are destroyed and replaced by
-the hyphæ, which gradually become more and more felted together.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[127]</span> A
-firm, pseudo-parenchymatous mass of hyphæ is thus formed at the base
-of the loosely-woven <i>Sphacelia</i>, which is in part transformed
-into the hard sclerotium, and the remainder thrown off. A dark, hard,
-poisonous body, longer than the natural grain, is thus formed; these
-bodies are known as Ergots, and were formerly considered to be a
-distinct species,&mdash;<i>Sclerotium clavus</i> (“Secale cornutum,” Ergot,
-Fig. <a href="#fig116">116</a> <i>A</i>, <i>c</i>). The <span class="allsmcap">THIRD STAGE</span>, described as
-<i>Claviceps purpurea</i>, is developed in the following spring from
-the germinating sclerotium, which produces dark-red stromata with short
-stalks. In the stroma numerous perithecia with asci and ascospores are
-produced. The latter may infect young flowers of the cereals, in which
-the disease is then developed as before.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig117" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig117.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 117.</span>&mdash;<i>Nectria cinnabarina</i>:
-<i>a</i> branch of <i>Acer pseudoplatanus</i>, with conidial-layers
-and perithecia (nat. size); <i>b</i> a conidial-layer (<i>Tuberculoria
-vulgaris</i>); <i>c</i>, a mass of perithecia. (<i>b</i> and <i>c</i> × 8.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Several species of the genus <i>Nectria</i>, with blood-red
-perithecia, are found as dangerous parasites, especially
-<i>N. ditissima</i>, which causes “Canker” in the Beech,
-Ash, and Apple, etc.; <i>N. cucurbitula</i>, which appears
-on Pine-trees, and <i>N. cinnabarina</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig117">117</a>),
-whose conidial form was formerly named <i>Tubercularia
-vulgaris</i>.&mdash;<i>Polystigma rubrum</i> forms shining red spots
-on the green leaves of <i>Prunus</i>-species.&mdash;<i>Epichloë
-typhina</i> is parasitic on the sheaths of Grasses, on which
-it first forms a white conidial-layer, later on a yellow layer
-of perithecia.&mdash;<i>Cordyceps</i> (Chrysalis Fungus, Figs. <a href="#fig118">118</a>,
-<a href="#fig119">119</a>) lives in and destroys insects, and after compassing their
-death produces the club-formed, generally yellow, stromata,
-one part of which bears conidia (<i>Isaria</i>) and another
-perithecia. <i>C. militaris</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig118">118</a>) on the chrysalides
-and caterpillars of moths, is the most common.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span></p>
-
-<p>The so-called <i>Botrytis bassiana</i>, which produces the
-disease known by the name of “Muscardine,” in silkworms, is
-probably a conidial form belonging to <i>Cordyceps</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig118" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig118.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 118.</span>&mdash;<i>Cordyceps militaris.</i> I
-Stromata with conidiophores (<i>Isaria farinosa</i>). II A larva, with
-stromata, bearing perithecia. III A spore.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig119" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig119.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 119.</span>&mdash;<i>Cordyceps robertii</i> on the
-larva of <i>Hepialus virescens</i>: <i>a</i> stalk of stroma; <i>b</i>
-perithecia.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4 class="smaller">Sub-Family 2. <b>Sphæriales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>To this sub-family belong the majority of the Pyrenomycetes. The
-perithecia are of a <i>firm consistence</i> (tough, leathery, woody or
-carbonaceous), and of a <i>dark</i> colour. Their <i>covering</i> is
-<i>quite distinct from the stroma</i> when this structure is present.
-The stromata are sometimes very large, and may be either cushion-like,
-crustaceous, upright and club-like, or branched bodies. In general,
-small, inconspicuous Fungi, living on dead vegetable matter, sometimes
-parasites. Free conidiophores and conidiocarps are known in many
-species, and in several, chlamydospore-like forms of reproduction.
-Orders 3–18 constitute the Sphæriaceæ of older systematists.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig120" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig120.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 120.</span>&mdash;<i>Strickeria obducens</i>: <i>a</i>
-a portion of an Ash-branch with the bark partly thrown off; on the wood
-are numerous black perithecia (× 20); <i>b</i> longitudinal section
-through a perithecium; <i>c</i> a spore; <i>d</i> longitudinal section
-through a pycnidium whose ascospores are being ejected; <i>e</i>
-portion of the same, with hyphæ and spores.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Sordariaceæ.</b>&mdash;Fungi living on dung with
-fragile perithecia, either aerial or buried in the substratum.
-The dark brown or black spores have either a mucilaginous
-envelope (<i>Sordaria</i>, etc.) or mucilaginous appendages
-(<i>Podospora</i>), by means of which their expulsion and
-distribution are promoted.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Chætomiaceæ.</b> Perithecia fragile, free, bearing
-on the summit a tuft of hairs. <i>Chætomium</i>, on decaying
-vegetable matter.</p>
-
-<p>Orders 3–7. <i>Perithecia scattered or aggregated, situated
-from the commencement on the surface of the substratum. Stroma
-wanting.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Trichosphæriaceæ.</b> <i>Trichosphæria
-parasitica</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig121">121</a>), on <i>Abies alba</i>; <i>Herpotrichia
-nigra</i> on <i>Picea excelsa</i> and <i>Pinus montana</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig121" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig121.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 121.</span>&mdash;<i>Trichosphæria parasitica</i>:
-<i>a</i> a twig of <i>Abies alba</i>, with epiphytic mycelium; <i>b</i>
-a leaf with mycelium and sporangia (magnified); <i>c</i> a sporangium
-(× 60); <i>d</i> an ascus with spores (× 550).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Melanommaceæ.</b> <i>Rosellinia quercina</i> lives
-in the roots of 1–3-year-old Oaks, and destroys the plants.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Ceratostomaceæ.</b></p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Amphisphæriaceæ.</b> <i>Strickeria obducens</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig120">120</a>) has brick-like spores, and lives aggregated on the
-hard branches of <i>Fraxinus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Lophiostomaceæ.</b></p>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Cucurbitariaceæ.</b> Perithecia tufted, <i>at first
-embedded, then breaking through</i>, often situated upon an
-indistinct <i>stroma</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Orders 9–13. <i>The perithecia remain embedded, and are only
-liberated by the casting off of the covering layers of the
-substratum. Stroma wanting.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 9. <b>Sphærellaceæ.</b> The species of <i>Sphærella</i>
-have colourless, bicellular spores. They live upon the leaves of
-many plants, and develope spherical perithecia upon the fallen
-leaves.</p>
-
-<p>Order 10. <b>Pleosporaceæ.</b> The conidial-forms of
-<i>Pleospora herbarum</i> and <i>P. vulgaris</i> form a black
-covering on various plants, known as “smuts.”&mdash;<i>Venturia
-ditricha</i> occurs on the underside of dry Birch leaves, and
-perhaps to this belongs the conidial-form, <i>Fusicladium
-pirinum</i>, which causes the “Rust spots” on Apples and Pears.</p>
-
-<p>Order 11. <b>Massariaceæ.</b></p>
-
-<p>Order 12. <b>Clypeosphæriaceæ.</b></p>
-
-<p>Order 13. <b>Gnomoniaceæ.</b> Perithecia, with peak-like
-aperture. <i>Gnomonia erythrostoma</i> in the leaves of
-<i>Prunus avium</i>, which turn brown and do not fall in autumn.</p>
-
-<p>Orders 14–18. <i>Stroma generally well developed. The perithecia
-are embedded in the stroma, but when this is rudimentary, in the
-substratum.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 14. <b>Valsaceæ.</b> <i>Valsa.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 15. <b>Diatrypaceæ.</b> <i>Diatrype.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 16. <b>Melanconidaceæ.</b></p>
-
-<p>Order 17. <b>Melogrammataceæ.</b></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 18. <b>Xylariaceæ.</b> This order is the most highly developed
-of the Sphæriales. The <i>stroma</i> arises on the <i>surface of the
-substratum</i>, which is generally dead or decorticated wood; it is
-well-developed, crustaceous, hemispherical or upright. In the younger
-conditions it is covered with a layer of conidia, and later on it bears
-the <i>perithecia</i>, arranged in a layer immediately <i>beneath its
-surface</i>. The ascospores are of a dark colour. Often also there are
-free conidiophores.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig122" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig122.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 122.</span>&mdash;<i>Xylaria hypoxylon</i> (nat. size)
-on a tree stump: <i>a</i> younger, <i>b</i> an older stroma, both of
-which, with the exception of the black lower portion, are covered with
-white conidia; <i>n</i>, spot where the perithecia are developed;
-<i>c</i> an old stroma with upper part fallen off; <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>
-large branched stromata; <i>k</i> conidia.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Hypoxylon</i> and <i>Ustulina</i> have a cushion-like
-or crustaceous stroma.&mdash;<i>Xylaria</i> has a club-shaped
-or branched stroma, often several centimetres high. <i>X.
-hypoxylon</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig122">122</a>) and <i>X. polymorpha</i> occur on old
-tree stumps.&mdash;<i>Poronia</i> grows on old horse dung, and has a
-conical stroma.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4 class="smaller">Sub-Family 3. <b>Dothideales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The <i>perithecia</i> are always embedded in a <i>black stroma</i>, and
-are <i>not distinctly separated</i> from it. The accessory forms of
-reproduction are: conidiophores, conidiocarps, and yeast-like conidia.
-The majority are parasites. One order.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order <b>Dothideaceæ</b>. <i>Phyllachora graminis</i>
-produces scab-like patches on the leaves of the
-Grasses.&mdash;<i>Scirrhia rimosa</i> grows on the leaf-sheathes of
-<i>Phragmites</i>.&mdash;<i>Rhopographus pteridis</i> on <i>Pteridium
-aquilinum</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 4. <b>Hysteriales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>This family, like the following, has hemiangiocarpic ascocarps
-(<i>apothecia</i>). These are closed in the early stages, but when
-ripe <i>open</i> in a <i>valvular manner</i> by a <i>longitudinal
-fissure</i>; they are black, oblong, and often twisted. Some species
-are parasites, especially upon the Coniferæ.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig123" style="width: 427px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig123.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 123.</span>&mdash;<i>Lophodermium (Hypoderma)
-nervisequium</i>: <i>a</i> two leaves of <i>Abies alba</i> seen from
-above with pycnidia; <i>b</i> a leaf seen from the underside with
-apothecia; <i>c</i> an ascus with ascospores. (× 500.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig124" style="width: 287px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig124.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 124.</span>&mdash;Three leaves of the Red-pine with
-<i>Lophodermium macrosporum</i>: <i>a</i> under side of the leaves with
-apothecia; <i>b</i> a leaf from upper side with pycnidia. (× about 2.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig125" style="width: 251px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig125.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 125.</span>&mdash;<i>Lophodermium pinastri</i>:
-<i>a</i> leaves of <i>Pinus sylvestris</i> with apothecia (nat. size);
-<i>b</i> two paraphyses and an ascus with filamentous spores.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Hysteriaceæ.</b> <i>Hysterium pulicare</i> upon the
-ruptured bark of many trees.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Hypodermaceæ.</b> The species of <i>Lophodermium</i>
-live upon the leaves of Conifers, and are the cause of their
-falling off (<i>blight</i>). <i>L. pinastri</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig125">125</a>), on
-the leaves of <i>Pinus</i> and <i>Picea</i>; the leaves become
-red-brown and fall off; at first conidiocarps are formed,
-and later apothecia; <i>L. nervisequium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig123">123</a>), on
-<i>Abies alba</i>; <i>L. macrosporum</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig124">124</a>), on <i>Picea
-excelsa</i>; <i>L. brachysporum</i>, on <i>Pinus strobus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Dichænaceæ.</b></p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Acrospermaceæ.</b></p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 5. <b>Discomycetes.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The ascocarps (<i>apothecia</i>) are at first closed, and <i>only
-open</i> at the time of their ripening, not valvularly, but more or
-less<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span> like a <i>saucer</i> or <i>cup</i>, so that the hymenium lies
-exposed on their upper surface. In the first three sub-families, and
-generally also in the fourth, the apothecia are formed inside the
-substratum. The apothecia are, in contrast to the Pyrenomycetes, light
-and brightly coloured, and their size varies very much, and may be
-several centimetres in diameter. Paraphyses are often present between
-the asci; they often contain colouring matter, and give to the disc its
-characteristic colour. The tissue on which the asci are borne is known
-as the <i>hypothecium</i>. The shape and colour of the spores is not so
-varied as in the Pyrenomycetes. The accessory forms of reproduction are
-conidia (sometimes of two forms), chlamydospores, and oidia. The family
-is divided into 5 sub-families.</p>
-
-
-<h4 class="smaller">Sub-Family 1. <b>Phacidiales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The apothecia are developed in the interior of the substratum, which
-they break through, and in general dehisce apically. The envelope is
-tough and black. Hypothecium inconspicuous; hymenium flat.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Euphacidiaceæ.</b> <i>Phacidium abietinum</i>, on
-the leaves of <i>Abies alba</i>.&mdash;<i>Rhytisma</i>; the pycnidia
-are found in the summer on the green leaves, while the apothecia
-are developed on the fallen leaves and dehisce in the following
-spring. <i>R. acerinum</i> causes black spots on the leaves of
-the Sycamore, and <i>R. salicinum</i> on Willows.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Pseudophacidiaceæ.</b></p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4 class="smaller">Sub-Family 2. <b>Stictidales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The apothecia when ripe break through the substratum which forms a
-border round them. Hymenium generally saucer-shaped.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Stictidaceæ.</b> <i>Stictis.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Ostropaceæ.</b> <i>Ostropa.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4 class="smaller">Sub-Family 3. <b>Tryblidiales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The apothecia are embedded in the substratum in the early stages, and
-then are raised high above it. Hypothecium thick. Hymenium cup-shaped.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Tryblidiaceæ.</b> <i>Tryblidium.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Heterosphæriaceæ.</b> <i>Heterosphæria patella</i>
-on the dead stalks of Umbellifers.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[134]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4 class="smaller">Sub-Family 4. <b>Dermateales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The apothecia in the early stages are embedded in the substratum and
-then break through it, or are from the first situated on the surface of
-the substratum. Hypothecium thick.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Cenangiaceæ.</b> <i>Cenangium.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Dermateaceæ.</b> <i>Dermatea.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Patellariaceæ.</b> <i>Patellea</i>,
-<i>Biatorella</i>, <i>Patellaria</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Caliciaceæ.</b> <i>Calicium</i>, <i>Coniocybe</i>,
-etc., on the bark of trees.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Arthoniaceæ.</b> <i>Arthonia</i> on the bark of
-several trees. <i>Celidium stictarum</i> on the apothecia of
-<i>Sticta pulmonaria</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Bulgariaceæ.</b> Apothecia gelatinous under moist
-conditions, and horny when dried.&mdash;<i>Calloria fusarioides</i>;
-the red apothecia break out in the spring on the dried
-stalks of <i>Urtica dioica</i>; a gelatinous reproductive
-form of the Fungus is found before the apothecia, which
-consists of oidia (formerly described as “<i>Dacryomyces
-urticæ</i>”).&mdash;<i>Bulgaria inquinans</i> on the living or fallen
-trucks of Oaks and Beeches.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig126" style="width: 345px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig126.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 126.</span>&mdash;<i>Botrytis cinerea</i>: <i>a</i>
-slightly magnified; <i>b</i> more highly magnified; <i>c</i>
-germinating conidium.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig127" style="width: 366px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig127.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 127.</span>&mdash;<i>Sclerotinia fuckeliania</i>:
-<i>a</i> sclerotium with conidiophores; <i>b</i> with apothecia;
-<i>c</i> section through sclerotium and apothecium; <i>d</i> ascus with
-eight ascospores. (× 390.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h4 class="smaller">Sub-Family 5. <b>Pezizales.</b></h4>
-
-<p><i>The apothecia are developed on the surface of the substratum and
-are waxy or fleshy</i>; at the commencement closed, and covered with a
-saucer- or cup-shaped, seldom flat, hymenium. The <i>hypothecium</i> is
-generally well developed. This sub-family is the richest in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[135]</span> species of
-the Discomycetes and contains forms of very different habit. They grow
-upon dead wood, upon the ground, and upon dung. A few are parasites.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Helotiaceæ.</b> Apothecia with waxy envelope of
-colourless, or yellowish prosenchymatous cells.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Chlorosplenium
-æruginosum</i> is found on decaying wood (particularly Oak and Birch),
-to which it gives a green colour. <i>Sclerotinia</i> has sclerotia
-which are developed upon the host-plant and from which, after a period
-of rest, the long, brown-stalked apothecia arise. <i>S. ciborioides</i>
-(<i>S. trifoliorum</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig128">128</a>) is parasitic on Clover; <i>S.
-sclerotiorum</i>, on <i>Daucus</i>-roots, <i>Phaseolus</i>, etc.;
-<i>S. baccarum</i>, on the berries of <i>Vaccinium myrtillus</i>;
-“<i>Botrytis cinerea</i>” is a common parasite and is probably the
-conidial form of <i>S. fuckeliania</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig127">127</a>).&mdash;<i>Helotium
-herbarum</i> lives on dry plant stems.&mdash;<i>Dasyscypha willkommii</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig129">129</a>) produces Larch-canker on the bark of the Larch.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig128" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig128.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 128.</span>&mdash;<i>Sclerotinia ciborioides</i>:
-<i>a</i> sclerotium with three apothecia slightly magnified; <i>b</i>
-ascus with eight ascospores; <i>c</i> germinating ascospore.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig129" style="width: 328px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig129.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 129.</span>&mdash;<i>Dasyscypha willkommii</i>:
-<i>a</i> portion of bark of <i>Larix decidua</i> with sessile,
-cup-shaped apothecia (nat. size); <i>b</i> two paraphyses on either
-side of an ascus with eight ascospores.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Mollisiaceæ.</b> <i>Mollisia cinerea</i>,
-principally on decaying wood.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Pezizaceæ.</b> This order contains the largest and
-morphologically the highest forms of the <i>Discomycetes</i>. Apothecia
-fleshy, and in the later conditions generally saucer-shaped.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Peziza</i>, with sessile apothecia, growing on the ground;
-<i>P. cochleata</i> is brown, and coiled like a snail-shell;
-<i>P. coccinea</i> is scarlet; <i>P. aurantia</i> occurs as an
-orange-coloured expansion on the ground.</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Ascobolaceæ.</b> Apothecia fleshy; in the later
-stages flat or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[136]</span> convex. The asci are, comparatively speaking,
-large, and often contain a great number of spores which escape
-by the casting off of a lid on the summit of the ascus.
-Generally living on dung.&mdash;<i>Ascobolus furfuraceus</i>, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 6. <b>Helvellales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>These Fungi have the appearance of clubs, bells, or mushrooms,
-consisting of an upright <i>stalk</i> bearing a <i>large and fleshy</i>
-head, on the <i>exterior surface</i> of which the <i>hymenium</i> is
-spread. The ascocarps are probably gymnocarpic from the beginning,
-and on this account these plants are placed in a separate family. The
-development of the ascocarps is unknown. The <i>Morchella</i> (Morell)
-grows on the ground; some species are edible. 1 order.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order. <b>Helvellaceæ.</b> <i>Spathulea</i> is
-yellow and club-shaped, and forms “fairy rings” in
-woods.&mdash;<i>Geoglossum</i> (Earth-tongue) projects above the
-ground as a black tongue, or as a club-shaped body. Several
-species are found in meadows and on heaths.&mdash;<i>Helvella</i> has
-a stalk, bearing an irregularly folded head, on the external
-surface of which is the hypothecium.&mdash;<i>Morchella</i> (Morell,
-Fig. <a href="#fig130">130</a>), the stalk bears on its summit the conical or
-spherical head, the external surface of which is reticulate and
-bears the asci.&mdash;<i>Mitrula. Verpa.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig130" style="width: 381px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig130.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 130.</span>&mdash;<i>Morchella esculenta</i>: <i>a</i>
-an entire specimen, about one half natural size; <i>b</i> longitudinal
-section through the head.</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<p class="smcap center p2">Appendix to the Ascomycetes:</p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 7. <b>Ascolichenes (Lichen-forming Ascomycetes).</b></h4>
-
-<p>The Lichens were formerly classed among the Thallophyta as a group
-quite distinct from the Algæ and Fungi. Investigations during the last
-twenty-five years, however, have conclusively proved that the Lichens
-are Fungi which reproduce in the same manner as the Ascomycetes, or,
-more rarely, the Basidiomycetes, and have entered into a peculiar
-<i>symbiotic relation with Algæ</i>, especially the Cyanophyceæ and
-Protococcoideæ, with which they associate, and without which they
-would be unable to exist. The Fungus forms the largest portion of the
-Lichen, enclosing the Alga with which it may be said to be commensal.
-The Fungus especially produces reproductive bodies and absorbs the
-inorganic nourishment through the rhizoids, whilst the Alga supplies
-it with the organic materials. In consequence of this the Lichens, in
-contradistinction<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span> to other Fungi, need light for the development of
-their nutritive organs, and are therefore, in any case internally, of
-a more or less greenish colour. The form and condition of the thallus
-is unusual among the Fungi, and they can grow upon rocks and in other
-places where no dead organic matter, such as would be required by other
-Fungi, is obtainable.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig131" style="width: 516px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig131.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 131.</span>&mdash;Transverse section through
-the thallus of <i>Sticta fuliginosa</i> (× 500): <i>r-r</i>
-rhizoid-strands, which arise from the under side; <i>g-g</i> gonidial
-layer; <i>m</i> medullary layer; <i>o</i> upper, <i>u</i> lower cortex.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Two cellular forms are therefore to be found in each Lichen:</p>
-
-<p>1. The cells which belong to the Fungus. These are generally septate,
-branched <i>hyphæ</i> without any trace of chlorophyll. In the thallus
-of the majority of Lichens there may be found a medullary layer (Fig.
-<a href="#fig131">131</a> <i>m</i>) of loosely-woven hyphæ, between which there are large air
-chambers; and an <i>external layer</i> (cortex) (Fig. <a href="#fig131">131</a> <i>o</i>,
-<i>u</i>) formed of closely-woven hyphæ without any intercellular
-spaces. In some Lichens (Collemaceæ) the hyphæ wind about in the
-thallus, being equally distributed throughout, without forming any
-decided strata. These Lichens moreover become<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[138]</span> gelatinous when exposed
-to moisture (Fig. <a href="#fig132">132</a>), on account of the swelling of the walls of
-the Algæ. The hyphæ contain protoplasm with drops of oil, but never
-starch; their walls easily swell when exposed to damp after having
-been dried, and in some (<i>e.g. Cetraria islandica</i>) they
-become gelatinous when cooked. Certain strata of hyphæ become blue on
-treatment with iodine alone, from which it is inferred that the wall is
-allied, in its chemical nature, to starch.</p>
-
-<p>2. The enclosed Algæ, termed “gonidia.” Some belonging to the
-Cyanophyceæ, Protococcoideæ, (especially <i>Pleurococcus</i>) and
-Chroococcaceæ, are spherical and are found isolated, or in irregular
-<i>groups</i> of cells (Fig. <a href="#fig131">131</a> <i>g</i>); some belonging to
-<i>Nostoc</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig132">132</a> <i>g</i>), Lyngbyaceæ, etc., are placed in
-cell-rows. Each Lichen, as a rule, has only one definite Algal-form for
-its gonidium.</p>
-
-<p>The gonidia either lie together in a certain stratum between the
-cortex and the medullary layer (Fig. <a href="#fig131">131</a> <i>g</i>), or are scattered
-irregularly throughout the entire thallus (Fig. <a href="#fig132">132</a>). The thallus is
-in the first instance termed “heteromerous,” in the second instance,
-“homoiomerous.” The Fungal-hyphæ embrace the gonidia and apply
-themselves closely to, or even penetrate them, and hence it has been
-difficult to decide whether the one cellular form does or does not
-develop from the other (Figs. <a href="#fig134">134</a>, <a href="#fig135">135</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig132" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig132.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 132.</span>&mdash;<i>Collema microphyllum.</i>
-Transverse section through the thallus; <i>g Nostoc</i>-chains;
-<i>h</i> hyphæ.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>This theory regarding the symbiosis of Fungi and Algæ to form
-a Lichen is termed the Schwendenerian theory, after the first
-scientist who advanced it with any weight. It had been already
-indicated by De Bary, and further arguments in its support have
-at a later time been adduced by Bornet, Stahl, Treub, Frank,
-Bonnier, Alfr. Möller and others.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig133" style="width: 300px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig133.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 133.</span>&mdash;<i>Ephebe pubescens.</i> The apex of
-a branch of the thallus with two lateral branches (<i>s</i>): <i>h</i>
-its hyphæ; <i>g</i> the apical gonidium of the main branch.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig134" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig134.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 134.</span>&mdash;<i>Nostoc lichenoides</i>,
-which is attached by a germinating thread (<i>h</i>) of <i>Collema
-glaucescens</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig135" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig135.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 135.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i> Germinating spore of
-<i>Physcia parietina</i> with <i>Protococcus viridis</i>. <i>B</i>
-<i>Synalissa symphorea</i> with <i>Glæocapsa</i>. <i>C Cladonia
-furcata</i> with <i>Protococcus</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The thallus of the Lichen appears mainly under three forms:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>1. The <span class="smcap">Crustaceous</span>, which adheres firmly to the substratum
-(bark, stone) throughout its entire surface, without being raised into
-any free patches or lobes. It has, in many instances, no definite
-outline, and hyphal-branches from it often penetrate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[140]</span> deeply into the
-substratum. It grows at the circumference and sometimes dies away in
-the centre (Figs. <a href="#fig138">138</a>, <a href="#fig139">139</a>, <a href="#fig140">140</a>).</p>
-
-<p>2. The <span class="smcap">Foliaceous</span>. This also lies flat upon the substratum,
-but is not firmly attached to and has a definite outline. It grows at
-the margin, and raises itself a little by free outgrowths and lobes
-(Fig. <a href="#fig141">141</a>). The rhizoid-strands spring out from its whitish under
-surface (Fig. <a href="#fig131">131</a>, <i>r</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig136" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig136.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 136.</span>&mdash;Portion of a hymenium: <i>d</i> a
-thin stratum on which the asci (<i>s</i>) are situated.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig137" style="width: 466px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig137.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 137.</span>&mdash;Spores of, <i>a Cladonia</i>,
-<i>Lecanora</i> and <i>Pertusaria</i>; <i>b Bæomyces</i>;
-<i>c Sphinctrina</i>; <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i> various
-species of <i>Parmelia</i>; <i>g</i>, <i>h Verrucaria</i>
-in its younger and older condition; <i>i</i>, <i>k</i> species of
-<i>Leptogium</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>3. The <span class="smcap">Fruticose</span>, which is attached to its substratum at a
-small point from which it projects freely, either erect or pendulous.
-It is more or less tufted, in the form of a bush (Figs. <a href="#fig142">142</a>, <a href="#fig143">143</a>).
-These three thallus-forms gradually pass over by many intermediate
-forms into one another.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig138" style="width: 384px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig138.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 138.</span>&mdash;<i>Lecanora subfusca</i>: <i>a</i>
-the bark on which it is situated; <i>l</i> the thallus; <i>s</i> the
-ascocarp; <i>s’</i> an ascocarp.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig139" style="width: 286px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig139.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 139.</span>&mdash;<i>Graphis</i> (two species).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig140" style="width: 278px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig140.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 140.</span>&mdash;<i>Pertusaria communis.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The Lichens, like other Ascomycetes, have very variously<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span> constructed
-ascospores (Fig. <a href="#fig137">137</a>), which are enclosed in asci (Fig. <a href="#fig136">136</a>), usually
-surrounded by paraphyses attached together. Furthermore they possess
-pycnidia (Fig. <a href="#fig141">141</a>) containing numerous microconidia. These were
-formerly considered as organs of fructification, and were termed
-“spermatia,” and the pycnidia, “spermogonia.” Alfr. Möller proved,
-in 1887, that the microconidia are able to germinate and produce a
-mycelium with new conidia, just as in other Ascomycetes.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Vegetative Reproduction</span> takes place by <i>soredia</i>,
-which to the naked eye appear as whitish powder on the surface of
-the thallus. They are small round bodies, formed by one or a group
-of gonidia, which are surrounded by a mass of felted hyphæ. After
-the rupture of the cortex they are set free, and readily carried by
-the wind to other places, where under favourable circumstances they
-establish a new thallus.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig141" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig141.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 141.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i> A portion of the thallus
-of <i>Parmelia parietina</i> with ascocarps (<i>a</i>) and pycnidia
-(<i>b</i>). <i>B</i> A portion of the thallus of <i>Cetraria
-islandica</i> with pycnidia at the end of small lobes. <i>C</i> A lobe
-with pycnidia and ejected microconidia. (Magnified).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Geographical Distribution.</span> The Lichens are the most hardy
-plants, and are the first to appear on hitherto bare rocks which they
-gradually disintegrate, and hence prepare the way for the growth of
-other plants. They are to be found from the Polar regions to the
-Equator; from the highest snow-free mountain-peaks down to the level of
-the sea; on the stems of trees; on rocks, soil, some even on inundated
-places; on stones in woodland streams, and on beaches; but they are
-never found upon rotten organic remains. Some grow gregariously in
-enormous masses, and form wide-stretching carpets, <i>e.g.</i> Reindeer
-Moss (<i>Cladonia rangiferina</i>), species of <i>Cetraria</i> and
-other fruticose Lichens.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> On account of the cell-wall being composed of
-Lichenstarch<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[142]</span> (Lichenin), the Iceland-Lichen and Manna-Lichen
-(<i>Lecanora esculenta</i>) are used as food; the latter grows on
-stones, in the deserts of Asia and North Africa, and is often torn
-loose in large masses and carried away by the wind. The Reindeer-Lichen
-is not only the principal food of the reindeer, but it is also used in
-the manufacture of Danish brandy. <i>Cetraria islandica</i> (Lichen
-islandicus) is <span class="allsmcap">OFFICINAL</span>. Colouring materials (lacmus,
-orseille, persio) are made from several species, especially from
-<i>Roccella tinctoria</i> (from the rocky coasts of the Mediterranean).
-<i>Parmelia saxatilis</i> and particularly <i>Lecanora tartarea</i> are
-used for colouring purposes in the Northern countries.</p>
-
-<p>About 2,000 species of Lichens have been described. If we disregard the
-Basidiolichenes, which will be considered on page <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, the remaining
-Lichens (Ascolichenes) may be divided into the two following orders
-according to the structure of the fruit-bodies:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Pyrenolichenes.</b> The ascocarps (apothecia) are
-spherical or flask-shaped, as in the Pyrenomycetes, more rarely linear
-(<i>Graphis</i>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>According to the nature of the thallus, these Lichens may be
-divided into:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><i>a.</i> Thallus homoiomerous, but not gelatinous, branching
-according to the mode of growth of the Algæ: <i>Ephebe</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig133">133</a>), with Algæ of the genus <i>Stigonema</i>.</p>
-
-<p><i>b.</i> Thallus homoiomerous, gelatinous: <i>Lichina</i>.</p>
-
-<p><i>c.</i> Thallus heteromerous, crustaceous: <i>Verrucaria</i>,
-<i>Pyrenula</i>; <i>Graphis</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig139">139</a>), which may be
-considered as Hysteriaceæ with gonidia; several species of
-<i>Graphis</i> are common on bark.</p>
-
-<p><i>d.</i> Thallus heteromerous, foliaceous: <i>Endocarpon</i>.</p>
-
-<p><i>e.</i> Thallus heteromerous, fruticose: <i>Sphærophorus</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Discolichenes.</b> These, as in the Discomycetes, have open
-apothecia, which, as a rule, are cupular, more rarely hemispherical
-(<i>Cladonia</i>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>According to the nature of the thallus, these Lichens may be
-divided into:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><i>a.</i> Thallus homoiomerous, but not gelatinous, branching
-according to the mode of growth of the Algæ: <i>Cœnogonium</i>.</p>
-
-<p><i>b.</i> Thallus homoiomerous, gelatinous: <i>Collema</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig132">132</a>), with Algæ of the genus <i>Nostoc</i>; <i>Leptogium</i>.</p>
-
-<p><i>c.</i> Thallus heteromerous, crustaceous: <i>Pertusaria</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig140">140</a>), <i>Lecidea</i>, with apothecia open from the
-beginning; <i>Lecanora</i>, with apothecia, which in the
-beginning are closed, later on open, but with a rim formed by
-the thallus (Fig. <a href="#fig138">138</a>); <i>Bæomyces</i>, whose apothecia are
-borne on a stem formed by the thallus.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>d.</i> Thallus heteromerous, foliaceous: <i>Parmelia</i>
-(<i>P. saxatilis</i>; <i>P. parietina</i>, Wall-Lichen, Fig.
-<a href="#fig141">141</a>, is yellow, very frequent on tree-stems, stone-walls,
-tiles); <i>Physcia</i> (<i>P. ciliaris</i>, frequent on
-tree-stems); <i>Sticta</i> (<i>S. pulmonacea</i>, Lung-Lichen,
-on tree-stems); <i>Peltigera</i>, especially on the Moss among
-trees; <i>Umbilicaria</i>, on rocks.</p>
-
-<p><i>e.</i> Thallus heteromerous, fruticose: <i>Cetraria</i>
-(<i>C. islandica</i>), “Iceland Moss,” with an olive-brown,
-flat, furrowed, fringed thallus, on heaths; <i>C. nivalis</i>,
-white, in the Polar regions; <i>Evernia</i>, <i>Ramalina</i>,
-<i>Usnea</i> (<i>U. barbata</i>, Beard-Lichen, Fig. <a href="#fig143">143</a>);
-<i>Roccella</i>, <i>Stereocaulon</i>, <i>Cladonia</i>, of which
-the genus <i>C. rangiferina</i>, Reindeer-Moss (Fig. <a href="#fig142">142</a>) is
-important; <i>Cladonia</i> has two kinds of thallus, one scaly
-and leaf-like, the other erect, which bears the apothecia and
-may be fruticose (Fig. <a href="#fig142">142</a>), or cupular (Fig. <a href="#fig144">144</a>); they grow in
-soil in forests and on heaths.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig142" style="width: 637px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig142.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 142.</span>&mdash;<i>Cladonia rangiferina</i>:
-<i>s</i> ascocarp.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig143" style="width: 512px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig143.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 143.</span>&mdash;<i>Usnea barbata</i>: <i>s</i>
-ascocarp. (Slightly magnified.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig144" style="width: 443px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig144.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 144.</span>&mdash;<i>Cladonia pyxidata.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span></p>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class 2. <b>Basidiomycetes.</b></h3>
-
-<p>This sub-class embraces the most highly developed Fungi, with large
-“fruit-bodies,” which in ordinary language we shortly term Funguses,
-Toadstools, or Mushrooms.</p>
-
-<p>They have no sporangia, but reproduce only by means of basidiospores,
-conidia, chlamydospores and oidia. The chief characteristic of
-this sub-class is the <i>basidium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig145">145</a>), <i>i.e.</i> the
-conidiophore, which has a distinctive form, and bears a definite number
-(generally 4) of characteristically shaped conidia (basidiospores, Fig.
-<a href="#fig145">145</a> <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig145" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig145.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 145.</span>&mdash;Development of spores in
-<i>Corticium</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The summit of each basidium is produced generally into four conical
-points (<i>sterigmata</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig145">145</a> <i>b</i>), from each of which a
-basidiospore is abstricted. The basidia may be classified into three
-principal groups, each of which accompanies a distinctive conidiophore:
-1, the long, filamentous, <i>transversely divided</i> basidia, with
-lateral sterigmata and spores, found in the Uredinaceæ (Figs. <a href="#fig146">146</a>
-<i>D</i>, <a href="#fig153">153</a>), Auriculariaceæ (Fig. <a href="#fig10">160</a> <i>B</i>), and Pilacraceæ; 2,
-the spherical, <i>longitudinally divided</i> basidia of the Tremellaceæ
-(Figs. <a href="#fig160">160</a> <i>C d</i>; <a href="#fig160">161</a> iii. iv.); and 3, the ovoid, or
-cylindrical, <i>undivided</i> basidia of the Autobasidiomycetes (Figs.
-<a href="#fig145">145</a>, <a href="#fig163">163</a>, etc.); the two last have apical sterigmata and spores.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The first two groups are the septate basidia
-(<i>protobasidia</i>), of the <i>Protobasidiomycetes</i>;
-while the unseptate basidia (autobasidia) of the
-<i>Autobasidiomycetes</i> are the third group. On the formation
-of the basidiospores, the nucleus<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span> of the basidium divides into
-four nuclei, each of which is transferred to a spore.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In addition to the basidia, <i>simple conidiophores</i> are also
-found. In the Protobasidiomycetes, the simple conidia are very
-generally found as accessory methods of reproduction in conjunction
-with the basidiospores; but less frequently in the Autobasidiomycetes,
-<i>e.g.</i> among the Dacryomycetes, Tomentellaceæ, <i>Heterobasidion
-annosum</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The simple conidiophores vary in size, and in the number and
-shape of the conidia; they, however, resemble the basidia,
-and are doubtless an early stage in the development of the
-definitely formed basidia.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Finally, well-defined <i>chlamydospores</i>, formed in various ways,
-appear in the Basidiomycetes as supplementary reproductive bodies
-(compare p. <a href="#Page_90">90</a>). Among the Protobasidiomycetes, chlamydospores are at
-present only found among the Uredinaceæ, but in various forms; in the
-majority of families of the Autobasidiomycetes <i>oidia</i> frequently
-occur (Fig. <a href="#fig162">162</a>), but genuine chlamydospores seldom.</p>
-
-<p>In the same species several of the known forms of reproduction may be
-distinguished.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>mycelium</i> is generally composed of white, branched strands,
-consisting of numerous felted hyphæ; in some, sclerotia are found.&mdash;The
-great majority are saprophytes; some (particularly all the Uredinaceæ),
-are parasites.</p>
-
-<p class="smcap center sm p2">Divisions of the Basidiomycetes.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li class="hangingindent">Series 1. <span class="smcap">Protobasidiomycetes</span>: partly gymnocarpic, partly angiocarpic.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;2. <span class="smcap">Autobasidiomycetes.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">Family 1. <span class="smcap">Dacryomycetes</span>: gymnocarpic.</li>
-  <li class="i4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. <span class="smcap">Hymenomycetes</span>: partly gymnocarpic, partly hemiangiocarpic.</li>
-  <li class="i4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;3. <span class="smcap">Phalloideæ</span>: hemiangiocarpic.</li>
-  <li class="i4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;4. <span class="smcap">Gasteromycetes</span>: angiocarpic.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">Appended. <span class="smcap">Basidiolichenes</span>: Lichen-forming basidiomycetes.</li>
-</ul>
-
-
-
-<h5>Series I. <b>Protobasidiomycetes.</b></h5>
-
-<p>To this series belong the lowest of the Basidiomycetes. The
-<i>basidia</i> appear in two principal forms (1 and 2 on page <a href="#Page_144">144</a>)
-and are <i>divided</i> into four cells, either transversely or
-longitudinally, each division forming a sterigma which abstricts a
-basidiospore. The first three orders, Uredinaceæ, Auriculariaceæ, and
-Tremellaceæ<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span> have <i>gymnocarpic</i> fruit-bodies, while those of the
-Pilacraceæ, on the contrary, are <i>angiocarpic</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Uredinaceæ (Rusts).</b> All the Rust-Fungi are parasites,
-their mycelium living in the interior of the stems and leaves of their
-hosts, causing red, brown, or black spots&mdash;hence their name&mdash;and
-malformations, sometimes of considerable size.</p>
-
-<p>The Rust-Fungi are gymnocarpic and destitute of a hymenium; for these
-reasons they are regarded as the simplest order of the Basidiomycetes.
-They are entirely parasitic, and their filamentous, branched mycelium
-ramifies in the intercellular spaces of its host, and often protrudes
-haustoria into the cells. The mycelium is perennial should it enter
-a woody tissue; it may also hibernate in the rhizomes of perennial
-herbs and permeate the shoots springing from them, but in the majority
-of the Rust-Fungi the mycelium has a very limited growth. The chief
-means of reproduction of the Rust-Fungi are the <i>chlamydospores</i>,
-which in the more highly developed species occur in three forms,
-namely, the teleuto-, æcidio-, and uredo-spores. The spores, in the
-host, are formed immediately beneath its epidermis, which is ruptured
-on the ripening of the spores, with the production of “rust,” brown,
-red, or black spots. Those chlamydospores which produce basidia
-are termed <i>teleutospores</i>. The spore on germination produces
-a <i>transversely divided basidium</i>, “promycelium,” on which
-basidiospores, “sporidia,” generally four in number, are produced on
-lateral sterigmata. This basidio-fructification is <i>gymnocarpic</i>;
-the basidia neither form a hymenium nor a fruit-body (only
-<i>Cronartium</i> and <i>Gymnosporangium</i> have a slight indication
-of a basidio-fructification).</p>
-
-<p>Many Rust-Fungi, in addition to basidiospores, have small,
-<i>unicellular conidia</i>, “spermatia,” which are borne in
-conidiocarps, “<i>spermogonia</i>.”</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="smaller">TELEUTOSPORES</span> (<i>Winter-spores</i>) may be either
-unicellular or multicellular; in the majority of cases they are
-enclosed in a hard outer cell-wall, the exospore, which in some cases
-is very strongly developed; they have also a long or short stalk, the
-remains of the spore-bearing hypha. Each cell of the teleutospore has
-<i>one germ-pore</i> (a thin portion of the wall, for the protrusion of
-the germ-tube; in <i>Phragmidium</i> and <i>Gymnosporangium</i> there
-are, however, several germ-pores). The colour of the teleutospores is
-generally much darker than that of the uredospores, and it is by these
-that the majority of the Rust-Fungi <i>hibernate</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In <i>Gymnosporangium</i>, two kinds of teleutospores are found
-(distinguished by their size and thickness of exospore). In many
-species of <i>Puccinia</i>, the form of the teleutospores varies
-very much, so that in the same layer spores have been observed
-with the characteristic form of other, allied genera.&mdash;The
-teleutospores of <i>Endophyllum</i> resemble æcidiospores, since
-they are united in chains, whose cells are easily separated, and
-are produced in the interior of a “peridium.” The multicellular
-teleutospores of <i>Coleosporium</i> function as basidia,
-and from each cell immediately produce basidiospores.&mdash;The
-teleutospores of <i>Coleosporium</i> and <i>Chrysomyxa</i>,
-differ from other teleutospores in the absence of exospore and
-germ-pore.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">ÆCIDOSPORES</span> (<i>Spring-spores</i>) are produced in chains
-which are generally enclosed in an <i>envelope</i> of hyphæ, the
-<i>peridium</i>; the <i>peridium</i> enclosing the spores being termed
-the <i>æcidium</i>. The æcidiospores are unicellular, and generally of
-an orange colour; they are often separated by intermediate cells which
-wither and so assist in the distribution of the spores. The exospore is
-made up of minute, radially arranged rods. <i>Generally germination</i>
-proceeds <i>immediately</i>, the æcidiospore producing a germ-tube,
-which developes into a mycelium bearing either uredo- or teleutospores.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The æcidia of many Rust-Fungi were formerly considered
-as distinct genera. The æcidia of <i>Phragmidium</i>,
-<i>Triphragmium</i>, and <i>Melampsora</i>, in which the
-<i>peridium is wanting</i>, were in part considered as
-<i>Cæoma</i>. The æcidia with fimbriate edge, or those
-of <i>Gymnosporangium</i> with longitudinal lattice-like
-splits, were considered as “<i>Rœstelia</i>” (Lattice-Rust);
-large, sac-shaped æcidia on the Coniferæ were known as
-<i>Peridermium</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <span class="smaller">UREDOSPORES</span> (<i>Summer-spores</i>) are unicellular and arise
-singly, seldom in chains (<i>Coleosporium</i>). Their colourless, warty
-exospore bears, <i>in the equatorial plane</i>, 2–8 <i>germ-pores</i>.
-In the majority, <i>germination</i> proceeds <i>immediately</i>, and
-a mycelium is produced which at first gives rise to uredospores and
-afterwards to teleutospores.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The uredospore-formations of <i>Melampsorella</i> and
-<i>Cronartium</i> are enclosed in an <i>envelope</i>, and hence
-resemble æcidia.&mdash;Between the uredospores sterile, unicellular
-hyphæ (paraphyses) may be found.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <i>spermogonia</i> are spherical or pear-shaped
-<i>conidiocarps</i>, generally embedded in the substratum, and
-are produced before the æcidia, before or simultaneously with the
-uredospores, or before the teleutospores. The conidia, as far as
-observations go, do not generally germinate under ordinary conditions.</p>
-
-<p>Among the Rust-Fungi some species are found which only form
-basidiospores and teleutospores (<i>Puccinia malvacearum</i>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span>
-<i>Chrysomyxa abietis</i>). Other species have in addition uredospores;
-others spermogonia and uredospores; others spermogonia and æcidia;
-others spermogonia, uredospores and æcidia. Those species in which all
-the methods of reproduction are not developed must not be considered as
-incomplete forms.</p>
-
-<p>As a rule the mycelium, which is produced from the basidiospores,
-developes æcidia; in the species, however, without æcidia, it
-developes the uredo-form, and when the uredospores are also absent,
-the teleutospore-form. It has been established in some species of
-<i>Puccinia</i> and <i>Uromyces</i> that the formation of æcidia can be
-suppressed, and it is not a necessary part of the cycle of development
-of the species.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The majority of Rust-Fungi hibernate in the teleutospore-form.
-Many species are able to hibernate in the uredospore-form
-(<i>Coleosporium senecionis</i>). Others pass the winter in
-the æcidio-form, and develope æcidia on new hosts (<i>Uromyces
-pisi</i>, on <i>Euphorbia cyparissias</i>; <i>Phragmidium
-subcorticium</i>, on <i>Rosa</i>; <i>Æcidium elatinum</i>, on
-<i>Abies alba</i>). In <i>Chrysomyxa abietis</i>, the mycelium,
-developed from the basidiospores, survives the winter.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Among the Rust-Fungi, with several forms of reproduction, there
-are about sixty whose development can only be completed by an
-<i>alternation of hosts</i>, that is, on one host only uredo-and
-teleutospores are produced, while the further development of the
-germinating basidiospores, and the formation of the æcidia and
-spermogonia from its mycelium, can only take place on a second quite
-distinct and definite host (<i>heterœcious</i> or <i>metoxenous</i>
-Fungi). Those Fungi which have all their forms of reproduction on the
-same host are termed <i>autœcious</i> or <i>autoxenous</i>. It is
-not, however, always necessary that the heterœcious Rust-Fungi should
-regularly change their hosts; for example, <i>Puccinia graminis</i> can
-hibernate in the uredo-form on the wild Grasses, and in the spring can
-distribute itself again in the same form.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>As a consequence of the alternation of hosts the various
-forms of development were considered as independent genera
-(<i>Uredo</i>, <i>Æcidium</i>, <i>Rœstelia</i>, <i>Cæoma</i>,
-<i>Peridermium</i>), until De Bary and Oersted established,
-about the same time (1865), the mutual connection of some forms,
-and paved the way for the right conception of these Fungi.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig146" style="width: 307px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig146.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 146.</span>&mdash;<i>Puccinia graminis</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>As an example of one of the most highly developed species, <i>Puccinia
-graminis</i>, the “Rust of Wheat,” holds a prominent position. Its
-uredospores and teleutospores are produced (Fig. <a href="#fig146">146</a>) on Grasses
-(on cereals, especially Wheat, Rye, Oats, and many wild Grasses),
-while the æcidia and spermogonia are confined to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[149]</span> the Berberidaceæ.
-The teleutospores, developed on the Grasses, hibernate on the dried
-portions of their host, and in the succeeding year each of the two
-cells of the teleutospore may develop a <i>basidium</i> with four
-basidiospores (Fig. <a href="#fig146">146</a> <i>D</i>, <i>c</i>). The basidiospores
-are distributed by the wind, germinate quickly, and only proceed
-to further development on <i>Berberis</i> or <i>Mahonia</i>. The
-germ-tube <i>bores through the epidermis</i> of the Barberry-leaf,
-and forms a mycelium in its interior, its presence being indicated by
-reddish-yellow spots on the leaf. After 6–10 days the flask-shaped
-<i>spermogonia</i> appear (Fig. <a href="#fig147">147</a> <i>B</i>; <i>C</i>, <i>a</i>;
-conidia in Fig. <a href="#fig147">147</a> <i>D</i>) and a few days later the cup-shaped
-<i>æcidia</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig147">147</a> <i>A</i>; <i>C</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>,
-<i>e</i>). The former are generally on the <i>upper</i>, and the latter
-on the <i>under side</i> of the leaf. The orange-coloured æcidiospores
-scatter like dust, and germinate only on Grasses; the germination takes
-place in about two days when placed on any green part of a Grass.
-The germ-tube enters the Grass-leaf through a stoma; a mycelium is
-developed in the leaf, giving rise to a small, oval, rust-coloured spot
-(Fig. <a href="#fig146">146</a> <i>A</i>); in about 6–9 days the epidermis is ruptured over
-the red spot, and numerous reddish-yellow <i>uredospores</i>, formed
-on the mycelium, are set free. The uredospores (Fig. <a href="#fig146">146</a> <i>B</i>) are
-scattered by the wind, and can<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span> germinate should they fall on the green
-portions of other Grasses: they then emit 2–4 germ-tubes through the
-equatorially-placed germ-pores. The germ-tubes enter a leaf through
-a stoma, a new mycelium is then developed, and in about eight days a
-fresh production of uredospores takes place, which germinate as before.
-The uredospore-mycelium very soon produces, in addition, the brown
-<i>teleutospores</i>, which give a brown colour to the rust-coloured
-spots, the familiar uredospores on the cereals being quite suppressed
-towards the close of the summer (Fig. <a href="#fig146">146</a> <i>C, D</i>). The “Rust of
-Wheat” hibernates on some wild Grasses in the uredospore-form.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig147" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig147.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 147.</span>&mdash;<i>Æcidium berberidis</i>. <i>A</i>
-Portion of lower surface of leaf of Barberry, with cluster-cups
-(æcidia). <i>B</i> A small portion of leaf, with spermogonia, from
-above. <i>C</i> Transverse section of leaf on the upper side, in
-the palisade parenchyma are three spermogonia (<i>a b</i>); on the
-lower side an unripe æcidium (<i>c d</i>) and two ripe æcidia (<i>d,
-e, f</i>); <i>f</i> chain of æcidiospores. <i>D</i> Hyphæ, forming
-conidia.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Genera</span>. <i>Puccinia</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig146">146</a>, <a href="#fig147">147</a>) has bicellular
-teleutospores, each having a germ-pore, and the æcidia
-when present have an indented peridium; some species, as
-exceptions, have 1–3-celled teleutospores. Many species are
-<span class="allsmcap">HETERŒCIOUS</span>, for example, <i>P. graminis</i>, described
-above; <i>P. rubigo</i>, which also infests various Grasses,
-but whose æcidia appear on <i>Anchusa</i>; the masses of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[151]</span>
-teleutospores are small; they contain paraphyses, and are for a
-long time covered by the epidermis. <i>P. coronata</i>, on Oats
-and Rye Grass; its æcidia on <i>Rhamnus</i>; the teleutospores
-are surmounted by a crown&mdash;“coronate processes.” <i>P.
-phragmitis</i>, on Reeds; æcidia on species of <i>Rumex</i> and
-<i>Rheum</i>. <i>P. moliniæ</i>, on <i>Molinia cœrulea</i>;
-the æcidia on Orchids. <i>P. poarum</i>, on Meadow-Grass;
-æcidia on <i>Tussilago</i>. Various Puccinias growing on
-species of <i>Carex</i> have their æcidia on <i>Urtica</i>,
-<i>Lysimachia</i>, <i>Cirsium</i>, <i>Pedicularis</i>, etc.&mdash;Of
-those <span class="allsmcap">AUTŒCIOUS</span> species, which have all their
-generations on the same host, may be noted:&mdash;<i>P. galii</i>,
-<i>P. menthæ</i>, <i>P. violæ</i>, <i>P. epilobii</i>, <i>P.
-asparagi</i>, which grow on the hosts from which they have
-taken their specific names.&mdash;As representative of a group
-which have spermogonia, uredo-and teleutospores on the same
-host, but on different individuals, <i>P. suaveolens</i>, on
-the Field-Thistle, may be mentioned. The spermogonia have a
-strong odour.&mdash;A peculiar group (<i>Leptopuccinia</i>) has
-only teleutospores, which germinate immediately, and whilst
-still attached to their living host. To this group belong
-<i>P. arenariæ</i>, on a number of Caryophyllaceæ; and <i>P.
-malvacearum</i>, on various Malvaceæ, introduced in 1873 from
-South America to Europe, where it soon proved very destructive
-to Hollyhocks.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Uromyces</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig149">149</a>) differs only from <i>Puccinia</i> in
-always having unicellular teleutospores. Among this genus both
-heterœcious and autœcious species are found. To the first group
-belong <i>U. pisi</i>, whose æcidia are found on <i>Euphorbia
-cyparissias</i>, and <i>U. dactylidis</i>, whose æcidia appear
-on <i>Ranunculus</i>; to the second group belong <i>U. betæ</i>,
-<i>U. phaseoli</i>, <i>U. trifolii</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Triphragmium</i> has teleutospores with three cells (one
-below and two above), on <i>Spiræa ulmaria</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Phragmidium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig150">150</a>) has teleutospores consisting of
-a row of cells (3–10) arranged in a straight line; the upper
-cell has one germ-pore and the others four germ-pores placed
-equatorially. Both this and the preceding genus have large,
-irregular æcidia without peridia, but often with bent, club-like
-paraphyses (150 <i>b</i> and <i>c</i>); they are all autœcious,
-and are only found on the Rosaceæ.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig148" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig148.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 148.</span>&mdash;<i>Gymnosporangium sabinæ</i>. A
-small portion of the epidermis of a Pear-leaf (<i>a</i>) pierced at
-<i>b</i> by the germinating basidiospore (<i>c</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig149" style="width: 380px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig149.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 149.</span>&mdash;<i>Uromyces genisteæ</i>; <i>a</i>
-uredospore; <i>b</i> teleutospore.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Endophyllum</i> (see above, under teleutospores, p. <a href="#Page_147">147</a>) on
-species of <i>Sempervivum</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Gymnosporangium</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig152">152</a>, <a href="#fig154">154</a>) has bicellular
-teleutospores collected in large, gelatinous masses formed
-by the swelling of the long spore-stalks; in each cell 2–4
-germ-pores are found. Uredospores are wanting. All the species
-are heterœcious; the teleutospores appear on <i>Juniperus</i>,
-the æcidia (<i>Rœstelia</i>) on the Pomaceæ. <i>G. sabinæ</i>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[152]</span>
-on <i>Juniperus sabina</i>, <i>J. virginiana</i>, etc., has the
-æcidia (“<i>Rœstelia cancellata</i>”) on <i>Pyrus communis</i>
-(Figs. <a href="#fig152">152</a>, <a href="#fig148">148</a>); <i>G. juniperinum</i>, on <i>Juniperus
-communis</i> with “<i>Rœstelia cornuta</i>” (Fig. <a href="#fig154">154</a>
-<i>a</i>) on <i>Sorbus aucuparia</i>, <i>Aria nivea</i> (<i>S.
-aria</i>) and <i>Malus communis</i>; <i>G. clavariæforme</i>
-on <i>Juniperus communis</i>, the æcidium belonging to it
-(“<i>Rœstelia lacerata</i>”) on <i>Cratægus oxyacantha</i>.</p>
-
-<p><i>Melampsora</i> has prismatic teleutospores placed parallel
-to each other and forming a crustaceous layer; in many species
-they are divided longitudinally into several cells (Fig.
-<a href="#fig151">151</a>). The æcidia, without peridium, belonged to the old genus
-<i>Cæoma</i>. <i>M. caprearum</i>, on Willows, has the æcidia
-(<i>Cæoma euonymi</i>) on <i>Euonymus</i>. <i>M. hartigii</i>,
-on Osiers; the æcidium on <i>Ribes</i>. <i>M. mixta</i>, on
-<i>Salix repens</i> and Orchids. <i>M. pinitorqua</i>, on leaves
-of the Aspen, æcidia on Pine branches (Pine shoot fungus); <i>M.
-populina</i> on <i>Populus monilifera</i> and <i>nigra</i>;
-<i>M. betulina</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig153">153</a>), on Birch leaves; <i>M. padi</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig151">151</a>), on leaves of <i>Prunus padus</i>, developes
-teleutospores in the epidermal cells; <i>M. lini</i> is the
-cause of injury to the Flax; <i>M. agrimoniæ</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig150" style="width: 458px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig150.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 150.</span>&mdash;<i>Phragmidium gracile</i>: <i>a</i>
-an uredospore; <i>b</i> and <i>c</i> two paraphyses; <i>d</i> a
-young teleutospore; <i>e</i> a teleutospore with a basidium and two
-basidiospores (<i>s</i>); <i>f</i> two series of æcidiospores (<i>Ph.
-rosæ</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Calyptospora gœppertiana</i>; teleutospores on <i>Vaccinium
-vitis idæa</i>; spermogonia and æcidia on <i>Abies alba</i>
-(Firneedle-Rust).</p>
-
-<p><i>Coleosporium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig155">155</a>) forms its uredospores in
-reddish-yellow chains; for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[153]</span> the teleutospores, see page
-<a href="#Page_147">147</a>. <i>C. senecionis</i>, on the Groundsel; its æcidium
-(<i>Peridermium wolffii</i>) on Pine-leaves (Fig. <a href="#fig155">155</a> a). Other
-species on <i>Sonchus</i>, <i>Petasites</i>, <i>Campanula</i>,
-<i>Rhinanthaceæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p><i>Chrysomyxa</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig156">156</a>) has bright red, branched
-teleutospore-chains; each spore developes a 4-celled basidium.
-<i>C. ledi</i>, on <i>Ledum palustre</i>; its æcidia on the
-leaves of the Fir. <i>C. abietis</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig156">156</a>), without
-uredo-and æcidiospores; teleutospores on the leaves of the Fir.
-In the first summer, yellow bands are formed on the leaves, and
-in the following spring the red cushions of spores.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig151" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig151.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 151.</span>&mdash;<i>Melampsora padi</i>: <i>a</i> and
-<i>b</i> uredospores; <i>c-f</i> teleutospores, seen from different sides.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig152" style="width: 332px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig152.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 152.</span>&mdash;Pear-leaf, seen from the under
-side, with “<i>Rœstelia cancellata</i>”: in different ages (<i>a</i>
-youngest, <i>d</i> oldest).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig153" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig153.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 153.</span>&mdash;<i>Melampsora betulina</i>: <i>a</i>
-uredospores; <i>b</i> three contiguous teleutospores, one of which has
-developed a basidium with three basidiospores. (× 400.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig154" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig154.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 154.</span>&mdash;<i>Gymnosporanginum juniperinum</i>:
-<i>a</i> a small leaf with three clusters of æcidia (nat. size);
-<i>b</i> three conidia; <i>c</i> two æcidiospores on one of which are
-seen the germ-pores; <i>d</i> a portion of the wall of an æcidium;
-<i>e</i>, <i>f</i> two teleutospores.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig155" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig155.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 155.</span>&mdash;<i>Coleosporium senecionis</i>:
-<i>a</i> Pine-leaves with æcidia (<i>Peridermium wolffii</i>) nat.
-size; <i>b</i> an æcidiospore; <i>c</i> a germinating æcidiospore;
-<i>d</i> a chain of uredospores; <i>e</i> a chain of teleutospores
-of which the terminal one has germinated and produced a basidiospore (<i>s</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[154]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Cronartium</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig157">157</a>, <a href="#fig159">159</a>) has unicellular teleutospores
-united in numbers to form erect threads or columns; the
-uredospores are enclosed in a “peridium”; <i>C. ribicola</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig157">157</a>), on leaves of Ribes (especially Black Currants); its
-æcidia (<i>Peridermium strobi</i>, or <i>P. klebahni</i>) on
-the stems and branches of <i>Pinus strobus</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[155]</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig159">159</a>),
-on which it causes great damage; <i>C. asclepiadeum</i>, on
-<i>Vincetoxicum officinale</i>; its æcidia (<i>Peridermium
-cornui</i>) on the stems and branches of <i>Pinus silvestris</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig156" style="width: 306px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig156.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 156.</span>&mdash;<i>Chrysomyxa abietis</i>: <i>a</i>
-leaf of the Fir, with 5 clusters of basidiospores (× 4); <i>b</i>
-branched rows of teleutospores springing from the mycelium (<i>m</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig157" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig157.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 157.</span>&mdash;<i>Cronartium ribicola</i>: <i>a</i>
-mass of uredospores (× 50); <i>b</i> an uredospore; <i>c</i> a column
-of teleutospores (× 60); <i>d</i> a small portion of the same more
-highly magnified, with a basidium and two basidiospores (<i>s</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>To the Fungi of which the æcidium is known, whilst the remaining
-forms are still undetermined, but which are without doubt
-heterœcious, belong <i>Æcidium elatinum</i>, which produces
-the enormous “witches’ brooms” and barrel-shaped swellings
-on stems and branches of <i>Abies alba</i>; and <i>Æcidium
-strobilinum</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig158">158</a>), which attacks Fir-cones, causing all
-the scales to become covered with clusters of æcidia opening
-by a lid. <i>Hemileia vastatrix</i> destroyed the coffee
-plantations in Asia.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig158" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig158.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 158.</span>&mdash;<i>Æcidium strobilinum</i>: <i>a</i>
-scale of cone of <i>Picea excelsa</i>, with numerous æcidia; <i>b</i>
-æcidiospores arranged in a series; <i>c</i> a cell of the peridium.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Auriculariaceæ.</b> The <i>long, transversely divided</i>
-basidia bear laterally 4 <i>long sterigmata</i> with basidiospores
-(Fig. <a href="#fig160">160</a> <i>B</i>) and are united to form an <i>hymenium</i> on the
-surface of the fruit-body. Parasites or saprophytes.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[156]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Auricularia sambucina</i> (<i>Auricula judæ</i>), Judas’-ear,
-has large fruit-bodies, which may attain the size of several
-inches, resembling an ear or a mussel shell. In the moist
-condition they are flesh-coloured, tough and gelatinous, but
-when dried, become hard, grey and wrinkled; the exterior is
-covered with short hairs; while the internal surface bears
-the hymenium. Habitat: stems and branches of old Elder-trees
-(<i>Sambucus</i>).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Tremellaceæ.</b> The <i>round, pear-shaped, longitudinally
-divided basidia</i> bear 4 <i>elongated sterigmata</i>, situated
-apically, and 4 basidiospores (Fig. <a href="#fig160">160</a> <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>), and are
-united into the <i>hymenium</i> on the surface of the fruit-body.
-The fruit-bodies are frequently gelatinous and quivering; similar
-fruit-bodies are also found in the Dacryomycetaceæ and Hydnaceæ. Simple
-conidiophores, which appear not infrequently in the basidiocarps,
-before the basidia, are known in many species. Saprophytes.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig159" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig159.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 159.</span>&mdash;<i>Peridermium strobi</i>: æcidia of
-<i>Cronartium ribicola</i> (nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig160" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig160.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 160.</span>&mdash;<i>B Auricularia
-sambucina</i>: <i>a-d</i> basidia in various stages of development;
-<i>e</i> a sterigma bearing a spore.&mdash;<i>C Tremella
-lutescens</i>: <i>a-d</i> basidia seen from various sides (<i>b</i>
-from above) and in various stages of development; <i>e</i> sterigma
-with basidiospore (× 400). <i>D Exidia glandulosa</i>:
-<i>a-c</i> various stages in the development of a basidium; <i>d</i>
-sterigma with basidiospore (× 350).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Exidia</i> has kidney-shaped, oblong basidiospores,
-and small, hook-like conidia; <i>E. glandulosa</i>, <i>E.
-albida</i>, etc., on wood.&mdash;<i>Craterocolla</i> has
-conidiocarps; <i>C. cerasi</i> on Cherry-wood.&mdash;<i>Sebacina
-incrustans</i>; the yellow, fleshy, or cartilaginous
-fruit-bodies are found in autumn covering the ground in
-moist woods.&mdash;<i>Tremella</i> has round basidiospores;
-<i>T. mesenterica</i> has irregularly-folded,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[157]</span> quivering,
-orange fruit-bodies, about one inch in breadth; <i>T.
-lutescens</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig161">161</a>) has orange-yellow conidial-and yellow
-basidial-layers; <i>T. frondosa</i> has fruit-bodies upwards of
-a foot in breadth.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Pilacraceæ.</b> The <i>transversely divided basidia</i>
-have <i>no sterigmata</i>, but sessile basidiospores, and fill up the
-cavity of a <i>closed</i> (<i>angiocarpic</i>) <i>fruit-body</i> as a
-gleba without a regular arrangement (hymenium wanting).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Pilacre fagi</i> on the old stems of the Copper-Beech; <i>P.
-petersii</i>, on dried branches of the Hornbeam, has stalked,
-capitate fruit-bodies.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig161" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig161.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 161.</span>&mdash;<i>Tremella lutescens</i>: I and II
-fruit-bodies (nat. size); III vertical section through a fruit-body;
-<i>b</i> basidia; <i>c</i> conidia; IV-VI basidia; VII basidiospore
-with a second spore; VIII a basidiospore with yeast-like budding
-(cultivated); IX a conidiophore. (III-IX about 400.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h5>Series 2. <b>Autobasidiomycetes.</b></h5>
-
-<p>This second and larger part of the Basidiomycetes is characterised
-by its more highly differentiated, <i>undivided</i>, club-shaped,
-or cylindrical basidia, which generally bear 4 (seldom 2, 6, 8)
-apically-placed sterigmata and basidiospores (Fig. <a href="#fig145">145</a>). The
-fruit-bodies are partly <i>gymnocarpic</i> (in the first 3 orders and
-in some Agaricaceæ), partly <i>hemiangiocarpic</i> (in orders 3–6 of
-the Hymenomycetes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[158]</span> and in the Phalloideæ, the fruit-bodies in these
-orders are in the young conditions more or less angiocarpic, but later
-on generally open below and bear the hymenium on the under surface of
-the fruit-body), partly also <i>angiocarpic</i> (in the Gasteromycetes).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig162" style="width: 683px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig162.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 162.</span>&mdash;<i>Dacryomyces deliquescens</i>: I
-fruit-body (nat. size); II vertical section through the hymenium; III
-germinating basidiospore; IV a portion of mycelium with conidia; V a
-germinating conidium; VI and VII chains of oidia more or less strongly
-magnified; VIII basidiospore of <i>D. longisporus</i>; IX germinating
-basidiospore of <i>D. ovisporus</i>; X and XI <i>Calocera viscosa</i>;
-X fruit-body (nat. size); XI basidia with basidiospores (highly
-magnified); XII <i>Dacryomitra glossoides</i> (nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[159]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 1. <b>Dacryomycetes.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The <i>long, club-shaped basidia</i> bear <i>two tapering
-sterigmata</i>, which develope remarkably large basidiospores (Fig. <a href="#fig162">162</a>
-II, XI) and form <i>gymnocarpic</i> fruit-bodies with hymenium. 1 order:</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Dacryomycetaceæ.</b> This order comprises 4 genera of
-which the first two develope the hymenium on the whole surface of the
-fruit-body, but the two last only on its apex.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Dacryomyces</i>: the folded, gelatinous, <i>Tremella</i>-like
-fruit-bodies break out in winter on dried wood (hedges) in the
-form of red or yellow drops. <i>D. deliquescens</i> is very
-common (Fig. <a href="#fig121">121</a>). The following genera have cartilaginous
-fruit-bodies.&mdash;<i>Calocera</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig162">162</a>), with club-like,
-simple, or branched, <i>Clavaria</i>-like, fruit-bodies;
-the orange coloured fruit-bodies of <i>C. viscosa</i> grow
-aggregated together on the wood of Conifers.&mdash;<i>Guepinia</i>
-resembles a <i>Peziza</i>, and has the hymenium only on
-the hollow upper surface.&mdash;<i>Dacryomitra</i> resembles a
-<i>Mitrula</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig162">162</a>).</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 2. <b>Hymenomycetes.</b></h4>
-
-<p>This family is very rich in species (more than 8000 have been
-described), and to it belong all the “Mushrooms” and “Toadstools.” The
-<i>fruit-bodies</i> present very various forms; they are generally
-fleshy, very perishable, seldom leathery or corky, in the last case
-often perennial. The <i>basidia</i> are more or less <i>cylindrical</i>
-and bear <i>generally</i> 4 (seldom 2, 6 or 8) <i>sterigmata and
-basidiospores</i>. The hymenium in the fully-formed fruit-bodies lies
-free on the surface: in orders 1 and 2 and a portion of order 6 it is
-from the commencement exposed, fruit-bodies <i>gymnocarpic</i>; orders
-3–6 have <i>hemiangiocarpic</i> fruit-bodies (p. <a href="#Page_157">157</a>). In the first
-order the basidia (or the hymenium) are developed immediately from
-the mycelium (Fig. <a href="#fig163">163</a>); the fruit-bodies of orders 2 and 3 present a
-higher grade of development, and have between the mycelium and hymenium
-a special hyphal-tissue, a <i>stroma</i>, which is crustaceous,
-club-like, or coralloid, etc., and in general bears the hymenium
-on the largest part of the free, smooth surface. In the forms most
-highly developed (orders 4–6) a new tissue&mdash;the <i>hymenophore</i>&mdash;is
-introduced between the stroma and hymenium, which appears on the under
-side of the fruit-body in the form of warts, projections, tubes,
-folds or lamellæ (Figs. <a href="#fig166">166</a>, <a href="#fig167">167</a>, <a href="#fig174">174</a> <i>bc</i>). <i>Paraphyses</i>
-are frequently found in the hymenium, among the basidia. In the
-Hymenomycetes few examples of <i>conidia</i> can be recognised at
-first. More frequently <i>chlamydospores</i> are found, particularly
-<i>oidia</i>. The <i>mycelium</i> is richly branched, generally
-colourless, often perennial; it lives in humus or decaying wood, and
-is seldom parasitic.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[160]</span> The hyphæ generally have clamp-connections and
-unite, sometimes, to form a rhizomorpha (Fig. <a href="#fig177">177</a>) or sclerotia with
-coloured, pseudo-parenchymatous covering.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig163" style="width: 581px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig163.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 163.</span>&mdash;<i>Exobasidium vaccinii.</i> I
-Hypertrophied stem of <i>Vaccinium vitis idæa</i>; II leaf with
-gall-like swelling; III section of II; IV transverse section: <i>m</i>
-mycelium between the parenchymatous cells; <i>p</i> hypodermal cells;
-<i>e</i> epidermis with basidia in various stages of development; V
-epidermis with germinating spores; VI and VII spores germinating in
-water (IV-VII × 620).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[161]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Tomentellaceæ.</b> To this order belong the simplest of
-the Hymenomycetes. The basidia (Fig. <a href="#fig145">145</a>) arise free and irregularly
-from the mycelium; a <i>hymenium</i> is <i>entirely absent</i> or
-<i>very slightly formed</i> (in <i>Corticium</i> it attains its highest
-development); <i>fruit-bodies</i> are <i>also wanting</i>.&mdash;In general
-they form flaky, membranous or leathery coverings on bark and wood.
-Some are parasites.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Hypochnus</i> without conidia.&mdash;<i>Tomentella</i> with
-conidiophores; growing on wood or earth.&mdash;<i>Exobasidium
-vaccinii</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig163">163</a>), a parasite on <i>Vaccinium</i>,
-<i>Andromeda</i>, <i>Arctostaphylos</i>, and
-<i>Rhododendron</i>, forms flaky-powdery, white or red coverings
-and may cause hypertrophy of the parts attacked. <i>E.
-warmingii</i> is parasitic on <i>Saxifraga</i>; <i>E. lauri</i>
-causes outgrowths on the stem of <i>Laurus canariensis</i>
-as long as a finger, which formerly were regarded as aerial
-roots.&mdash;<i>Corticium</i> forms membranous to leathery layers or
-crusts; <i>C. quercinum</i> on wood and bark, particularly Oak,
-is flesh-coloured; <i>C. cæruleum</i> has a blue hymenium; <i>C.
-giganteum</i> on the bark of fallen Pine-trees.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Clavariaceæ.</b> The hymenium is situated on a stroma, and
-either completely <i>covers the smooth surface</i> of the more or less
-fleshy <i>gymnocarpic fruit-body</i>, or is confined to a tolerably
-well defined <i>upper portion</i> of it (<i>Typhula</i>). Paraphyses
-absent. The vertical, white, yellow, or red fruit-bodies are roundish
-or club-like, undivided or richly branched (Fig. <a href="#fig125">125</a>). Generally on the
-ground in woods, seldom on tree-stems, etc.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig164" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig164.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 164.</span>&mdash;<i>Clavaria coralloides</i> (nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Genera</span>: <i>Clavaria</i>, generally large Fungi with
-thick, round branches. <i>C. botrytis</i> has a very thick,
-tubercular stem with numerous short, flesh-coloured branches:
-it has an agreeable taste. <i>C. coralloides</i> has a brittle,
-richly-branched fruit-body (Fig. <a href="#fig164">164</a>); basidia with two large
-spores. <i>C. pistillaris</i> consists of a single, undivided
-club of a yellowish-white colour.&mdash;<i>Sparassis</i> has
-compressed, leaf-like, curled branches; <i>S. crispa</i> has
-fruit-bodies as large as a white cabbage-head, with an agreeable
-taste.&mdash;<i>Typhula</i> and <i>Pistillaria</i> are small Fungi
-with filamentous stalks, terminating in a small club. The
-fruit-bodies of the former often arise from a small, spheroid
-sclerotium; the latter is distinguished by the basidia bearing
-only two spores.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[162]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Thelephoraceæ.</b> The hymenium is placed on a stroma and
-<i>covers the smooth surface</i> of the leathery <i>hemiangiocarpic
-fruit-body</i>, generally <i>on its under side</i>. The edge of the
-stroma, which bounds the hymenium, is sometimes especially developed
-(<i>Stereum</i>). Saprophytes.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Genera</span>: <i>Thelephora</i>. The fruit-bodies in this
-genus are brown, very irregularly shaped, and often lobed. The
-spores too are brown, but in the other genera colourless. The
-species are found growing on barren soil. <i>T. laciniata</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig165">165</a>) has imbricate, semicircular, dark-brown pileus,
-which is jagged at the edge and upper surface. The fruit-bodies
-are very often raised above the ground, and although this
-species is not a parasite, yet it destroys young seedlings
-by growing above and smothering them.&mdash;<i>Stereum</i> has a
-stiffer fruit-body, with a distinct, fibrous, intermediate
-layer. It grows on bark and wood, projecting like a series of
-imbricate brackets. <i>S. hirsutum</i> is yellow; its free edge
-is provided with a number of stiff hairs, the upper surface
-being divided into a number of zones. <i>S. purpureum</i> has
-a red-violet hymenium which distinguishes it from the previous
-species.&mdash;<i>Cyphella</i> has a membranous cup- or bell-shaped
-fruit-body, often borne on a stalk, the concave surface being
-covered with the hymenium. They are small, white Fungi, growing
-on Moss and dead stems.&mdash;<i>Solenia</i> is closely related to
-<i>Cyphella</i>; its fruit-bodies are smaller and hairy; they
-are found clustered together forming a crust-like covering
-on dead wood.&mdash;<i>Craterellus</i> has a large, funnel-shaped
-fruit-body, the hymenium covering the external surface. <i>C.
-cornucopioides</i> is shaped like a trumpet or a “horn of
-plenty.” It is dark-grey, several inches in height, and grows
-gregariously on the ground in forests. It is distinguished by
-the basidia bearing only two sterigmata.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig165" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig165.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 165.</span>&mdash;<i>Thelephora laciniata</i> (nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Hydnaceæ.</b> The fruit-body is most frequently fleshy, and
-varies considerably in shape, the simplest forms being resupinate,<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>
-the higher ones umbrella-like. The <i>hymenophore</i> is found on the
-free or downward-turned surface, and always takes the <i>form of soft
-emergences</i> hanging vertically downwards. The emergencies may be
-thorn-, awl-, or wart-like. The species are found growing on the soil
-and on dead wood.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Genera</span>: <i>Hydnum</i> has subulate, distinct
-emergences. <i>H. repandum</i> is yellow, the stalk being
-placed in the centre of the pileus. It is an edible<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[163]</span> species,
-and often forms “fairy rings” in woods. <i>H. auriscalpium</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig166">166</a>) is dark-brown, with stalk placed at the edge of
-the pileus. It grows on old Fir-cones. <i>H. erinaceus</i>
-grows on old tree-trunks. The fruit-body is yellow and very
-large&mdash;as big as a human head&mdash;with emergences as much as
-an inch in length.&mdash;<i>Irpex</i> has a leathery fruit-body,
-partly resupinate, partly with free, projecting edge; the
-under side bears tooth-like emergences which are arranged
-in rows, and <i>Irpex</i> thus forms a transition to the
-Agaricaceæ.&mdash;<i>Phlebia</i> is entirely resupinate, with
-radially-arranged folds on the free side, and pectinate border.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig166" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig166.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 166.</span>&mdash;<i>Hydnum auriscalpium</i>, upon a
-Fir-cone, in different stages of development.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Polyporaceæ (Pore-Fungi).</b> An order very rich in
-species (about 2000 species are described). The fruit-body is of very
-different forms&mdash;resupinate, projecting like a bracket, hoof-like, or
-umbrella-shaped. In some it is fleshy and edible, in others leathery
-or corky, persisting for several years. The hymenophore is situated
-on the under side of the fruit-body, and consists of wide or narrow
-<i>tubes</i> or <i>pores</i>, whose inner surface is clothed with the
-hymenium (Fig. <a href="#fig167">167</a>). In some fruit-bodies large cavities are to be
-found, which have arisen as interstices between the labyrinthine curved
-and reticulate folds. Chlamydospores are known in some species. Conidia
-occur very rarely. Many species work considerable damage: some as
-parasites on trees, others by destroying timber.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig167" style="width: 512px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig167.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 167.</span>&mdash;<i>Polyporus igniarius.</i> Section
-through the under side of the Fungus: <i>h-h</i> is hyphal-tissue
-between the tubes, formed by irregularly felted hyphæ, many of which
-are seen cut across; <i>s</i> is the hymenium which covers the walls of
-the tubes, and from which the basidia with the spores protrude.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Genera.</span> <i>Polyporus</i> (Pore-Fungus). The tubes are
-narrow, accurately fitted together, and forming a thick layer
-on the under side of the fruit-body, appearing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[164]</span> as a number of
-fine holes. The fruit-body most frequently resembles a bracket,
-or is hoof-shaped, with one side growing from a tree-trunk; it
-is very often perennial, and a new layer of tubes arises in
-each succeeding period of vegetation. Strata, corresponding to
-the periodically interrupted growth, are thus formed in storeys
-one above the other, and are visible on the upper surface of
-the fruit-body, as well as in the interior, as a series of
-concentric belts, sometimes as many as half a score or more
-in number. <i>P. fomentarius</i> (Touchwood) attacks trees,
-especially the Beech. The spores germinate on wounds from broken
-branches, and the hyphæ, following the course of the medullary
-rays, find their way into the interior of the tree, from whence
-the mycelium spreads upwards, downwards, and peripherally, so
-that the wood becomes rotten (“white-rot”) and thick felts of
-mycelium are formed in radial and tangential directions. A dark
-line, caused by the youngest parts of the hyphæ containing a
-brown juice, marks the boundary between the rotten and the
-unattacked parts of the stem (Fig. <a href="#fig168">168</a>); at places where the
-mycelium extends to the bark, the cambium becomes destroyed and
-further growth is arrested, so that longitudinal furrows arise
-on the stem. It is at these places, too, that the hoof-shaped,
-ash-coloured fruit-bodies are developed, which may attain
-a circumference of upwards of 7 feet. The interior of the
-fruit-body consists of a dried-up, loosely felted, red-brown
-mass of hyphæ, which has been used for tinder and as a styptic
-(“Fungus chirurgorum”). <i>P. igniarius</i> has a harder,
-dark-brown, more rounded fruit-body; it grows in a similar
-manner, but especially attacks Oaks, Poplars, and Plum-trees,
-the wood of which becomes rotten, and is called touchwood. <i>P.
-pini</i> (<i>Trametes pini</i>), (Fig. <a href="#fig170">170</a>), a parasite on the
-stems of <i>Pinus</i>, causes a kind of “red-rot” in the stem.
-<i>P. sulphureus</i> has a soft, cheesy, yellow fruit-body; it
-produces “rot” in Oaks and Apple-trees. <i>P. officinalis</i>,
-Larch-fungus (“Fungus Laricis” in Pharmocopœia), grows on
-Larch-trees in the south-east of Europe. <i>P. versicolor</i>
-has thin, semicircular<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[165]</span> fruit-bodies, with zones of various
-colours on the upper side; it is one of the most frequent
-species on tree-stems. <i>P. frondosus</i> grows on soil in
-woods, and consists of numerous aggregated fruit-bodies, which
-become very large and fleshy. This species is edible. <i>P.
-perennis</i> also grows on the soil in woods; it is very
-leathery, with central stalk, and has concentric zones on the
-upper surface of the fruit-body. <i>P. vaporarius</i> destroys
-the wood of living Pines (<i>Pinus silvestris</i>) and Firs
-(<i>Picea excelsa</i>), causing it to become red-brown; in
-timber this Fungus causes “red-strip” followed by a “dry-rot.”
-<i>P. squamosus</i> destroys many Walnut-trees, and is also
-very destructive to Limes and Elms. <i>P. fulvus</i> causes a
-“white-rot” in <i>Abies alba</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig168" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig168.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 168.</span>&mdash;Section of stem of a Beech attacked
-by <i>P. fomentarius</i>: <i>a</i> non-attacked parts of the stem;
-<i>b</i> the furrows where the mycelium has reached the bark, and where
-the thick mycelium-strands reach the exterior (⅙th of the nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig169" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig169.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 169.</span>&mdash;Base of a Fir-tree, with a number of
-fruit-bodies of <i>Heterobasidion annosum</i> just beneath the surface
-of the soil, indicated by the dotted line (¼th nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig170" style="width: 473px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig170.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 170.</span>&mdash;A fully developed fruit-body of
-<i>Polyporus pini</i> (<i>Trametes pini</i>), lateral view (nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Heterobasidion annosum</i> (<i>Polyporus annosus</i>,
-<i>Trametes radiciperda</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig169">169</a>) is characterized by its
-<i>Aspergillus</i>-like conidiophores. It is a parasite on
-the Pine, Fir, Birch, Beech, etc.,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[166]</span> and is the chief cause of
-a root-disease (red-rot) in Pines and Firs; the fruit-bodies
-develope a large number of basidiospores; they may be very large
-and are found just beneath the surface of the soil (on living or
-dead roots), and exposed to the air (on felled stems and roots,
-in Scandinavia).</p>
-
-<p><i>Ptychogaster</i> has cushion-like fruit-bodies, which
-consist chiefly of chlamydospore-chains, formed of ellipsoidal
-spores, which alternate with short hyphæ having transverse
-septa and clamp-connections. The hymenial portion is limited
-to a small group of tubes. <i>Pt. albus</i> (<i>Oligorus
-ustilaginoides</i>) grows on stumps of Conifers and forms
-irregular cushions, at first white and later on brown, which
-consist almost entirely of chlamydospores.</p>
-
-<p><i>Boletus</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig171">171</a>) has a fleshy fruit-body resembling
-a common Mushroom, with central stalk. The layer of tubes is
-easily detached from the pileus, and the tubes are easily
-separable from one another. They grow on the ground in woods.
-Edible species are: <i>B. edulis</i>, with thick, reticulate
-stalk; <i>B. scaber</i>, with thin stalk and rough pileus;
-<i>B. luteus</i>, with a ring on the stalk. <i>B. luridus</i>
-is poisonous, its tubes have red openings, and the flesh turns
-quickly blue when broken and exposed to the air.</p>
-
-<p><i>Fistulina hepatica</i> (Beef-steak Fungus), has a red,
-fleshy, edible fruit-body, with red juice. The tubes are
-individually distinct; conidia are also developed. Grows on old
-Oaks.</p>
-
-<p><i>Merulius lacrymans</i> (“Dry-rot”) has a resupinate
-fruit-body with white, cotton-like border, and the remaining
-portions covered by reticulate, ramified veins of a rust-brown
-colour. In favourable vegetative conditions it is fleshy and
-exudes large drops of water&mdash;hence its specific name and also
-the name “Tear Fungus.” The mycelium is at first colourless,
-and then yellow-brown; when dry it is tough and leathery. It
-destroys the timber in damp houses, extends far and wide over
-boards and beams and even over the masonry, giving rise to a
-disagreeable smell in the rooms in which it lodges. In woods
-the Fungus lives on Pine-stems. It is brought from the forest
-on the logs of timber, and is distributed from log to log by
-the mycelium and the basidiospores. The living mycelium can be
-recognised by the clamp-connections shooting out branches. The
-basidiospores are often ejected a distance of a metre; they are
-elliptical (10–11µ long and 5–6µ broad), and germinate easily
-on damp wood, or in fruit-juice which has been neutralized with
-urine or alkaline carbonates.</p>
-
-<p><i>Dædalea</i> (Labyrinth Fungus), has bracket-like, corky
-fruit-bodies with irregularly-folded plates or discs on the
-under side. It forms a transition to the Agaricaceæ. <i>D.
-quercina</i> is frequent on Oak-stumps.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig171" style="width: 300px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig171.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 171.</span>&mdash;<i>Boletus edulis</i> (about ¼th):
-<i>b</i> longitudinal section of a portion of the pileus.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Agaricaceæ</b> (<b>Mushrooms</b>, <b>Toadstools</b>).
-<i>The hymenophore consists</i> of knife-like plates (<i>lamellæ</i>,
-<i>gills</i>), which are situated on the under side of the
-umbrella-like pileus of the fruit-body,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[167]</span> and radiate from the central
-stalk. Those which are first formed extend from the edge of the pileus
-to the stalk; those formed later reach only a longer or shorter portion
-of this distance, according to their age. In structure the lamellæ
-(Fig. <a href="#fig174">174</a>) consist of a central mass of hyphæ, the <i>trama</i>,
-continuous with the hyphæ of the pileus; these terminate in a layer of
-shorter cells, the <i>subhymenial layer</i>, immediately beneath the
-hymenium which is composed of basidia and paraphyses. In a few species,
-but not in the majority, the lamellæ are branched, and in some they
-are decurrent. A few have the stalk placed excentrically, or it may be
-entirely absent.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig172" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig172.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 172.</span>&mdash;Development of <i>Psalliota
-campestris</i>: <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i> show the
-various stages of the development of the fruit-bodies and the mycelium
-(<i>m</i>) (nat. size); <i>e</i> the fruit-body in a somewhat later
-stage, slightly magnified; <i>f</i> longitudinal section of <i>e</i>;
-<i>n</i> first formation of the hymenium; <i>g</i> longitudinal section
-of a more advanced fruit-body (nat. size); <i>n</i> the hymenium;
-<i>o</i> velum partiale (see Fig. <a href="#fig133">133</a>.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>In the early stages of its development the fruit-body is more or less
-enclosed in a hyphal tissue&mdash;the “veil” (<i>velum universale</i>,
-or <i>volva</i>). The veil at first completely encloses the young
-fruit-body, but is afterwards ruptured as the latter grows, part
-remaining at the base of the stalk as the “sheath” (<i>annulus
-inferus</i>), and part on the pileus as scales or warts. In the “Fly
-Mushroom” (<i>Amanita muscaria</i>) the remains of the veil are
-especially conspicuous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[168]</span> as white patches on the bright red ground of
-the upper surface of the pileus, and as a sheath at the base of the
-stalk (Fig. <a href="#fig178">178</a> <i>v.</i>). Another veil&mdash;the <i>velum partiale</i>&mdash;a
-hyphal tissue (Figs. <a href="#fig178">178</a> <i>a</i>; <a href="#fig173">173</a>) stretches from the edge of the
-pileus to the stalk, and encloses the lamellæ. This veil is ruptured
-as the pileus expands, a portion attached to the stalk remaining as
-the “upper ring” (<i>annulus superus</i>) (Figs. <a href="#fig173">173</a>, <a href="#fig178">178</a> <i>a</i>),
-or a part attached to the pileus hanging down as a fringe round its
-edge.&mdash;Some genera have no veil, the under side of the pileus being
-exposed from the first (<i>gymnocarpic</i> Agaricaceæ). Those which
-have a veil (<i>hemiangiocarpic</i> A.) afford a transition to the
-angiocarpic Gasteromycetes.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig173" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig173.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 173.</span>&mdash;The cultivated Mushroom
-(<i>Psalliota campestris</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The mycelium mostly grows in soils rich in humus or dung, on decaying
-trees and similar objects. Many species, <i>e.g. Tricholoma
-personatum</i> and <i>Marasmius oreades</i>, form the so-called “fairy
-rings.” The fruit-bodies in these species are confined to a larger or
-smaller surface on which they are very regularly arranged in a ring.
-The reason for this is found in the radial growth of the mycelium,
-so that the oldest portion, or the starting point, is found at the
-centre of the ring, and the younger ones, on which the fruit-bodies are
-formed, at the circumference. The older hyphæ gradually die, and at
-the same time, the radial growth continuing, the ring of fruit-bodies
-becomes larger and larger. The “fairy-rings” are marked<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[169]</span> not only by
-the fruit-bodies, but also by the more vigorous growth and darker
-colour of the grass upon these spots.</p>
-
-<p>Some species are <i>parasites</i>. An example is presented by
-<i>Armillaria mellea</i>, a remarkable and very destructive Fungus in
-woods and forests (Figs. <a href="#fig176">176</a>, <a href="#fig177">177</a>). <span class="smaller">In addition to the filamentous,
-white mycelium, it has also black, or black-brown, horny, root-like
-mycelium-strands (rhizomorpha) which were formerly considered
-to belong to a special genus of Fungi described under the name
-“<i>Rhizomorpha</i>.” The mycelium lives parasitically on the Conifers
-and other trees, forcing its hyphæ into the bark and between the bark
-and wood, and thence penetrating into the wood so that the tree is very
-severely attacked. It may also live saprophytically, and clusters of
-fruit-bodies are often found on old stumps and stems, on old timber,
-and in the rich soil of woods. The rhizomorpha, living underground, can
-extend for considerable distances and infect the roots of neighbouring
-trees, and spreads in this way the diseases known as “Harzsticken” and
-“Bark-Canker,” which are very destructive to young trees.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig174" style="width: 392px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig174.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 174.</span>&mdash;<i>Psalliota campestris.</i>
-<i>A</i> Tangential section of pileus showing lamellæ (<i>l</i>).
-<i>B</i> Portion of gill more highly magnified; <i>t</i> trama;
-<i>hy</i> hymenium with basidia and basidiospores; <i>sh</i>,
-subhymenial layer. <i>C</i> A portion of the same more highly
-magnified; <i>s′ s′′ s′′′ s′′′′</i> various stages
-in the development of basidiospores; <i>q</i> paraphyses.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The chief characteristics by which the numerous genera are separated
-are the presence or the absence of the two kinds of veils, the nature
-of the fruit-body, the form, branching of the lamellæ, and their
-position and relation with respect to the stem, the shape of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[170]</span>
-pileus, the colour of the spores, etc., etc. A knowledge of the colour
-may be obtained by placing the pileus with the lamellæ turned downwards
-on a piece of white or coloured paper, so that the spores, as they fall
-off, are collected on the paper, and the arrangement of the lamellæ can
-then be clearly seen.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig175" style="width: 342px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig175.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 175.</span>&mdash;<i>Cantharellus cibarius</i> (reduced).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig176" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig176.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 176.</span>&mdash;<i>Armillaria mellea.</i> (½ nat.
-size): <i>a</i> root of a Fir; <i>b</i> rhizomorpha-strands; <i>c-f</i>
-fruit-bodies in four different stages of development.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig177" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig177.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 177.</span>&mdash;The mycelium of <i>Armillaria
-mellea</i> (“<i>Rhizomorpha</i>”) (nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[171]</span></p>
-
-<p>About 4,600 species belonging to this order have been described.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>On account of the large number of species the order is divided
-into several sections:</p>
-
-<p>1. <b>Agaricinei</b>; fruit-body fleshy; lamellæ membranous,
-knife-like, with sharp edge; basidia crowded together. The
-<span class="allsmcap">FOLLOWING HAVE WHITE SPORES</span>:&mdash;<i>Amanita</i> (Fly
-Mushroom), with volva, and generally also the upper ring on
-the stalk; many are poisonous, such as <i>A. muscaria</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig178">178</a>) which has bright red pileus with white spots, <i>A.
-pantherina</i> and <i>A. phalloides</i>; <i>A. cæsarea</i> is
-edible.&mdash;<i>Lepiota procera</i> (Parasol Fungus) is one of the
-largest Mushrooms; it has a scaly pileus and moveable ring
-(edible).&mdash;<i>Armillaria mellea</i> has been mentioned above
-(Figs. <a href="#fig176">176</a>, <a href="#fig177">177</a>).&mdash;<i>Tricholoma</i>, lamellæ indented near
-the stalk; <i>T. gambosum</i> (Pomona Fungus) belongs to the
-best of edible Fungi; <i>T. personatum</i> often forms fairy
-rings (see above).&mdash;<i>Clitocybe</i>, lamella decurrent; <i>C.
-nebularis</i> is edible.&mdash;<i>Pleurotus</i>, stalk eccentric;
-<i>P. ostreatus</i> (Oyster Mushroom) grows in clusters on
-tree-stems (edible).&mdash;<i>Collybia</i> and <i>Mycena</i>, species
-numerous, small.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Spores rose-red</span>: <i>Volvaria</i> and
-<i>Hyporhodius</i>.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Spores Brown</span>: <i>Cortinarius</i>,
-with cobweb-like veil; <i>Pholiota</i>, membranous veil
-and ring; <i>P. squarrosa</i> in clusters on tree-stems;
-<i>P. mutabilis</i>, on tree-stumps (edible).&mdash;<span class="smcap">Spores
-Violet-purple</span>: <i>Hypholoma</i>, <i>Psalliota</i>; to this
-section the common edible Mushroom (Fig. <a href="#fig172">172–174</a>) belongs,
-with annulus and chocolate-coloured lamellæ; it is cultivated
-for the sake of the fine flavour.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Spores Black</span>:
-<i>Coprinarius</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig178" style="width: 302px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig178.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 178.</span>&mdash;Fly Mushroom (<i>Amanita
-muscaria</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>2. <b>Marasmiei.</b> Fruit-body tough, almost leathery,
-and persistent; spores white. <i>Marasmius oreades</i>
-forms large, regular fairy-rings on pastures and commons;
-it is used as seasoning in food.&mdash;<i>Panus stipticus</i>
-with eccentrically-placed stalk, in clusters on
-tree-stumps.&mdash;<i>Schizophyllum</i> has the edge of the
-lamellæ divided longitudinally, and the split portions
-revolute.&mdash;<i>Lentinus</i> affords a transition to
-<i>Dædalea</i> among the Polyporaceæ.</p>
-
-<p>3. <b>Russulei.</b> Fruit-body fleshy and fragile, in which two
-different systems of hyphæ may be distinguished; spores thorny,
-white, or pale-yellow. Many are poisonous.&mdash;<i>Russula</i> has
-generally fragile and thick lamellæ reaching from stalk to
-edge of pileus; pileus frequently red.&mdash;<i>Lactarius</i> has
-white or yellow<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[172]</span> milky juice, which often is very acid. <i>L.
-deliciosus</i> has red-yellow milky juice, and is of a pleasant
-flavour. <i>L. torminosus</i> is poisonous.</p>
-
-<p>4. <b>Hygrophorei.</b> Lamellæ thick and waxy, widely separated;
-spores white. Many species of <i>Hygrophorus</i> have
-brightly-coloured pileus and grow among the grass on moors and
-commons.&mdash;<i>Nyctalis</i> is parasitic on larger Toadstools.
-It is remarkable for its abundant formation of chlamydospores,
-whilst the basidiospores are little developed.</p>
-
-<p>5. <b>Coprinei.</b> Fruit-bodies very soft, quickly perishable;
-lamellæ membranous and deliquescent. The basidia are separated
-from each other by paraphyses. <i>Coprinus</i> has coal-black
-spores, grows on manure, and sometimes developes sclerotia.</p>
-
-<p>6. <b>Paxillei.</b> Fruit-body fleshy; lamellæ easily detached
-from the pileus and reticulately-joined near the stalk. They
-form a connecting link between the Agaricaceæ and <i>Boletus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>7. <b>Cantharellei.</b> Lamellæ reduced to dichotomously-divided
-folds, decurrent on the stalk. <i>Cantharellus cibarius</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig175">175</a>) is yolk-yellow, and grows on the ground in woods
-(edible). It is allied to <i>Craterellus</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 3. <b>Phalloideæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The fruit-bodies before they are ripe are spherical or ovoid,
-and enclosed by a <i>fleshy covering</i>, the peridium, which is
-<i>perforated at maturity</i> and remains as a sheath (Fig. <a href="#fig179">179</a>); the
-fruit-bodies are <i>hemiangiocarpic</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Phallaceæ</b> (<b>Stink-horns</b>). The peridium has a
-complicated structure and is composed of three layers, the intermediate
-one being thick and gelatinous. The gleba (the tissue which bears the
-hymenium) is situated upon a peculiar receptacle which expands into
-a porous stalk and by its sudden distension, rupturing the peridium,
-elevates the gleba and hymenium above the peridium, which remains
-as a sheath. <i>The gleba becomes gelatinous and dissolves away as
-drops.</i> To this order belong many peculiar and often brightly
-coloured forms, which are natives of the Southern Hemisphere.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Phallus impudicus</i> (Stink-horn) (Fig. <a href="#fig179">179</a>), has a
-fruit-body which at first is white, heavy, and soft, and
-resembles a hen’s egg in shape and size. The peridium is divided
-into three layers (Fig. <a href="#fig179">179</a> <i>e</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>f</i>)
-of which the external and internal are membranous, and the
-middle one very thick and gelatinous; each of these has again
-a laminated structure. The peridium when ruptured remains as a
-sheath (<i>k</i>) at the base of the stalk. The receptacle at
-first is strongly compressed (<i>h</i>) but afterwards expands
-into a long stalk (<i>l</i>) which bears the conical gleba
-(<i>m</i>). Prior to the rupture of the peridium the gleba
-consists of a greenish mass (<i>i</i>) which, when exposed,
-emits a carrion-like stench serving to attract flies, by
-whose agency the spores are distributed. It is found commonly
-in hedgerows and in woods, growing on the ground. The much<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[173]</span>
-smaller and less common <i>P. caninus</i> is found on rotten
-tree-stumps.&mdash;In <i>Clathrus cancellatus</i> the receptacle
-expands into a bright red, reticulate structure. A native of the
-South of Europe. <i>Colus</i>, <i>Aseroë</i>, <i>Mitromyces</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Sphærobolaceæ.</b> An intermediate layer of the
-<i>peridium</i> swells when ripe, becomes convex, and <i>ejects
-the remaining</i> spherical <i>portion of the fruit-body</i>
-which contains the spores. <i>Sphærobolus carpobolus</i> has
-small, spherical fruit-bodies which open in the form of a star.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig179" style="width: 349px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig179.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 179.</span>&mdash;<i>Phallus impudicus</i>
-(Stink-horn), somewhat diminished. Fruit-bodies in all stages of
-development (<i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i> and <i>k-m</i>) are seen
-arising from a root-like mycelium (<i>a</i>); <i>d</i> longitudinal
-sections through a fruit-body before the covering has ruptured.</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 4. <b>Gasteromycetes.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The fruit-body is <i>angiocarpic</i>, fleshy at first, and later
-generally more or less <i>hard</i> and <i>continues closed after
-the</i> spores <i>are ripe</i>. The tissue lying immediately inside the
-<i>peridium</i> is termed the <i>gleba</i>; it is porous, containing
-a larger or smaller number of chambers lined with the hymenium, which
-is either a continuous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[174]</span> layer of basidia or else it fills up the
-entire cavity. The basidia as a rule bear four spores, sometimes eight
-(<i>Geaster</i>), or two (<i>Hymenogaster</i>). The tissue of the walls
-(<i>trama</i>) consists often (<i>Lycoperdaceæ</i>) of two kinds of
-hyphæ, some thin and rich in protoplasm, divided by transverse septa
-and bearing the basidia; others thicker and thick-walled which do not
-dissolve like the former on the ripening of the spores, but continue to
-grow and form a woolly, elastic mass, the <i>capillitium</i>, which may
-be regarded as highly developed paraphyses. The peridium may be either
-single or double, and presents many variations in its structure and
-dehiscence. The mycelium is generally a number of string-like strands,
-living in soils rich in humus.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Tylostomaceæ.</b> Capillitium present. After the
-rupture of the peridium the remaining part of the fruit-body is
-elevated on a long <i>stalk</i>. <i>Tylostoma mammosum</i>, on
-heaths.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Lycoperdaceæ.</b> The fruit-body has a double peridium;
-the external one at length breaks into fragments (<i>Lycoperdon</i>,
-<i>Bovista</i>), or it has a compound structure of several layers
-(<i>Geaster</i>) and detaches itself as a continuous envelope from
-the inner layer, which is membranous and opens at its apex. The
-interior of the fruit-body consists either solely of the fertile gleba
-(<i>Bovista</i>, <i>Geaster</i>), or, in addition, of a sterile tissue
-at the base (<i>Lycoperdon</i>). A capillitium is also present.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig180" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig180.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 180.</span>&mdash;<i>Lycoperdon gemmatum</i> (½ nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Lycoperdon</i> (Puff-ball) has a sterile part at the base of
-the fruit-body which often forms a thick stalk. The surface of
-the peridium is generally covered with warts or projections.
-When young this Fungus is edible, but when ripe it is dry,
-and used for stopping the flow of blood. <i>L. giganteum</i>,
-which is often found growing in meadows, attains a considerable
-size, its diameter reaching as much as eighteen inches. <i>L.
-gemmatum</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig180">180</a>) is covered with pyramidal warts; in
-woods.&mdash;<i>Bovista</i> has no sterile basal part; the external
-peridium is smooth, and falls away in irregular patches. <i>B.
-plumbea</i>, on links near the sea.&mdash;<i>Geaster</i> (Earth-star)
-has an external peridium composed of several layers, which when
-the fruit-body opens, split into several stellate segments.
-These segments are very hygroscopic, and in dry weather bend
-backwards and so raise the inner peridium into the air. The
-inner peridium contains the spores<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[175]</span> and capillitia. <i>G.
-coliformis</i> has several apertures in the inner peridium. The
-other species have only one regular aperture at the apex. <i>G.
-striatus</i> has a pedicellate inner peridium, with conical,
-striped peristome. <i>G. fornicatus</i> has an external peridium
-split into four segments. This last and several other species
-produce “mycorhiza” on the roots of Conifers.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig181" style="width: 580px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig181.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 181.</span>&mdash;I <i>Hymenogaster citrinus</i>
-(nat. size); II longitudinal section through <i>H. tener</i> (× 5);
-III portion of a section of <i>H. calosporus</i>; <i>g</i> a chamber;
-<i>h</i> hymenium; <i>sp.</i> spores; <i>t</i> trama (× 178); IV
-<i>Rhizopogon luteolus</i> (nat. size); V <i>Scleroderma vulgare</i>,
-VI section of V; VII basidia with spores belonging to the same Fungus.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Sclerodermataceæ.</b> <i>Capillitium</i> wanting. The
-peridium is simple and thick, gleba with round, closed chambers, which
-are filled with basidia.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Scleroderma</i> has a corky peridium. The fruit-bodies
-commence their development under ground. <i>S. vulgare</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig181">181</a> V-VII), has a hard, slaty-black gleba.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[176]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Nidulariaceæ</b> (<b>Nest-Fungi</b>). Small Fungi of which
-the fruit-body at first is spherical or cylindrical but upon maturity
-it becomes cupular or vase-like, and contains several lenticular
-“peridiola” lying like eggs in a nest. The peridiola are the chambers
-which contain the hymenium, covered by a thin layer of the gleba, all
-the remaining portion of the gleba becoming dissolved. On decaying wood.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Nidularia</i> has spherical fruit-bodies containing a
-large number of lenticular peridiola, embedded in a slimy
-mass.&mdash;<i>Crucibulum</i> has fruit-bodies resembling crucibles
-with discoid peridiola, each with a spirally-twisted
-stalk.&mdash;<i>Cyathus</i> has a fruit-body, which when open is
-campanulate, with stratified peridium, and long-stalked,
-lense-shaped peridiola.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Hymenogastraceæ.</b> Fruit-bodies tubercular, globose and
-subterranean, resembling very closely the Truffles, from which they
-can only be distinguished with certainty by microscopic means. The
-peridium is simple, capillitium wanting, and the gleba encloses a
-system of labyrinthine passages covered with a continuous hymenium. The
-fruit-bodies persist for some time, and form a fleshy mass, the spores
-being only set free by the decay of the fruit-body, or when it is eaten
-by animals. The majority are South European. <i>Hymenogaster</i>,
-<i>Melanogaster</i>, <i>Rhizopogon</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig181">181</a> I-IV).</p>
-
-
-<p class="smcap center sm p2">Appendix to the Basidiomycetes:</p>
-
-<p class="center"><b>Basidiolichenes (Lichen-forming Basidiomycetes).</b></p>
-
-<p>Several Fungi belonging to the Basidiomycetes have a symbiotic
-relationship with Algæ exactly similar to that enjoyed by certain
-Ascomycetes, and these are therefore included under the term Lichens
-(p. <a href="#Page_136">136</a>). They are chiefly tropical.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Hymenolichenes.</b> To this order belong some gymnocarpic
-forms: <i>Cora</i>, <i>Dictyonema</i>, <i>Laudatea</i>.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Gasterolichenes.</b> To this belong some angiocarpic forms:
-<i>Emericella</i>, <i>Trichocoma</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p class="smcap center sm p2">Appendix to the Fungi.</p>
-
-<p class="center"><b>Fungi imperfecti (Incompletely known Fungi).</b></p>
-
-<p>1. The <b>Saccharomyces-forms</b> are Fungi which are only known in
-their yeast-conidial form. They are <i>conidia of higher<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[177]</span> Fungi</i>
-which can multiply to an unlimited extent by budding in nutritive
-solutions, and in this way maintain their <i>definite</i> size and
-shape. The budding takes place <i>only at the ends</i> of the conidia.
-The wall of the conidium forms at one or at both ends a small wart-like
-outgrowth, which gradually becomes larger, and is finally separated
-from its mother-cell as an independent cell, surrounded by a closed
-cell-wall (Fig. <a href="#fig182">182</a> <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig182" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig182.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 182.</span>&mdash;Beer-yeast (<i>Saccharomyces
-cerevisiæ</i>): <i>a-b</i> (× 400); <i>c-f</i> (× 750); <i>c</i> a
-cell in the process of forming spores; <i>d</i> a cell with four
-ripe spores; <i>e</i> the spores liberated by the dissolution of the
-cell-wall; <i>f</i> three germinating spores; <i>g</i> mycelium-like
-cell-chains. (× 1000: after Em. Chr. Hansen.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Under very favourable conditions multiplication occurs so rapidly that
-the daughter-cells themselves commence to form buds, before they have
-separated from their mother-cell, with the result that pearl-like
-chains of cells are produced. When the yeast-cells have only limited
-nutriment, with an abundant supply<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[178]</span> of air, at a suitable temperature,
-an endogenous formation of <i>spores</i> takes place. The protoplasm
-of the cells divides into 1–4 (rarely a greater number) masses (Fig.
-<a href="#fig182">182</a> <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>) which surround themselves with a
-thick cell-wall, and in this state can withstand adverse conditions and
-periods of dryness lasting for several months.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>sporangia are not asci</i> since they have no definite form,
-and a definite number, form and size of spores is not found. The
-spores in the different species and kinds occupy varying periods for
-their development, although exposed to the same temperature, a fact of
-importance in determining one from another. On germination the wall
-of the mother-cell is destroyed, and each spore gives rise to a new
-cell, multiplication taking place by budding (Fig. <a href="#fig182">182</a> <i>f</i>). The
-majority of Yeast-Fungi are able to produce alcoholic fermentation in
-saccharine fluids.</p>
-
-<p>The most important of these Fungi is the Beer-yeast (<i>Saccharomyces
-cerevisiæ</i>) with ovate, ellipsoidal or spherical cells (Fig.
-<a href="#fig182">182</a>). It is a plant which has been cultivated from time immemorial,
-on account of its property of producing alcoholic fermentation in
-sugar-containing extracts (wort), derived from germinating barley
-(malt). Carbonic acid is also set free during this process. The
-“surface-yeast” (Fig. <a href="#fig182">182</a> <i>a</i>), which produces ordinary beer
-when the brewing takes place at higher temperatures, has cell-chains;
-“sedimentary yeast” (Fig. <a href="#fig182">182</a> <i>b</i>), used in the brewing of
-Bavarian beer, has spherical cells, solitary, or united in pairs. Both
-these and the following Yeast-Fungi include, according to Hansen,
-several species and kinds.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig183" style="width: 491px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig183.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 183.</span>&mdash;<i>Saccharomyces mycoderma.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The “Ferment of Wine” (<i>Saccharomyces ellipsoideus</i>) produces wine
-in the juice of grapes. Uncultivated yeast-cells are always present
-on grapes; an addition of this species to the “must” is not necessary
-to secure fermentation. A large number of other “uncultivated”
-yeast-cells appear in breweries mixed with the cultivated ones, and
-cause different tastes to the beer (<i>S. pastorianus</i>, etc.). <i>S.
-ludwigii</i>, found, for instance, on the slimy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[179]</span> discharge from Oaks,
-produces abundant cell-chains on cultivation. <i>S. apiculatus</i>
-is very frequently met with on all kinds of sweet fruits, it has
-orange-like cells. <i>S. mycoderma</i> has cylindrical cells, often
-united together in chains (Fig. <a href="#fig183">183</a>): it forms a whitish-gray mass
-(“fleur de vin”) on wine, beer, fruit-juice, etc., standing in bottles
-uncorked or not entirely filled. It is thought that this Fungus causes
-decomposition and oxydises the fluid in which it is found, but it
-cannot produce alcoholic fermentation in saccharine liquids, and it
-does not form endospores; hence it is uncertain whether it is true
-<i>Saccharomyces</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig184" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig184.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 184.</span>&mdash;<i>Oidium lactis</i>: <i>a</i>
-branched hypha commonly met with; <i>b</i> a hypha lying in milk and
-producing aerial hyphæ which give rise to oidia; <i>c</i> a branch
-giving rise to oidia, the oldest (outermost) oidia are becoming
-detached from one another; <i>d</i> a chain of divided cells; <i>e</i>
-germinating oidia in different stages (slightly more magnified than the
-other figures).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The “Dry-yeast” used in baking white bread is “surface-yeast.” In
-<i>leaven</i>, a kneaded mixture of meal, barm and water, which is
-used for the manufacture of black bread, <i>Saccharomyces minor</i> is
-present, and a species allied to this produces alcoholic fermentation
-in dough with the evolution of carbonic acid, which causes the dough to
-“rise.”</p>
-
-<p>2. <b>Oidium-forms.</b> Of many Fungi only the Oidium-forms are known,
-which multiply in endless series without employing any higher form
-of reproduction. <i>Oidium lactis</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig184">184</a>) is an imperfectly
-developed form which frequently appears on sour<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[180]</span> milk and cheese. It
-can produce a feeble alcoholic fermentation in saccharine liquids.
-Thrush or aphthæ (<i>O. albicans</i>) appears as white spots in the
-mouths of children. Several similar <i>Oidium-forms</i> are parasites
-on the skin and hair of human beings, and produce skin diseases, such
-as scurvy (<i>O. schoenleinii</i>) and ringworm (<i>O. tonsurans</i>).</p>
-
-<p>3. <b>Mycorhiza.</b> These Fungi, which have been found on the roots
-of many trees and heath-plants, particularly Cupuliferæ and Ericaceæ,
-consist of septate hyphæ, and belong partly to the Hymenomycetes,
-partly to the Gasteromycetes. It has been shown that the Mycorhiza
-enters into a symbiotic relationship with the roots of higher plants.</p>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[181]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="smaller">DIVISION II.<br />
-<span class="subhed">MUSCINEÆ (MOSSES).</span></h2></div>
-
-<p>In this Division a well-marked alternation of generations is
-to be found. The development of the first or sexual generation
-(<i>gametophyte</i>),<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> which bears the sexual organs, antheridia
-and archegonia, commences with the germination of the spore, and
-consists, in the Liverworts, of a thallus, but in the true Mosses of a
-filamentous protonema, from which the Moss-plant arises as a lateral
-bud. The second or asexual generation (<i>sporophyte</i>), developed
-from the fertilised oosphere, consists of a sporangium and stalk.</p>
-
-<p><b>The sexual generation, the gametophyte.</b> The protonema in
-the Liverworts is very insignificant, and not always very sharply
-demarcated from the more highly developed parts of the nutritive
-system. In the true Mosses the protonema is well-developed, and
-consists of a branched, alga-like filament of cells, the dividing
-cell-walls being always placed obliquely. In the parts exposed to the
-light it is green, but colourless or brownish in those parts which are
-underground (Fig. <a href="#fig186">186</a>). The protonema is considered to be a lower form
-of the stem, and grows in the same manner by means of an apical cell;
-at its apex it may directly develope into a leaf-bearing stem, or these
-arise from it as lateral branches (Fig. <a href="#fig186">186</a> <i>k</i>).</p>
-
-<p>The more highly differentiated part of the vegetative system, the
-“Moss-plant,” which is thus developed from the protonema, is in the
-“thalloid” Liverworts generally a dichotomously-branched thallus
-without any trace of leaf-structures (Fig. <a href="#fig194">194</a>); in <i>Marchantia</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig197">197</a>) and others, scale-like leaves (<i>amphigastria</i>) are
-found on the under surface. The higher Liverworts and the Leafy-Mosses
-are differentiated into a filamentous, ramified stem with distinct
-leaves arranged in a definite manner, resembling the stem and leaves of
-the higher plants (Figs. <a href="#fig186">186</a>, <a href="#fig195">195</a>, <a href="#fig200">200</a>).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[182]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>True roots are wanting</i>, but are biologically replaced by
-<i>rhizoids</i>. These are developed on the stems or thallus: in the
-Liverworts they are unicellular, but in the Leafy-Mosses generally
-multicellular and branched. In the latter group they are considered
-identical with the protonema, and may become true protonema, and new
-plants may be developed from them (Fig. <a href="#fig186">186</a> <i>b</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig186" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig186.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 186.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i> Lower portion of a
-Moss-plant with rhizoids (<i>r</i>), one of which bears a reproductive
-bud (<i>b</i>). The dotted line indicates the surface of the ground;
-the portions projecting above this become green protonema (<i>p</i>);
-<i>k</i> is a young Moss-plant formed on one of these. <i>B</i>
-Germinating spore of <i>Funaria hygrometrica</i>, with exospore still
-attached. <i>C</i>, <i>D</i> Older stages of the protonema.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The internal structure of the sexual generation is very simple. The
-leaves in nearly all cases are formed of a single-layered plate of
-cells; in the Leafy-Mosses, however, a midrib is very often formed, and
-sometimes, also, marginal veins; and along these lines the leaves are
-several layers of cells in thickness. The stem is constructed of cells
-longitudinally elongated, the external ones of which are narrower and
-sometimes have thicker walls than the more central ones. <i>Vessels are
-not found</i>, but in several Mosses there is in the centre of the stem
-a conducting strand of narrow, longitudinal cells, which represents
-the vascular bundle in its first<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[183]</span> stage of development. This strand
-contains elements for conveying water as well as sieve-tubes. Stomata
-are entirely wanting in the sexual generation of the Leafy-Mosses; they
-are found in a few Liverworts (<i>Marchantia</i>), but their structure
-is not the same as in the higher plants.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Vegetative reproduction</span> takes place by gemmæ or buds which
-arise on the protenema, the rhizoids, the thallus, or the shoots,
-and become detached from the mother-plant; or else the protonema and
-the older parts of the plant simply die off, and their branches thus
-become independent plants. This well-developed vegetative reproduction
-explains why so many Mosses grow gregariously. In certain Marchantiaceæ
-special cupules, in which gemmæ are developed, are found on the surface
-of the thallus (Fig. <a href="#fig197">197</a> <i>A</i>, <i>s-s</i>). Again, protonema may
-also arise from the leaves, and thus the leaves may act as reproductive
-bodies. Certain Mosses nearly always reproduce vegetatively, and in
-these species the oospheres are seldom fertilised.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig187" style="width: 256px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig187.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 187.</span>&mdash;<i>Marchantia polymorpha</i>:
-<i>a</i> mature antheridium.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig188" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig188.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 188.</span>&mdash;Spermatozoids.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The first generation bears the <span class="allsmcap">SEXUAL ORGANS</span>; both kinds are
-found either on the same plant (monœcious), or on separate plants
-(diœcious). In the thalloid Liverworts they are often situated on the
-apex of small stems (<i>gametophores</i>), springing from the surface
-of the thallus. In the Leafy-Liverworts and true Mosses the leaves
-which enclose the sexual organs often assume a peculiar shape, and
-are arranged more closely than the other leaves to form the so-called
-“Moss-flower.” The male sexual organs are called <i>antheridia</i>.
-They are stalked, spheroid, club- or egg-shaped bodies whose walls are
-formed of one layer of cells (Fig. <a href="#fig187">187</a>), enclosing a mass of minute
-cubical cells, each one of which is a mother-cell of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[184]</span> a spermatozoid.
-The spermatozoids are self-motile; they are slightly twisted, with
-two cilia placed anteriorly (Fig. <a href="#fig188">188</a>), while posteriorly they are
-generally a trifle club-shaped, and often bear at that part the remains
-of the cytoplasm, the spermatozoid itself being <i>formed from the
-nucleus</i>. In the presence of water the ripe antheridium bursts, and
-its contents are ejected; the spermatozoids, being liberated from their
-mother-cells, swarm about in the water in order to effect fertilisation.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig189" style="width: 493px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig189.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 189.</span>&mdash;<i>Marchantia polymorpha.</i>
-<i>A</i> A young, and <i>B</i> a ripe archegonium with open neck.
-<i>C</i> An unripe sporangium enclosed by the archegonium <i>a</i>:
-<i>st</i> the stalk; <i>f</i> the wall of the sporangium. Elaters are
-seen between the rows of spores.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The female sexual organs are termed <i>archegonia</i>. They
-are flask-shaped bodies (Fig. <a href="#fig189">189</a>), the lower, swollen portion
-(<i>venter</i>) having a wall, in most cases from 1–2 cells thick,
-enclosing the oosphere (Fig. <a href="#fig189">189</a> <i>B</i>, <i>k</i>): the long neck is
-formed of tiers of 4–6 cells, enclosing a central row of cells&mdash;<i>the
-neck-canal-cells</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig189">189</a> <i>A</i>). When the archegonium is fully
-developed, the walls of the neck-canal-cells become mucilaginous and
-force open the neck of the archegonium. The mucilage thus escapes, and,
-remaining at the mouth of the archegonium, acts in a somewhat similar
-manner to the stigma and conducting tissue of a carpel, by catching
-and conducting the spermatozoids to the oosphere (Fig. <a href="#fig189">189</a> <i>B</i>,
-<i>m</i>), with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[185]</span> whose cell-nucleus they coalesce. With regard to the
-formation of the oosphere, it may further be remarked that the lower
-part of the archegonium originally encloses the so-called “central
-cell”; but shortly before the archegonium is ripe, this cuts off a
-small portion, <i>the ventral-canal-cell</i>, which lies immediately
-beneath the neck, and the larger, lower portion becomes the oosphere.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The organs mentioned here, antheridia and archegonia, are
-present in the Cryptogams (Pteridophyta) and the Gymnosperms.
-They have always the same fundamental structure, but with slight
-modifications of detail. These plants are therefore known as the
-<span class="smcap">Archegoniata</span>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The fertilisation of the Mosses cannot be effected without water. Rain
-and dew therefore play a very important part in this process, and for
-this end various modifications of structure are found.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig190" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig190.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 190.</span>&mdash;<i>Andreæa rupestris.</i>
-Longitudinal section through a sporangium at the time when the
-mother-cells of the spores are dividing: <i>p</i> pseudopodium;
-<i>f</i> foot; <i>v</i> vaginula; <i>h</i> neck; <i>c</i> columella;
-<i>w</i> wall of the sporangium; <i>e</i> external row of cells;
-<i>s</i> the spore-sac; <i>t</i> the spore-mother-cells; <i>r</i> the
-calyptra with the neck of archegonium (<i>z</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig191" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig191.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 191.</span>&mdash;<i>Andreæa rupestris.</i> Transverse
-section through a ripe sporangium. In the middle is seen the four-sided
-columella, surrounded by the numerous spores, drawn diagrammatically.
-Surrounding them is seen the wall of the sporangium, whose outer layer
-of cells is thickened and coloured. The layer of cells is unthickened
-in four places (<i>x</i>), indicating the position of the clefts (see
-Fig. <a href="#fig193">193</a>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[186]</span></p>
-
-<p>Among the sexual organs, paraphyses&mdash;filamentous or club-shaped
-bodies&mdash;are to be found.</p>
-
-<p><b>The asexual generation, the sporophyte</b> (Moss-fruit or
-sporogonium). As the result of fertilisation the oosphere surrounds
-itself with a cell-wall, and then commences to divide in accordance
-with definite laws.<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> The embryo (Fig. <a href="#fig189">189</a> <i>C</i>) produced
-by these divisions remains inside the wall <i>a-a</i> of the
-archegonium (Figs. <a href="#fig190">190</a>, <a href="#fig199">199</a> <i>D</i>, <i>E</i>), and developes into
-the <i>sporogonium</i>, which remains attached to the mother-plant,
-often nourished by it, as if the two were one organism. The lower
-extremity of the sporogonium, <i>the foot</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig190">190</a> <i>f</i>; <a href="#fig199">199</a>
-<i>D</i>), very often forces its way deep down into the tissue of the
-mother-plant, but without an actual union taking place. The central
-portion of the sporogonium becomes a shorter or longer <i>stalk</i>
-(<i>seta</i>), while the sporangium itself is developed at the summit.
-At a later stage, during the formation of the spores, the sporangium
-very often assumes the form of a <i>capsule</i>, and dehisces in
-several ways characteristic of the various genera (Figs. <a href="#fig192">192</a>, <a href="#fig193">193</a>, <a href="#fig194">194</a>,
-<a href="#fig195">195</a>, <a href="#fig200">200</a>). The basal portion of the archegonium grows for a longer
-or shorter period, forming a sheath, the <i>calyptra</i>, in which
-the capsule is developed, but eventually it ceases to enlarge, and
-is then ruptured in different ways, but quite characteristically, in
-each group. Anatomically, the asexual generation is often more highly
-differentiated than the sexual; thus, for instance, stomata are present
-on the sporangia of the true Mosses, but are absent in the sexual
-generation.</p>
-
-<p>As the capsule developes, an external layer of cells&mdash;the
-<i>amphithecium</i>&mdash;and an internal mass&mdash;the <i>endothecium</i>&mdash;are
-differentiated. As a rule the former becomes the wall of the capsule
-while the latter gives rise to the spores. In this Division, as in
-the Pteridophyta, the name <i>archesporium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig190">190</a> <i>t</i>) is
-given to the group of cells inside the sporangium which gives rise
-to the mother-cells of the spores. The archesporium is in general a
-unicellular layer; in <i>Sphagnum</i> and <i>Anthoceros</i> it is
-derived from the most internal layer of the amphithecium, but with
-these exceptions it arises from the endothecium, usually from its
-most external layer. In the true Mosses and in <i>Riccia</i> only
-spore-mother-cells are produced from the archesporium, but in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[187]</span>
-majority of the Liverworts some of these cells are sterile and become
-elaters (cells with spirally thickened walls, Figs. <a href="#fig196">196</a>, <a href="#fig189">189</a>), or serve
-as “nurse-cells” for the spore-mother-cells, which gradually absorb the
-nutriment which has been accumulated in them. In <i>Anthoceros</i>,
-and almost all the Leafy-Mosses, a certain mass of cells in the centre
-of the sporangium (derived from the endothecium) does not take part in
-the formation of the archesporium, but forms the so called “column” or
-“columella” (Figs. <a href="#fig190">190</a>, <a href="#fig191">191</a>).</p>
-
-<p>The <i>spores</i> arise in <i>tetrads</i>, <i>i.e.</i> four in each
-mother-cell, and are arranged at the corners of a tetrahedron, each
-tetrahedron assuming the form of a sphere or a triangular pyramid. The
-mature spore is a nucleated mass of protoplasm, with starch or oil as
-reserve material. The wall is divided into two layers: the external
-coat (exospore) which is cuticularized and in most cases coloured
-(brown, yellowish), and the internal coat (endospore), which is
-colourless and not cuticularized. On germination the exospore is thrown
-off, the endospore protrudes, and cell-division commences and continues
-with the growth of the protonema (Fig. <a href="#fig186">186</a>, <i>B-D</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig192" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig192.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 192.</span>&mdash;<i>Andreæa petrophila.</i> A ripe
-sporogonium: <i>a</i> an archegonium which has been raised with the
-pseudopodium; <i>p</i> the foot; <i>b</i> the neck; <i>d-e</i> the
-dark-coloured portion of the sporangium, whose outer cell-walls are
-considerably thickened; <i>c</i>-<i>c</i> the thin-walled portions
-where the dehiscence occurs; <i>o</i> the lower extremity of the
-spore-sac; <i>f</i> calyptra; <i>g</i> the apex of the sporangium.
-(Mag. 25 times.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig193" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig193.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 193.</span>&mdash;<i>Andreæa petrophila.</i> An empty
-capsule; the calyptra has fallen off. (Mag. 25 times.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The morphological explanation which Celakovsky has given of
-the sporogonium, and which is not at all improbable, is, that
-it is homologous with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[188]</span> an embryo consisting of a very small
-stem-portion and a terminal spore-producing leaf. This will be
-further explained in the introduction to the Flowering-plants
-(p. <a href="#Page_236">236</a>).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the Liverworts the young sporogonium lives like a parasite, being
-nourished by the sexual generation (only in <i>Anthoceros</i> has it a
-slight power of assimilation). In the Leafy-Mosses, on the other hand,
-with regard to the power of assimilation, all transitions are found
-from abundant assimilation (<i>Funaria</i>, <i>Physcomitrium</i>) to
-almost complete “parasitism” (<i>Sphagnum</i>, <i>Andreæa</i>). In the
-majority of the operculate Mosses the sporogonium has a more or less
-perfect system of assimilation, and is able itself to form a large
-portion of the material necessary for the development of the spores,
-so that it chiefly receives from the sexual generation the inorganic
-substances which must be obtained from the soil. The more highly
-developed the assimilative system of the sporogonium, the more stomata
-are present.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Apospory.</span> In some operculate Mosses it has been
-possible to obtain a protonema with small Moss-plants from the
-seta, when severed from its Moss-plant, and grown on damp sand.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Mosses are the lowest plants which are provided with stem and
-leaf. They are assigned a lower place when compared with the higher
-Cryptogams, partly because there are still found within the Division
-so many forms with a mere thallus, partly because typical roots are
-wanting and the anatomical structure is so extremely simple, and partly
-also because of the relation between the two generations. The highest
-Mosses terminate the Division, the Muscineæ and Pteridophyta having had
-a common origin in the Algæ-like Thallophyta.</p>
-
-<p>They are divided into two classes:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Hepaticæ</span>, or Liverworts.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Musci frondosi.</span> True Mosses or Leafy-Mosses.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Class 1. <b>Hepaticæ</b> (<b>Liverworts</b>).</h3>
-
-<p>The protonema is only slightly developed. The remaining part of the
-vegetative body is either a prostrate, often dichotomously-branched
-thallus, pressed to the substratum (thalloid Liverworts), with
-or without scales on the under side (Figs. <a href="#fig194">194</a>, <a href="#fig197">197</a>); or a thin,
-prostrate, creeping stem, with distinctly-developed leaves, which
-are borne in two or three rows (Figs. <a href="#fig195">195</a>, <a href="#fig198">198</a>), viz., two on the
-upper and, in most cases, one on the under side. The leaves situated
-on the ventral side (amphigastria) are differently shaped from the
-others (Fig. <a href="#fig198">198</a> <i>a</i>), and are sometimes entirely absent.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[189]</span>
-In contradistinction to the Leafy-Mosses, stress must be laid on
-the <i>well-marked dorsiventrality</i> of the vegetative organs;
-<i>i.e.</i> the very distinct contrast between the dorsal side exposed
-to the light and the ventral side turned to the ground. Veins are never
-found in the leaves.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>ventral part of the archegonium</i> (calyptra) continues to grow
-for some time, and encloses the growing embryo, but when the spores are
-ripe it is finally ruptured by the sporangium, and remains situated
-like a sheath (<i>vaginula</i>) around its base. The sporangium opens,
-longitudinally, by <i>valves</i> or <i>teeth</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig194">194</a>, <a href="#fig195">195</a>,
-<a href="#fig197">197</a> <i>b</i>), very rarely by a lid, or sometimes not at all. <i>A
-columella is wanting</i> (except in <i>Anthoceros</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig194">194</a>); but
-on the other hand, a few of the cells lying between the spores are
-developed into <i>elaters</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig196">196</a>), <i>i.e.</i> spindle-shaped
-cells with spirally-twisted thickenings, which are hygroscopic, and
-thus serve to distribute the spores. (They are seen in Fig. <a href="#fig189">189</a>
-<i>C</i>, not yet fully developed, as long cells radiating from the
-base of the sporangium. They are wanting in <i>Riccia</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig194" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig194.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 194.</span>&mdash;<i>Anthoceros lævis</i> (nat. size):
-<i>K</i>-<i>K</i> capsules.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig195" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig195.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 195.</span>&mdash;<i>Plagiochila asplenioides</i>:
-<i>a</i> unripe, and <i>b</i> an open capsule; <i>p</i> involucre. The
-ventral edge of each leaf is higher than its dorsal edge, and covered
-by the dorsal edge of the next one.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig196" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig196.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 196.</span>&mdash;An elater with two spores.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Round the entire archegonium, (or group of archegonia, when
-several are developed on the same receptacle) a sheath&mdash;the
-<i>involucre</i>&mdash;is often formed, which persists, and
-encloses the base of the stalk of the sporangium, together
-with the sheath of the archegonium (Fig. <a href="#fig195">195</a> <i>p</i>). In
-the Marchantiaceæ each archegonium is enclosed in a loose
-investment, the perigynium, which is developed as an outgrowth
-from the cells of its stalk.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[190]</span></p>
-
-<p>The majority of the Liverworts are found in damp and shady places,
-pressed to the substratum; a few are found floating in fresh water.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 1. <b>Marchantieæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>This embraces only forms with a thallus, which is more or less
-distinctly dichotomously branched, in some, one or two rows of thin
-leaves are situated on its under surface. On the upper surface of the
-thallus are found large air-chambers.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Ricciaceæ.</b> The sporogonia are, with the exception of a
-few genera, situated singly on the surface of the thallus, and consist
-only of a capsule without foot or stalk. They always remain enclosed
-by the wall of the archegonium (calyptra), and open only by its
-dissolution. Elaters are not developed. Some genera are found floating
-like Duckweed.&mdash;<i>Riccia glauca</i> grows on damp clay soil. <i>R.
-fluitans</i> and <i>R. natans</i> float in stagnant waters.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig197" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig197.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 197.</span>&mdash;<i>Marchantia polymorpha.</i>
-<i>A</i> Female plant (nat. size): <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> are
-archegoniophores in various stages of development; <i>s</i> cupules
-with gemmæ (see page <a href="#Page_183">183</a>). <i>B</i> An archegoniophore seen from
-below, the short-stalked sporangia are seen placed in 8–10 double
-rows. <i>C</i> Male plant, with a young and an older antheridiophore.
-<i>D</i> Antheridiophore halved vertically to show the antheridia
-(<i>h</i>); <i>m</i> the aperture of the pits in which they are
-sunk&mdash;the older ones to the left, the younger to the right.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Corsiniaceæ.</b> (Not native). Intermediate forms
-between the preceding and the following order. In internal
-and external structure mainly resembling the Marchantiaceæ.
-<i>Corsinia</i>; <i>Boschia</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Marchantiaceæ</b>, are large, fleshy forms. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[191]</span> surface
-of the thallus is divided into small rhombic areas, in the centre of
-each of which is found a large, peculiarly constructed stoma (Fig. <a href="#fig197">197</a>
-<i>A</i>); beneath each of these a large air-cavity is to be found.
-From the floor of the air-cavity a number of alga-like cells project
-into it; these contain chlorophyll and are therefore the assimilating
-cells. The antheridia and archegonia are each found aggregated on
-specially formed branches (somewhat resembling Mushrooms) projecting
-from the surface of the thallus. The antheridia are developed on the
-upper surface (Fig. <a href="#fig197">197</a> <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>) and the archegonia on the
-lower (Fig. <a href="#fig197">197</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>), near the centrally-placed stalk.</p>
-
-<p><i>Marchantia polymorpha</i> is diœcious (Fig. <a href="#fig197">197</a>), and very common
-on damp places. <i>Lunularia</i> (South Europe), frequently found on
-flower-pots in conservatories; <i>Preissia</i>, <i>Fegatella</i>,
-<i>Reboulia</i>, <i>Targionia</i>.</p>
-
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<h4>Family 2. <b>Anthoceroteæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>These have an entirely leafless, fleshy, flat, and
-irregularly-shaped thallus. In its intercellular chambers
-Nostoc-colonies are often found, which have forced their way
-through the stomata situated on the under side. The antheridia
-and archegonia arise from the cells lying inside the thallus.
-The capsule resembles a long, thin pod; it has two valves and
-a columella. <i>Anthoceros</i> (<i>A. lævis</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig194">194</a>, and
-<i>punctatus</i>).</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 3. <b>Jungermannieæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>Some forms in this family have a thallus in which leaf-like
-structures are found (<i>Blasia</i>), while in others (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Metzgeria</i>, <i>Pellia</i>, <i>Aneura</i>) they are entirely
-absent. The majority, however, have round, thick stems, bearing
-dorsally two rows of leaves, and one row ventrally. Some of these have
-the leaves “underlying” (Fig. <a href="#fig195">195</a>), while in others (Fig. <a href="#fig198">198</a>) they are
-“overlying.” (See Figs. <a href="#fig195">195</a>, <a href="#fig198">198</a>, with explanation).</p>
-
-<p>The sporangia are spherical, stalked, and situated singly on the apex
-of the branches, and open by four valves (in <i>Sphærocarpus</i> they
-are indehiscent).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig198" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig198.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 198.</span>&mdash;<i>Frullania dilatata.</i> Portion
-of a branch seen from the under side: <i>r</i> and <i>b</i> are the
-anterior and posterior edges of the same dorsal leaf; <i>a</i> ventral
-leaves (amphigastria). The dorsal leaves are “overlying,” <i>i.e.</i>
-the anterior edge of the leaf overlaps the posterior edge of the
-preceding one.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>All the species in this family were formerly reckoned as belonging to
-one genus, <i>Jungermannia</i>, but now they are divided into several,
-arranged as follows:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[192]</span></p>
-
-<p>I. <span class="smcap">Anacrogynæ.</span> The archegonia are situated on the upper side
-of the thallus or stem, <i>placed laterally</i>, and covered by an
-“involucre,” formed by the calyptra together with the tissue of the
-stem or thallus.</p>
-
-<p>a. <span class="smcap">Anelatereæ.</span> Without any elaters: <i>Sphærocarpus</i>,
-<i>Riella</i>.</p>
-
-<p>b. <span class="smcap">Elatereæ.</span> α. Thalloid: <i>Aneura pinguis</i>, in
-damp situations; <i>Metzgeria furcata</i>, on trees; <i>Pellia
-epiphylla</i>, in damp situations; <i>Blasia pusilla</i>, on damp clay
-soil, in the shade (scales are present on the thallus). β. Foliose and
-not dorsiventral: <i>Haplomitrium hookeri</i>.</p>
-
-<p>II. <span class="smcap">Acrogynæ.</span> The apex of the stem or of certain branches is
-adapted for the formation of female shoots. The archegonia are most
-frequently aggregated on the apex of the shoots, and are encircled
-by their leaves (perichætium). Between these and the archegonia,
-enclosing the latter, a peculiar cup-shaped organ (the involucre) is
-formed. This group only includes leaf-bearing genera: <i>Frullania</i>,
-<i>Radula</i>, <i>Madotheca</i>, <i>Ptilidium</i>, <i>Calypogeia</i>,
-<i>Lepidozia</i>, <i>Mastigobryum</i>, <i>Lophocolea</i>,
-<i>Jungermannia</i>, <i>Scapania</i>, <i>Plagiochila</i>.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Class 2. <b>Musci frondosi or veri (True Mosses).</b></h3>
-
-<p>In this class the protonema is well developed, and resembles a branched
-filamentous Alga, from which it can be easily distinguished by its
-oblique septa (in <i>Sphagnum</i> it is a cellular expansion). The
-Moss-plant, which is developed directly from the protonema, generally
-has an erect, thick, cylindrical stem similarly constructed on all
-sides. The leaves are arranged spirally, the most frequent divergence
-being 2/5 or 3/8 (Fig. <a href="#fig200">200</a> <i>A</i>). A midrib is often present
-and also marginal veins formed by longitudinally elongated cells;
-at these veins the leaf is more than one layer in thickness. In
-<i>Leucobryum</i> the leaves are generally constructed of more than one
-layer.</p>
-
-<p>The stem grows by means of a three-sided, pyramidal, apical cell which
-gives rise to three rows of segments, each segment forming a leaf. The
-lateral branches arise from the lower portions of the segments, the
-upper portion of which does not take any part in the construction of
-the leaf. From their mode of origin the branches are not axillary, and
-differ in this respect from the Flowering-plants.</p>
-
-<p>The ventral portion of the archegonium is very early ruptured<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[193]</span> <i>at
-its base</i> by the growing sporogonium, upon which it remains,
-and it is thus raised into the air, forming a “hood,” the calyptra
-(Figs. <a href="#fig192">192</a>; <a href="#fig200">200</a> <i>B</i>). In the Sphagnaceæ the hood is not present;
-in this order, as in the Liverworts, the archegonium remains at
-the base of the sporogonium. The sporangium opens by circumsessile
-dehiscence, the upper portion (<i>operculum</i>) being separated along
-a specially constructed ring of cells, and falls off like a “lid”
-(Fig. <a href="#fig200">200</a>). Only in a few forms (families 2 and 3) does any variation
-of this take place. Elaters are never found, but (with the exception
-of <i>Archidium</i>) there is always present in the sporangium a
-central mass of cells, the <i>columella</i>, which take no part in the
-formation of the spores. The columella, in some, does not reach quite
-to the operculum and in these cases the spore-sac is bell-shaped and
-covers the columella (<i>Andreæa</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig190">190</a>; <i>Sphagnum</i>, Fig.
-<a href="#fig199">199</a> <i>D</i>); but in the majority of Mosses the columella extends
-to the lid, so that the space containing the spores becomes a hollow
-cylinder.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>sporangium</i> is generally raised on a long stalk; in the great
-majority this stalk is formed from the lower half of the oospore and
-belongs to the asexual generation&mdash;it is then known as the <i>seta</i>.
-In <i>Andreæa</i> and <i>Sphagnum</i> the seta is very short, and
-the sporangia are raised upon a long stalk (<i>pseudopodium</i>)
-developed from the summit of the sexual generation (Figs. <a href="#fig190">190</a>, <a href="#fig192">192</a>).
-In the latter figure an archegonium (<i>a</i>) is seen attached to the
-pseudopodium, having been carried up with this during the course of its
-development. The summit of the pseudopodium is enlarged to embrace the
-foot of the sporogonium (Figs. <a href="#fig192">192</a>, <a href="#fig199">199</a> <i>D</i>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>A. The sporangium is supported on a pseudopodium; the columella
-does not extend to the operculum.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig199" style="width: 418px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig199.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 199.</span>&mdash;<i>Sphagnum
-acutifolium.</i>&mdash;<i>A</i> The upper portion of a plant: <i>a</i>
-branches with antheridia; <i>ch</i> branches with terminal archegonia
-and perichætia; <i>b</i> the upper stemleaves. <i>B</i> A male branch
-whose leaves are partly taken off in order to show the antheridia.
-<i>C</i> Group of three archegonia: the central one (<i>a</i>) is
-formed from the apical cell. <i>D</i> Sporogonium in longitudinal
-section: the broad foot (<i>sg’</i>) is sunk in the vaginula, <i>v</i>;
-<i>c</i> calyptra; <i>ar</i> neck of the archegonium; <i>ps</i>
-pseudopodium. <i>E</i> ripe sporangium with operculum, and the remains
-of the archegonium situated on the pseudopodium which is still
-surrounded by the perichætium; to the left is a barren branch. <i>F</i>
-Portion of a foliage-leaf seen from above: <i>l</i> perforations;
-<i>b</i> chlorophyll-containing cells; <i>s</i> spiral thickenings.</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 1. <b>Sphagneæ (Bog-Mosses).</b></h4>
-
-<p>The protonema has been already described. The stem is regularly
-branched owing to the fact that a branch, or collection of branches,
-arises at every fourth leaf. These branches are closely covered with
-leaves, some are erect, while others hang down and surround the stem.
-No rhizoids are developed. These Mosses are of a whitish-green colour,
-and when water is present are always saturated with it like a sponge,
-the reason for this being found in the construction of the stem and
-leaves. The stems are covered by an external layer of large clear
-cells, without chlorophyll, but with annular or spiral thickenings
-on the walls, which are also<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[194]</span> perforated by large holes. By means of
-capillary attraction, water is thus raised to the summit of the stem.
-Similarly constructed cells are also found in the leaves, but they are
-surrounded by a net of very narrow, chlorophyll-containing cells (Fig.
-<a href="#fig199">199</a> <i>F</i>), whose colour is thus to a great extent lost amongst
-those which are colourless. This anatomical structure is an essential
-condition for the formation of peat. The Bog-Mosses grow by preference
-on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[195]</span> moors, which they cover with a thick carpet saturated with water.
-The lower extremities of the plants perish very rapidly, and gradually
-become converted into peat, and the branches thus separated from each
-other become independent plants. The sporangia (Fig. <a href="#fig199">199</a> <i>D</i>,
-<i>E</i>) are spherical, but with a very short stalk. They open by a
-<i>lid</i>, but have no <i>annulus</i>. The <i>archegonium</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig199">199</a> <i>C</i>) persists at the <i>base of the sporogonium</i> as in the
-Liverworts. Only one genus, <i>Sphagnum</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<h4>Family 2. <b>Schizocarpeæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The Mosses which constitute this family are of a brownish-black
-colour and are found living on rocks. The sporangium resembles
-that of the Liverworts inasmuch as it opens by four valves, but
-these continue attached to each other at the apex as well as at
-the base (Fig. <a href="#fig193">193</a>).&mdash;There is only one genus: <i>Andreæa</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> The stalk is formed from the lower portion of the
-sporogonium. The columella is continued to the summit of
-the sporangium and united with it (<i>Archidium</i> has no
-columella.)</p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 3. <b>Cleistocarpeæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The fruit does not dehisce in the regular way, but the spores
-are liberated by decay. They are small Mosses which remain
-in connection with their protonema until the sporangium is
-mature. The archegonium remains sessile at the base of the
-short capsule-stalk, and is not raised into the air (compare
-Hepaticæ).&mdash;<i>Phascum, Ephemerum, Archidium, Pleuridium.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 4. <b>Stegocarpeæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>To this belong the majority of the Mosses, about 3,000 species.</p>
-
-<p>The capsule opens as in <i>Sphagnum</i> by means of a <i>lid</i>
-(<i>operculum</i>), which is often prolonged into a beak. Round the
-mouth of the opened capsule, a number of peculiar yellow or red
-teeth are to be found. These constitute the <i>peristome</i>; their
-number is four, or a multiple of four (8, 16, 32 or 64). The form and
-thickenings of these teeth are widely different, and on this account
-are used by Systematists for the purposes of classification. In some
-Mosses (Fig. <a href="#fig200">200</a> <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>) there is a double row of teeth.
-Except in <i>Tetraphis</i> they are not formed from entire cells, but
-from the strongly thickened portions of the wall of certain layers of
-cells belonging to the lid, and persist when this falls off. They are
-strongly hygroscopic, and assist greatly in the ejection of the lid, in
-which operation they are considerably aided by a ring of elastic cells
-with thickened walls, situated in the wall of the lid near the base of
-the teeth. This ring is known as the <i>annulus</i>. The archegonium is
-raised into the air like a hood, the calyptra, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[196]</span> either covers the
-sporangium on all sides (having the shape of a bell), or is split on
-one side (Fig. <a href="#fig200">200</a> <i>B</i>, <i>h</i>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Among peculiar forms may be mentioned: <i>Splachnum</i>, which
-is especially remarkable for the collar-like expansion at the
-base of the capsule. <i>Fissidens</i> deviates in having a flat
-stem and leaves arranged in two rows. The leaves are boat-shaped
-and half embrace the stem.&mdash;<i>Schistostega</i> has two kinds of
-stems. The barren ones resemble Fern-leaves; they have two rows
-of leaves, which are attached together vertically, are decurrent
-and coalesce at their bases. The fertile ones have an ordinary
-appearance.&mdash;<i>Tetraphis</i>: the peristome is composed of four
-teeth, which are formed from entire cells. <i>T. pellucida</i>
-has peculiar gemmæ.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The family is divided into two groups: the Musci acrocarpi, the growth
-of whose main axis is limited and terminated by the formation of the
-sexual organs; and the Musci pleurocarpi, whose sporogonia are situated
-on special lateral shoots, while the growth of the main axis is
-unlimited.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig200" style="width: 318px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig200.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 200.</span>&mdash;<i>A Hypnum populeum</i>.
-<i>B</i> and <i>C</i> Sporangia, with hood (<i>h</i>), and operculum
-(<i>l’</i>), and without these (<i>C</i>), showing the peristome
-(<i>p</i>). <i>D</i> The mouth of the capsule of <i>Fontinalis
-antipyretica</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h5>A. <b>Acrocarpi.</b></h5>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Weisiaceæ.</b> Peristome, with 16 teeth arranged in
-one series, rarely wanting. Leaf with midrib. <i>Campylopus</i>,
-<i>Dicranum</i> (<i>D. scoparium</i>, common in forests),
-<i>Dicranella</i>, <i>Cynodontium</i>.&mdash;<i>Weisia</i>,
-<i>Gymnostomum</i> (no peristome), <i>Systegium</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Leucobryaceæ.</b> Peristome with 16 teeth. Leaves
-with three or more layers of cells, of which the external ones
-are air-conducting and perforated (as in the Sphagneæ), the
-middle one containing chlorophyll. <i>Leucobryum.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Fissidentaceæ.</b> Peristome as in the preceding
-ones. The leaves are arranged in two rows on the plagiotropic
-shoots; in <i>Fissidens</i> the midrib of the leaf bears
-wing-shaped outgrowths. <i>Conomitrium, Fissidens.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Seligeriaceæ.</b> Peristome with 16 undivided teeth.
-Very small Rock-mosses. <i>Seligeria.&mdash;Blindia.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Pottiaceæ.</b> Peristome with 16 teeth, which
-are divided almost to the base, or with 32 teeth. Calyptra
-hood-like.&mdash;<i>Barbula (B. muralis, B. ruralis), Trichostomum,
-Leptotrichum.&mdash;Ceratodon purpureus.&mdash;Distichium.&mdash;Pottia.</i></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[197]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Grimmiaceæ.</b> The leaf-cells are often
-papillose; in the upper portion of the leaf, small, and of
-roundish shape. The calyptra is most frequently hood-like
-or conical. <i>Eucalypta.</i>&mdash;<i>Orthotrichum</i>,
-often with short-stalked capsule, is found on
-trees.&mdash;<i>Coscinodon.</i>&mdash;<i>Hedwigia.</i>&mdash;<i>Grimmia</i>,
-<i>Racomitrium</i>.&mdash;<i>Cinclidotus.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Schistostegaceæ.</b> The stems are of two kinds (see
-above); <i>Schistostega osmundacea</i>, in caves, has a bright
-emerald protonema.</p>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Splachnaceæ.</b> The capsule has a large,
-collar-like neck (see above). <i>Splachnum</i> (especially on
-manure).</p>
-
-<p>Order 9. <b>Funariaceæ.</b> Capsule pear-shaped. <i>Funaria</i>
-(<i>F. hygrometrica</i> has a very hygroscopic seta,
-becoming twisted when dry, and straightening with moisture);
-<i>Physcomitrium</i>; <i>Discelium</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 10. <b>Bryaceæ.</b> The capsule is thicker towards
-the apex; most frequently pendulous. <i>Philonotis</i>,
-<i>Bartramia</i>.&mdash;<i>Aulacomnium.</i>&mdash;<i>Paludella
-Meesea.</i>&mdash;<i>Mnium.</i>&mdash;<i>Bryum</i>, <i>Webera</i>,
-<i>Leptobryum</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 11. <b>Polytrichaceæ.</b> Single peristome, formed by
-16, 32, or 64 teeth. Leaves with longitudinal lamellæ on
-upper surface.&mdash;<i>Polytrichum</i> has long, hairy calyptra.
-<i>Catharinea</i> (<i>C. undulata</i>, in forests).</p>
-
-<p>Order 12. <b>Georgiaceæ.</b> Peristome with 4 teeth (see above).
-<i>Tetraphis</i> (<i>T. pellucida</i> has gemmæ).</p>
-
-<p>Order 13. <b>Buxbaumiaceæ.</b> Capsule asymmetrical; double
-peristome: the interior one conical, with 16 or 32 longitudinal
-folds.&mdash;<i>Buxbaumia</i> (<i>B. aphylla</i>); <i>Diphyscium</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h5>B. <b>Pleurocarpi.</b></h5>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 14. <b>Fontinalaceæ.</b> Long, floating Water-Mosses.
-<i>Fontinalis</i> (<i>F. antipyretica</i> is found in streams).
-<i>Dichelyma.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 15. <b>Hookeriaceæ.</b> <i>Pterygophyllum.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 16. <b>Leskeaceæ.</b> Dull-looking Mosses, with papillose
-or warted leaves.&mdash;<i>Thuidium</i>, <i>Thuja</i>-like with
-regularly arranged 1–3 doubly pinnate stems; <i>Anomodon</i>,
-<i>Leskea</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 17. <b>Pterogoniaceæ.</b> <i>Pterigynandrum filiforme</i>,
-etc.</p>
-
-<p>Order 18. <b>Fabroniaceæ.</b> <i>Anacamptodon.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 19. <b>Neckeraceæ.</b> Stems most frequently with flat,
-leafy branches. The leaves are smooth, never with longitudinal
-folds.&mdash;<i>Neckera.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 20. <b>Hypnaceæ.</b> The leaves are smooth
-with square, often bladder-like, cells at the edge.
-<i>Hylocomium</i> (<i>H. splendens</i>, <i>H.
-triquetrum</i>); <i>Hypnum</i>; <i>Brachythecium</i>;
-<i>Plagiothecium</i>.&mdash;<i>Eurhynchium.</i>&mdash;<i>Homalothecium</i>,
-<i>Isothecium</i>, <i>Orthothiecium</i>,
-<i>Homalia</i>.&mdash;<i>Climacium</i>, <i>Lescuræa</i>,
-<i>Leucodon</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The Mosses occur all over the globe. Many are found in great
-numbers, and growing thickly massed together, they form an
-important feature in landscapes (for example <i>Sphagnum</i> and
-<i>Polytrichum</i> in the Arctic Tundra). In the Northern and
-Arctic regions the Mosses are very plentiful, and often form a
-considerable part of the vegetation, while in the Tropics they
-are insignificant.</p>
-
-<p>Species of <i>Hypnum</i> and <i>Polytrichum</i>, like
-<i>Sphagnum</i>, play an important part in the formation of peat.</p>
-</div>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[198]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="smaller">DIVISION III.<br />
-<span class="subhed">PTERIDOPHYTA (VASCULAR CRYPTOGAMS).</span></h2></div>
-
-<p>The alternation of generations is as distinct in this Division as
-in the Mosses, but the sexual generation consists of only a small
-thallus, the prothallium, which bears directly the sexual organs,
-<i>antheridia</i> and <i>archegonia</i>; and the asexual generation,
-which arises from the fertilisation of the oosphere, is no longer
-a single short-lived sporangium, but a highly developed, generally
-perennial, plant provided with stem, leaves and <i>true roots</i>
-(Ferns, Horsetails, etc.), the sporangia being borne on the leaves. In
-this latter generation the tissues are differentiated into epidermis,
-ground tissue and vascular tissue; in the last named the bundles are
-closed, and in the majority of cases concentric.</p>
-
-<p>The <b>sexual generation</b>, <b>gametophyte</b>, or
-<b>prothallium</b>, is <i>always a thallus</i>, although not always
-green and leaf-like (Figs. <a href="#fig205">205</a>, <a href="#fig215">215</a>, <a href="#fig222">222</a>, <a href="#fig229">229</a>, <a href="#fig235">235</a>, etc.) It is very
-small, even in cases where it attains the greatest development, and
-consists only of parenchymatous cells. The prothallium is nourished by
-hair-like roots (rhizoids) and has only a transitory existence, dying
-soon after the fertilisation of its oosphere.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">ANTHERIDIA</span> exhibit great variations in structure which,
-however, must be considered as modifications of the fundamental type
-which is found in the Mosses. These modifications will be mentioned
-under the various families. The <i>spermatozoids</i> are always
-spirally-coiled, self-motile, protoplasmic bodies, with most frequently
-a large number of fine cilia on the anterior end (Figs. <a href="#fig206">206</a>, <a href="#fig223">223</a>, <a href="#fig234">234</a>).
-They are formed principally from the nucleus of the mother-cell, and
-portions of the cytoplasm often remain for a time attached to their
-posterior end.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">ARCHEGONIA</span> are more uniform throughout the entire
-Division, and more closely resemble those of the Mosses. They are, as
-in the previous Division, principally flask-shaped; but the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[199]</span> central
-portion, which encloses the oosphere, is always embedded in the tissue
-of the prothallium, so that the neck, which is formed of 4 rows of
-cells, projects above the surface (Figs. <a href="#fig201">201</a> <sup>3</sup>, <a href="#fig222">222</a> <i>h</i>). The
-development of the archegonium in a Fern is seen in the accompanying
-figure (Fig. <a href="#fig201">201</a>). The archegonium is developed from a surface cell,
-which divides into three cells by two walls in a direction parallel
-to the surface of the prothallium (Fig. <a href="#fig201">201</a>). The most internal cell
-becomes the ventral portion of the archegonium. The external one
-(<i>b</i>) divides perpendicularly to the surface of the prothallium
-into four cells, which again divide parallel to the surface and form
-the neck (<i>b</i>, in 2 and 3). The intermediate cell projects upwards
-into the neck and divides into two, the lower one, after the separation
-of the ventral canal-cell, becoming the <i>oosphere</i>, and the upper
-one the <i>neck-canal-cell</i> (<i>c</i>, in 2 and 3).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig201" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig201.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 201.</span>&mdash;<i>Pteris serrulata.</i> Development
-of archegonia.]</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>As in the Mosses, the divisional walls of the neck-canal-cells become
-mucilaginous, causing the rupture of the neck of the archegonium.
-Fertilisation takes place as in the Mosses, and the passage of the
-spermatozoids, along the neck, to the oosphere, has been observed.
-Water (rain or dew) is similarly necessary for the movements of the
-spermatozoids, and hence for fertilisation. The other classes of the
-Division chiefly deviate from the Ferns in having the archegonium sunk
-deeper into the prothallium, and the neck reduced in length (compare
-Fig. <a href="#fig201">201</a> with Figs. <a href="#fig216">216</a>, <a href="#fig222">222</a>, <a href="#fig235">235</a>, <a href="#fig236">236</a>).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[200]</span></p>
-
-<p>According to the nature of the spores, the three classes of the
-Vascular Cryptogams are each divided into isosporous and heterosporous
-groups.</p>
-
-<p>I. The <b>isosporous</b> Vascular Cryptogams have <i>only one kind
-of spore</i>. The prothallium developed from this is in some cases
-monœcious, bearing both antheridia and archegonia; but in others there
-is a distinct tendency for each prothallium to bear only antheridia or
-archegonia (diœcious)&mdash;true Ferns and <i>Lycopodium</i>.</p>
-
-<p>In <i>Equisetum</i> there is only one kind of spore, but two kinds of
-prothallia are developed, one of which bears only antheridia (male),
-the other only archegonia (female); but the one that bears antheridia
-may be transformed into the one that bears archegonia and vice versa.</p>
-
-<p>II. In the higher group, <b>heterosporous</b> Vascular Cryptogams
-(<i>Selaginella</i> and <i>Isoëtes</i>, etc.), there are two distinct
-kinds of spores, the <i>small</i>, microspores, and the <i>large</i>,
-macrospores. The <i>microspores</i> are male, and produce prothallia
-which bear only antheridia. The <i>macrospores</i> are female, and
-produce prothallia which bear only archegonia.</p>
-
-<p>Corresponding to this difference in the spores, there is also found
-a difference in the development of the prothallium. In the Isosporeæ
-the prothallium is large, and either green, leaf-like, and provided
-with rhizoids (most of the Ferns, Horsetails, etc.), or subterranean,
-pale-coloured, and globular (<i>Ophioglossum</i>, <i>Lycopodium</i>).
-It lives vegetatively for a fairly long time, and generally produces a
-large and varying number of archegonia and antheridia. The prothallium
-in the Heterosporeæ is gradually more and more reduced, its independent
-and vegetative life becomes of less and less importance, it becomes
-more dependent on the mother-plant, and projects from the spore very
-slightly, or not at all. The antheridia and archegonia become reduced
-in number to one, and also degenerate in point of development.</p>
-
-<p>It may here be remarked that the gradual development of the asexual
-generation, the development of the two kinds of spores, and the
-progressive reduction of the prothallium and sexual organs which
-is found in this Division, is continued to the Gymnosperms and
-Angiosperms. The microspores are in these called pollen-grains, and
-the male prothallium is very rudimentary. The macrospores are termed
-embryo-sacs, and the female prothallium, the endosperm.</p>
-
-<p>The <b>asexual generation</b>, <b>sporophyte</b>. When the oosphere,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[201]</span>
-which in this case as in all others is a primordial cell, is
-fertilised, it surrounds itself with a cell-wall and commences to
-divide into a number of cells, to form the embryo.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The first dividing wall (basal wall) is nearly horizontal, and
-in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the archegonium.
-The next wall is vertical, and the next perpendicular to the
-other two. The oosphere, therefore, is now divided into eight
-octants by these three walls. The basal wall divides the
-embryo into a hypobasal and an epibasal half. From the first
-one, by continued divisions, the first root is developed; from
-the latter, the stem and leaves. After the formation of the
-octants the development proceeds in somewhat different ways in
-the various classes. In addition to the stem, leaf, and root,
-a “foot” is developed from the hypobasal half which remains
-enclosed in the prothallium, and conveys nourishment from the
-prothallium to the young plant until it is able to sustain
-itself (Fig. <a href="#fig202">202</a>). The formation of these members in the embryo
-depends on the position of the oosphere in the archegonium and
-prothallium, and is independent of gravity.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig202" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig202.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 202.</span>&mdash;<i>Adiantum capillus veneris.</i>
-Vertical section through a prothallium (<i>f f</i>), with a
-young plant attached on its under side (mag. about 10 times); <i>r</i>
-the first root, and <i>b</i> the first leaf of the young Fern-plant;
-<i>m</i> the foot. In the angle between <i>m</i> and <i>b</i> lies the
-apex of the stem: <i>h</i> the rhizoids of the prothallium; <i>æ</i>
-<i>æ</i> unfertilised archegonia.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>In the Mosses the asexual generation is the sporogonium, which is
-limited in its development and in a great measure dependent upon the
-sexual generation, upon which it is situated; but in the Pteridophyta
-this generation is an independent and highly developed plant, provided
-with stem, leaf, and true roots, and has in many instances an unlimited
-development. The Pteridophyta are the lowest Division with <i>true
-roots</i>. The root which is first formed is very similar in nature
-to the primary root of the Monocotyledons; it very soon dies and is
-replaced by others which are more permanent, and developed upon the
-stem (adventitious roots); roots are wanting in <i>Salvinia</i>,
-<i>Psilotum</i>, and some Hymenophyllaceæ. The differentiation is,
-however, not so complete as in the Flowering-plants, and so many
-leafy forms are not found. The various members of these plants are
-anatomically much higher than in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[202]</span> Mosses, having an epidermis,
-a ground tissue with variously differentiated cells, and a highly
-developed vascular system. The vascular bundles, like those in the
-Monocotyledons, are without cambium, and closed; they are therefore
-incapable of any increase in thickness. In general the bundles are
-concentric, with the bast round the wood (Fig. <a href="#fig203">203</a>). The wood is almost
-entirely made up of scalariform tracheides.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In <i>Isoëtes</i> a secondary thickening takes place by a
-cambium, which is formed inside the cortex, constructing
-secondary cortex to the exterior, and secondary wood towards
-the interior.&mdash;<i>Botrychium</i> has also a thickening growth.
-Collateral vascular bundles occur in <i>Osmundaceæ</i>,
-<i>Equisetaceæ</i>, and the leaves of many <i>Polypodiaceæ</i>,
-etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig203" style="width: 367px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig203.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 203.</span>&mdash;Portion of the stem of a Fern. Above
-is seen the transverse section, with vascular bundles of different form
-and size. The rhombic figures on the side of the stem are leaf-scars.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>It is a point of special interest, that the gigantic forms of Ferns,
-Equisetums, and Club-Mosses (which flourished in earlier geological
-periods, when these classes attained their highest development)
-possessed some means of increasing in thickness.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>sporangia</i> are in all cases <i>capsule-like</i>, and
-burst open when ripe to eject the spores. They are nearly always
-situated on the leaves (in <i>Lycopodiaceæ</i>, in the axils of the
-leaves, or above these, on the stems themselves). In some forms
-(<span class="smcap">Leptosporangiatæ</span>), the sporangia are developed from a single
-epidermal cell; in others (<span class="smcap">Eusporangiatæ</span>), from a group of
-epidermal cells, or from cells which lie beneath the epidermis. In the
-first group a primitive mother-cell (archesporium) is formed, which
-divides commonly into sixteen special mother-cells. In the latter
-group, on the other hand, a number of primitive spore-mother-cells are
-developed. In each sporangium three different tissues are generally
-developed; an innermost <i>sporogenous</i> one (<i>s</i> in Fig.
-<a href="#fig204">204</a> <i>A</i>), which arises from the archesporangium; an outermost
-one, which forms the <i>wall</i> (<i>a</i>),<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[203]</span> and may be one or,
-more rarely, several layers in thickness; and an intermediate one,
-the <i>tapetum</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig204">204</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, <i>b t</i>),
-which is rich in protoplasm, and whose cells are dissolved so that
-the spores float freely in the fluid thus provided. The spores arise
-as in the Mosses (in tetrads), by the cross-division of the special
-mother-cells, and according to the manner in which they are arranged
-in the mother-cell have either a tetrahedral form, with a large base
-resembling a segment of a ball, or are oblong (bilateral spores). Their
-construction is the same as in the Mosses (p. <a href="#Page_187">187</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig204" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig204.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 204.</span>&mdash;<i>Selaginella inæqualifolia.</i>
-<i>A</i> A young sporangium, which may develope either into a macro-,
-or a microsporangium. <i>B</i> A microsporangium.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The spore-formation in its earliest commencement takes place in the
-same way in the Isosporous and the Heterosporous Vascular Cryptogams;
-but from a certain point, after the tetrahedral division, a difference
-occurs with regard to the macrosporangia. All the spores formed in the
-microsporangium may complete their development; but those which are
-formed in the macrosporangium are generally aborted, with the exception
-of one or four, and these consequently attain a much larger size (see
-Fig. <a href="#fig239">239</a>.&mdash;The series to the left are microsporangia; those to the
-right, macrosporangia).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Apogamy.</span> In some Ferns (<i>Pteris cretica</i>;
-<i>Aspidium filix mas</i>, var. <i>cristatum</i>; <i>A.
-falcatum</i>; <i>Todea africana</i>) the young plant is not
-developed as a consequence of fertilisation, but as a bud from
-the prothallium. This is known as apogamy, or loss of the power
-of sexual reproduction. The antheridia are generally more or
-less developed; archegonia are entirely wanting in <i>Asp. filix
-mas</i>, var.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[204]</span> <i>cristatum</i>. This variety has probably
-only become apogamous through cultivation. Many specimens of
-<i>Isoëtes lacustris</i>, in a lake in the Vosges mountains,
-produce in the place where the sporangia are usually found,
-a vegetative shoot which grows into a new plant, so that the
-sexual generation is wanting in this case. Some specimens have
-sporangia on some leaves, and shoots on others.</p>
-
-<p>Apospory, or the formation of prothallia instead of sporangia
-and spores on the leaves, is found in <i>Athyrium filix
-femina</i>, var. <i>clarissimum</i>. In this case the
-development of the sporangia proceeds only to a certain point,
-and from these arrested sporangia the prothallia are produced.
-Normal sporangia are entirely wanting in this variety, and in
-<i>Aspidium angulare</i>, var. <i>pulcherrimum</i>, sporangia
-are completely wanting. Compare the Mosses (page 188).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Vascular Cryptogams are divided into <i>three large classes</i>,
-in each of which a progressive development can be traced from the
-isosporous to the heterosporous forms, but some of these are now only
-known as fossils.</p>
-
-<p>Class 1. <b>Filicinæ</b> (<b>Ferns</b>).&mdash;The stem is small in
-comparison with the leaves, and branches only seldom, and then by
-lateral shoots. The leaves are scattered, large, often deeply divided,
-and of various highly developed forms. The undeveloped leaves are
-rolled up in the bud, having what is termed circinate venation. The
-sporangia are situated on the edge or on the lower side of the leaves,
-those on which the sporangia are borne (<i>sporophylls</i>) being often
-the ordinary foliage-leaves; but in a few cases the fertile differ from
-the barren ones (a higher stage in development). The fertile leaves
-are not confined to definite parts of the shoot, and do not limit its
-growth. The archesporium is most frequently unicellular.</p>
-
-<p><i>A</i>. <b>Isosporous</b>: Sub-Class 1. Filices (True Ferns).</p>
-
-<p><i>B</i>. <b>Heterosporous</b>: Sub-Class 2. Hydropterideæ (Water
-Ferns).</p>
-
-<p>Class 2. <b>Equisetinæ</b> (<b>Horsetails</b>), in its widest
-meaning.&mdash;The leaves in this class are small in comparison with the
-stem. They are arranged in whorls, and unite to form a sheath. The
-sporangia are situated on specially modified, shield-like leaves,
-which are closely packed together and form a “cone.” The cone is
-borne terminally, and limits the growth of the shoot. The sporangia
-are developed from a large group of epidermal cells, the archesporium
-being unicellular. The branches are arranged in whorls, and develope
-acropetally.</p>
-
-<p><i>A</i>. <b>Isosporous</b>: Sub-Class 1. Equisetaceæ. Existing forms.</p>
-
-<p><i>B</i>. <b>Heterosporous</b>: Sub-Class 2. Extinct forms.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[205]</span></p>
-
-<p>Class 3. <b>Lycopodinæ</b> (<b>Club-Mosses</b>).&mdash;Roots generally
-branching dichotomously. The leaves are scattered or opposite, and in
-proportion to the stem very small, undivided, and simple. They are
-scale-like and triangular, tapering from a broad base to a point. The
-sporangia are situated singly (except in <i>Psilotaceæ</i>), and almost
-in every case on the upper side of the leaf or in the axil of a leaf;
-but in some cases they are borne on the stem, just above the leaf-axil.
-The sporangia arise from groups of epidermal cells. The sporophylls
-are often modified, and differ from the foliage-leaves; they are then
-arranged in cones placed terminally on branches, thus limiting their
-growth.</p>
-
-<p><i>A</i>. <b>Isosporous</b>: Sub-Class 1. Lycopodieæ.</p>
-
-<p><i>B.</i> <b>Heterosporous</b>: Sub-Class 2. Selaginelleæ.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Class 1. <b>Filicinæ</b> (<b>Ferns</b>).</h3>
-
-<p>The characteristics of this class have already been given on page <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</p>
-
-<p>The class is divided into two sub-classes:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>1. The <span class="smcap">True Ferns</span>, <span class="smcap">Filices</span>, have one kind of
-spore which generally developes monœcious prothallia, relatively
-large and green. The sporangia are most frequently situated in
-groups (<i>sori</i>), which are often covered but not enclosed by an
-<i>indusium</i>.</p>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">Water Ferns</span>, <span class="smcap">Hydropteridæ</span>, have microsporangia
-with many (4 × 16) microspores, and <i>macrosporangia, each with one
-macrospore</i>. The prothallium is small, and projects but slightly
-from the germinating spore. The sporangia are situated in groups
-(<i>sori</i>), which are either enclosed by an indusium, or enveloped
-in a portion of a leaf, to form “fruits” termed <i>sporocarps</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The old name for the Hydropterideæ, “Rhizocarpeæ,” <i>i.e.</i>
-the “root-fruited,” originated from the erroneous supposition
-that the sporocarps were borne on the roots.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class 1. <b>Filices</b> (<b>the True Ferns</b>).</h3>
-
-<p>Of the eight orders (with about 4,000 species) comprised in this
-sub-class, the Polypodiaceæ is the largest (having about 2,800 species)
-and the most familiar; for this reason it will be taken as typical.</p>
-
-<p><b>The sexual generation.</b> When the spore germinates, the external
-covering (exospore) is ruptured, as in the Mosses. The internal
-cell-wall (endospore) grows out as a filament, which soon divides and
-gives rise to the prothallium, a flat, cellular expansion resembling
-the thallus of a Liverwort. In its fully developed state<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[206]</span> the
-prothallium is generally heart-shaped, dark green, and provided with
-root-hairs, and it attains a diameter of about one centimetre (Fig.
-<a href="#fig205">205</a>). It is formed of one layer of cells, except along the central
-line near the anterior depression, where it becomes several layers
-of cells in thickness, forming the “cushion,” on the lower side of
-which the archegonia are developed. The antheridia are first formed;
-they are thus found on the oldest parts of the prothallium, on its
-edge, or among the root-hairs. The archegonia are developed later,
-and are therefore found near the apex. Several tropical Ferns have
-prothallia<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> deviating from this typical form; <i>Trichomanes</i>
-(Order <i>Hymenophyllaceæ</i>) has filamentous, branched prothallia,
-which resemble the protonema of a Moss. Others, again, have
-strap-shaped prothallia, which resemble the thallus of certain
-Liverworts.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig205" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig205.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 205.</span>&mdash;Prothallium (<i>p p</i>)
-of Maiden hair (<i>Adiantum capillus veneris</i>) with a young plant
-attached: <i>b</i> first leaf; <i>w′</i> primary root; <i>w″</i>
-adventitious roots; <i>h h</i> root-hairs of the prothallium (×
-abt. 30).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig206" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig206.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 206.</span>&mdash;Antheridia of Maiden-hair (× 550).
-<i>A</i> Unripe; <i>B</i> ripe, but unopened; <i>C</i> open and
-ejecting the spermatozoids (<i>s</i>). Those which have been last
-ejected are still lying enclosed in their mother-cells, the others
-are coiled up and drag with them the cytoplasmic remains (<i>b</i>);
-<i>f</i> cells of the prothallium.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[207]</span></p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">ARCHEGONIA</span> have been already mentioned (p. <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, Fig. <a href="#fig201">201</a>).
-The <span class="allsmcap">ANTHERIDIA</span> are hemispherical or slightly conical bodies
-(Fig. <a href="#fig206">206</a>). They consist, as in the Mosses, of a wall formed by one
-layer of cells, which encloses a number of spermatozoid-mother-cells
-(<i>A</i> and <i>B</i>). The antheridia when ripe absorb water, and are
-ruptured, and the spirally-coiled spermatozoids liberated (Fig. <a href="#fig206">206</a>
-<i>S</i>). The spermatozoids have been observed to pass down the neck
-of the archegonium, and to fuse with the oosphere.</p>
-
-<p><b>The asexual generation.</b> The first leaf, the “cotyledon,” of the
-embryo developed from the oospore (Figs. <a href="#fig202">202</a>, <a href="#fig205">205</a>) is always small,
-and has a very simple shape. The leaves which occur later become more
-perfect, stage by stage, until the permanent form of leaf has been
-attained.&mdash;The <span class="allsmcap">STEM</span> is most frequently a subterranean or a
-semi-aerial rhizome; it is only in the tropical, palm-like Tree-Ferns,
-that the stem raises itself high in the air and resembles that of a
-tree, with leaf-scars or with the remains of leaves attached (Figs.
-<a href="#fig207">207</a>, <a href="#fig203">203</a>); in certain species the stem is encased in a thick mat
-of aerial roots (<i>Dicksonia antarctica</i>). When the rhizome is
-horizontal the internodes are frequently elongated, and the leaves
-are arranged in two rows, as in <i>Polypodium vulgare</i> and in the
-Bracken-Fern (<i>Pteridium aquilinum</i>), etc.; it is also generally
-<i>dorsiventral</i>, having a dorsal side on which the leaves are
-situated, and a ventral side, different from the former, on which the
-roots are borne. When the stem ascends in an oblique direction, or is
-nearly vertical, its internodes are extremely short, and the leaves are
-arranged in a spiral line with a complicated phyllotaxis, <i>e.g.</i>
-in <i>Athyrium filix-fœmina</i>, <i>Aspidium filix-mas</i>, etc. The
-<span class="allsmcap">BRANCHING</span> upon the whole is extremely slight, and is generally
-confined to the petiole (<i>e.g. Aspid. filix-mas</i>), or to
-the stem near the insertion of the leaves. Several species normally
-form buds on different parts of the lamina. The buds which are formed
-on the stem are not confined to the leaf-axil as in the higher plants.
-The Tree-Ferns, generally, do not branch at all.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">VASCULAR BUNDLES</span> are <i>concentric</i>, with the wood
-surrounded by the soft bast. In transverse section they are seen
-as circles or irregularly-shaped figures (Fig. <a href="#fig203">203</a>), the name
-of “King Charles and the Oak” (Bracken-Fern) having originated
-from the appearance which the bundles present in oblique section.
-In <i>Osmunda</i> they are collateral and resemble those of the
-Flowering-plants. Round each individual bundle is often a sheath of
-thick-walled, hard, brown, sclerenchymatous cells, which act as a
-mechanical<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[208]</span> tissue; similar strands are also found in other parts of
-the stem.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig207" style="width: 493px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig207.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 207.</span>&mdash;Various Ferns (1, 2, 3, 4).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">LEAVES</span> in nearly all species are only foliage-leaves,
-borne in a spiral. They have an apical growth which continues for
-a long time, and some require several years for their complete
-development. In the buds they are rolled up (<i>circinate</i>); not
-only the midrib, but also all the lateral veins, and even the terminal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[209]</span>
-portions of a leaf are sometimes rolled up together, the tissues of
-the leaf being already fully developed and only waiting to expand.
-The leaves are often excessively divided and compound, with pinnate
-branches, and have an epidermis with stomata and a well-developed
-system of venation. Stipules are only found in <i>Marattiaceæ</i> and
-<i>Ophioglossaceæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Very often peculiar hairs or scales (<i>paleæ</i>, <i>ramenta</i>),
-dry, brown, flat and broad, are found on stem and leaf.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">SPORANGIA</span> are small, round capsules, which, in a very
-large number of Ferns, are formed on the back, but more rarely on the
-edge of the ordinary foliage-leaves. It is very seldom that there
-is any difference in form between the barren foliage-leaves and the
-fertile leaves, as is found for example in <i>Blechnum spicant</i>
-or <i>Struthiopteris</i>; or that the fertile part of the leaf is
-differently constructed from the barren portion of the same leaf, as in
-the Royal-Fern (<i>Osmunda</i>). In such instances the mesophyll of the
-fertile parts is poorly developed.</p>
-
-<p>The sporangia in the <i>Polypodiaceæ</i> are lens-shaped, with long
-stalk (Fig. <a href="#fig211">211</a> <i>D</i>): their wall consists of one cell-layer on
-which a single row of cells, passing vertically over the top (that
-is along the edge of the sporangium), is developed into the “ring”
-(annulus). The cells of the annulus are very much thickened on the
-inner and side walls, and are yellowish-brown. The thickened cells,
-however, do not entirely encircle the sporangium, and on one side, near
-the stalk, they pass over into large, flat, thin-walled cells. These
-form a weak point in the wall, and it is here that the sporangium is
-opened diagonally by the elongation of the annulus. The sporangium of
-the Polypodiaceæ opens as it dries. The cells of the annulus are very
-hygroscopic, and in straightening, the annulus bends back with a jerk,
-thus ejecting the spores to considerable distances. The cells of the
-annulus absorb water with great readiness. [The sporangium arises as
-a single epidermal cell, from which a basal stalk-cell is cut off.
-Three oblique cell-walls, intersecting near the base, are next formed
-in the upper cell, and a fourth between these and parallel to the free
-surface; an inner tetrahedral cell enclosed by four others is thus
-formed, the outer cells become the wall of the sporangium, while the
-inner cell, by a series of walls, parallel to its sides, cuts off a
-layer of cells which eventually form the tapetum, the remaining central
-cell constituting the archesporium.]</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">SPORES</span> are either oblong and bilateral, or they are
-tetrahedric<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[210]</span> with curved sides, depending upon the way in which the
-tetrad division has taken place.</p>
-
-<p>The sporangia are almost always situated on the nerves and gathered
-into groups, <i>sori</i>, which differ in form in the various genera.
-The sori, in many genera, may be covered by a scale-like structure, the
-<i>indusium</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig211">211</a> <i>B</i>, <a href="#fig212">212</a>).</p>
-
-<p>In the majority of cases, each sorus is situated on a small papilla
-(<i>placenta</i>, or <i>receptacle</i>), which is supplied by a small
-vascular bundle. Between the sporangia, hairs (<i>paraphyses</i>) are
-often situated, which spring either from the placenta or from the
-stalks of the sporangia.</p>
-
-<p><b>Systematic Division.</b> The Ferns may be divided into two groups,
-characterized by the structure and development of the sporangia. The
-sporangia in the <span class="smcap">Eusporangiatæ</span> take their origin from a group
-of epidermal cells, and their walls are formed by several layers of
-cells. The archesporium is the (not tetrahedric) hypodermal terminal
-cell of the axial row of cells which give rise to the sporangium. In
-the <span class="smcap">Leptosporangiatæ</span> the sporangia are developed from single
-epidermal cells, and their walls are uni-layered. The archesporium is a
-central, often tetrahedric cell, from which sixteen spore-mother-cells
-are developed.<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> It is difficult to say which form is the oldest
-(according to Prantl, those which have the sori on the nerve-endings);
-however, the Eusporangiatæ would seem to have made their appearance
-long before the others, and also well defined Marattiaceæ and
-Ophioglossaceæ occur in the Kulm and Coal period, before the true
-Polypodiaceæ.</p>
-
-<p>About 4,000 species of Ferns are now existing, and they are found
-especially in tropical and sub-tropical forests.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 1. <b>Eusporangiatæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Ophioglossaceæ.</b> The prothallium differs from that
-of all other Ferns in being <i>subterranean</i>, <i>free from
-chlorophyll</i>, <i>pale</i> and <i>tuberous</i>. The stem is extremely
-short, with short internodes, most frequently unbranched, vertical,
-and entirely buried in the ground (Fig. <a href="#fig208">208</a> <i>st</i>). In several
-species (among which are the native ones) one leaf is produced every
-year, which has taken three to four years for its development. In
-<i>Botrychium</i> a closed, sheath-like basal part of each leaf covers
-the subsequent leaves during their development. In <i>Ophioglossum</i>
-and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[211]</span> others each leaf has at its base an intrapetiolar, cap-like
-sheath, which protects the succeeding leaf. The leaves are of two
-kinds: (<i>a</i>) foliage, which in <i>Ophioglossum vulgatum</i> are
-lanceolate and entire, but in <i>Botrychium</i> however, are pinnate
-(<i>b</i> in Fig. <a href="#fig208">208</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>); and (<i>b</i>) fertile,
-which are found facing the upper side of the foliage-leaves. These
-latter in <i>Ophioglossum</i> are undivided and spike-like (Fig. <a href="#fig209">209</a>
-<i>A</i>), but pinnate in <i>Botrychium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig208">208</a> <i>B</i>). Each
-foliage and fertile leaf are branches from the same petiole. The large
-sporangia are placed laterally, and open by two valves. No annulus is
-formed (Fig. <a href="#fig209">209</a>).&mdash;<i>Ophioglossum</i> reproduces vegetatively by
-adventitious buds on the roots.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig208" style="width: 466px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig208.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 208.</span>&mdash;<i>A Ophioglossum
-vulgatum</i> (Adder’s-tongue); <i>B Botrychium lunaria</i>
-(Moonwort), both natural size; <i>r-r</i> roots; <i>bs</i> leaf-stalk;
-<i>st</i> stem; <i>b</i> foliage-leaf; <i>f</i> fertile leaf.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig209" style="width: 150px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig209.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 209.</span>&mdash;Fertile leaf of
-<i>Ophioglossum</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[212]</span></p>
-
-<p>Three genera with about twelve species.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Marattiaceæ</b> are tropical Ferns, whose gigantic leaves
-resemble those of the Polypodiaceæ, but have stipules in addition.
-The sporangia are grouped in sori, situated on the lower side of the
-leaves, the sporangia in each sorus being arranged either in two
-rows or in a ring. In <i>Angiopteris</i> they are isolated (Fig. <a href="#fig210">210</a>
-<i>A</i>), but in the other species (<i>Kaulfussia</i>, <i>Danæa</i>,
-<i>Marattia</i>), they are united, and form “synangia” divided into
-a number of chambers corresponding to the sporangia. These open by
-clefts or pores. <i>Marattia</i> presents the highest development,
-as its sporangia are completely united in a capsule-like synangium,
-which is closed until maturity, and then opens by two valves. In each
-valve there is a row of three to eleven sporangia, each opening by a
-slit towards the inside (Fig. <a href="#fig210">210</a> <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>). An indusium
-encloses the sorus, except in <i>Kaulfussia</i>; it is formed of flat
-and lobed hairs, which resemble the hairs of the other portions of the
-leaves. In <i>Angiopteris</i> and <i>Marattia</i> the indusium is very
-rudimentary; in <i>Danæa</i> it forms a kind of cupule.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The numerous fossil Marattiaceæ (15 genera, with 98 species)
-present similar differences to those now living, but more
-various forms are found, for example, with solitary free
-sporangia. Those now living are the last small remnant (4 genera
-with only 23 species) of a once dominant family, which existed
-from very early times, and whose culminating point was reached
-in the Kulm and Coal periods.</p>
-
-<p>The Ophioglossaceæ appear also in the Kulm and Coal periods,
-and were about as numerous as at the present time (presumably 2
-genera, with 19 species). Leptosporangiate Ferns appear however
-to have occurred first of all in the Trias-formation.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig210" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig210.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 210.</span>&mdash;Sporangia of the Marattiaceæ:
-<i>A Angiopteris</i>; <i>B</i> and <i>C Marattia</i>;
-<i>C</i> is a half sorus with nine sporangia, each of which has opened
-by a longitudinal cleft.</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 2. <b>Leptosporangiatæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Polypodiaceæ.</b> Sporangia on the lower side of the
-leaves, <i>stalked</i> and provided with a <i>vertical</i>, incomplete
-annulus; dehiscing by a transverse cleft (Fig. <a href="#fig211">211</a> <i>D</i>).&mdash;The
-genera are distinguished by the form of the indusium and the position
-of the sori, etc.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[213]</span></p>
-
-<p>1. The sporangia cover the entire lower surface of the leaf (Tropical
-America and Asia). <i>Acrostichum</i>, <i>Platycerium.</i></p>
-
-<p>2. Sori without indusia, circular or oval. <i>Polypodium</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig211">211</a> <i>A</i>). The leaves are most frequently situated in two rows
-on the dorsal side of the creeping rhizome, and fall off leaving a
-smooth scar behind.&mdash;<i>P. vulgare</i>, common in woods, on stones.
-(<i>Phegopteris</i> also has no indusium; see page <a href="#Page_214">214</a>).</p>
-
-<p>3. The sporangia are situated in continuous lines just inside the
-margin of the leaf.&mdash;<i>Pteris</i><a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a>: the sporangia form a continuous
-line along the entire margin of the leaf (Fig. <a href="#fig211">211</a> <i>C</i>), which
-bends over and covers the sporangia, forming a “false-indusium.”
-<i>Pteridium</i> has linear sori situated on a marginal vascular
-bundle, covered by two linear basal indusia, of which the outer is bent
-over like the edge of a leaf.&mdash;<i>P. aquilinum</i> (Bracken) has a
-wide-spreading rhizome with large alternate leaves, placed on opposite
-sides, at some distance apart. Only one leaf is developed from each
-branch every year.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig211" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig211.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 211.</span>&mdash;Portions of leaves with sori.
-<i>A Polypodium</i>. <i>B Aspidium</i>. <i>C</i>
-<i>Pteridium</i>. <i>D</i> A sporangium of one of the Polypodiaceæ:
-<i>r</i> the annulus; <i>s</i> spores.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Adiantum</i> (Maiden-hair): sori on the underside of
-small portions of the edge of the leaf, which are bent over
-(false indusium). <i>Cryptogramme</i> (<i>Allosorus</i>),
-<i>Cheilanthes</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>4. The sori are oval or linear, situated on one side of the vascular
-bundle.&mdash;<i>Asplenium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig212">212</a> <i>A</i>): sori linear;
-indusium with one of its edges attached at the external side.
-<i>A. ruta muraria</i> (Wall-Rue); <i>A. septentrionale</i>; <i>A.
-trichomanes</i>.&mdash;<i>Athyrium</i>: sori linear or curved; <i>A.
-filix-fœmina</i> (Lady-Fern).&mdash;<i>Scolopendrium</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[214]</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig212">212</a>
-<i>B</i>): sori as in <i>Asplenium</i>, but situated in pairs across
-the lanceolate, entire leaves. Each sorus is covered on the external
-side by an indusium, whose free edges are parallel and approach each
-other. <i>S. vulgare</i> (Hart’s-tongue).&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Blechnum</i> (<i>B. spicant</i>, Hard Fern; the fertile leaves
-differ from the barren, the pinnæ being narrower, while the underside
-is almost entirely covered with sori, and hence they are of a much
-darker brownish hue than the barren ones).&mdash;<i>Ceterach</i>: indusium
-rudimentary or absent.</span></p>
-
-<p>5. Sori circular and covered by a shield-like, or reniform
-indusium.&mdash;<i>Aspidium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig211">211</a> <i>B</i>); the leaves wither away
-and leave no scar upon the root-stock. <i>A. filix-mas</i> (Male-Fern);
-<i>A. spinulosum</i>.&mdash;<i>Phegopteris</i> has no indusium, the withered
-bases of the leaf-stalks are persistent; <i>P. dryopteris</i> and <i>P.
-polypodioides</i>.</p>
-
-<p>6. The indusium is situated below the sori, and has the shape of a
-one-sided scale (<i>Cystopteris</i>, <i>Struthiopteris</i>), or of a
-cup or cupule, which in <i>Woodsia</i> is sometimes fimbriate (Fig. <a href="#fig212">212</a>
-<i>C</i>, <i>D</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig212" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig212.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 212.&mdash;<i>A Asplenium</i>. <i>B</i>
-<i>Scolopendrium</i>. <i>C Woodsia</i>; <i>D</i> single sorus of
-the same. <i>E Cyathea</i>: the sporangia have fallen off in the
-upper sori. (All magnified.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>7. The sori are situated on the margin of the leaf, and
-at the end of a vascular bundle. Indusium, semi-cupular.
-<i>Davallia.</i> Principally tropical species. 1 in S. Europe.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>This order is the greatest, comprising about 2,800 species, the
-majority being perennial plants. A few are large, and known as
-Tree-Ferns.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>As plants in conservatories and rooms the following are
-cultivated: species of <i>Gymnogramme</i> (tropical America),
-<i>Lomaria</i>, <i>Nephrolepis</i>, <i>Pteris</i> (<i>P.
-serrulata</i>, <i>cretica</i>).</p>
-
-<p>Officinal. <i>Aspidium filix-mas</i>, rhizome and the withered
-petioles.&mdash;Species of <i>Alsophila</i> and <i>Cibotium</i> give
-Penghawar Djambi. The rhizome of <i>Pteridium aquilinum</i>,
-var. <i>esculentum</i>, contains so much starch that it is used
-as food.</p>
-
-<p>The other orders of true Ferns deviate from the Polypodiaceæ,
-especially in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[215]</span> the formation of the annulus, the bursting of the
-sporangium and its mode of attachment and development, and in
-the differences in the formation of the prothallium, etc. The
-principal are:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Hymenophyllaceæ.</b> To this order belong the lowest
-and most Moss-like Ferns; the leaves, with the exception of
-the veins, are most frequently formed of <i>only one layer of
-cells</i>, and consequently stomata are wanting; the formation
-of the prothallium also somewhat resembles the Mosses. Sori
-marginal, on the <i>extremities of the vascular bundles</i>,
-and surrounded by a <i>cupular indusium</i>. The sporangia
-are sessile, with equatorial annulus. <i>Hymenophyllum</i>
-(<i>H. tunbridgense</i>, European). <i>Trichomanes</i> (<i>T.
-speciosum</i>, European). Species about 200, which live
-especially on rocks and trees in damp and shady tropical
-forests. Some have no roots.</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Cyatheaceæ.</b> Annulus <i>complete</i> and oblique.
-To this order belong, principally, the tree-like Ferns with
-palm-like habit. The number of species is about 200, they are
-all tropical and form forests in some regions of Australia.
-<i>Cibotium</i> and <i>Dicksonia</i> have marginal sori, with
-cupular, basal indusium. (The stem of <i>D. antarctica</i> is
-covered with aerial roots.) <i>Alsophila</i> (without indusium);
-<i>Cyathea</i> with cupular, inferior indusium (Fig. <a href="#fig212">212</a>
-<i>E</i>).</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig213" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig213.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 213.</span>&mdash;<i>Gleichenia</i>: <i>A</i> part of
-a leaf with sori; <i>B</i> a single sorus.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Gleicheniaceæ.</b> Sporangia with equatorial
-annulus, and longitudinal dehiscence, most frequently groups of
-3–4 in sori without indusium (Fig. <a href="#fig213">213</a>). <i>Gleichenia</i>: the
-apical growth of the leaves continues for a long time.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Schizæaceæ.</b> Annulus apical. To this order
-belongs <i>Aneimia</i>, which is so commonly cultivated in
-conservatories. The two lowest pinnæ are metamorphosed,
-having no leaf parenchyma and being covered with sporangia.
-<i>Schizæa. Mohria. Lygodium</i>, a climber, whose
-leaves have unlimited growth and attain a length of several
-metres. About 70 species. Tropical.</p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Osmundaceæ.</b> The sporangia have at the apex a
-lateral group of strongly thickened cells, which gradually
-pass over into the ordinary cells. The sporangia open by a
-longitudinal cleft. Indusium wanting. <i>Osmunda</i> bears the
-sporangia upon peculiar, branched pinnæ, without parenchyma (the
-uppermost in the leaf). <i>O. regalis</i> (Royal-Fern): European.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class 2. <b>Hydropterideæ</b> (formerly Rhizocarpeæ), <b>Water
-Ferns</b>.</h3>
-
-<p>The following further characteristics must be added to those given on
-page 205:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[216]</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig214" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig214.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 214.</span>&mdash;<i>Salvinia natans</i>: <i>A</i>
-microsporangium with germinating microspores and protruding prothallia
-(<i>s</i>); <i>B</i> a prothallium with the bicellular antheridium
-(<i>s</i>) growing out of the microsporangium; <i>C</i> the two
-cells of the antheridium have opened by transverse clefts; beneath
-is seen the microspores enclosed by the hardened mucilage; <i>D</i>
-spermatozoids still enclosed in the mother-cells.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig215" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig215.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 215.</span>&mdash;<i>Salvinia natans. A</i>,
-<i>B</i> Female prothallia, <i>f-f</i>, protruding from the macrospore
-which is still enclosed in the macrosporangium; <i>œ</i> archegonia.
-<i>C</i> An embryo (× 16) still in connection with the spore
-(<i>s</i>): <i>a</i> the scutiform leaf; <i>b-e</i> the subsequent
-foliage-leaves, of which <i>b</i> and <i>c</i> stand singly,
-<i>d-e-v</i> in a whorl; <i>v</i> the submerged-leaf; <i>f-f</i>
-wing-like lobes of the prothallium: <i>m</i> the foot.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>Sexual generation.</b> The <span class="allsmcap">MICROSPORES</span> produce an extremely
-rudimentary prothallium, formed of only a single cell, and having
-also a very much reduced bicellular antheridium with a small number
-of spermatozoid mother-cells in each cell (in <i>Salvinia</i> 4, in
-<i>Marsilia</i> and <i>Pilularia</i> 16). In <i>Salvinia</i> the
-microspores remain embedded in a hard mucilaginous mass (at first
-frothy) which fills up the cavity of the sporangium. The prothallium
-must therefore<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[217]</span> grow out through this slime and also through the wall
-of the sporangium (Fig. <a href="#fig214">214</a>), and it thus terminates in a relatively
-long cell.</p>
-
-<p>In <i>Marsilia</i> the microspores are set free from the
-microsporangium, and the prothallia, with the antheridia, remain
-in them until the spermatozoids are liberated. The latter are
-spirally-twisted threads.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">MACROSPORES</span>, on germination, give rise to a very reduced
-prothallium, which in <i>Salvinia</i> bears 3 archegonia; but, if these
-are not fertilised, the prothallium may continue to grow and become a
-fairly large, green body with several archegonia (Fig. <a href="#fig215">215</a> <i>A</i>,
-<i>B</i>). In <i>Marsilia</i> the prothallium is still more reduced,
-it is enclosed in the macrospore, and only bears one archegonium. The
-archegonia are similar in structure to those of the Ferns, but are
-smaller, and sunk more deeply in the tissue of the prothallium.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig216" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig216.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 216.</span>&mdash;<i>Salvinia natans. A</i>
-An archegonium, unripe, seen in longitudinal section: <i>h</i> the
-neck-cells; <i>k</i> the neck-canal-cells; <i>c</i> the central cell.
-<i>B</i> An open archegonium of which the neck-cells have separated
-off. <i>C</i> An open, old archegonium seen from the top.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>The asexual generation</b> is developed from the fertilised
-egg-cell. It is a dorsiventral, horizontal shoot. In <i>Salvinia</i>
-it bears at first a shield-like leaf, the scutiform leaf (Fig. <a href="#fig215">215</a>
-<i>C</i>, <i>a</i>), which is succeeded by the ordinary foliage-leaves.
-The young plants of <i>Marsilia</i>, likewise, have less perfect leaves
-in the very early stage.</p>
-
-<p>The formation of the sporangium is the same as in the Leptosporangiate
-Ferns. (The 16 spore-mother-cells originate from one central,
-tetrahedric archesporium.)</p>
-
-<p>The Hydropterideæ are divided into 2 orders, the chief differences
-between them being found in the asexual generation.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[218]</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig217" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig217.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 217.</span>&mdash;<i>Salvinia natans</i> (natural
-size): <i>A</i> seen from above, floating on the water; <i>B</i> a
-portion seen from the side in its natural position in the water.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig218" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig218.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 218.</span>&mdash;Sori of <i>Salvinia</i> in
-longitudinal section: <i>h</i> microsporangia; <i>m</i> macrosporangia. (× 10.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Salviniaceæ.</b> This order more nearly approaches the true
-Ferns, especially so on account of the form of the indusium. Only one
-species is found in Europe, <i>Salvinia natans</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig217">217</a>). This
-is a small, floating, annual, aquatic plant, entirely <i>destitute
-of roots</i>. The dorsiventral, horizontal stem bears two kinds of
-leaves, which are arranged in whorls of three. Two of these which turn
-upwards are oval, entire, “<i>aerial foliage-leaves</i>” (Fig. <a href="#fig217">217</a> B,
-<i>b<sup>2</sup></i>-<i>b<sup>3</sup></i>); the third, the “<i>water-leaf</i>” (<i>b<sup>1</sup></i>)
-is submerged and divided into a number of hair-like segments, similar
-to the submerged leaves in many aquatic plants, for instance,
-Water-buttercup (see also Fig. <a href="#fig215">215</a> <i>C</i>). The whorls of leaves
-alternate with each other; there are thus 4 rows of dorsally-placed
-aerial leaves, and two rows of ventrally-placed submerged leaves. The
-sporangia are situated in sori, each sorus being borne on a small
-column (receptacle or placenta) and enveloped by a <i>cupular</i>, but
-<i>entirely closed indusium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig218">218</a>). <i>The sori are situated
-on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[219]</span> the submerged leaves</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig217">217</a> <i>B</i>, <i>s-s</i>) <i>and are
-unisexual</i>, <i>i.e.</i> each sorus contains microsporangia only, or
-macrosporangia.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Azolla</i> belongs to this order. It is a very small,
-floating, tropical water-plant (America and East India), with
-horizontal, root-bearing stem. The stem branches profusely by
-lateral buds, and bears the two rows of leaves on its dorsal
-side, the roots on the ventral side. Each leaf is bifid, and
-divided into an upper dorsal, and a lower ventral portion.
-The upper segments float on the surface of the water and
-are arranged like tiles on a roof, each one overlapping its
-neighbour. In each floating segment a large cavity is found, in
-which <i>Anabæna</i> is always present. The lower segments are
-submerged.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Marsiliaceæ.</b> The characteristic feature of this
-order, and one not possessed by other Fern-like plants, is that the
-sori (2–many) are enveloped <i>in leaf-segments</i> which <i>close
-round them</i> and form a “sporocarp,” just in the same manner as the
-carpels, in the Angiospermous Flowering-plants, close round the ovules
-and form ovaries. The sori contain both micro-and macrosporangia. When
-the spores are ripe, the sporocarp opens in order to disperse the
-spores (Fig. <a href="#fig220">220</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig219" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig219.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 219.</span>&mdash;<i>Marsilia salvatrix</i> (natural
-size): <i>K</i> terminal bud; <i>b</i> leaves; <i>f</i> sporocarps;
-<i>x</i> point of branching of petiole.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The two genera (with 57 species, Temperate, Tropics) are land-and
-marsh-plants, whose dorsiventral, creeping stem bears roots on the
-under surface, and the leaves in two rows on the upper side (Figs.
-<a href="#fig219">219</a>, <a href="#fig221">221</a>). The leaves of <i>Marsilia</i> are compound, and divided
-into four small leaflets springing from the apex of the petiole (Fig.
-<a href="#fig219">219</a>), and resemble the leaves of <i>Oxalis</i>. In the bud the leaves
-are circinate (Fig. <a href="#fig219">219</a> <i>b</i>), and at night they exhibit the
-well-known sleep-movements. The sporocarps are borne on the petioles
-of the fertile leaves, near their bases (Fig. <a href="#fig219">219</a> <i>f</i>); they
-are oblong and resemble small beans, the outer cells being hard and
-sclerenchymatous, while the inner ones are divided into a number of
-loculi arranged in two rows. On<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[220]</span> germination, water is absorbed, the
-two sides separate slightly, as valves (Fig. <a href="#fig220">220</a> <i>A</i>), and a
-long vermiform mass of gelatinous, parenchymatous cells (Fig. <a href="#fig220">220</a>),
-swollen by the water, emerges, bearing a large number of sori arranged
-pinnately. Each sorus (<i>sr</i>) is covered by a thin indusium. (The
-thin covering may be considered an indusium physiologically, though not
-morphologically).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig220" style="width: 321px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig220.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 220.</span>&mdash;<i>Marsilia salvatrix</i>: <i>A</i>
-the sporocarp commencing to germinate; <i>B</i> a more advanced stage
-of germination.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig221" style="width: 268px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig221.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 221.</span>&mdash;<i>Pilularia globulifera</i>
-(natural size): <i>s</i> sporocarps; <i>b</i> leaves; <i>k</i> the
-growing point; <i>r</i> roots.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Marsilia quadrifolia</i>, in Europe. Many species are found
-in Australia. The nutritious sporocarps of <i>M. salvatrix</i>
-were the means of saving the Burke expedition in the interior of
-Australia, and hence this species has earned its specific name.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><i>Pilularia</i> has linear leaves, without lamina. The sporocarps are
-spheroid (Fig. <a href="#fig221">221</a>), brown and hard, and situated near the base of the
-leaves. They are 2–4 chambered and open by a corresponding number of
-valves.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[221]</span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Class 2. <b>Equisetinæ (Horsetails.)</b></h3>
-
-<p>The characteristics of this class have been described on page <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</p>
-
-<p>It is divided into two sub-classes:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">The isosporous Equisetinæ.</span> To this sub-class belong, with
-certainty, only the <span class="smcap">Equisetaceæ</span> now existent, which are
-represented by only one genus, <i>Equisetum</i>.</p>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">The heterosporous Equisetinæ.</span> Forms which are now extinct.</p>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class 1. <b>Isosporous Equisetinæ.</b></h3>
-
-<p>Order. <b>Equisetaceæ (Horsetails).</b></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig222" style="width: 524px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig222.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 222.</span>&mdash;<i>Equisetum arvense.</i> The
-prothallium highly magnified. <i>A</i> Male; <i>s, s</i> antheridia.
-<i>B</i> Portion of a female, cut through vertically; <i>œ œ</i>
-archegonia, the central one is fertilised; <i>h h</i> root-hairs.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig223" style="width: 247px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig223.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 223.</span>&mdash;<i>Equisetum maximum.</i>
-Spermatozoids: <i>a</i> shows them still enveloped by the mother-cell.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>The sexual generation.</b> The prothallium is green and leaf-like,
-as in the majority of Ferns, but irregularly branched and curled. It
-is often unisexual. The male prothallia bear antheridia only, and
-are smaller and less branched (Fig. <a href="#fig222">222</a> <i>A</i>) than the female;
-the latter may attain a diameter of ½ an inch, and bear archegonia
-only (Fig. <a href="#fig222">222</a> <i>B</i>). The antheridia and the archegonia resemble
-those of the Ferns, but the spermatozoids (Fig. <a href="#fig223">223</a>) are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[222]</span> larger and
-less twisted. On the last curve is situated a more or less elongated
-appendage of cytoplasm (Fig. <a href="#fig223">223</a> <i>c</i>).</p>
-
-<p><b>The asexual generation.</b> The embryo is similar to that of the
-Ferns. The fully developed <i>Equisetum</i> is a perennial herb, with
-widely creeping (in some species tuberous) rhizome, from which extend
-erect, aerial, most frequently annual shoots.</p>
-
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig224" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig224.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 224.</span>&mdash;<i>Equisetum arvense</i>: <i>a</i>
-fertile branch with cone; <i>b</i> vegetative shoot; <i>c</i> cone;
-<i>d</i> sporophylls.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The vegetative aerial <span class="allsmcap">STEMS</span> are divided into a number of
-internodes by the whorls of leaves (Fig. <a href="#fig224">224</a>). The internodes are
-hollow, the cavities being separated from each other by the transverse
-partitions of the solid nodes. The lower portion of the internode,
-which is encased by the leaves, has much thinner and softer cell-walls,
-so that the stem is easily separated into segments just above the
-nodes. Each internode has a large number of ridges and furrows,
-and bears at its apex a whorl of leaves whose number and position
-correspond to the ridges of the internode. As in the case of other
-verticillate plants, the whorls are placed alternately, one above
-the other; the same arrangement is also found in the ridges on two
-successive internodes. In addition to the large air-cavity in the
-centre of each internode (the central cavity), a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[223]</span> whorl of tubular
-air-passages is found in the cortex of the stems, opposite the furrows
-(vallecular canals). There is also a similar air-passage (carinal
-canals) in each of the vascular bundles, which are placed in a ring,
-one opposite each ridge, and therefore alternating with the vallecular
-canals. The vascular bundles are <i>collateral</i> as in the majority
-of Flowering-plants, but poorly developed. The xylem of each bundle
-consists of two groups of annular or spiral vessels, close to the outer
-border of the carinal canal, and two groups of scalariform tracheides,
-each placed on a radius passing through a group of spiral vessels.
-The phloëm is placed between these four groups, each of which has
-only a few vessels. The stiffness of the stems is mainly due to the
-large amount of silica in the cell-walls of the epidermis, and to the
-sclerenchymatous cells of the ridges.</p>
-
-<p>All <span class="allsmcap">LEAVES</span> are situated in <i>whorls</i>. The
-<span class="allsmcap">VEGETATIVE</span> are simple, undivided, 1-nerved, and are united
-into toothed sheaths (Fig. <a href="#fig224">224</a> <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>). The branching
-of the stems in some species (<i>E. arvense</i>) is very abundant.
-The branches break through the base of the leaf-sheaths (Fig. <a href="#fig224">224</a>
-<i>b</i>), and generally <i>alternate with the teeth</i> (leaves).</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">FERTILE LEAVES</span> (<i>sporophylls</i>) are different from
-the barren ones. They are <i>free, shield-like</i>, each one having a
-short stalk bearing usually an hexagonal plate (Fig. <a href="#fig224">224</a> <i>d</i>),
-and closely compressed into an ear or cone (Fig. <a href="#fig224">224</a> <i>a</i>,
-<i>c</i>). The <i>Equisetums</i> thus present an advance in development
-distinctly beyond that of the Ferns, which is further emphasized by
-the circumstance that a transition from the sheath-leaves to the
-fertile-leaves is found in the involucre or annulus, a “collar” of
-specially modified leaves situated at the base of the cone (Fig.
-<a href="#fig224">224</a> <i>a</i> and <i>c</i>). The cone may be considered as a very
-rudimentary flower, and the annulus may be regarded as a very early
-stage in the formation of a flower (perianth). See page <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">SPORANGIA</span> are situated on the underside of the
-sporophylls, one at each angle; they are sac-like, and open inwardly
-by a longitudinal cleft (Fig. <a href="#fig224">224</a> <i>d</i>). An annulus is wanting;
-but in the wall of the sporangium, as in the pollen-sacs of the
-Flowering-plants, a layer of cells, with annular or spiral thickenings,
-is developed, which assists in the dehiscence of the sporangium.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">SPORES</span> are green; the walls composed of four distinct
-layers, of which the outer is gradually separated, except at one point,
-and becomes split into four long bands (<i>elaters</i>) (Fig. <a href="#fig225">225</a>).<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[224]</span>
-The elaters are extremely hygroscopic, coiling round the spore when
-moistened, and expanding as soon as dry, presenting a most lively
-object under the microscope when breathed upon and allowed to dry. The
-second layer, when germination commences, becomes detached from the
-inner wall, which is formed of the exospore and endospore.</p>
-
-<p>The order has become much reduced, and at the present time includes
-only one genus, <i>Equisetum</i>, with about twenty-five species,
-which are distributed over the entire globe, particularly in damp
-situations. In <span class="allsmcap">SOME SPECIES</span> the barren shoots are green and
-very much branched, but the fertile ones are unbranched, pale brown,
-and possess no chlorophyll (<i>E. arvense</i>, Field-Horsetail, Fig.
-<a href="#fig224">224</a>, and <i>E. maximum</i>). <span class="smcap">In others</span> the fertile and barren
-shoots are alike green, and either both unbranched (<i>E. hiemale</i>),
-or branched (<i>E. palustre</i>, <i>E. limosum</i>, etc). The fertile
-shoots of <i>E. silvaticum</i>, up to maturity, resemble those without
-chylorophyll of <i>E. arvense</i>, but after that period they produce
-green branches, and thus resemble the barren ones.</p>
-
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig225" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig225.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 225.</span>&mdash;Spores of <i>Equisetum</i>: <i>A</i>
-damp, with elaters (<i>e</i>) coiled round the spore; <i>B</i> dry,
-with elaters expanded.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Extinct isosporous Equisetinæ.</span> In addition to several
-true species of fossilized <i>Equisetums</i>, the order of
-the <span class="smcap">Calamites</span>, which no doubt is closely allied to
-the Equisetinæ, is also found in the fossil state. These were
-gigantic forms, attaining about twenty times the size of
-those of the present day, and stems of nearly 10–12 metres in
-height are known. They reached the culminating point of their
-development in the Carboniferous period, and died out towards
-the close of the Palæozoic. The stems had hollow internodes and
-alternating grooves, similar to their relatives of the present
-day. The leaves must either have been absent or very perishable,
-since they have not been identified with certainty. If the
-determinations of certain remains of cones which of late have
-been discovered are correct, they were heterosporous and had
-two kinds of sporangia as in the following sub-class. A cambium
-formation and an increase in thickness has been found in the
-stems.</p>
-
-<p>Their <span class="allsmcap">USES</span> are very limited. A few species, such as
-<i>E. hiemale</i> are used for polishing on account of the hard
-siliceous cell-walls of the epidermis, found in all species of
-<i>Equisetum</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[225]</span></p>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class 2. <b>Heterosporous Equisetinæ.</b></h3>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The two orders which come under this head are united by the
-characteristics, that the verticillate leaves are not united
-into sheaths (Fig. <a href="#fig226">226</a>), and that between each whorl of fertile
-leaves there is also a whorl of barren ones. The fertile whorls
-in <span class="smcap">Annulariæ</span> are situated about midway between the
-barren ones (Fig. <a href="#fig227">227</a>), but in <span class="smcap">Asterophylliteæ</span> they
-occur immediately above a barren whorl (Fig. <a href="#fig228">228</a>) and contain
-only half as many members as the latter. The lower whorls bear
-macrosporangia with one macrospore, the upper, microsporangia
-with many microspores.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig226" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig226.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 226.</span>&mdash;A. fragment of <i>Annularia</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig227" style="width: 284px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig227.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 227.</span>&mdash;Fragment of <i>Annularia
-longifolia</i>, with sporangia; the leaves have partly fallen off: a
-barren whorls; <i>s</i> fertile whorls.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig228" style="width: 235px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig228.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 228.</span>&mdash;Fragment of cone of
-<i>Asterophyllites</i> (<i>Volkmannia elongata</i>): <i>a</i> and
-<i>s</i> as in Fig. <a href="#fig227">227</a>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The <span class="smcap">Annulariæ</span> were distichous (Fig. <a href="#fig226">226</a>), and
-presumably floating plants. The <span class="smcap">Asterophylliteæ</span>
-had verticellate branches. These also died out after the
-Carboniferous period, at the close of the Palæozoic.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[226]</span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Class 3. <b>Lycopodinæ</b> (<b>Club-Mosses</b>).</h3>
-
-<p>The characteristics of this class have been given on page <a href="#Page_205">205</a>. It
-consists of two sub-classes, one embracing isosporous, the other
-heterosporous forms.</p>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class 1. <b>Lycopodieæ</b> (<span class="smcap">Isosporous</span> Lycopodinæ).</h3>
-
-<p>One kind of spore. Prothallium large, partly green. Leaves without
-ligule.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig229" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig229.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 229.</span>&mdash;<i>Lycopodium annotinum</i>:
-<i>A</i> embryo (nat. size), with prothallium (<i>pr</i>), one embryo
-is broken off; <i>B</i> the prothallium (slightly magnified); <i>C</i>
-section through the prothallium and embryo in the direction <i>a-b</i>
-of <i>A</i>, and vertically in the plane of the paper.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig230" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig230.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 230.</span>&mdash;<i>Lycopodium clavatum</i>: portion
-of a stem, bearing cones (<i>a</i>); <i>s</i> a spore; <i>h</i>
-sporangium in the axil of a leaf, <i>s</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Lycopodiaceæ.</b> The <span class="allsmcap">PROTHALLIUM</span> is only known in
-a few species at present, but in these it is more or less tubercular,
-and bears both antheridia and archegonia.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In <i>L. annotinum</i> the prothallium is a relatively large
-mass of cells, without chlorophyll, and subterranean, in which
-the antheridia and archegonia are embedded (Fig. <a href="#fig229">229</a>). In the
-widely distributed tropical species, <i>L. cernuum</i>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[227]</span> and in
-<i>L. inundatum</i>, it is a small tubercular body which has a
-subterranean portion, with either little or no chlorophyll; and
-an aerial green portion. The prothallia of <i>L. phlegmaria</i>
-and others live saprophytically in the crevices of the bark of
-trees; they are partly filamentous, branched, and possess no
-chlorophyll.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <b>asexual generation</b>. <span class="smcap">Perennial plants.</span> The stem
-branches monopodially (often apparently dichotomously), and is thickly
-covered by small, simple, triangular or scale-like leaves. The leaves
-are spirally arranged in some species (Figs. <a href="#fig229">229</a>, <a href="#fig230">230</a>), and in others,
-whose stem is compressed with unequal sides, opposite (Fig. <a href="#fig231">231</a>). The
-roots of <i>Lycopodium</i> are dichotomously branched.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">SPORANGIA</span> in <i>Lycopodium</i> are situated singly at
-the base of the leaves, almost in their axils; they are reniform,
-unilocular and open like a mussel-shell by two valves (Fig. <a href="#fig230">230</a>
-<i>h</i>). The sporangia are developed from a group of surface cells.
-The archesporium is formed from one hypodermal cell (or perhaps a
-cell-row).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig231" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig231.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 231.</span>&mdash;<i>Lycopodium complanatum</i>:
-<i>a</i> leaves on the edges of the stem; <i>d</i> leaves on the sides.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig232" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig232.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 232.</span>&mdash;<i>Lycopodium clavatum.</i> A
-tetrahedral spore seen from above, where the three borders join; and a
-tetrad of bilateral spores, still lying in the mother-cell.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The fertile leaves are collected upon definite regions of the stem.
-They are either similar to the barren ones, and then the fertile
-portions of the stem pass gradually, without any break, into the barren
-portion (<i>L. selago</i>); or they differ from the barren leaves, and
-are then collected into special apical cones (Fig. <a href="#fig230">230</a> <i>a</i>). The
-<span class="allsmcap">SPORES</span> are tetrahedral or bilateral (Fig. <a href="#fig232">232</a>).</p>
-
-<p>About 100 species, chiefly tropical.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Five species of <i>Lycopodium</i> are found in Great
-Britain. <i>L. clavatum</i> and <i>L. selago</i> are common
-in mountainous districts. <i>L. annotinum</i> is common in
-the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[228]</span> Highlands of Scotland. The other genus of the order is
-<i>Phylloglossum</i>, with one species, <i>P. drummondi</i>
-(Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand), a small plant only a
-few centimetres high, with two tubers, and about eleven linear
-leaves at the base of the stem which is terminated by a cone of
-sporophylls.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Fossil</span> Lycopodiaceæ in the Carboniferous
-period.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: “Lycopodium,” the spores of <i>L.
-clavatum</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Family 2. <b>Psilotaceæ</b>. The sporangia are placed on the
-apex of short, two-leaved stems, as 2–3, seldom four, small
-capsules. Small herbs, with angular stems; leaves small, simple,
-and one nerved. Only four species.&mdash;<i>Psilotum</i> (Madagascar,
-Moluccas, Sandwich Islands, etc.) is destitute of roots, their
-place being supplied by special underground stems which bear
-a few modified leaves, very much reduced, especially when
-buried deeply in the soil. Three species.&mdash;<i>Tmesipteris</i>
-(Australia), one species.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class 2. <b>Selaginelleæ</b> (<span class="smcap">Heterosporous</span> Lycopodinæ).</h3>
-
-<p>Micro-and macrospores. The prothallia are very much reduced, especially
-the male; the female does not leave the spore. The leaves are ligulate.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig233" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig233.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 233.</span>&mdash;Germination of the microspores of
-<i>Selaginella</i>: <i>A</i> the spore rendered transparent, seen
-from above. In the interior is seen the prothallium (<i>f</i>),
-and the first divisions of the antheridium (<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>,
-<i>c</i>, <i>d</i>); in <i>B</i> the spore-wall is removed and all
-the spermatozoid-mother-cells formed; in <i>C</i>, the microspore
-has opened and the spermatozoids and the mother-cells are escaping
-together.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>The sexual generation.</b> In the <span class="smaller">MICROSPORES</span> are formed: (1)
-a very small “vegetative” cell, representing the vegetative part of the
-prothallium (<i>f</i> in Fig. <a href="#fig233">233</a> <i>A, B</i>), and (2) a cell many
-times larger and which divides into a number (4–8) of primordial cells,
-each of which divides into four spermatozoid-mother-cells, though all
-of these may not develope spermatozoids. On germination, when the
-spore-wall is ruptured, the spermatozoids and spermatozoid-mother-cells
-are ejected into the water.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="smaller">SPERMATOZOIDS</span> in <i>Selaginella</i> are elongated and
-club-shaped, with two cilia (Fig. <a href="#fig234">234</a>); but in <i>Isoëtes lacustris</i>
-they are spirally-twisted threads which differ from all other
-spermatozoids by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[229]</span> having a bunch of cilia <i>at each end</i>; the other
-species of <i>Isoëtes</i> have cilia only at the anterior end.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">MACROSPORES</span>. Shortly after the macrospores have been set
-free, or in <i>Selaginella</i>, while still enclosed in the sporangium
-of the mother-plant, they germinate and soon become filled with the
-cellular tissue of the prothallium, and even in <i>Selaginella</i>
-the archegonium begins to be formed before the rupture of the
-spore-cell-wall has commenced (Fig. <a href="#fig235">235</a> <i>A</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig234" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig234.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 234.</span>&mdash;Spermatozoids of <i>Selaginella</i>:
-<i>b</i> with a remnant of cytoplasm.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig235" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig235.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 235.</span>&mdash;Macrospore of <i>Selaginella</i>:
-<i>A</i> longitudinal section, before the rupture of the wall, six
-weeks after being sown. The endosperm (<i>e</i>) has not yet filled the
-entire chamber. Cell-formation is still proceeding in the lower part of
-the spore. The endosperm and prothallium (<i>f f</i>) are separated by
-a distinct line (diaphragm). <i>B</i> Germinating macrospore seen from
-outside: <i>s</i> wall of the spore; <i>æ</i> archegonia.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig236" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig236.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 236.</span>&mdash;Archegonia of <i>Selaginella</i>:
-<i>A</i> unripe, in longitudinal section; <i>c</i> the central cell;
-<i>k</i> neck-canal-cell, which is wedged in between the two-storied
-neck-cells; <i>B</i> ripe; <i>u</i> ventral canal-cell; <i>C</i> seen
-from above, open. It will be noticed that the neck is formed of two
-tiers of four cells each.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">ARCHEGONIA</span> are constructed on the same plan as those of
-the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[230]</span> other Archegoniatæ, but are quite embedded in the prothallium
-(Figs. <a href="#fig235">235</a> <i>æ</i>, <a href="#fig236">236</a>).</p>
-
-<p><b>The asexual generation</b> varies very much in the different orders.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig237" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig237.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 237.</span>&mdash;<i>Isoëtes lacustris</i> (slightly
-diminished): <i>st</i> the stem; <i>r</i> roots; <i>b</i> leaves.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig238" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig238.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 238.</span>&mdash;<i>Isoëtes lacustris</i>.
-Longitudinal section through the base of the leaf with a
-microsporangium. The edge of the groove, in which the microspangium is
-placed, is continued as a thin covering which envelopes the sporangium.
-The inferior edge of the ligular groove (<i>L</i>) forms a lip
-(<i>J</i>); <i>t</i> sterile cell-rows (trabeculæ) which divide the
-sporangium into compartments; <i>l</i> vascular bundle.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig239" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig239.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 239.</span>&mdash;<i>Selaginella inæqualifolia</i>.
-Cone in longitudinal section; microsporangia are seen on the left
-side, macrosporangia on the right (most frequently each with four
-macrospores).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Isoëtaceæ (Quill-worts).</b> The only known genus,
-<i>Isoëtes</i> (Quill-wort), has an extremely short, tuberous,
-<i>unbranched</i> stem with very short internodes (Fig. <a href="#fig237">237</a>).
-The <span class="allsmcap">STEM</span> is remarkable as being the only one among the
-Vascular Cryptogams which increases in thickness (see page <a href="#Page_202">202</a>).
-The meristematic cells are situated round the axial cylinder, and
-form, especially, parenchymatous tissue in two or three directions,
-giving rise to 2–3 grooves in which the dichotomously-branched
-<span class="allsmcap">ROOTS</span> are produced. The <span class="allsmcap">LEAVES</span> are arranged spirally
-in a close rosette.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[231]</span> They are awl-shaped and have at the base a
-semi-amplexicaul sheath, with a groove (<i>fovea</i>), in which a
-sporangium is situated (Fig. <a href="#fig238">238</a>). The ligule is a foliar outgrowth
-from the upper edge of the groove.&mdash;The <span class="allsmcap">MACROSPORANGIA</span> (each
-with a number of macrospores), are situated on the outer leaves, the
-<span class="allsmcap">MICROSPORANGIA</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig238">238</a>), on the inner ones. Between each
-cycle of fertile leaves there are a number of imperfect or barren ones
-as in the case of the female plant of <i>Cycas</i>. The spores are
-liberated by the decay of the sporangium. The two kinds of sporangia
-develope at the commencement in the same way. The archesporium is, at
-first, a hypodermal layer of cells which grow out in the direction
-perpendicular to the surface of the leaf, and divide by a number
-of walls parallel to this direction, forming a sporogenous mass of
-cells. Some of the cell-rows of this sporogenous mass lose their
-rich protoplasmic contents, and are arrested in their growth; thus
-incomplete divisional walls of sterile cells, “<i>trabeculæ</i>”
-arise in the sporangium, dividing it into a number of compartments
-one above the other (Fig. <a href="#fig238">238</a> <i>t</i>). (The trabeculæ, according to
-Goebel, play the same part as the nutritive cells of the sporangium
-of <i>Riella</i>; the tapetal cells, as in the Ferns, are in a great
-measure dissolved at a later period.) The sporogenous cell-rows, in
-the microsporangia, give rise to a large number of spore-mother-cells,
-but in the macrosporangia only one spore-mother-cell, with tapetum, is
-developed from each fertile archesporial cell.</p>
-
-<p>The two native species, and several others, are aquatic plants, the
-remaining species are land plants, or are amphibious. About 50 species.
-In temperate and tropical regions.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Fossil</span> species in the
-Tertiary period.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Selaginellaceæ.</b> This order contains only one genus,
-<i>Selaginella</i>. The <span class="allsmcap">STEM</span>, in the majority of species, is
-dorsiventral, long and slender, and apparently branches dichotomously,
-but in reality <i>monopodially</i>, with well developed lateral shoots.
-The <span class="allsmcap">LEAVES</span> are small, round, or ovate, in the majority of
-species arranged in whorls of two leaves each; these whorls, however,
-are not decussate, but are considerably inclined towards each other,
-an arrangement by which four rows of leaves are produced, each whorl
-having one large and one small leaf. The two leaves in each whorl are
-of unequal size, the smaller one being placed on the upper surface and
-the larger on the lower surface of the stem (Fig. <a href="#fig240">240</a>). Some species
-have spirally-arranged leaves, more resembling the arrangement in the
-<i>Lycopodiums</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[232]</span></p>
-
-<p>The <span class="smaller">FERTILE LEAVES</span> most frequently differ from the barren
-ones, and are collected into spike-like cones (a kind of flower;
-Fig. <a href="#fig239">239</a>). Micro-and macrosporangia are found in the same cone (Fig.
-<a href="#fig239">239</a>). Each sporangium arises from a group of superficial cells of
-the stem, directly over the leaf on which it will be situated later
-on. Each sporangium has a hypodermal, unicellular archesporium, and
-contains a layer of tapetal cells; these are dissolved later, when
-the spores are ripe, and not before as in the Ferns. In the very
-early stages of their development, the micro-and macrosporangia are
-precisely similar, and the differences between them arise later on.
-In the microsporangium all the spore-mother-cells divide, and each
-forms four tetrahedrically-arranged microspores (Fig. <a href="#fig204">204</a>); but in the
-macrosporangium only four macrospores are formed, by the division of
-a <i>single mother-cell</i>, while the remaining spore-mother-cells
-are aborted. It is rarely that the macrosporangia contain 2 or 8
-macrospores.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig240" style="width: 307px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig240.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 240.</span>&mdash;<i>Selaginella martensii</i>:
-<i>s</i> lower leaves; <i>r</i> upper leaves.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>For the <span class="smaller">GERMINATION OF THE SPORES</span>, see pages <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.
-The prothallium arises in the macrospore (<i>f-f</i>, in Fig.
-<a href="#fig235">235</a> <i>A</i>), probably by division of the meniscus-shaped
-protoplasmic mass, which is marked off at the apex of the spore;
-primordial cells are thus formed which later on are surrounded
-by a cell-wall. In six to seven weeks after sowing, the
-spore-wall is ruptured by the growing prothallium, which already
-has developed archegonia (Fig. <a href="#fig235">235</a> <i>œ-œ</i>). The prothallium
-so formed does not occupy the entire cavity of the spore, but
-four to five weeks after sowing, the large-celled parenchyma
-is developed in the lower portion of the spore by free
-cell-formation; this has been termed by Pfeffer, “endosperm,”
-since it is similar to the endosperm of Flowering-plants.
-Goebel, however, has termed it “secondary prothallium,” as the
-homology with the endosperm of the Angiosperms is very doubtful.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <span class="smaller">FERTILISED OOSPHERE</span> divides into an upper (hypobasal)
-and a lower (epibasal) cell; from the latter alone the embryo is
-developed with its root, stem, foot, and two <i>cotyledons</i>, and
-the former gives rise to an organ which appears in this instance for
-the first time, but which occurs in all Flowering-plants, viz. the
-<i>suspensor</i>. This forces the embryo down into the “endosperm,”
-which is entirely or partially absorbed by the embryo. In the case of
-the Flowering-plants the embryo is developed with its longitudinal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[233]</span>
-axis in the elongation of the suspensor, but in <i>Selaginella</i> the
-embryo is situated <i>transversely</i> to it.</p>
-
-<p><i>Selaginella</i> (300–400 species), is essentially tropical, only one
-species living in the North (<i>S. spinulosa</i>), but others grow in
-Central and South Europe.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Lepidodendraceæ</b> are extinct, tree-like
-Lycopods, which are found especially in the Lower and Middle
-Carboniferous. Vegetatively they are most nearly related to
-<i>Lycopodium</i>, but the stem attained much larger proportions
-(about eleven metres in height and one metre in thickness),
-and had a cambium by which it increased in thickness. It was
-regularly dichotomous, and closely studded with spirally-placed
-leaves, which left behind them peculiar rhombic scars. The large
-cones resemble Pine-cones, and bore sporangia much larger than
-any which are now produced (the male ones as much as 2 cm.’s in
-length). The macrosporangia were situated at the base, and the
-microsporangia at the apex.</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Sigillariaceæ.</b> These are, presumably, another
-group of extinct tree-like Lycopods (especially in the Middle
-Carboniferous). The name has been derived from the seal-like
-scars, which the fallen leaves have left behind in longitudinal
-rows on the grooved stem. The rhizomes of these plants were
-formerly termed <i>Stigmaria</i>, and placed in a separate genus.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Sphenophyllaceæ</b> form an entirely extinct
-group. They do not definitely belong to any of the three large
-classes of Vascular Cryptogams, but it is perhaps best to
-place them in juxtaposition to these. They were herbaceous
-plants with verticillate, wedge-shaped leaves, with nerves
-branching dichotomously into equally strong branches. Micro-and
-macrosporangia were formed in the same cone; and were situated
-in the axils of the leaves, as in the Lycopods.</p>
-</div>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[234]</span></p>
-
-<h3 class="smaller"><b>The Transition from the Cryptogams to the Phanerogams.</b></h3>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>All the plants considered in the preceding chapters are included
-in the term <span class="smcap">Cryptogams</span>; all in the following chapters
-under the head of <span class="smcap">Phanerogams</span> (see page <a href="#Page_3">3</a>). Hofmeister’s
-pioneer works (1851, <i>Vergleichende Untersuchungen der höheren
-Kryptogamen</i>, etc.) and the numerous researches published later
-by other investigators, have closed the gap which was formerly
-thought to exist between these plants; so that we now, in the series:
-Bryophyta&mdash;Pteridophyta&mdash;Gymnospermæ&mdash;Angiospermæ see the expression of
-a single line of development in accordance with a definite plan. The
-forms through which this gradual development has taken place have in
-course of time, however, to a great extent died out, and only single
-links of the chain connecting the lowest to the highest still remain.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The alternation of generations</span>, which we found indicated in
-certain Thallophytes, can be proved with the greatest clearness in
-all the higher Cryptogams, from the Mosses upwards; it is also found
-in the Phanerogams, but not in such a pronounced degree, because one
-of the generations is so far reduced that it has almost given up its
-independence. For the sake of greater clearness, we will begin with the
-comparison of the sporophyte, asexual (second) generation.</p>
-
-
-<p class="center p1"><b>The asexual (2nd) generation of the Cormophytes.</b></p>
-
-<p>The asexual generation which follows from the further development of
-the fertilised oosphere, is, in the <i>Mosses</i>, only the sporogonium
-(according to one theory it is perhaps homologous with a spore-bearing
-leaf, situated upon a short stem, see p. <a href="#Page_187">187</a>); in <i>Filicinæ</i>,
-<i>Equisetinæ</i>, and <i>Lycopodinæ</i>, on the other hand, it is a
-highly developed plant differentiated into stem, leaf, and true root,
-and bearing the sporangia on its leaves. The <span class="smaller">MODIFICATION OF THE
-SHOOT</span> is very slight in <i>Filicinæ</i>. The first leaves of the
-embryo are very simple in form (Fig. <a href="#fig205">205</a>), but after a certain age all
-the leaves which arise are essentially alike. The fertile leaves do
-not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[235]</span> differ from the barren ones, and are found associated with them,
-and their formation does not limit the growth in length of the stem. It
-is only in a few of the true Ferns, and in the Hydropterideæ, that the
-fertile leaves differ considerably from the barren ones. A division of
-labour in which certain leaves are set apart for nutrition, and others
-for reproduction, is found more pronouncedly in the <i>Equisetinæ</i>
-and <i>Lycopodinæ</i>, for in these groups, with a few exceptions, the
-fertile and barren leaves are very dissimilar; the former are collected
-in special ear-like <i>cones</i>, which <i>terminate the further
-growth</i> of the short stems on which they are borne. In connection
-with the cone, leaves are sometimes developed which form a transition
-from the barren to the fertile ones (the “annulus” in Equisetaceæ),
-and in these cases the first indication of a flower with perianth
-or floral-leaves is to be traced. Among the Cryptogams the highest
-division of labour is found in <i>Selaginella</i> and <i>Isoëtes</i>,
-which have the two kinds of sporangia borne on <i>different</i>
-leaves. The division of labour (modification) is, however, still
-more pronounced in the <i>Phanerogams</i>: the leaves which bear the
-microsporangia (“pollen-sacs”) have quite different forms from those
-which bear macrosporangia (the “nucellus” in the ovule), the former
-are termed <i>stamens</i>, the latter <i>carpels</i>; in certain
-instances, too, there is even a contrast between the “male plants”
-and the “female plants.” Moreover, a division of labour, in a much
-greater degree, takes place in the leaves which do not directly take
-part in reproduction, and it is thus possible in many plants to draw
-a sharp line not only between stamens and carpels, but also between
-four or five distinct kinds of leaves, which differ in <i>form</i>,
-<i>structure</i>, and corresponding <i>functions</i>, and which appear
-in regular sequence on the shoot: namely, between “scale-leaves” and
-“foliage-leaves,”<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> both of which occur in the Cryptogams, and the
-“floral-leaves,” including the bracts and leaves of the “perianth,”
-which latter often differ from each other in form and colour,
-and are then separated into <i>sepals</i> and <i>petals</i>. The
-<i>leaves</i>&mdash;stamens and carpels&mdash;<i>which bear the sporangia</i>
-are termed sporophylls, and the shoot, or extremity of a shoot, whose
-leaves are modified into sporophylls, is <i>terminated in its further
-growth by their production, and is known as a flower</i>. The flower
-which is most<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[236]</span> completely furnished has calyx, corolla, stamens,
-and carpels arranged in this order. If the only sporophylls present
-are stamens, then it is said to be a <i>male</i> (<i>staminate</i>)
-flower, and if only carpels, then a <i>female</i> (<i>pistillate</i>)
-flower, and in both these cases the flowers are <i>unisexual</i>, or
-diclinous. If stamens and carpels are both present in the same flower,
-it is termed <i>hermaphrodite</i>. Diclinous plants in which the female
-flowers are situated on one plant, and the male flowers on another, are
-termed <i>diœcious</i>; and those in which the same plant bears the two
-kinds of flowers are termed <i>monœcious</i>. When the male, female,
-and hermaphrodite flowers are found in the same species, the plant is
-said to be <i>polygamous</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>The sporangia-bearing leaves&mdash;Sporophylls.</b> In the Mosses the
-asexual generation is only represented by the sporogonium, and if the
-theory is correct which considers the sporogonium to be an embryo
-consisting of a rudimentary stem and terminal leaf, then the spores are
-produced on the leaves in these plants. The sporangia in the Filicinæ
-are situated in groups (sori) on the back or on the edge of the leaves.
-The number of sporangia in the sorus diminishes very greatly in the
-Marattiaceæ and Gleicheniaceæ (three to four in the latter, Fig. <a href="#fig213">213</a>).
-In the Equisetinæ the sporangia are situated in a small number on the
-underside of shield-like leaves, and in Lycopodinæ, singly, in the
-axils of the fertile leaves, which are alike and bear either micro- or
-macrosporangia. In the Phanerogams there is a great difference between
-the stamens and carpels.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig241" style="width: 299px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig241.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 241.</span>&mdash;<i>Cycas</i>: <i>a</i> stamen (nat.
-size) seen from the under side; <i>b</i> four pollen-sacs, not yet
-open, forming a “sorus”; <i>c</i> three open pollen-sacs; <i>d</i> a
-pollen-grain.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig242" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig242.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 242.</span>&mdash;Stamens of <i>Araucaria</i>
-(pollen-sacs long and pendulous).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig243" style="width: 322px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig243.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 243.</span>&mdash;Male flower of <i>Taxus</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig244" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig244.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 244.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i> Cross section through a
-quadrilocular anther in different stages of development: <i>s</i>
-the seam where it bursts open; <i>vf</i> vascular bundle; <i>k</i>
-connective. <i>B</i> A stamen. <i>C</i> Another stamen seen from the
-front (<i>f</i>) and from the back (<i>b</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>Stamens.</b> In the lowest Phanerogams (<i>Cycadeæ</i>) there
-are many indications of relationship to the Ferns. The stamens
-are flat and broad, and have <i>on the back many pollen-sacs</i>
-(<i>microsporangia</i>) arranged in small groups (true <i>sori</i>),
-which even have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[237]</span> a small “placenta,” similar to the one possessed
-by the Ferns, and open towards the inside by a longitudinal cleft
-(Fig. <a href="#fig241">241</a>, compare Fig. <a href="#fig213">213</a>). A section of the <i>Coniferæ</i> agree
-more closely with the Equisetaceæ, in having a few (three to eight)
-pollen-sacs arranged on the underside of more or less shield-like
-leaves (Figs. <a href="#fig242">242</a>, <a href="#fig243">243</a>, compare with Fig. <a href="#fig224">224</a> <i>a</i>, <i>c</i>,
-<i>d</i>). In the Abietaceæ the number of sporangia is diminished
-to two, which are placed also on the lower side (Fig. <a href="#fig267">267</a>) of a
-stamen. The number of <i>pollen-sacs</i> (microsporangia) in the
-<i>Angiosperms</i> is nearly always four to each stamen; they are
-longitudinal projections which are placed in pairs on each side
-of the central line of the stamen, two on the edge, and the other
-two generally on the side which is turned inwards; the pollen-sacs
-generally dehisce longitudinally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[238]</span> (quadrilocular anthers, Fig. <a href="#fig244">244</a>).
-A few, for instance Orchidaceæ and Asclepiadaceæ, have only two
-pollen-sacs (bilocular anthers); and in others, such as <i>Solanum</i>
-and the Ericaceæ, they open by pores; in Lauraceæ and Berberidaceæ, by
-valves. The part of the stamen which bears the pollen-sacs is termed
-the <i>anther</i>. Most frequently this is supported by a stalk known
-as the <i>filament</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig245" style="width: 220px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig245.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 245.</span>&mdash;A carpel of <i>Cycas revoluta</i>
-with 5 ovules (<i>s</i>), at half to one-third nat. size.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig246" style="width: 291px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig246.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 246.</span>&mdash;Carpel with 2 ovules of
-<i>Ceratozamia robusta</i> (1/1).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>Carpels.</b> The simplest forms of carpels are found in
-<i>Cycas</i>. In this genus both the foliage and fertile leaves
-are pinnate, and hence present great similarity; the ovules
-(macrosporangia) are situated on the margin of the central portion,
-just as the sporangia are placed on the edge of the fertile leaf of
-<i>Ophioglossum</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig245">245</a>, compare with Fig. <a href="#fig209">209</a>). The carpels of
-the other Cycadeæ present greater divergence from the foliage-leaves,
-being peltate, for instance, in <i>Zamia</i> and <i>Ceratozamia</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig246">246</a>). The ovules in the Coniferæ are situated on the upper
-side and near the base of the ovuliferous scales, almost in the same
-position as the sporangia in the Lycopodinæ (Figs. <a href="#fig269">269</a>, <a href="#fig272">272</a>, <a href="#fig273">273</a>
-<i>H</i>, compare Figs. <a href="#fig230">230</a>, <a href="#fig239">239</a>). In <i>Taxus</i> the uninclosed
-ovule is placed on the apex of a shoot (Fig. <a href="#fig264">264</a>). In all these plants
-the ovules are <i>not enclosed</i> by the carpels, that is, they are
-not enclosed in chambers formed by the turning in of the walls of the
-carpel, and hence the name<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[239]</span> <i>Gymnospermæ</i> is given to them. In
-the higher Flowering-plants, the <i>Angiospermæ</i>, the ovules are
-distinctly situated on the edge, the upper surface, or base of the
-carpel; but the carpel closes round the ovules which are therefore
-enclosed in a chamber&mdash;the <i>ovary</i>. In a few cases, for example
-in the Polygonaceæ, an ovule is situated apparently on the apex of the
-stem itself, as in the Yew; in other cases, as in the Primulaceæ, many
-ovules are apparently developed on the apex of the stem, which seems
-to have been specially adapted as a placenta, but it is also possible
-and correct in these cases to suppose that the ovules are in reality
-developed on the carpels.<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> A single fully-developed carpel or a
-collection of carpels joined together is termed the <i>pistil</i>. The
-extremity of the carpel, which is specially developed to catch the
-pollen-grains and form a suitable nidus on which they may germinate,
-is called the <i>stigma</i>. The united edges of a carpel which bear
-the ovules are termed the <i>ventral suture</i>. The back of the carpel
-forms the <i>dorsal suture</i>. The Marsiliaceæ take a position among
-the Hydropterideæ analogous to that occupied by the Angiosperms; the
-sporangia are in a corresponding manner enveloped in a closed leaf.</p>
-
-<p>The collection of stamens in a flower is termed the <i>andrœcium</i>,
-and all the carpels, whether individually free or united into one
-pistil, the <i>gynœceum</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The <b>Sporangia</b>. The asexual generation of the <i>Mosses</i>
-is the sporogonium, in which the spores arise in tetrads from the
-mother-cells. The sporangia in the <i>Filicinæ</i> take their origin
-either from a single cell (Leptosporangiatæ) or, what probably
-may be regarded as an older stand-point, from a group of cells
-(Eusporangiatæ). In both cases there may be distinguished in a
-mature sporangium three tissues, which have different significance
-(Fig. <a href="#fig204">204</a>): (1) an external layer, the <i>sporangium-wall</i>,
-most frequently composed of one layer of cells made up of cells of
-dissimilar structure, so that on desiccation the wall is ruptured and
-the sporangium opens in a definite manner; (2) an internal group of
-cells, consisting of the <i>spore-mother-cells</i>, developed from
-an archesporium, and which by division into four gives rise to the
-<i>spores</i>; (3) a layer of cells lying between the two already
-mentioned, which is dissolved before maturity. The intermediate
-cellular layer, which directly surrounds the spore-forming cells,
-is in form and contents more worthy of note than the others, and is
-termed the <i>tapetum</i>. The construction<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">[240]</span> of the sporangium in the
-<i>Equisetinæ</i> and <i>Lycopodinæ</i> is in the main the same.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig247" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig247.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 247.</span>&mdash;Development of an anther. <i>A</i>
-Transverse section of a young anther of <i>Doronicum macrophyllum</i>.
-The formation of the 4 pollen-sacs commences by divisions of the
-hypodermal cells (at <i>m</i>, for instance). These cells divide
-by periclinal walls into external cells which only take part in
-forming the anther-wall; and internal cells, which correspond to
-the Archesporium, and from which the spores are derived. These
-spore-forming cells are drawn with thicker walls in <i>B-E</i>. The
-commencement of the vascular bundle is seen in the centre. <i>B</i> An
-older stage; the pollen-sacs already project considerably. It is the
-cells in the hypodermal layer which are active and in which tangential
-divisions particularly occur; <i>fv</i> vascular bundle. <i>C</i> A
-corresponding longitudinal section. <i>D</i> Transverse section through
-an older anther, the thickness of the wall outside the mother-cells of
-the pollen-grains is already increased, and it becomes still thicker
-by the division of the hypodermal cells: its most external layer of
-cells but one, becomes transformed into the “fibrous cells.” <i>E</i>
-Transverse section of a still older pollen-sac of <i>Menyanthes</i>;
-<i>sm</i> are the mother-cells of the pollen-grains surrounded by
-the tapetum (<i>t</i>), external to the tapetum is the anther-wall,
-which is still far from being fully developed. The sub-epidermal layer
-becomes “fibrous,” and the cells lying inside it become dissolved,
-together with the tapetum.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>In the <span class="smcap">Phanerogams</span> the <b>Microsporangia</b> are termed
-<b>Pollen-sacs</b>. They take their origin from a large group of cells,
-which, in the Angiosperms, lie immediately beneath the epidermal
-cells of the anther. In the developed, but not yet mature, sporangium
-(pollen-sac) there are to be found: (as in the Vascular Cryptogams)
-(1) an internal group of mother-cells which give rise to the
-<i>pollen-grains</i> (<i>microspores</i>), in this case also formed in
-tetrads; (2) a group of cells surrounding these, of which the internal
-ones form a <i>tapetal layer</i>, similar to that in the Vascular
-Cryptogams; the tapetum<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">[241]</span> and some of the cells surrounding it in this
-group, become dissolved before maturity; the more external ones, on
-the other hand, are provided with peculiar thickenings, and form the
-“fibrous” layer by the aid of which the dehiscence of the anther takes
-place; (3) an external layer, the epidermis, enclosing all the other
-layers (Fig. <a href="#fig247">247</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In some Coniferæ (<i>Cupressus</i>, <i>Thuja</i>, and several
-species of <i>Juniperus</i>) the microsporangia (pollen-sacs),
-which are situated on the under side of the stamen, are covered
-by a thin structure which seems to be a continuation of the
-lamina and which is supposed to be homologous with the indusium
-of the Ferns.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig248" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig248.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 248.</span>&mdash;Development of the ovule in the Red
-Currant, <i>Ribes rubrum</i>, arranged alphabetically in the order
-of development. <i>A</i> Is the youngest stage, <i>E</i> the oldest.
-<i>ii</i> Inner integument; <i>ie</i> outer integument; <i>nc</i>
-nucellus; <i>m</i> archespore (mother-cell of the embryo-sac).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>The Ovule</b> in the Phanerogams arises most frequently on a
-projecting portion of the carpel, termed the <i>placenta</i>. The
-ovules (compare the sporangium of the Eusporangiatæ and especially
-the pollen-sac) take their origin from a <i>group of cells which
-lies beneath the epidermis</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig248">248</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>). First
-of all a small papilla is formed, which is later on provided with a
-<i>vascular bundle</i> and becomes the <i>funicle</i>; this probably
-has the same value as the projections (“placenta”) on which the sori
-in the Ferns are attached. Only <i>one</i> <b>macrosporangium</b>
-(<i>nucellus</i>; Fig. <a href="#fig248">248</a> <i>nc</i>) is developed at the apex of
-the funicle. This arises by a process of cell-division exactly
-corresponding to that by which the pollen-sacs<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[242]</span> are formed (Fig.
-<a href="#fig248">248</a> <i>C-E</i>), with this difference only, that while a great
-<i>many</i> cells may be distinguished in each pollen-sac, which forms
-pollen-grains by tetrad-division, only a few are found in the ovule,
-and all these moreover are <i>suppressed, with one single exception</i>
-which developes into the <b>macrospore</b> (<b>embryo-sac</b>) without
-undergoing a division into tetrads. The wall of the embryo-sac, in
-the Gymnosperms, may be thick and divided into two layers and partly
-cuticularized, as in the spores of the Cryptogams which are to be set
-free. In the Angiosperms, on the other hand, the wall is extremely thin.</p>
-
-<p>The pollen-sac thus stands in the same relation to the nucellus as the
-microsporangium does to the macrosporangium: in the pollen-sacs and
-microsporangia a <i>number</i> of spores arise by the tetrad-division
-of several mother-cells; in the nucellus and macrosporangium,
-a reduction of the cells already formed takes place to such an
-extent that the number of macrospores becomes one (<i>Salvinia</i>,
-<i>Marsilia</i>, Phanerogams) or four (<i>Selaginella</i>), or rarely a
-large number as in <i>Isoëtes</i>.</p>
-
-<p>In the Ferns, as stated on page <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, etc., <i>indusia</i> covering the
-sori very often occur. Horsetails and Club-Mosses have no indusium; but
-in all Phanerogams cupular or sac-like structures (<i>integuments</i>)
-are found which envelop the nucellus. These develope from the upper
-end of the funicle (<i>ii</i> and <i>ie</i>, in Fig. <a href="#fig248">248</a>; <i>y</i>
-and <i>i</i>, in Fig. <a href="#fig249">249</a>) and enclose the nucellus on all sides as
-a sac, leaving only a small channel at the apex of the nucellus&mdash;the
-<i>micropyle</i>&mdash;(Fig. <a href="#fig249">249</a>) through which the pollen-tube proceeds to
-the embryo-sac. The ovules of the Gymnosperms have only one integument
-(Figs. <a href="#fig251">251</a>, <a href="#fig264">264</a>, <a href="#fig269">269</a>, <a href="#fig274">274</a>) and the same is the case with the majority
-of the Sympetalæ and a few Choripetalæ; but the Monocotyledons and most
-of the Choripetalæ have two integuments (Fig. <a href="#fig249">249</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig249" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig249.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 249.</span>&mdash;Various forms of ovules:
-<i>A</i> an erect ovule (<i>orthotropous</i>); <i>B</i> reversed
-(<i>anatropous</i>); <i>C</i> curved (<i>campylotropous</i>): <i>k</i>
-the nucellus (shaded in all the figures); <i>s</i> the embryo-sac;
-<i>ch</i> the base of the ovule (chalaza); <i>y</i> and <i>i</i> the
-external and internal integuments, the dotted line denotes the place
-where the scar (<i>hilum</i>) will form when the seed is detached from
-the funicle.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>In shape the integuments resemble very closely the cupular<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">[243]</span> indusium
-of the Hymenophyllaceæ, certain Cyatheaceæ (Fig. <a href="#fig212">212</a> <i>E</i>), and
-<i>Salvinia</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig218">218</a>); that they are really homologous with
-these is probable, but is not proven. Some authorities regard them as
-structures found only in the Phanerogams.</p>
-
-<p>The ovule is thus a “<i>monangic</i>” (<i>i.e.</i> reduced to 1
-sporangium, the <i>nucellus</i>) <i>sorus</i>, situated on a funicle,
-and enclosed by one or two cupular <i>indusia</i>, the integuments.
-Some of the ovules are <i>erect</i> (<i>orthotropous</i>), others
-<i>curved</i> (<i>campylotropous</i>), the majority <i>reversed</i>
-(<i>anatropous</i>) (Fig. <a href="#fig249">249</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>[Goebel (1884 and earlier) with Strasburger considered the
-entire ovule of the Phanerogams as homologous with the
-macrosporangium, the integuments however as new structures in
-contradistinction to the Ferns: the funicle then corresponds
-to the stalk of the sporangium. The integuments of the ovule
-(according to Goebel, 1882) differ from the indusium of the
-Fern-like plants in being developed from the basal portion of
-the nucellus and are not, as in the Ferns and <i>Isoëtes</i>,
-a portion (outgrowth) of the leaf which bears the sporangia
-(<i>K</i>).]</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The nucellus is the only macrosporangium which never opens; <i>the
-macrospore remains enclosed in it</i>, and <i>the macrosporangium
-remains attached to the mother-plant</i>. It is therefore essential
-that the <i>method of fertilisation</i> which is employed should be
-very different from that of the Cryptogams. <i>The pollen-grains must
-be transferred to the ovule</i>, and retained either by a drop of
-mucilage at the micropyle (Gymnosperms) or by the stigma on the carpels
-(Angiosperms). Fertilisation by spermatozoids, which are freely motile
-in water, is abandoned in the Phanerogams.</p>
-
-<p>Many other modifications, unknown in plants of more simple structure,
-take place, for instance, in the shoots which bear the fertile leaves;
-especially in the form of the stem or <i>thalamus</i> (hypogynous,
-perigynous, epigynous); in the development of the perianth which stands
-in intimate connection with the special means employed to effect
-fertilisation; with respect to the different grades of union found
-in the leaves; in the union of the flowers into aggregations of a
-higher order (inflorescences), and at the same time the production of
-“floral-leaves” (page 235).</p>
-
-
-<p class="center p1"><b>The sexual generation. The Fertilisation.</b></p>
-
-<p>The sexual generation in the <i>Mosses</i> is relatively well
-developed, because not only the protonema, but all the other vegetative
-parts of the Moss-plant, in addition to the archegonia and antheridia,
-belong to it. In the groups which follow, a gradual but increasing
-reduction of the sexual generation takes place, and at the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[244]</span> same
-time an indication of sex is found in the prothallia, which finds
-expression in the forms of the spores themselves. In the majority of
-cases among the <i>isosporous</i> Vascular Cryptogams, the sexual
-generation&mdash;prothallium&mdash;is a green, leafy expansion which can sustain
-itself by the assimilation of carbonic acid, and by the absorption
-of nutriment from the soil by means of root-hairs. In some plants
-(<i>Ophioglossaceæ</i>, <i>Lycopodium annotinum</i>) the prothallium
-is a subterranean, pale, tubercular body, but in these instances it is
-relatively large. In the <i>heterosporous</i> Vascular Cryptogams and
-in the <i>Phanerogams</i>, the prothallium is much more reduced, both
-as regards its size, and also with respect to the number and structure
-of the antheridia and archegonia.</p>
-
-<p>1. <b>The Microspores.</b> The <span class="allsmcap">PROTHALLIUM</span> in all Vascular
-Cryptogams which have unequal spores, consists of a single, vegetative
-(barren) cell, which plays a very unimportant part in the life of the
-prothallium (Fig. <a href="#fig233">233</a> <i>A</i>). In <i>Salvinia</i> it is somewhat
-elongated and tubular, because it must break through the sporangium
-(Fig. <a href="#fig214">214</a>); but in other cases it is very small and lenticular. In
-all these plants only one antheridium is formed. In <i>Salvinia</i>
-it consists of 2 cells whose walls are ruptured in order that the
-spermatozoids may be liberated (Fig. <a href="#fig214">214</a> <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>). In
-<i>Marsilia</i>, <i>Isoëtes</i>, and <i>Selaginella</i> the prothallium
-does not leave the spore, and consists for the most part of primordial
-spermatozoid-mother-cells <i>without cell-wall</i>, which on
-germination are ejected so that the spermatozoids are set free.</p>
-
-<p>In the Phanerogams, the microspores have from olden times been termed
-<i>pollen-grains</i>.</p>
-
-<p>In the <span class="allsmcap">GYMNOSPERMS</span> the prothallium is reduced to 1, 2 or 3
-small cells, placed on one side of the mature pollen-grain (at the
-top in Fig. <a href="#fig250">250</a> <i>I</i>, <i>II</i>, and in Fig. <a href="#fig267">267</a> <i>N</i>) and
-which do not play any part in the germination of the pollen-grain. The
-antheridium is represented by the remaining portions of the interior of
-the pollen-grain, that is, it consists of a large cell with a nucleus
-which does not even go so far as the antheridium of <i>Selaginella</i>
-and become divided into spermatozoid-mother-cells without cell-wall,
-for even these cells are not formed. The unicellular antheridium
-grows, on the germination of the pollen-grain, into a tubular body
-known as the <i>pollen-tube</i>, formed from the inner wall of the
-pollen-grain (Fig. <a href="#fig250">250</a>), which works its way down the micropyle to
-the oosphere. The fertilisation takes place by diosmosis through the
-cell-wall, and consists here also of the coalescence of the nucleus<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">[245]</span> of
-the pollen-tube (the sperm-nucleus, male pronucleus) with that of the
-oosphere.</p>
-
-<p>In the <span class="allsmcap">ANGIOSPERMS</span> the reductions proceed still further.
-The barren cell, which represents the prothallium, was in the last
-group separated from the antheridium by a true cell-wall, but in the
-Angiosperms a membrane at most, but no firm cell-wall, is formed. The
-pollen-grain contains two cells, a vegetative and a free generative
-cell. Both these pass into the pollen-tube, but the vegetative
-cell disappears about the time the pollen-tube reaches the ovule;
-while the generative cell divides into two: one, the sperm-nucleus
-coalescing with the nucleus of the oosphere, the other being absorbed
-(<i>Lilium</i>, after Guinard).</p>
-
-<p>The Gymnosperms prove in yet another point that they are more
-closely related to the Cryptogams than are the Angiosperms. When the
-pollen-grain begins to germinate the external wall ruptures as in the
-Cryptogams (Fig. <a href="#fig250">250</a>), but in the Angiosperms special germ-pores are
-formed in the cell-wall for the emergence of the pollen-tube.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig250" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig250.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 250.</span>&mdash;<i>I</i> Pollen-grains of
-<i>Cupressus</i>; at the top is seen one prothallium-cell. <i>II</i>
-Germinating; <i>c</i> pollen-tube; <i>a</i> the extine; <i>b</i> the
-intine.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>2. <b>The Macrospores.</b> The prothallium in <i>Salvinia</i> and
-<i>Marsilia</i> is still rather large, green, and capable of the
-independent assimilation of carbon. It projects more or less from the
-macrospore and bears (in <i>Marsilia</i> only one, in <i>Salvinia</i>
-several) archegonia, which however are embedded to a greater degree in
-the prothallium, and are more reduced than the archegonia of the true
-Ferns and Horsetails (Figs. <a href="#fig215">215</a>, <a href="#fig216">216</a>). The prothallium is still more
-reduced in <i>Isoëtes</i> and <i>Selaginella</i>; <i>partly</i> because
-it is smaller and is in a higher degree enclosed in the spore, it also
-contains less chlorophyll, or is entirely without chlorophyll, and
-in consequence incapable of independent existence, whilst the number
-of archegonia is less; and <i>partly</i> because the archegonia are
-themselves reduced, the cells of the neck are fewer and embedded to
-the level of the surface of the prothallium without any, or with only
-a very slight projection (Figs. <a href="#fig235">235</a>, <a href="#fig236">236</a>).&mdash;Finally, the prothallium
-with its archegonia begins to develope in <i>Selaginella</i> while the
-macrospore is still within its sporangium, and before it is set free
-from the mother-plant.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[246]</span> After the spores are set free and germination
-has commenced, the spore-wall ruptures and the prothallium is exposed.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig251" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig251.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 251.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal section of ovule of
-<i>Abies canadensis</i>. Inside the integument (<i>i</i>) is seen the
-nucellus, <i>n</i>; <i>m</i> the micropyle. In the interior of the
-nucellus is seen an oval mass of cells, the endosperm, and at its
-top two archegonia, <i>c</i>. The ovule is turned in such a way that
-the micropyle points upwards, but usually it turns downward in the
-<i>Abietineæ</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig252" style="width: 360px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig252.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 252.</span>&mdash;The apex of the nucellus (<i>n</i>)
-of an ovule of <i>Abies</i>: <i>l</i> long-shaped cells which guide the
-pollen-tube; <i>s</i> the wall of the macrospore (embryo-sac); <i>h</i>
-the neck-cells of the archegonium; <i>k</i> the ventral canal-cell; and
-<i>c</i> the central cell (oosphere). The archegonia of the Cryptogams
-should be compared with this (see pages <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">GYMNOSPERMS</span> go still further. The macrospore (embryo-sac)
-germinates and forms internally a cellular tissue, designated in
-former times by the name of <i>albumen</i> (endosperm), which is
-<i>homologous with the prothallium</i>. It always <i>remains enclosed
-in the embryo-sac</i>, and is a parenchymatous mass containing a large
-supply of nourishment. In the upper part of the endosperm a number of
-archegonia are developed which are in the main constructed in the same
-manner as those in the Cryptogams, but are still more reduced, the
-neck consisting only of 4, 2, or 1 cell (Figs. <a href="#fig251">251</a>, <a href="#fig252">252</a>). The ventral
-canal-cell is also formed, in the majority, as a small portion cut off
-from the large central cell just beneath the neck; the larger remaining
-portion becomes the oosphere. When the pollen-tube has passed down
-to the oosphere (Fig. <a href="#fig253">253</a>) and fertilisation has been effected, the
-oospore commences a cell-formation, the final result of which is the
-formation of <i>an embryo</i> (<i>the asexual generation</i>) which is
-provided with a thinner, lower end, termed the suspensor. The embryo
-is forced more or less into the endosperm<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">[247]</span> in which it may rest for a
-longer or shorter time, and generally is developed to such an extent
-that it has a distinct primary-root (radicle) and stem (plumule) with
-one or more embryo-leaves (cotyledons).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>When the oosphere has been fertilised its nucleus sinks down
-to its lower end, and by repeated division into two, forms
-four cells lying in one plane (Fig. <a href="#fig253">253</a>, see base of the left
-archegonium). Three tiers of cells are now formed by transverse
-division of these four. It is the intermediate one of these
-which elongates and forms the suspensor, or four suspensors, if
-they separate from each other, which push the lowermost four
-cells deep down into the endosperm. It is from these four lower
-cells that the embryo (or four embryos when the suspensors
-separate) is developed, but never more than one embryo attains
-full development. As several archegonia are contained in one and
-the same ovule, all of which are capable of forming embryos,
-there is the possibility that several embryos may be developed
-in a seed (polyembryony), but usually only one embryo attains
-perfect development.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig253" style="width: 417px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig253.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 253.</span>&mdash;The apex of the nucellus (<i>n</i>)
-of <i>Abies</i> in longitudinal section: <i>c</i>, <i>c</i> the
-oospheres of the two archegonia; the embryo-formation has commenced at
-the bottom of the left archegonium; <i>s</i> wall of the macrospore;
-<i>p</i> pollen-grains; <i>r</i> pollen-tubes.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig254" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig254.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 254.</span>&mdash;Embryo-sac of <i>Carex præcox</i>:
-<i>syn</i> synergidæ; <i>kb</i> the oosphere; <i>c</i> the central
-nucleus; <i>ant</i> the antipodal cells.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>At the same time that the embryo is being developed, other changes are
-taking place in the ovule, especially in the integument which becomes
-the shell of the seed (<i>testa</i>). The endosperm grows, and the
-embryo-sac supplants the cells of the nucellus. The <i>seed</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">[248]</span> is now
-formed, and it consists in its most complete development, as in this
-instance, of three parts:</p>
-
-<p>(1) The <i>testa of the seed</i>, formed by the enveloping integuments,
-with the remainder of the tissue of the nucellus lying outside the
-embryo-sac (the macrosporangium).</p>
-
-<p>(2) The <i>endosperm</i> or prothallium.</p>
-
-<p>(3) The <i>embryo</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig255" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig255.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 255.</span>&mdash;Diagrammatic longitudinal section
-through an anatropous ovule shortly after fertilisation; <i>a</i> and
-<i>i</i> are the two integuments; <i>f</i> the funicle; <i>k</i> the
-nucellus; <i>S</i> the embryo-sac, with the incipient formation of
-nutritive-tissue; <i>E</i> the embryo; <i>P</i> the pollen-tube passing
-through the micropyle (<i>n</i>) to the oosphere.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The reduction in the <span class="smcap">Angiosperms</span> is carried to the extreme
-limit. In the embryo-sac (the macrospore) the nucleus by continued
-division produces a prothallium consisting of primordial cells (Fig.
-<a href="#fig254">254</a>). In the upper end of the embryo-sac (which is nearest the
-micropyle) are three cells, two of which are termed the “co-operating
-cells” (<i>synergidæ</i>) and the third is the <i>oosphere</i>.
-Three others are placed at the opposite end of the embryo-sac and
-are therefore termed the “antipodal cells.” Finally, a large cell
-is also formed, which occupies the space between the two groups and
-whose cell-nucleus, the central definitive nucleus, lies in the centre
-of the embryo-sac. These primordial cells are the slight remnant of
-the prothallium. The entire structure of the archegonium, with its
-neck and canal-cells, has disappeared, and nothing is left but the
-indispensable <i>oosphere</i>. When the oosphere has been fertilised,
-and has commenced the cellular divisions which lead to the formation of
-the embryo (Fig. <a href="#fig255">255</a>), the synergidæ and antipodal cells are absorbed,
-and a cell-formation begins by a new process which emanates from the
-definitive nucleus and by which a parenchymatous cell-tissue, the
-nutritive-tissue, arises which may perhaps be considered as homologous
-with the endosperm of the Gymnosperms. The difference is that the
-nutritive-tissue of the Angiosperms is formed in two parts with an
-intervening interruption; the primary nutritive-tissue is first formed,
-and after fertilisation is absorbed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[249]</span> with the exception of one cell,
-which continues the development and gives rise to the nutritive-tissue
-proper, which is formed in the first instance of primordial cells,
-and later on of a cellular tissue; this nutritive-tissue formed in
-the embryo-sac is termed “endosperm”; in a few instances<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> a tissue
-which is derived from the nucellus functions as nutritive-tissue, and
-is termed “perisperm.” In many plants the seeds, when ripe, contain a
-very rich nutritive-tissue, in addition to the embryo, for the purpose
-of its nourishment during germination. These are termed albuminous
-(endospermous) seeds, in distinction to the ex-albuminous, or those in
-which the nutritive-tissue is stored in the embryo itself, before it is
-completely developed, and used for its sustenance.</p>
-
-<p>In addition to the changes which fertilisation produces in the ovule
-itself, it also gives the impetus to a series of changes in the
-entire shoot which bears the ovule. The perianth, stamens, and style,
-generally wither, because the part they play is at an end; the wall
-of the ovary grows and becomes the wall of the fruit (pericarp).
-The entire gynœcium of a flower, transformed as a consequence of
-fertilisation, is termed a <i>fruit</i>. It consists of two parts, the
-<i>pericarp</i> and the <i>seeds</i>, and according to the nature of
-the pericarp, the fruit is termed a capsule, nut, berry, or drupe.</p>
-
-<p>The chief characteristic of the Phanerogams does not lie in the
-formation of the flower (although they may quite properly be termed
-“Flowering-plants”), because Equisetums and Lycopods have reproductive
-shoots as highly differentiated as those of certain Gymnosperms and
-other Phanerogams. As regards the <span class="allsmcap">SEXUAL GENERATION</span> the
-characteristics are found:&mdash;(1) in its great reduction; (2) in the
-transmission of the microspore (pollen-grain) to the macrosporangium,
-and its germination, with the formation of a <i>pollen-tube</i>
-(antheridium), the protoplasm of which is not differentiated into
-spermatozoids; (3) in the fact that the macrospore (embryo-sac) never
-leaves its sporangium (nucellus); and further in the Angiosperms, (4)
-in the peculiar development of the nutritive-tissue in two parts; and
-(5) in the great reduction of the archegonium.</p>
-
-<p>As regards the <span class="allsmcap">ASEXUAL GENERATION</span> the characteristic feature
-is that this generation is formed whilst the sporangium is still
-attached to the mother-plant, and for a long time is nourished by
-it; and that after the sporangium has become detached from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">[250]</span>
-mother-plant, it spends a longer or shorter resting period as the
-embryo in the seed (enveloped by the testa), and does not make its
-appearance until the “germination” of the seed. In addition the shoot
-which bears sporangia undergoes greater modification than in the case
-of the Flowerless-plants.</p>
-
-<p>The Phanerogams are separated into two Divisions as follows:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>Division 4. <b>Gymnospermæ.</b> The ovules, as well as the seeds,
-are borne <i>naked</i> on the surface of <i>open carpels</i>, or on
-the apex of a stem (ovary wanting). The pollen-grains are conveyed
-by the wind to the ovules, and caught by drops of mucilage, secreted
-by the micropyle. A “stigma” is <i>wanting</i>. The entire <i>female
-prothallium</i> (<i>the endosperm</i>), which serves for the
-nourishment of the embryo, is <i>formed before fertilisation</i>. The
-archegonia are <i>embedded in the upper part of the prothallium. The
-pollen-grains are “multicellular,” i.e.</i> there is always in their
-interior a distinct prothallium, formed by 1–3 cells, and a larger cell
-which gives rise to the pollen-tube.</p>
-
-<p>Division 5. <b>Angiospermæ.</b> The carpels surround the ovules and
-form an entirely closed chamber (<i>ovary</i>), in which the ovules
-mature and ripen into seeds. The surface of a portion of the apex of
-the carpel is transformed into the “stigma,” which, by a sticky fluid
-and also by hair-structures, is capable of retaining the pollen-grains
-conveyed to it by the wind, or more frequently by insects. The
-pollen-tube grows from the stigma, through the “conducting cellular
-tissue” (<i>style</i>), to the ovules. The pollen-grains contain two
-cells, a vegetative and a free generative cell. The latter passes
-into the pollen-tube and there divides into two, one of which is the
-sperm-nucleus. The female prothallium, which is intended to serve as
-nutritive-tissue, is formed <i>after fertilisation</i>. Archegonia are
-wanting.</p>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[251]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="smaller">DIVISION IV.<br />
-<span class="subhed">GYMNOSPERMÆ.</span></h2></div>
-
-<p>The following characters should be added to those already given on page
-<a href="#Page_2">2</a>:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>The Gymnosperms comprise only trees or shrubs. The flowers are always
-<i>unisexual</i> and destitute of perianth (except <i>Gnetaceæ</i>);
-the female plant of <i>Cycas</i> is the only one which has no flower.
-The <span class="allsmcap">MALE FLOWERS</span> are constructed on the same type as the
-cones of the Horsetails and Club-Mosses, and are <i>most frequently
-long shoots</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig243">243</a>, <a href="#fig258">258</a>, <a href="#fig260">260</a> <i>A</i>, <a href="#fig267">267</a> <i>J</i>) bearing a
-number of spiral or verticillate stamens. The <span class="allsmcap">FEMALE FLOWERS</span>
-are of a more varied structure (see the orders). The <span class="allsmcap">OVULE</span>
-<i>is orthotropous</i> (except <i>Podocarpus</i> which is anatropous)
-and projects from the carpel uprightly, inverted, or horizontally;
-it has usually <i>only one integument</i> (compare however Taxaceæ)
-which proceeds from the upper part of the nucellus, so that the
-embryo-sac in part is placed below the integuments (Figs. <a href="#fig251">251</a>, <a href="#fig264">264</a>).
-The drop of mucilage which catches the pollen-grains dries up and
-draws the pollen-grain through the micropyle to a space just above the
-nucellus&mdash;<i>the pollen-chamber</i>&mdash;in which the germination of the
-pollen-grain commences.</p>
-
-<p>In each seed, only one of the many embryos which are formed proceeds
-to its full development. The seed is always <i>endospermous</i>, and
-the embryo has one, two, or a whorl of several cotyledons. A vigorous
-primary root is developed on germination. <span class="smcap">The vascular bundles</span>
-in the stem are arranged in a ring, and <i>increase in thickness</i>
-takes place by a closed cambium-ring which forms bast (<i>phlœem</i>)
-externally, and wood (<i>xylem</i>) internally with distinct annual
-rings, <i>as in the Dicotyledons</i>. Only certain of the Cycadeæ
-deviate from this arrangement. The <i>secondary wood</i> is very
-uniform, as it is almost exclusively <i>formed of tracheides</i> with
-bordered pits, but <i>true vessels are wanting</i>; this also indicates
-a relationship with the Pteridophyta (see page <a href="#Page_202">202</a>).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[252]</span></p>
-
-<p>The Gymnosperms are biologically lower than the Angiosperms; they are
-wind-fertilised, and without extra floral-nectaries.</p>
-
-<p>This Division embraces three classes: <span class="smcap">Cycadeæ</span>,
-<span class="smcap">Coniferæ</span>, And <span class="smcap">Gneteæ</span>. It is no doubt monophyletic,
-and has taken its origin from heterosporous Ferns, now extinct, most
-nearly related to the Ophioglossaceæ and Marattiaceæ. The Cycadeæ
-appear to be the oldest class. The Coniferæ are related to these
-through Ginkgo. The Gnetaceæ are more isolated. The Division is not
-continued into the higher Flowering-plants; it has evidently attained
-its highest development, and is now in a retrograde condition. The
-similarity which has often been pointed out between certain Coniferæ
-and Lycopodinæ is only in analogous resemblances, and does not entitle
-one to suppose that there is a nearer relationship, or that the former
-take their origin from the latter.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Class 1. <b>Cycadeæ.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The stem is very <i>rarely ramified</i>. The leaves are <i>large</i>,
-<i>pinnate</i>, and arranged spirally. The flowers are <i>diœcious,
-without perianth</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig256" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig256.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 256.</span>&mdash;<i>Cycas circinalis</i> (female
-plant). The carpels are seen hanging from the top of the stem. Three
-leaves with the leaflets still rolled up project almost vertically into
-the air, from the centre of the crown.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>There is only one order, the <b>Cycadaceæ</b>.&mdash;In habit they resemble
-the Ferns, especially the Tree-Ferns (compare Figs. <a href="#fig207">207</a> and <a href="#fig256">256</a>). The
-stem is tubercular (Fig. <a href="#fig258">258</a>), or cylindrical (Fig. <a href="#fig256">256</a>), but not
-very tall (as much as about 12 metres), and very rarely ramified. [In
-Ceylon, unbranched specimens of <i>Cycas</i> are rarely met with in the
-wild state. The stems of <i>C. circinalis</i> occasionally branch in
-greenhouses.]</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[253]</span></p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">LEAVES</span> are arranged spirally, and so closely together
-that no free stem-surface is left between them, and have only a slight
-sheath (which is not amplexicaul, as in the Palms). They are compound
-(most frequently pinnate; in <i>Bowenia</i>, bipinnate); in some genera
-the leaves are rolled up in various ways, resembling the vernation in
-Ferns (Fig. <a href="#fig257">257</a>); they are leathery and perennial. In some, stipules
-are present, as in the Marattiaceæ. Groups of scale-leaves alternate in
-the majority with groups of foliage-leaves.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig257" style="width: 188px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig257.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 257.</span>&mdash;<i>Cycas circinalis.</i> Part of a
-young leaf with circinate leaflets.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig258" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig258.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 258.</span>&mdash;A male plant of <i>Stangeria
-paradoxa</i> (about 1/15 nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig259" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig259.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 259.</span>&mdash;Female cone of <i>Zamia
-integrifolia</i> (½-⅓ nat. size). The male cone is very similar
-externally.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">FLOWERS</span> are without perianth. The <span class="allsmcap">MALE FLOWER</span> is
-sometimes an enormous collection of stamens (Fig. <a href="#fig258">258</a>), which are flat
-in some (<i>Cycas</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig241">241</a>), shield-like in others (<i>Zamia</i>,
-<i>Ceratozamia</i>) like the sporophylls in Horsetail (Fig. <a href="#fig259">259</a>); but
-in all, the pollen-sacs are situated in large and varying numbers
-on the back of the stamens, and arranged in groups of 2–5, like the
-sporangia in the sori of the Ferns (Fig. <a href="#fig241">241</a> <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>).
-<span class="smcap">Female flowers</span> <i>are wanting</i> in <i>Cycas</i>, because the
-carpels do not terminate the apical growth of the stem. After a group
-of foliage-and of scale-leaves, a group of carpels is developed, which
-are pinnate and resemble the foliage-leaves, bearing on their edges
-a number of ovules (most frequently<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[254]</span> 5–6) (Figs. <a href="#fig245">245</a>, <a href="#fig256">256</a>); the same
-stem produces successively scale-leaves, foliage-leaves, and carpels.
-The differentiation is not much more advanced than in certain Ferns
-(<i>Struthiopteris</i>, <i>Blechnum</i>), where barren and fertile
-leaves of different form regularly alternate. <i>The other genera have
-female flowers</i>; the carpels are shield-like in <i>Zamia</i> and
-<i>Ceratozamia</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig246">246</a>), and collected into cone-like flowers,
-which terminate the growth of the stem (Fig. <a href="#fig259">259</a>). The number of ovules
-in these instances is two to each carpel.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">SEEDS</span> are large (most frequently 2–6 centimetres long)
-and plum-like; the external layer of the testa is fleshy, while the
-internal one is hard and horny. There are two systems of vascular
-bundles in the testa, one outside, the other inside the stone. The
-embryo is straight, attached to the end of the suspensor, which is
-often long, filamentous, and rolled up; it has one or two cotyledons.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The embryo in <i>Ceratozamia</i> and others is very slightly
-developed, at the time when the ripe seed is detached from
-the carpel; and it is not until after sowing that its further
-development and germination proceed. This calls to mind the
-Cryptogams, especially <i>Selaginella</i>, whose macrospores
-are thrown off filled with endosperm; but the oosphere is not
-fertilised till after the separation of the macrospore from the
-parent-plant, while in the Cycadeæ fertilisation is effected
-before the separation. In <i>Cycas</i> the testa may rupture,
-and the endosperm grow and become green in the light, even
-though no embryo has been formed. This also is an indication of
-its prothalloid nature.</p>
-
-<p>Gum-passages are present in all organs. Collateral vascular
-bundles, with spiral and scalariform tracheides, are found;
-and normal thickening takes place by means of a cambium.
-An exceptional mode of growth is found in <i>Cycas</i> and
-<i>Encephalartos</i>, the cambium ceases to divide after a time
-and is replaced by a new cambium which arises in the cortical
-parenchyma just outside the bast, and which forms a new ring
-of xylem and phlœem. This may be repeated so that a number of
-concentric rings are produced. In <i>Ceratozamia</i>, structures
-resembling corals extend from the roots in a vertical direction
-and appear on the surface of the soil; these are peculiar roots,
-in which a symbiotic Alga (<i>Anabæna</i>) is found.</p>
-
-<p>The Cycadeæ were formerly (from the Coal period to the Later
-Cretaceous) far more numerous than at the present day. They
-appear to have been most numerous in the Trias and Jurassic.
-The remnant (75 species) which have persisted to the present
-time are found in all tropical countries. <i>Cycas</i> (Trop.
-and Sub-trop., Eastern Hemisphere); <i>Dioon</i> (Mexico);
-<i>Macrozamia</i> (Australia); <i>Encephalartos</i> (Trop. and
-S. Africa); <i>Stangeria</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig258">258</a>, Sub-trop. South and East
-Africa); <i>Bowenia</i> (Trop. Australia); <i>Ceratozamia</i>
-(Mexico, New Granada, Western Brazil); <i>Microcycas</i> (Cuba);
-<i>Zamia</i> (Trop. and Sub-trop. N. America.)</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> Sago is made from the starch-containing pith of
-<i>Cycas revoluta</i> and <i>circinalis</i>. The leaves are
-often used at funerals and church festivals, under the name of
-“palm-branches.”</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">[255]</span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Class 2. <b>Coniferæ</b> (<b>Pine-trees</b>).</h3>
-
-<p>The stem <i>branches freely</i>. The leaves are <i>entire</i>,
-relatively small, linear or reduced to scales. The flowers are without
-perianth. The ovules naked. It is seldom that the female flower is
-reduced to only one carpel.</p>
-
-<p>Whilst the Cycadeæ principally resemble the Ferns, the Conifers
-partly resemble the Lycopods, and partly the Equisetums&mdash;the former
-especially in the <i>needle- or scale-like</i>, leathery, simple, and
-often perennial leaves (“evergreen plants”), which <i>never possess
-stipules</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig263">263</a>, <a href="#fig270">270</a>, <a href="#fig272">272</a>). <i>Ginkgo</i> deviates from this,
-being no doubt the oldest, and the Conifer which stands nearest to the
-Cycadeæ (Fig. <a href="#fig260">260</a>). The resemblance to the Equisetums is especially
-owing to the fact that the stem ramifies abundantly, and often very
-regularly, forming a pyramid with verticillate branches. In addition
-to the foliage-leaves, scale-leaves (bud-scales) are present in the
-majority of species.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">FLOWERS</span> are monœcious or more rarely diœcious. <i>Perianth
-is wanting.</i> The stamens of the <i>catkin-like male flowers</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig267">267</a>, <i>J</i>) are of different forms, but as a rule more or
-less shield-like. As in the Cycadeæ, the pollen-sacs are in all cases
-situated <i>on the underside</i>. There are, as a rule, two pollen-sacs
-(the Abietaceæ, Fig. <a href="#fig267">267</a>), or 3–5, (the Cupressaceæ and Taxaceæ, Fig.
-<a href="#fig243">243</a>); a few have more, <i>e.g. Araucaria</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig242">242</a>); they
-dehisce by clefts.</p>
-
-<p>If, in commencing our consideration of the <i>female flower</i>, we
-begin with that of <i>Ginkgo</i>, we shall observe in the corner of a
-scale- or foliage-leaf a small flower, which consists of two carpels,
-each bearing one ovule, and reduced almost to the ovule itself (Fig.
-<a href="#fig260">260</a> <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>). The flower in <i>Podocarpus</i> is still
-further reduced, viz. to a single carpel with one ovule, which is
-anatropous and has two integuments. This ovule is situated in the
-axil of a cover-scale (<i>c</i>, in Fig. <a href="#fig262">262</a> <i>D</i>), and several
-female flowers of this description are collected in a small cone,
-the stalk and bracts of which become fleshy (Fig. <a href="#fig262">262</a> <i>C</i>). The
-external integument also becomes fleshy (an aril). <i>Dacrydium</i>,
-which is clearly related to <i>Podocarpus</i>, has an external
-integument which developes more independently as a fleshy aril (Fig.
-<a href="#fig262">262</a> <i>B</i>, <i>B’</i>). <i>Microcachrys</i> also is clearly allied
-to these: the bracts are more fleshy, and the ovule (<i>i.e.</i> the
-female flower) is protruded beyond the bract (Fig. <a href="#fig262">262</a> <i>A</i>,
-<i>A’</i>). <i>Taxus</i> stands in a more isolated position: a flower
-which has been reduced to an ovule is situated, in this instance, on
-the apex of a secondary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">[256]</span> branch which is studded with floral-leaves
-(Figs. <a href="#fig263">263</a>, <a href="#fig264">264</a>); an external integument is developed on all sides and
-surrounds the seed as a scarlet aril. According to this conception
-<i>the aril corresponds to an external integument</i>, and the Taxoideæ
-thus possess a partly dichlamydeous ovule. Only <i>Ginkgo</i> and
-<i>Cephalotaxus</i> appear to deviate from this, as in these there is
-only one integument (unless the small outgrowth indicated by <i>ar</i>,
-in Fig. <a href="#fig260">260</a> <i>D</i>, really is a rudimentary, external integument);
-in <span class="smcap">Cycadeæ</span>, to which <i>Ginkgo</i> is most closely related,
-there is likewise only one integument. But in these genera the testa is
-differentiated into two layers, and the seed resembles a drupe; like
-the Cycadeæ there is an external fleshy covering and an internal hard
-one, and these two layers may probably be considered homologous with
-the two integuments. This theory is also borne out by the arrangement
-of the vascular bundles in <i>Cephalotaxus</i> and <i>Podocarpus</i>,
-which present the xylem in the fleshy external layer to the
-<i>outside</i> of the testa, which is therefore the upper side of the
-integument (Celakovsky).</p>
-
-<p>The coalescence of the integuments into one is only slight in
-<i>Torreya</i>, more pronounced in <i>Podocarpus</i> and strongest in
-<i>Cephalotaxus</i> and <i>Ginkgo</i>. Celakovsky terms these ovules
-“holochlamydeous.”</p>
-
-<p>If we pass from these to the order <span class="smcap">Pinoideæ</span>, we find the
-female flowers collected into catkin-like cones, which have been
-considered from various points of view to be sometimes single
-flowers, at other times compound inflorescences. The structure in
-<span class="smcap">Abietaceæ</span> is as follows: a number of spirally arranged,
-scale-like leaves, <i>cover-scales</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig267">267</a>, <a href="#fig268">268</a>), are situated
-on a long axis. In the axil of each cover-scale a larger leaf-like
-projection, <i>the ovuliferous scale</i>, is borne, which turns the
-upper side towards its cover-scale (which is shown by the fact that
-the wood of its vascular bundles is turned downwards and towards
-the wood in the bundles of the cover-scale: Fig. <a href="#fig269">269</a>). Two ovules,
-with micropyles turned towards the central axis, and with apparently
-only one integument (Fig. <a href="#fig268">268</a>), are situated on the dorsal side of
-each ovuliferous scale, <i>i.e.</i> the side turned away from the
-cover-scale. The ovuliferous scales grow after fertilisation, into the
-woody or leathery “cone-scales,” which are usually much larger than
-the cover-scales. This ovuliferous scale with its axis may, according
-to Celakovsky, be considered as a dwarf-branch which is situated in
-the axil of the cover-scale, and bears two ovules (in the same way as
-in <i>Ginkgo</i>, one long-stalked flower, reduced to two ovules, is
-situated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[257]</span> in the axil of a leaf), and <i>in this case the external
-integument of the ovules</i> is expanded into leaf-like bodies,
-which have united to form one “<i>symphyllodium</i>” (<i>ovuliferous
-scale</i>) which is inverted so that its dorsal side is turned upwards
-and bears the nucellus and the other integument (“hemichlamydeous”
-ovules). The carpel itself is therefore in this instance extremely
-reduced. The keel, or (in <i>Pinus</i>) “mucro” (Fig. <a href="#fig268">268</a> <i>B</i>),
-which is found in several genera, represents then a third carpel,
-which is sterile. In the other orders of the Pinoideæ the cover-scales
-and ovuliferous scales grow more and more together and finally form
-one structure, which also is termed a “cone-scale,” although from
-its development it cannot be homologous with the cone-scales of the
-Abietaceæ. This connation is least in the <span class="smcap">Taxodiaceæ</span> and
-<span class="smcap">Araucariaceæ</span> and may be traced on the upper surface of
-the “cone-scale” by the presence of a stronger or slighter ridge
-or pad, the free portion of the ovuliferous scale (Figs. <a href="#fig256">256</a>, <a href="#fig265_266">266</a>,
-<a href="#fig269">269</a>). It is most strongly pronounced in the <span class="smcap">Cupressaceæ</span>, in
-which the two scales form one single structure, the cone-scale (Fig.
-<a href="#fig274">274</a>). The vascular bundles in the under portion corresponding to the
-cover-scale, have the xylem towards the upper side as usual in leaves,
-whilst the bundles present in the upper side of the cone-scale, which
-thus represents the ovuliferous scale, turn their xylem downwards.
-The hemichlamydeous ovules are then situated on the upper side of
-this cone-scale. According to this theory the <span class="smcap">Cupressaceæ</span>
-appear to be the youngest type, a view which corresponds with their
-vegetative structure. If there is only one ovule in these orders as
-in <i>Agathis</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig265_266">265</a>) and <i>Araucaria</i>, then the flower
-is reduced to a single carpel and one ovule, as in the case of
-<i>Dacrydium</i> and <i>Microcachrys</i>. If two or more ovules are
-present, then the same number of carpels may be supposed to exist, the
-external integuments of their ovules being developed into leaf-like
-structures which collaterally coalesce to form a “symphyllodium,” or
-are suppressed.</p>
-
-<p>According to this theory, which is based on the researches of
-Celakovsky, the female flowers of the Coniferæ may be classed thus:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>1. In all cases situated in the axil of a bract and collected
-into cones, with numerous flowers or with few or one flower. In
-<i>Ginkgo</i> only, are they situated in the axil of foliage- or
-scale-leaves.</p>
-
-<p>2. It is only in <i>Taxus</i> that bracteoles are present.</p>
-
-<p>3. They are formed only from rudimentary carpels, in which the stem
-takes no part.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[258]</span></p>
-
-<p>4. The number of carpels in each flower varies from one to many, most
-frequently three, of which the central one remains sterile.</p>
-
-<p>5. Each carpel bears only one ovule. The flower which is formed of only
-one carpel appears to consist of only one ovule.</p>
-
-<p>6. The ovule has in Taxaceæ either a double integument (Podocarpeæ,
-Taxeæ), of which the external is the “aril,” or, as in the Cycadeæ, a
-single one, which is homologous with the two united together.</p>
-
-<p>7. The external integument in the Pinoideæ is expanded to form a
-leaf-like structure&mdash;the ovuliferous scale&mdash;and bears on its dorsal
-side the ovules, which are thus only provided with one, and that the
-inner, integument.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>This later interpretation of the female cones in the Coniferæ is
-more probably correct than the older ones; that, however, which
-appeared in the former issues of this book, may also be stated.
-It was to the effect that each catkin-like female cone is in
-reality a single flower; the cone-scales in the Cupressaceæ
-were single leaves, namely carpels, which bore the ovules on
-the side which is turned upwards; the division into two parts
-which makes its appearance in the other orders, and becomes
-most prominent in the Abietaceæ, was compared with the division
-of a leaf into a barren and a fertile portion, which is found
-especially in Ophioglossaceæ and Marsiliaceæ, or with the ligule
-in <i>Isoëtes</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination</span> is accomplished by means of the wind. At the
-period of pollination the leaves are always so widely separated from
-one another, that the ovules can catch the pollen-grains carried to
-them by the wind; this is often effected by the mucilaginous drops
-which appear at the micropyle, and by the evaporation of which the
-pollen-grains are brought in contact with the nucellus. The entire cone
-grows considerably as soon as fertilisation has taken place, and the
-cone-scales in Pinoideæ close together so that the seeds while maturing
-are enclosed, and it is not until the seeds are ready for distribution
-that the cone-scales again become separated. In the Pinoideæ, the fully
-developed ovuliferous scales are hard and woody; and in this condition
-the collection of female flowers is termed a <i>cone</i>. In the
-Taxoideæ, true cones are the exception. 2–15 cotyledons are present,
-arranged in a whorl.</p>
-
-<p>The characteristic feature of this class is the abundance of
-<i>resin</i>, which is to be found in isolated cells (especially in
-the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[259]</span> cortex), partly in intercellular glands or passages (both in the
-cortex and wood). <i>Taxus</i> is the only genus which has no resin.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>There are about 350 species, mostly from the Northern Temperate
-zone (especially North America and Siberia), where they grow
-gregariously and form the most northern forests. The Juniper,
-Scotch Fir, and Yew are natives of Great Britain.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>This class may be divided into two families:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>1. <b>Taxoideæ.</b> The ovules have either one integument, the external
-part of which is fleshy, and the internal hard and stone-like; or two
-integuments, of which the external is the fleshy and coloured “aril.”
-“Ovuliferous scales” are wanting. The cones are never woody, but are
-generally succulent, the bracts become fleshy, or cones usually are not
-developed. The seeds project more or less freely beyond the bracts.</p>
-
-<p>2. <b>Pinoideæ.</b> The ovules have two integuments, the external one
-of which is leaf-like and becomes developed as the “ovuliferous scale”;
-if there are several of these in each flower they unite and form a
-“symphyllodium.” This may remain free or unite with the bract. The
-cones are most frequently woody, rarely succulent. The seeds are hidden
-among the cone-scales.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 1. <b>Taxoideæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>This family, considered to be most nearly related to the Cycadeæ, also
-made its appearance at a very early period. There is only one order.</p>
-
-<p>Order. <b>Taxaceæ.</b> The characters have been given above.</p>
-
-<p><i>A.</i> <span class="smcap">Cephalotaxeæ</span> is the oldest group, presumably the
-connecting link between the Cycadeæ and the other Coniferæ. The flower
-consists normally of two ovules. Aril wanting. One integument. Seeds
-drupaceous.&mdash;The flowers in <i>Ginkgo biloba</i> (<i>Salisburia</i>)
-are situated in the axil of foliage- or scale-leaves. The stamens
-bear only two pollen-sacs (Fig. <a href="#fig260">260</a> <i>A</i>). The female flower
-has two ovules, placed together at the end of a long, bare axis
-(Fig. <a href="#fig260">260</a> <i>C</i>). Round the base of the ovule a small collar
-(<i>ar</i>, in Fig. <a href="#fig260">260</a> <i>D</i>) is found, which may probably be
-considered homologous with the collar-like outgrowth which surrounds
-the base of the <i>Cycas</i>-ovule. The seed resembles a Plum, and
-has a fleshy external coat, surrounding a hard internal layer. The
-embryo is developed after the seed has fallen off. The Ginkgo-tree
-has long-stalked, fan-shaped leaves, more or less indented, with
-dichotomous veins<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">[260]</span> resembling certain Ferns&mdash;the Adiantums. It is a
-native of East Asia, and the only surviving species of a genus which in
-earlier times was very rich in species, and distributed over the entire
-Northern Hemisphere. <i>Cephalotaxus</i> (Eastern Asia) is related to
-it.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig260" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig260.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 260.</span>&mdash;<i>Ginkgo</i> (nat. size): <i>A</i>
-a branch with a small flowering dwarf-branch (male flower); <i>B</i>
-a leaf; <i>C</i> a flower with two ovules; <i>D</i> a ripe seed;
-<i>ar</i> collar.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig261" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig261.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 261.</span>&mdash;<i>Phyllocladus glaucus</i>: a
-branch with female flowers (nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>B.</i> <span class="smcap">Podocarpeæ.</span> The female flower is reduced to one
-ovule, placed in the axil of a bract, or a little forward upon it.
-The ovule has an aril (2 integuments).&mdash;<i>Phyllocladus</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig261">261</a>), from New Zealand and Tasmania, has obtained its name from its
-flat, <i>leaf-like branches</i>, the leaves proper being scale-like
-(<i>f</i>). The ovules stand <i>erect</i> in the axil of the scale-like
-leaves (<i>c</i>), and several are collected at the end of short
-branches.&mdash;<i>Microcachrys tetragona</i> (Tasmania) has a small
-female catkin with several spirally-placed, fleshy bracts, at the end
-of which the inward and downward turned ovule is attached (Fig. <a href="#fig262">262</a>
-<i>A</i>, <i>A’</i>). The ripe cones are red, succulent, and resemble
-Strawberries.&mdash;In <i>Dacrydium</i> (Tasmania, New Zealand, Malaysia)
-the female cone has most frequently only 1–2 (–6) bracts, which
-resemble<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">[261]</span> the vegetative leaves; they have also a fleshy aril (Fig.
-<a href="#fig262">262</a> <i>B</i>, <i>B’</i>).&mdash;<i>Podocarpus</i> (40 species, East Asia,
-S. Temp.); the bracts of the female flowers become fleshy, and unite
-together; only 1 or 2 are of use in supporting the flowers. The ovules
-project high above the apex of the bract, and are <i>anatropous</i>,
-the micropyle being turned downwards (Fig. <a href="#fig262">262</a> <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>).
-An aril commences to develope in the flowering period as an external
-coating, and later on it becomes fleshy and coloured.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig262" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig262.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 262.</span>&mdash;<i>A Microcachrys</i>:
-female cone (2/1). <i>A’</i> A single carpel with its ovule. <i>B</i>
-<i>Dacrydium</i>: branch with female flower (3/1). <i>B’</i> The
-flower; <i>cp</i> the bract; <i>ar</i> the aril; <i>ov</i> ovule.
-<i>C Podocarpus</i>: female flower with 2 ovules. <i>D</i>
-Another female flower with 1 ovule, in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig263" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig263.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 263.</span>&mdash;<i>Taxus baccata</i>: branch with
-two ripe seeds (nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>C.</i> <span class="smcap">Taxeæ.</span> The female flower is reduced to one ovule,
-which is situated <i>terminally</i> on an axis which bears 2–3 pairs of
-opposite, scale-like bracteoles; on this account the Taxeæ form a very
-isolated group among the Coniferæ.&mdash;<i>Taxus</i> (<i>T. baccata</i>,
-the Yew-tree). <i>Diœcious</i>. <i>The female flower consists of
-only one ovule</i>, placed <i>at the end</i> of a short secondary
-branch (Fig. <a href="#fig264">264</a>), which is studded with scale-like leaves. The aril
-when ripe is thick, fleshy, and scarlet (sometimes yellow), and only
-loosely envelopes the seed (Fig. <a href="#fig263">263</a>). The leaves are scattered, flat,
-linear, and pointed (Fig. <a href="#fig263">263</a>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[262]</span> <a href="#fig264">264</a>). The short male flowers have 5–8
-pollen-sacs, pendent from the stamens, and are surrounded at their
-bases by scale-like bracteoles (Fig. <a href="#fig243">243</a>). <i>Torreya</i> (4 species,
-N. America and Japan) is closely allied to <i>Taxus</i>. The aril
-ultimately fuses with the woody inner integument, and hence the ovule
-becomes drupaceous, as in Cephalotaxaceæ.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig264" style="width: 509px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig264.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 264.</span>&mdash;<i>Taxus baccata</i>: <i>A</i> shoot
-of <i>Taxus</i> with female flowers at the time when the ovules are
-ready for pollination. <i>B</i> Leaf with flower in its axil (nat.
-size). <i>C</i> Longitudinal median section through a female shoot;
-<i>v</i> growing point of primary shoot; <i>a</i> commencement of aril;
-<i>i</i> integument; <i>n</i> nucellus; <i>m</i> micropyle.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> <i>Taxus baccata</i> is usually planted in
-gardens, especially in hedges. Its wood is very hard and is used
-for wood-carving. The shoots are poisonous, but not the aril,
-which is often eaten by children and by birds.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 2. <b>Pinoideæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The four orders differ from one another partly in the arrangement of
-the leaves (<i>Cupressaceæ</i> have opposite or verticillately<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[263]</span> placed
-leaves, flowers, and inflorescences; in the others they are placed
-spirally), but chiefly in the greater or less degree of union which
-takes place between the female flower (the leaf-like “symphyllodium”)
-and its supporting cover-scale, and in the position of the ovules (the
-micropyle being turned upwards or downwards). The “cone-scales” in
-<i>Abietaceæ</i> are formed by “symphyllodia” alone, in the others by
-their union with the cover-scale.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Araucariaceæ.</b> This order most frequently has
-<i>solitary</i> ovules, <i>turned downwards</i> and attached <i>to the
-centre</i> of the cone-scales. In <i>Agathis</i> (<i>Dammara</i>) the
-arrangement is the most simple, a winged seed (Fig. <a href="#fig265_266">265</a>), which hangs
-<i>freely</i> downwards, being borne in the centre of the undivided
-cone-scale. In <i>Araucaria</i>, the stamens with the <i>free,
-pendulous</i> pollen-sacs have been represented in Fig. <a href="#fig242">242</a>; the
-ovuliferous scale is united for nearly its whole length with the bract,
-and projects from its apex in the shape of a sheath-like, dentate
-scale, resembling the ligule in <i>Isoëtes</i>, and may therefore be
-termed a “ligule.” <i>Araucaria</i> (S. America, Australia) has often
-rather broad leaves (<i>A. brasiliensis</i>). The ovuliferous scale
-in <i>Cunninghamia</i> is more distinct, and stretches transversely
-over the entire cover-scale; it bears three inverted ovules (Fig. <a href="#fig265_266">266</a>)
-(Eastern Asia).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig265_266" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig265_266.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 265.</span>&mdash;<i>Agathis (Dammara) australis.</i>
-Cone-scale with the seed. <i>A</i> Longitudinal section; <i>A’</i> from
-within; <i>fv</i>, <i>fv’</i> vascular bundles; <i>v</i> wing.</p>
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. <a href="#fig265_266">266</a>.</span>&mdash;<i>Cunninghamia sinensis.</i>
-Cone-scale with three ovules, interior view: <i>d</i> cover-scale;
-<i>f</i> ovuliferous scale.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig267" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig267.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 267.</span>&mdash;<i>A-G Pseudotsuga
-douglasii</i>: <i>A</i> cone, <i>B</i> cone-scale, with the inner side
-turned forward; the points of the cover-scale are seen behind it;
-<i>C-G</i> transitions from the acicular leaf to the cover scale, from
-the base of a ♀ cone. <i>H Pinus montana.</i> Young ovuliferous scale,
-with the inner side turned forward; the ovules are now in the stage for
-pollination. <i>J-M Abies alba</i>: <i>J</i> male cone; <i>b</i>
-bud-scale; <i>a</i> anthers; <i>K L M</i> individual anthers.&mdash;<i>Pinus
-montana</i>: <i>N</i> pollen-grain; the two lateral expansions are
-the air-bladders; in the upper part of the interior of the grain a
-vegetative cell may be seen, and in the centre the large cell-nucleus.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Dammara-resin, which is used for varnish, is obtained from
-<i>Agathis</i> (<i>Dammara</i>) species (New Zealand, Philippine
-Islands).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Abietaceæ (Pine and Fir Trees).</b> The leaves are spirally
-arranged and needle-like. The flowers are <i>monœcious</i>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">[264]</span> The male
-flowers are long, and catkin-like, with numerous stamens, each bearing
-two <i>oblong pollen-sacs</i>. The pollen-grains are most frequently
-tri-lobed, having two bladder-like appendages, formed as outgrowths of
-the exospore, to assist in their distribution by the wind (Fig. <a href="#fig267">267</a>
-<i>N</i>). The bracts are arranged spirally. The union between the
-bract and the ovuliferous scale, which is found in the preceding order,
-is not in this instance so complete; these scales make their appearance
-as two free parts, and are attached only at their bases (Fig. <a href="#fig268">268</a>);
-the lower portion, that is the cover-scale, in most instances remains
-quite small (Fir, Red Pine, and others), it is only in the “Noble
-Pine” (<i>Abies</i>) and <i>Pseudotsuga douglasii</i>, that it attains
-a greater length than the ovuliferous scale (Fig. <a href="#fig267">267</a>, <i>B-G</i>).
-On the other hand the upper part, <i>the ovuliferous scale</i> (the
-vascular bundles of which have the bast turned upwards), grows strongly
-and elongates, especially after fertilisation, becoming woody or
-leathery; it is commonly termed the “<i>cone-scale</i>,” but is in
-reality only homologous with a part of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">[265]</span> the “cone-scale” in the other
-order of Pinoideæ. On the side of the ovuliferous scale, turned towards
-the axis, are situated <i>two ovules</i> with micropyles <i>directed
-inwards</i>. The seeds are most frequently provided with <i>a false
-wing</i> (a tissue-like part of the surface of the ovuliferous scale).
-Cotyledons, <i>more than</i> 2, <i>verticillate</i>. <i>Fertilisation
-does not take place until some time after pollination.</i> In
-<i>Pinus</i>, for instance, the pollen-tube only penetrates the
-nucellus for a short distance during the year of pollination, and then
-ceases its further growth, fertilisation not taking place until after
-the middle of the next year; whilst the seeds ripen about a year and a
-half after pollination. In the Larch and others, the seeds are mature
-in the autumn succeeding pollination.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig268" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig268.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 268.</span>&mdash;<i>A Abies</i>: <i>c</i> the
-cover-scale; <i>s</i> ovuliferous scale, or “cone-scale”; <i>sk</i>
-ovules in a young condition. <i>B Pinus</i>: ovuliferous scale
-with two ovules (<i>s</i>); <i>m</i> the two-lobed micropyle; <i>c</i>
-“mucro”; <i>b</i> the cover-scale behind. <i>C Abies</i>: ripe
-“cone-scale” with two seeds (<i>sa</i>); <i>f</i> wing of seed.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Abies</i> (Fir). The leaves are often (<i>e.g. Ab.
-pectinata</i>) displaced into 2 rows, flat and indented at the
-apex, with 2 white (wax-covered) lines on the under surface, in
-which the stomata are situated. The leaf-scars are nearly circular
-and do not project. The cones are erect. <i>The cover-scales and
-the ovuliferous scales separate from the axis</i>, to which they
-remain attached in other genera.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Tsuga</i>
-has leaves like <i>Abies</i>, but by the slightly projecting
-leaf-scars, and cones with persistent scales, it forms the transition
-to <i>Picea</i>.&mdash;<i>Pseudotsuga</i> has leaves similar to those
-of <i>Abies</i> and persistent carpels as in <i>Picea</i>, but the
-cover-scales grow as in <i>Abies</i> and project beyond the ovuliferous
-scales (<i>P. douglasii</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig267">267</a>). These two genera are considered
-as sub-genera of <i>Abies</i>.</span>&mdash;<i>Picea</i>. The leaves project
-on all sides, square and pointed; the leaf-scars are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">[266]</span> rhombic, on
-projecting leaf-cushions. The cones are pendulous. The cover-scales are
-much shorter than the leathery, persisting ovuliferous scales.&mdash;The
-genus <i>Larix</i> (Larch) differs from all the others in having
-deciduous leaves (the three preceding have leaves which persist for
-eleven to twelve years). It has <i>long-branches</i> with linear
-foliage-leaves and short, thick, <i>perennial dwarf-branches</i>, which
-each year form a new rosette of foliage-leaves, similar to those on the
-long-branches. The male flowers and the erect cones resemble those of
-<i>Picea</i>, and are borne on dwarf-branches.&mdash;<i>Cedrus</i> (Cedar)
-resembles <i>Larix</i> to some extent, but has persistent leaves (<i>C.
-libani</i>, <i>C. deodara</i>).&mdash;<i>Pinus</i> (Pine) has long-branches
-and dwarf-branches. The leaves of the long-branches are scale-like and
-not green; the dwarf-branches have very limited growth, and persist
-for three years; they arise in the axils of the scales borne on the
-long-branches of the self-same year, and each bears 2–5 foliage-leaves,
-they are also surrounded at the base by a number of membranous
-bud-scales. The cone-scales have a <i>thick, rhomboid extremity</i>
-(the “shield”).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The buds which develope into long-branches arise at the apex of
-other long-branches, and being very close together, form false
-whorls. The female cones occupy the position of long-branches,
-and take about two years for their development. The male flowers
-arise close together, and form a spike-like inflorescence at
-the base of a long-branch of the same year. The male flowers
-occupy the position of dwarf-branches, so that a female cone
-may be considered to be a modified long-branch, and a male cone
-a modified dwarf-branch. The main axis of the seedling has
-needle-like leaves, similar to those found on the older parts,
-and on dwarf-branches; it is not until some time later that
-the dwarf-branches are developed and the permanent arrangement
-attained.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> Several species are commonly cultivated in this
-country, partly on heaths and moors, and partly in plantations
-and as ornamental trees, such as Mountain Pine (<i>Pinus
-montana</i>, Cen. Eur.); Austrian Pine (<i>P. laricio</i>,
-Eur.); Scotch Fir (<i>P. silvestris</i>, Eur.); Weymouth
-Pine (<i>P. strobus</i>, N. Am.); common Red Pine (<i>Picea
-excelsa</i>, Cen. and N. Eur.); White Pine (<i>P. alba</i>, N.
-Am.); <i>Abies pectinata</i> (Common Fir, S. and Cen. Eur);
-<i>A. nordmanniana</i> (Crimea, Caucasus); <i>A. balsamea</i>
-(N. Am.); <i>Tsuga canadensis</i> (N. Am.); <i>Pseudotsuga
-douglasii</i> (N.W. Am.); Larch (<i>Larix europæa</i>, Alps,
-Carpathians); <i>L. sibirica</i> (N.E. Russia, Siberia).&mdash;The
-wood of many species, especially Pine, on account of its
-lightness and because it is so easily worked, is very well
-adapted for many useful purposes. The wood of the Yew-tree
-is very hard and is used for ornamental turning. Resin and
-Turpentine (<i>i.e.</i> Resin with essential oils, the name
-being derived from the Terebinth-tree, from which formerly a
-similar material was obtained) are extracted from <i>Pinus
-laricio</i> and <i>P. pinaster</i>. Oil of Turpentine is
-obtained by distillation of turpentine with water; Tar by
-dry distillation of Pine-wood. Canada-balsam is from North<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">[267]</span>
-American <i>Abies</i>-species (<i>A. balsamea</i> and
-<i>Fraseri</i>). The officinal Turpentine is mainly obtained
-from <i>Pinus pinaster</i> (South of France), <i>P. tæda</i>,
-<i>australis</i>, <i>strobus</i> (Weymouth Pine) and other North
-American species; more recently also from <i>P. silvestris</i>
-(Scotch Fir), <i>maritima</i>, <i>laricio</i>, <i>Picea
-excelsa</i>, and others; Venetian Turpentine, from Larch (S.
-Eur.) Amber is resin from a Tertiary plant (<i>Pityoxylon
-succiniferum</i>), closely related to the Pine, which grew
-especially in the countries round the South-East coast of the
-Baltic. <i>Pinus pinea</i> (the Pine, S. Eur.) has edible seeds
-and also <i>P. cembra</i> (in Cen. Eur. and Siberia).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Taxodiaceæ.</b> The vegetative leaves and cone-scales are
-arranged spirally. The ovules (2–9) are situated either at the base
-of the ovuliferous scales, in which case they are erect; or at their
-centre, when they are generally more or less inverted. The ovuliferous
-scale is more or less united with the cover-scale, and projects
-beyond the surface of the cone-scale, like a comb (Fig. <a href="#fig269">269</a>). The
-vascular bundles, which extend into the cover-scale, have the usual
-leaf-arrangement, viz. the wood placed above the bast; while those
-bundles which enter the ovuliferous scale have this arrangement of the
-bundles reversed.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig269" style="width: 331px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig269.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 269.</span>&mdash;<i>Cryptomeria japonica.</i> Portion
-of longitudinal section through female flower. <i>d</i> cover-scale;
-<i>f</i> ovuliferous scale; <i>ov</i> ovules; <i>fv</i> and <i>fv’</i>
-vascular bundles; the xylem is indicated by a wavy line, and the phlœm
-by a straight line.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Taxodium distichum</i> (the North American “Swamp Cypress”)
-has annual dwarf-branches, with distichous leaves, and cone-like
-“pneumathodia.” In the Tertiary period it was very common in
-the Polar regions. <i>Sequoia (Wellingtonia) gigantea</i>
-is the famous Californian Giant-Fir, or Mammoth-Tree, which
-attains a height of 300 feet, a diameter of 36 feet, and is
-said to live for 1,500 years. <i>Cryptomeria japonica</i>
-(Japan, China) has the least adnate ovuliferous scales;
-<i>Glyptostrobus</i> (China); <i>Arthrotaxis</i> (Tasmania);
-<i>Sciadopitys verticillata</i> (the only species in Japan) has,
-like <i>Pinus</i>, scale-like leaves on the long-branches, of
-which those which are situated at the apex of the annual shoots
-support “double needles,” <i>i.e. dwarf-branches</i>
-similar to the two-leaved dwarf-branches in <i>Pinus</i>, but
-without bud-scales, and with the two leaves fused together at
-the edges into one needle, which turns its upper surface away
-from the long-branch.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Cupressaceæ</b> (<b>Cypresses</b>). <i>The leaves are
-opposite or verticillate</i>, sometimes acicular, but most frequently
-scale-like (Fig. <a href="#fig270">270</a>). In the species with scale-like leaves, the
-seedlings often commence with acicular leaves (Fig. <a href="#fig272">272</a>), and
-branches are sometimes found on the older plants which revert to this
-form, seeming to indicate that the acicular leaf was the original<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">[268]</span>
-form (atavism). The so-called “<i>Retinospora</i>” species are
-seedling-forms of <i>Biota</i>, <i>Thuja</i>, <i>Chamæcyparis</i>,
-which have been propagated by cuttings, and retain the seedling-form.
-The flowers are monœcious or diœcious. The male flowers are short, and
-have shield-like stamens, bearing most frequently several pollen-sacs.
-The cover-scales and ovuliferous scales are entirely fused together and
-form <i>undivided</i> cone-scales, <i>opposite or whorled</i>; <i>the
-ovuliferous scales</i> have slight projections near <i>the base</i> on
-which 1–2–several <i>erect ovules</i> are developed (Fig. <a href="#fig274">274</a>). Most
-frequently 2 cotyledons.&mdash;<i>Evergreen</i> trees and shrubs.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig270" style="width: 268px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig270.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 270.</span>&mdash;<i>Cupressus goveniana.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig271" style="width: 212px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig271.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 271.</span>&mdash;Portion of a branch of <i>Thuja
-orientalis</i> (magnified). The leaf at the base on the right has a
-branch in its axil.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig272" style="width: 220px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig272.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 272.</span>&mdash;Seedling of <i>Thuja
-occidentalis</i>. The branch (<i>g</i>) is borne in the axil of the
-leaf <i>s</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Juniperus</i> (Juniper). <i>Diœcious.</i> The cone-scales become
-fleshy and fuse together to form most frequently a 1–3 seeded
-“berry-cone.” <span class="smaller"><i>J. communis</i> (Common Juniper) has acicular
-leaves, borne in whorls of three, and the “berry-cone” is formed by
-a trimerous whorl of cone-scales (Fig. <a href="#fig273">273</a>). <i>J. sabina</i> and
-<i>J. virginiana</i> have “berry-cones” formed from several dimerous
-whorls of cone-scales; the leaves are connate and opposite, needle-and
-scale-like leaves are found on the same plant.</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Cupressus</i> (Cypress). <i>Monœcious.</i> The cones are spherical;
-the cone-scales shield-like, generally five-cornered and woody (Fig.
-<a href="#fig270">270</a>), each having many seeds. The leaves are scale-like.&mdash;<i>Thuja.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">[269]</span>
-Monœcious.</i> Cones oblong. The cone-scales are dry, as in the
-Cypress, but leathery and imbricate, and not shield-like; each
-cone-scale bears 2–3 seeds. The leaves are most frequently dimorphic;
-those leaves which are situated on the edges of the flat branches are
-compressed, and only these bear buds, which are developed with great
-regularity, generally alternately, on both sides of the branch; those
-which are situated on the flattened surfaces are pressed flat and
-broad, and never bear branches (Fig. <a href="#fig271">271</a>). Along the central line of
-each leaf there is a resin-canal (Fig. <a href="#fig271">271</a>).&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Chamæcyparis</i>,
-<i>Callitris</i>, <i>Libocedrus</i>, <i>Thujopsis</i> (1 species: <i>T.
-dolabrata</i>; in Japan).</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig273" style="width: 265px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig273.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 273.</span>&mdash;Branch of Juniper with
-“berry-cones.”</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig274" style="width: 253px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig274.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 274.</span>&mdash;<i>Cupressus lawsoniana.</i>
-Longitudinal section through female cone. Two ovules (<i>ov</i>) are
-bisected; <i>f</i> ovuliferous scales.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Officinal.</span> <i>Juniperus sabina</i> from Central and
-South of Europe (the young branches yield an essential oil).
-The wood of <i>J. communis</i> is used in the production of
-an essential oil, and <i>J. oxycedrus</i> in the production
-of empyreumatic oil. The “berry-cone” of <i>J. communis</i>
-is officinal, and is also used for gin.&mdash;The wood of <i>J.
-virginiana</i> (N. Am.) is known as red cedar, and is used for
-lead-pencils. Sandarack resin is obtained from <i>Callitris
-quadrivalvis</i> (N.W. Africa).</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The following are cultivated in gardens</span>:&mdash;<i>Thuja
-occidentalis</i> (Arbor vitæ) (N. Am.), and <i>orientalis</i>
-(China, Japan); <i>Juniperus sabina</i> and <i>virginiana</i>;
-<i>Thujopsis dolabrata</i> (Japan); <i>Cupressus lawsoniana</i>
-(California), <i>C. sempervirens</i> (S. Eur., W. Asia),
-and other species, are grown especially in conservatories,
-and in Southern Europe particularly in cemeteries.&mdash;The
-<i>Retinospora</i> species which are so often planted, do not
-belong to an independent genus, but are obtained from cuttings,
-taken from seedling-plants with acicular leaves (see page <a href="#Page_267">267</a>).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[270]</span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Class III. <b>Gneteæ.</b></h3>
-
-<p>This class, independent of extinct forms, comprises the most highly
-developed of the Gymnosperms, partly from the circumstance that a
-perianth of 2–4 members encloses the <i>terminally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">[271]</span> placed ovule</i>,
-which is provided with one, or (in <i>Gnetum</i>) two, integuments, and
-partly owing to the fact that the wood has true vessels. There is only
-one order.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig275" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig275.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 275.</span>&mdash;<i>Welwitschia mirabilis</i>
-(considerably reduced). The horizontal lines indicate the surface of
-the soil.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order. <b>Gnetaceæ.</b> The three known genera differ very much
-in appearance. <i>Welwitschia mirabilis</i> (from the deserts
-of South Western Africa) is the oldest (?) genus now living.
-It resembles a giant radish, in that the hypocotyl is the only
-part of the main axis of the stem which becomes developed.
-It attains a circumference of upwards of four metres with a
-length of 1/2½-⅔ of a metre. It bears <i>only</i> two oblong,
-leathery leaves (Fig. <a href="#fig275">275</a>) which are torn into segments at the
-apex and lie on the surface of the soil; these are the two
-first foliage-leaves which succeed the cotyledons, and they are
-remarkable for their enormous length (upwards of two metres) as
-well as for their long duration, living as long as the plant
-itself. In their axils are situated the 4-rowed, spike-like male
-and scarlet-coloured female cones, upon dichotomous branches.
-The perianth consists in the ♂ of 2 alternating pairs of leaves,
-the inner ones of which are slightly united. The andrœcium
-likewise consists of 2 whorls: the external (transverse)
-with 2, the internal with 4 stamens; the lower halves of
-the 6 filaments uniting to form a cup. Each of the terminal
-anthers corresponds to a sorus of 3 sporangia, the sporangia
-being fused together, and opening at the top by <i>one</i>
-three-rayed cleft. In the centre of the ♂-flower there is
-a sterile ovule. In the ♀-flower a perianth of two connate
-leaves is present.&mdash;<i>Ephedra</i> (desert plants, especially
-in the Mediterranean and W. Asia) at first sight resembles an
-<i>Equisetum</i>; the stems are thin, long-jointed, and the
-leaves opposite, small, and united into a bidentate sheath;
-♂-perianth of two connate leaves (median leaves); 2–8 stamens
-united into a column. Each anther is formed of 2 sporangia
-(is bilocular). ♀ mainly, as in <i>Welwitschia</i>. The seeds
-are surrounded by the perianth which finally becomes red and
-fleshy. There are 30 species.&mdash;<i>Gnetum</i> has opposite,
-lanceolate, pinnately-veined, leathery leaves. They are mostly
-climbers (Lianas) from Tropical Asia and America. The ♂-flowers
-have a tubular perianth, (formed from two median leaves) which
-surrounds a centrally-placed filament, bearing 2 anthers. In
-the ♀-flower there is a similar perianth, surrounding an ovule
-provided with 2 integuments. The perianth becomes fleshy and
-envelops the hard seed. 20 species.</p>
-
-<p>From the circumstance of <i>Welwitschia</i> having ♂ flowers
-which, besides stamens, possess also a rudiment of an ovule,
-Celakovsky draws the inference that the earliest Gymnosperms
-had hermaphrodite flowers which from this structure became
-differentiated entirely into ♂-and ♀-flowers, with the exception
-of <i>Welwitschia</i> only, in which this differentiation was
-only carried out in the ♀-flower. This theory has so far been
-scarcely proved.</p>
-
-
-<p class="center p1"><b>Fossil Gymnosperms.</b></p>
-
-<p>The earliest continental plants which are known belong to the
-<span class="smcap">Cordaitaceæ</span>, a group of plants which existed as early
-as the Silurian period; they were Gymnosperms, but it has not
-yet been determined whether they were Cycads or Conifers. The
-<span class="smcap">Cycads</span>, even in the Coal period, were scarce; they
-attained their fullest development in Jurassic and Cretaceous
-periods, during which they were rich in species and genera,
-and extended as far as the Polar regions. In addition<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">[272]</span> to
-these, Taxaceæ, Abietaceæ, and Taxodiaceæ appeared in the
-Carboniferous period. The <span class="smcap">Taxaceæ</span> appear to have
-attained their culmination in the Jurassic and Cretaceous
-periods; <i>Ginkgo</i> appears in the Rhætic; <i>Torreya</i>,
-in the Cretaceous; <i>Taxus</i> and <i>Podocarpus</i> in the
-Tertiary periods. The <span class="smcap">Abietaceæ</span> also appear in the
-Carboniferous; <i>Pinus</i> was first known with certainty
-in the English Weald and in the Cretaceous; almost all other
-contemporary genera are represented in this latter period. The
-<span class="smcap">Araucariaceæ</span> first appear, with certainty, in the
-Jurassic. The <span class="smcap">Taxodiaceæ</span> may be traced back as far as
-the Carboniferous (?); <i>Sequoia</i> is first found in the
-lowest Cretaceous, at that period it spread throughout the
-entire Arctic zone, and being represented by a large number of
-species, formed an essential part of the forest vegetation.
-<i>Sequoia</i> played a similar part in the Tertiary period.
-The <span class="smcap">Cupressaceæ</span> are first known with certainty in the
-Jurassic, but they appeared more frequently and numerously in
-the Tertiary period, in which most of the present living genera
-were to be found. The <span class="smcap">Gnetaceæ</span>, according to a theory
-advanced by Renault were represented in the Coal period by the
-genus <i>Stephanospermum</i>, which had four ovules enclosed by
-an envelope.</p>
-</div>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">[273]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="smaller">DIVISION V.<br />
-<span class="subhed">ANGIOSPERMÆ.</span></h2></div>
-
-<p>See pages <a href="#Page_3">3</a> and <a href="#Page_224">224</a>. To this Division belong the majority of the
-Flowering-plants. They are divided into two parallel classes, the
-Monocotyledons and the Dicotyledons, which differ from each other not
-only in the number of cotyledons, which, with a few exceptions, is one
-in the former, two in the latter, but also in the internal structure
-of the stem, the venation of the leaves, the number of the parts of
-the flower, etc. <span class="smaller">Assuming that these two
-classes have sprang from a common origin, it is amongst the Helobieæ
-in the first, and amongst the Polycarpicæ in the second class that
-we might expect to find closely allied forms, which might reasonably
-be supposed to have varied less from this original type. As for the
-rest, they seem to stand quite parallel, without exhibiting any close
-relationship. It is scarcely proved that the Monocotyledons are the
-older class.</span></p>
-
-<p>[Our knowledge of the forms included under the Angiosperms has
-recently been considerably increased by Treub (<i>Ann. d. Jar. Bot.
-d. Buitenzorg</i>, 1891), who has shown that the Casuarinas differ
-in many important points from the typical Angiosperms. Among other
-characters the pollen-tube is found to enter the ovule near the chalaza
-and therefore at the opposite end to the micropyle, and Treub therefore
-suggests that these plants should be placed in a subdivision termed
-Chalazogams.</p>
-
-<p>According to this view the principal divisions of the Angiosperms would
-be represented thus:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p class="center p1 smaller"><b>Angiospermæ.</b></p>
-
-<table summary="divisions" class="smaller">
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr">Sub-division.</td>
-    <td class="ctr">Sub-division.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr smcap">Chalazogames.</td>
-    <td class="ctr smcap">Porogames.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr">Class.</td>
-    <td class="ctr">Classes.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr">Chalazogames.</td>
-    <td class="ctr">Monocotyledones, Dicotyledones.</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>More recently Nawaschin (<i>Bull. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersb.</i>,
-ser. iii., xxxv.) has shown that <i>Betula</i>, and Miss Benson
-(<i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i>, 1894) that <i>Alnus</i>, <i>Corylus</i>, and
-<i>Carpinus</i> also belong to the Chalazogams.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">[274]</span></p>
-
-<p>Our knowledge, however, is still so incomplete that one would hesitate
-to accord the full systematic value which Dr. Treub attaches to his
-discovery until the limits of the Chalazogamic group are better
-defined; and it would hardly be justifiable to include the Casuarinas
-and the above-noted genera in one family.]</p>
-
-
-<h3>Class 1. <b>Monocotyledones.</b></h3>
-
-<p><i>The embryo has only one cotyledon; the leaves are as a rule
-scattered, with parallel venation; the vascular bundles of the stem
-are closed, there is no increase of thickness. The flower is typically
-constructed of five 3-merous whorls, placed alternately.</i></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The embryo</span> is generally small in proportion to the abundant
-endosperm (exceptions, see <i>Helobieæ</i>), and its single cotyledon
-is often sheath-like, and very large. On the germination of the seed
-either the entire cotyledon, or its apex only, most generally remains
-in the seed and absorbs the nutritive-tissue, while the lower portion
-elongates and pushes out the plumule and radicle, which then proceed
-with their further growth. The primary root in most cases soon ceases
-to grow, but at the same time, however, numerous lateral roots break
-out from the stem, and become as vigorous as the primary root, or even
-more so. Increase in thickness does not take place in these roots; they
-branch very little or not at all, and generally die after a longer or
-shorter time.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The stem</span> is frequently a corm, bulb, or other variety of
-underground stem, as the majority of the Monocotyledons are perennial,
-herbaceous plants; it has scattered, closed vascular bundles (Fig.
-<a href="#fig276">276</a>), and no cambium by which a continuous thickening may take
-place. The stem of the Palms, however, attains a very considerable
-thickness, which is due to the meristem of its growing-point
-continually increasing in diameter for a lengthened period (often for
-many years), until it has reached a certain size. In this condition
-the growing-point has the form of an inverted cone, and it is only
-when this cone has attained its requisite size that the formation of
-a vertical cylindrical stem commences. Certain tree-like Liliaceæ,
-as <i>Dracæna</i>, <i>Aloe</i>, etc., have a continuous increase in
-thickness; this is due to a meristematic layer, which arises in the
-cortex, outside the original vascular bundles, which were formed at the
-growing-point of the stem. This meristem continues to form thick-walled
-parenchyma and new, scattered vascular bundles. The primary vascular
-bundles, in the Palms and others, run in a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">[275]</span> curved line from their
-entrance into the stem at the base of the leaf, towards the centre of
-the stem, and then bend outwards and proceed downwards in a direction
-more parallel to the sides of the stem (Fig. <a href="#fig277">277</a>). The bundles formed
-later, in those stems which increase in thickness, are not continued
-into the leaves.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The branching</span> as a rule is very slight, the axillary buds of
-the majority of the leaves never attaining development, <i>e.g.</i> in
-the Palms, bulbous plants and others. As the cotyledon arises singly,
-the succeeding leaves also must be scattered, but they are frequently
-arranged in two rows (Grasses, Iris, etc). <i>The first leaf borne
-on a branch</i> (the “Fore-leaf,”<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a>&mdash;the bracteole, if on a floral
-shoot) has generally, in the Monocotyledons, a characteristic form and
-position, being situated on the posterior side of its own shoot, and
-hence turned towards the main axis; it is sometimes provided with two
-laterally-placed keels (Figs. <a href="#fig279">279</a> <i>f</i>, <a href="#fig290">290</a> <i>øi</i>), but the
-midrib is often absent. It arises in some cases from two primordia,
-which at the beginning are quite distinct, and thus has been regarded
-as formed by two leaves. It is, however, only one leaf, a fact which is
-evident from several circumstances, one being that it never supports
-more than one shoot, and this stands in the median plane (Fig. <a href="#fig279">279</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig276" style="width: 392px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig276.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 276.</span>&mdash;Transverse section of the stem of a
-Palm: <i>v v</i> is the wood portion, <i>b b</i> the bast
-portion of the vascular bundled.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig277" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig277.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 277.</span>&mdash;Diagrammatic representation of the
-course of the vascular bundles, from the stem into the leaves in a
-Monocotyledon.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The leaves</span> are <i>amplexicaul</i>, and have a large sheath
-but no stipules; the blade is most frequently long, ligulate, or
-linear, entire, with parallel venation, the veins being straight or
-curved<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">[276]</span> (Figs. <a href="#fig300">300</a>, <a href="#fig309">309</a>). Connecting the large number of veins which
-run longitudinally, there are as a rule only weak transverse ones. It
-is very rarely that other forms of leaves are found, such as cordate
-(Figs. <a href="#fig302">302</a>, <a href="#fig312">312</a>), or that the blade is branched, or the venation is,
-for example, pinnate or palmate (Figs. <a href="#fig225">225</a>, <a href="#fig298">298</a>); these deviations are
-especially found in the Araceæ, the Palms, the Scitamineæ (Fig. <a href="#fig308">308</a>),
-the Dioscoreaceæ, and in several aquatic plants. The incisions in the
-Palm-leaf are derived by the splitting of an originally entire leaf.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The structure of the flower</span> is generally as follows: Pr3 +
-3, A3 + 3, G3, rarely S3 + P3 with the other members unchanged.<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a>
-Instead of 3, the numbers 2 and 4 may occur; rarely others. In all
-these instances there are 5 whorls, which regularly alternate with one
-another, most frequently in the 3-merous flower, as in the diagram
-(Fig. <a href="#fig278">278</a>). This diagram is found in the following orders: Liliaceæ,
-Convallariaceæ, Juncaceæ, Bromeliaceæ, Amaryllidaceæ, Dioscoreaceæ,
-Palmæ, some Araceæ, and in some small orders, and may be considered as
-the typical structure and also the starting point for the exceptional
-orders. The ovary in many Monocotyledons has many ovules, and the fruit
-becomes a many-seeded berry or capsule; this form is no doubt the
-oldest. In others the number of seeds becomes reduced to 1, and the
-fruit then becomes a cypsela, or a drupe (<i>e.g. Gramineæ</i>,
-<i>Cyperaceæ</i>, <i>Palmæ</i>, etc).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig278" style="width: 245px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig278.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 278.</span>&mdash;Diagram of the ordinary, regular
-flower in the Monocotyledons: <i>s</i> is the bract.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig279" style="width: 235px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig279.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 279.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Iris</i>: <i>f</i> the
-bracteole; in its axil is a shoot with its bracteole.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig280" style="width: 242px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig280.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 280.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Orchis</i>: <i>l</i>
-the lip; σ σ the two staminodes.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Deviations from this typical floral structure in some instances<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">[277]</span> may
-be traced to <i>suppression</i>, very rarely to a <i>splitting</i> of
-certain members, the typical relative positions not being changed.
-Thus, the Iridaceæ, the Cyperaceæ, most of the Gramineæ and some
-Juncaceæ deviate in having only 3 stamens (Fig. <a href="#fig279">279</a>), the inner whorl
-(indicated by *) not becoming developed. The Musaceæ differ in the
-posterior stamen not being developed; <i>Zingiberaceæ</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig314">314</a>),
-<i>Marantaceæ</i>, and <i>Cannaceæ</i>, in the fact that only 1 of
-all the stamens bears an anther, and the others are either suppressed
-or developed into petaloid staminodes, with some perhaps cleft in
-addition. The Orchideæ deviate in having, generally, only the anterior
-stamen of all the 6 developed (Fig. <a href="#fig280">280</a>). In this, as in other
-instances, the suppression of certain parts of the flower is often
-connected with <i>zygomorphy</i> (<i>i.e.</i> symmetry in <i>one</i>
-plane), chiefly in the inner perianth-whorl, but also in the other
-whorls. In the Orchids, the perianth-leaf (the labellum, Fig. <a href="#fig280">280</a>
-<i>l</i>) which is directly opposite the fertile stamen, is larger and
-altogether different from the others. The perianth-leaves may also be
-suppressed; see, for example, the two diagrams of the Cyperaceæ (Fig.
-<a href="#fig284">284</a>). In some orders the suppression of these leaves, which form the
-basis of the diagram, is so complete that it is hard to reduce the
-actual structure of the flower to the theoretical type, <i>e.g.</i> the
-Grasses (Fig. <a href="#fig290">290</a>) and <i>Lemna</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig303">303</a>). In the first family,
-which especially comprises water-plants, a somewhat different structure
-is found; thus Fig. <a href="#fig282">282</a> differs somewhat from the ordinary type, and
-other flowers much more so; but the floral diagrams which occur in this
-family may perhaps be considered as the most probable representatives
-of an older type, from which the ordinary pentacyclic forms have taken
-their origin. In favour of this theory we have the larger number of
-whorls, the spiral arrangement of some of these in the flower, with
-a large and indefinite number of stamens and carpels, the perfectly
-apocarpous gynœceum which sometimes occurs, etc., etc.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The Monocotyledons are divided into 7 Families:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Helobieæ.</span> This family forms a group complete in
-itself. It commences with hypogynous, perfect flowers, whose
-gynœcium is apocarpous and terminates in epigynous and more or
-less reduced forms.</p>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">Glumifloræ.</span> These have as a starting point the
-same diagram as the following families, but otherwise develope
-independently.</p>
-
-<p>3. <span class="smcap">Spadicifloræ.</span> Also an independent branch, or perhaps
-two different ones which terminate in much reduced forms.</p>
-
-<p>4. <span class="smcap">Enantioblastæ.</span> These ought perhaps to be amalgamated
-with the following family.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">[278]</span></p>
-
-<p>5. <span class="smcap">Liliifloræ.</span> These advance from forms with the
-typical diagram and hypogynous flower, to epigynous and reduced
-forms.</p>
-
-<p>6. <span class="smcap">Scitamineæ</span> and</p>
-
-<p>7. <span class="smcap">Gynandræ.</span> Two isolated families, which probably have
-taken their origin from Liliifloræ, and have epigynous, mostly
-zygomorphic, and much reduced forms.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 1. <b>Helobieæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>To this family belong <i>only water- or marsh-plants</i>; <i>the
-endosperm is wanting</i>, and they possess an embryo with a very
-<i>large hypocotyl</i> prolonged downwards and often club-like. The
-perianth is often differentiated into calyx and corolla; the flower
-is regular, and in the first orders to be considered, may be reduced
-to the ordinary Monocotyledonous type; there are, however, <i>usually
-found two</i> 3-<i>merous whorls of carpels</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig282">282</a>), and thus in
-all 6 whorls, or again, the <i>number of carpels may be indefinite</i>;
-the number of stamens also may be increased, either by the division
-of the members of a whorl, or by the development of additional
-whorls. <i>Syncarps</i>,<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> with nut or follicular fruitlets, are
-<i>very common</i>, for example, in the first orders; in the last
-(Hydrocharitaceæ) the carpels are not only united, but the ovary is
-even inferior.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The primitive type appears to be a hypogynous flower, similar
-to that of the Juncaginaceæ or Alismaceæ, with several 3-merous
-whorls, and free carpels, each with many ovules; the green
-perianth in this instance being no doubt older than the coloured
-ones. If we take a flower with this structure as the starting
-point, then the family developes partly into epigynous forms,
-partly into others which are so strongly reduced and exceptional
-that it is scarcely possible to refer them to the ordinary
-type. The family, through the peculiar <i>Zostereæ</i>, appears
-to approach the Araceæ, in which <i>Potamogetonaceæ</i> and
-<i>Najadaceæ</i> are included by some authorities. However, the
-inclusion of <i>Potamogeton</i>, and with it <i>Ruppia</i> and
-<i>Zannichellia</i>, in the Juncaginaceæ appears quite correct.
-It would scarcely be right to separate <i>Zostereæ</i> from
-these. Great stress has often been laid upon the similarity with
-the Ranunculaceæ which is found in the Alismaceæ, but it is
-scarcely more than an analogous resemblance.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Juncaginaceæ.</b> The ☿, regular, <i>hypogynous</i>
-flowers have the <i>perianth</i> 3 + 3, <i>sepaloid</i>, stamens 3
-+ 3 (with extrorse anthers), and carpels 3 + 3 (free or united), of
-which last, however, one whorl may be suppressed (in <i>Triglochin
-maritima</i> all 6 carpels are developed, in <i>T. palustris</i>
-the inner whorl is unfertile). Inflorescence long spikes.
-Embryo <i>straight</i>.&mdash;Marsh-plants with radical, rush-like
-leaves, arranged in two rows, and often sheathing and ligulate
-(“squamulæ intravaginales”); the inflorescence is a spike or
-raceme.&mdash;<i>Scheuchzeria.</i> Carpels almost free; in each at least<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">[279]</span>
-two ovules. Follicles.&mdash;<i>Triglochin</i> has long, fine racemes
-without bracts or bracteoles; one ovule in each carpel. The carpels
-in the two native species are united, but separate when ripe as a
-schizocarp, loosening from below; they open along the ventral suture or
-remain closed; a linear central column remains. <span class="smaller">The most reduced is
-Lilæa (1–2 sp. Am.)&mdash;Protogynous. About 10 species. Temp. Fossils in
-Tertiary.</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Potamogetonaceæ.</b> The aquatic plants belonging to this
-order are perennial, living entirely submerged, or with floating
-leaves, and preferring still water. The leaves are alternate, in some
-linear and grass-like, in others there is an elliptical floating blade,
-supported by a linear submerged petiole. Axillary scales. The fruit is
-generally a syncarp with <i>nuts</i> or <i>drupes</i>; the <i>embryo is
-curved</i>, of very various forms.</p>
-
-<p><i>Potamogeton</i> (Pond-weed). The rhizome is creeping, sympodial
-(with two internodes in each shoot-generation); the inflorescence
-is a terminal, many-flowered spike, without floral-leaves; below it
-are found 2 foliage-leaves placed nearly at the same height, from
-whose axils the branching is continued cymosely. The flowers are
-☿, 4-<i>merous</i>, naked, and consist only of 4 <i>stamens</i>,
-with the <i>connectives, broadly developed</i> at the back of the
-anthers, <i>resembling a perianth</i>, and of 4 <i>free, sessile
-carpels</i>. They are common plants in fresh water. <span class="smaller">The spike,
-during the flowering, is raised above the water. Wind-pollinated and
-protogynous.&mdash;Closely allied is <i>Ruppia</i> (Tassel Pond-weed), in
-salt or brackish water. The spike has only two naked flowers, each
-consisting of 2 stamens and 4 carpels. The stalks of the individual
-carpels are considerably prolonged.&mdash;<i>Zannichellia</i> (Horned
-Pond-weed) is monœcious; the ♀-flower consists of 4 (2–9) carpels, with
-membranous, bell-shaped perianth; long styles; the ♂-flower has 1 (-2)
-stamens. <i>Althenia.</i></span></p>
-
-<p><i>Zostera</i> (Grass-wrack) is an entirely submerged, marine plant
-with creeping rhizome (with displacement of buds) and strap-shaped
-leaves. The flowering shoots are sympodia with displacement of the
-axes (Fig. <a href="#fig281">281</a>). The inflorescence is a peculiar, flatly-compressed
-spike, on <i>one</i> side of which the flowers are borne (Fig. <a href="#fig281">281</a>).
-<span class="smaller">This inflorescence may be considered, no doubt correctly, to be
-derived from the symmetrical spike of <i>Potamogeton</i> by strongly
-dorsiventral development, and by a strong suppression of the floral
-parts taking place simultaneously. Two rows of flowers are developed,
-but of these one is so pressed into the other that apparently only one
-is present.</span> Each flower consists of only 1 stamen and 1 carpel
-situated at the same height (Fig. <a href="#fig281">281</a>); the unilocular ovary encloses
-1 pendulous ovule and bears a bifid style. As regards the perianth
-(?) one leaf may be present (<i>Z. nana</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig281">281</a> <i>D</i>). The
-pollen-grains are filamentous. Pollination takes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">[280]</span> place under water.
-<span class="smaller"><i>Posidonia</i> and <i>Cymodocea</i> are allied to these. About 70
-species.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig281" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig281.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 281.</span>&mdash;<i>Zostera.</i> A Diagram of
-the branching of the floral shoots: <i>I</i>, <i>II</i> ... are
-the successive shoot-generations, every other one being shaded;
-<i>g<sub>1</sub> g<sub>2</sub></i> ... fore-leaves; <i>sp<sub>1</sub> sp<sub>2</sub></i>
-... spathes for the successive spikes. Each shoot is united for
-some distance with the parent axis (indicated by the half-shaded
-internodes). Each shoot commences with a fore-leaf turning towards the
-parent axis, <i>g</i>; succeeding this is the spathe, <i>sp</i>; and
-then the inflorescence. The fore-leaf supports a new lateral shoot.
-<i>B</i> Diagram of a shoot, <i>II</i>, which is borne laterally
-in the axil of the fore-leaf <i>g<sub>1</sub></i>, on the shoot <i>I</i>,
-<i>g<sub>2</sub></i> its fore-leaf; <i>sp<sub>2</sub></i> its spathe; <i>sti</i>
-squamulæ intravaginales. <i>II</i> Is the spadix with stamens and
-carpels; <i>b</i> a perianth-leaf (or connective expansion, similar to
-those which occur in <i>Potamogeton</i>). <i>C</i> The upper portion of
-a young spadix with development of flowers. <i>D</i> Part of a spadix
-with 2 flowers; the parts which theoretically belong to one another are
-connected by a dotted line.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">[281]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Aponogetonaceæ.</b> Aquatic plants with tuberous
-stem. They have a single, petaloid perianth (3–2–1–leaved),
-most frequently 6 stamens and 3(-6) carpels. Straight
-embryo.&mdash;About 15 species (Africa, Madagascar, Tropical
-Asia and Australia).&mdash;<i>Aponogeton distachyos</i> and
-<i>A.</i> (<i>Ouvirandra</i>) <i>fenestralis</i> are grown in
-conservatories; the latter has lattice-like, perforated leaves.</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Najadaceæ.</b> Only one genus <i>Najas</i> (about
-10 species); annual fresh water plants with leaves in pairs
-and solitary, unisexual flowers. The ♂ flower is remarkable in
-having a terminal stamen, which has either 4 longitudinal loculi
-or 1 central one; on this account the stamen of <i>Najas</i>
-is considered by some authorities to be a stem and not a
-leaf-structure. The unilocular gynœceum and the single, erect,
-anatropous ovule are also terminal. Pollination takes place
-under the water.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Alismaceæ.</b> The regular, <i>hypogynous</i> flowers
-are in some species unisexual by the suppression of either andrœcium
-or gynœceum; they have a 6-merous perianth, <i>generally</i>
-differentiated into 3 sepals and 3 petals; generally 6 <i>stamens
-in the outer whorl</i> (by the division of the 3; Fig. <a href="#fig282">282</a>) and
-often several 3-merous whorls inside these, and 6–∞ <i>free</i>
-carpels arranged cyclically or spirally. Fruit a syncarp.&mdash;Marsh- or
-water-plants with radical leaves and long-stalked inflorescences.</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <i>Butomeæ. Follicles with many seeds, which are borne
-on nearly the whole of the inner surface of the cyclic carpels</i> (as
-in Nymphæaceæ). Embryo <i>straight</i>.&mdash;<i>Butomus</i> (Flowering
-Rush, Fig. <a href="#fig282">282</a>), has an umbel (generally composed of 3 helicoid cymes).
-<i>S</i> 3, <i>P</i> 3, stamens 9 (6 + 3, <i>i.e.</i> the outer whorl
-doubled), <i>G</i> 3 + 3. <span class="smaller"><i>B. umbellatus</i>; creeping rhizome
-with triangular Iris-like leaves.&mdash;<i>Hydrocleis. Limnocharis.</i></span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig282" style="width: 300px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig282.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 282.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Butomus</i>: <i>f</i>
-bracteole.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <i>Alismeæ.</i> Fruit achenes. Latex common (in the
-intercellular spaces). The flowers are arranged most frequently
-in single or compound whorls. Embryo <i>curved</i>, horse-shoe
-shaped.&mdash;<i>Alisma</i> has <i>S</i> 3, <i>P</i> 3, <i>A</i> 6 (in 1
-whorl, grouped in pairs, <i>i.e.</i> doubled in front of the sepals),
-and 1 <i>whorl</i> of 1-seeded achenes on a flat receptacle. The
-leaves are most frequently radicle, long-stalked; the lamina have
-curved longitudinal veins, and a richly branched venation. <i>A.
-plantago.</i>&mdash;<i>Elisma</i> (<i>E. natans</i>) has epitropous (turned
-inwards) ovules, whilst the ovules of <i>Alisma</i>, <i>Sagittaria</i>
-and others are apotropous (turned outwards).&mdash;<i>Echinodorus</i> (<i>E.
-ranunculoides</i>)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">[282]</span> has a convex receptacle, carpels many, united
-and capitate. <i>Damasonium</i>.&mdash;<i>Sagittaria</i> (Arrow-head)
-has <i>monœcious</i> flowers, several whorls of stamens and
-<i>spirally-arranged achenes</i> on a very convex receptacle. <span class="smaller"><i>S.
-sagittifolia</i> reproduces by tuberous buds formed at the end of long,
-submerged branches. The leaves, in deep and rapidly running water, are
-long and strap-shaped, but in the air arrow-shaped.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Honey is secreted in the flower and pollination effected
-by insects. <i>Alisma plantago</i> has 12 nectaries. The
-submerged flowers of <i>Elisma natans</i> remain closed and
-are self-pollinated. <i>Butomus</i> has protandrous flowers.
-There are about 50 species, which mostly grow outside the
-Tropics.&mdash;Uses insignificant. The rhizome of some is farinaceous.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Hydrocharitaceæ.</b> This order differs chiefly from
-the preceding in its <i>epigynous</i> flowers. These are in general
-unisexual (<i>diœcious</i>), and surrounded by a 2-leaved or bipartite
-<i>spathe</i>; they are 3-merous in all whorls, but the number of
-whorls is generally greater than 5, sometimes even indefinite. The
-perianth is divided into <i>calyx</i> and <i>corolla</i>. The ovary
-is <i>unilocular</i> with parietal placentation, or more or less
-incompletely plurilocular. The fruit is berry-like, but usually
-ruptures irregularly when ripe. Embryo straight.&mdash;Most often submerged
-water-plants, leaves seldom floating on the surface. Axillary scales
-(<i>squamulæ intravaginales</i>).</p>
-
-<p><i>Hydrocharis.</i> Floating water-plants with round cordate leaves;
-S3, P3 (folded in the bud); ♂-flowers: 3 (-more) flowers inside each
-spathe; stamens 9–15, the most internal sterile. ♀-flowers solitary;
-three staminodes; ovary 6-locular, with many ovules attached to
-the septa; styles 6, short, bifid. [The petals of the ♀-flowers
-bear nectaries at the base. In this and the following genus the
-pollination is without doubt effected by insects.] <span class="smaller"><i>H. morsus
-ranæ</i> (Frog-bit) has runners; it hibernates by means of special
-winter-buds.</span>&mdash;<i>Stratiotes</i>; floating plants with a rosette of
-linear, thick, stiff leaves with spiny margin, springing from a short
-stem, from which numerous roots descend into the mud. Inflorescence,
-perianth, and ovary nearly the same as in <i>Hydrocharis</i>, but
-the ♂-flower has 12 stamens in 3 whorls, of which the outer 6 are
-in 1 whorl (dédoublement), and inside the perianth in both flowers
-there are numerous (15–30) nectaries (staminodes?). <i>S. aloides</i>
-(Water-soldier); in N. Eur. only ♀-plants.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Vallisneria
-spiralis</i> is a tropical or sub-tropical plant, growing gregariously
-on the mud in fresh water. The leaves are grass-like, and the plants
-diœcious; the ♂-flowers are detached from the plant, and rise to
-the surface of the water, where they pollinate the ♀-flowers. These
-are borne on long, spirally-twisted peduncles which contract after
-pollination, so that the ♀-flower is again drawn under the water, and
-the fruits ripen deeply submerged.&mdash;<i>Elodea canadensis</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">[283]</span> is also
-an entirely submerged plant. The leaves are arranged in whorls on a
-well-developed stem. Only ♀-plants in Europe (introduced about 1836
-from N. Am). This plant spreads with great rapidity throughout the
-country, the reproduction being entirely vegetative. <i>Hydrilla</i>,
-<i>Halophila</i>, <i>Thalassia</i>, <i>Enhalus</i>.&mdash;In many of these
-genera the number of whorls in the flower is remarkably reduced; for
-example, in <i>Vallisneria</i>, in the ♂-flowers to 2: Pr 3, A (1-) 3,
-in the ♀ to 3: Pr 3, Staminodes 3, G 3.&mdash;About 40 species; Temp. and
-Trop.</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 2. <b>Glumifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The <i>hypogynous</i> flowers in the Juncaceæ are completely developed
-on the <i>pentacyclic, trimerous</i> type, with <i>dry, scarious
-perianth</i>. Even in these the interior whorl of stamens becomes
-suppressed, and the ovary, which in <i>Juncus</i> is trilocular with
-many ovules, becomes in <i>Luzula</i> almost unilocular, but still
-with 3 ovules. The perianth in the Cyperaceæ and Gramineæ is reduced
-from hairs, in the first of these, to nothing, the flowers at the same
-time collecting more closely on the inflorescence (spike) supported
-by <i>dry</i> bracts (<i>chaff</i>); the number of stamens is almost
-constantly 3; stigmas linear; the ovary has only 1 loculus with 1
-ovule, and the fruit, which is a capsule in the Juncaceæ, becomes a
-nut or caryopsis.&mdash;The endosperm is large and floury, the embryo being
-placed at its lower extremity (Figs. <a href="#fig286">286</a> <i>B</i>, <a href="#fig291">291</a>).&mdash;The plants
-belonging to this order, with the exception of a few tropical species,
-are annual or perennial herbs. The stems above ground are thin, and for
-the most part have long internodes, with linear, parallel-veined leaves
-which have long <i>sheaths</i>, and often a <i>ligule</i>, <i>i.e.</i>
-a membranous projection, arising transversely from the leaf at the
-junction of the sheath and blade. The underground stems are short or
-creeping rhizomes. The flowers are small and insignificant. Wind- or
-self-pollination.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Juncaceæ</b> (<b>Rushes</b>). The regular, hermaphrodite,
-hypogynous flowers have 3 + 3 brown, dry, free perianth-leaves
-projecting like a star during the opening of the flower; stamens 3 +
-3 (seldom 3 + 0) and 3 carpels united into one gynœceum (Fig. <a href="#fig283">283</a>);
-the ovary is 3- or 1-locular; there is as a rule 1 style, which becomes
-divided at the summit into 3 stigmas, often bearing branches twisted
-to the right (Fig. <a href="#fig283">283</a>). <i>Fruit a capsule</i> with loculicidal
-dehiscence. The embryo is an extremely small, ellipsoidal, cellular
-mass, without differentiation into the external organs.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig283" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig283.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 283.</span>&mdash;Flower of <i>Luzula</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">[284]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Juncus</i> (Rush) has glabrous foliage-leaves, generally
-cylindrical, rarely flat; the edges of the leaf-sheath are free
-(“<i>open</i>” leaf-sheaths) and cover one another. The capsule, 1- or
-3-locular, with <i>many</i> seeds&mdash;<i>Luzula</i> (Wood-Rush) has flat,
-grass-like leaves with ciliated edges; the edges of the leaf-sheath
-are united (“<i>closed</i>” leaf-sheath). The capsule unilocular
-and <i>3-seeded</i>.&mdash;<i>Prionium</i>: S. Africa; resembling a
-<i>Tacona</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The <i>interior</i> whorl of stamens, in some species,
-disappears partially or entirely (<i>J. supinus</i>,
-<i>capitatus</i>, <i>conglomerates</i>, etc.)</p>
-
-<p>Some of the numerous <i>Juncus</i>-species (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>J. effusus</i>, <i>glaucus</i>, <i>conglomeratus</i>,
-etc.), have false, lateral inflorescences, the axis of the
-inflorescence being pushed to one side by its subtending
-leaf, which apparently forms a direct continuation of
-the stem, and resembles it both in external and internal
-structure. The foliage-leaves of this genus were formerly
-described as “unfertile stems,” because they are cylindrical,
-erect, and resemble stems, and consequently the stem was
-said to be “leafless”: <i>J. effusus</i>, <i>glaucus</i>,
-<i>conglomeratus</i>. Stellate parenchynatous cells are found
-in the pith of these stems and in the leaves. Other species
-have distinct terminal inflorescences and grooved leaves;
-<i>J. bufonius</i> (Toad-rush), <i>compressus</i>, and others.
-The <i>inflorescences</i> most often present the peculiarity
-of having the lateral axes protruding above the main axis.
-Their composition is as follows:&mdash;The flowers have either no
-bracteoles, and the inflorescences are then capitulate; or
-they have 1–several bracteoles. Each branch has then, first,
-a 2-keeled fore-leaf placed posteriorly (“basal-leaf”), and
-succeeding this are generally several leaves borne alternately
-and in the same plane as the basal-leaf, the two uppermost
-(the “spathe-leaves”) being always barren; those which lie
-between the basal-leaves and the spathe-leaves are termed
-“intermediate-leaves.” If only branches occur in the axils
-of the basal-leaves, then the succeeding branches are always
-borne on the posterior side of the axis, and form a fan<a href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a>;
-if the basal-leaf is barren, and if there is only one fertile
-intermediate-leaf, then the lateral axes are always on the upper
-side, and a sickle<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a>-like inflorescence occurs; if there are 2
-fertile intermediate-leaves, then a dichasium is formed, and in
-the case of there being several, then a raceme, or spike.</p>
-
-<p><i>Juncaceæ</i> are, by several authors, classed among the
-Liliifloræ, but there are so many morphological and partly
-anatomical features agreeing with the two following orders, that
-they may, no doubt, most properly be regarded as the starting
-point of these, especially of the <i>Cyperaceæ</i>, which they
-resemble in the type of flowers, the inflorescence, the type of
-mechanical system, and the stomata.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination</span> by means of the wind. Cross-pollination
-is often established by protogyny. <i>J. bufonius</i> has
-partly triandrous and cleistogamic, partly hexandrous, open
-flowers.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Distribution.</span> The 200 species are spread
-over the entire globe, but especially in cold and temperate
-countries; they are seldom found in the Tropics.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Uses.</span>
-Very slight; plaiting, for instance.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Cyperaceæ.</b> The majority are <i>perennial</i> (seldom<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">[285]</span>
-annual) <i>herbs</i> living in damp situations, with a sympodial
-rhizome and grass-like appearance. The stems are seldom hollow, or
-have swollen nodes, but generally <i>triangular</i>, with the upper
-internode just below the inflorescence generally very long. The leaves
-are often arranged in 3 <i>rows</i>, the leaf-sheath is <i>closed</i>
-(very seldom split), and the ligule is absent or insignificant. The
-flowers are arranged in <i>spikes</i> (<i>spikelets</i>) which may be
-united into other forms of inflorescences (chiefly spikes or racemes).
-The flowers are supported by a bract, but have <i>no bracteoles</i>.
-In some genera the perianth is distinctly represented by six bristles
-corresponding to six leaves (Figs. <a href="#fig284">284</a> <i>A</i>, <a href="#fig286">286</a> <i>A</i>); in
-others it is represented by an indefinite number of hairs (Fig. <a href="#fig284">284</a>
-<i>B</i>), and very frequently it is altogether wanting. <i>The inner
-whorl of stamens is absent</i>, and the flower has therefore 3 stamens
-(rarely more or less than 3), the anthers <i>are attached by their
-bases to the filament</i> (innate) and are not bifid (Figs. <a href="#fig286">286</a>).
-Gynœceum simple, formed of 3 or 2 carpels; 1 style, which is divided at
-the extremity, as in the Juncaceæ, into 3 or 2 arms; the single loculus
-of the ovary contains one basal, erect, anatropous ovule; the stigmas
-are not feather-like. <i>Fruit a nut</i>, whose seed is generally not
-united with the pericarp. The embryo is small, and lies at the <i>base
-of the seed in the central line</i>, surrounded on the inner side by
-the endosperm (Fig. <a href="#fig286">286</a> <i>B</i>). On germination the cotyledon <i>does
-not remain</i> in the seed.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig284" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig284.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 284.</span>&mdash;Diagram of structure of: <i>A</i>
-<i>Scirpus silvaticus</i>; <i>B Eriophorum angustifolium</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>A regular perianth, with 6 scale-like perianth-leaves in
-2 whorls, is found in <i>Oreobolus</i>. In <i>Scirpus
-littoralis</i> the perianth-leaves are spreading at the apex,
-and divided pinnately.</p>
-
-<p>The branching of the inflorescence is often the same as in the
-Juncaceæ, and supports the theory that these two orders are
-related. In <i>Rhynchospora</i> and others, the “spikelets” are
-really only “spike-like” and to some extent compound.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Scirpeæ. Hermaphrodite Flowers.</span></p>
-
-<p>1. Spikelets cylindrical, the bracts arranged spirally (in many
-rows). The lower ones are often barren, each of the others supports a
-flower.&mdash;<i>Scirpus</i> (Club-rush). The spikelets are many-flowered;
-the perianth is bristle-like or absent, and does not continue to grow
-during the ripening of the fruit (Fig. <a href="#fig286">286</a> <i>A</i>). Closely allied to
-this is <i>Heleocharis</i>, with terminal spikes.&mdash;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">[286]</span><i>Eriophorum</i>
-(Cotton-grass) differs chiefly in having the perianth-hairs prolonged,
-and forming a bunch of white, woolly hairs (Fig. <a href="#fig284">284</a> <i>B</i>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Cladium</i> and <i>Rhynchospora</i> (Beak-rush) differs
-especially in the <i>few</i>-flowered, compound spikelets which
-are collected into small bunches; the latter has received its
-name from the fact that the lowermost portion of the style
-remains attached to the fruit as a beak.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>2. Spikelets compressed, the bracts arranged only in <i>two rows</i>;
-the other characters as in the first-mentioned. <i>Cyperus</i>
-(spikelets many-flowered); <i>Schœnus</i> (Bog-rush); spikelets
-few-flowered; <i>S. nigricans</i> has an open sheath.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig285" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig285.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 285.</span>&mdash;<i>Carex</i>: <i>A</i> diagram of
-a male flower; <i>B</i> of a female flower with 3 stigmas; <i>C</i>
-of a female flower with 2 stigmas; <i>D</i> diagrammatic figure of a
-female flower; <i>E</i> similar one of the androgynous (false) spikelet
-of <i>Elyna</i>. The ♂ is here represented placed laterally; it is
-terminal, according to Pax.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig286" style="width: 408px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig286.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 286.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i> Flower of <i>Scirpus
-lacustris</i>. <i>B</i> Seed of <i>Carex</i> in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Cariceæ. Unisexual Flowers.</span></p>
-
-<p>In the ♂-flowers there is no trace of a carpel, and in the ♀ no trace
-of a stamen. Floral-leaves in many rows. In some (<i>Scleria</i>,
-certain <i>Carex</i>-species), ♂-and ♀-flowers are borne in the same
-spikelet, the latter at the base or the reverse; in the majority each
-spikelet is unisexual.</p>
-
-<p><i>Carex</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig285">285</a>) has <i>naked</i>, most frequently monœcious
-flowers. The ♂-<i>spikes</i>, which are generally placed at the summit
-of the whole compound inflorescence, are <i>not compound</i>; in the
-axil of each floral-leaf (bract) <i>a flower is borne, consisting
-only</i> of a short axis with three stamens (Fig. <a href="#fig285">285</a> <i>A</i>). The
-♀-<i>spikes are compound</i>; in the axil of each floral-leaf is borne
-a very small branch (Fig. <a href="#fig285">285</a> <i>D</i>, <i>a</i>) which <i>bears only
-one leaf</i>, namely, a <i>2-keeled fore-leaf</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">[287]</span> (<i>utriculus</i>,
-<i>utr.</i> in the figures) which is turned posteriorly (as the
-fore-leaves of the other Monocotyledons), and being obliquely
-sheath-like, envelopes the branch (in the same manner as the sheath of
-the vegetative leaves), and forms a pitcher-like body. In the axil of
-<i>this</i> leaf the ♀-flower is situated as a branch of the 3rd order,
-bearing only the 2–3 carpels, which are united into one gynœceum. The
-style protrudes through the mouth of the utriculus. <span class="smaller">The axis of
-the 2nd order (<i>a</i> in Fig. <a href="#fig285">285</a> <i>D</i>) may sometimes elongate
-as a bristle-like projection (normally in <i>Uncinia</i>, in which
-it ends as a hook, hence the name); this projection is in most
-cases barren, but it sometimes bears 1–several bracts which support
-male-flowers; this is normal in <i>Elyna</i> (or <i>Kobresia</i>) and
-<i>Schœnoxiphium</i>; the axis (<i>a</i> in 285 <i>E</i>) bears at
-its base a female-flower supported by the utriculus, and above it a
-male-flower supported by its bract.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination</span> by means of the wind. Protogynous.
-Sometimes self-pollinated. The order embraces nearly
-3,000 species, found all over the world. <i>Carex</i> and
-<i>Scirpus</i> are most numerous in cold and temperate climates,
-and become less numerous towards the equator. The reverse is
-the case with <i>Cyperus</i> and other tropical genera. They
-generally confine themselves to sour, swampy districts; some,
-on the other hand, are characteristic of sand-dunes, such as
-Sand-star (<i>Carex arenaria</i>). There are about 70 native
-species of <i>Carex</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> In spite of their large number, the Cyperaceæ
-are of no importance as fodder-grasses, as they are dry and
-contain a large amount of silica; hence the edges of many of the
-triangular stems or leaves are exceedingly sharp and cutting.
-<i>Cyperus esculentus</i> has tuberous rhizomes, which contain
-a large amount of fatty oil and are edible (earth-almonds); it
-has its home in the countries of the Mediterranean, where it is
-cultivated.</p>
-
-<p><i>Cyperus papyrus</i> (W. Asia, Egypt, Sicily) attains a
-height of several metres, and has stems of the thickness of an
-arm which were used by the ancient Egyptians for making paper
-(papyrus). Some serve for plaiting, mats, etc. (<i>Scirpus
-lacustris</i>, etc.). <i>Isolepis</i> is an ornamental plant.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig287" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig287.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 287.</span>&mdash;<i>Triticum</i>: <i>A</i> axis
-(rachis) of ear showing the notches where the spikelets were inserted;
-<i>B</i> an entire spikelet; <i>C</i> a flower with the pales; <i>D</i>
-a flower without the pales, showing the lodicules at the base; <i>E</i>
-glume; <i>F</i> outer pale; <i>G</i> inner pale; <i>H</i> fruit;
-<i>I</i> longitudinal section of fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Gramineæ</b> (<b>Grasses</b>). The stems are cylindrical,
-generally <i>hollow</i> with <i>swollen nodes</i>, that is, a swelling
-is found at the base of each leaf which apparently belongs to the
-stem, but in reality it is the swollen base of the leaf. The leaves
-are <i>exactly alternate</i>; the sheath is <i>split</i> (excep.
-<i>Bromus</i>-species, <i>Poa pratensis</i>, <i>P. trivialis</i>,
-<i>Melica</i>, <i>Dactylis</i>, etc., in which the sheath is not
-split), and the edges overlap alternately, the right over the left,
-and <i>vice versâ</i>; the <i>ligule</i> is nearly always well
-developed. In general, the flowers are hermaphrodite; they are borne in
-<i>spikelets</i> with <i>alternate floral-leaves</i>, and the spikelets
-themselves are borne in either <i>spikes</i> or <i>panicles</i>. The
-two (seldom more) <i>lowest floral-leaves</i> in each spikelet (Fig.
-<a href="#fig289">289</a> <i>øY</i>, <i>nY</i>) are <i>barren</i> (as the covering-leaves
-in many umbels and capitula); these are termed the <i>glumes</i>.
-The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">[288]</span> succeeding floral-leaves, each of which supports one flower
-as its bract, are called the <i>outer pales</i> (<i>nI</i>); these
-sometimes each bear an “awn” (a bristle-like body which projects in
-the median line either from the apex or the back); sometimes the upper
-ones are barren. Each flower has a <i>bracteole</i>, which is placed
-on the inside opposite the main axis; it is thin, <i>binerved</i> or
-<i>two-keeled</i>, and never has an awn; it is known as the <i>inner
-pale</i> (<i>øI</i>). Immediately succeeding the bracteole are:
-(<i>a</i>) some <i>small, delicate scales</i> (<i>lodicules</i>,
-Figs. <a href="#fig287">287</a> <i>D</i>, <a href="#fig288">288</a> <i>C</i>, <a href="#fig290">290</a> <i>L</i>); (<i>b</i>) <i>three
-stamens</i> with anthers <i>versatile</i>, so as to be easily moved,
-and usually notched at each end (Fig. <a href="#fig287">287</a> <i>C</i>); and (<i>c</i>)
-a simple gynœceum formed of <i>one carpel</i> with <i>two styles</i>
-having generally <i>spirally-branched stigmas</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig287">287</a>
-<i>D</i>, <a href="#fig288">288</a> <i>C</i>). The ovary is <i>unilocular</i>, and contains
-one ascending or pendulous, anatropous ovule. <i>Fruit a nut</i>,
-whose seed is always <i>firmly united with the thin pericarp</i>
-(“caryopsis”). The embryo is larger than in the Cyperaceæ and is placed
-at the base of the seed, but on the <i>outer convex surface</i> of
-the pericarp (Figs. <a href="#fig287">287</a> <i>I</i>, <a href="#fig288">288</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">[289]</span> <a href="#fig288">288</a> <i>D</i>, <a href="#fig291">291</a>), <i>outside
-the endosperm</i>; plumule large with several leaf-primordia. On
-germination the cotyledon remains in the seed.</p>
-
-<p>The majority of Grasses are annual or perennial herbs; tree-like forms
-being only found in the Tropics, for example, the Bamboos; they branch
-(in tufts), especially from the axils of the basal-leaves, while those
-which are borne higher on the stem are separated by longer internodes
-and have no vegetative branches in their axils, though a few forms,
-like <i>Bambusa</i> and <i>Calamagrostis lanceolata</i>, produce
-branches in these axils.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig288" style="width: 347px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig288.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 288.</span>&mdash;<i>Bromus mollis</i>: <i>A</i>
-inflorescence; <i>B</i> the uppermost flower of a spikelet, with
-its axis turned forward; in front is seen the two-keeled inner pale
-(bracteole) and the stamens protrude between this and the outer pale
-(bract); <i>C</i> an ovary with the 2 stigmas on its anterior side, the
-2 lodicules, and the 3 stamens; <i>D</i> the fruit seen from the dorsal
-side; <i>E</i> the same from the ventral side.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig289" style="width: 420px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig289.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 289.</span>&mdash;Diagrammatic outline of a spikelet:
-<i>n Y</i> lower glume; <i>ø Y</i> upper glume; <i>n I</i> upper pale;
-<i>ø I</i> the inner pale; <i>l</i>-<i>l</i> lodicules; <i>st</i>
-stamens; <i>I</i>-<i>I</i> main axes; <i>II</i> lateral axes.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig290" style="width: 289px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig290.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 290.</span>&mdash;Diagram of the Grass-flower:
-<i>ni</i> outer pale; <i>øi</i> inner pale; <i>l</i>-<i>l</i> lodicules.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig291" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig291.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 291.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal section of an
-Oat-grain: <i>a</i> the skin (pericarp and testa); <i>b</i> the
-endosperm; <i>c</i> the cotyledon; <i>d</i> the plumule.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Only a few Grasses have a <i>solid stem</i>, such as Maize,
-Sugar-cane, and <i>Andropogon</i>. The <i>blade</i> is
-flat in the meadow-grasses, but the Grasses which live on
-dry places (“prairie-grass”) exposed to the sun, often
-have the blade tightly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">[290]</span> rolled up and almost filiform
-or bristle-like, with anomalous anatomical structure. A
-<i>closed</i> tubular <i>sheath</i> is found in <i>Melica
-uniflora</i>, <i>Bromus</i>-species, <i>Poa pratensis</i> and
-<i>trivialis</i>, <i>Briza</i> and some <i>Glyceria</i>-species.
-The sheath is developed for the purpose of supporting the young
-internodes while their growth is proceeding at the base. The
-“nodes” (the swollen joints which are seen on stems of Grasses)
-are not really part of the stem but are formed by the base
-of the leaf-sheath. They play a part in assisting the haulms
-to regain a vertical position when laid prostrate by wind or
-rain. The <i>awn</i> on the pale is homologous with the blade
-of the Grass-leaf, and the pale itself is the sheath. The
-arrangement of the leaves in the <i>spikelet</i> is similar to
-that in <i>Cyperus</i> and other Cyperaceæ, their floral-leaves
-being borne in several rows in <i>Streptochæta</i>. More
-than two barren “glumes” are found in <i>Streptochæta</i>,
-several Phalarideæ and others. The spikelets, too, are again
-arranged in two rows in the axils of suppressed floral-leaves.
-The inflorescence becomes a “compound spike” (ear) when the
-spikelets are sessile. In the majority of instances the
-spikelets are borne on long stalks; when these branch, then
-the secondary branches, and similarly all branches of higher
-order, are placed so far down upon the mother-axis that they
-all appear to be of equal value and to arise in a semicircle
-from the mother-axis itself, though in reality they arise from
-each other (<i>Panicle</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig288">288</a> <i>A</i>). Sometimes the
-main axis and branches of different orders unite together as
-in <i>Alopecurus</i>, <i>Phleum</i>, and some other Grasses,
-and hence the single (short-stalked) spikelets appear to arise
-singly and spirally, or without any definite order, directly
-from the main axis, with the production of a <i>cylindrical</i>
-inflorescence bearing “spikes” <i>on all sides</i>, that
-is, a “<i>spike-like panicle</i>.”&mdash;Many inflorescences are
-somewhat dorsiventral. The <i>flower</i> is rarely unisexual
-(<i>Zea mais</i>) or barren. Considerable difficulty is
-experienced in reducing the Grass-flower<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">[291]</span> to the ordinary
-3-merous Monocotyledonous type. Some authorities consider the
-<i>lodicules</i>, which are present in all Grasses but absent
-in the Cyperaceæ, to be homologous with a perianth. According
-to a more recent theory they are bracteoles, and hence the
-Gramineæ, like many of the Juncaceæ, have 2–3 bracteoles placed
-in two rows in the median plane. If this theory be correct, the
-<i>flower is naked</i>. The lodicules expand quickly and cause
-the opening of the flower (<i>i.e.</i> the two pales become
-separated from each other). Generally only 3 <i>stamens</i>
-belonging to the outer whorl are present (Fig. <a href="#fig290">290</a>), as in
-<i>Iris</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig279">279</a>), certain Juncaceæ and Cyperaceæ (Fig.
-<a href="#fig284">284</a>), but in some, such as the Rice and certain species of
-Bamboos, all 6 are found. <i>Pariana</i> has more than 6. Only
-1 of the <i>carpels</i> is present, namely, the anterior (of
-those in Fig. <a href="#fig284">284</a>), so that the ventral suture and the place
-of attachment of the ovule are situated at the back of the
-ovary. The number of styles does not correspond with the number
-of carpels, and the styles may therefore be supposed to arise
-from the edges of the leaf to the right and left&mdash;a position
-which is not without analogy. In addition, a stylar projection
-is sometimes found on the anterior side and in the median line
-(<i>e.g.</i> in <i>Phragmites</i>), and the solitary style in
-<i>Nardus</i> has exactly this position; a similar arrangement
-is found in some species of <i>Bambusa</i> which have only one
-style; other species of <i>Bambusa</i> have three styles. A
-tripartite style is found in <i>Pharus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>[The Grass-flower may be reduced to the ordinary
-Monocotyledonous type thus:&mdash;The outer pale is the bract of the
-flower since it bears in its axil the floral shoot; the inner
-pale occupies the customary position of the bracteole. The fact
-that it is binerved can be explained by its having been pressed
-against the main-axis during development. Similar binerved
-bracteoles are found in <i>Iris</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig279">279</a>). These bracteoles
-in both Grass and Iris arise from single primordia, and are not
-produced by the coalescence of two leaves. The lodicules are the
-only parts of the perianth remaining, the outer whorl having
-been suppressed, and also the posterior leaf of the inner whorl;
-a posterior lodicule, however, is found in the Rice and some
-species of Bamboo. The outer whorl of stamens is usually absent,
-though this again is present in the Rice and Bamboo. The three
-carpels are reduced to one with two or sometimes three stigmas.]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The Flowering.</span> In the panicles the flowers open in
-basipetal order; the flowers in the spikes situated somewhat
-above the middle, commence to open first, and the flowering
-proceeds upwards and downwards. A few Grass-flowers never open
-(cleistogamic); <i>Leersia oryzoides</i>, <i>Stipa</i>-species,
-and <i>e.g.</i> Wheat and Rye in cold damp weather; some open
-their pales so wide that the anthers and stigmas may protrude
-at the top; most frequently the lodicules expand and force
-the pales suddenly and widely apart. The filaments elongate
-considerably, so that the anthers are pendulous and the stigmas
-unfold. In some Grasses <i>e.g.</i> Wheat, the blooming of
-each flower only lasts a short time. <span class="smcap">Pollination</span>
-is generally effected by the wind. The <i>Rye</i> separates
-the pales very widely in the morning, and allows the anthers
-and stigmas to appear; it is almost entirely sterile when
-self-pollinated. The <i>Wheat</i> flowers at any time of the
-day, each flower lasting only a quarter of an hour. The pales
-open suddenly, but only half way, and the anthers scatter
-one-third of the pollen in their own flower and two-thirds
-outside. Self-pollination is effectual, but crossing gives
-better results. In <i>Hordeum vulgare</i> (all flowers ☿)
-the flowers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">[292]</span> of the 4 outer rows behave as in the Wheat,
-but those in the two central rows always remain closed. The
-☿-flowers in the two central rows of <i>H. distichum</i> remain
-closed and fertilise themselves; they open exceptionally, and
-may be pollinated by the ♂-flowers in the 4 lateral rows.
-<i>H. hexastichum</i> is cleistogamic. <i>Oats</i> pollinate
-themselves.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig292" style="width: 384px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig292.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 292.</span>&mdash;Barley grain: <i>A</i> section
-through the skin (<i>a-d</i>) and the most external part of the
-endosperm; <i>Gl</i> the “aleurone layer”; <i>st</i> starch-containing
-cells; <i>B</i> starch grains.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig293" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig293.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 293.</span>&mdash;Wheat-grain germinating: <i>g</i>
-the plumule; <i>b</i> the first leaf succeeding the cotyledon;
-<i>r<sup>1</sup></i> the primary root; <i>r<sup>2</sup></i> lateral root.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig294" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig294.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 294.</span>&mdash;Older seedling of the Wheat:
-<i>s</i> the second sheathing-leaf; <i>l</i> first foliage-leaf.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>The ripe Grass-fruit</i>, in some species of Bamboo, is a
-berry; in some other Grasses a nut with <i>loosely</i> lying
-seed, in some even a capsule, but otherwise a “caryopsis.” In
-some instances it is loosely enveloped by the pales (Oat),
-in others firmly attached to these (Barley), and finally, in
-others, “naked,” <i>i.e.</i> it is entirely free from the pales
-(Wheat and Rye). On the ventral side there is a groove (Fig. <a href="#fig288">288</a>
-<i>E</i>); on the anterior side (dorsal suture), which is turned
-towards the inner pale, it is convex, and at the base on this
-side, inside the testa, lies the embryo (Fig. <a href="#fig288">288</a> <i>D</i>). The
-apex of the fruit is often hairy (Fig. <a href="#fig293">293</a>). The <i>skin</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig291">291</a>, <i>a</i>) is formed by the pericarp and testa, and
-in some cases (Barley) the pales also form the outer portion.
-The endosperm (<i>b</i>) is large, and formed of parenchymatous,
-starch-containing cells: aleurone (proteid) grains may also be
-found among them. When the starch-grains and the aleurone-grains
-adhere together the endosperm becomes “horny,” but is “floury”
-when the starch-grains lie loosely with air between them. In
-the most external region, just beneath the skin, 1–several
-layers of nearly cubical cells (filled principally with
-aleurone-grains and fat) are found, the <i>aleurone</i>-layer
-(Fig. <a href="#fig292">292</a>). The embryo (Fig. <a href="#fig291">291</a> <i>c-d</i>) contains large
-quantities of fatty oil; the large shield-like structure,
-attached to the embryo and turned inwards towards the endosperm
-(<i>c</i>), is the cotyledon (scutellum); it remains enclosed
-in the seed during germination, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">[293]</span> dissolves the endosperm by
-means of the peculiar epithelial cells developed on the dorsal
-surface. The radicle, on germination, is obliged to perforate
-a mass of cells derived from the suspensor and which form the
-“root-sheath” (coleorhiza, Fig. <a href="#fig293">293</a>) round its base. In addition
-to the tap-root, lateral roots are frequently developed before
-germination; these quickly break through, and later on are
-followed by others which appear at the base of the leaf (Figs.
-<a href="#fig293">293</a>, <a href="#fig294">294</a>).</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">DISTRIBUTION OF THE FRUIT</span> is most frequently
-effected by the wind. The spirally-twisted and hygroscopic awn
-which persists on the fruits of some species (<i>Avena</i>,
-<i>Stipa</i>, etc.) assists in their dissemination, and even
-helps to bury them in the ground.</p>
-
-<p>The two preceding orders are more closely related to each other
-than they are to the Gramineæ.</p>
-
-<p>The generic differences are chiefly founded on the form of
-the inflorescence, the number and sex of the flowers in the
-spikelets, the shape and relative length of the pales, awns,
-etc. In addition to these the structure of the fruit and
-seed presents a great many differences; some have compound
-starch-grains, while in others they are single; some have 1
-layer of aleurone-cells, others have several (Fig. <a href="#fig292">292</a>), etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Bambuseæ.</span> Tall Grasses with woody, very siliceous
-stems which bear many branches in the axils of the leaves. 6 stamens.
-<i>Bambusa</i> (Bamboo).</p>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Oryzeæ.</span> <i>Oryza sativa</i> (Rice) is a herbaceous
-marsh-plant, with panicle and small, 1-flowered spikelets, with two
-small glumes and two large, boat-shaped, strongly siliceous pales. 6
-stamens.&mdash;<i>Leersia. Lygeum. Pharus. Zizania
-aquatica.</i></p>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Maydeæ.</span> <i>Zea mais</i> (Indian-corn, Maize); the
-spikelets are unisexual; the ♂-spikelets in a terminal panicle; the
-♀-spikelets closely crowded and arranged in many rows in a thick,
-axillary spike, enclosed by large sheathing-leaves. The ♀-spikelets are
-1-(2-) flowered; the ovary bears one, long, filamentous style, with
-bifid stigma.&mdash;<i>Euchlæna</i>; <i>Coix</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>4.</b> <span class="smcap">Andropogoneæ.</span> <i>Saccharum</i> (Sugar-cane); the
-spikelets are exceptionally small, 1-flowered, and borne in pairs in
-many-flowered, long-haired panicles. Tall grasses with solid, sappy
-stem.&mdash;<i>Andropogon.</i></p>
-
-<p><b>5.</b> <span class="smcap">Festuceæ.</span> Grasses with panicle (or spike-like
-panicle) and 2–several-flowered spikelets. Glumes small, in each case
-shorter than the spikelet.&mdash;<i>Festuca</i> (Fescue) and <i>Bromus</i>
-(Brome, Fig. <a href="#fig288">288</a>) have the awn placed at the <i>apex</i> of the pale,
-or slightly below it. <i>Festuca</i> has perennial species, with
-only a sparsely-branched panicle with branches solitary or in pairs,
-and round spikelets; the leaf-sheath is widely open. <i>Bromus</i>
-has the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">[294]</span> branches borne in half whorls, and the leaf-sheath scarcely
-half open. <i>Brachypodium</i> has very short-stalked spikelets in
-a raceme.&mdash;<i>Poa</i> (Meadow-grass), <i>Briza</i> (Quaking-grass)
-and <i>Glyceria</i> have awnless spikelets; these in <i>Poa</i> are
-ovoid, compressed, and with sharply-keeled glumes; in <i>Briza</i>
-they are broad, cordate and drooping, with boat-shaped glumes; in
-<i>Glyceria</i> round, long, many-flowered, linear or lanceolate; some
-species of <i>Glyceria</i> have closed leaf-sheaths.&mdash;<i>Dactylis</i>
-(Cock’s-foot) differs from all others in the somewhat crowded and
-unilateral (subsecund) spikelets, which are compressed and oblique
-(<i>i.e.</i> one side more convex than the other).&mdash;<i>Phragmites</i>
-(<i>P. communis</i>, Reed); the lowermost flowers of the spikelet are
-♂; its axis is covered with long, silky hairs; pales without awns,
-but acuminate. Perennial marsh-plants.&mdash;<i>Melica</i>; panicle small,
-sparsely-branched with round, awnless, few-flowered, usually drooping
-spikelets. The upper pales, with arrested flowers, are generally
-united into a club-like mass.&mdash;<i>Molinia</i>, <i>Eragrostis</i>,
-<i>Koeleria</i>, <i>Catabrosa</i>.&mdash;<i>Cynosurus</i> (Dog’s-tail)
-has a small, spicate panicle with unilateral spikelets, some of
-which are fertile, some barren, each supported by a pectinate scale.
-<i>Arundo. Sesleria. Gynerium. Triodia.</i></p>
-
-<p><b>6.</b> <span class="smcap">Aveneæ.</span> Panicles with 2–many-flowered
-spikelets; at least one of the glumes is quite as long as the
-entire spikelet.&mdash;<i>Avena</i> (Oat). The pale is boat-shaped,
-often bifid, and at about the middle of the back has a twisted,
-bent awn.&mdash;<i>Aira</i> (Hair-grass) has a long-branched panicle
-with small, 2-flowered spikelets; the pale has a dentate
-apex and bears an awn on the posterior side close to the
-base.&mdash;<i>Weingærtneria.</i>&mdash;<i>Holcus</i> (Yorkshire-fog); a soft,
-hairy Grass with an open panicle, keeled glumes; 2 flowers in the
-spikelet, of which the lower one is ☿, the upper ♂; the pale which
-supports the ☿-flower has no awn, but that which supports the ♂-flower,
-on the contrary, is awned.</p>
-
-<p><b>7.</b> <span class="smcap">Agrostideæ.</span> Panicles or spike-like panicles with
-1-flowered spikelets. Generally 2 glumes and only 1 pale.&mdash;The
-following have <span class="allsmcap">PANICLES</span>: <i>Milium</i> with square
-panicle-branches and round spikelets; <i>Agrostis</i> (Fiorin), with
-compressed, glabrous spikelets, whose glumes are longer than the pales.
-<i>Calamagrostis</i> differs in having a chaplet of long hairs at the
-base of the pale.&mdash;<i>Stipa</i> (Feather-grass) has a long, twisted
-awn.&mdash;The following have <span class="allsmcap">SPIKELIKE PANICLES</span>: <i>Phleum</i>
-(Cat’s-tail, Timothy-grass) has sharply pointed, entirely free glumes,
-which are much longer than the awnless pales. <i>Alopecurus</i>
-(Fox-tail); glumes united below; pale<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">[295]</span> with awn. <i>Ammophila</i>
-(<i>Psamma</i>). <i>A. arundinacea</i>; pales hairy at base; perennial,
-stiff-leaved, glaucous sand-grass with creeping rhizome. <i>Aristida.
-Sporobolus.</i></p>
-
-<p><b>8.</b> <span class="smcap">Phalarideæ.</span> Panicles and spike-like panicles.
-The spikelet has in the upper part a single fertile flower; below
-it are placed 4 pales, of which the upper 1–2 sometimes support
-♂-flowers. On the whole, 6 floral-leaves of the first order are
-present.&mdash;<i>Phalaris</i> (<i>P. canariensis</i>, Canary-grass)
-has an ovate, spike-like panicle, the spikelets are compressed,
-convex on the outer side, concave on the inner. The large glumes are
-winged on the back.&mdash;<i>Digraphis</i> (<i>D. arundinacea</i>) is
-closely allied to <i>Phalaris</i>, but the keel of the glumes is not
-winged.&mdash;<i>Anthoxanthum</i> (<i>A. odoratum</i>, Sweet-vernal) has a
-small, lanceolate, open, spike-like panicle; the spikelets have below 2
-barren flowers, and above these an ☿-flower with 2 stamens. The upper
-glume is longer than the flower.&mdash;<i>Hierochloa.</i></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>9.</b> <span class="smcap">Chlorideæ.</span> The spikelets are
-arranged in the form of a spike in two rows on one side
-of an often flatly-compressed axis; they are mostly
-1-flowered.&mdash;<i>Chloris</i>; <i>Ctenium</i>; <i>Cynodon</i>;
-<i>Eleusine</i>; <i>Microchloa</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>10.</b> <span class="smcap">Paniceæ.</span> The spikelets are borne in panicles
-or spikes, which may be arranged like fingers or in a raceme.
-There is a centrally-placed ☿-flower; below it is sometimes a
-♂-flower.&mdash;<i>Panicum</i>; <i>Paspalum</i>; <i>Oplismenus</i>;
-<i>Setaria</i> has an almost cylindrical spike-like panicle
-with several barren branchlets, which project as stiff, rough
-bristles.&mdash;<i>Cenchrus</i>; <i>Pennisetum</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>11.</b> <span class="smcap">Hordeæ.</span> Spikes compound; spikelets sessile in the
-notches of a toothed axis.</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> Spikelets solitary.&mdash;<i>Triticum</i> (Wheat, Fig. <a href="#fig287">287</a>) has in
-each tooth of the main axis, a several-flowered spikelet which turns
-its <i>flat side</i> towards the central axis. The cultivated species
-(true Wheat) are 1-2-annual, the wild ones (<i>T. repens</i>, Couch,
-also as an independent genus, <i>Agropyrum</i>) are perennial, with
-creeping rhizome and lanceolate glumes.&mdash;<i>Lolium</i> (Rye-grass) has
-in each tooth of the main axis a many-flowered, compressed spikelet,
-which is placed <i>edgewise</i> towards it and (with the exception
-of <i>L. perenne</i>) has only one outwardly-turned glume (<i>L.
-temulentum</i> has a rudiment of the inwardly-turned lower glume); the
-terminal spikelet has two glumes.&mdash;<i>Secale</i> (Rye). A two-flowered
-spikelet in each tooth; small, lanceolate, acuminate glumes.
-<i>Nardus</i> and <i>Lepturus</i> have very narrow spikes, the former
-with unilateral spikelets.</p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> In each notch of the axis 2 or more spikelets are placed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">[296]</span>
-close together.&mdash;<i>Hordeum</i> (Barley). In each tooth three
-1-flowered spikelets. <i>H. hexastichum</i> (6-rowed Barley), has
-6 rows of fruits, since all the spikelets are fertile, and <i>H.
-distichum</i> (2-rowed Barley) 2 rows, since the lateral spikelets are
-(♂, and barren (p. <a href="#Page_292">292</a>).&mdash;<i>Elymus</i> has 2–6 many-flowered spikelets
-in each joint of the main axis. <i>Ægilops</i> has awns upon the glumes.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Distribution.</span> 315 genera with 3,500 species. The order
-is distributed over the whole world, and as regards number of
-individuals is perhaps the richest. In the Tropics, large,
-broad-leaved, tree-like forms are found (<i>Bambuseæ</i>,
-<i>Olyreæ</i>, <i>Andropogoneæ</i>, etc.; in S. Europe,
-<i>Arundo donax</i>); in England, next to the Compositæ, it is
-the order most rich in species (about 134).&mdash;The origin of some
-of the cultivated Grasses is lost in obscurity. The Maize, no
-doubt, was indigenous to America, where its nearest relatives
-are found, and where it has also been discovered in ancient
-Indian graves; Durra or Guinea-corn, Millet and Sugar-cane are
-South Asiatic plants, and our own cereals no doubt have sprung
-primarily from Western Asia and South-Eastern Europe (Barley
-from Armenia and Persia, where a very closely related wild
-species is found; Wheat from the same districts; Rye from the
-perennial species <i>S. montanum</i>). <i>Panicum altissimum</i>
-and Rice have come from Africa.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> The Grasses play a very important part as
-cereals and fodder plants. The following are the most important
-of the cultivated ones: <i>Triticum vulgare</i> (common
-Wheat), <i>turgidum</i>, <i>amyleum</i>, <i>polonicum</i>,
-<i>spelta</i>, <i>durum</i>, etc.; <i>Secale cereale</i> (Rye);
-Barley (<i>Hordeum</i>-species, see under the genus); Maize;
-Oats (<i>Avena sativa</i>, <i>orientalis</i>, <i>nuda</i>);
-Millet (<i>Panicum miliaceum</i>); Durra (Turkish Millet,
-or Guinea-corn, <i>Sorghum vulgare</i>, <i>cernuum</i> and
-<i>saccharatum</i>); Manna-grass (<i>Glyceria fluitans</i>). As
-fodder-plants especially: Rye-grass (<i>Lolium perenne</i>);
-Oat-grass (<i>Avena elatior</i>); Timothy (<i>Phleum
-pratense</i>); Fox-tail (<i>Alopecurus pratensis</i>); Cock’s
-foot (<i>Dactylis glomerata</i>); Dog’s tail (<i>Cynosurus
-cristatus</i>); Sweet-vernal (<i>Anthoxanthum odoratum</i>);
-Soft grass, or Yorkshire-fog (<i>Holcus lanatus</i> and
-<i>mollis</i>); Quaking-grass (<i>Briza media</i>); species of
-Meadow-grass (<i>Poa</i>); Fescue (<i>Festuca</i>) and Brome
-(<i>Bromus</i>).&mdash;Several cultivated species of Grass are also
-used in the preparation of <i>fermented liquors</i>, the starch
-in the seeds being transformed to <i>sugar</i> (beer from
-“Malt,” <i>i.e.</i> the germinated Barley; arrack from Rice);
-or the stem becomes specially saccharine before flowering: the
-Sugar-cane, <i>Sorghum saccharatum</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Officinal.</span> The rhizome of <i>Triticum repens</i>,
-Oat-grain, flour of Barley, and the starch of Wheat, also sugar.</p>
-
-<p>The seeds of <i>Lolium temulentum</i> are considered
-<i>poisonous</i>.&mdash;The stems of many species (including
-our common grains) are used in the manufacture of paper,
-especially “Esparto grass” (<i>Stipa tenacissima</i>) from
-Spain and N. Africa, and the sheathing-leaves of the ♀-spike
-of <i>Maize</i>. Sand Lyme-grass (<i>Elymus arenarius</i>),
-and especially <i>Psamma arenaria</i>, are important.&mdash;But
-few Grass-species are <i>sweet-scented</i>: <i>Anthoxanthum
-odoratum</i> and <i>Hierochloa odorata</i> contain coumarin;
-<i>Andropogon</i>-species have essential oils (“Citronella
-oil”).&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ornamental plants</span> are: the “Ribbon-grass” (a
-variety of <i>Digraphis arundinacea</i>), <i>Stipa pennata</i>
-(whose awn is exceedingly long and feathery), <i>Gynerium
-argenteum</i> (Pampas-grass), <i>Lagurus ovatus</i>, <i>Hordeum
-jubatum</i>, <i>Bromus briziformis</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">[297]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 3. <b>Spadicifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The primitive form resembles that of the preceding family. In it
-we find the typical, perfectly developed, Monocotyledonous flower,
-sometimes even with free carpels and with a dry or somewhat fleshy,
-but never petaloid perianth; and this passes over into very different
-forms by the suppression of the floral-leaves, perianth and sporophylls
-(unisexual flowers are common), and by the close aggregation of the
-flowers in the inflorescence. The flower is <i>hypogynous</i> in every
-case. The inflorescence is a <i>spike</i> which may be either single or
-branched, and has often a thick and fleshy axis (a <i>spadix</i>). In
-Palms and Araceæ it is enveloped, at any rate prior to the opening of
-the flowers, by a very large floral-leaf, <i>the spathe</i>, which may
-be petaloid (Figs. <a href="#fig297">297</a>, <a href="#fig301">301</a>).</p>
-
-<p>The fruit is most frequently fleshy (<i>berry</i>, <i>drupe</i>) or a
-<i>nut</i>, never a capsule. The embryo is small, with large, fleshy
-endosperm (Fig. <a href="#fig299">299</a> <i>C</i>); very rarely the endosperm is wanting.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig295" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig295.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 295.</span>&mdash;Piassava (<i>Attalea funifera</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig296" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig296.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 296.</span>&mdash;A portion of the stem of <i>Attalea
-funifera</i> with persistent leaf-bases.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The numerous plants belonging to this family are large, herbaceous or
-tree-like, and the leaves seldom have the usual Monocotyledonous form,
-<i>i.e.</i> linear with parallel venation, but most frequently have
-pinnate or palmate venation.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Palmæ (Palms).</b> The majority are trees with an
-<i>unbranched</i>, cylindrical <i>stem</i>, having short internodes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">[298]</span>
-and covered with leaf-scars or the bases of the leaf-stalks (Fig.
-<a href="#fig296">296</a>), and at the summit a rosette of large leaves closely packed
-together (Fig. <a href="#fig295">295</a>). An exception to this is found in <i>Calamus</i>
-(Cane, “Rotang”), whose thin, creeping or climbing stems have long
-internodes; sparsely<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> branched is, <i>e.g.</i> the African Doum-palm
-(<i>Hyphæne</i>). Notwithstanding their often enormous stems the
-Palms have fibrous roots, like the bulbous Monocotyledons. The leaves
-are pinnate (Feather-palms, Fig. <a href="#fig298">298</a>) or palmate (Fan-palms, Fig.
-<a href="#fig295">295</a>) and often very large; they have a well-developed petiole with
-an <i>amplexicaul sheath</i>, which is often more or less separated
-into a large number of fibres. <i>In the bud the blade is entire
-but folded</i>, as the leaf expands the lines of folding are torn,
-either those which are turned upwards (thus ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨, <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Pritchardia</i>, <i>Livistona</i>, <i>Phœnix</i>, <i>Chamærops</i>)
-or those turned downwards (thus ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧, <i>e.g. Cocos</i>,
-<i>Chamædorea</i>, <i>Calamus</i>). The inflorescence is usually
-lateral; when, as in Sago-palm (<i>Metroxylon rumphii</i>) or Talipot
-(<i>Corypha umbraculifera</i>) it is terminal, the plant is monocarpic,
-and dies after flowering; it is often a very <i>large</i> and
-<i>branched spadix</i> with numerous flowers either borne externally
-or embedded in it, and enclosed either in one woody, boat-shaped
-<i>spathe</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig297">297</a>) or several spathes, in the latter case one
-for each branch. The flowers are sessile or even embedded, regular,
-generally <i>unisexual</i> (monœcious or diœcious) with the usual
-diagram (Fig. <a href="#fig278">278</a>); the perianth is inconspicuous, green or yellow,
-persistent, and more or less leathery or fleshy. 6, rarely 3 or many
-stamens. The 3 carpels remain either <i>distinct</i> or form one,
-generally 3-locular, ovary. The style is short. There is <i>one ovule
-in each carpel</i>. Often during ripening 2 carpels with their ovules
-are aborted. The fruit is a <i>berry</i>, <i>drupe</i> or <i>nut</i>,
-generally one-seeded, with a large horny or bony endosperm with hard
-thick-walled cells (<i>e.g.</i> Date-palm). In some (<i>e.g.</i>
-Cocoanut) it is thin-walled, soft, and oily; in several “ruminate.”</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>When <i>germination</i> commences in the Cocoanut, Date, etc.,
-the apex of the cotyledon remains in the seed and developes
-into a spongy mass to withdraw the endosperm; in the Cocoanut
-it attains a considerable size (Fig. <a href="#fig299">299</a> <i>C</i>) and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">[299]</span> assumes
-the form of the fruit. The endosperm in the Cocoanut is hollow
-and the interior is filled with “milk.” In the Date-palm and the
-Vegetable-ivory (<i>Phytelephas</i>) the cell-walls of the hard
-endosperm serve as reserve material.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Phœniceæ.</span> <i>Phœnix</i> (Date-palm) has pinnate
-leaves with channeled leaflets and diœcious flowers with 8 free
-carpels, of which usually only one developes into a berry with
-membranous endocarp; the large seed has a deep furrow on the inner
-side, and horny endosperm.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig297" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig297.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 297.</span>&mdash;Inflorescence of a Palm with spathe.
-At the top ♂-, at the base ♀-flowers.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig298" style="width: 373px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig298.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 298.</span>&mdash;<i>Livistona australis.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Sabaleæ.</span> These have fan-like leaves with channeled
-segments;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">[300]</span> flowers ☿ or polygamous, rarely diœcious, with 3 separate
-or only slightly united carpels, all of which are sometimes developed
-into fruits (berry or drupe, with thin stone).&mdash;<i>Chamærops</i>,
-the Dwarf-palm. The pericarp is externally fleshy, internally more
-fibrous, and provided with a membranous inner layer. The endosperm is
-ruminate (that is, the testa is several times deeply folded into the
-endosperm).&mdash;<i>Sabal</i>, <i>Copernicia</i>, <i>Livistona</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig298">298</a>), <i>Thrinax</i>, <i>Corypha</i>, <i>Brahea</i>, and others.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig299" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig299.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 299.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i> Longitudinal section of
-a Cocoanut (diminished), the inner layer only (the stone) not being
-divided <i>B</i> End view of the stone, showing the sutures for the 3
-carpels (<i>a</i>), and the 3 germ-pores; the embryo emerges from the
-lowest one when germination begins. <i>C</i> Germinating; inside the
-stone is seen the hollow endosperm and the enlarging cotyledon.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Cocoineæ.</span> With pinnate leaves. Monœcious
-inflorescence. The carpels are united into a 3-locular ovary. The
-fruit is most frequently 1-locular, only 1 of the loculi becoming
-developed, rarely 3-locular; it is a drupe with a large, fibrous,
-external layer (<i>mesocarp</i>) and most frequently a very hard inner
-layer (<i>endocarp</i>, stone) which has 3 germ-pores, the 2 of these,
-however, which correspond to the suppressed loculi are closed; internal
-to the third lies the small embryo (Fig. <a href="#fig299">299</a>). Endosperm containing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">[301]</span>
-abundance of oil. <i>Cocos</i> (the Cocoanut-palm), <i>Attalea</i>,
-<i>Elæis</i>, <i>Acrocomia</i>, <i>Bactris</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>4.</b> <span class="smcap">Lepidocaryinæ.</span> The floral-leaves and flowers
-are borne in 2 rows on the spadix. The carpels are united into one
-3-locular ovary; the fruit is coated by a layer of hard, shining,
-imbricate scales. The majority of the species are thorny, and climb
-by means of the thorny leaves. Some have fan-like (<i>Mauritia</i>),
-others pinnate leaves (<i>Raphia</i>, <i>Calamus</i>,
-<i>Eugeissonia</i>, <i>Metroxylon</i>; the stems of the latter die
-after the first flowering).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>5.</b> <span class="smcap">Borassinæ.</span> Large Fan-palms without thorns,
-with 3-locular ovary. Drupe with separate stones. <i>Latania</i>
-and <i>Lodoicea</i> have many stamens; <i>Hyphæne</i>;
-<i>Borassus</i> (Palmyra-palm).</p>
-
-<p><b>6.</b> <span class="smcap">Arecineæ.</span> The most numerous group.
-Feather-palms. Berry. <i>Areca</i>, <i>Euterpe</i>,
-<i>Oreodoxa</i>, <i>Ceroxylon</i>, <i>Chamædorea</i>,
-<i>Geonoma</i>, <i>Caryota</i> with bipinnate leaves.</p>
-
-<p><b>7.</b> <span class="smcap">Phytelephantinæ.</span> Flowers with rudimentary
-perianth united in close capitula. <i>Phytelephas</i>
-(Vegetable-ivory). <i>Nipa.</i></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Distribution.</span> About 1,100 species are known. In
-Europe only the Dwarf-palm (<i>Chamærops humilis</i>) is
-wild (Western Mediterranean). The Date palm (<i>Phœnix
-dactylifera</i>) belongs to North Africa and West Asia. Other
-African genera are <i>Hyphæne</i> (Doum-palm) and <i>Elæis</i>
-(<i>E. guineensis</i>, Oil-palm). A large majority of the
-genera are found in South America and in the East Indies.
-The following are <span class="smcap">American</span>:&mdash;<i>Mauritia</i>,
-<i>Acrocomia</i>, <i>Bactris</i>, <i>Chamædorea</i>,
-<i>Oreodoxa</i>, <i>Euterpe</i>, <i>Attalea</i>, etc.
-<span class="smcap">Asiatic</span>:&mdash;<i>Metroxylon</i>, <i>Calamus</i>,
-<i>Areca</i>, <i>Borassus</i>, <i>Lodoicea</i>
-(“Double-cocoanuts,” Seychelles) and others. The Cocoanut-palm
-has perhaps an American origin; all the other species of the
-same genus being endemic in America; it is the only Palm found
-on the coral islands of the Pacific Ocean, and is also the only
-one which is common to both hemispheres.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> Palms belong to the most useful plants; they
-contain no poison, and are of little medicinal interest,
-but are largely employed in the arts and manufactures, the
-hard timber being adapted for many purposes on account of
-the hard tissue in which the vascular bundles are embedded.
-“Cane” is the stem of <i>Calamus</i>-species (from India).
-<span class="smcap">Sago</span> is obtained from the pith of <i>Metroxylon
-rumphii</i> (Sago-palm, Sunda-Is., Moluccas), <i>Mauritia
-flexuosa</i>, etc. Sugar-containing sap (“palm wine”) is
-obtained from the American <i>Mauritia vinifera</i> and
-<i>flexuosa</i>, <i>Borassus flabelliformis</i> (Asiatic
-Palmyra-palm), <i>Arenga saccharifera</i>, etc., by cutting off
-the young inflorescences, or by perforating the stem before the
-flowering (<i>arrack</i> is distilled from this). <i>Vascular
-strands</i> for the manufacture of mats and brushes, etc., are
-obtained from the outer covering (mesocarp) of the Cocoanut,
-and from the detached leaf-sheaths of <i>Attalea funifera</i>
-(Brazil) (Fig. <a href="#fig296">296</a>). <span class="smcap">Wax</span> is yielded by the leaves
-of <i>Copernicia cerifera</i> (carnaueba-wax, Amazon region),
-and by the stem of <i>Ceroxylon andicola</i> (palm-wax,
-Andes); East Indian <i>Dragon’s blood</i> is from the fruit of
-<i>Calamus draco</i>; the young buds of many species, especially
-<i>Euterpe</i>, <i>Cocos</i>, <i>Attalea</i>, etc., are used
-as “cabbage.” Palm-oil is obtained from the oily mesocarp<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">[302]</span> of
-the plum-like fruits of <i>Elæis guineensis</i> (W. Africa),
-and from the seeds, when it is largely used in the manufacture
-of soap. <span class="smcap">Edible Fruits</span> from the Date-palm (<i>Phœnix
-dactylifera</i>, Arabia, Egypt, W. Africa), and the endosperm of
-the Cocoanut (<i>Cocos nucifera</i>). The seeds and the unripe
-fruits of the Areca-palm (<i>Areca catechu</i>) are chewed with
-the leaves of the Betelpeper, principally in Asia. <span class="smcap">Vegetable
-Ivory</span> from the hard endosperm of <i>Phytelephas
-macrocarpa</i> (S. America.)&mdash;Many species are cultivated in
-the tropics as ornamental plants, but in this country only
-<i>Chamærops humilis</i>, <i>Livistona australis</i> and
-<i>chinensis</i> are generally grown. In addition to the few
-just mentioned, many others are of importance, but these are
-much the most useful.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Cyclanthaceæ.</b> This is a small order related to
-the Palms (44 species from Tropical America), with fan-like,
-folded leaves. The flowers are unisexual and arranged in whorls
-or close spirals on an unbranched spadix. Ovary unilocular,
-ovules numerous. To this belongs <i>Carludovica palmata</i>,
-whose leaves are used for Panama hats.</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Pandanaceæ</b> (Screw-pines) is another small order,
-forming a transition to the Araceæ. The woody, (apparently)
-dichotomous stem is supported by a large number of aerial roots,
-which sometimes entirely support it when the lower portion of
-the stem has decayed. The leaves are closely crowded together,
-and arranged on the branches in three rows, which are often
-obliquely displaced, with the formation of three spiral lines;
-they are, as in the Bromeliaceæ, amplexicaul, long, linear,
-the edge and lower midrib often provided with thorns. The
-♂-flowers are borne in branched, the ♀ in unbranched spadices or
-capitula, which resemble those of <i>Sparganium</i>, but have no
-floral-leaves. Perianth absent. The drupes or berries unite into
-multiple fruits.&mdash;About 80 species in the islands of the Indian
-Ocean.&mdash;<i>Pandanus</i>, <i>Freycinetia</i>.&mdash;Fossils perhaps in
-the chalk of the Harz.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Typhaceæ.</b> The flowers are unisexual, monœcious, and
-borne on a cylindrical spike or globose capitulum; ♂ inflorescences
-above, the ♀ below. The perianth consists of a definite number
-of scales (<i>Sparganium</i>), or in its place numerous
-irregularly-arranged hairs are found (<i>Typha</i>); in the ♂-flower
-there are generally three stamens; the gynœceum is formed of 1–2
-carpels with 1 prolonged style; 1 pendulous ovule. The seeds are
-furnished with a seed-cover, which is cast off on germination.&mdash;The few
-species (about 20) which belong to this order are marsh plants with
-creeping rhizome (and hence grow in clusters); the leaves on the aerial
-shoots are borne in two rows, entire, very long and linear.</p>
-
-<p><i>Sparganium</i> (Bur-reed). The flowers are borne in globose
-capitula; the perianth distinct, generally consisting of 3 small
-scales; pistil bicarpellate. Drupe, dry and woody. <span class="smaller">The stalk
-of the lower ♀ capitula is sometimes united with the main axis,
-and consequently the capitula are situated high above their
-subtending-leaf.</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">[303]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Typha</i> (Bulrush, Reed-mace) has a long, cylindrical, brown
-spike, the lower portion bearing ♀-flowers, and the upper ♂-flowers,
-which is divided into joints by alternate leaves. The ♀-flowers have
-1 carpel. The perianth is wanting, represented by a number of fine,
-irregularly-placed hairs; pistil unicarpellate. Fruit a nut.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The two genera, according to some, are related to the 2nd
-order. In both genera native species are found. The pollination
-is effected by the wind, and consequently the anthers project
-considerably, and the stigma is large and hairy. <i>Typha</i>
-is protandrous, <i>Sparganium</i> protogynous. The small,
-fine hairs surrounding the nut of <i>Typha</i> assist in its
-distribution by the wind.&mdash;Fossil <i>Typhas</i> in the Tertiary.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Araceæ</b> (<b>Arums</b>). The flowers are small,
-and always borne <i>without bracts or bracteoles</i> on <i>an
-unbranched</i>, often very fleshy spike, which is enclosed by a spathe,
-often petaloid and coloured (Fig. <a href="#fig301">301</a>). The fruit is a <i>berry</i>.
-Outer integument of the seed fleshy.&mdash;The leaves have generally sheath,
-stalk, and blade with distinctly <i>reticulate</i> venation; they are
-chiefly cordate or sagittate (Fig. <a href="#fig302">302</a>), seldom long with parallel
-venation as in the other Monocotyledons (<i>Acorus</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig300">300</a>). The
-Araceæ are quite <i>glabrous</i>, generally <i>perennial herbs</i>
-with tubers or rhizomes. Many have latex.&mdash;For the rest the structure
-of these plants varies; for example, while some have a perianth, in
-others it is wanting; in some the perianth-leaves are free, in others
-united; some have hermaphrodite flowers, but the majority unisexual
-(monœcious); some have free, others united stamens; the ovules are
-orthotropous, anatropous, or campylotropous, erect or pendulous;
-the ovary is 1–many-locular; some have seeds with endosperm, others
-without. <span class="smaller"><i>In habit</i> there are great differences. While some,
-<i>e.g. Colocasia</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig302">302</a>), have a thick, more or less
-upright stem, with leaf-scars, but not woody, others are climbers,
-epiphytic, and maintain themselves firmly by means of adventitious
-roots, on the stems and branches of trees, or even on steep rocks,
-<i>e.g. Philodendron</i>; the cordate, penninerved leaf is the
-most common (Fig. <a href="#fig302">302</a>), but various branched forms appear; the pedate
-leaves of <i>Helicophyllum</i>, <i>Dracunculus</i>, etc., are cymosely
-branched; the leaves of <i>Monstera deliciosa</i>, perforated by
-tearing, should be noticed (the vascular bundles while in the bud grow
-faster than the tissue between them, causing the latter to be torn,
-and the leaf perforated). With regard to the anatomical structure,
-the presence or absence of latex, raphides, resin-passages, groups of
-mucilage-cells should be noted. Engler makes use of these anatomical
-peculiarities for a scientific arrangement of the order.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Orontieæ, Calamus-group.</span> ☿, hypogynous flowers of
-a completely formed monocotyledonous type (number in the whorls 2, 3,
-or 4).&mdash;<i>Acorus</i> (<i>A. calamus</i>, Sweet-flag) has a regular,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">[304]</span>
-3-merous, pentacyclic flower (Fig. <a href="#fig300">300</a> <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>). They
-are marsh-plants, with creeping rhizome, triangular stem, and long,
-sword-like leaves (Fig. <a href="#fig300">300</a> <i>A</i>); the inflorescence is terminal,
-apparently lateral, being pushed to one side by the upright, sword-like
-spathe (Fig. <a href="#fig300">300</a> <i>B</i>).&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Anthurium</i> (Pr2+2, A2+2, G2);
-<i>Pothos</i>; <i>Orontium</i> (unilocular ovary with one ovule),
-etc.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig300" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig300.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 300.</span>&mdash;<i>Acorus calamus</i>: <i>A</i>
-habit (much reduced); <i>B</i> inflorescence; <i>C</i> a flower;
-<i>D</i> diagram; <i>E</i> longitudinal section of an ovary; <i>F</i> an ovule.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig301" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig301.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 301.</span>&mdash;<i>Arum maculatum.</i> The spathe
-(<i>h</i>) in <i>B</i> is longitudinally divided.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">[305]</span></p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Calleæ.</span> Flowers hypogynous, naked, ☿.&mdash;<i>Calla</i>
-(<i>C. palustris</i>). All flowers in the spike are fertile, or
-the upper ones are ♂; 6–9 stamens; ovary unilocular with many
-basal ovules. Marsh-plants with creeping rhizome and cordate
-leaves.&mdash;<i>Monstera</i>, <i>Rhaphidophora</i>, etc.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig302" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig302.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 302.</span>&mdash;<i>Colocasia Boryi.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>C.</b> <span class="smcap">Arineæ.</span> Flowers monœcious, naked, ♂-flowers on the
-upper, ♀ on the lower part of the spadix.&mdash;<i>Arum</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig301">301</a>).
-The spadix terminates in a naked, club-like portion (<i>k</i>); below
-this is a number of sessile bodies (rudimentary flowers), with broad
-bases and prolonged, pointed tips (<i>b</i>); underneath these are the
-♂-flowers (<i>m</i>), each consisting only of 3–4 short stamens, which
-eject vermiform pollen-masses through the terminal pores; then follow,
-last of all, ♀-flowers (<i>f</i>), each of which consists of one
-unilocular ovary, with several ovules. Perennial herbs, tuberous, with
-cordate leaves.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Dracunculus</i>; <i>Biarum</i>; <i>Arisarum</i>;
-<i>Pinellia (Atherurus) ternata</i> with leaves bearing 1–2 buds.
-<i>Zantedeschia æthiopica</i> (<i>Richardia</i>, Nile-lily); ♂, 2–3
-stamens; ♀ with 3 staminodes, 1–5-locular ovary (S. Africa.)&mdash;In some
-genera sterile flowers are present between the ♂ and ♀ portions of
-the spadix (<i>e.g.</i> in <i>Philodendron</i>); in <i>Ambrosinia</i>
-a lateral, wing-like broadening of the axis of the spadix divides
-the cavity of the spathe into two chambers, the anterior<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">[306]</span> containing
-one ♀, and the posterior 8–10 ♂-flowers in two series; in some
-the stamens in the single ♂-flowers unite and form a columnar
-“synandrium” (<i>e.g.</i> in <i>Dieffenbachia</i>, <i>Colocasia</i>,
-<i>Alocasia</i>, <i>Caladium</i>, <i>Taccarum</i>, <i>Syngonium</i>).
-A remarkable spadix is found in <i>Spathicarpa</i>; it is united for
-its entire length, on one side, with the spathe, and the flowers are
-arranged upon it in rows, the ♀ to the outside, and the ♂ in the middle
-(<i>Zostera</i> has a similar one).&mdash;<i>Pistia</i> similarly deviates
-considerably, it is a floating water-plant, with hairy, round rosettes
-of leaves; in it also the spathe and spadix are united; at the base a
-♀-flower is borne, which consists of one unilocular ovary, and above
-several ♂-flowers, each composed of two united stamens.</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smaller"><span class="smcap">Biology.</span> The inflorescences are adapted for
-<i>insect-pollination</i>; they are protogynous, since the viscous,
-almost sessile stigmas come to maturity and wither before the pollen,
-which is generally dehisced by apical pores, is shed; some pollinate
-themselves freely by the pollen from the higher ♂-flowers falling
-upon the ♀-flowers below them, and in some it is conjectured that the
-pollination is effected by snails. The coloured spathe, and the naked
-end of the spadix (often coloured) of certain genera function as the
-coloured perianth in other orders; during flowering a very powerful
-smell is often emitted. <i>Arum maculatum</i> is worthy of notice;
-small flies and midges creep down into the spathe, between the sterile
-flowers (Fig. <a href="#fig301">301</a> <i>b</i>), which are situated where the spathe is
-constricted, and pointing obliquely downwards prevent the escape of the
-insects; in the meantime, the stigmas are in a condition to receive any
-pollen they may have brought with them; after pollination the stigmas
-wither, and exude small drops of honey as a compensation to the flies
-for their imprisonment; after this the anthers (<i>m</i>) open and shed
-their pollen, the sterile flowers wither, and the insects are then able
-to escape, and enter and pollinate other inflorescences.&mdash;In many, a
-<i>rise of temperature</i> and evolution of carbonic acid takes place
-during flowering; a spadix may be raised as much as 30°C. above the
-temperature of the surrounding air.&mdash;Again, under certain conditions,
-many species absorb such large quantities of water by their roots that
-water is forced out in drops from the tip of the leaf; this may often
-be observed in <i>Zantedeschia</i>.</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smaller">About 900 species in 100 genera. Home, the Tropics, especially S.
-America, India, and the Indian Islands, preferably in shady, damp
-forests growing as epiphytes upon trees, and on the banks of streams.
-Outside the Tropics few are found. <i>Acorus calamus</i> was introduced
-into Europe from Asia about 300 years ago; it, however, never sets any
-fruit, as the pollen is unfertile. In England <i>Arum maculatum</i>
-is a very common plant; this and <i>A. italicum</i> are the only
-native species. <i>Colocasia antiquorum</i> comes from Polynesia and
-the Indian Islands, and also <i>Alocasia macrorrhiza</i>. Fossils in
-Cretaceous and Tertiary.</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smaller"><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> Many species have pungent, and even <i>poisonous
-properties</i> (<i>e.g. Dieffenbachia</i>, <i>Lagenandra</i>,
-<i>Arum</i>), which are easily removed by boiling or roasting; the
-<i>rhizomes</i> of many species of <i>Caladium</i>, <i>Colocasia</i>
-(<i>C. antiquorum</i>, <i>esculenta</i>, etc.), are very rich in
-starch, and in the Tropics form an important source of food. An
-uncommon occurrence in the order is the highly aromatic rhizome
-of <i>Acorus calamus</i>; this contains calamus-oil and acorin
-which are used in perfumery. Many are ornamental plants, <i>e.g.
-Zantedeschia æthiopica</i> (South<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">[307]</span> Africa), generally known as “Calla,”
-and <i>Monstera deliciosa</i>; many other species are grown in
-greenhouses.</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Lemnaceæ (Duck-weeds).</b> These are the most reduced
-form of the Spadicifloræ. They are very small, free-swimming
-water-plants. The vegetative system resembles a small, leaf-like
-body (Fig. <a href="#fig303">303</a> <i>f-f</i>), from which roots hang downwards; this
-branches by producing a new, similar leaf-like body, which springs
-from a pocket-like hollow (indicated by a dotted line in the figure)
-on each side of the older one, at its base (or only on one side).
-<span class="smaller">The branching is thus dichasial or helicoid (Fig. <a href="#fig303">303</a> <i>A</i>,
-where <i>f, f′, f″, f″′</i> indicate shoots of 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th
-generations respectively). The leaf-like bodies are, according to
-Hegelmaier, leaf-like stems, and thus <i>Lemna</i> has no other leaves
-than the spathe and the sporophylls; according to the investigations
-of Engler they are stems whose upper portion (above the “pocket”) is a
-leaf, which is not sharply separated from the underlying stem-portion.
-The inflorescence is a very much reduced Araceous-spadix, consisting
-in <i>Lemna</i> of 1 or 2 stamens of unequal length (1-stamened
-♂-flowers), 1 unilocular carpel (♀-flower), and 1 thin spathe
-(<i>B</i>). [The same is found in <i>Spirodela polyrrhiza</i>, etc.,
-whose daughter-shoots begin in addition with 1 basal-leaf. <i>Wolffia
-arrhiza</i>, etc., have no roots, no spathe, and only 1 ♂-flower in
-the inflorescence (Engler).]&mdash;On the germination of the seed a portion
-of the testa is thrown off as a lid, so that an exit is opened for
-the radicle.&mdash;19 species. In stagnant fresh water, both Temp. and
-Tropical.&mdash;In Europe the species are <i>Lemna minor, trisulca, gibba;
-Spirodela polyrrhiza</i>, and <i>Wolffia arrhiza</i>, the smallest
-Flowering-plant.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig303" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig303.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 303.</span>&mdash;<i>Lemna</i>: <i>A</i> vegetative
-system; <i>B</i> portion of a plant with flowers; one stamen and tip
-of the carpel project; the remaining portions being indicated by the
-dotted line.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">[308]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 4. <b>Enantioblastæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flowers in this family are <i>hypogynous</i> and have in part
-the general monocotyledonous type with 5 trimerous whorls completely
-developed in a regular hermaphrodite flower, and in part the flowers
-so much reduced that the type is very difficult to trace. On the one
-hand the family is well developed and has capitate inflorescences
-(<i>Eriocaulaceæ</i>) and on the other hand it is distinctly reduced
-(<i>Centrolepidaceceæ</i>). This family has taken its name from the
-fact that the ovule is not, as in the Liliifloræ and nearly all other
-Monocotyledons, anatropous, but <i>orthotropous</i>, so that the
-embryo (βλάστη) becomes placed <i>at the end of the seed opposite</i>
-(ἐναντίος) <i>to the hilum</i>. Large, mealy endosperm.&mdash;The orders
-belonging to this family are by certain authors grouped with the
-<i>Bromeliaceæ</i> and <i>Pontederiaceæ</i>, etc., into one family,
-<span class="smcap">Farinoseæ</span>, so named on account of the mealy endosperm,
-the distinguishing character of the Liliifloræ then being that the
-endosperm is fleshy and horny.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Commelinaceæ.</b> The complete Liliaceous structure
-without great reductions in the number of whorls, but with
-generally few ovules in each loculus of the ovary, is found in
-the Commelinaceæ, an almost exclusively tropical order with
-about 317 species; herbs, some of which are introduced into
-our gardens and greenhouses. The stems are nodose; the leaves
-often <i>clasping</i>; the flowers are arranged in unipared
-scorpioid cymes, often so that they form a zig-zag series
-falling in the median line of the bracts, and after flowering
-they bend regularly to the right or left, outwards or inwards.
-They are more or less <i>zygomorphic</i>, particularly in the
-stamens, which in the same flower are of different forms or
-partially suppressed. The outer series of the <i>perianth</i>
-is sepaloid, the inner petaloid, generally violet or blue; the
-filaments are sometimes clothed with hairs formed of rows of
-bead-like cells (well known for showing protoplasmic movements).
-Fruit a trilocular <i>capsule</i> with loculicidal dehiscence
-(generally few-seeded); in some a nut. The radicle is covered
-by an external, warty, projecting covering which is cast off on
-germination.&mdash;The abundant raphides lie in elongated cells whose
-transverse walls they perforate.&mdash;<i>Commelina, Tradescantia,
-Tinantia, Cyanotis, Dichorisandra</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Mayacaceæ.</b> This order is closely allied to the
-Commelinaceæ. 7 species. American marsh- or water-plants.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In many of the following orders of this family the flowers are
-united into compound inflorescences, with which is accompanied a
-reduction in the flower.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Xyridaceæ</b> (50 species). Marsh-plants with
-radical, often equitant leaves arranged in 2 rows, and short
-spikes on long (twisted) stalks. The flowers, as in the
-Commelinaceæ, have sepals (which however are more chaffy) and
-petals, but the outer series of stamens is wanting. Capsule
-(generally many-seeded).</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Rapateaceæ.</b> Marsh-plants with radical leaves,
-usually in two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">[309]</span> rows, and several spikelets on the summit of the
-main axis, clustered into a capitulum or unilateral spike. Each
-spikelet has numerous imbricate floral-leaves and one flower. 24
-species. South America.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Eriocaulaceæ.</b> The “Compositæ among
-Monocotyledons,” a tropical order. The flowers are borne in
-a <i>capitulum</i> surrounded by an <i>involucre</i>, very
-similar to that of the Compositæ. The flowers are very small,
-unisexual, ♂ and ♀ often mixed indiscriminately in the same
-capitulum; they have the usual pentacyclic structure; the leaves
-of the inner perianth are often connate and more membranous
-than the outer; in some the outer series of stamens are
-suppressed; in each of the 3 loculi is one pendulous ovule.
-Capsule. The leaves are generally radical and grass-like.&mdash;335
-species; <i>Eriocaulon</i>, <i>Paepalanthus</i>, etc., <i>E.
-septangulare</i> on the west coast of Scotland, and Ireland, and
-in North America.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Restiaceæ.</b> A small, especially S. African and
-S. Australian, xerophilous order (about 235 species), which is
-quite similar in habit to the Juncaceæ and Cyperaceæ. The leaves
-are often reduced to sheaths. The flowers are diœcious, the
-perianth as in <i>Juncus</i>, but the outer series of stamens
-suppressed. The ovary and fruit as in Eriocaulaceæ; the ovary,
-however, may be unilocular, and the fruit a nut. <i>Restio</i>,
-etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Centrolepidaceæ.</b> These are the most reduced
-plants in the family; small grass- or rush-like herbs. The
-flowers are very small, naked. Stamens 1–2, carpels 1–∞. 32
-species. Australia.&mdash;<i>Centrolepis</i> (flowers generally ☿
-with 1 stamen and 2–∞ carpels).</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 5. <b>Liliifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flower is constructed on the general monocotyledonous type, with 5
-alternating, 3-merous whorls (Fig. <a href="#fig278">278</a>), but exceptions are found as in
-the Iridaceæ (Fig. <a href="#fig279">279</a>) by the suppression of the <i>inner</i> whorl of
-stamens; in a few the position in relation to the bract differs from
-that represented in Fig. <a href="#fig278">278</a>, and in some instead of the trimerous,
-di- or tetramerous flowers are found (<i>e.g. Majanthemum</i>,
-<i>Paris</i>). Flowers generally <i>regular, hermaphrodite</i>, with
-simple, <i>petaloid</i>, coloured perianth (except, for example,
-Bromeliaceæ); ovary trilocular, generally with 2 ovules or 2 rows
-of ovules in the inner angle of each loculus (Fig. <a href="#fig304">304</a> <i>C</i>,
-<i>D</i>). <i>Endosperm</i> always present.&mdash;A very natural family,
-of which some divisions in part overlap each other. The habit varies;
-the leaves are however long, entire, with parallel venation, except in
-Dioscoreaceæ (Fig. <a href="#fig313">313</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In the first orders of this family the flowers are hypogynous,
-and in the first of all the styles are free, and the capsule
-dehisces septicidally; in the following the flowers are
-epigynous and in some reduced in number or unisexual; capsule
-with loculicidal dehiscence, or a berry.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Hypogynous</span> flowers: Colchicaceæ, Liliaceæ,
-Convallariaceæ, Bromeliaceæ (in part).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">[310]</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Epigynous</span> flowers: Amaryllidaceæ, Iridaceæ, Bromeliaceæ
-(in part), Dioscoreaceæ.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Colchicaceæ.</b> The flower (Fig. <a href="#fig304">304</a> <i>A</i>) is
-☿, regular, <i>hypogynous</i>, trimerous in all five whorls (6
-<i>stamens</i>); anthers usually <i>extrorse</i>. Gynœceum with 3
-<i>free styles</i> (<i>A, D</i>); fruit a <i>capsule with septicidal
-dehiscence</i> (<i>E</i>); embryo very small (<i>F</i>). The
-underground stem is generally a corm or rhizome, seldom a bulb.</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Veratreæ</span>.&mdash;<i>Veratrum</i>; perennial herbs,
-stem tall with long internodes and broad, folded leaves; the
-flowers andromonœcious, with free, widely opening perianth-leaves
-(Fig. <a href="#fig304">304</a> <i>A</i>), and globular anthers; inflorescence a
-panicle.&mdash;<i>Zygadenus, Melanthium, Schœnocaulon, Uvularia,
-Tricyrtis</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Tofieldieæ</span>.&mdash;<i>Narthecium</i> and <i>Tofieldia</i>
-have leaves alternate (arranged in two rows), sword-like and borne
-in rosettes; racemes or spikes. <i>Narthecium</i> forms an exception
-to the order by having a simple style and fruit with loculicidal
-dehiscence; <i>Tofieldia</i> by the introrse anthers. In this they are
-related to the Liliaceæ. <i>Narthecium</i> has poisonous properties,
-like many other Colchicaceæ.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig304" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig304.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 304.</span>&mdash;<i>Veratrum</i>: <i>A</i> flower;
-<i>B</i> stamen; <i>C</i> transverse section of ovary; <i>D</i>
-gynœceum, with one carpel bisected longitudinally, and the third
-removed; <i>E</i> fruit after dehiscence; <i>F</i> longitudinal section
-of a seed.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>C.</b> <span class="smcap">Colchiceæ</span>.&mdash;<i>Colchicum</i> (Autumn Crocus);
-perennial herbs, with a long, <i>funnel-shaped, gamophyllous
-perianth</i>, and introrse anthers. The flowers of <i>C. autumnale</i>
-spring up immediately from the underground stem, which is in reality
-a <i>corm</i> formed of one internode. <span class="smaller"><i>Colchicum autumnale</i>
-flowers in autumn without leaves; in spring the radical foliage-leaves
-appear simultaneously with the fruit. The flower is protogynous, and
-is pollinated by insects (humble-bees, etc.) which seek the honey
-secreted by the free part of the stamen a little way down the tube.
-The length of the tube protects the fruit, and not, as in other cases,
-the nectary.&mdash;<i>Bulbocodium</i> and <i>Merendera</i> have unguiculate
-perianth-leaves, free, but closing together like a tube.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>175 species; chiefly in North America and South Africa.
-<i>Tofieldia</i> is an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">[311]</span> Arctic plant. The order is rich in
-pungent, poisonous alkaloids (veratrin, colchicin, etc.).
-<span class="smcap">Officinal</span>; the seeds of <i>Colchicum autumnale</i>
-(Europe) and <i>Schœnocaulon officinale</i> (Mexico), and the
-rhizome of <i>Veratrum album</i> (mountains of Central Europe).</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig305" style="width: 443px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig305.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 305.</span>&mdash;<i>Colchicum autumnale. A</i>
-Corm seen from the front: <i>k</i> corm; <i>s′ s″</i> scale-leaves
-embracing the flower-stalk; <i>wh</i> base of flower-stalk with roots
-(<i>w</i>). <i>B</i> Longitudinal section of corm and flower-stalk:
-<i>hh</i> brown membrane surrounding the underground portion of the
-plant; <i>st</i> flower-and leaf-stalk of previous year, the swollen
-basal portion forming the reservoir of reserve material. The new plant
-is a lateral shoot from the base of the corm (<i>k</i>) and has the
-following parts: the base bearing the roots (<i>w</i>), the central
-part (<i>k’</i>) which becomes the corm in the next year, the axis
-bearing the scale-leaves (<i>s’, s″</i>), the foliage-leaves (<i>l,
-l′″</i>), and the flowers (<i>b, b’</i>) which are borne in the axils
-of the uppermost foliage-leaves.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Liliaceæ (Lilies).</b> Flowers as in the Colchicaceæ but
-with <i>introrse</i> anthers; <i>ovary free, 3-locular, with single
-style; capsule</i> 3-locular with <i>loculicidal</i> dehiscence.&mdash;The
-majority are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">[312]</span> herbs with <i>bulbs</i>; the inflorescence is
-<i>terminal</i>. In many species reproduction takes place by means
-of bulbils (small bulbs) formed in the axils of the foliage-leaves
-(<i>e.g. Lilium bulbiferum</i>, <i>lancifolium</i>, etc.,
-<i>Gagea lancifolia</i>, etc.), or in the bracts of the inflorescence
-(many species of <i>Allium</i>); in many species several buds are
-developed as bulbs in the axils of the bulb-scales themselves
-(accessory buds arising close together), and in some the formation of
-buds is common on the leaves.</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Tulipeæ, Tulip Group.</span> Bulbs. The aerial, elongated
-stem bears the foliage-leaves. Flowers few but generally large,
-with free perianth-leaves. <i>Tulipa</i>; style absent, no honey;
-flowers generally solitary, erect.&mdash;<i>Fritillaria</i> perianth
-campanulate with a round or oblong nectary at the base of each
-perianth-leaf.&mdash;<i>Lilium</i>; perianth widely open, generally turned
-back with a covered nectary-groove in the centre of each segment.
-Anthers versatile.&mdash;<i>Lloydia; Erythronium.</i></p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Hyacintheæ, Hyacinth Group.</span> Bulbs. Leaves
-radical; aerial stem leafless with raceme or spike. In some
-the perianth-segments are free, in others united. Honey is
-produced often in glands or in the septa of the ovary (septal
-glands).&mdash;<i>Ornithogalum</i> has a leafy stem; <i>Scilla</i>;
-<i>Eucomis</i> has a tuft of floral-leaves above the raceme;
-<i>Agraphis</i>; <i>Hyacinthus</i>; <i>Puschkinia</i>;
-<i>Chionodoxa</i>; <i>Muscari</i>; <i>Veltheimia</i>; <i>Urginea</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>C.</b> <span class="smcap">Allieæ, Onion Group.</span> Generally bulbs. Leaves
-radical. Stem leafless with a compound umbellate or capitate
-inflorescence of unipared helicoid cymes, which before flowering
-are surrounded by two broad involucral leaves.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Allium.</i>
-Filaments often petaloid and bidentate; in many species bulbils are
-found in the inflorescence.&mdash;Some species have flat leaves: <i>A.
-sativum</i>, Garlic; <i>A. porrum</i>, Leek; <i>A. ursinum</i>;
-others have round, hollow leaves: <i>A. cepa</i>, Onion; <i>A.
-fistulosum</i>, Winter Onion; <i>A. ascalonicum</i>, Eschalot;
-<i>A. schænoprasum</i>, Chive.</span>&mdash;<i>Gagea</i>; honey is secreted
-at the base of the perianth, no special nectary; inflorescence
-few-flowered.&mdash;<i>Agapanthus; Triteleia.</i></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>D.</b> <span class="smcap">Anthericeæ.</span> Rhizome; raceme; the leaves
-not fleshy and thick.&mdash;<i>Anthericum</i>; <i>Asphodelus</i>;
-<i>Bulbine</i>; <i>Chlorophytum</i>; <i>Bowiea</i> has an almost
-leafless stem with curved, climbing branches.</p>
-
-<p><b>E.</b> <span class="smcap">Aloineæ, Aloes.</span> Stem generally aerial
-and tree-like, bearing on its summit thick, fleshy leaves,
-often with a thorny edge (Fig. <a href="#fig306">306</a>). Raceme branched or
-unbranched.&mdash;<i>Aloë</i>; <i>Gasteria</i>; <i>Yucca</i> (has
-secondary thickening, p. <a href="#Page_274">274</a>).</p>
-
-<p><b>F.</b> <span class="smcap">Hemerocallideæ.</span> <i>Phormium</i>, (<i>Ph.
-tenax.</i> New Zealand Flax); <i>Funckia</i> (<i>Hosta</i>);
-<i>Hemerocallis</i>.</p>
-
-<p>At this point the following are best placed: <i>Aphyllanthes</i>
-(<i>A. monspeliensis</i>); <i>Xanthorrhæa</i> (Black-boy);
-<i>Xerotes</i>; <i>Lomandra</i>; <i>Kingia</i>; the very
-membranous, dry perianth of the last resembles that of the
-Juncaceæ, and also there are only 1–few ovules in the loculi.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">[313]</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination</span> by insects. Honey in some is produced
-on the perianth (see Tulipeæ), in others by glands on the
-carpels (in the septa and parietal placentæ, septal glands):
-<i>Hyacinthus</i>, <i>Allium</i>, <i>Anthericum</i>,
-<i>Asphodelus</i>, <i>Yucca</i>, <i>Funckia</i>,
-<i>Hemerocallis</i>, etc. Some <i>Allium</i>-species are
-protandrous. <i>Fritillaria</i> is visited by bees, <i>Lilium
-martagon</i> by moths, <i>L. bulbiferum</i> by butterflies,
-<i>Phormium</i> (New Zealand) by honey-birds.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig306" style="width: 363px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig306.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 306.</span>&mdash;Aloë.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>About 1,580 species; rare in cold climates; their home is in
-sunny plains with firm, hard soil, and warm or mild climate,
-particularly in the Old World (S. Africa; As. Steppes;
-Mediterranean); at the commencement of spring the flowers
-appear in great profusion, and after the course of a few weeks
-disappear; during the hot season their life lies dormant in the
-bulb, hidden underground.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">[314]</span> The woody species are tropical.&mdash;The
-majority of the <i>introduced</i> Liliaceæ (<i>Fritillaria
-imperialis</i>, Crown-imperial; <i>Lilium candidum</i>;
-<i>Tulipa gesneriana</i>; Hyacinth; <i>Muscari</i>-species;
-<i>Scilla</i>-species; <i>Ornithogalum nutans</i>;
-<i>Hemerocallis fulva</i> and <i>flava</i>; <i>Asphodelus
-luteus</i> and <i>albus</i>) come from the Mediterranean and
-W. Asia; <i>Funckia</i> from China and Japan; several Lilies
-from Japan and the Himalayas; <i>Agapanthus</i> from the Cape;
-<i>Allium sativum</i> is a native of the Kerghis-Steppes; <i>A.
-cepa</i> from Persia (?); <i>A. ascalonicum</i> is not known
-wild (according to others a native of Asia Minor), perhaps a
-form of <i>A. cepa</i>; <i>A. schænoprasum</i> from the N. temp.
-region.</p>
-
-<p>Many bulbs have pungent properties; many Onions are used as
-culinary plants. The bast fibres of <i>Phormium tenax</i> (New
-Zealand Flax) are used technically. Dyes are obtained from the
-<i>Aloe</i>; gum for varnish from the stem of <i>Xanthorrhæa
-hostile</i> and <i>australe</i>. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>; “Aloes,”
-the dried sap of S. African species of <i>Aloe</i> (<i>A.
-Africana</i>, <i>A. ferox</i>, etc.); the bulb known as
-“Squills” from <i>Urginea</i> (<i>Scilla</i>) <i>maritima</i>
-(Mediterranean).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Convallariaceæ.</b> This order differs from the Liliaceæ
-in having the <i>fruit a berry</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig308">308</a>) and <i>in never being
-bulbous</i>; the seeds are less numerous.</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Convallarieæ, Lily of the Valley Group.</span> Rhizome
-(Fig. <a href="#fig307">307</a>) and normal foliage-leaves.&mdash;<i>Polygonatum</i>: rhizome
-creeping; aerial shoot leafy, bearing the flowers in racemes in the
-axils of the foliage-leaves; perianth tubular. <i>P. multiflorum</i>
-(Solomon’s seal), <i>P. officinale</i>, etc.&mdash;<i>Majanthemum</i>:
-flower 2-merous; perianth almost polyphyllous, spreading.
-<i>Smilacina. Streptopus</i> (<i>S. amplexifolius</i>;
-the flowers or inflorescence unite with the entire succeeding
-internode).&mdash;<i>Convallaria</i> (1 species <i>C. majalis</i>, Lily
-of the valley); flowers in terminal racemes; 2 basal foliage-leaves;
-perianth globose, bell-shaped. <i>Reineckea carnea</i> (Japan, China)
-in gardens.&mdash;<i>Paris</i> (<i>P. quadrifolia</i>, Herb-Paris); flowers
-solitary, terminal, 4-merous, polyphyllous; styles 4, free (approaching
-the Colchicaceæ; it is also poisonous); a whorl of 4 (-more) 3-nerved,
-reticulate leaves on each shoot.&mdash;Ornamental plants: species of
-<i>Trillium</i>, <i>Aspidistra elatior</i> (Japan).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig307" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig307.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 307.</span>&mdash;Rhizome of <i>Polygonatum
-multiflorum</i>: <i>a</i> bud; <i>b</i> shoot; <i>c d</i> scars
-left by shoots of previous years.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig308" style="width: 456px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig308.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 308.</span>&mdash;<i>Smilax pseudosyphilitica</i>:
-<i>A</i> shoot of male plant; <i>C</i> ♂-flower; <i>D</i> berry, almost
-ripe; <i>E</i> the same in longitudinal section. <i>B Smilax
-syphilitica</i>: portion of branch with base of leaf and tendrils.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Asparageæ, Asparagus Group.</span> Scale-like leaves and
-green assimilating branches.&mdash;<i>Asparagus</i>: horizontal rhizome. The
-aerial shoots are very richly branched; the numerous needle-like bodies
-upon the plant are <i>leafless shoots</i>, which are crowded together
-in double scorpioid cymes in the axils of the scale-leaves; the two
-first<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">[315]</span> lateral axes, placed outside to the left and right, generally
-bear<span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">[316]</span> flowers. Polygamous.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Ruscus</i> (Butcher’s broom) is a S.
-European <i>shrub</i> with <i>leaf-like</i>, ovoid or elliptical shoots
-(phylloclades) which are borne in the axils of scale-like leaves, and
-bear flowers on the central line. Diœcious. Stamens 3, united, anthers
-extrorse. <i>Semele androgyna</i> bears its flowers on the edge of the
-flat shoot.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>C.</b> <span class="smcap">Smilaceæ.</span> <i>Smilax</i> (Sarsaparilla) (Fig. <a href="#fig308">308</a>);
-<i>climbing</i> shrubs with the leaf-sheath produced into tendrils.
-The leaves have 3–5 strong nerves proceeding from the base, and are
-reticulate. Orthotropous or semi-anatropous ovules. Diœcious (Fig. <a href="#fig308">308</a>
-<i>C</i>, <i>E</i>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>D.</b> <span class="smcap">Dracæneæ.</span> Fruit in some a berry, in others
-a capsule. The stem of <span class="smcap">Dracæna</span>, when old, has the
-appearance of being dichotomously branched; it has the power
-of increase in thickness, and may become enormously thick. The
-Dragon-tree of Teneriffe, measured by Humboldt, attained a
-circumference of 14 m. and a height of 22 m.; the leaves are
-large, linear or linear-lanceolate.&mdash;<i>Cordyline</i> (East
-Asia), various species in gardens and greenhouses (<i>Yucca</i>
-is closely allied). <i>Astelia.</i></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> <i>Paris quadrifolia</i> and
-<i>Convallaria majalis</i> have no honey, and are chiefly
-visited by pollen-collecting bees (in the absence of insect
-visits self-pollination takes place); <i>Polygonatum
-multiflorum</i> has honey secreted by septal glands and
-protected by the base of the tubular perianth; it is pollinated
-by humble-bees, etc. <i>Asparagus officinalis</i> has small,
-polygamous, greenish, honey-bearing flowers; the ♂-flower is
-almost twice as large as the ♀; both have rudiments of the
-opposite sex.</p>
-
-<p>About 555 species; especially from N. America, Europe, and
-Central Asia.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: “Dragons’-blood,” a red resinous juice
-from the stem of <i>Dracæna</i> and the roots of some Central
-American species of <i>Smilax</i>. The tuberous stems of
-the Eastern Asiatic <i>Smilax glabra</i> are officinal. The
-flowers of <i>Convallaria majalis</i> have been lately used
-as a substitute for <i>Digitalis</i>. Pungent, poisonous
-properties are possessed by <i>Paris</i>. None of the species
-are used as food, except the young annual shoots of <i>Asparagus
-officinalis</i>, a shore-plant which is used as a vegetable.</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Pontederiaceæ.</b> Flowers generally zygomorphic,
-hypogynous, ☿, with handsome, white or violet, petaloid perianth
-which forms a tube at its base. The stamens are inserted at
-different heights in the perianth-tube, and are reduced to
-three (in <i>Heteranthera</i> seldom to one). In some the ovary
-is trilocular with ∞ ovules (<i>Eichhornia</i>), in others
-reduced to one loculus with one ovule (<i>Pontederia</i>).
-Fruit a capsule or nut. Embryo as long as the abundant, mealy
-endosperm.&mdash;Tropical water-plants (22 species) with peculiar
-sympodial branching, nearly the same as in <i>Zostera</i>.
-Spikes without floral-leaves. Many intercellular spaces in the
-stem and leaf.&mdash;In greenhouses: <i>Eichhornia azurea</i>, <i>E.
-crassipes</i> (both from tropical and sub-tropical S. America);
-the latter has swollen petioles which serve as floats and
-enable it to float freely on the water, sending down its roots
-into the mud. <i>Heteranthera reniformis, H. zosterifolia.</i>
-<i>Pontederia cordata.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Amaryllidaceæ (Narcissi).</b> The flower is
-<i>epigynous</i>, otherwise exactly the same as in the Liliaceæ (6
-stamens).<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">[317]</span> The majority, like these, are also <i>perennial</i> herbs
-with bulbs and scapes. The fruit and the other characters as in the
-Liliaceæ. The external appearance is, however, very different.</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Amarylleæ</span> have bulbs and the leaves generally
-arranged in two rows; the flowers are borne singly or in umbel-like
-inflorescences on lateral scapes, while the main axis of the bulb is
-unlimited. Beneath the inflorescence is an <i>involucre</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig309">309</a>).&mdash;<i>Galanthus</i>, Snowdrop, has a polyphyllous perianth without
-corona; the three inner perianth-leaves are emarginate and shorter than
-the outer; the anthers dehisce apically. <span class="smaller"><i>Leucojum</i> differs in
-having the perianth-leaves equal in length.&mdash;<i>Amaryllis</i> has a
-funnel-shaped perianth, entirely or nearly polyphyllous, but somewhat
-zygomorphic. <i>Crinum; Hæmanthus; Clivia.</i></span>&mdash;<i>Narcissus</i>
-has a tubular <i>corona</i>, a ligular structure arising from the
-perianth-tube exterior to the outer stamens. <span class="smaller">In <i>Pancratium</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig309">309</a>) the corona is united with the filaments which appear to
-spring from its edge. <i>Eucharis amazonica.</i></span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig309" style="width: 537px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig309.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 309.</span>&mdash;<i>Pancratium caribæum.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Hypoxideæ.</span> The leaves, which are grass-like,
-dry, folded, and in some hairy, spring from a rhizome, generally
-with a divergence of 1/3. Flowers small, perianth polyphyllous,
-persistent, on which account perhaps the Hypoxideæ may<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">[318]</span> be
-considered as the least altered type. The chief characteristic
-is that the embryo is separated from the hilum. <i>Hypoxis</i>;
-<i>Curculigo</i> (<i>C. recurvata</i>, a favourite ornamental
-plant; S.E. Asia).</p>
-
-<p><b>C.</b> <span class="smcap">Alstrœmerieæ.</span> (<i>Alstrœmeria</i>,
-<i>Bomarea</i>); stems long, leafy, often climbing.</p>
-
-<p><b>D.</b> <span class="smcap">Vellosieæ</span> (<i>Vellosia</i>,
-<i>Barbacenia</i>); stem woody, usually dichotomously branched,
-with terminal, single flowers; it bears numerous aerial roots
-which pierce the leaves and surround the stem. Stamens often (by
-splitting) 6–18. High table-lands of S. America and S. Africa.</p>
-
-<p><b>E.</b> <span class="smcap">Agaveæ.</span> Very similar to the Bromeliaceæ both
-in their distribution (nearly all American) and in external
-appearance. They appear as gigantic bulbous plants with
-perennial, aerial, generally short stem, and perennial, large,
-lanceolate or linear, stiff, thick, and often thorny leaves,
-which form a large rosette; after the course of several (8–20)
-years the terminal inflorescence is developed, which is 10–12 m.
-high, paniculate, and freely branched. Before the inflorescence
-expands, a large quantity of sugar-containing sap is collected
-from <i>A. americana</i> by removing the terminal bud; this on
-distillation yields “pulque,” the national drink of Mexico.
-After flowering the entire shoot dies, but the subterranean
-lateral shoots survive and reproduce the plant.&mdash;<i>Agave
-americana</i>, etc.; <i>Fourcroya</i>; <i>Polianthes
-tuberosa</i> (Tuberose; Central America).</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Distribution.</span> The 650 species are chiefly natives of
-S. Africa and S. America. <i>Clivia</i>, <i>Hæmanthus</i>,
-<i>Amaryllis</i> are from the Cape; <i>Narcissus</i> from
-S. Europe, whence many species have been introduced;
-<i>Galanthus</i> and <i>Leucojum</i> are especially from S. and
-Central Europe, and from the Caucasus.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses</span>, few, except as ornamental plants: <i>Galanthus
-nivalis</i>; <i>Leucojum</i>; <i>Narcissus pseudonarcissus</i>,
-<i>N. poeticus</i>, <i>N. jonquilla</i>, <i>N. tazetta</i>,
-etc.; <i>Amaryllis</i>, <i>Alstrœmeria</i>, <i>Eucharis</i>,
-<i>Crinum</i>, <i>Vallota</i>, etc. The vascular bundles of
-the various species of <i>Agave</i> (<i>Agave rigida</i>, var.
-<i>sisalana</i>, sisal hemp,) are used for cordage, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Bromeliaceæ.</b> The flowers are hypogynous, epigynous
-or semi-epigynous; the perianth is divided into <i>calyx</i> and
-<i>corolla</i>; stamens 6. The fruit is a capsule or berry with many
-seeds. Endosperm <i>mealy</i>, embryo small, at the edge of the
-endosperm, but not enclosed by it.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig310" style="width: 482px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig310.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 310.</span>&mdash;<i>Aechmea miniata.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig311" style="width: 280px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig311.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 311.</span>&mdash;Multiple-fruit of <i>Ananassa
-sativa</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Perennial herbs with a very <i>characteristic appearance</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig310">310</a>); the stem is most often short, thick, and crowned by a
-<i>rosette</i> of many leaves, which are long, often very narrow,
-<i>leathery</i>, stiff, and with a <i>spiny</i> edge; they are
-usually channeled, completely closing round each other, with their
-edges forming a tightly closed hollow, in which generally water is
-collected (this among other things insulates the inflorescence and thus
-prevents the access of creeping insects, such as ants). The presence
-of numerous stellate, water-containing hairs often gives the leaves a
-grey appearance, and the layers of cells beneath the upper epidermis
-of the lamina form an “aqueous tissue,” which serves as a protection
-against the rays of the sun and regulates the evaporation. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">[319]</span> stomata
-are often situated in furrows on the underside of the leaf, and hence
-cause a striped appearance. They <i>are all American</i> (525 species),
-especially from S. America, where they live partly as epiphytes <i>on
-trees</i>, partly in the <i>clefts of rocks</i>, often on the steepest
-slopes, to which they firmly attach themselves by aerial roots; some
-are terrestrial. The stem is seldom tree-like or many metres in
-height (<i>Puya</i>, in Chili; <i>Hechtia</i>, in Mexico). <i>The
-inflorescence</i> is a terminal spike, raceme, or panicle, often with
-large and brightly-coloured floral-leaves. The flowers are without
-scent.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">[320]</span> The seeds, in the species whose fruit is a capsule, are often
-provided with wings (hairs, expansions, etc).&mdash;<i>Ananassa sativa</i>,
-Pine-apple (W. Indies, Central America) is cultivated for the sake of
-its juicy, aromatic fruits, which coalesce with their fleshy bracts
-and form a large spike-like fruit-cluster (multiple-fruits,<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> Fig.
-<a href="#fig311">311</a>) bearing on its apex a leafy shoot, which may be used as a cutting.
-Seeds very rarely developed.&mdash;<i>Tillandsia</i> (<i>T. usneoides</i>
-is a filamentous, richly branched, rootless epiphyte hanging in
-masses from trees; Trop. Am.), <i>Aechmea</i>, <i>Billbergia</i>,
-<i>Pitcairnia</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> The leaves of the Pine-apple, in its native
-country, are used for the manufacture of cloth.</p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Hæmodoraceæ.</b> 120 species; in all parts of the
-world except Europe; perennial, often tomentose and resembling
-the Bromeliaceæ, Iridaceæ and Amaryllidaceæ. <i>Hæmodorum</i>
-(Australia).&mdash;To this order belong <i>Ophiopogon</i>,
-<i>Peliosanthes</i>, <i>Sanseviera</i>, and others.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 8. The <b>Iridaceæ</b> have <i>epigynous</i>, hermaphrodite
-flowers with petaloid perianth as in the Amaryllidaceæ, but the
-<i>interior whorl of stamens is entirely suppressed</i>, and the 3
-developed <i>outer</i> stamens have <i>extrorse</i> anthers (Fig.
-<a href="#fig279">279</a>); there is 1 style with 3 large, generally <i>more or less
-leaf-like branches bearing the stigmas</i>. Ovary and capsule as
-in the Amaryllidaceæ and Liliaceæ.&mdash;Perennial herbs; <i>bulbs are
-rarely found</i>, but horizontal rhizomes, corms, etc., take their
-place. The leaves are (except <i>Crocus</i>) as in the <i>Iris</i>,
-<i>two-rowed</i>, <i>equitant</i> and <i>sword-like</i>. Flowers or
-inflorescences terminal.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>Iris</i> (Flag) has a horizontal rhizome. The flowers are
-borne in the leaf-axils in fan-like inflorescences (rhipidium). The
-branches of the style are large and <i>petaloid</i>; on their under
-surface may be seen a small projecting shelf (Fig. <a href="#fig312">312</a> <i>a</i>)
-having on its upper surface the stigmatic hairs. Beneath the branches
-of the style are 3 well protected stamens, and immediately outside
-these the external perianth-leaves. <span class="smaller">The honey is secreted in the
-perianth-tube, and the insects, endeavouring to obtain it through the
-narrow passages at the base of the stamens, settle upon the outer
-perianth-leaves, which are bent backwards and often very hairy along
-their central line. The insects then rub their backs on the anthers
-just above them, beneath the branches of the style; they readily
-deposit the pollen on the stigma of another flower as they enter it,
-but cannot do so in withdrawing, since the stigma is pushed back, and
-self-fertilisation is thus avoided. The stylar branches lie close to
-the outer perianth-leaves, which are just beneath them, or separated
-by a distance of only 6–10 mm.; the first form of flower is adapted
-for <i>Rhingia rostrata</i>, the latter for bees</span>.&mdash;<i>Crocus</i>
-has vertical, <i>tuberous</i>, underground stems<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">[321]</span> surrounded by the
-leaf-sheaths (corms), and terminal flowers; the linear leaves <i>are
-not equitant</i>, but have two longitudinal furrows on the under
-side. The perianth is gamophyllous and funnel-shaped. The stylar
-branches (stigmas) are fleshy, <i>rolled together in the shape of a
-horn</i>, and split along the edge.&mdash;<i>Gladiolus</i> has corms like
-the <i>Crocus</i>; spikes with slightly zygomorphic, almost bilabiate
-flowers, most frequently turning to one side. Position of the leaves as
-in the Iris.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Diplarrhena</i> has 2 fertile and 1 barren stamen;
-<i>Hermodactylus</i> has a unilocular ovary with 3 parietal placentæ.
-<i>Cypella</i> and <i>Tigridia</i> have bulbs.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig312" style="width: 428px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig312.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 312.</span>&mdash;<i>Iris pseudacorus.</i>
-One external and two internal perianth-leaves, and one of the
-stylar-branches have been removed, <i>y</i> The outer, <i>i</i> the
-inner perianth-leaves; <i>g</i> stylar-branch; <i>a</i> stigma;
-<i>s</i> anther. The ovary is seen in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>770 species; chiefly in the countries round the Mediterranean,
-and in Africa, especially the Cape (<i>Gladiolus</i>,
-<i>Ferraria</i>, <i>Moræa</i>, <i>Galaxia</i>, <i>Sparaxis</i>,
-<i>Antholyza</i>, <i>Tritonia</i>, <i>Ixia</i>, etc.), Australia
-and Tropical America (<i>Sisyrinchium</i>, <i>Tigridia</i>,
-<i>Cipura</i>, <i>Cypella</i>, etc). A great number are
-ornamental plants: the cultivated <i>Crocus</i>-species are from
-the South of Europe and Asia; <i>Gladiolus communis</i> from S.
-Europe; the other species principally from S. Africa. The native
-species of <i>Iris</i> are <i>I. pseudacorus</i> (yellow) and
-<i>I. fœtidissima</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: the stigmas of <i>Crocus sativus</i>
-(Oriental, cultivated in France, Spain, Italy, and Austria),
-used as a colouring matter, saffron; the rhizomes of the
-S. European <i>Iris florentina</i>, <i>pallida</i>, and
-<i>germanica</i> (“Orris-root”).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">[322]</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig313" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig313.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 313.</span>&mdash;<i>Dioscorea batatas</i>: <i>A</i>
-♂-plant; <i>B</i> ♂-flower; <i>C</i> ♀-plant (nat. size); <i>D</i>,
-<i>E</i> ♀-flowers (mag.); <i>F</i> seed; <i>G</i> embryo.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 9. <b>Dioscoreaceæ.</b> Perennial herbs with fleshy, often very
-large <i>tuberous rhizomes</i> (or roots); <i>twining</i> stems;
-leaves stalked, often arrow- or heart-shaped, lobed, <i>palminerved</i>
-and <i>finely reticulate</i> as in the Dicotyledons (Fig. <a href="#fig313">313</a>). The
-flower is <i>diclinous</i> (most frequently <i>diœcious</i>), regular,
-<i>epigynous</i>, <i>small</i>, and of a <i>greenish colour</i>, but
-otherwise typical (Pr3 + 3, and A3 + 3, or G3); in most instances
-2 ovules are placed one above the other in each loculus. The
-inflorescence is a <i>spike</i> or <i>raceme</i>, sometimes richly
-branched and paniculate.&mdash;The order approaches most nearly to the
-Amaryllidaceæ.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">[323]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Tamus</i> (Bryony) has a berry, <i>Dioscorea</i> (Yam) a
-thin-walled, 3-edged or 3-winged capsule (Fig. <a href="#fig313">313</a>). Both have
-subterranean or aerial tubers; the Yam very often also developes
-tubers in the axils of the foliage-leaves; tuberous roots are said to
-occur in <i>D. batatas</i>. The tubers of many species of Yams (<i>D.
-batatas</i> from China and Japan, <i>D. alata</i>, South Sea Islands
-and India, <i>D. bulbifera</i>) are a very important source of food
-in the Tropics, especially the first-named.&mdash;<i>Testudinaria</i>;
-<i>Rajania</i>.&mdash;<span class="smaller">The tuberous stem of <i>Tamus communis</i> and
-<i>Testudinaria elephantipes</i>, and some species of <i>Dioscorea</i>
-is formed from one single internode (epicotyl), and the aerial shoots
-are developed from adventitious buds; in <i>T. elephantipes</i> the
-stem is aerial, and covered with thick scales of cork, regularly
-arranged, and separated by grooves.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Tropical order (167 species); 2 species (<i>Tamus communis</i>
-and <i>Borderea pyrenaica</i>) in Europe.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h5>Family 6. <b>Scitamineæ.</b></h5>
-
-<p>The flowers belong to the ordinary monocotyledonous type. They are
-hermaphrodite, <i>epigynous</i>, and have either a petaloid perianth,
-or calyx and corolla; they are, however, <i>zygomorphic</i> or
-<i>unsymmetrical</i>, and of the stamens most frequently only one is
-<i>completely developed</i>, the others being generally represented
-by petaloid staminodes. The ovary has 3 loculi, more rarely it is
-unilocular with the suppression of 2 loculi. Endosperm is absent
-(except <i>Zingiberaceæ</i>); but, on the other hand, there is a
-<i>large perisperm</i>. To this family belong large, glabrous,
-especially <i>perennial herbs</i> with rhizomes; leaves large,
-distinctly divided into sheath, stalk, and blade, the latter being more
-or less elliptical or lanceolate, entire, with pinnate venation, and
-always with a very <i>well-pronounced midrib</i>, gradually tapering
-towards the apex, and giving off numerous branches, which run outwards,
-towards the margin, at a larger or smaller angle; these <i>lateral
-veins</i> are closely packed, and parallel, but with only weak,
-connecting branches between them; the leaves, therefore, are easily
-torn pinnately (Figs. <a href="#fig314">314</a>, <a href="#fig317">317</a>). The leaf-sheaths close tightly round
-each other and form a false stem.</p>
-
-<p>This very natural family comprises orders closely connected with each
-other, but is not itself nearly allied to any other family. First in
-the series stands:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Musaceæ.</b> The <i>petaloid</i> perianth is strongly
-zygomorphic, the anterior leaf being very large (a kind of “labellum”),
-the posterior one small; only the posterior stamen is wanting, or is
-rudimentary, the other five are developed, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">[324]</span> have quadrilocular
-anthers; ovary, 3-locular. Seed with straight embryo in mealy perisperm.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig314" style="width: 452px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig314.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 314.</span>&mdash;Two <i>Musa</i>-species.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The best-known genus is <i>Musa</i>, the Banana (Fig. <a href="#fig314">314</a>). From the
-short rhizome arise enormously large, spirally-placed leaves, whose
-sheaths envelope one another, and form an apparently aerial stem,
-several metres in height. The inflorescence is a terminal <i>spike</i>
-with floral-leaves placed spirally, and sometimes magnificently
-coloured; in the axils of each of these several flowers are situated
-in two transverse rows (accessory buds); the lowest flowers in the
-inflorescence are ♀, the central ones ☿, the upper<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">[325]</span> ones ♂, so that
-fruits are only found in the lower region of the inflorescence, the
-remaining portion persisting as a naked axis after the floral-leaves
-and flowers have fallen off; the inflorescence terminates in an ovoid
-bud formed by the flowers which have not yet opened (Fig. <a href="#fig314">314</a>, the
-left-hand figure). The perianth-leaves are united (except the posterior
-one). The fruit (known as a “Banana”) is a <i>berry</i>, having the
-form of a smooth, short, three-cornered Cucumber (as much as 30 cm.
-in length); inside the tough skin is found a farinaceous, aromatic
-pulp. No seed is developed in the cultivated species.&mdash;<span class="smaller">Several
-<i>Musa</i>-species are cultivated in the Tropics for the sake of
-the fruit (<i>M. paradisiaca</i>, <i>M. sapientum</i>); for the
-fibrovascular bundles, <i>M. textilis</i> (Manilla Hemp).&mdash;Their home
-is, no doubt, the Tropics of the Old World; they were introduced into
-America before the arrival of Europeans. <i>Musa ensete</i> has dry,
-leathery fruits; an ornamental plant.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In <i>Musa</i> the barren, posterior stamen belongs to the inner
-whorl; and also in <i>Strelitzia</i> and <i>Ravenala</i>; the
-latter may have all 6 stamens developed. In <i>Heliconia</i>, on
-the contrary, it belongs to the outer whorl; in <i>Heliconia</i>
-the perianth-leaves are differently arranged, and there is only
-one ovule in each loculus. The three latter genera have dry
-fruits and leaves arranged in two rows. In the “Travellers’
-Palm” (<i>Ravenala madagascariensis</i>) the foliage-leaves form
-an enormous fan.&mdash;Tropical; about 50 species.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The order may be divided as follows:&mdash;1. Museæ: <i>Musa</i>,
-<i>Ravenala</i>, <i>Strelitzia</i> in the Old World. 2. Heliconiæ:
-<i>Heliconia</i> in the New World.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig315" style="width: 300px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig315.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 315.</span>&mdash;Diagram of a <i>Zingiberaceous</i>
-flower (<i>Kæmpferia ovalifolia</i>): <i>b</i> bract; <i>v</i>
-bracteole; <i>k</i> calyx; <i>p<sup>1</sup></i>, <i>p<sup>2</sup></i>, <i>p<sup>3</sup></i> the
-petals; <i>sst</i>, lateral staminodes (“wings”); <i>lab</i> labellum
-(formed of two staminodes); <i>st</i> the fertile stamen; * position of
-suppressed stamen. The ovary is in the centre of the diagram.]</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Zingiberaceæ.</b> Perianth most frequently divided into
-<i>calyx</i> and <i>corolla</i>. Calyx gamosepalous. Only 1 <i>fertile
-stamen</i> (the posterior, Fig. <a href="#fig315">315</a>, belonging to the inner whorl)
-with quadrilocular anther, which encloses the style in a furrow; the
-2 stamens in the outer whorl are staminodes, the median one (the
-anterior) is wanting. The 2 lateral staminodes of the inner whorl form
-the “labellum” (Fig. <a href="#fig315">315</a> <i>lab</i>), which usually is the largest
-segment of the flower, and is often bilobed. Ovules many. The fruit in
-some is a leathery, 3-valved capsule,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">[326]</span> with loculicidal dehiscence; in
-others it is more or less berry-like and indehiscent, or irregularly
-dehiscent. Straight embryo.&mdash;The aerial stem is seldom developed to
-any extent, and the inflorescences, which are (compound) spikes or
-racemes, often with coloured floral-leaves, spring in some (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Zingiber officinale</i>) directly from the rhizome. The leaves are
-arranged in two rows.&mdash;The ovary in a few instances (<i>Globba</i> and
-others) is unilocular, with 3 parietal placentæ.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>They are perennial herbs with fleshy and tuberous rhizomes,
-which are used as condiments and in medicine on account of
-their pungent and aromatic properties and also for starch,
-dyes, etc. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: <i>rhizomes</i> of <i>Zingiber
-officinale</i> (Ginger, unknown wild, but cultivated generally
-in the Tropics), of <i>Curcuma longa</i> (Turmeric, a dye, E.
-India) and <i>C. zedoaria</i>, of <i>C. angustifolia</i> and
-others (as E. India Arrowroot), of <i>Alpinia officinarum</i>,
-China (galangal). “Preserved Ginger” from <i>Alpinia
-galanga</i>. Similar aromatic materials (volatile oils) are
-present also, for example, in <i>the fruits</i>; Cardamom fruits
-and seeds (from <i>Elettaria cardamomum</i>, China, seldom from
-<i>E. major</i>).</p>
-
-<p>315 species; Tropics, preponderating in the Eastern Hemisphere,
-India, and especially S. Asia, whence all the aromatic species
-originate; they are now commonly cultivated in the Tropics.
-Some are ornamental plants in greenhouses, <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Hedychium</i>, <i>Costus</i>, etc. <i>Globba</i> (with
-axillary buds in the inflorescence, as in <i>Ficaria</i>),
-<i>Renealmia</i>, <i>Kæmpferia</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig316" style="width: 247px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig316.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 316.</span>&mdash;Flower of <i>Canna</i>: <i>f</i>
-ovary; <i>pa</i> calyx; <i>pi</i> corolla; <i>l</i> labellum; <i>st</i>
-stamens; <i>an</i> anther; <i>g</i> stigma; α and β staminodes.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Cannaceæ.</b> American herbs without aromatic properties.
-Flowers asymmetric (Fig. <a href="#fig316">316</a>). Calyx polysepalous. The stamens are
-<i>petaloid</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig316">316</a> <i>st</i>) and barren with the exception of
-one (the posterior), which bears on one of its <i>edges</i> a bilocular
-anther; another, which is especially large and coloured, is termed the
-<i>labellum</i>. The style is compressed and leaf-like, with a small
-stigma at the apex. Ovules numerous in the 3 loculi. The capsule is
-furnished with warts or soft prickles. <i>Embryo straight.</i></p>
-
-<p><i>Canna</i> (30 species; Trop. Am.). The inflorescence is a terminal
-spike with 2-flowered unipared scorpioid cymes in the axils of the
-floral-leaves. Ornamental plants: <i>Canna indica</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<p>The diagram of the andrœcium of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">[327]</span> the Cannaceæ and Marantaceæ may be
-represented in the following manner (calyx, corolla and gynœceum being
-omitted):&mdash;</p>
-
-<table summary="plants" class="smaller">
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr smcap">Cannaceæ.</td>
-    <td class="ctr2 smcap">Marantaceæ.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr"><i>w</i>&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<i>w</i></td>
-    <td class="ctr2"><i>w</i>&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<i>w</i></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr"><i>st</i></td>
-    <td class="ctr2"><i>st</i></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr"><i>w</i>&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<i>lab</i></td>
-    <td class="ctr2"><i>wi</i>&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<i>c</i></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr">*</td>
-    <td class="ctr2">*</td>
-  </tr>
- </table>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p class="sm"><i>w</i> The lateral staminodes, “wings;” <i>st</i> fertile stamen;
-* the suppressed stamen; <i>lab</i> labellum; <i>c</i> hood; <i>wi</i>
-inner-wing.</p>
-
-<p>The labellum of the Cannaceæ corresponds with the hood of the
-Marantaceæ and not with the labellum of the Zingiberaceæ.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig317" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig317.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 317.</span>&mdash;<i>Calathea zebrina.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Marantaceæ.</b> The flower is asymmetrical. Only 1 or
-2 of the 3 stamens in the outer whorl are present as staminodes;
-in the inner whorl 2 are petaloid and of the sixth stamen one-half
-is developed as a staminode and the other half bears a bilocular
-anther. One ovule only in each loculus. The style is strongly
-curved and at first enclosed in one of the staminodes (hood) of
-the inner whorl; later on it springs elastically forward towards
-the other staminode (inner-wing) of the same whorl. The stigma is
-very oblique or 2-lipped. Two of the three loculi of the ovary,
-in some (<i>Maranta</i>, <i>Thalia</i>) become small and empty.
-Embryo <i>curved</i>. Leaves in two rows, with sheath, stalk, and
-blade (Fig. <a href="#fig317">317</a>); at the base of the last is a <i>characteristic
-swelling</i> (<i>articulus</i>).&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Phrynium</i>, <i>Calathea</i>,
-<i>Stromanthe</i>, <i>Ctenanthe</i>, <i>Saranthe</i>, etc. About 150
-species; tropical, especially America. The starch of the rhizome
-of <i>Maranta arundinacea</i> is <span class="allsmcap">OFFICINAL</span>, “West Indian
-Arrowroot.”</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">[328]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 7. <b>Gynandræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flowers are hermaphrodite and constructed on the ordinary 3-merous,
-pentacyclic type with petaloid, <i>epigynous, strongly zygomorphic</i>
-perianth, and generally <i>one-stamened</i> by the suppression of the
-other 5 stamens. The family has derived its name from the fact that the
-stamen is united with the style into a “<i>stylar column</i>” (except
-<i>Burmanniaceæ</i>). All are herbs; many grow as epiphytes on other
-plants.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>This family and the Scitamineæ occupy correspondingly high
-positions among the Monocotyledons; these two families may
-therefore be placed close together, although one cannot be
-derived from the other. The first of the two orders is very
-small, but the second is very rich in species. The Apostasieæ
-are best classed with the Orchidaceæ and have no independent
-place.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Burmanniaceæ.</b> This order forms a transitional
-link between the Gynandræ and the epigynous Liliifloræ
-(<i>Amaryllidaceæ</i>), in having a 6-leaved perianth, and 6–8
-stamens; but some have a labiate perianth (the median perianth-leaf
-of the <i>outer</i> whorl being very large). The ovary is most
-frequently unilocular with three parietal placentæ; but in some
-it is 3-locular with axile placentation. Capsule. Seeds ∞, small,
-with <i>endosperm</i>. The relationship to the Orchidaceæ is shown
-especially in the very imperfectly developed embryo and in the ovary.
-Small, tropical herbs (59 species); some are saprophytes.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig318" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig318.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 318.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i> Diagram of an
-Orchid-flower. <i>B</i>, <i>Cephalanthera</i>. Stylar-column: <i>a</i>
-anther; <i>s</i> stigma; at the foot are seen scars indicating the
-position of the parts which have been removed.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Orchidaceæ.</b> The epigynous, petaloid perianth is
-strongly zygomorphic in having the <i>posterior</i> leaf of the
-interior whorl, the <i>lip</i> (labellum), differing from all the
-other leaves in form, size, and colour (except <i>Apostasieæ</i>); the
-position of the labellum is very frequently reversed, being turned
-<i>forwards and downwards</i> by the twisting of the ovary (Fig. <a href="#fig318">318</a>
-<i>A</i>). <i>Only</i> 1 of the stamens&mdash;the anterior of the external
-whorl&mdash;is developed and bears an anther (by the twisting of the ovary
-it is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">[329]</span> turned posteriorly and upwards); the others are entirely wanting
-(indicated by * in Fig. <a href="#fig318">318</a> <i>A</i>) or present as staminodes (Fig.
-<a href="#fig318">318</a> <i>A</i>, δ δ) (except <i>Apostasieæ</i>, <i>Cypripedileæ</i>);
-the filaments are united with the style to form a column (Fig. <a href="#fig318">318</a>
-<i>B</i>), the <i>stylar-column</i><a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> (<i>gynostemium</i>), and the
-anther (<i>a</i>) is thus placed on its apex and exactly behind or
-over the stigma (<i>s</i>). The anther is 4-locular; the pollen-grains
-do not separate (except <i>Apostasieæ</i>, <i>Cypripedileæ</i>) but
-remain united either in tetrads or in masses, which correspond to a
-pollen-mother-cell (Fig. <a href="#fig320">320</a> <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>, <i>E</i>); or the
-pollen-grains, formed in each of the two anther-halves, remain united
-and form one or a few wax-like masses (pollen-masses, pollinia). The 3
-carpels form a <i>unilocular ovary</i> with 3 parietal, deeply bifid
-placentæ (except <i>Apostasieæ</i>, <i>Selenipedilum</i>). Only the
-two lateral carpels are prolonged and developed into the stigma (Fig.
-<a href="#fig318">318</a> <i>B</i>, <i>s</i>), while the one lying in the median line, which
-is situated just within the anther (Fig. <a href="#fig318">318</a> <i>A</i>), becomes either
-rudimentary or developed into the “<i>rostellum</i>” (“a small beak”),
-on which the sticky bodies (<i>glandulæ</i>) arise; by aid of these the
-heavy, connected pollen-masses may be glued to the insects which visit
-the flower, and pollination is thus secured (in <i>Apostasieæ</i> and
-<i>Cypripedileæ</i> the 3 carpels each contribute to the formation of
-the stigma). The fruit is a <i>capsule</i> which most often dehisces
-<i>by 6 valves</i>, 3 of which are broader and bear the placentæ, and 3
-alternating with them are narrower and barren (except <i>Vanilla</i>).
-The very numerous and exceedingly small seeds have <i>no endosperm</i>,
-and have a somewhat <i>spherical embryo without any trace of external
-organs</i>. The testa is membranous and loose.</p>
-
-<p>The Orchids are <i>all perennial herbs</i> with diverse habits and
-varying morphological structure (see the genera); the leaves are
-scattered, of the usual Liliaceous form, and the inflorescences in
-all cases are <i>racemes or spikes</i> (sometimes branched), with
-subtending bracts, but without bracteoles.</p>
-
-<p>The forms which are the least modified are described first.</p>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Apostasieæ.</span> The perianth-leaves are almost alike
-and free. The column is straight, with 3 equally-developed stigmas.
-<i>Neuwiedia</i> has 3 perfect stamens (1 median of the outer whorl,
-and 2 lateral of the inner whorl); <i>Apostasia</i> has only 2 perfect
-(inner lateral) and one barren (the median of the outer whorl), which
-however<span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">[330]</span> may be entirely wanting. The 3 <i>posterior</i> stamens are
-entirely suppressed. The pollen is powdery. The ovary is 3-locular with
-axile placenta. 7 species (Tropical East India, Australia).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig319" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig319.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 319.</span>&mdash;<i>Cypripedilum calceolus</i>: 1
-front view of the flower; 2 lateral view, after the removal of all
-the perianth-leaves with the exception of the labellum, which has
-been divided longitudinally; 3 the stylar-column; <i>ov</i> ovary;
-<i>s</i>-<i>s</i> exterior, <i>p</i> interior perianth; <i>p’</i> the
-labellum; <i>a</i> the two fertile stamens; <i>a’</i> the staminode;
-<i>st</i> the stigma; <i>i</i> entrance for the insects; <i>ex</i>
-exit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Cypripedileæ.</span><a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> The flower is strongly zygomorphic
-with a large boat-shaped labellum. There are two perfect stamens
-belonging to the <i>inner</i> whorl, and the median anterior (later
-on the posterior) stamen of the outer whorl is transformed into a
-large, barren, shield-shaped body (Fig. <a href="#fig319">319</a>). <i>Selenipedilum</i> has
-a 3-locular ovary, but <i>Cypripedilum</i> (Ladies’-slipper) has a
-unilocular ovary with 3 parietal placentæ&mdash;the typical structure for
-the Orchids. The pollen-grains are <i>separate</i> (not in tetrads)
-and all the 3 lobes of the stigma are constructed to receive them.
-This group is therefore, next to the Apostasieæ, the least modified
-among the Orchids; in all the following groups, one of the lobes of
-the stigma is differently developed from the others, and there is
-only one stamen.&mdash;Terrestial Orchids.&mdash;<span class="smaller">The pollination of <i>C.
-calceolus</i> is effected by the forcible entrance of insects into the
-boat-shaped labellum (Fig. <a href="#fig319">319</a> <i>p’</i>) at <i>i</i>, and their escape
-at <i>ex</i> (in 2) where the anthers are situated; in this way the
-stigmas will first be touched and then the anthers. The pollen-grains
-are surrounded by a sticky mass in order that they may adhere to the
-insects.</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">[331]</span></p>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Neottieæ.</span> The majority are terrestrial Orchids
-with creeping, sympodial rhizomes; the blades of the leaves are not
-detached from the stem at joints, and have convolute vernation. The
-anthers do not drop off, but persist in the withered condition; their
-<i>apex</i> is brought in contact with the rostellum (acrotonous
-Orchids). The pollen-grains are united in <i>tetrads</i>, which,
-however, often hang loosely together in pollinia, attached to a sticky
-part of the rostellum (“adhesive disc”), so that they adhere to the
-insects, and are by them transferred to the stigmas. <i>Spiranthes.</i>
-<i>Listera</i>; <i>Neottia</i>. <span class="smaller"><i>N. nidus-avis</i>
-(Bird’s-nest) is brown (it has little chlorophyll) in colour, has
-no foliage-leaves, and lives mainly as a saprophyte; the rhizome is
-studded with unbranched, fleshy roots which may form buds at their
-extremities.</span>&mdash;<i>Vanilla</i> climbs by aerial roots. The fruit is
-fleshy and hardly opens, or does so irregularly.&mdash;<i>Epipactis</i>,
-<i>Cephalanthera</i>.&mdash;<i>Epipogon</i> and <i>Limodorum</i> are
-saprophytes without chlorophyll.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig320" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig320.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 320.</span>&mdash;A Flower of <i>Orchis maculata</i>
-(front view): a stamen; <i>b</i> the cup; <i>n</i> the stigmas;
-<i>x</i> staminodes; <i>sp</i> the spur; <i>spe</i> the entrance to it;
-<i>sm</i>-<i>sl</i>-<i>sl</i> exterior perianth-leaves; <i>pm</i> the
-labellum, and <i>pl</i>-<i>pl</i> the other 2 interior perianth-leaves.
-<i>B-E Orchis mascula</i>: <i>B</i> lateral view of the column;
-<i>C</i> a pollinium with massulæ (<i>p</i>), caudicle (<i>c</i>) and
-adhesive disc (<i>d</i>); <i>D</i> caudicles with the cup (<i>r</i>),
-front view; the latter is depressed so that the adhesive disc is seen
-lying inside it; <i>E</i> a pollinium, more highly magnified; some
-massulæ are removed. <i>F Ophrys aranifera</i>: rostellum and
-the base of the anther-loculus; an adhesive disc is seen on the right.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>4.</b> <span class="smcap">Ophrydeæ.</span> Anthers 2-locular, not falling off,
-on a very short column. The anther is united at <i>its base</i>
-with the rostellum (<i>basitonous</i> Orchids, Fig. <a href="#fig320">320</a> <i>A</i>,
-<i>B</i>), while in all other Orchids it is connected at the apex
-(acrotonous Orchids). The pollen-grains in each loculus are united
-into small “masses” (massulæ), each of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">[332]</span> which corresponds to a
-pollen-mother-cell in the anther, and which hang together by elastic
-threads (Fig. <a href="#fig320">320</a> <i>C</i>, <i>E</i>). Each pollinium is attached at
-the base by a stalk (caudicle) to an adhesive disc, formed by the
-modified stigma (rostellum), and is easily liberated from it (Fig.
-<a href="#fig320">320</a> <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>, <i>F</i>). The pollinium, which is formed in
-an anther-loculus, together with its caudicle and adhesive disc, is
-termed “pollinarium” (Fig. <a href="#fig320">320</a> <i>C</i>).&mdash;All Ophrydeæ are terrestrial
-with <i>tuberous roots</i>, two of which are present in the flowering
-period, an older one (from the preceding year) containing the
-nourishment for the flowering-shoot of the year, and a young one which
-is intended to contain the reserve material for the following year.
-Inflorescence terminal.</p>
-
-<p><i>Orchis.</i> The lip has a spur; each of the club-like
-pollinia is attached to its own adhesive disc, the discs being
-enclosed in a common pouch formed by the rostellum (Fig.
-<a href="#fig320">320</a> <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>). <span class="smaller">Tubers ovate, undivided: <i>O.
-morio</i>, <i>mascula</i>; tubers palmate: <i>O. incarnata</i>,
-<i>maculata</i>, <i>majalis</i>.</span>&mdash;<i>Ophrys</i>; no spur, the
-two adhesive discs are each enclosed in a separate pouch (Fig. <a href="#fig320">320</a>
-<i>F</i>).&mdash;<i>Anacamptis</i> and <i>Serapias</i> have one adhesive
-disc.&mdash;<i>Habenaria</i>, <i>Gymnadenia</i>, <i>Platanthera</i>,
-<i>Herminium</i>, <i>Nigritella</i>, <i>Cœloglossum</i>, etc., have
-naked adhesive discs (no rostellum).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>5.</b> <span class="smcap">Epidendreæ.</span> Acrotonous Orchids with deciduous
-anthers (except <i>Malaxis</i>); 2-8 wax-like pollinia,
-with or without caudicles; generally no adhesive discs.
-<i>Malaxis</i> (the flower is twisted through a complete circle,
-causing the labellum to be turned upwards), <i>Sturmia</i>
-and <i>Corallorhiza</i><a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> (Coral-root); the latter has a
-creeping, coral-like rhizome <i>without roots, and is destitute
-of chlorophyll</i> except in the ovary. The other two somewhat
-resemble the tropical Orchids in having the lower internodes
-of the axis of the inflorescence tuberous. <i>Liparis</i>;
-<i>Calypso</i>. Most of the genera are tropical epiphytes
-and many have aerial, green tubers formed from one or more
-stem-internodes; <i>Dendrobium</i>, <i>Eria</i>, <i>Phaius</i>,
-<i>Bletia</i>, <i>Epidendrum</i>, <i>Cattleya</i>, <i>Lælia</i>,
-<i>Pleurothallis</i>, <i>Restrepia</i>, <i>Masdevallia</i>,
-<i>Bulbophyllum</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<p><b>6.</b> <span class="smcap">Vandeæ.</span> These resemble the preceding but have
-only 2 wax-like pollinia in each anther, which are attached by
-a caudicle to the adhesive disc of the rostellum. Nearly all
-are tropical epiphytes. <i>Stanhopea</i>, <i>Catasetum</i>,
-<i>Maxillaria</i>, <i>Oncidium</i>, <i>Vanda</i>,
-<i>Polystachya</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<p>6,000 (10,000?) species. The majority live in the Tropics and
-occur, especially, as epiphytes on trees or in the crevices
-of rocks, to which they are attached by aerial roots. These
-<i>aerial roots</i>, like those of Araceæ, are covered by
-several layers of spirally-thickened cells (tracheides) which
-contain air and form the velamen&mdash;an apparatus to absorb
-moisture from the air. The roots have a white appearance when
-the cells are filled with air, which changes to a greenish hue
-when they are filled with water, the chlorophyll then shining
-through. They generally have horizontal rhizomes; the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">[333]</span> ascending
-shoots, which bear the foliage-leaves, may vary, but they very
-often swell and assume the form of a tuber, which persists for
-several years fresh and green after the leaves have fallen off
-(Fig. <a href="#fig321">321</a>). <i>Vanilla</i> is an exception (see above). Our
-Orchids are all terrestrial (or marsh-plants); the largest
-number of species is found in calcareous soils.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination</span> takes place principally by means of
-insects, but self-pollination occurs in some. The lip serves as
-a landing-stage for the insect visitors, which, on sucking the
-honey, cause the adhesive discs, with the pollinia attached to
-them, to adhere to their bodies (generally to the probosces)
-and so carry them away to other flowers. In some species parts
-of the flower are sensitive or irritable, which has some
-connection with the pollination. Without doubt there are a great
-many biological differences which are closely connected with
-the infinite multiplicity of forms; Darwin (1862) has already
-shown an enormous variety, never even dreamt of before, in
-the European species. The genus <i>Catasetum</i> has ♂-♀-and
-☿-plants with flowers of such different appearances that
-they have been classed in various genera (<i>Myanthus</i>,
-<i>Monacanthus</i>). <i>Platanthera</i> is pollinated by
-hawk-moths; <i>Ophrys</i>, by flies; <i>Epipactis latifolia</i>,
-by wasps; <i>Orchis</i>, by bees, especially humble-bees, etc.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig321" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig321.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 321.</span>&mdash;<i>Chysis bractescens.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">DISTRIBUTION OF SEEDS</span> is effected by the wind,
-the seeds being so exceedingly small and light. Many species
-moreover have peculiar, elater-like, fine, hygroscopic hairs
-in the ovary, which eject the seeds in a manner similar to the
-elaters of the Liverworts.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">USES</span> are few, mostly as ornamental plants in
-conservatories. The tubers of several <i>Orchis</i>-species are
-<span class="allsmcap">OFFICINAL</span>; they contain starch and mucilage and are
-used us “salep.” The fruits of <i>Vanilla planifolia</i> are
-used as condiments and differ from other <i>Orchid</i>-fruits in
-being rather fleshy and in dehiscing irregularly; the seeds are
-very small, shining and black.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">[334]</span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Class II. <b>Dicotyledones.</b></h3>
-
-<p>In this class <span class="allsmcap">THE EMBRYO</span> has 2 seed-leaves, a rule from which
-there are few exceptions (<i>e.g. Ficaria</i>, <i>Cyclamen</i>,
-<i>Pinguicula</i>, certain species of <i>Corydalis</i>, with only
-1; and a few, mostly parasitic forms, <i>e.g. Monotropa</i>,
-<i>Orobanche</i>, <i>Pyrola</i>, entirely without cotyledons). On
-germination the cotyledons nearly always raise themselves above the
-ground as green, assimilating leaves and are then termed aerial or
-epigean, in contradistinction to the underground or hypogean which
-are always buried. The structure of the seed varies (endospermous
-or exendospermous); the embryo may be straight or curved. In many
-instances the primary root grows as a vigorous tap-root, with weaker
-branches arising acropetally (in annuals, biennials, many perennials,
-especially woody plants); but in a large number of herbaceous
-perennials, which have rhizomes, the root behaves very much as in the
-Monocotyledons. The roots generally increase in thickness by means of a
-cambium.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The stem</span>, when seen in transverse section, has its vascular
-bundles arranged in a ring; in reality, however, they form a kind
-of cylindrical network in the stem; the bundles are open, and
-thickening takes place by means of a cambium; annual rings are formed
-in the perennial stems. There is a rich and very varied form of
-<i>branching</i>. The two first leaves of a shoot (fore-leaves) are
-placed nearly always to the right and to the left; the same arrangement
-is found in the two first leaves developed on the flower-stalk, and
-these are, as a rule, the only two; they are found below the calyx and
-are usually termed the “<i>bracteoles</i>.” It has become customary
-to indicate the bracteoles by the letters α and β, according to their
-sequence of growth, and in that sense these letters will be employed in
-the following diagrams.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The arrangement of the leaves</span> varies very much; there is
-also a great variety of shapes in the leaves and their venation,
-but the linear leaves, with parallel venation, so frequent in the
-Monocotyledons, are seldom met with, as also the large sheaths (though
-the sheath is well developed in the Umbelliferous plants); stipules
-occur much more frequently.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The flower</span> is most commonly cyclic, but acyclic or hemicyclic
-forms also occur. The type which may be taken as a basis consists in
-the majority of instances, as in the Monocotyledons, of 5 whorls, of
-which the 4 outer ones (calyx, corolla, and the 2<span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">[335]</span> whorls of stamens)
-are most frequently 4 or 5 in number and placed in regular alternation,
-whilst the innermost one (the carpels) has generally fewer members,
-probably on account of space (Figs. <a href="#fig360">360</a>, <a href="#fig361">361</a>, <a href="#fig421">421</a>, <a href="#fig429">429</a>, <a href="#fig487">487</a>, etc.).
-Trimerous (Figs. <a href="#fig384">384</a>, <a href="#fig387">387</a>, etc.) flowers, or those in which the members
-of the flower are in threes or a multiple of three, also occur, as well
-as dimerous flowers; other numbers are rare. It is of the greatest
-importance in connection with the relative position of the members of
-the flower to the axis and bract (orientation), whether the bracteoles
-are typically present (even though they may not be developed), or
-are typically absent. If there are 2 bracteoles present, then their
-position in a pentamerous flower is often as follows: the first sepal
-turns obliquely forward, the second is posterior and median, the
-third obliquely forward, the fourth and fifth obliquely backward;
-quincuncial æstivation is often found in these buds (Figs. <a href="#fig360">360</a>, <a href="#fig429">429</a>,
-<a href="#fig471">471</a>, <a href="#fig475">475</a>, <a href="#fig584">584</a>). The first and third leaves, in the following chapters,
-are most frequently alluded to as the “anterior,” the fourth and fifth
-as the “lateral” leaves. The <i>reversed</i> arrangement, with the
-median sepal in the front, occurs for instance in <i>Papilionaceæ</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig511">511</a>), <i>Lobeliaceæ</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig594">594</a>), <i>Rhodoracecæ</i>. If any
-bracteoles are present below a tetramerous flower, the relation is
-generally that 2 sepals (the first ones) stand in the median plane,
-the two next ones transversely (Fig. <a href="#fig393">393</a>), and the corolla then adopts
-a diagonal position (Fig. <a href="#fig397">397</a>); but a diagonal position of the calyx
-generally shows that the flower is not, strictly speaking, tetramerous,
-as in <i>Plantago</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig567">567</a>), <i>Veronica</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig599">559</a> <i>C</i>)
-and others.</p>
-
-<p>If the bracteoles are <i>not</i> typically present, then the position
-of the sepals is changed accordingly, and the two outer sepals
-endeavour to assume the position which the bracteoles would otherwise
-have occupied, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Primula</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig547">547</a>). Other
-positions are also found when the number of bracteoles is more or less
-than two.</p>
-
-<p>The leaves which follow the sepals occupy definite positions with
-regard to them, which we may consider later. An arrangement must,
-however, be mentioned here; when the flower is “<i>diplostemonous</i>”
-that is, has two whorls of stamens (thus, Sn, Pn, An + n), these may be
-arranged in two ways. <i>Either</i> the first-formed whorl of stamens,
-which are termed the “calyx-stamens,” stands directly in front of the
-sepals (that is “episepalous”), and is the <i>outermost</i> whorl,
-and in this case a regular alternation takes place between sepals,
-petals and the two whorls of stamens,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">[336]</span> which is also continued into
-the carpels if their number is the same as that of the other whorls:
-the carpels are then placed opposite the sepals (Fig. <a href="#fig278">278</a>) and the
-flower is <i>isomerous</i> and Gn should be added to the formula
-above. <i>Or</i>, the calyx-stamens form the <i>innermost</i> whorl,
-and the corolla-stamens, which are subsequently formed (“epipetalous”
-stamens), stand <i>outside</i> these (Figs. <a href="#fig360">360</a>, <a href="#fig429">429</a>); if the number
-of carpels is the same as that of the preceding whorls, they are often
-placed <i>right in front</i> of the petals and the corolla-stamens.
-The first-mentioned arrangement is termed <i>Diplostemonous</i>, and
-the second <i>Obdiplostemonous</i>. <span class="smaller">Both arrangements may be found
-in one and the same order, <i>e.g.</i> Caryophyllaceæ. The size and
-relation of the members of the flowers, and also the contact with other
-members in the early stages of their development, play an important
-part in determining the arrangement.</span></p>
-
-<p>The great number of structural arrangements found in this enormously
-large class, may, as is the case in the Monocotyledons, be further
-varied by <i>suppression and division</i> of certain leaves (especially
-the stamens). Instances of this will occur in the following (Figs. <a href="#fig559">559</a>,
-<a href="#fig568">568</a>.&mdash;<a href="#fig426">426</a>, <a href="#fig441">441</a>, <a href="#fig445">445</a>, etc.).</p>
-
-<p>The Dicotyledons were formerly divided into 3 sub-classes: Apetalæ
-(those without corolla), Sympetalæ or Gamopetalæ (those with the petals
-united), and Choripetalæ or Polypetalæ (the petals not united). This
-division has now been abandoned because it has been proved that the
-Apetalæ were merely reduced or incomplete forms of the Choripetalæ, and
-they have therefore been distributed among the various families of the
-latter sub-class.</p>
-
-<p>With regard to the Sympetalæ (or Gamopetalæ) it may be stated that
-they form to a very great extent a closely connected and natural
-group, having in common not only the character that the corolla is
-gamopetalous and the stamens united with it (this being also found in
-the Choripetalæ), but also a great many others (such as persistent
-calyx, cyclic flowers with the formula S5, P5, A5 and as a rule G2,
-the two carpels being united to form the ovary; seeds with a thick
-integument and a very small nucellus). They are therefore considered
-as an independent sub-class, and must be placed at the close of the
-system of classification as the forms which presumably have arisen the
-latest. In the future systems of classification this arrangement will
-very probably be changed, and the first families of the Sympetalæ, the
-Bicornes and others will for instance be to a certain extent united
-with the families or orders of the Choripetalæ. The Sympetalæ may
-certainly be considered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">[337]</span> as the youngest types, the strongly pronounced
-metamorphosis supporting this theory, as also the formation of the
-integument of the ovule, the one thick integument being undoubtedly
-derived from the coalescence of two&mdash;a holochlamydeous ovule, etc.</p>
-
-<p>The Apetalæ and Choripetalæ are united into one sub-class. The leaves
-of the perianth in this case are, as a rule, free from each other, the
-structure of the flowers presents many differences, and the ovules have
-as a rule 2 integuments and a large nucellus. Considerable uncertainty
-still prevails regarding the arrangement and the relationship of the
-individual families of the Choripetalæ, and some of the following
-families are hardly quite natural; but the best arrangement arrived at
-so far has been adopted here.</p>
-
-<p>At the beginning of the book a review of the orders of the Dicotyledons
-will be found.</p>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class 1. <b>Choripetalæ. Petals free.</b></h3>
-
-
-<h4>Family 1. <b>Salicifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>Trees and shrubs, which, in the structure of the vegetative shoot
-and the catkin-like inflorescences, resemble the Quercifloræ, but
-the structure of the flower differs so much from them, that the only
-order brought under this heading&mdash;<i>Salicaceæ</i>&mdash;well deserves to
-be separated and to form a family of its own, the nearest relatives
-of which are still doubtful. <span class="smaller">As Juglandaceæ and Myricaceæ also
-deserve to be placed in a special family, the name <i>Amentaceæ</i>
-(<i>Catkin-bearers</i>), hitherto applied to all of these plants,
-cannot be retained as the name of a family.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig322" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig322.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 322.</span>&mdash;Male and female catkins of <i>Salix
-caprea</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>There is only one order.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">[338]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order. <b>Salicaceæ</b> (<b>Willows</b>). Trees with simple, scattered,
-<i>stipulate leaves</i>. <i>Diœcious</i>. The flowers are arranged
-in <i>simple inflorescences</i> (spikes or racemes) which are termed
-catkins, and which fall off as a whole after flowering (♂) or after
-the ripening of the fruit (♀) (Fig. <a href="#fig322">322</a>). The perianth is very
-imperfect<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> or wanting, particularly in <i>Salix</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig323">323</a>
-<i>o</i>); the ♂-flower with 2–several stamens and without any trace
-of a carpel (<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>): the ♀-flower has a free
-bicarpellate ovary, <i>unilocular</i>, and formed from 2 lateral
-carpels with 2 <i>parietal</i> (<i>median</i>) <i>placentæ</i> and
-generally ∞ ovules; the style divides into two stigmas (<i>d</i>,
-<i>e</i>, <i>f</i>). The fruit is a two-valved <i>capsule</i> and the
-very small seeds bear a <i>tuft of hairs</i> at the base. <i>Endosperm
-absent.</i>&mdash;<span class="smaller">The catkins are situated on dwarf-branches, which in
-some species often develop before the leaves and bear at their base
-only scale-leaves; in others foliage-leaves are borne beneath the
-catkins. The vegetative bud commences with 2 bud-scales which are
-united on the anterior side into a scale. The capsule opens by the
-dorsal suture. The seed-hairs spring from the funicle.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig323" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig323.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 323.</span>&mdash;<i>Salix</i>: male flowers of <i>S.
-pentandra</i> (<i>a</i>), <i>S. aurita</i> (<i>b</i>), <i>S. rubra</i>
-(<i>c</i>), female flowers of <i>S. aurita</i> (<i>d</i>), <i>S.
-nigricans</i> (<i>e</i>), <i>S. mollissima</i> (<i>f</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Salix</i> (Willow) has short-stalked, most frequently lanceolate
-leaves and erect catkins with undivided bracts (Fig. <a href="#fig322">322</a>). The flowers
-are naked; 1 (<i>o</i> in <i>a-f</i>) or 2 yellowish glands situated
-in the median line. In the ♂-flower generally two stamens, situated
-laterally like the carpels in the ♀-flower. <span class="smaller">Various forms are seen
-in Fig. <a href="#fig323">323</a>.&mdash;The terminal bud of the branches often aborts regularly,
-the uppermost lateral bud taking its place.</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Populus</i> (Aspen, Poplar) has long-stalked, more or less round or
-cordate leaves with drawn-out apex; catkin pendulous; lobed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">[339]</span> bracts;
-perianth cup-like with oblique edge; stamens usually numerous; stigmas
-often divided.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>P. tremula</i> (Aspen) has received its name from
-the tremor of the leaves: <i>cf.</i> “to shake like an aspen leaf.”</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> The Poplars are wind-pollinated. The
-Willows have sticky pollen and are pollinated by insects. The
-catkins of the Willows, especially the ♂, are more conspicuous,
-from the numerous, closely-packed, yellow flowers, rich in honey
-and pollen. The catkins often appear before the foliage and so
-are much more easily seen, whilst at this time of the year the
-number of competing honey-flowers is smaller, and the insect
-visits consequently more numerous. On many catkins of the Willow
-the flowers open earliest on the side which is turned towards
-the sun and in descending order, <i>i.e.</i> the upper flowers
-develop before the lower ones. Hybrids frequently appear.</p>
-
-<p>There are about 180 species existing in the northern, cold and
-temperate latitudes. Some in the Polar regions are scarcely more
-than an inch in height, and have a creeping rhizome (<i>Salix
-herbacea</i>, <i>polaris</i>, <i>reticulata</i>). Fossil
-forms are found in the Tertiary and perhaps also in the Upper
-Cretaceous.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> Principally for ornamental trees, as they grow
-very quickly and are easily propagated by cuttings, <i>S.
-babylonica</i>, Weeping Willow; <i>S. purpurea</i>; <i>Populus
-alba</i>, Silver Poplar; <i>P. pyramidalis</i>, Pyramid
-Poplar&mdash;a form of <i>P. nigra</i>; <i>P. monilifera</i>,
-Canadian Poplar. The wood is very poor and little used; the
-branches of many Willows are cultivated for basket-making,
-etc. The wood of the Aspen is used for matches. The bark
-contains tannin and, in many Willows, a very bitter extract,
-<i>Salicin</i> (<i>S. pentandra</i>, <i>fragilis</i>). Salicylic
-acid (officinal) is obtained from <i>Salix</i>. Balsam is
-extracted from the buds of many Poplars, especially when the
-leaves are shooting.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 2. <b>Casuarinifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>Trees with verticillate, scale-like leaves forming sheaths at the
-nodes. Monœcious. Flowers unisexual. ♂-flowers in catkins; ♀ in short
-spikes. <i>Pollen-tube entering the ovule at the chalaza</i>, and not
-through the micropyle. Ovary 1-seeded, unilocular. Carpels uniting into
-a multiple fruit. Only one order.</p>
-
-<p>Order. <b>Casuarinaceæ.</b> Trees (30 species), from Australia and
-certain parts of S.E. Asia, with peculiar, equisetum-like appearance.
-The leaves are verticillate, scale-like and united into sheaths. The
-internodes are furrowed. Branching verticillate. The unisexual flowers
-are situated in catkins or short spikes. The ♂-flower has a central
-stamen, surrounded by 2 median, scale-like perianth-leaves and 2
-lateral bracteoles. The ♀-flower has a 1-chambered ovary (2 ascending,
-orthotropous ovules), no perianth, but 2 large, lateral bracteoles
-which finally become woody and form two valves, between which the
-nut-like fruit is situated. The multiple-fruits therefore resemble
-small cones.&mdash;<i>Casuarina equisetifolia</i>, cultivated, gives
-“iron-wood.”</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">[340]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>[The Casuarinas differ from the ordinary Dicotyledons in many
-important respects which may be briefly summarised thus:&mdash;The
-bicarpellate ♀-flower has a well-pronounced stylar-cylinder
-terminated by two stigmas, but the cavity of the ovary closes
-very soon after its formation, and in it are developed two
-parietal ovules; these are united by a bridge of cellulose to
-the stylar-cylinder or summit of the ovary, and hence the ovules
-are connected with the walls of the ovary by the bridge (above),
-as well as by the funicle (below). The archespore is developed
-from the hypodermal cells at the summit of the nucellus,
-two primordial mother-cells are first formed and from these
-by tangential divisions a central cylindrical mass of cells
-(sporogenous-tissue) is produced which is surrounded by tapetal
-cells. The cells of the sporogenous tissue correspond to the
-mother-cells of the embryo-sac of other Angiosperms; they divide
-transversely and from 16–20 macrospores are formed together with
-inactive cells which are not crushed together as in the case
-of other Phanerogams. The sexual apparatus is developed from a
-single cell, but the number of cells composing this apparatus
-is subject to variation, the oosphere being accompanied by one
-or two neighbouring cells which resemble canal-cells rather
-than synergidæ. The sexual apparatus is found in the majority
-of the macrospores, but in most of these it remains as a number
-of naked cells; while in the fertile macrospores the cells
-are invested by walls of cellulose (usually only one fertile
-macrospore is found in each ovule). Antipodal cells are never
-developed. The macrospores elongate considerably towards the
-chalaza, into which some penetrate. The pollen-tube traverses
-the stylar-cylinder and enters the ovules at the chalaza, its
-passage through the tissue of the nucellus being assisted by
-the prolongation of the macrospores. About the centre of the
-nucellus the pollen-tube is ruptured; the apical portion which
-alone takes part in the fertilisation being firmly attached to
-the macrospore. Although the actual impregnation has not been
-observed, Treub considers that the endosperm begins to be formed
-before fertilisation.]</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 3. <b>Quercifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p><i>Trees</i> and <i>shrubs</i> with small, unisexual, <i>monœcious</i>
-flowers, having no perianth or a simple inconspicuous one. The ♂
-and ♀ flowers are very different and generally placed in separate
-inflorescences. The ♂-flowers are most often adnate to the bracts.
-The stamens are placed <i>opposite the perianth-leaves</i>, when
-they are present in equal numbers. The ♀-flower is <i>naked</i>,
-or has a <i>superior</i> perianth. The ovary at the base is 2- or
-3-(-6) locular with 1 or 2 pendulous ovules in each loculus, only
-one of which is developed; the fruit is a one-seeded <i>nut</i>;
-<i>endosperm absent</i>; embryo straight. The inflorescences, which
-are either compound and mixed (small dichasia in spikes) or simple,
-are here also termed <i>catkins</i>; but, strictly speaking, this
-term is applied to the ♂-inflorescences only. In all Quercifloræ the
-leaves are <i>scattered</i> (usually in 2 rows) <i>simple</i>, and
-<i>penninerved</i>, and with <i>deciduous stipules</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">[341]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>It is worthy of remark that in <i>Betulaceæ</i>,
-<i>Corylaceæ</i> and <i>Quercus</i> the ovules, and to some
-extent the loculi of the ovary are not developed till after
-pollination, so that the development of the pollen-tube proceeds
-very slowly. The smallness of the flowers, the absence of
-honey, the dryness and lightness of the pollen, the size of the
-stigma and the abundance of hairs found on many stigmas are all
-adaptations for wind-pollination. It is also an advantage that
-the flowers are generally pollinated before the foliage-leaves
-are developed, thus preventing the pollen being entangled by the
-leaves.</p>
-
-<p>The two orders <i>Betulaceæ</i> and <i>Corylaceæ</i> mentioned
-here are by other authors united into one order. [It is doubtful
-whether these two should be retained in the family Quercifloræ,
-as recent researches (p. <a href="#Page_273">273</a>) have shown that they differ from
-the Cupuliferæ in many important points, and agree with the
-Casuarinas in the fact that the pollen-tube enters the ovule
-through the chalaza.]</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Betulaceæ</b> (<b>Birches</b>). Monœcious, with thick,
-cylindrical, <i>compound</i> ♂ and ♀ inflorescences (2- or 3-flowered
-dichasia in a spike with spirally-placed floral-leaves) (Figs. <a href="#fig324">324</a>,
-<a href="#fig326">326</a>, <a href="#fig328">328</a>). When the perianth in the ♂-flower is completely developed,
-it is composed of 4 somewhat united leaves, which are placed
-opposite the 4 stamens (Figs. <a href="#fig325">325</a>, <a href="#fig326">326</a> <i>A</i>). The female flowers
-are <i>naked</i>; the ovary is bilocular, with two styles and one
-<i>pendulous</i> ovule in each loculus. The subtending floral-leaves
-unite with the bracteoles and form a 3–5-lobed cover-scale, which is
-not attached to the fruit (Figs. <a href="#fig325">325</a> <i>D</i>, <a href="#fig326">326</a> <i>B</i>). Fruit a
-<i>nut without cupule</i> (see <i>Corylaceæ</i> and <i>Cupuliferæ</i>).
-<span class="smaller">In the bud the leaves are flat. The stipules are deciduous. On
-germination the cotyledons are raised above the ground. Terminal buds
-are only found on old Alder trees; the Birch has sympodial branches.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig324" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig324.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 324.</span>&mdash;<i>Alnus glutinosus.</i> Branch
-of Alder with ♂-(<i>n</i>) and ♀-(<i>m</i>) catkins: <i>k</i> bud;
-<i>b</i> fruit-bearing catkin (“cone.”)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Alnus</i> (Alder) (Figs. <a href="#fig324">324–326</a>). In the majority of species the
-♂-and ♀-catkins are both developed in the year previous to their
-flowering, and pass the winter naked and bloom before the leaves
-expand. ♂-flower: 4 stamens. ♀-flower: the 5-lobed cover-scales of
-the ♀-catkin are woody and remain attached to the axis, so that the
-entire catkin when ripe resembles a small cone (Fig.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">[342]</span> <a href="#fig324">324</a> <i>b</i>).
-Each cover-scale supports two winged or wingless nuts. <span class="smaller">In the
-native species of Alder the buds are stalked (Fig. <a href="#fig324">324</a> <i>k</i>). The
-bud-scales are formed by the stipules of the lowest leaves.</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Betula</i> (Birch). The ♂-catkins, in the native species, appear
-in autumn, the ♀-catkins in the flowering year on leaf-bearing,
-short-lived shoots. ♂-flowers: 2 stamens, divided (Fig. <a href="#fig328">328</a> <i>A</i>).
-The 3-lobed cover-scales (Fig. <a href="#fig327">327</a> <i>a</i>) of the ♀-catkin are
-detached from the axis; each cover-scale supports 3 broadly winged nuts
-(<i>b</i>). <span class="smaller">The stem has cork with annual rings. The young twigs and
-leaves have aromatic resin glands.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig325" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig325.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 325.</span>&mdash;<i>Alnus glutinosa</i>: <i>A</i>
-dichasium of ♂-flowers seen from the front; <i>B</i> the same from
-inside; <i>C</i> the same from the back; <i>D</i> dichasium of
-♀-flowers with subtending-leaf and four bracteoles. The letters
-<i>b</i>, α, β, β′, β are the same as in Fig. <a href="#fig326">326</a> <i>A</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig326" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig326.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 326.</span>&mdash;<i>Alnus glutinosa</i>: diagram
-of dichasia of ♂ (<i>A</i>) and ♀ (<i>C</i>) catkins; <i>B</i> a
-cone-scale. All the bracteoles in <i>A</i> and <i>C</i> are slightly
-pressed from their normal position.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The Inflorescences of the Alder.</span>&mdash;In the axil of
-each cover-scale [<i>b</i> in the Figs] is situated, in the
-♂-catkins (Figs. <a href="#fig326">326</a> <i>A</i>, <a href="#fig325">325</a> <i>A-C</i>) a 3-flowered
-dichasium, the flowers of which have a 4-partite perianth, the
-posterior perianth-segments being sometimes almost suppressed,
-and 4 stamens with undivided filaments. In the ♀-catkin (Figs.
-<a href="#fig325">325</a> <i>D</i>, <a href="#fig326">326</a> <i>C</i>) a 2-flowered dichasium is found,
-the middle flower being suppressed (indicated by a star in
-<i>C</i>). In both instances the inflorescences have two
-bracteoles (α-β) and the flowers borne in their axils have each
-one bracteole (β′), the other one (α′) being suppressed and
-therefore in 326 <i>A</i> and <i>C</i> only represented by a
-dotted line; these four bracteoles unite with the cover-scale
-(<i>b</i>) which supports the entire dichasium, to form the
-5-lobed “cone-scale” (Fig. <a href="#fig326">326</a> <i>B</i>) which in the ♀-catkin
-eventually becomes woody.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The Inflorescences of the Birch.</span>&mdash;A 3-flowered
-dichasium is situated in the axil of the cover-scale in both
-♂-and ♀-catkins (Fig. <a href="#fig328">328</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>); only the central
-flower has bracteoles (α-β) (the lateral flowers having no
-bracteoles), and these bracteoles unite, as in the Alder, with
-the supporting cover-scale (<i>b</i>), and form a three-lobed
-cone-scale (Fig. <a href="#fig327">327</a> <i>a</i>).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">[343]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>While the ♀-flower exactly resembles that of the Alder, the
-reduction of the ♂-flower, already described in the Alder, is
-carried further, so that often only the 2 median perianth-leaves
-are developed (Fig. <a href="#fig328">328</a> <i>A</i>); there are also <i>only</i>
-2 stamens, these being deeply cleft, while the other 2 are
-suppressed.</p>
-
-<p>About 50 species; N. Temp.&mdash;Fossil-forms certainly occur in the
-Oligocene. During the Glacial period the Dwarf-birch (<i>B.
-nana</i>) extended over Europe; at the present time it is
-confined to the moors and mountains of N. Europe and N. America
-and Asia. Wind-pollinated.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span>&mdash;Important forest trees. The bark contains tannic
-acid. The tar of the Birch is used in the preparation of Russia
-leather; whilst its spring sap is very saccharine, and is used
-in some places for making a fermented drink. Its external bark
-is used for roofing, for baskets, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig327" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig327.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 327.</span>&mdash;<i>Betula verrucosa</i>: <i>a</i>
-cone-scale; <i>b</i> fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig328" style="width: 307px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig328.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 328.</span>&mdash;Diagrams of dichasia in the
-♂-(<i>A</i>) and ♀-(<i>B</i>) catkins of Birch.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Corylaceæ</b> (<b>Hazel-nuts</b>). Monœcious. The ♂-catkins
-are long and cylindrical; the ♂-flowers are placed singly in the axil
-of the subtending-leaf (cover-scale); they are <i>naked</i> and formed
-of a number of <i>divided</i> stamens, which are partly united with
-the cover-scale, 4 in the Hazel, apparently 8 (Figs. <a href="#fig330">330</a> <i>A</i>,
-<a href="#fig329">329</a> <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>), more on the Hornbeam. The ♀-flowers have a
-very small, <i>superior</i> perianth; in the axil of each cover-scale
-a 2-flowered dichasium (Fig. <a href="#fig329">329</a> <i>D</i>) is present, of which the
-central flower (* in Fig. <a href="#fig330">330</a> <i>B</i>) is suppressed. The gynœceum
-is bicarpellary as in the Birches; the ovary is bilocular, with two
-long styles (Fig. <a href="#fig329">329</a> <i>D-F</i>); the loculi have 1 (-2) ovules (Fig.
-<a href="#fig330">330</a> <i>B</i>). Each single ♀-flower and fruit is surrounded by a
-<i>leaf-like covering</i>, the <i>cupule</i> (husk), which is <i>formed
-of three floral-leaves</i> (namely, the bract of a lateral flower,
-and its own bracteoles; thus in Fig. <a href="#fig330">330</a> <i>B</i>, α, α′, β’ form the
-cupule for the left-hand flower, and β, α<sub>1</sub>, β<sub>1</sub>, the cupule
-for the right-hand).</p>
-
-<p><i>Corylus</i> (Hazel-nut, Fig. <a href="#fig329">329</a>). The long, cylindrical ♂-catkins
-pass the winter naked, 2–3 together, on short branches. The very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">[344]</span> small
-♀-catkins are enclosed in buds, in which they pass the winter; these
-buds are situated in the axils of the fallen foliage-leaves, and it
-is only by their larger size that they may be distinguished from the
-ordinary foliage-buds. In spring the ♀-catkins are easily recognised
-by their red, projecting stigmas (Fig. <a href="#fig329">329</a> <i>A</i>). The cupule&mdash;the
-“husk”&mdash;is tubular, fringed, and envelopes the nut. <span class="smaller">The leaves
-are alternate and unsymmetrical, the external side being larger than
-the internal; this is connected with the vernation, the blade being
-conduplicate in the bud; the stipules are deciduous. The bud-scales are
-formed of stipules, the most internal having a leaf-blade attached to
-them which is suppressed in the external ones. The cotyledons remain
-underground on germination.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig329" style="width: 442px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig329.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 329.</span>&mdash;<i>Corylus avellana</i>: <i>A</i>
-branch at the time of flowering with ♂-and ♀-catkins; <i>B</i> ♂-flower
-with subtending-leaf (bract) and two bracteoles; <i>C</i> the same
-without the anthers; <i>D</i> view of interior of ♀-dichasium shortly
-after fertilisation; <i>E</i> young fruit with cupule; <i>F</i> similar
-one with the cupule opened; <i>G</i> mature ♀-fruits; <i>H</i> nut.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Carpinus</i> (<i>C. betulus</i>, Hornbeam). The ♂-and ♀-catkins do
-not appear till the leaves are shooting. The ♀-catkin in this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">[345]</span> instance
-is also long and cylindrical. The cupule in <i>C. betulus</i> is
-3-lobed, and to a slight extent only embraces the base of the ribbed
-nut (Fig. <a href="#fig331">331</a>); each lobe corresponds to a floral-leaf. <span class="smaller">Whilst the
-carpels are placed medianly in <i>Corylus</i>, in <i>Carpinus</i>,
-on the other hand, they are situated transversely, as in the case of
-the <i>Betulaceæ</i>. The lamina of the leaf is not conduplicate in
-the bud, but flat, and folded only along the lateral veins, which are
-also indicated in the form of the fully-developed leaf; otherwise the
-vegetative characters are essentially the same as in the Hazel. The
-cotyledons are aerial.&mdash;<i>Ostrya</i> resembles the Hornbeam, but the
-cupule completely envelopes the nut, as a sac open at the apex (Eur.,
-N. Am., Japan).</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>N. Am., Asia, and Europe; 25 species.&mdash;Fossil forms in
-the Oligocene. Wind-pollinated. <span class="smcap">Uses.</span> As timber
-(<i>Carpinus betulus</i>) and firewood. The fruits of <i>C.
-avellana</i> (ordinary Hazel-nut), <i>C. tubulosa</i> (Lambert’s
-nut) and <i>C. colurna</i> (Turkish Filbert) are edible.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig330" style="width: 229px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig330.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 330.</span>&mdash;Diagrams of the ♂-flower (<i>A</i>)
-of <i>Corylus</i> and the dichasium of the ♀-flowers (<i>B</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig331" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig331.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 331.</span>&mdash;Nut of the Hornbeam with cupule.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Cupuliferæ.</b> Monœcious. The inflorescences make their
-appearance with the leaves, arising in the axils of the leaves of the
-same year. <i>A woody cupule</i> furnished externally with scales or
-spines is <i>common</i>, and surrounds 1-several flowers (the cupule
-in the Corylaceæ never encloses more than a <i>single</i> flower or
-fruit). The ♂-flower has a united perianth, which is, however, 4–6
-partite, and encloses an indefinite number of undivided stamens. The
-♀-flower has a <i>superior, 6-merous</i> perianth (3 + 3, compare Figs.
-<a href="#fig332">332</a> <i>D</i>, <a href="#fig334">334</a>); the gynœceum is formed of 3 (or in <i>Castanea</i>
-4–6) carpels with a corresponding number of stigmas (Figs. <a href="#fig332">332</a>
-<i>D</i>, <i>H</i>; <a href="#fig334">334</a>, <a href="#fig335">335</a>); and the ovary has at the base 3 (-6)
-loculi (Fig. <a href="#fig333">333</a>), each of which has 2 pendulous anatropous ovules; the
-fruit is a one-seeded nut (Figs. <a href="#fig332">332</a> <i>H</i>, <a href="#fig336">336</a>).</p>
-
-<p>The cupule of the Cupuliferæ, according to the opinion of Eichler, is
-formed by united bracteoles, (compare Fig. <a href="#fig333">333</a>, where<span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">[346]</span> the four valves
-in the cupule of Castanea are considered as bracteoles of the lateral
-flowers of the dichasium); according to another view (see Prantl, in
-Engler’s <i>Bot. Jahrb.</i>, viii., 1889), it is a ring-like axial
-outgrowth independent of the bracteoles of the flower, whose scales
-and spines are floral-leaves. The cupule in the Oak only encloses the
-base of the fruit, but in the Eating-chestnut and Beech the fruit is
-completely enclosed, and consequently the cupule must divide into a
-number of valves (generally 4) to allow the fruit to escape. In the
-3-flowered dichasia of <i>Pasania</i>, Sect. Eupasania (Trop. Ind.),
-each individual flower has its own cupule of the same structure and
-development as in <i>Quercus</i>; and, moreover, each group of flowers
-has externally the typical six bracteoles.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig332" style="width: 601px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig332.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 332.</span>&mdash;<i>Castanea vesca</i>: <i>A</i>
-branch with inflorescences; <i>B</i> ♂-flower; <i>C</i> young
-cupule with three ♀-flowers; <i>D</i> ♀-flower; <i>E</i> the same
-in longitudinal section; <i>F</i> cupule with 3 nuts (diminished);
-<i>G</i>, <i>H</i> nuts (<i>G</i> in longitudinal section to show
-embryo).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Castanea</i> (Eating-chestnut, Fig. <a href="#fig332">332</a>). The catkins are erect<span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">[347]</span>
-(<i>A</i>), cylindrical, with the ♀ at the base and the ♂ at the
-top, or some are entirely ♂ and <i>composed of small dichasia</i>.
-The <i>cupule</i> (<i>C</i>, <i>F</i>) is 4-<i>valved</i>, provided
-with spines, and entirely envelops the 3 <i>nuts</i>; it is already
-developed at the time of flowering.&mdash;<span class="smaller">♂-flowers are most frequently
-borne in 7-flowered dichasia, and have a well developed perianth, most
-frequently consisting of 6 leaves in two whorls (Fig. <a href="#fig332">332</a> <i>B</i>),
-and a large number of stamens. ♀-flowers are most frequently borne in
-3-flowered dichasia (Figs. <a href="#fig332">332</a> <i>C</i>, <a href="#fig333">333</a>); the letters in Fig.
-<a href="#fig333">333</a> indicate the older theory, according to which the 4 bracteoles
-(α′-β′) of the two lateral flowers are thick and united into a single
-4-valved, <i>woody cupule</i>, which surrounds the 3 nuts, and is
-furnished externally with spines; the spines are well developed
-hair-structures.&mdash;6 carpels in two whorls.&mdash;The leaves in the vertical
-shoots have a divergence of 2/5, 3/8, 5/13; on the horizontal
-shoots they are alternate. The cotyledons remain underground on
-germination.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig333" style="width: 300px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig333.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 333.</span>&mdash;Diagram of the cupule of
-<i>Castanea</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig334" style="width: 315px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig334.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 334.</span>&mdash;Female flower of <i>Fagus</i> (mag.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Fagus</i> (Beech). The ♂-catkins are pendulous, capitate; the
-♂-flowers have an obliquely bell-shaped, fringed perianth, with 6–20
-stamens. ♀-catkins erect, 2-flowered, borne singly in the axil of
-foliage-leaves of the same year; the ♀-flower has a gynœceum formed of
-3 carpels, bearing an epigynous, 6-leaved perianth (Fig. <a href="#fig334">334</a>). In this
-genus <i>the dichasium has only 2 flowers</i>, the central one being
-suppressed. <i>The cupule contains</i>, therefore, only 2 triangular
-nuts (“mast”). <span class="smaller">All the shoots have the leaves arranged in two rows;
-the rows are on the underside, being only about 90° distant from each
-other; the buds on the other hand approach each other towards the upper
-side. The bud-scales are stipules without laminæ; in vernation the
-laminæ are folded along the lateral ribs, the upper lateral portion
-being the largest (as in Hornbeam and Chestnut). The cotyledons are
-folded, and at germination are aerial, large, and reniform. 4 species
-(Europe, Japan, N. Am.)&mdash;<i>Nothofagus</i> (S. Am., New Zealand, S.
-Austr.)</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Quercus</i> (Oak, Fig. <a href="#fig335">335</a>). Catkins simple. ♂-catkins long,
-thin, <i>pendulous</i>, few-flowered. ♀-catkins erect; the cupule is
-<i>cup-like</i>, <i>entire</i>, and encloses only the base of the
-solitary nut (“acorn”).&mdash;<span class="smaller">The ♂-flower has a similar construction
-to that of the Chestnut. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">[348]</span> ♀-catkin has not more than 5 flowers
-(single-flowered dichasia, in which <i>only the central flower is
-developed</i>). The scales on the cupules are no doubt leaf-structures
-in this case also. According to another theory, the scales are
-hair-structures; they arise on the internal face of the young cupule
-apparently in descending, but really in ascending order. The rim of
-the cupule gradually expands. In the ♀-flower (Fig. <a href="#fig335">335</a>) the
-loculi of the gynœceum, together with the ovules, are not developed
-until <i>after</i> pollination.&mdash;The leaves in all cases have a
-divergence of 2/5; the lowermost leaves on the shoots are reduced
-to stipules which serve as the bud-scales (5 rows). The laminæ are
-conduplicate, as in <i>Corylus</i>, and the external side is the
-broadest. The cotyledons are fleshy and remain underground. 200
-species.&mdash;<i>Pasania</i> (100 species).</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig335" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig335.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 335.</span>&mdash;<i>Quercus</i>: <i>A</i>
-♀-flower in its cupule (mag.); <i>B</i> longitudinal section
-through <i>A</i>, showing cupule, perianth, and inferior ovary.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig336" style="width: 225px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig336.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 336.</span>&mdash;Fruit of <i>Quercus</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="smaller">368 species, in temperate climates, especially in Europe and N.
-America. Authenticated forests have been found in the Oligocene.
-The Beech has one species, <i>Fagus sylvatica</i>, in Europe; it is
-a most important forest tree (in Denmark the most important) and
-reaches its most northern limit near Alvesund in Norway (60° N.L.),
-its northern boundary line passing from Alvesund in a zig-zag line
-through Ludwigsort, south of Königsberg, in Prussia, towards the
-Crimea. According to Steenstrup and Vaupell, the Beech did not make
-its appearance in Denmark until a comparatively recent time, the Oak
-then being partially supplanted. Other species of Beech are found
-in N. America and Japan. Several species of <i>Nothofagus</i> occur
-in the South West of S. America, and in the colder regions of the
-southern hemisphere. The Oaks grow especially in temperate regions,
-<i>e.g.</i> in Western Asia, N. America, and the mountains of Mexico.
-Evergreen species are found in Tropical Asia, Himalaya, Japan and
-the Mediterranean region. In this country there is one species of
-Oak (<i>Q. robur</i>), of which there are three varieties (<i>Q.
-pedunculata, intermedia, sessiliflora</i>). The Eating-chestnut is
-found in the South of Europe, but is cultivated in the midland and
-southern counties of England.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Uses.</span> The wood of these
-trees is very useful as timber. The wood of <i>Q. tinctoria</i> has
-a yellow colouring matter (Quercitron-wood). The bark of the Oak
-contains a large quantity of tannic acid, and is used for tanning; for
-this purpose also the cupules of <i>Q. vallonea</i>, <i>ægilops</i>,
-<i>græca</i>, and others from the Eastern Mediterranean, are used under
-the name of “Valloons.” The Cork-oak (<i>Q. suber</i>; S.W. Europe) is
-the most important tree from which cork is obtained,</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">[349]</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smaller">its bark being very largely developed and stripped for cork.
-Gall-nuts are found on many species; those of <i>Q. lusitanica</i>,
-var. <i>infectoria</i> (Eastern Mediterranean) are officinal, and
-likewise the fruits (acorns) and the bark of <i>Quercus pedunculata</i>
-and <i>sessiliflora</i>. Oil is obtained from the Beech “mast.” The
-nuts of the Chestnut tree are edible.</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 4. <b>Juglandifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>This family resembles the Quercifloræ in the catkin-like
-inflorescences, the imperfect, <i>unisexual</i> flowers, the epigynous
-perianth and the woody shoots with scattered leaves, etc., though
-it is in other respects very dissimilar; one point of difference
-is the presence of <i>aromatic</i> compounds, but a more important
-divergence is found in the structure of the gynœceum, which is formed
-of two carpels with <i>one loculus</i> and has one <i>basal</i>,
-<i>orthotropous and erect</i> ovule, which, as in the Quercifloræ, does
-not become developed until after pollination; the fruit too is very
-different, being generally a <i>drupe</i>. <i>Endosperm absent.</i></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig337" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig337.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 337.</span>&mdash;<i>Juglans regia</i>: <i>A</i>
-♂-flower seen from below with bract (cover-scale) (<i>b</i>),
-bracteoles (α and β), perianth-leaves (<i>p</i>); <i>B</i> the same
-from the front; <i>C</i> lateral view of the same; <i>D</i> diagram
-of <i>A</i>; <i>E</i> ♀-flower with bract, the bracteoles are united
-with the ovary, their edge being visible as an indented line below the
-perianth; <i>F</i> 2 ♀-flowers at the end of a foliage-shoot; <i>G</i>
-fruit (without the fleshy covering) in longitudinal section; <i>H</i>
-transverse section of the same.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Juglandaceæ (Walnuts).</b> Leaves <i>scattered</i>,
-<i>imparipinnate</i>, rich in <i>aromatic</i> compounds. <i>Stipules
-absent.</i> Flowers unisexual. <i>Monœcious.</i> The ♂-catkins
-are lateral, generally on naked branches of the previous year,
-cylindrical, pendulous, many-flowered; the two bracteoles and the
-2–4-leaved perianth of the ♂-flower unite with the subtending bract;
-the ♂-flower has indefinite stamens (6–20 in <i>Juglans</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig337">337</a>
-<i>A-D</i>). The ♀-catkins are terminal, generally on branches of
-the same year, few-flowered (Fig. <a href="#fig337">337</a> <i>F</i>); the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">[350]</span> ♀-flowers have
-a <i>superior</i>, 4-leaved perianth, a bicarpellate gynœceum, two
-styles with stigmas on the internal surface. The ovary, bracteoles and
-bract all unite together (Fig. <a href="#fig337">337</a> <i>E</i>). The fruit is generally a
-green or black <i>drupe</i>,<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> whose flesh (outer soft portion) in
-<i>Carya</i> and <i>Juglans</i> ruptures more or less irregularly, and
-frees the stone (“Walnut”).&mdash;<span class="smaller">The stone in <i>Juglans</i> is divided
-internally by one true (Fig. <a href="#fig337">337</a> <i>H</i>) and by several false, low
-partition walls into several <i>incomplete</i> compartments, so that
-the two large <i>cotyledons</i> become lobed and incised to fit like
-a cast into the irregularities of the inner surface of the stone; the
-embryo is exendospermous and covered with a thin testa.&mdash;<span class="smcap">The leaf
-scars</span> are large and cordate with 3 groups of vascular bundles.
-The <span class="allsmcap">PITH</span> in <i>Juglans</i> and <i>Pterocarya</i> is divided
-into chambers. The stone ruptures, on germination, along the dorsal
-suture into 2 valves; the cotyledons remain underground. In <i>Juglans
-regia</i> a long row of accessory buds is found on the lowest
-internode (epicotyl) above the axils of the cotyledons. <i>Pollination
-by the wind.</i> Both protogynous and protandrous examples of
-<i>Juglans regia</i> occur.&mdash;33 species, mostly in temperate North
-America.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Uses.</span> Walnuts are obtained from <i>J. nigra</i> and
-<i>regia</i>; Hickory from North American species of <i>Carya</i>. The
-oil-containing seeds of several species are edible. <i>Pterocarya</i>
-and others are cultivated as ornamental plants.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig338" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig338.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 338.</span>&mdash;<i>Myrica gale</i>: <i>a</i> young
-fruit; × the bracteoles with numerous glands; <i>b</i> longitudinal
-section of fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Myricaceæ</b>. To this order belong shrubs or trees which
-have penninerved, simple, at most lobed or pinnatifid leaves, with or
-without stipules, and with yellow, aromatic, resin glands (Fig. <a href="#fig338">338</a>
-<i>a</i>). The flowers, situated in catkin-like spikes, are unisexual
-and <i>naked</i>, and supported by scale-like floral-leaves. ♂-flower:
-4–6 (–16) stamens with short filaments; ♀: generally situated singly.
-The gynœceum has a short style with 2 long stigmas, and unites with
-the bracteoles, which form wing-like outgrowths on the ripe drupe as
-in <i>Pterocarya</i> in the Juglandaceæ (Fig. <a href="#fig338">338</a>). Cotyledons fleshy
-(Fig. <a href="#fig338">338</a> <i>b</i>).&mdash;<i>Myrica</i>; <i>Comptonia</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">[351]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>40 species; Temperate.&mdash;<i>Myrica gale</i> (Sweet-gale,
-Bog-myrtle) has been used in the preparation of beer
-(Sweet-willow beer) on account of its resinous essential oil.
-<i>M. cerifera</i> (N. America) and species from the Cape, <i>M.
-quercifolia</i> and others, form wax on the fruit which is used
-in the preparation of candles.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 5. <b>Urticifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flowers are regular, <i>hypogynous</i>, nearly always
-unisexual, <i>small</i> and insignificant, with <i>single</i>,
-green perianth of 4–5 leaves. Stamens 4–5, <i>placed opposite</i>
-the leaves of the perianth. Ovary formed of 1 or 2 carpels, most
-frequently <i>unilocular</i>, with one ovule (Fig. <a href="#fig340">340</a>). The fruit
-is a <i>nut</i>, more rarely a drupe, with one seed, <i>generally
-endospermous</i>. <span class="smaller">The Nettles are the sole order in the family
-which has only one carpel (1 stigma); this turns the posterior side
-to the front (Fig. <a href="#fig340">340</a>). The others have two carpels (2 stigmas) but
-the anterior only is fertile (Fig. <a href="#fig346">346</a>) except in a few Ulmaceæ and
-Moraceæ.</span></p>
-
-<p>The majority are trees or shrubs with petiolated leaves,
-<i>stipulate</i>; <i>rough hairs</i> are very frequently developed
-upon the leaves. The flowers are very often crowded together in the
-inflorescence, which is rarely catkin-like. Peculiar aggregations of
-fruits are found in some orders. <i>Latex</i> and tough <i>bast</i>,
-which is used technically, are also frequently found. Cystoliths are
-found in the epidermis of many species of <i>Ficus</i>, <i>Urtica</i>,
-and others. <span class="smaller"><i>Wind-</i> or <i>self-pollination</i> is most common,
-as in the Quercifloræ and Juglandifloræ.</span> In <span class="smaller">the Urticaceæ,
-<i>Morus</i> and some others, the stamens lie incurved in the bud, and
-when ripe straighten themselves suddenly and elastically, and thus
-small clouds of pollen-grains are ejected with considerable violence on
-to the stigmas, which are often provided with brush-like hairs (Fig.
-<a href="#fig341">341</a>). The formation of honey does not take place.</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Ulmaceæ</b> (<b>Elms</b>).&mdash;Trees or shrubs without latex.
-Leaves simple, arranged in two rows (divergence 1/2), oblique (the
-inner side, nearer the axis, being the larger), strongly penninerved,
-dentate, hispid; stipules deciduous. In opposition to the other
-Nettle-like plants the flowers are often ☿ with a united cup- or
-saucer-like, generally 4–(5)–6-divided perianth, and a corresponding
-or larger number of opposite <i>erect</i> stamens. The gynœceum has
-two carpels (2 stigmas), generally one loculus with one pendulous,
-anatropous or amphitropous ovule,<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> seldom two loculi and 2 ovules.
-Fruit one-seeded (nut or drupe). Embryo without endosperm.</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Ulmeæ.</span> The fruit is a <i>winged nut</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig339">339</a>),
-the embryo straight, without endosperm. Anthers extrorse.&mdash;<i>Ulmus</i>
-(Elm).<span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">[352]</span> The flowers are situated in inflorescences which develop from
-the lower buds of the shoot of the preceding year. <span class="smaller">The lowermost
-bud-scales are empty, the uppermost support either solitary flowers,
-or small, dichasial or unipared scorpioid inflorescences. The terminal
-bud on the vegetative shoot quickly falls off, and the upper lateral
-bud continues the growth sympodially. Flowering takes place before the
-leaf-buds open. The flowers are wind-pollinated and have no honey.
-Fossil species have been found in the Oligocene.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>20 species; North Temp. (2 species in this country). Important
-as timber. The Cork-elm (<i>U. suberosa</i>) has a rather thick
-cork, which, however, is of no technical use. The bast is used
-as Lime-bast.</p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Celtideæ.</span> The fruit is a drupe, the embryo
-curved, with folded or rolled up cotyledons, with or without
-endosperm. The anthers are introrse. The flowers are borne
-on a shoot of the same year. <i>Planera</i> (N. America);
-<i>Zelkova</i>.&mdash;About 114 species; especially N. Temp., Trop.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig339" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig339.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 339.</span>&mdash;<i>A Ulmus campestris</i>,
-flower with exceptionally aborted gynœceum; <i>B</i>, <i>U. effusa</i>,
-flower with 8 stamens; <i>C</i>, <i>U. campestris</i>, fruit opened
-in front to show the seed pendulous from the apex of the loculus; one
-loculus is aborted.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Urticaceæ</b> (<b>Nettles</b>).&mdash;The majority of
-species are herbs with simple, stipulate leaves; they have <i>no
-latex</i>; <i>stinging hairs</i> abundant. The flowers (Fig. <a href="#fig340">340</a>) are
-<i>unisexual</i>, generally 2-merous and arranged <i>in clusters</i>,
-which are united into catkin-like inflorescences. The perianth is
-composed very often of 4 (2 + 2) free, or in the ♀-flowers generally
-united, green leaves; the 4 (2 + 2) stamens are opposite the
-perianth-leaves, the filaments are <i>bent inwards</i> in the bud
-and throw themselves elastically towards the outside. The gynœceum
-has <i>one style</i> and <i>one stigma</i> (capitate or brush-like,
-Fig. <a href="#fig341">341</a>); the ovary is unilocular, with <i>one orthotropous</i>,
-<i>erect</i> ovule (all other orders of this family have inverted or
-curved ovules). Fruit, a nut or drupe. <i>Endosperm present</i> (in
-<i>Urtica</i> very little), oily. Embryo straight. <span class="smaller">The <span class="allsmcap">STINGING
-HAIRS</span> are club-shaped, very turgid, and provided with a siliceous,
-brittle apex, which breaks off in an oblique direction and allows the
-poisonous cell-sap to be forced out. In many tropical Nettles this is
-so strong that it may produce partial paralysis. There is no rudiment
-of an ovary in the ♂-flowers (Fig. <a href="#fig340">340</a> A). The <span class="allsmcap">PERIANTH</span> in the
-♀-flower differs from that of the ♂ in having the two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">[353]</span> internal leaves
-generally much larger and enveloping the fruit (Fig. <a href="#fig340">340</a> <i>B</i>);
-it often happens that all the perianth-leaves are united to form a
-gamophyllous envelope. ☿-flowers may occur among the others.&mdash;<span class="smcap">The
-inflorescences</span> among our native species are dichasia, which become
-transformed into unilateral scorpioid cymes by the development of the
-bud of the 2nd bracteole. In <i>Parietaria</i> they are more pressed
-together, and the floral-leaves at the same time are also raised on
-their axillary shoots to just beneath the flower. As a rule, not only
-in this order but also in those related to it, a small vegetative
-branch is situated in the axil of the foliage-leaf, and this bears an
-inflorescence on each side at its base.</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Urtica</i> (Nettle) has opposite leaves with distinct stipules and
-stinging hairs. The perianth-leaves of the ♀-flower are free (Fig.
-<a href="#fig340">340</a>).&mdash;<i>Parietaria</i> (Pellitory) has scattered leaves without large
-stipules, and stinging hairs are absent. The ♀-perianth is 4-toothed,
-flask- or bell-shaped.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Pilea</i> is a tropical genus with
-trimerous, zygomorphic ♀-flowers, the posterior perianth-leaf being
-much larger than the two others, and more or less hood shaped.&mdash;The
-flower of <i>Forskohlea</i> is the most reduced; the ♂-flower has only
-one stamen, and the ♀-as well as the ♂-flowers have a one-sided, tongue
-like perianth (?). <i>Pouzolzia.</i></span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig340" style="width: 521px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig340.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 340.</span>&mdash;Diagram of ♂-and ♀-flowers of
-<i>Urtica dioica</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig341" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig341.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 341.</span>&mdash;<i>Parietaria diffusa</i>;
-hermaphrodite flower: <i>a</i> in the female, <i>b</i> at the
-commencement of the male stage; the stigma has fallen off, but the
-anthers have not yet dehisced.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Wind-Pollinated.</span> The pollen is shot out of the anthers,
-when they spring forward, and is caught by long stigmatic hairs.
-<i>Parietaria diffusa</i> is protogynous (Fig. <a href="#fig341">341</a>).</p>
-
-<p>500 species; chiefly in the Tropics, although the few species
-which occur in Europe are represented by a much larger number
-of individuals.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Uses.</span> The bast of the native species
-<i>Urtica dioica</i> and <i>urens</i>, of <i>U. cannabina</i>
-(Siberia), etc.; of <i>Boehmeria nivea</i> “Ramié” and
-“China-grass” (from Sunda Is., China), and others, is used in
-the manufacture of muslin.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Moraceæ</b> (<b>Mulberries</b>). Nearly all trees or
-shrubs, seldom herbs, generally with latex. The leaves are scattered,
-and not infrequently lobed. The flowers are <i>unisexual</i> (monœcious
-or diœcious) and arranged in catkin- or capitulum-like, compound
-inflorescences. Perianth-leaves 2–6, generally 4, with an equal number
-of stamens opposite to them, as in the Nettles. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">[354]</span> ovary is 1–seldom
-2-locular, and has 2 stigmas (it is thus formed from 2 carpels) seldom
-only one style with one stigma. One ovule in each loculus, more or
-less curved, and <i>pendulous</i>; micropyle directed upwards. Fruit
-usually a drupe. The embryo is generally curved inside the <i>fleshy
-endosperm</i>, or it is exendospermous.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig342" style="width: 326px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig342.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 342.</span>&mdash;<i>Morus alba</i> ♂ flower (6/1).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig343" style="width: 316px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig343.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 343.</span>-<i>Morus alba</i> ♀ inflorescence.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig344" style="width: 320px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig344.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 344.</span>&mdash;<i>Morus nigra</i> fruits.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Moreæ.</span> The filaments are incurved in the bud.
-Leaves folded in the bud&mdash;<i>Morus</i> (Mulberry) (Figs. <a href="#fig342">342–344</a>).
-Monœcious. The inflorescences are catkin-like in appearance, but in
-reality composed of many small dichasia. The flowers are similar to
-those of the Nettle, but with 2 carpels: in the ♂ with perianth 2 + 2,
-and stamens 2 + 2 (Fig. <a href="#fig342">342</a>), in the ♀, perianth 2 + 2, and 2 carpels
-in regular alternation. The small drupes are enveloped by <i>the
-perianth, which eventually becomes fleshy</i>, and as all the flowers
-on the axis very accurately fit together, the collection of fruits is
-formed, which we call a Mulberry (Fig. <a href="#fig344">344</a>). The leaves are folded
-in the buds, and have small stipules. <span class="smaller">The following are allied to
-<i>Morus</i>:&mdash;<i>Maclura</i>, <i>Broussonetia</i> (the Paper-mulberry
-tree) which has spheroid ♀ inflorescences (made up of dichasia),
-etc.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Dorstenia</i> presents an interesting transitional form
-to the Fig in its flat, open, and, in some instances, lobed
-inflorescence on which the ♂ and ♀ flowers are sunk in grooves.
-Indications of a somewhat similar structure are found in certain
-Nettles, the sympodial axes of the dichasia becoming flatly
-expanded. The fruits are 1-seeded, but, nevertheless, spring
-open and eject their seeds.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Artocarpeæ.</span> Filaments straight in the bud;
-foliage-leaves with convolute vernation. An interpetiolar leaf-sheath
-(ocrea) formed in the axil of each leaf by the connate stipules, covers
-the younger leaves as a hood. It falls off as the leaf expands, and
-leaves a ring-like scar on the stem.&mdash;<i>Ficus</i> (the Fig). The
-inflorescence (the so-called syconus) has a pear-shaped,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">[355]</span> fleshy, but
-hollow axis, on the interior surface of which the flowers are situated
-(Fig. <a href="#fig345">345</a>). It is a kind of capitulum, with a hollow receptacle,
-whose “involucral” leaves close over the entrance to the interior;
-it is not, however, a simple capitulum, but a coalescence of cymose
-inflorescences. The edible parts are the fleshy stem-portion and
-perianth-leaves. The ♂-flower has a 2–6 divided perianth, 1–2 (–6)
-stamens; the ♀-flower has an oblique ovary. The fruits are drupes,
-with thin flesh.&mdash;<span class="smaller">Many species have aerial roots, and some live
-as epiphytes on trees. <span class="smcap">Pollination</span>, in the edible Fig, is
-effected by a small Gall-wasp (<i>Cynips psenes</i> L.), which lays
-its eggs in the Fig, and hence carries the pollen away. Even in very
-ancient times it was customary to hang infected wild Figs on the
-branches of cultivated ones, so that the young Gall-wasps, as they
-emerged, could immediately effect the pollination (caprification).
-<i>Ficus carica</i>, and other species, have two kinds of ♀-flowers,
-besides the ♂-flowers. One kind has a short style and no stigmatic
-hairs, and it is only in the ovaries of these that the wasps lay their
-eggs (gall-flowers); the other kind has a long style and well-developed
-stigmatic-hairs, but the wasps cannot reach their ovaries&mdash;these are
-“seed-flowers.” There are, moreover, two kinds of plants of <i>Ficus
-carica</i>; ♀-plants, which have only seed-flowers, and bear the edible
-Figs, and ♂-plants (called “Caprificus”), which bear inedible fruits,
-and have ♂-flowers at the upper part of the Fig, but gall-flowers at
-the base. [The Caprificus, at Naples, bears three crops of inedible
-Figs each year, viz. <i>Mamme</i> (April), <i>Profichi</i> (June),
-<i>Mamnoni</i> (August). The ♂-flowers are produced especially in
-June, the first Figs being almost entirely ♀, and the last having but
-few ♂-flowers. Each crop produces a new generation of Fig-wasps. The
-female wasp enters the Figs on the Caprificus, and lays one egg in
-each flower, with the result that the flower developes into a kind of
-gall. The mother-wasp dies within the Fig. The male wasp is wingless;
-it bites a small passage into the ovaries containing the female wasps,
-and impregnates them; the female wasps then escape from the Fig, those
-in the <i>Profichi</i> carrying pollen away with them as they pass
-out. They then enter another Fig, lay their eggs, and die. The edible
-Fig-tree similarly has three crops in the year, <i>Fiori di fico</i>,
-<i>Pedagnuoli</i>, <i>Cimaruoli</i>. The wasps, entering these Figs,
-are unable to lay their eggs in the ovary, but, nevertheless, they
-effect cross-pollination on entering the <i>Pedagnuoli</i>, which bear
-fertile seeds.]</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig345" style="width: 233px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig345.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 345.</span>&mdash;A Fig in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">[356]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The flowers of <i>Brosimum</i> are the most reduced. The
-perianth is wanting, and the ♂-flower has only 1 stamen.
-<i>Cecropia</i> (Trumpet-tree), in S. Am., has its pith divided
-into chambers; these are inhabited by ants, which feed upon
-small food-bodies formed on the swollen base of the petioles.
-The leaves are petiolated, often shield-like, fringed or lobed,
-and sometimes with white felted hairs. They serve as food for
-<i>Bradypus</i> (the Sloth). <i>Sorocea</i>; <i>Castilloa</i>.</p>
-
-<p>About 300 species exclusively in the warmer climates. The
-white Mulberry (<i>M. alba</i>, from China, India, Mongolia)
-is cultivated for the sake of its leaves, which are the
-indispensable food for silkworms. The black Mulberry (<i>M.
-nigra</i>, W. Asia) is cultivated for its fruits, which are
-used for the officinal Mulberry juice. The ordinary Fig-tree
-(<i>Ficus carica</i>) is from the Mediterranean. The fruit
-of the well-known Oriental Sycamore (<i>F. sycomorus</i>) is
-edible. The Bread-fruit tree (<i>Artocarpus incisa</i>) and
-the Jack (<i>A. integrifolia</i>) have their home in the South
-Sea Islands, and are cultivated in tropical countries. The
-Bread-fruit is morphologically the same as the Mulberry. It
-has a very large, spheroid inflorescence, whose floral-leaves
-and perianth become fleshy and united into one nutritious
-mass, together with the axis, which is also fleshy. The milky
-juice of the India-rubber tree (<i>Ficus elastica</i>, East
-Indies, a common house-plant), and of <i>Castilloa elastica</i>
-(Am.) is the raw material of India-rubber. The milky juice of
-<i>Galactodendron utile</i> (Cow-tree, S. Am.) is saccharine and
-nutritious, but in <i>Antiaris toxicaria</i> (the Upas-tree,
-of Java) it is a strong poison. The bast of the Paper-Mulberry
-tree (<i>Br. papyrifera</i>, Eastern Asia); is used in Japan for
-paper. Shellac is obtained from a small, hemipterous insect
-(<i>Coccus lacca</i>), which lives upon <i>Ficus laccifera</i>
-and <i>F. religiosa</i> (the Bo-tree, sacred to Buddha), E.
-India. The wood of <i>Maclura aurantica</i> (Am.) has a yellow
-colour, and is known as yellow Brazilian wood.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Cannabaceæ.</b> The plants which belong to this order
-are <i>aromatic herbs</i>, either annuals or perennials, <i>without
-latex</i>. Leaves <i>palminerved</i>, and more or less divided, hispid,
-and with free, persistent stipules. Flowers always <i>diœcious</i>;
-♂-flowers in panicles, formed of dichasia, passing over into uniparous
-scorpioid cymes. They differ from the Nettles, particularly in the
-5-leaved perianth of the ♂-flower, the 5 stamens (Fig. <a href="#fig346">346–351</a>) with
-filaments <i>erect</i> in the bud, and in the ♀-flower by the small,
-entire, cup-like perianth, which surrounds the base of the ovary (Fig.
-<a href="#fig346">346</a>, p. <a href="#Page_352">352</a>). The ovary has two styles, or one divided into two, with
-two stigmas and a pendulous, curved ovule (Fig. <a href="#fig346">346</a> <i>B</i>, <a href="#fig352">352</a>
-<i>B</i>); the fruit is a nut; the <i>embryo</i> is <i>curved</i>
-(Hemp, Fig. <a href="#fig353">353</a>), or rolled (Hop, Fig. <a href="#fig349">349</a>), <i>without endosperm</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig346" style="width: 511px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig346.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 346.</span>&mdash;Diagram of male and female flowers
-of the Hop and Hemp: <i>b</i> the bract, <i>p</i> the perianth. The
-position of the embryo is indicated.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">[357]</span></p>
-
-<p>Only 2 genera with 3 species (Asiatic), of which two are
-cultivated.&mdash;<i>Humulus lupulus</i> (Hop, Figs. <a href="#fig347">347–349</a>) is a twining,
-perennial plant, twisting to the right, with opposite, palmilobed,
-rough leaves, and large, interpetiolar stipules. The ♀-flowers are
-situated in closely-flowered, cone-like, compound inflorescences, with
-ultimately large, thin, imbricate floral-leaves (Fig. <a href="#fig348">348</a>) which bear
-the yellow, glandular hairs, containing lupulin. <span class="smaller">This inflorescence
-is made up as follows:&mdash;The most external floral-leaves are situated in
-pairs, and are the persistent stipules of a leaf, the blade of which
-has become suppressed, or in any case is rudimentary. Such a pair of
-stipules supports 4 (2–6) flowers in a double uniparous cyme, whose
-central axis does not develope into a flower. The bracts of these
-flowers (bracteoles of the partial inflorescence) become, at maturity,
-very large, spathe-like, and, together with the stipules, produce a
-cone-like appearance.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig347" style="width: 248px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig347.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig348" style="width: 299px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig348.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 347–348.</span>&mdash;<i>Humulus lupulus</i>: 347,
-twining stem; 348, branch with strobiles.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Cannabis sativa</i> (Hemp, Figs. <a href="#fig350">350–353</a>) is an East Indian herb,
-with palmilobed leaves, and differs from the Hop in being annual,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">[358]</span>
-erect, and in having its leaves opposite at the base and scattered
-above. The ♀-inflorescence is not cone-like as in the Hop, but the
-flowers are similar in construction. <span class="smaller">The main difference is to be
-found in the axillary shoot, which was suppressed in the Hop, and is in
-the Hemp developed into a leaf-bearing shoot which on each side bears
-only one ♀-flower, and in the fact that the bracts are not so strongly
-developed.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The “Hops” (the female inflorescences) are used in brewing,
-and medicinally on account of the yellow glands which contain
-lupulin. The Indian variety of <i>Cannabis sativa</i> contains
-an abundance of glandular hairs and resin. The withered
-inflorescences are used in medicine and are officinal. The bast
-of the stems of the Hemp is also used and the fat oil of the
-seeds. In Oriental countries the entire plant is used in the
-preparation of an intoxicating drink (haschisch), the narcotic
-material being found in the glandular hairs.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig349" style="width: 288px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig349.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 349.</span>&mdash;<i>Humulus lupulus</i>: fruit in
-longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig350">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig350.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig351">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig351.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig352">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig352.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig353">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig353.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Figs. 350–353.</span>&mdash;<i>Cannabis sativa</i>: 350,
-♂-plant; 351, ♂-flower; 352, ♀-flower, entire and in longitudinal
-section; 353, fruit in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 6. <b>Polygonifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>This family is on one side closely allied to the <i>Urticaceæ</i>
-by its solitary, <i>basal</i>, <i>vertical</i>, and <i>straight</i>
-ovule, and by the conical ocrea which envelopes the younger leaves
-in the bud, similar characters<span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">[359]</span> being present in the Urticaceæ. On
-the other side it is related to the Curvembryæ. The flowers are
-small, often <i>trimerous</i>, regular and slightly perigynous (<span class="smaller">in
-<i>Chloranthaceæ</i>, if they properly belong to this family, and
-<i>Houttuynia</i>, more or less epigynous</span>). Syncarps are present in
-some Piperaceæ, but the fruit is generally a single fruit, one-seeded
-berry, nut or drupe. The leaves are generally scattered.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Polygonaceæ.</b> The majority are herbaceous plants with
-round, often jointed stems, scattered leaves and <i>ocrea</i>, that
-is a membranous, tubular, ligular or stipular structure <i>inside</i>
-the base of the leaf, which clasps the stem and axillary bud; the
-edges of the lamina are rolled backwards in the bud. The flowers are
-regular, small, generally ☿, slightly perigynous, with inconspicuous,
-simple, green or white perianth of 5–6 free segments; stamens 5–9 (Fig.
-<a href="#fig354">354</a>) sometimes arranged in two series; gynœceum 2–3 carpels, ovary
-<i>unilocular</i> with <i>one basal</i>, <i>straight</i> (orthotropous)
-<i>ovule</i>, 2–3 <i>free styles</i>. The fruit is a 2–3-angular nut;
-the embryo, with mealy endosperm, is straight or curved (Fig. <a href="#fig355">355</a>
-<i>H</i>), often unsymmetrical.&mdash;<span class="smaller">The inflorescences are compound,
-and generally branch from the axils of the bracteoles, so that the last
-partial-inflorescences become coiled, uniparous scorpioid cymes; in
-<i>Polygonum</i> the two bracteoles unite into a membranous tube; in
-<i>Rheum</i> and <i>Rumex</i> there is only one bracteole.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig354" style="width: 622px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig354.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 354.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i> Diagram of <i>Rheum</i>;
-<i>B</i> of <i>Rumex</i>; <i>C</i> of <i>Polygonum fagopyrum</i>;
-<i>D</i> of <i>P. lapathifolium</i>. The ovules are indicated inside
-the ovaries; bracts and bracteoles are not shown.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Rheum</i> (Rhubarb, Fig. <a href="#fig354">354</a> <i>A</i>) has a 6-leaved,
-<i>petaloid</i> perianth (Pn 3 + 3) and 9 stamens (A 3<sup>2</sup> + 3). The
-<i>3-winged</i> nut is <i>not</i> enclosed by the perianth.</p>
-
-<p><i>Rumex</i> (Dock, Fig. <a href="#fig354">354</a> <i>B</i>) has 6 stamens (A 3<sup>2</sup> + 0); the
-perianth is 6-leaved (Pr 3 + 3), green or red, and the triangular nut
-is enveloped by the 3 interior perianth-leaves, which point upwards
-and continue to grow after flowering. These perianth-leaves often have
-warts on their outer surface. <span class="smaller">The following are monœcious: <i>R.
-acetosa</i> and <i>R. acetosella</i>.</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Polygonum</i> (Knot-grass, Figs. <a href="#fig354">354</a> <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>; 355). The
-<i>petaloid</i> perianth is most frequently 5-merous (2/5 spiral); 5–8
-stamens. The nut is triangular (Fig. <a href="#fig354">354</a> <i>C</i>, 355), or lenticular
-(Fig. <a href="#fig354">354</a> <i>D</i>).<span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">[360]</span> <span class="smaller">There are two whorls of stamens, the external
-with introrse, and the internal with extrorse anthers. The gynœceum is
-often bicarpellate (Fig. <a href="#fig354">354</a> <i>D</i>).</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The flowers may be considered as constructed upon the
-monocotyledonous type. <i>Pterostegia</i> has a perfectly
-monocotyledonous flower with 5 trimerous whorls. <i>Rheum</i>
-likewise, but here the external staminal whorl is doubled (Fig.
-<a href="#fig254">254</a> <i>A</i>). <i>Oxyria</i> has a dimerous <i>Rheum</i>-flower
-(4-leaved perianth, 6 stamens, 2 stigmas). <i>Rumex</i> has a
-<i>Rheum</i>-flower with the suppression of the internal whorl
-of stamens (Fig. <a href="#fig354">354</a> <i>B</i>); <i>Emex</i> is a dimerous
-<i>Rumex</i>. <i>Polygonum</i>, to which <i>Coccoloba</i>,
-<i>Muehlenbeckia</i> and others are related, differs from
-<i>Rheum</i> chiefly in having one of the leaves, which in the
-latter takes part in the formation of the perianth, developed
-in this case into a bracteole (so that the perianth is reduced
-to five members), and several or all the stamens in the inner
-whorl become suppressed.&mdash;The perianth in <i>Coccoloba</i> and
-<i>Muehlenbeckia</i> is more or less perigynous and becomes
-fleshy, enclosing the fruit. <i>Muehlenbeckia platyclada</i> has
-flat branches with rudimentary leaves; sometimes branches with
-normal, arrow-shaped leaves are found. <i>Atraphaxis.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig355" style="width: 619px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig355.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 355.</span>&mdash;<i>Polygonum fagopyrum</i>: <i>A</i>
-branch with flower and fruits (nat. size); <i>B</i> flower; <i>C</i>
-the same in longitudinal section; <i>D</i> anterior and posterior view
-of stamen; <i>E</i> gynœceum; <i>F</i> fruit (mag.); <i>G</i> fruit in
-longitudinal section; <i>H</i> transverse section, showing the curved
-cotyledons embedded in the endosperm; <i>I</i> the embryo.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">[361]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> <i>Rumex</i> is wind-pollinated, the
-stigmas are therefore large and brush-like (indicated in
-Fig. <a href="#fig354">354</a> <i>B</i>). <i>Rheum</i> and <i>Polygonum</i> are
-insect-pollinated and have therefore capitate stigmas, etc.;
-honey-glands are situated at the base of the stamens (<i>d</i>,
-in Fig. <a href="#fig354">354</a> <i>C</i>, and <i>n</i> in Fig. <a href="#fig356">356</a>); a few
-small-flowered <i>Polygonum</i> species are self-pollinated;
-Buckwheat (<i>P. fagopyrum</i>) is dimorphic and has long-styled
-and short-styled flowers (Fig. <a href="#fig356">356</a>). <i>Pol. bistorta</i> is
-protandrous and homostyled.</p>
-
-<p>About 750 species, most of which are found in the temperate
-regions of the Northern Hemisphere, some reaching as far as
-the snow line or into the Arctic regions (<i>Oxyria</i>,
-<i>Kœnigia</i>). Trees and shrubs are found in the Tropics:
-<i>Coccoloba</i>, <i>Triplaris</i>. <i>Rheum</i> is Central
-Asiatic.&mdash;The thick rhizomes of <i>R. officinale</i>
-(<i>Rhubarb</i>) are <i>officinal</i>. The rhizomes of the
-ordinarily cultivated species, <i>R. undulatum</i> and
-<i>rhaponticum</i>, are used in veterinary medicine. The
-following are cultivated as culinary plants for the sake
-of their leaves:&mdash;<i>Rumex acetosa</i> (Sorrel), <i>R.
-patientia</i>, <i>R. scutatus</i>, and <i>Rheum undulatum</i>
-(petioles). Several species of <i>Polygonum</i> (<i>P.
-hydropiper</i> and others) have a sharp, pungent taste.
-“Buckwheat” is the mealy fruit of <i>Polygonum fagopyrum</i>
-(Central Asia) and is of value as a farinaceous food. <i>P.
-cuspidatum</i> (<i>P. sieboldi</i>, Japan) is an ornamental
-plant.&mdash;<i>Calligonum</i> in sandy and stony deserts.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig356" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig356.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 356.</span>&mdash;Flower of <i>Polygonum fagopyrum</i>
-in longitudinal section: 1, long-styled; 2, short-styled; <i>a</i> the
-anthers; <i>st</i> the stigmas; <i>n</i> nectary.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Piperaceæ (Peppers).</b> Shrubs or herbs, often with
-nodose, jointed stem; leaves simple, entire, often with curved veins;
-stipules wanting (<i>Peperomia</i>) or intrapetiolar and cap-like,
-often enclosing the terminal buds (<i>Piper</i>). The flowers in the
-group <i>Pipereæ</i> (<i>Piper</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig357">357</a>, and <i>Peperomia</i>) are
-borne in spikes with fleshy axes (<i>club-like</i>), seldom in racemes,
-the outer ones are crowded and are ☿ or unisexual, always small,
-<i>naked</i> and without bracteoles; <span class="smaller">generally stamens 3 + 3, and
-gynœceum 3, but the number of the stamens may be reduced by suppression
-to 2, and the carpels to 1</span>. The flowers are situated in the axils
-of the small, generally shield-like floral-leaves. The ovary is always
-<i>unilocular</i> and has <i>one upright, orthotropous</i> ovule. Fruit
-a berry or drupe. Both endosperm and <i>perisperm</i> are present, the
-latter being especially well developed (Fig. <a href="#fig359">359</a>).</p>
-
-<p><i>Piper</i>; generally shrubs with scattered leaves, and terminal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_362">[362]</span>
-inflorescences which are crowded to one side by the development of the
-highest lateral bud, so that they are situated opposite the leaves
-(Fig. <a href="#fig357">357</a>). Many species have stems with an abnormal anatomical
-structure.&mdash;<i>Peperomia</i>; chiefly succulent herbs, often epiphytes,
-with opposite or verticillate leaves having aqueous tissue on the upper
-side.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig357" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig357.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 357.</span>&mdash;<i>Piper nigrum</i>: branch with
-fruit (½)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The group <i>Saurureæ</i> (considered by some as an order, and
-perhaps representing a more original type) has 3–4 carpels with
-many ovules. <i>Lactoris</i> stands the highest with regular
-3-merous perianth, 3 + 3 stamens and 3 carpels, which are united
-at the base. Fruit a capsule with several seeds. (It has one
-species from the island of Juan Fernandez, and is also placed in
-an order of its own, Lactoridaceæ, allied to the Magnoliaceæ,
-through <i>Drimys</i>).&mdash;<i>Saururus</i> has naked flowers;
-most frequently 6 stamens, and 4 carpels, free or united at
-the base, each with 2-4 orthotropous ovules. Fruit, small
-berries.&mdash;<i>Houttuynia</i>; stamens situated a little upward on
-the ovaries; placentation parietal; capsule many-seeded.</p>
-
-<p>About 1,000 species; entirely tropical, especially from
-South America and East India. They are found chiefly among
-the underwood in damp, shady places; some, which are fleshy
-(<i>Peperomia</i>), live as epiphytes on trees; a few climb by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_363">[363]</span>
-roots.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Uses.</span> Several Piperaceæ are used medicinally
-and for spices on account of their pungent properties and the
-essential oils found in nearly all parts of the plant. The
-following are <i>officinal</i>: “Black-pepper” (the unripe,
-dried fruits) and “White-pepper” (the seeds of the ripe fruits)
-of <i>Piper nigrum</i> (climbing shrub, East Indian); “Cubeb”
-berries of <i>P. cubeba</i> (climbing shrub, Java). “Long-pepper”
-is the unripe inflorescence of <i>P. longum</i>, East India. The
-leaves of <i>P. angustifolia</i> (Matico) are officinal. The
-leaves of the Betelpepper (East India) are used together with
-the nuts of the Areca-palm to form the well-known East Indian
-intoxicating compound “Betel.” A good many others are also used.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig358" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig358.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 358.</span>&mdash;<i>Piper nigrum</i> (Diagram). In
-addition to the bract there are two structures resembling bracteoles.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig359" style="width: 276px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig359.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 359.</span>&mdash;<i>Piper nigrum</i>: Fruit in
-longitudinal section, showing the endosperm, perisperm, and pericarp.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Chloranthaceæ.</b> (<i>Chloranthus</i>,
-<i>Hedyosmum</i>) have opposite leaves, with stipules more
-or less united at the base, and inferior “drupes.” Ovules
-pendulous. Only endosperm. About 33 species, Tropical.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 7. <b>Curvembryæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The plants in this family have a <i>curved ovule</i>, and most
-frequently a <i>kidney-shaped seed</i> (generally provided with fine,
-cuticular, projecting warts, Fig. <a href="#fig362">362</a> <i>B</i>), with a <i>curved,
-peripheral embryo enclosing the endosperm which is most frequently
-floury</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig362">362</a> <i>C</i>, <a href="#fig365">365</a> <i>H</i>; for exceptions, see Fig.
-<a href="#fig366">366</a>); the seeds in all cases are borne on a <i>centrally-placed</i>,
-and in most cases <i>free</i>, placenta (they are “basal” when there
-is only 1 ovule in the ovary, Fig. <a href="#fig364">364</a>). The flower is regular,
-hypogynous or perigynous (Fig. <a href="#fig364">364</a>) (only rarely epigynous) and
-usually 5-<i>merous</i>. The flower which is most complete has 5
-whorls (S5, P5, A5+5, G2-3–5), as in some genera of the Caryophyllaceæ
-(Figs. <a href="#fig360">360</a>, <a href="#fig361">361</a>); but from this type it becomes reduced, the petals
-and stamens being suppressed, so that finally 5 perianth-leaves,
-5 stamens (opposite the perianth-leaves), and 2 carpels (Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a>
-<i>F</i>) only are present; for example,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_364">[364]</span> in certain genera of the
-<i>Caryophyllaceæ</i>, in the <i>Chenopodiaceæ</i>, <i>Amarantaceæ</i>,
-and others. When the number of stamens is increased to more than 5
-in the whorl, it is always possible to show that some of the stamens
-have been divided. The number of the carpels and ovules also becomes
-reduced; in the highest there is a central placenta, not free in its
-early stages, with a large number of ovules; in those which are most
-reduced there is only a single ovule, which is placed centrally at
-the base of the ovary [Fig. <a href="#fig364">364</a>]. Somewhat corresponding changes are
-found in the fruit, which is a many-seeded <i>capsule</i> in those
-which have many ovules, but a one-seeded <i>nut</i> where there
-is one ovule. In the most reduced forms the flowers are generally
-unisexual.&mdash;Similar features are also present in the vegetative parts.
-Almost all the species are herbaceous, the leaves are simple and most
-frequently without stipules. <span class="smaller">The structure of the stem, especially
-in Chenopodiaceæ, Amarantaceæ, Nyctaginiaceæ and others, often differs
-from that of the ordinary Dicotyledon. In the woody portion of the stem
-and root several rings are sometimes formed which resemble annual rings
-but which are formed by new cambium-rings arising outside the old ones
-which then cease to divide.</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Caryophyllaceæ.</b> Herbaceous plants, with round, nodose
-stem; leaves <i>opposite</i>, slightly amplexicaul, simple, with
-sessile, undivided, entire lamina; stipules nearly always absent;
-the inflorescences are <i>dichasia</i> passing over into unipared
-scorpioid cymes. The flowers are regular, ☿ or unisexual, hypogynous or
-perigynous, 5-(or 4-) merous with 2–3–4–5 carpels; calyx persistent;
-corolla polypetalous. The ovary is unilocular (or originally, and
-sometimes also in the later stages, plurilocular below, <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Viscaria</i>), with <i>free styles</i> and 1–several curved ovules
-on a <i>central</i>, free placenta. The fruit is a nut or a capsule
-opening apically with long or short valves (teeth, Fig. <a href="#fig362">362</a>), equal
-to or double the carpels. For the seeds refer to the family. <span class="smaller">In
-<i>Dianthus</i> the embryo is straight.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The flowers which are most complete have <i>Sn</i>, <i>Pn</i>,
-<i>An</i> + <i>n</i> (obdiplostemonous), <i>Gn</i> where
-<i>n</i> = 5 (Figs. <a href="#fig360">360</a>, <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>A</i>) or 4 (Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>B</i>);
-the carpels may be placed opposite to the sepals (Fig. <a href="#fig360">360</a>) or
-opposite to the petals (Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>). Without
-any change taking place in the position of the other whorls, the
-carpels are next found reduced to 2–3–4 (see the genera); their
-number may easily be recognised by that of the styles. This is
-the construction in the majority of the genera in the two first
-groups. <i>Stellaria media</i> differs considerably. It may
-have (<i>a</i>) the flower as described above, with <i>G3</i>;
-(<i>b</i>), the corolla only absent, or (<i>c</i>) only the
-petal-stamens (A5 + 0, Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>C</i>), or (<i>d</i>) all
-these as well as some of the sepal-stamens. The same applies
-to <i>Sagina</i>, <i>Alsine</i>, <i>Cerastium</i>, and others,
-and, finally, a series of genera are formed, with certain
-conditions<span class="pagenum" id="Page_365">[365]</span> of reduction which have become constant, and by a
-gradual series of steps lead to the most reduced form, which has
-only 5 sepals and 5 (or even as far as only 1) sepal-stamens
-(Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>D</i>, <i>E</i>, <i>F</i>).&mdash;The <span class="allsmcap">PETALS</span>
-in the <i>Alsineæ</i> are often deeply bifid. The sepal-stamens
-are most frequently the longest, and bear nectaries at the base
-(Fig. <a href="#fig363">363</a> <i>st</i>). In the most complete forms the ovary has
-partition-walls in the lower portion (Fig. <a href="#fig360">360</a>); these do not,
-however, reach to the top, and generally soon disappear. The
-ovules, when numerous, are situated on the placenta in as many
-double rows as there are carpels. In the number of ovules a
-reduction from many to 1 takes place (Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a>). A comparison
-proves that the “free, centrally placed” placenta is formed by
-the ventral portion of the carpels. The single basal ovule in
-<i>Herniaria</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig364">364</a>), <i>Scleranthus</i>, and others, is
-also borne on the carpels.</p>
-
-<p>The vegetative <i>branching</i> is characteristic. One of
-the leaves in a pair is formed before the other, and has a
-more vigorous axillary bud; these stronger leaves stand in a
-¼-spiral, the fifth above the first one, and the branches are
-consequently arranged in the same manner. In the inflorescence,
-however, it is the upper or second bracteole (β) whose axillary
-bud (<i>w</i> in Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a>) is most advanced. The bud of the
-first bracteole (α) becomes sometimes entirely suppressed, or in
-some this bracteole itself is suppressed.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig360" style="width: 294px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig360.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 360.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Lychnis</i>: α, β
-bracteoles.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig361" style="width: 700px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig361.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 361.</span>&mdash;<i>A-F</i> Diagrams of flowers of
-the Caryophyllaceæ: <i>A Agrostemma</i>; <i>B Sagina</i>;
-<i>C Stellaria</i>; <i>D Corrigiola</i>; <i>E</i>
-<i>Paronychia</i>; <i>F Herniaria</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The most original type appears to be represented by the Alsineæ.
-From this form on one side the Sileneæ, adapted in a higher
-degree for insect-pollination, are developed, and on the other
-side the Paronychieæ, with various reductions.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Alsineæ, Stitchwort Group.</span> Sepals free, and
-connected with them stellately expanded, slightly unguiculate (white or
-inodorous)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">[366]</span> petals; these, however, often become suppressed (Fig. <a href="#fig363">363</a>).
-The fruit is a capsule.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig362" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig362.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 362.</span>&mdash;<i>Cerastium arvense</i>: <i>A</i>
-fruit; <i>B</i> seed; <i>C</i> section of seed.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>a.</b> As many carpels as sepals (4 or 5). <i>Cerastium</i>
-(Chickweed). The petals are bifid. Capsule cylindrical, frequently
-<i>curved</i> at the top, and opening by 10 teeth (Fig.
-<a href="#fig362">362</a>).&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Malachium</i> differs only in the 5-toothed capsule with
-bifid teeth.</span>&mdash;<i>Spergula</i> (Spurry). The petals are not bifid,
-capsule 5-valved; seeds winged. The leaves are linear, and appear as if
-placed in large numbers in a whorl, a branch being situated in the axil
-of each with leaves placed very close together at its base; <i>stipules
-membranous</i>.&mdash;<span class="smaller">Sagina has Sn, Pn, An + n, or An, Gn, where n = 4
-or 5. The corolla is often wanting.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>b.</b> 3 (rarely 2) carpels (Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>C</i>). <i>Stellaria</i>
-(Stitchwort) has deeply cleft petals. The number of stamens varies
-(see above).&mdash;<i>Arenaria</i> has entire petals. <span class="smaller">(To this
-group belong <i>Alsine</i>, <i>Moehringia</i>, <i>Halianthus</i>,
-or <i>Honckenya</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig363">363</a>), which differ from each other,
-especially in the form of the seed and number of the capsular
-valves.) <i>Spergularia</i> has membranous stipules, as in
-<i>Spergula</i>.&mdash;<i>Holosteum.</i></span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig363" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig363.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 363.</span>&mdash;<i>Arenaria</i> (<i>Halianthus</i>)
-<i>peploides</i>: ♀-(<i>A</i>) and ♂-flower (<i>B</i>, <i>C</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Paronychieæ</span> (Figs. <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>D</i>, <i>E</i>,
-<i>F</i>; <a href="#fig364">364</a>). Small, greenish<span class="pagenum" id="Page_367">[367]</span> plants. The leaves, in the majority,
-are opposite, with <i>membranous stipules</i>. The flowers are most
-frequently arranged in small <i>dichasia</i>; they are small and
-insignificant, perigynous (Fig. <a href="#fig364">364</a>) or hypogynous. The corolla is in
-most cases wanting, and when present is very small; in general the
-calyx-stamens are developed, but the corolla-stamens may be represented
-by small scales (Fig. <a href="#fig364">364</a>). Ovary most frequently with 1 ovule.
-Fruit, a <i>nut</i>, rarely a capsule; it is enclosed by the strongly
-perigynous floral axis (torus).</p>
-
-<p><i>Scleranthus</i> (Knapwell) is perigynous with bell-shaped torus;
-no corolla; corolla-stamens are wanting or rudimentary; some
-calyx-stamens may also be absent.&mdash;<i>Corrigiola</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a>
-<i>D</i>); <i>Illecebrum</i>; <i>Paronychia</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>E</i>);
-<i>Herniaria</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>F</i>, <a href="#fig364">364</a>).</p>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Sileneæ, Pink or Carnation Group.</span> This has a
-<i>gamosepalous</i> calyx and unguiculate, white or red, petals, with
-<i>outgrowths</i> (<i>ligule</i>, <i>corona</i>, <i>paracorolla</i>) at
-the throat of the corolla. These structures are not found in the other
-groups, and are merely outgrowths at the junction of the limb and claw.
-The corolla, stamens and ovary are frequently raised above the calyx,
-upon a lengthened internode (<i>gynophore</i>). The flower has S5, P5,
-A5 + 5; fruit a capsule with many seeds.</p>
-
-<p><b>a.</b> 5-(rarely 3–4) carpellate ovary.&mdash;<i>Lychnis</i> (Campion,
-Fig. <a href="#fig360">360</a>). The corolla is longer than the calyx; corona present. The
-capsule is 10- or 5-toothed, completely 1-chambered or 5-chambered at
-the base,&mdash;the genus has been divided accordingly into several genera:
-<i>Melandrium</i>, <i>Lychnis</i>, <i>Viscaria</i>. <span class="smaller">Some species are
-unisexual by the abortion of stamens or carpels (<i>L. vespertina</i>,
-<i>diurna</i>).</span> <i>Agrostemma</i> (<i>A. githago</i>, Corn-cockle,
-Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>A</i>) has a long-toothed calyx, the teeth exceeding the
-corolla; corona absent; 5-toothed capsule.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig364" style="width: 300px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig364.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 364.</span>&mdash;<i>Herniaria glabra</i>: <i>a<sup>1</sup></i>
-flower; <i>b<sup>1</sup></i> longitudinal section through the flower; <i>c<sup>1</sup></i>
-stigma with two pollen-grains.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>b.</b> Tricarpellate.&mdash;<i>Silene</i> (Catch-fly). Six-toothed
-capsule; corona present in the majority.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Cucubalus</i> has
-berry-like fruits which finally become dry but do not dehisce.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>c.</b> Bicarpellate (2 styles, 4-toothed capsule).&mdash;<i>Dianthus</i>
-(Pink); at the base of the calyx 1–several pairs of floral-leaves are
-situated;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_368">[368]</span> corona absent. The <i>straight embryo</i> is a peculiar
-exception.&mdash;<i>Gypsophila</i> has a campanulate, open calyx, 5-nerved,
-membranous between the nerves; corona absent; the flowers are generally
-small and numerous, in a large, paniculate dichasia.&mdash;<i>Saponaria</i>
-(Soapwort) has corona.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> <i>Alsineæ</i> has ordinary nectaries at
-the base of the calyx-stamens (Fig. <a href="#fig336">336</a>): they are frequently
-protandrous but may often, in the absence of cross-pollination
-(in the less conspicuous species) pollinate themselves.
-Their open flowers are accessible to many kinds of insects
-(particularly flies and bees). <i>Gynodiœcious</i> flowers are
-found in several species, and the ☿-flowers are then generally
-more conspicuous than the ♀-flowers. That the ♀-flowers have
-descended from ☿-flowers is seen by the large staminodes found
-in them (Fig. <a href="#fig363">363</a>). <i>Arenaria peploides</i> is diœcious (Fig.
-<a href="#fig363">363</a>). The <i>Sileneæ</i> are as a rule adapted for pollination
-by insects with long probosces&mdash;especially butterflies,&mdash;and
-they are frequently protandrous, so that at first the
-calyx-stamens open, later on the corolla-stamens, then the
-stigmas expand. The honey is secreted by a ring-like nectary
-round the base of the ovary or by nectaries at the base of
-the stamens. Some only blossom and emit scent at night or in
-the evening (<i>Lychnis vespertina</i>, <i>Silene nutans</i>,
-<i>Saponaria officinalis</i>) and, like other night-flowers, are
-of a white or pale colour.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Distribution.</span> 1,100 species, especially in temperate
-climates, fewer in the colder zone, less still in the Tropics.
-The Paronychieæ are especially found in dry, sandy fields.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> “Soap-root” (with <i>Saponin</i>, forming
-a lather in water) from <i>Saponaria officinalis</i> was
-formerly officinal, and <i>Gypsophila struthium</i>. The seeds
-of <i>Agrostemma githago</i> are said to be poisonous.&mdash;The
-following are ornamental plants: species of Pinks (<i>D.
-caryophyllus</i>, garden Pink, often with double flowers; <i>D.
-barbatus</i>, <i>plumarius</i>, <i>etc.</i>). <i>Lychnis</i>,
-<i>Gypsophila</i>, <i>Silene</i>, <i>Cerastium</i> (<i>C.
-tomentosum</i> as edging for borders), <i>Saponaria
-officinalis</i> (often coronate).&mdash;<i>Spergula arvensis</i> is
-sometimes cultivated.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Amarantaceæ.</b> The flowers are essentially
-the same as in the <i>Chenopodiaceæ</i> and the extremely
-reduced Caryophyllaceæ (Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>F</i>); they are regular,
-hypogynous, generally ☿, have 5 free (rarely slightly united)
-perianth-leaves; in front of these 5 stamens, which <i>are often
-united</i> at their base into a shorter or longer tube and have
-stipule-like teeth between them (the division <i>Gomphreneæ</i>
-has 2-locular anthers, each of which opens longitudinally); and
-a 2–3 carpellate gynœceum with one loculus and most frequently
-one, more rarely several ovules; the fruit is a nut, more
-rarely (in <i>Celosia</i>, <i>Amarantus</i>, <i>Gomphrena</i>)
-a capsule, dehiscing irregularly, or like a pyxidium. The
-characters which especially separate them from the allied orders
-are found in the perianth. The perianth-leaves are not green and
-herbaceous, but <i>membranous, dry, and often coloured</i>; they
-are frequently produced into a bristle or awn; they have also
-both subtending floral-leaves and <i>2 large bracteoles similar
-to the perianth</i>; all these dry leaves persist without
-alteration after the withering of the flower.&mdash;The flowers are
-without scent. They are arranged in spike- or capitulum-like
-inflorescences; sometimes placed singly, sometimes aggregated
-in the panicle-like inflorescences; in others, on the contrary,
-in dichasia. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_369">[369]</span> majority are herbs, some are shrubs. The
-leaves are scattered, or opposite, but always simple and without
-stipules; some are smooth, others hairy.</p>
-
-<p>450 species; especially in the Tropics, principally S. Am. and
-E. Ind.: few are found outside these countries.&mdash;Only a few
-are used; some, chiefly E. Indian species, are cultivated as
-ornamental plants: <i>Amaranthus</i> (Fox-tail); <i>Gomphrena
-globosa</i>; <i>Celosia cristata</i> (Cock’s-comb) remarkable
-for its fasciated inflorescence; <i>Alternanthera</i>. Some are
-employed as culinary plants in the Tropics, and in a few of the
-E. Indian species the seeds are farinaceous, and used for food.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Chenopodiaceæ.</b> Generally herbaceous plants like
-the Caryophyllaceæ, but the leaves are arranged spirally (except
-<i>Salicornia</i>), and are simple, exstipulate; they are generally
-fleshy and like the stem “mealy,” that is, covered with small hairs,
-whose large spherical terminal cell readily falls away; otherwise they
-are seldom hairy. The inflorescences are generally flower-clusters
-borne in panicles. Bracteoles generally absent. Flowers generally
-<i>unisexual</i>: with the single exception of <i>Beta</i> the
-flowers are hypogynous; they are regular, small and inconspicuous,
-with <i>single, green</i>, 5-leaved, but <i>more or less united</i>
-perianth; 5 stamens opposite the perianth, and a <i>2–5-carpellate,
-unilocular</i> ovary with 1 basal, curved ovule; but in some genera the
-number of the perianth-leaves and stamens is reduced to 3–2–1–0. The
-fruit is generally a <i>nut</i>,&mdash;thus this flower and fruit are the
-same as in the reduced Caryophyllaceæ (Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>F</i>). The seed is
-similar to that generally found in the family (for exceptions see the
-genera).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The floral diagram most frequently present is the same as
-in Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>F</i>. There is no indication of corolla or
-of corolla-stamens, which may be supposed to have belonged
-to the plant, but which are now entirely and completely
-suppressed. This order appears to have been an offshoot from
-the Caryophyllaceæ.&mdash;The perianth persists after the withering
-of the flower, and envelopes the nut; it is very variable, and,
-together with the position of the seed, the form of the embryo,
-the sex of the flowers, etc., gives the characters of the genera.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Chenopodieæ</span>, <span class="smcap">Goosefoot Group</span> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig365">365</a>), has ☿ (or polygamous) flowers, with regular 5-parted perianth
-(<i>C</i>); the embryo is ring-like (<i>H</i>). The leaves have the
-ordinary flat forms.&mdash;<i>Chenopodium</i> (Goosefoot). The flower
-is hypogynous, and the fruit (which is compressed) perfectly free;
-Mulberry-like collections of fruits are formed in some species
-(sub-genus <i>Blitum</i>) by the perianth becoming finally fleshy
-and coloured.&mdash;<i>Beta</i> (Beet, Mangold, Fig. <a href="#fig365">365</a>) differs from
-all genera in the perianth, which finally becomes cartilaginous,
-being epigynous (<i>D</i>). Small, most frequently 2–3-flowered
-clusters without bracteoles, situated in a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">[370]</span> long, interrupted
-axis (<i>A</i>, <i>B</i>); the flowers and fruits in each cluster
-are more or less united individually, and fall off together&mdash;they
-are commonly known as seeds (<i>E</i>, <i>F</i>). The seed lies
-horizontally.&mdash;<i>Hablitzia</i> (<i>H. tamnoides</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig365" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig365.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 365.</span>&mdash;<i>Beta vulgaris.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig366" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig366.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 366.</span>&mdash;<i>Salsola soda</i>: embryo.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Salsoleæ</span>, <span class="smcap">Saltwort Group</span>, has cylindrical
-or semi-cylindrical leaves. Perianth as in the preceding group;
-the fruit is most frequently compressed. The two first mentioned
-genera differ from most of the others in the order in having a
-spirally-coiled,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_371">[371]</span> and not a ring-like embryo, so that the endosperm
-is slight or wanting (Fig. <a href="#fig366">366</a>). These plants are sometimes placed
-as a group by themselves, <span class="smcap">Spirolobeæ</span>&mdash;in contradistinction
-to which the others are termed <span class="smcap">Cyclolobeæ</span>.&mdash;<i>Salsola</i>
-(Saltwort); leaves subulate, with spiny tips; the flowers have
-2 spinous bracteoles: during the ripening of the fruit a tough
-leathery wing is developed transversely to the back of the
-perianth.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Chenopodina</i> deviates from <i>Chenopodium</i>
-chiefly in the embryo and want of endosperm.&mdash;<i>Kochia</i> has a
-somewhat similar perianth to <i>Salsola</i>, but a ring-like embryo; it
-differs from the others in being hairy.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Salicornieæ</span>, <span class="smcap">Glasswort Group</span>.
-<i>Salicornia</i> (Glasswort) has a very different appearance. The
-stems are succulent, jointed, and almost leafless; the leaves opposite,
-very small, sheath-like and connate; there is a depression in the axil
-of each leaf, in which a small 3-flowered dichasium without bracteoles
-is sunk; the flowers have a trimerous perianth, 1–2 stamens and 1
-carpel. No endosperm. <i>S. herbacea</i> on clayey beaches.</p>
-
-<p><b>4.</b> <span class="smcap">Atripliceæ.</span> This group has most frequently
-unisexual flowers; the ♂-flower has a 4–5 partite perianth, but the
-♀-flower differs from it. <i>Atriplex</i> is monœcious or polygamous,
-the ♀-flower is naked, but has 2 large, herbaceous bracteoles which
-expand during the ripening of the fruit, and often become warted
-and fringed, enveloping the <i>compressed nut</i>. <span class="smaller">The section
-<i>Dichospermum</i> has two kinds of ♀-flowers, one like those just
-described, the other similar to the <i>Chenopodium</i>-flowers,
-which have been deprived of their stamens, and the fruits of which
-are <i>depressed</i>, not pressed together from the sides; some
-(<i>e.g. A. hortensis</i>) have even three kinds of nuts. All
-the flowers of <i>Atriplex</i>, which present vertical fruits, are
-accessory shoots, which stand beneath the ordinary flower-clusters, a
-rather singular relation.</span>&mdash;<i>Spinacia</i> (Spinach) is diœcious;
-♂-flower: perianth, 4 (-5); stamens, 4 (-5); ♀-flower: tubular,
-2–4-partite perianth, hardening during the ripening of the fruit,
-and uniting with the compressed nut; in <i>S. oleracea</i>, it also
-forms <i>thorns</i>; 4 long stigmas.&mdash;<i>Halimus</i> has the 2 long
-bracteoles almost entirely united and ultimately adhering firmly to the
-fruit.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>5.</b> <span class="smcap">Baselleæ.</span> A somewhat exceptional group
-with more or less perigynous flowers and 2 bracteoles.
-<i>Basella</i>, <i>Boussingaultia</i>, <i>Ullucus</i>. The
-perianth is sepaloid; ovary 1-ovuled. In <i>Basella</i> the
-perianth is fleshy, enveloping the nut, and the cotyledons are
-so rolled together that a tranverse cut divides them in two
-places (as in Spirolobeæ). Herbaceous climbing plants.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> Wind-and self-pollination, as far as
-is known; the insignificant flowers, devoid of honey, appear
-to exclude insect-pollination.&mdash;520 species. Most of them
-are annual (out of 26 native species only 5 are perennial);<span class="pagenum" id="Page_372">[372]</span>
-inhabiting salt-marshes and salt-steppes, and growing as weeds
-(most frequently on garden or field soil containing manure)
-in this country, especially species of <i>Chenopodium</i> and
-<i>Atriplex</i>. The majority are found outside the Tropics,
-and play a very important part, for example, in the Asiatic
-salt-steppes. They grow gregariously in large masses.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> Comparatively few. The only important one is
-<i>Beta vulgaris</i> (from the Mediterranean basin), with its
-different varieties, viz. Beet-root, Cattle-beet or Red-beet,
-Sugar-beet, and others. These are biennial, making in the first
-year a root which acts as a reservoir of reserve material, with
-a rosette of leaves, and in the second year using this material
-in the production of a long stem, leaves and flowers. The
-primary root has been developed by cultivation into a very thick
-and fleshy tap-root; its mode of increase in thickness deviates
-from that of other roots, concentric rings of vascular bundles
-being formed from a cambial ring developed outside the previous
-ring. In this way several rings of vascular bundles separated
-by medullary rays, alternating with rings of parenchyma, may be
-found in the root of a Beet. Besides <i>Beta vulgaris</i>, var.
-<i>hortensis</i> (Beet-root), the following are also cultivated:
-var. <i>cicla</i> (Leaf-beet, “Mangold,” or “Roman Spinach
-”), <i>Spinacia oleracea</i> and <i>Atriplex hortensis</i>
-as Spinach; a form of the latter and of Spinach are grown as
-ornamental plants. The tubers of <i>Ullucus tuberosus</i> are
-used as potatoes; <i>Chenopodium quinoa</i>, in Chili and Peru,
-is an important farinaceous plant. Soda is made from some
-(<i>Salsola kali</i>, <i>Chenopodina maritima</i> and others).
-Aromatic properties are rare: <i>Chenopodium ambrosioides</i>
-and <i>botrys</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Batidaceæ.</b> <i>Batis maritima</i>, a bushy West
-Indian maritime plant.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Phytolaccaceæ.</b> The ☿ (sometimes unisexual),
-regular, sometimes slightly perigynous flowers are inconspicuous
-and have a single sepaloid or coloured 4–5-leaved perianth
-(generally united at the base); stamens either in 1 whorl in
-the spaces between the perianth-leaves or in 1 whorl opposite
-the perianth-leaves, or in 2, one of which alternates with
-these; but the number may be increased by the splitting
-of one or of both the whorls to as many as 10–15–20–25.
-<i>Carpels</i> sometimes only one, sometimes <i>many</i>
-(4–10) placed in a whorl, either free or united into a
-gynœceum with a corresponding number of loculi in the ovary;
-but in all cases <i>each carpel bears only its own style and
-1 ovule</i>. The fruit is a <i>berry</i> (or nut, capsule,
-or schizocarp).&mdash;Mostly herbs or herbaceous shrubs, with
-scattered, simple leaves without stipules (<i>Petiverieæ</i>;
-have stipules). Inflorescences, most frequently <i>racemes</i>
-or spikes, which in some instances are apparently placed
-opposite to a leaf, being displaced by a more vigorous growth
-of the axillary bud. Embryo always bent.&mdash;<i>Petiveria</i> has
-a straight embryo with rolled cotyledons.&mdash;<i>Phytolacca</i>,
-<i>Pircunia</i>, <i>Microtea</i>, <i>Seguieria</i>,
-<i>Rivina</i> (Pr4, A4, G1; berry), and others.</p>
-
-<p>The following plant is, with some doubt, placed near this order:
-<i>Thelygonum cynocrambe</i>; monœcious. ♂-flowers: perianth,
-2-leaved; stamens indefinite. ♀-flowers: perianth-leaves united,
-3-toothed; G1, style gynobasic. Fruit a drupe. An annual plant;
-Mediterranean. Branching anomalous.</p>
-
-<p>About 90 species; in tropical and temperate countries,
-principally America and Africa.&mdash;The red juice in the fruits,
-especially of <i>Phytol. decandra</i>, is used for colouring
-wine.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_373">[373]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Portulacaceæ</b> (<b>Portulacas</b>). The flowers are
-regular (except <i>Montia</i>), hypogynous (except <i>Portulaca</i>)
-and ☿. The diagram which applies to the majority of genera is that
-in Fig. <a href="#fig367">367</a>, but with all the 5 stamens completely developed: it may
-be considered as the Chenopodiaceous diagram with the addition of 2
-<i>bracteoles</i> in the median line (<i>m-n</i>, these by some are
-considered as sepals), and with a petaloid perianth (usually designated
-“corolla”). The “petals” fall off very quickly, and are sometimes
-wanting. Most frequently 5 stamens, situated opposite the “petals,”
-but in other genera the number varies; <i>Montia</i> has only 3
-stamens (by suppression of the two anterior and lateral, Fig. <a href="#fig367">367</a>),
-others again have more than 5, some a large and indefinite number.
-This may be explained partly by the appearance of a second whorl
-of stamens alternating with the first, and partly by the splitting
-(dédoublement) of the stamens. Gynœceum most frequently tricarpellate,
-ovary unilocular with 1–several basal ovules (sometimes on a branched
-placenta, as in certain <i>Caryophyllaceæ</i>). The fruit is a
-<i>capsule</i>, more rarely a nut.&mdash;The majority are annual herbaceous
-plants with scattered, entire leaves, often fleshy and smooth, with or
-without rudimentary stipules (dry, membranous, modified into hairs).
-Inflorescence cymose.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig367" style="width: 319px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig367.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 367.</span>&mdash;<i>Montia.</i></p>
-     <p class="p0 sm center">Diagram of flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Portulaca</i> (Portulaca): flower, epigynous or semi-epigynous;
-fruit, a pyxidium. The stamens vary in number, and are most
-frequently placed in groups (in consequence of splitting) opposite
-the petals.&mdash;<i>Montia</i>: the corolla is slightly gamopetalous,
-but cleft on the posterior side (Fig. <a href="#fig367">367</a>), and as a consequence
-of the larger size of the lateral petals, slightly zygomorphic; 3
-stamens.&mdash;<i>Calandrinia</i>; <i>Talinum</i>; <i>Anacampseros</i>;
-<i>Claytonia</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>125 species; mostly in warm and temperate countries, especially
-the arid parts of S. Am. and the Cape. <i>Montia fontana</i>
-(Blinks) is a native plant. <i>Portulaca oleracea</i> is
-cultivated as a pot-herb in the south of Europe. A few species
-of <i>Portulaca</i> and <i>Calandrinia</i> are ornamental plants.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Nyctaginiaceæ.</b> The characteristic feature of this
-order is the <i>single</i>, regular, <i>united</i>, and often petaloid
-perianth, the lower part of which generally persists after flowering
-and embraces the fruit as a false pericarp. The upper portion is most<span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">[374]</span>
-frequently <i>valvate and folded</i>, or simply valvate in æstivation.
-The number of stamens varies. The free gynœceum is <i>unicarpellate</i>
-and has 1 ovule. The fruit is a <i>nut</i>, but becomes a <i>false
-drupe</i>, since the lower persistent portion of the perianth becomes
-fleshy (as in <i>Neea</i>, where this fleshy part is almost always
-crowned by the upper persistent part of the perianth. In the majority
-of the Mirabileæ the lower part becomes the dry <i>anthocarp</i>,
-while the upper petaloid part falls away after flowering). Finally,
-a peculiar involucre is formed around the flowers by free or united
-floral-leaves.&mdash;The majority are herbs, some are trees (<i>Pisonia</i>,
-etc.); <i>Bougainvillea</i> is a liane. The stems are often nodose and
-swollen at the nodes; the leaves are simple, penninerved, scattered,
-or opposite, without stipules. <span class="smaller">In some, the vascular bundles are
-scattered; stem anomalous.</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Mirabilis</i>; the structure of the stem is abnormal. Dichasial
-branching with continuation from the second bracteole, thus forming
-unipared scorpioid cymes. The perianth is petaloid, funnel-shaped,
-and has a folded and twisted æstivation resembling that of the
-corolla of the <i>Convolvulaceæ</i>; the upper coloured portion
-falls off after the flowering. Outside, and alternating with
-it, is a 5-partite, sepaloid involucre of 5 spirally-placed
-floral-leaves.&mdash;<i>Oxybaphus</i>; the involucre envelops 1–3 dichasial
-flowers.&mdash;<i>Bougainvillea</i>; the involucre is rose-coloured,
-3-leaved, and envelops 3 flowers (placed laterally; the terminal
-flower wanting). The leaves of the involucre in <i>Boerhaavia</i>,
-<i>Pisonia</i>, <i>Neea</i>, and others are reduced to teeth or scales.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>157 species; mostly in tropical countries, and especially S. Am.
-Species of <i>Mirabilis</i> (Am.) are ornamental plants. Theïn
-is found in <i>Neea theïfera</i> Oersted (discovered by Lund in
-Lagoa Santa, Brazil), which may be used as a tea-plant.</p>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Aizoaceæ.</b> Only 3 <i>whorls</i> are found in
-the flower, which <i>alternate</i> with one another when their
-leaves are equal in number. The first is sepaloid, the third one
-the carpels, and the intervening one is either uncleft, in which
-case it is developed as stamens, or it is divided into a large
-number of members which then all become stamens (arranged in
-groups), or the outermost ones become developed as petals. The
-fruit is most frequently a capsule with several loculi. Most of
-the species are herbs with thick, fleshy stems, and exstipulate
-leaves. The structure of the stem is usually anomalous.</p>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Aizoideæ</span> have hypogynous or perigynous
-flowers with (4–) 5 perianth-leaves; stamens single, or
-(by splitting) in groups of 2–3, alternating with the
-perianth-leaves. The gynœceum (with 3–5 carpels) has 3–5 loculi
-in the ovary, and most frequently numerous ovules in each
-loculus, borne on the central placenta formed by the edges
-of the carpels. The fruit is a capsule. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_375">[375]</span> inflorescences
-are dichasia and unipared scorpioid cymes.&mdash;<i>Aizoon</i>,
-<i>Mollugo</i>, <i>Sesuvium</i>, and others are herbs or bushes,
-most frequently hairy.</p>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Mesembrianthemeæ</span> have semi- or
-wholly-epigynous flowers.&mdash;<i>Tetragonia.</i> The perianth is 4
-(more rarely 3–5–6)-merous. Stamens single, or (by splitting)
-in groups alternating with the perianth-leaves. There is an
-indefinite number of carpels, and each loculus of the ovary
-contains <i>only</i> 1 pendulous ovule. Fruit a nut or drupe.
-The flowers arise singly in the leaf-axils, with an accessory
-foliage-bud below them; in some instances there is also an
-accessory flower between this bud and the flower. Southern
-hemisphere, especially at the Cape; <i>T. expansa</i>, New
-Zealand Spinach, is a fleshy plant which is cultivated as a
-pot-herb (Japan, Austr., S. Am.).&mdash;<i>Mesembrianthemum</i>:
-the flowers are 5-merous; the numerous linear petals and the
-still more numerous stamens all arise by the splitting of 5
-or 4 protuberances (primordia) alternating with the sepals.
-The ovary presents another characteristic peculiarity: the
-carpels alternating with the 5–4 stamens form an ovary (with
-several loculi) with the ovules at first borne, as in other
-cases, on the <i>inner</i> corner of the inwardly-turned
-carpels; but during the subsequent development the whole ovary
-is so turned round that the placentæ become parietal and the
-ovules assume, apparently, a position very rarely met with in
-the vegetable kingdom: on the dorsal suture of the carpels.
-Shrubs or under-shrubs, more rarely herbs with fleshy stems and
-simple, entire, more frequently thick or triangular leaves,
-containing a quantity of water. The flowers open about noon,
-and are brightly coloured, generally red or red-violet, but
-odourless. The capsules dehisce in rainy weather. 300 species,
-mostly found at the Cape. Some are ornamental plants. <i>M.
-crystallinum</i> (the Ice-plant) and others are covered with
-peculiar, bladder-like, sparkling hairs, the cell-sap of which
-contains salt&mdash;these serve as reservoirs of water.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 8. <b>Cactifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The position of this family is very doubtful; but it seems in many
-respects to approach <i>Mesembrianthemum</i>. Some botanists place it
-near to the Ribesiaceæ; others, again, to the Passifloraceæ. Only 1
-order.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig368" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig368.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 368.</span>&mdash;<i>A Echinocactus</i>:
-<i>a</i> position of a leaf-lamina; <i>b</i> a lateral shoot on the
-displaced axillary bud. <i>B</i> Pereskia: <i>b</i> a foliage-leaf on
-a small thorny branch which is subtended by a foliage-leaf which has
-fallen off and left a scar(<i>a</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig369" style="width: 308px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig369.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 369.</span>&mdash;<i>Echinopsis.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order <b>Cactaceæ</b> (<b>The Cacti</b>). The flower is epigynous,
-☿, regular, and remarkable for its <i>acyclic</i> structure; there
-are, for instance, a large number of spirally-placed sepals and
-petals, which gradually pass over into one another, and which in
-some species, to a certain extent, arise from the walls of the ovary
-as in <i>Nymphæa</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig383">383</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>). The petals are
-free; rotate, opening widely in <i>Opuntia</i>, <i>Pereskia</i>, and
-<i>Rhipsalis</i>; erect and united at their base into a shorter or
-longer tube in <i>Cereus</i>, <i>Epiphyllum</i>, <i>Mammillaria</i>,
-<i>Echinocactus</i>, <i>Melocactus</i>, and others (Fig. <a href="#fig369">369</a>).
-<i>Stamens numerous</i>, attached to the base of the corolla; gynœceum
-formed of <i>many carpels</i>, with one style, dividing into a number
-of branches corresponding to the number of carpels; the ovary has
-<i>one loculus</i> with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_376">[376]</span> <i>many parietal</i> placentæ; the ovules
-are anatropous, on long and curved funicles. Fruit a berry with
-exendospermous seeds. The fruit-pulp is mainly derived from the
-funicles.&mdash;The external appearance of the Cactaceæ is very peculiar;
-<i>Pereskia</i>, which has thick and fleshy leaves (Fig. <a href="#fig368">368</a>), deviates
-the least; foliage-leaves of the usual form are wanting in the other
-genera, or are usually very small, and quickly fall off and disappear
-(<i>Opuntia</i>), or are modified into thorns; the stem, without normal
-foliage-leaves,&mdash;so characteristic a feature in this order,&mdash;makes
-its appearance after the two normally developed cotyledons. The stems
-are fleshy, perennial, and may finally become woody. In some they are
-elongated, globose, pointed, and more or less dichotomously branched,
-<i>e.g.</i> in several of the <i>Rhipsalis</i> species, which live
-mostly as epiphytes on trees; in others, elongated, branched, globose,
-or, most frequently, more or less angular (prismatic) or grooved
-and provided with wings, and either columnar and erect (as much as
-about 20 metres in height and 1 metre in circumference,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_377">[377]</span> as in <i>C.
-giganteus</i> in New Mexico) or climbing by roots (<i>Cereus</i> and
-<i>Rhipsalis</i>-species); in others again, compressed, more or less
-leaf-like, often with a ridge in the centre (winged), branched and
-jointed: <i>Epiphyllum</i>, <i>Phyllocactus</i>, <i>Opuntia</i>, some
-species of <i>Rhipsalis</i>; others are thick, short, spherical or
-ovoid, unbranched or only slightly branched, and either studded with
-prominent warts (<i>mammillæ</i>) each of which supports a tuft of
-thorns (Fig. <a href="#fig368">368</a> <i>A</i>; <i>Mammillaria</i> and others) or with
-vertical ridges, separated by furrows (rows of mammillæ which have
-coalesced) in <i>Melocactus</i>, <i>Echinocactus</i>, <i>Echinopsis</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig369">369</a>); at the same time the ovary in some is embedded in the stem
-so that leaves or leaf-scars, with tufts of thorns in their axils, may
-be observed on the ovary just as on the stem.&mdash;The flattened shoots of
-the Cactaceæ are formed in various ways, either by the compression of
-cylindrical axes (<i>Opuntia</i>) or, as in <i>Melocactus</i>, etc.,
-from winged stems in which all the wings are suppressed except two.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The thorns are produced directly from the growing points of
-the axillary buds, and are modified leaves. The axillary
-bud is united at its base with its subtending leaf, which
-as a rule is extremely rudimentary; and these together
-form a kind of leaf-cushion, larger in some genera than in
-others. This leaf-cushion attains its highest development in
-<i>Mammillaria</i>, in which it is a large, conical wart (see
-Fig. <a href="#fig368">368</a> <i>A</i>), bearing on its apex the tuft of thorns and
-rudimentary lamina.&mdash;The <i>seedlings</i> have normal cotyledons
-and a fleshy hypocotyl.</p>
-
-<p>All the species (1,000?) are American (one epiphytic species
-of <i>Rhipsalis</i> is indigenous in S. Africa, Mauritius and
-Ceylon), especially from the tropical table-lands (Mexico,
-etc.). Some species, especially those without thorns, as
-<i>Rhipsalis</i>, are epiphytes. <i>Opuntia vulgaris</i>, the
-fruits of which are edible, is naturalized in the Mediterranean.
-The cochineal insect (<i>Coccus cacti</i>) lives on this and
-some closely allied species (<i>O. coccinellifera</i>, etc.),
-particularly in Mexico and the Canary Islands. Several are
-ornamental plants.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 9. <b>Polycarpicæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flowers <i>as a rule are</i> ☿, <i>regular</i> and
-<i>hypogynous</i>; however in some orders they are unisexual,
-<i>e.g.</i> in the Myristicaceæ, or zygomorphic (in Monkshood and
-Larkspur in the Ranunculaceæ); in the Lauraceæ, (Fig. <a href="#fig386">386</a>) for example,
-perigynous, and in <i>Nymphæa</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig383">383</a>) even partially epigynous
-flowers are typical.&mdash;The flowers are acyclic in very many of the
-genera of the two first orders, if not completely so, at any rate in
-the numerous stamens and carpels, thus denoting an old type. It is a
-remarkable characteristic that in the majority of the orders the number
-3 prevails in the calyx and corolla; the number 5 also occurs, but
-the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_378">[378]</span> number 2 is seldom met with. Most orders have a double perianth;
-chorisis does not occur, suppression is rare, and the parts of the
-flower are developed in acropetal succession. The most characteristic
-feature in the order is the <i>free, one-leaved</i>, as a rule
-<i>numerous carpels</i> (apocarpous gynœceum). The number of carpels
-in some of the last mentioned orders dwindles down to 1 (<i>e.g.</i>
-the <i>Berberideæ</i> and <i>Myristicaceæ</i>). The carpels in
-<i>Nymphæaceæ</i> become united into <i>one pistil</i> (syncarpous), a
-condition which we also find distributed among the other orders.</p>
-
-<p><i>Endosperm occurs in almost all</i> the orders (except <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Lauraceæ</i>). The nutritive tissue in <i>Cabombeæ</i> and
-<i>Nymphæeæ</i> is chiefly <i>perisperm</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig370" style="width: 293px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig370.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 370.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Aquilegia
-vulgaris</i>: <i>sp</i> spur. A cyclic flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig371" style="width: 478px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig371.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 371.</span>&mdash;Diagram of a dichasium of
-<i>Ranunculus acer</i>: α<sub>1</sub>, α<sup>1</sup>, and β<sub>1</sub>, β<sup>1</sup>, bracteoles
-(the buds in the axils of the bracteoles, α and α<sup>1</sup>, are continued
-antidromously). The flower has cyclic calyx and corolla, bub acyclic
-(8/21) stamens.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig372" style="width: 290px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig372.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 372.</span>&mdash;Diagram of an acyclic Ranunculaceous
-flower (only 3 stamens are indicated). The spiral of the sepals has a
-divergence of 3/5; that of the corolla and subsequent leaves 3/8.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Ranunculaceæ.</b> Nearly all are <i>herbs</i> (except
-<i>Clematis</i>). The leaves are scattered (except <i>Clematideæ</i>),
-they have a large sheath with broad base (no stipules), and are
-most frequently palminerved with palmate lobes. The flowers are
-hypogynous, with most frequently a well pronounced convex receptacle
-(Figs. <a href="#fig374">374</a> <i>B</i>, 380), ☿, regular (except <i>Delphinium</i> and
-<i>Aconitum</i>); their structure varies very much; in some the leaves
-are verticillate, in others arranged spirally; in others, again,
-both modes of arrangement are found. It is a characteristic feature
-that the various series of leaves (especially calyx and corolla) are
-not so distinct or so sharply divided as is usual. The leaves of the
-perianth are free, imbricate (except <i>Clematideæ</i>); stamens
-<i>numerous</i>, with most frequently extrorse anthers; gynœceum
-<i>free</i>, <i>apocarpous</i> (except <i>Nigella</i> and partly
-<i>Helleborus</i>), with 1 or several ovules (Figs. <a href="#fig373">373</a>, <a href="#fig378">378</a>, <a href="#fig379">379</a>)
-borne on the ventral suture. The fruit is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_379">[379]</span> either a nut or a follicle
-(<i>Actæa</i> has berries). The seed has a <i>large, oil-containing</i>
-endosperm and a small embryo (Fig. <a href="#fig374">374</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The main axis generally terminates in a flower, and the
-lateral axes branch in a cymose manner (Fig. <a href="#fig371">371</a>). The
-flowers show the following differences in construction:
-<span class="allsmcap">VERTICILLATE</span> (<span class="allsmcap">EUCYCLIC</span>), <i>i.e.</i>
-constructed all through of alternating whorls: <i>Aquilegia</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig370">370</a>), <i>Xanthorhiza</i>, and sometimes <i>Eranthis</i>.
-<span class="smcap">Semiverticillate</span> (<span class="allsmcap">HEMICYCLIC</span>) <i>i.e.</i> with
-sepals and petals in alternate whorls, and the others arranged
-spirally: <i>Ranunculus</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig371">371</a>), <i>Myosurus</i>,
-<i>Pæonia</i> and several other genera entirely, or in certain
-species only. <span class="smcap">Spiral-flowered</span> (<span class="allsmcap">ACYCLIC</span>)
-<i>i.e.</i> all the leaves are arranged spirally, so that
-sepals and petals do not alternate the one with the other,
-even though they are the same in number: <i>Adonis</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig372">372</a>), <i>Aconitum</i>, <i>Delphinium</i>-species,
-<i>Nigella</i>-species, <i>Helleborus</i>. The leaves of the
-calyx are in this instance arranged on a spiral of 2/5; those of
-the corolla on 2/5, 3/8, 5/13 or 8/21, and stamens and carpels
-likewise on higher fractions of the same series.</p>
-
-<p>The genera <i>Caltha</i>, <i>Anemone</i>, <i>Thalictrum</i>
-and <i>Clematis</i> have a <i>single perianth</i>, which
-is most frequently petaloid; it is thus apparent that the
-sepals are petaloid, and the leaves, which in other genera
-have developed as petals, are in these instances stamens. The
-calyx is similarly petaloid in the genera <i>Helleborus</i>,
-<i>Eranthis</i>, <i>Nigella</i>, <i>Delphinium</i> and
-<i>Aconitum</i>; but the petals are present in these instances
-in unusual (horn-like) forms, and almost entirely given up to
-the function of nectaries, a function they already possess
-in <i>Ranunculus</i>. According to a more recent theory the
-“honey-leaves” are transformed stamens, which have lost the
-function of reproduction; the perianth is then single, and
-most frequently petaloid. [Those leaves in the flowers of
-many Ranunculaceæ which bear nectaries are termed by Prantl
-honey-leaves, and comprise those leaf-structures of the flower
-whose essential function lies in the production of nectar,
-and which, independent of the differentiation of the perianth
-into calyx and corolla, are derived from the stamens by the
-loss of their reproductive functions. Clear transitional forms
-are found between the two series of the perianth (<i>e.g.</i>
-between the sepaloid and petaloid perianth-leaves of <i>Anemone
-japonica</i>, <i>A. decapetala</i>, <i>Trollius</i>-species)
-while transitional forms are never found between perianth-and
-honey-leaves (with the exception of <i>Aquilegia vulgaris</i>,
-var. <i>stellata</i>). In <i>Anemone</i> and <i>Clematis</i>
-the honey-leaves pass gradually into the stamens, and
-agree with the stamens in the other Ranunculaceæ in their
-arrangement, development, and scant system of veins (except
-<i>Nigella</i>). In <i>Delphinium</i>, sect. <i>Consolida</i>,
-the two honey-leaves placed in front of the unpaired
-perianth-leaf are united into one, as shown by the veins
-(twice three veins arranged symmetrically). The honey-leaves
-of <i>Aquilegia</i>, <i>Callianthemum</i>, and the majority of
-the <i>Ranunculus</i>-species serve by reason of their large
-circumference, as organs of attraction, and on this account
-are considered as petals by other authors.&mdash;The same position
-in the flower which the honey-leaves assume is found occupied
-by staminodes, without nectar, in some <i>Coptis</i>-species,
-in <i>Anemonopsis</i>, <i>Actæa</i> sect. <i>Euactæa</i>,
-(<i>e.g. A. racemosa</i>), <i>Clematis</i> sect.
-<i>Atragene</i>; in the last-named they closely surround the
-stamens, in <i>Actæa</i> they are petaloid.&mdash;A perianth,
-sharply differentiated into calyx and corolla, and destitute
-of honey-leaves, is found in <i>Anemone</i>, sect.
-<i>Knowltonia</i> (Cape),</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_380">[380]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Adonis</i>, <i>Pæonia</i>.&mdash;The perianth of the Ranunculaceæ
-is considered by Prantl to be usually petaloid.&mdash;The nectaries
-arise in the Ranunculaceæ (1) on normal stamens (<i>Clematis</i>
-sect. <i>Viorna</i>), (2) on the honey-leaves (this is generally
-the case), and (3) on the carpels (<i>Caltha</i> and the
-majority of <i>Trollius</i>-species).&mdash;As the result of his
-researches upon the Ranunculaceæ, Prantl does not agree with the
-view advanced by Drude (Schenk, <i>Hand. d. Bot.</i> iii.) that
-the petals in general have proceeded from the metamorphosis of
-the stamens (<i>K</i>)].</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig373" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig373.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 373.</span>&mdash;Ovaries in longitudinal section:
-<i>v</i> the ventral suture; <i>d</i> the dorsal suture: <i>A</i>,
-<i>B Clematis</i>; <i>C Ranunculus</i>; <i>D</i>
-<i>Myosurus</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The most primitive form of fruit is undoubtedly the pod formed
-by one carpel, on the edges of which (along the ventral suture)
-two rows of ovules are situated: Pæonieæ, Helleboreæ, Delphinieæ
-(Fig. <a href="#fig379">379</a>). In a great many genera the number of ovules has
-been limited to <i>one</i> perfect one, which is placed in the
-central plane under the united leaf-edges, and sometimes also
-some barren ovules above it (Fig. <a href="#fig373">373</a>). The fruitlets in this
-case become achenes, and are present in much larger numbers than
-when there are follicles.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig374" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig374.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 374.</span>&mdash;<i>Helleborus niger</i>: <i>A</i>
-flower; <i>B</i> receptacle; <i>pet</i> petals (honey-leaves);
-<i>pi</i> stamens and carpels; <i>C</i> seed; <i>D</i> anther (cross
-section); <i>alb</i> endosperm.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig375" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig375.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 375.</span>&mdash;<i>Caltha palustris</i>: fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The following have <span class="smcap">Follicles</span>: <i>Pæonieæ</i>,
-<i>Helleboreæ</i> (except <i>Actæa</i>) and <i>Delphinieæ</i>;
-<span class="smcap">Achenes</span>: <i>Ranunculeæ</i>, <i>Anemoneæ</i> and
-<i>Clematideæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_381">[381]</span></p>
-
-<p><b>A. Follicles</b> (Figs. <a href="#fig375">375</a>, <a href="#fig379">379</a>), with many ovules, situated
-in two rows along the ventral suture. <span class="smaller"><i>Actæa</i> has berries,
-<i>Nigella</i> has capsules of several loculi.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Pæonieæ, Peony Group.</span> This has regular, acyclic
-flowers with a normal, most frequently 5-leaved, imbricate calyx;
-large, coloured petals, and introrse anthers. Slightly perigynous.
-Surrounding the base of the carpels a ring-like swelling of the
-receptacle (“disc”) is present, which is largest in <i>P. moutan</i>.
-The follicles are more or less fleshy or leathery. Mostly herbs,
-with pinnatisect or decompound leaves and large, solitary flowers; a
-gradual transition may be traced from the foliage-leaves to the petals.
-<i>Pæonia; Hydrastis.</i></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig376" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig376.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 376.</span>&mdash;<i>Aquilegia vulgaris.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig377" style="width: 347px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig377.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 377.</span>&mdash;<i>Caltha palustris</i> (nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig378" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig378.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 378.</span>&mdash;<i>Nigella</i>: <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>
-fruit of <i>N. damascena</i>, entire, and cut transversely. <i>C</i>
-Petal (honey-leaf) of <i>N. arvensis</i>. <i>D</i> Petal of <i>N.
-damascena</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Helleboreæ, Hellebore Group.</span> This has regular
-flowers with most frequently a coloured calyx. The petals
-(honey-leaves) are modified into nectaries; they may be horn-like,
-provided with a spur, or of a similarly unusual form, or they
-may be entirely absent. Anthers often extrorse.&mdash;<i>Trollius</i>
-(Globe-flower<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>). The flower is acyclic: many<span class="pagenum" id="Page_382">[382]</span> petaloid sepals,
-succeeding these, most frequently, several <i>linear</i>,
-dark yellow petals, which bear a naked nectary at the base;
-finally, many stamens and carpels arranged in a spiral (3/8,
-8/21).&mdash;<i>Caltha</i> (Marsh-marigold, Figs. <a href="#fig375">375</a>, <a href="#fig377">377</a>); 5 (-7) yellow
-sepals, no petals. The foliage-leaves have a large amplexicaul
-sheath.&mdash;<i>Helleborous</i> (Hellebore) has pedate leaves. The
-flower is acyclic, with 5 large, regular, <i>persistent</i>, often
-petaloid sepals (2/5); small, <i>horn-like</i> petals (honey-leaves;
-most frequently 13, divergence 8/13) and generally few carpels (Fig.
-<a href="#fig374">374</a>).&mdash;<i>Coptis.</i>&mdash;<i>Isopyrum.</i>&mdash;<i>Eranthis</i> (Winter
-Aconite), like <i>Anemone</i>, has a 3-leaved involucre and most
-frequently trimerous flowers, <span class="smaller">6 large petaloid sepals, 6 petals
-(tubular honey-leaves), 6 oblique rows of stamens, 3–6 carpels</span>.
-<i>Aquilegia</i> (Columbine, Fig. <a href="#fig376">376</a>); the flower is entirely
-cyclic and has large spurs on all the 5 petals (funnel-shaped
-honey-leaves); S5 coloured, P5, A5 × (8–12), G5 in regular alternation
-(Figs. <a href="#fig376">376</a>, <a href="#fig370">370</a>); the innermost stamens are often staminodes (Fig.
-<a href="#fig370">370</a>).&mdash;<i>Nigella</i> (Love-in-the-mist, Fig. <a href="#fig378">378</a>) has 5 sepals and
-8 small, <i>two-lipped</i> petals cleft at the apex (the nectary
-is covered by the under-lip; Fig. <a href="#fig378">378</a> <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>). The 5
-carpels are more or less completely united; and a many-carpellate
-ovary with free styles is formed in some. Large air-chambers in the
-external wall of the ovary are formed in <i>N. damascena</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig378">378</a>).&mdash;<i>Actæa</i> (Baneberry) has coloured sepals, either no petals
-or an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_383">[383]</span> indefinite number, and only 1 carpel. The fruit is a berry (or
-follicle).&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Cimicifuga</i>, <i>Garidella</i>, <i>Xanthorhiza</i>
-(S5, P5, A5 + 5, G5).</span></p>
-
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Delphinieæ, Larkspur Group.</span> Zygomorphic flowers
-with coloured calyx; the 2 posterior petals (honey-leaves) are
-transformed into nectaries, the others are small or absent
-altogether.&mdash;<i>Aconitum</i> (Monkshood); 5 sepals, of which the
-<i>posterior one</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig379">379</a> <i>A</i>) <i>is helmet-shaped</i>; most
-frequently 8 petals (as in Fig. <a href="#fig372">372</a>), of which the two posterior ones
-(honey-leaves) are developed into long-clawed nectaries (Fig. <a href="#fig379">379</a>
-<i>A</i>, <i>k</i>) enveloped by the helmet-like sepal; the others are
-small, or are to some extent suppressed. <span class="smaller">Stamens on a spiral of
-3/8–5/13; generally 3 carpels.</span> Perennial herbs.&mdash;<i>Delphinium</i>
-(Larkspur); very closely allied to <i>Aconitum</i>, but the anterior 4
-petals are most frequently wanting, and the 2 posterior ones have each
-a spur, which is enclosed by the <i>posterior sepal</i>, the latter
-being also provided with <i>a membranous spur</i>. <span class="smaller">Stamens and
-carpels arranged on a spiral of 3/8, 5/13, 8/21. In <i>D. ajacis</i>
-and <i>consolida</i> there is apparently only 1 petal (by the fusion of
-4) and 1 carpel.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig379" style="width: 439px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig379.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 379.</span>&mdash;<i>Aconitum napellus. A</i>
-Flower in longitudinal section, below are the 2 bracteoles; <i>a</i>
-half of helmet-like sepal; <i>b</i> and <i>c</i> other sepals; <i>k</i>
-nectary; <i>f</i> carpels. <i>B</i> Ovary in longitudinal section;
-<i>C</i> the same transversely; <i>d</i> dorsal suture; <i>v</i>
-ventral suture.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>B. Fruit achenes.</b> Many carpels, each with only 1 ascending (Fig.
-<a href="#fig373">373</a> <i>C</i>), or pendulous (Fig. <a href="#fig373">373</a> <i>D</i>), perfect ovule; often
-also rudimentary ovules above it (Fig. <a href="#fig373">373</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>). Fruit
-achenes.</p>
-
-<p><b>4.</b> <span class="smcap">Ranunculeæ, Buttercup Group</span>, has double perianth.
-<i>Myosurus</i> and <i>Adonis</i> have pendulous ovules as in Anemoneæ
-(Fig. <a href="#fig373">373</a> <i>D</i>); <span class="smaller"><i>Ranunculus</i>, with <i>Batrachium</i> and
-<i>Ficaria</i>, erect ovules (Fig. <a href="#fig373">373</a> <i>C</i>) and downwardly-turned
-radicle.</span>&mdash;<i>Ranunculus.</i> Most frequently S5, P5, many
-spirally-placed stamens and carpels (Figs. <a href="#fig371">371</a>, <a href="#fig380">380</a>). The petals
-(honey-leaves) have a nectary at the base, covered by a small scale.
-<span class="smaller"><i>Batrachium</i>, Water Ranunculus, deviates by the achenes being
-transversely wrinkled; dimorphic leaves. <i>Ficaria</i> has 3 sepals
-and 7–8 petals arranged in 2/5–3/8. <i>F. ranunculoides</i> (the only
-species) has tuberous roots, which spring from the base of the axillary
-buds, and together with these, serve as organs of reproduction. The
-embryo has only 1 cotyledon.</span>&mdash;<i>Myosurus</i> (Mouse-tail) has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_384">[384]</span>
-small prolongations from the 5 sepals; 5 narrow petals which bear the
-nectaries near the apex; sometimes only 5 stamens, and an ultimately
-very long receptacle, with numerous spirally-arranged achenes (Fig.
-<a href="#fig381">381</a>).&mdash;<i>Adonis</i> is acyclic (Fig. <a href="#fig372">372</a>); most frequently 5 sepals
-with a divergence of 2/5, 8 petals of 3/8, indefinite stamens and
-carpels of 3/8 or 5/13. The corolla has no nectary.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig380" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig380.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 380.</span>&mdash;Flower of <i>Ranunculus
-sceleratus</i> in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig381" style="width: 438px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig381.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 381.</span>&mdash;<i>Myosurus minimus</i>: <i>c</i>
-cotyledons; <i>m</i> the foliage-leaves; <i>f</i> the floral axis with
-the carpels, and <i>g</i> the same without; <i>y</i> insertion of
-perianth.]</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>5.</b> <span class="smcap">Anemoneæ, Anemone Group</span>, has a single perianth.
-<span class="smaller">(Pendulous ovules (Fig. <a href="#fig373">373</a> <i>D</i>), radicle turned
-upward).</span>&mdash;<i>Anemone</i> has a single, petaloid, most frequently
-5–6-leaved perianth, and beneath the flower most frequently <i>an
-involucre of 3 leaves</i>, placed close together in the form of
-a whorl. In <i>A. nemorosa</i>, <i>ranunculoides</i>, etc., the
-involucral leaves resemble foliage-leaves; in <i>A. hepatica</i> they
-are situated close under the perianth, and resemble sepals, and in
-the sub-genus <i>Pulsatilla</i> they stand between the foliage-leaves
-and floral-leaves. The style of <i>Pulsatilla</i> finally grows out<span class="pagenum" id="Page_385">[385]</span>
-in the form of a feather. <span class="smaller">The main axis of <i>A. hepatica</i> has
-unlimited growth (it is biaxial), and the flowers are borne laterally
-in the axils of the scale-leaves; in the others (uniaxial) the flower
-is terminal, and the rhizome becomes a sympodium after the first
-flowering.</span>&mdash;<i>Thalictrum</i> (Meadow Rue) has no involucre;
-4–5-leaved, greenish perianth. The receptacle is flat. <span class="smaller">The stamens
-are brightly-coloured and have long filaments; 1–5 accessory flowers
-may occur in the leaf-axils of the panicle-like inflorescence.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>6.</b> <span class="smcap">Clematideæ, Clematis Group.</span> This differs from all
-the others in the <i>valvate æstivation</i> of the calyx and its
-opposite leaves. There are 4 (-several) petaloid sepals; petals are
-absent, or linear (<i>Atragene</i>). Ovule 1, pendulous. Achenes, often
-with prolonged, feathery style. The majority of the genera are shrubs,
-and climb by their sensitive, twining leaf-stalks.&mdash;<i>Clematis;
-Atragene.</i></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> The flowers are conspicuous either
-by coloured petals (honey-leaves) (<i>Ranunculus</i>,
-<i>Pæonia</i>) or coloured sepals (<i>Helleborus</i>,
-<i>Anemone</i>, <i>Caltha</i>, etc.), or by both
-(<i>Aquilegia</i>, <i>Delphinium</i>), or by the
-coloured stamens (<i>Thalictrum</i>). Some have no honey
-(<i>Clematis</i>, <i>Anemone</i>, <i>Thalictrum</i>),
-and are generally visited by insects for the sake of
-their pollen. Others have nectaries on the corolla
-(<i>Ranunculus</i>, <i>Trollius</i>, <i>Helleborus</i>,
-<i>Nigella</i>, <i>Aconitum</i>, etc.), more rarely on the
-stamens (<i>Pulsatilla</i>, <i>Clematis</i>-species), or the
-carpels (<i>Caltha</i>), or the calyx (certain species of
-<i>Pæonia</i>). The honey is readily accessible in the flat,
-open flowers, and these flowers also may easily pollinate
-themselves. There is marked protandry where the honey lies
-deeply hidden, as in <i>Aquilegia</i>, <i>Delphinium</i>,
-and <i>Aconitum</i>. <i>Helleborus</i> and some
-<i>Ranunculus</i>-species are protogynous.</p>
-
-<p>About 680 species; especially in northern temperate climates,
-and extending to the Polar and Alpine regions. Only the
-<i>Clematideæ</i> are tropical.</p>
-
-<p>The order has an abundance of <i>acrid</i>, vesicant properties
-(<i>R. acer</i>, <i>sceleratus</i>, etc.), and <i>poisonous</i>
-alkaloids (<i>Helleborus niger</i> is poisonous).
-<span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: <i>Aconitum napellus</i> (aconitine; leaves
-and tuberous roots); the rhizome of <i>Hydrastis canadensis</i>
-from N. Am. (the alkaloid hydrastine). The order, however, is
-best known for its ornamental plants; almost all the genera have
-species which are cultivated for their beauty. Sweet-scented
-flowers are absent.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Nymphæaceæ (Water Lilies).</b> <span class="smcap">Water Plants</span>;
-generally with large, floating leaves, and large solitary flowers;
-sepals 3–5, petals 3–∞, stamens 6–∞, carpels 3–∞. The flower is
-hypogynous, but in the <i>Nymphæeæ</i> different degrees of epigyny
-are found, and from this fact, as well as from the carpels being
-united into one pistil, the family forms a lateral offshoot from the
-Ranunculaceæ, with much greater modification. The seed often has an
-aril, and, in the majority, a farinaceous nutritive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_386">[386]</span> tissue, partly
-endosperm, partly perisperm (Fig. <a href="#fig383">383</a> <i>C</i>). The embryo has 2 thick
-cotyledons and a small hypocotyl; the plumule is well developed, with
-2–4 leaves.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Cabombeæ.</span> 3–4 species (Tropical S. Am.), resembling
-the Water Ranunculus, with two kinds of leaves, the submerged
-being dissected and the aerial peltate. The flowers are
-eucyclic, trimerous, with 2–3 free, epigynous carpels. The
-ovules are situated <i>on the central line</i> of the carpel&mdash;an
-almost unique circumstance. Endosperm and perisperm. <i>Cabomba;
-Brasenia.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">Nelumboneæ.</span> The leaves are <i>peltate</i>, raised on
-long stalks high above the water. Large, <i>hypogynous</i> flowers
-(Fig. <a href="#fig382">382</a>); sepals 4–5; petals numerous; stamens numerous; <i>carpels
-several</i>, <i>distinct</i>. The receptacle is very remarkable, being
-raised above the stamens, and developed into an <i>inverted conical</i>
-body on the apex of which the nut-like fruits are <i>embedded in
-pits</i>. <i>Endosperm is wanting</i>, but the embryo is large and
-has well developed cotyledons.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Nelumbo</i>, 2 species. <i>N.
-lutea</i> (N. Am.); <i>N. speciosa</i> (E. Ind.) was sacred amongst the
-ancient Hindoos and Egyptians, (the Lotus flower); its seeds are used
-as food.</span></p>
-
-<p>3. <span class="smcap">Nymphæeæ, Water Lily Group.</span> The carpels are united into
-<i>one</i>, <i>many-locular ovary</i>, <i>whose numerous ovules are
-situated on the surface of the partition walls</i> (as in the Poppies);
-the stigma is sessile and radiating, the number of rays corresponding
-to the number of carpels (Fig. <a href="#fig383">383</a>). The fruit is a spongy <i>berry</i>
-with many seeds, which have a large perisperm in addition to the
-endosperm (Fig. <a href="#fig383">383</a> <i>C</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig382" style="width: 311px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig382.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 382.</span>&mdash;<i>Nelumbo nucifera</i>: vertical
-section through the receptacle.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Sepals, petals, and stamens often pass gradually over the one into
-the other, the petals becoming narrower by degrees, and bearing
-anthers on each side of the apex, which gradually become larger
-anthers in proportion to the filament, until the perfect stamen is
-developed. The long-stalked leaves are floating, and most frequently
-cordate, elliptical, leathery, with a shiny surface, sometimes (as
-in <i>Victoria regia</i> and <i>Euryale ferox</i>) with strongly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_387">[387]</span>
-projecting thorny ribs on the lower surface. In the intercellular
-passages of the leaves are some peculiar, stellate cells.</p>
-
-<p><i>Nuphar</i> has 5 sepals, and an <i>hypogynous</i> flower. <span class="smaller">The
-petals, which are small, have a nectary on the back; the coloured inner
-side of the sepals functions as petals; the ovate gynœceum is quite
-free.&mdash;<i>N. luteum</i> is a native plant (Yellow Water-Lily), with,
-most frequently, 13 petals and 10–16 loculi in the ovary. The rhizome
-is horizontal, as much as 5–6 cm. in thickness, and bears on its under
-surface a number of roots, which on dying-off leave deep scars; the
-leaves are borne in spiral lines, and the flowers are solitary in
-certain leaf-axils. The construction of the rhizome is very peculiar;
-the vascular bundles are scattered and closed as in a monocotyledonous
-stem.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig383" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig383.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 383.</span>&mdash;<i>Nymphæa</i>: <i>A</i> flower in
-longitudinal section, the most external leaves being removed; <i>B</i>
-fruit; <i>C</i> seed of <i>Nuphar</i> (longitudinal section); the
-perisperm at the base, the endosperm at the top surrounding the embryo.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Nymphæa</i> has 4 sepals, and the flower is more or less
-<i>epigynous</i>. Petals and stamens are inserted at different heights
-on the ovary to just beneath the stigma (Fig. <a href="#fig383">383</a>). <i>Nymphæa
-alba</i> (White Water-Lily). <i>Victoria regia</i> from the Amazon,
-and <i>Euryale ferox</i> from Asia, have entirely epigynous flowers.
-<span class="smaller">The shield-like leaves of <i>Victoria</i> are as much as 2 metres
-in diameter, and the edge is bent up to a height of 5–14 cm.; the
-flowers are 20–40 cm. in diameter, and change in twenty-four hours from
-white to rose-red. A development of heat, as much as 14°C. above the
-temperature of the air, together with a strong formation of carbonic
-acid, has been observed during flowering.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> <i>Nymphæa alba</i> and other species
-of the sub-genus <i>Symphytopleura</i> are self-pollinated;
-the sub-genus <i>Leptopleura</i> is insect-pollinated.
-<i>Nuphar</i> and <i>Victoria</i> can effect self-fertilisation;
-<i>Euryale</i> is self-fertilised, often in entirely closed and
-submerged flowers.&mdash;The dissemination of the seeds in <i>Nuphar
-luteum</i> is effected by the fruit, which rests on the water,
-becoming detached<span class="pagenum" id="Page_388">[388]</span> from its stalk, and dehiscing from the base
-upwards so that the seeds are set free; while in <i>Nymphæa
-alba</i> the spirally-twisted stalk draws the fruit under water,
-and it dehisces by its upper part being thrown off as a hood,
-and the seeds which are enclosed in air-tight sacs rise to the
-surface of the water. In this condition they are able to float
-and can only sink to the bottom when the air has disappeared.</p>
-
-<p>53 species; in fresh water in all parts of the world, but
-especially in the Tropics.&mdash;The rhizomes and seeds of some
-may be used as food; <i>Euryale ferox</i> is even cultivated.
-<i>Nymphæa cœrulea</i> and <i>Lotus</i> were sacred among the
-Egyptians.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Ceratophyllaceæ.</b> About 3 species. Aquatic plants,
-submerged, rootless; leaves cartilaginous, verticillate, dissected
-into repeatedly dichotomous branches which are finely toothed; only
-one of the leaves in a whorl supports a vegetative branch. The flowers
-are <i>monœcious</i>, axillary. Inside the 6–12 perianth-leaves are
-situated in the ♂-flower 10–20 stamens with thick connective, and in
-the ♀-flower a gynœceum formed by one carpel, with one orthotropous and
-pendulous ovule, which has only one integument. Fruit a nut, which,
-in some species, bears on each side a pointed horn, and at the apex
-a similar one, formed by the persistent style.&mdash;The embryo has an
-unusually well developed plumule with several whorls of leaves. The
-plant is rootless throughout its whole life.&mdash;<i>Ceratophyllum</i>
-(Horn-wort).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Annonaceæ.</b> Sepals 3; petals 3+3 (most
-frequently <i>valvate</i>); succeeding these (as in the
-<i>Ranunculaceæ</i>) are <i>numerous acyclic</i> stamens and
-an <i>apocarpous gynœceum</i>; the flowers are hypogynous,
-regular and ☿, generally very large (2–3 cm. in diameter), and
-the leaves of the perianth are more or less fleshy or leathery.
-The majority have syncarps with berry-like fruitlets, but in
-<i>Annona</i> and some others the carpels fuse together into a
-large, head-like fruit&mdash;a kind of composite berry. The seeds
-have <i>ruminate</i> endosperm as in <i>Myristica</i>.&mdash;Trees or
-shrubs with <i>alternate</i>, simple, entire, penninerved leaves
-without stipules. 450 (700?) species; especially tropical. The
-best known are <i>Anona cherimolia</i>, <i>squamosa</i> and
-<i>reticulata</i> (all from America) cultivated on account of
-their large, delicious fruits. Some have acrid and aromatic
-properties (<i>Xylopia</i>, <i>Cananga</i>&mdash;the flowers of the
-latter yield Ylang-ylang); <i>Artabotrys odoratissimus</i>;
-<i>Asimina</i> (N. Am.).</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Magnoliaceæ.</b> Trees or shrubs with scattered,
-often leathery, entire leaves, generally with <i>stipules</i>,
-which (as in <i>Ficus</i>) are rolled together and form a hood
-round the younger internodes above them, and are cast off by
-the unfolding of the next leaf, leaving a ring-like scar. The
-endosperm is <i>not ruminate</i>. Corolla imbricate. Fruit a
-syncarp.</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Magnolieæ.</span> The flowers are borne singly, and
-before opening are enveloped in an ochrea-like spathe which
-corresponds to the stipules of the foliage-leaves. The perianth
-generally consists of 3 trimerous whorls, the external one
-of which is sometimes sepaloid (<i>Liriodendron</i>, and the
-majority of <i>Magnolia</i>species),<span class="pagenum" id="Page_389">[389]</span> sometimes coloured like
-the others; the perianth is sometimes many-seriate. <i>Numerous
-spirally-placed</i> stamens and carpels. The latter are situated
-on the <i>elongated</i>, cylindrical receptacle, and are
-individually more or less united, except in <i>Liriodendron</i>,
-where they are free. This last genus has winged achenes; the
-fruitlets in <i>Magnolia</i> open along the dorsal and ventral
-sutures, and the seeds then hang out, suspended by elastic
-threads formed from the vascular bundles of the funicle and
-raphe; they are red and drupaceous, the external layer of the
-shell being fleshy&mdash;a very rare occurrence.</p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Illicieæ</span> has no stipules. The carpels
-are situated in a whorl on a short receptacle. Follicles,
-one-seeded. The leaves are dotted by glands containing essential
-oil. <i>Illicium; Drimys.</i></p>
-
-<p>70 species; in tropical or temperate climates; none in Europe
-or Africa. They are chiefly used as ornamental plants,
-<i>e.g.</i> the Tulip-tree (<i>Liriodendron tulipifera</i>, N.
-Am.), <i>Magnolia grandiflora</i> (N. Am.), <i>M. yulan</i>
-and <i>fuscata</i> (China), and others. The remains of
-<i>Liriodendron</i> occur as fossils in the Cretaceous and
-Tertiary periods.&mdash;The fruits of <i>Illicium anisatum</i>
-(Star-aniseed from Eastern Asia) are <span class="allsmcap">OFFICINAL</span>. The
-bark of <i>Drimys winteri</i> (S. Am.) is also strongly aromatic.</p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Calycanthaceæ.</b> These are very closely related
-to the Magnoliaceæ, but differ in having <i>perigynous</i>
-flowers with many perianth-leaves, stamens and (about 20)
-carpels in a continuous <i>spiral</i>, seeds <i>almost devoid of
-endosperm</i> with rolled up, leaf-like cotyledons, and leaves
-opposite on a square stem.&mdash;There are some species in N. America
-(<i>Calycanthus florida</i>, <i>occidentalis</i>, etc.) and 1 in
-Japan (<i>Chimonanthus præcox</i>), all strongly aromatic.</p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Monimiaceæ.</b> Aromatic shrubs with opposite
-leaves. Perigynous flowers. The anthers dehisce by valves like
-those of the <i>Lauraceæ</i>, and the Monimiaceæ may thus
-be considered as an apocarpous form of this order. They are
-also closely related to <i>Calycanthaceæ</i>. 150 species,
-tropical.&mdash;<i>Hedycarya, Mollinedia, Monimia.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig384" style="width: 300px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig384.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 384.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Berberis</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig385" style="width: 286px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig385.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 385.</span>&mdash;<i>Berberis</i>: carpel with 2
-stamens.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Berberidaceæ (Barberries).</b>&mdash;The regular, ☿, hypogynous
-flowers are dimerous or trimerous and have regularly alternating
-whorls of free sepals, petals, and stamens and 1 unilocular carpel;
-the corolla and stamens have each 2 whorls, the calyx at least 2. The
-anthers open, as in Lauraceæ, by (2) <i>valves</i>, but are always
-introrse (Fig. <a href="#fig384">384</a>). The pistil has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_390">[390]</span> a large, disc-like, almost
-<i>sessile</i> stigma (Fig. <a href="#fig385">385</a>), and in the ovary <i>several</i> erect
-ovules are placed close to the base of the ventral suture. The fruit is
-most frequently a <i>berry</i>. Seeds endospermous.&mdash;Shrubs or herbs
-with scattered, most frequently compound leaves (without stipules), and
-racemose inflorescences.&mdash;<span class="smaller">They show a relationship to the Lauraceæ
-in the number of the parts of the flower and the dehiscence of the
-anthers.</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Berberis</i> is a shrub; it has sepals 3 + 3, petals 3 + 3, stamens
-3 + 3 (Fig. <a href="#fig384">384</a>). The petals (honey-leaves) bear internally at the base
-2 darkish-yellow nectaries. The filaments are sensitive at the base,
-and suddenly bend inwards if touched at that spot (Fig. <a href="#fig385">385</a>). <span class="smaller">The
-racemes often have a terminal, 5-merous flower; they are borne on
-dwarf-branches. The leaves on the long-branches develope into thorns,
-but the buds in their axils, in the same year as themselves, develope
-as the short-branches with simple foliage-leaves, <i>articulated</i>
-at the base, from which fact some authorities have considered that the
-leaf is compound with a single, terminal leaflet.</span>&mdash;<i>Mahonia</i>
-has imparipinnate leaves. The flower has 3 whorls of sepals.
-Otherwise as in <i>Berberis</i>.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Epimedium</i>; herbs with
-spurred petals; the flowers dimerous; 4–5 whorls of sepals, 2 of
-petals and stamens. Fruit a capsule. <i>Leontice</i>, fruit dry. The
-anthers of <i>Podophyllum</i> dehisce longitudinally.&mdash;<i>Nandina.
-Aceranthus.</i></span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>100 species; North temp., especially Asia: fossils in Tertiary.
-<i>Berberis vulgaris</i> is a native of Europe. This and other
-species, together with <i>Mahonia aquifolium</i> (N. Am.),
-<i>Epimedium alpinum</i>, etc., are cultivated as ornamental
-plants. Several have a yellow colouring matter in the root
-and stem. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: the rhizome of <i>Podophyllum
-peltatum</i> (from N. Am.) yields podophyllin.</p>
-
-<p>Order 9. <b>Menispermaceæ.</b> This order has derived its
-name from the more or less crescent-like fruits and seeds.
-Diœcious. The flowers are 2–3-merous, most frequently as in
-<i>Berberis</i> (S3 + 3, P3 + 3, A3 + 3), with the difference
-that there are 3 <i>free carpels</i>, each with 1 ovule;
-in some genera, however, the number is different. Stamens
-often united into a bundle (as in <i>Myristica</i>); anthers
-dehiscing longitudinally; fruit a drupe.&mdash;The plants (with
-herbaceous or woody stems) belonging to this order are nearly
-all <i>twining</i> or <i>climbing</i> plants, and have
-scattered, palmate or peltate, sometimes lobed leaves without
-stipules. Structure of stem anomalous. <i>Cocculus, Menispermum,
-Cissampelos, Anamirta.</i></p>
-
-<p>150 species; Tropical; very rich in bitter and poisonous
-properties. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: Calumba-root from <i>Jateorhiza
-columba</i> (E. Africa). The following are cultivated as
-ornamental plants:&mdash;<i>Menispermum canadense</i> (N. Am.)
-and <i>M. dahuricum</i> (Asia). The fruits of <i>Anamirta
-cocculus</i> (E. Ind.) are very poisonous (“Grains-of-Paradise”;
-the poisonous matter is picrotoxine).</p>
-
-<p>Order 10. <b>Lardizabalaceæ.</b> This order, by the free,
-apocarpous carpels, belongs to a more primitive type, and by
-the united stamens to a more developed one. <i>Akebia</i>;
-<i>Holbœllia</i>; principally climbing or twining shrubs. About
-7 species in S.E. Asia and S. Am.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_391">[391]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 11. <b>Lauraceæ</b> (<b>True Laurels</b>). Trees or shrubs; the
-leaves, always without stipules, are simple, most frequently scattered,
-lanceolate or elliptical, entire, penninerved, finely reticulate
-(except <i>Cinnamomum</i> with 3–5-veined leaf), leathery and evergreen
-(except, <i>e.g. Cinnamomum</i>); they are frequently studded
-with clear glands containing <i>volatile oil</i>. The flowers are
-borne in panicles and are small and of a greenish or whitish colour.
-They are <i>regular, perigynous</i>, with most frequently a bowl or
-cup-shaped receptacle (Fig. <a href="#fig386">386</a>), usually ☿, and <i>trimerous</i>
-(rarely dimerous) through all (most frequently 6–7) whorls; viz. most
-frequently, perianth 2 whorls, stamens 3–4 and carpels 1 (P3 + 3, A3 +
-3 + 3 + 3, G3) in regular alternation (Fig. <a href="#fig387">387</a>). Each of the 2 or 4
-loculi of the anthers <i>open by an upwardly directed valve</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig386">386</a>); of the stamens, the 2 outermost whorls are generally introrse,
-the others extrorse, or 1–3 whorls are developed as staminodes (Fig.
-<a href="#fig387">387</a> <i>g</i>). The gynœceum has 1 loculus with 1 style and 1 pendulous
-ovule (Fig. <a href="#fig386">386</a>), and may be considered as formed of 3 carpels. The
-fruit is a <i>berry</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig388">388</a>) or <i>drupe</i>, which often is
-surrounded at its base by the persistent receptacle (as an acorn by
-its cupule), which becomes fleshy and sometimes coloured during the
-ripening of the fruit. The embryo has 2 thick cotyledons, but <i>no
-endosperm</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig388">388</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig386" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig386.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 386.</span>&mdash;Flower of the Cinnamon-tree
-(<i>Cinnamomum zeylanicum</i>) (longitudinal section).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig387" style="width: 300px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig387.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 387.</span>&mdash;Typical diagram of the Lauraceæ:
-<i>g</i> staminodes.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig388" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig388.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 388.</span>&mdash;<i>Laurus nobilis</i>: longitudinal
-section of fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The Lauraceæ present affinities with the Polygonaceæ, in which
-there is found perigyny, as well as a similar number of parts
-in the flower and a similar gynœceum, but with erect and
-orthotropous ovule. From their general characters they should
-be classed among the Polycarpicæ, but stand, however, isolated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_392">[392]</span>
-by the <i>syncarpous</i> gynœceum, if it is in reality formed
-by 3 carpels and not by 1 only. <i>Hernandia</i>, which has
-epigynous monœcious flowers, deviates most.&mdash;<i>Cassytha</i>
-is a <i>Cuscuta</i>-like, herbaceous, slightly green parasite
-with twining, almost leafless stems. The flower however agrees
-with the diagram in Fig. <a href="#fig387">387</a>. Some Lauraceæ have curved veins or
-palminerved and lobed leaves (often together with entire ones)
-<i>e.g. Sassafras</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig389" style="width: 206px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig389.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 389.</span>&mdash;<i>Myristica</i>: fruit.]</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig390" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig390.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 390.</span>&mdash;Seed with aril entire and in
-longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>There are 1000 species; especially in the forests of tropical S.
-America and Asia, of which they form the principal part. Only
-<i>Laurus nobilis</i> is found in Europe, and there is little
-doubt that its proper home is in Western Asia. They are rare
-in Africa.&mdash;On account of <i>the volatile oil</i> found in all
-parts of the plant, they are used as <i>spices</i>, <i>e.g.</i>
-the false Cinnamon-tree (<i>Dicypellium caryophyllatum</i>, in
-the Brazils). The <span class="allsmcap">OFFICINAL</span> ones are&mdash;the Cinnamon-tree
-(<i>Cinnamomum zeylanicum</i> from Ceylon, E. India, Eastern
-Asia), which is also cultivated; the Camphor-tree (<i>Cinnamomum
-camphora</i>, Eastern Asia). The Laurel-tree (<i>Laurus
-nobilis</i>, Mediterranean), the berries and leaves of which
-give laurel oil, is medicinal.&mdash;Scented wood for furniture,
-etc., is obtained from <i>Sassafras officinalis</i> (from N.
-Am.). The wood from its roots is officinal. Pichurim “beans” are
-the large cotyledons of <i>Nectandra pichury</i>, whilst the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_393">[393]</span>
-famous “Greenheart” wood of Demarara is the wood of <i>Nectandra
-rodiæi</i>. The pulp and seeds contain a <i>fatty oil</i>.
-The pear-like fruit of <i>Persea gratissima</i> (Mexico, also
-cultivated) is very delicious. <i>Lindera benzoin</i> is a
-garden shrub; <i>Laurus nobilis</i> likewise.</p>
-
-<p>Order 12. <b>Myristicaceæ</b> (<b>Nutmegs</b>). In this order
-there is only 1 genus, <i>Myristica</i>. Trees or shrubs.
-The leaves agree closely with those of the Lauraceæ, with
-which this order has many points in common. The majority of
-the species are aromatic, having in their vegetative parts
-pellucid glands with volatile oils. The flowers are regular,
-diœcious, trimerous, and have a single gamophyllous (cupular or
-campanulate) 3-toothed, fleshy perianth. In the ♂-flowers the
-anthers vary in number (3–15), and they are extrorse and borne
-on a centrally-placed column; in the ♀-flower the gynœceum is
-unilocular, unicarpellary, with 1 ovule. The <span class="allsmcap">FRUIT</span>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig389">389</a>) has the form of a pear; it is a fleshy, yellow
-capsule, which opens along the ventral and dorsal sutures,
-exposing the large seed. This seed has a large, red, irregularly
-branched aril&mdash;the so-called “mace”; the “nutmeg,” on the other
-hand, is the seed itself with the inner thin portion of the
-testa, which has pushed its way irregularly into the endosperm,
-and causes the marbled appearance of the cut seed (Fig. <a href="#fig390">390</a>);
-the external, dark brown, hard, and brittle part of the
-seed-shell is however removed. Mace and nutmeg contain volatile
-and fatty oils in abundance.&mdash;80 species. Tropical. The majority
-are used on account of their aromatic seeds and aril, the most
-important being <i>M. fragrans</i> (<i>moschata</i>), from the
-Moluccas. This is cultivated in special plantations, not only in
-its native home, but in other tropical countries also. Nutmegs
-were known as commodities in Europe in very ancient times
-(<i>e.g.</i> by the Romans), but it was not until the year 1500
-that the tree itself was known. The seed is <span class="allsmcap">OFFICINAL</span>.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 10. <b>Rhœadinæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The plants belonging to this family are almost exclusively herbaceous,
-with scattered, exstipulate leaves. The flowers are eucyclic di- or
-tetramerous, with the calyx and corolla deciduous, <i>hypogynous</i>,
-☿, <i>regular</i>, the gynœceum with 2–several carpels (generally
-2, transversely placed) (Figs. <a href="#fig391">391</a>, <a href="#fig392">392</a>, <a href="#fig393">393</a>, <a href="#fig397">397</a>). The ovary is
-<i>unilocular with parietal placentæ</i>, but in <i>Cruciferæ</i> and a
-few others it becomes bilocular by the development of a <i>false</i>,
-membranous wall between the placentæ. The stigmas in the majority
-of cases are <i>commissural</i>, <i>i.e.</i> they stand above the
-placentæ, and not above the dorsal line of the carpels. The fruit is
-nearly always a <i>capsule</i>, which opens by the middle portions
-of the carpels detaching themselves as valves, bearing no seed,
-whilst the placentæ persist as the seed-bearing frame. Endosperm is
-found in <i>Papaveraceæ</i> and <i>Fumariaceæ</i>, but is absent in
-<i>Cruciferæ</i> and <i>Capparidaceæ</i>.&mdash;<span class="smaller">This family through the
-Papaveraceæ is related to the Polycarpicæ (the Nymphæaceæ), through the
-Capparidaceæ to the Resedaceæ in the next family.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Exceptions to the above are: <i>Eschscholtzia</i>,
-<i>Subularia</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig403">403</a>) and a few<span class="pagenum" id="Page_394">[394]</span> Capparidaceæ, in
-which perigynous flowers are found. A few Papaveraceæ and
-Fumariaceæ have trimerous flowers. In <i>Fumaria</i> and certain
-Cruciferæ, the fruit is a nut. The Fumariaceæ have zygomorphic
-flowers. Trees and shrubs are almost entirely confined to the
-Capparidaceæ, in which order stipules also are found.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Papaveraceæ</b> (<b>Poppies</b>). Herbaceous plants with
-stiff hairs and <i>latex</i>; flowers <i>regular</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig391">391</a>)
-with generally 2 (-3) sepals (which <i>fall off</i> as the flower
-opens), 2 + 2 petals (imbricate and crumpled in the bud) <i>without
-spur, numerous stamens in several alternating whorls</i> (generally
-a multiple of 2); carpels 2–several, united into a unilocular
-gynœceum. Trimerous flowers also occur. Capsule with very numerous
-seeds on the parietal placentæ; embryo small, with large, oleaginous
-<i>endosperm</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig392">392</a>).&mdash;The leaves have no stipules and are
-generally pinnately lobed.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig391" style="width: 418px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig391.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 391.</span>&mdash;A Diagram of the flower of
-<i>Glaucium</i> and the dichasium (which becomes transformed into a
-scorpioid cyme). <i>B Papaver argemone</i>, transverse section
-of the ovary with indication of the position of the stigmas.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig392" style="width: 330px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig392.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 392.</span>&mdash;<i>Papaver somniferum</i>: <i>A</i>
-capsule; <i>st</i> the stigma; <i>v</i> valves; <i>h</i> pores;
-<i>B</i> seed in longitudinal section; <i>alb</i> endosperm; <i>emb</i>
-embryo.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Papaver</i> (Poppy) has large, solitary, terminal flowers; petals
-firmly and irregularly folded in æstivation; gynœceum formed by many
-(4–15) carpels; stigmas velvety, <i>sessile</i> and <i>stellate</i>
-(the rays stand above the placentæ) (Fig. <a href="#fig392">391</a> <i>B</i>). The edges
-of the carpels project deeply into the ovary, but do not meet in the
-centre, so that it remains unilocular. The capsule opens by pores
-placed close beneath the stigma, and formed of small valves alternating
-with the placentæ and the rays of the stigma (Fig. <a href="#fig391">391</a>). <i>P.
-dubium</i>, <i>P. argemone</i>, <i>P. rhœas</i>.&mdash;<i>Chelidonium</i>
-(Greater Celandine) has <i>yellow</i> latex, flowers in umbellate
-cymes (the terminal, central flower opening first) and only 2
-carpels; the fruit resembles the siliqua<span class="pagenum" id="Page_395">[395]</span> of the Cruciferæ in having
-two <i>barren valves</i>, which are detached from the base upwards,
-and a <i>seed-bearing frame</i>, but there is no partition wall
-formed between the placentæ. <i>Ch. majus.</i>&mdash;<span class="smaller">The majority
-of the other genera have, like <i>Chelidonium</i>, 2 carpels
-(lateral and alternating with the sepals: Fig. <a href="#fig391">391</a> <i>A</i>) and
-siliqua-like fruit, thus: <i>Eschscholtzia</i> (perigynous) with
-a linear, stigma-bearing prolongation extending as far above the
-placentæ as above the dorsal suture of the carpels; <i>Glaucium</i>
-(Horn-Poppy); <i>G. luteum</i>, whose extremely long, thin capsule
-differs from that of <i>Chelidonium</i> by the formation, during
-ripening, of a thick, spongy (<i>false</i>) replum, which persists
-when the valves are detached; <i>Sanguinaria</i> with red latex, the
-2 petals divided into 8–12 small petals (perhaps by dédoublement);
-<i>Macleya</i> and <i>Bocconia</i> (1-seeded capsule) with 2 sepals
-and no petals.&mdash;Trimerous flowers are found in <i>Argemone</i>
-and <i>Platystemon</i> (with a curious fruit, carpels free, and
-transversely divided and constricted into joints which separate as
-nut-like portions).&mdash;<i>Meconopsis.</i>&mdash;<i>Hypecoum</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig393">393</a>
-<i>C</i>) has tri-lobed and three cleft petals, 4 free stamens with
-4-locular anthers and a jointed siliqua; it presents a transitional
-form to the Fumariaceæ, with which order it is sometimes included.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> <i>Papaver</i> and <i>Chelidonium</i> have
-no honey, and are without doubt only visited by insects for the
-sake of the pollen. The anthers and stigmas mature about the
-same time.&mdash;There are 80 species; especially from warm climates.
-<span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: <i>Papaver somniferum</i> (Opium-Poppy);
-the latex of its unripe capsules is obtained by incisions, and
-dried (<i>opium</i>); it contains many alkaloids: morphine,
-papaverine, narcotine, thebaine, etc. The oleaginous seeds are
-also used in the manufacture of oil. Its home is in the East,
-where it is extensively cultivated. The petals of the Corn-poppy
-(<i>P. rhœas</i>) are also officinal. Several species are
-cultivated as ornamental plants.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Fumariacæ</b> (<b>Fumitories</b>). This order differs
-from the closely allied Papaveraceæ in the absence of latex, a poorer
-flower, generally <i>transversely zygomorphic</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig393">393</a> <i>B</i>),
-in which case one or both of the outer lateral petals are gibbous, or
-prolonged into a spur; the stamens are especially anomalous. Sepals
-<b>2</b>, caducous; petals 2 + 2; stamens 2, <i>tripartite</i>; each
-lateral anther is <i>bilocular</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig393">393</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>;
-395); gynœceum bicarpellate. The fruit is a nut or siliqua-like
-capsule. <i>Endosperm.</i>&mdash;<i>Herbs</i> with scattered, repeatedly
-pinnately-divided leaves without stipules, generally quite glabrous and
-glaucous; the flowers are arranged in racemes with subtending bracts,
-but the bracteoles are sometimes suppressed.</p>
-
-<p><i>Dicentra</i> (syn. <i>Dielytra</i>) and <i>Adlumia</i> have a
-doubly symmetrical flower, with a spur or gibbous swelling at the base
-of <i>each</i> of the laterally-placed petals (Figs. <a href="#fig393">393</a> <i>A</i>,
-<a href="#fig394">394</a>). <i>Corydalis</i> has a zygomorphic flower, <i>only one of</i>
-the lateral petals <i>having a spur</i>, and consequently there is
-only one nectary at the base of the bundle of stamens, which stands
-right in front of the spur (Fig.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_396">[396]</span> <a href="#fig393">393</a> <i>B</i>, <a href="#fig395">395</a>, <a href="#fig396">396</a>). The fruit
-is a many-seeded siliqua-like capsule. <span class="smaller">A peculiarity of the flower
-is that the plane of symmetry passes <i>transversely</i> through the
-flowers, whilst in nearly all other zygomorphic flowers it lies in
-the median line. Moreover, the flower is turned, so that the plane of
-symmetry ultimately becomes nearly vertical, and the spur is directed
-backwards.&mdash;Many species have subterranean tubers; in these the
-embryo germinates with <i>one cotyledon</i>, which is lanceolate and
-resembles a foliage-leaf. The tuber is in some the swollen hypocotyl
-(<i>C. cava</i>), in others a swollen root (<i>C. fabacea</i>, etc.),
-which grows down through the precisely similar swollen root of the
-mother-plant. The sub-genus <i>Ceratocapnos</i> has dimorphic fruits
-(nuts and capsules) in the same raceme.</span> <i>Fumaria</i> differs from
-<i>Corydalis</i> only by its almost drupaceous, one-seeded nut (Fig.
-<a href="#fig395">395</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig393" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig393.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 393.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Dicentra</i>
-(<i>A</i>), <i>Corydalis</i> (<i>B</i>), and <i>Hypecoum</i>
-(<i>C</i>).]</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig394" style="width: 506px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig394.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 394.</span>&mdash;<i>Dicentra spectabilis</i>:
-<i>A</i> flower (2/5); <i>B</i> the same, after removal of half of one
-outer petal; the cap, formed by the inner petals, is moved away from
-the anthers and stigma; the insect does this with the lower side of its
-abdomen, and thus rubs the stigma on the hairs of its ventral surface;
-the dotted line at <i>e</i> indicates the direction of the proboscis;
-<i>C</i> andrœcium and gynœceum; <i>D</i> stigma.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The structure of the flower.</span> <i>Hypecoum</i> among the
-Papaveraceæ is the connecting link with the Fumariaceæ. The
-diagram (Fig. <a href="#fig393">393</a> <i>C</i>) corresponds both in number and in
-the relative position of its members with that of most of the
-other Papaveraceæ (Fig. <a href="#fig391">391</a>), except that there are only four
-stamens (with extrorse anthers). In <i>Dicentra</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig393">393</a>
-<i>A</i>), the two central (uppermost) stamens are absent, but
-each of the two lateral ones are divided into three filaments,
-of which the central one bears a four-locular anther, and each
-of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_397">[397]</span> others a two-locular (half) anther. <i>Corydalis</i>
-and <i>Fumaria</i> stand alone in the symmetry of the flower,
-differing from <i>Dicentra</i> in having only one of the
-lateral petals (Fig. <a href="#fig393">393</a> <i>B</i>, <i>sp</i>) prolonged into
-a spur, while in <i>Dicentra</i> both the petals are spurred.
-This structure has been interpreted in various ways. According
-to Asa Gray the median stamens are absent in the last-named
-genera, and the lateral ones are split in a similar manner to
-the petals of <i>Hypecoum</i>. Another, and no doubt the most
-reasonable theory (adduced by De Candolle), is: that two median
-stamens are split, the two parts move laterally, each to their
-respective sides and become united with the two lateral stamens;
-this affords a natural explanation of the two half-anthers,
-and establishes a close relationship to the Cruciferæ. A third
-interpretation, held by Eichler and others, is as follows: the
-median stamens are <i>always</i> wanting; when they appear to be
-present, as in <i>Hypecoum</i>, it is due to the fact that the
-side portions of the lateral stamens <i>approach each other</i>
-(as interpetiolar stipules) and coalesce into an apparently
-single stamen.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig395" style="width: 228px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig395.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 395.</span>&mdash;<i>Fumaria officinalis</i>: <i>A</i>
-the flower in longitudinal section; <i>B</i> the andrœcium and
-gynœceum; nectary to the right.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig396" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig396.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 396.</span>&mdash;<i>Corydalis cava</i>: <i>a</i> a
-flower (lateral view); <i>b</i> the anthers lying round the stigma;
-<i>c</i> the anthers shortly before the opening of the flower; <i>d</i>
-the head of the stigma; <i>e</i> relative position of the parts of the
-flower during the visit of an insect.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>130 species; mostly from the northern temperatures.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> <i>Fumaria</i>, with its inconspicuous
-flowers, has to a great extent to resort to self-pollination.
-<i>Corydalis</i>, on the other hand, is dependent on
-cross-pollination; <i>C. cava</i> is even absolutely sterile
-with its own pollen. <i>Corydalis</i> is pollinated by insects
-with long probosces (humble-bees, bees), which are able to reach
-the honey secreted in the spur; as they alight on the flowers
-they press the exterior petals on one side (Fig. <a href="#fig396">396</a> <i>e</i>),
-so that the stigma, surrounded by the anthers, projects forward;
-the proboscis is introduced in the direction of the arrow
-in the figure, and during this act the under-surface of the
-insect is covered with pollen, which is transferred by similar<span class="pagenum" id="Page_398">[398]</span>
-movements to the stigma of another (older) flower.&mdash;Ornamental
-plants; <i>Dicentra</i> (<i>spectabilis</i> and <i>eximia</i>),
-<i>Adlumia</i>, <i>Corydalis</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Cruciferæ (Crucifers).</b> The flowers are <i>regular</i>,
-☿; sepals 4, free (2 + 2), deciduous; petals 4, free, deciduous,
-unguiculate, placed <i>diagonally</i> in one whorl, and alternating
-with the sepals; stamens 6; the 2 <i>outer</i> are <i>short</i>,
-the 4 <i>inner</i> (in reality the two median split to the base)
-<i>longer</i>, placed in pairs (tetradynamia of Linnæus); gynœceum
-syncarpous formed by 2 (as in the previous order, lateral) carpels,
-with 2 parietal placentæ, but divided into two loculi by a
-<i>spurious</i> membranous dissepiment (<i>replum</i>) (Fig. <a href="#fig397">397</a>).
-Style single, with a capitate, usually two-lobed stigma, generally
-commisural, that is, placed above the parietal placentæ (Fig.
-<a href="#fig397">397</a>), but it may also be placed above the dorsal suture, or remain
-undivided. Ovules <i>curved</i>. The fruit is generally a bivalvular
-<i>siliqua</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig398">398</a> <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>), the valves separating
-from below upwards, and leaving the placentæ attached to the replum;
-other forms of fruits are described below. The oily seeds <i>have no
-endosperm</i> (endosperm is present in the two previous orders); the
-<i>embryo is curved</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig398">398</a> <i>E</i>, <i>F</i>; <a href="#fig399">399</a>, <a href="#fig400">400</a>).&mdash;In
-general they are <i>herbaceous</i> plants, without latex, with
-scattered, penninerved leaves, without stipules; the inflorescence
-is very characteristic, namely, a raceme with the flowers aggregated
-together at the time of flowering into a corymb, and <i>destitute of
-both bracts and bracteoles</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig397" style="width: 261px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig397.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 397.</span>&mdash;Diagram of a Cruciferous flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig398" style="width: 442px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig398.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 398.</span>&mdash;<i>Brassica oleracea</i>: <i>A</i>
-raceme; <i>B</i>, <i>C</i> siliqua; <i>D</i> seed; <i>E</i> embryo;
-<i>F</i> transverse section of seed.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig399" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig399.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 399.</span>&mdash;Transverse section of seed and
-embryo of <i>Cheiranthus cheiri</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig400" style="width: 224px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig400.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 400.</span>&mdash;Transverse section of seed of
-<i>Sisymbrium alliaria</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Many are biennial, forming in the first year a close
-leaf-rosette. By cultivation the tap-root can readily be induced
-to swell out into the form of a tuber (Turnips, Swedes, etc.).
-<i>Stipules</i> are found indicated by small glands on the very
-young leaves; in <i>Cochlearia armoracia</i> they are fairly
-large triangular scales. <i>Stellate hairs</i> often occur.
-<i>Floral-leaves</i> are occasionally developed. Terminal
-flowers are never found in the inflorescences. <i>Iberis</i>
-and <i>Teesdalia</i> have <i>zygomorphic</i> flowers.
-<i>Subularia</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig403">403</a>) is perigynous. The 2 external
-sepals (Fig. <a href="#fig397">397</a>) stand in the median plane; it may therefore
-be supposed that there are two bracteoles outside these which,
-however, are suppressed, and can only in a few instances be
-traced in the young flower; the two lateral sepals are often
-gibbous at the base, and serve as reservoirs for the nectar
-secreted by the glands placed above them; they correspond in
-position to the external petals of the Fumariaceæ. The 4 petals
-which follow next arise simultaneously, and alternate with the
-4 sepals; if it could be shown that these are merely 2 median
-petals, which have been deeply cleft and the two parts separated
-from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_399">[399]</span> each other and displaced to the diagonal position, there
-would be a perfect correspondence with the Fumariaceous flower;
-then the petals would be followed in regular alternation by
-the 2 lateral small stamens, the 2 median long stamens, which
-it has been proved are split into 4 and placed in couples, and
-the 2 laterally-placed carpels,&mdash;in all 6 dimerous whorls.
-But the formation of the corolla by the splitting of 2 petals
-does not agree with the development of the flower or bear
-comparison, and hence the only fact in favour of this theory is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_400">[400]</span>
-the otherwise prevailing correspondence with the Fumariaceæ.
-Yet it may be observed that in special cases each pair of long
-stamens clearly enough arises from one protuberance and even
-later on may be considerably united or entirely undivided
-(<i>e.g. Vella</i>); in other instances they are quite
-distinct from the beginning, and it is possible that this latter
-condition has become constant in the corolla. <i>Lepidium
-ruderale</i> and others have no corolla. <i>Senebiera didyma</i>
-has only 2 median stamens. <i>Megacarpæa</i> has several
-stamens, no doubt by dédoublement, as in Capparidaceæ.&mdash;The
-<i>number of carpels</i> may also be abnormally increased;
-<i>Tetrapoma barbareifolium</i> has normally 4 carpels with
-an equal number of placentæ and repla. It is supposed to be a
-variety of <i>Nasturtium palustre</i>.&mdash;The 2–4–8–10 greenish
-<i>glands</i>, which are found at the base of the stamens, are
-nectaries, morphologically emergences, and not rudimentary
-stamens. The forms of <i>fruits</i> are of great systematic
-significance, see the genera. In some species dimorphic fruits
-are present, <i>e.g. Cardamine chenopodiifolia</i>
-which has both ordinary <i>Cardamine</i>-siliquas and 1-seeded
-siliculas.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>curved embryo</i> appears in five forms, which have
-systematic importance: 1. To the <span class="smcap">Pleurorhizæ</span>
-belong those genera whose radicle (with the hypocotyl)
-lies bent upwards along the <i>edge</i> of the <i>flat</i>
-cotyledons (Fig. <a href="#fig399">399</a>); to this group belong <i>Cardamine</i>,
-<i>Nasturtium</i>, <i>Cheiranthus</i>, <i>Matthiola</i>,
-<i>Cochlearia</i>, <i>Draba</i>, <i>Iberis</i>, <i>Thlaspi</i>,
-etc.; diagrammatic transverse section: ◯=.&mdash;2. To
-<span class="smcap">Notorhizæ</span> belong those whose radicle lies in an upward
-direction along the <i>back</i> of one of the <i>flat</i>
-cotyledons (Figs. <a href="#fig400">400</a>, <a href="#fig412_413">413</a>); <i>e.g. Hesperis</i>,
-<i>Sisymbrium</i>, <i>Lepidium</i>, <i>Capsella</i>,
-<i>Camelina</i>: ◯‖.&mdash;3. <span class="smcap">Orthoploceæ</span> differ from the
-Notorhizeæ in having the cotyledons folded (not flat) (Fig.
-<a href="#fig398">398</a> <i>E</i>, <i>F</i>); to this belong <i>Brassica</i>,
-<i>Sinapis</i>, <i>Raphanus</i>, <i>Crambe</i>, etc.: ◯&gt;&gt;.&mdash;4.
-<span class="smcap">Spirolobeæ</span>: the radicle lies as in the Notorhizæ,
-but the cotyledons are so rolled together that a transverse
-section of the seed cuts them twice; <i>Bunias</i>: ◯‖‖.&mdash;5.
-<span class="smcap">Diplecolobeæ</span>: the cotyledons are folded forward and
-backward so that a transverse section cuts them several times;
-<i>Subularia</i>, <i>Senebiera</i>: ◯‖‖‖.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>On <i>germination</i> the cotyledons appear above the ground
-as green leaves; in the Orthoploceæ they are bilobed, in the
-<i>Lepidium</i>-species divided.</p>
-
-<p>1. <b>Silicula, broad replum</b> (Siliculosæ latiseptæ), valves flat or
-slightly vaulted, and the replum extends through the greatest width of
-the silicula (Fig. <a href="#fig404">404</a>). The seeds are situated in two rows.</p>
-
-<p>◯=: <i>Cochlearia</i> (Horse-radish): the siliqua is nearly spheroid;
-glabrous herbs, generally with fleshy, stalked leaves, and white
-flowers.&mdash;<i>Draba</i> has an oblong, lanceolate, somewhat compressed
-silicula; herbs with small rosettes of leaves, most frequently with
-stellate and long-stalked racemes.&mdash;<i>Alyssum</i> and <i>Berteroa</i>
-are whitish, on account of the stellate hairs; they have a more
-compressed and round or elliptical silicula. <i>Vesicaria</i>;
-<i>Aubrietia</i>. <i>Lunaria</i> (Honesty, Fig. <a href="#fig401">401</a>): very broad and
-flat silicula with long stalk (the receptacle as in Capparidaceæ).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_401">[401]</span></p>
-
-<p>◯‖: <i>Camelina</i> (Gold-of-pleasure) has a spheroid, pear-shaped
-siliqua with a small rim passing right round (Fig. <a href="#fig402">402</a>).
-<i>Subularia</i> (Awlwort), an aquatic plant with <i>perigynous</i>
-flower (Fig. <a href="#fig403">403</a>) and folded cotyledons.</p>
-
-<p>2. <b>Silicula, narrow replum</b> (Siliculosæ angustiseptæ),
-<i>i.e.</i> the replum is much shorter than the arched, more or less
-boat-shaped valves (Figs. <a href="#fig405">405</a>, <a href="#fig406">406</a>, <a href="#fig407">407</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig401" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig401.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 401.</span>&mdash;<i>Lunaria biennis.</i> Fruit, the
-valves of which have fallen off.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig402" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig402.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 402.</span>&mdash;<i>Camelina sativa.</i> Fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig403" style="width: 255px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig403.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 403.</span>&mdash;<i>Subularia aquatica.</i>
-Longitudinal section through the flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>◯=: <i>Thlaspi</i> (Penny-Cress) has a flat, almost circular silicula,
-emarginate or cordate, with a well-developed wing round the edge (Fig.
-<a href="#fig406">406</a>). <i>Iberis</i> and <i>Teesdalia</i>: the racemes during flowering
-are especially corymbose, and the most external petals of the outer
-flowers project radially and are much larger than the other two (the
-flower is <i>zygomorphic</i>).&mdash;<i>Biscutella</i>, <i>Megacarpæa</i>.</p>
-
-<p>◯‖: <i>Capsella</i> (Shepherd’s-Purse) has a wingless, obcordate or
-triangular silicula (Fig. <a href="#fig407">407</a>). <i>Lepidium</i> (Pepperwort) has a
-few–(2–4) seeded, slightly winged, oval silicula. <i>Senebiera</i> has
-a silicula splitting longitudinally into two nut-like portions; its
-cotyledons are folded.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Anastatica hierochuntica</i> (“Rose of
-Jericho”) is an annual, silicula-fruited, desert plant (Arabia, Syria,
-N. Africa). After the flowering all its then leafless branches bend
-together upwards, forming a kind of ball; this spreads out again on
-coming in contact with water, and the fruits then disseminate their
-seeds, which germinate very quickly, often in the fruit.</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_402">[402]</span></p>
-
-<p>3. <b>Siliqua</b> (Siliquosæ). The fruit is a true siliqua, several
-times longer than broad. The seeds in most are borne apparently in one
-row.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig404" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig404.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 404.</span>&mdash;Transverse section of a silicula
-with broad replum: <i>s</i> replum; <i>k</i> the valves.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig405" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig405.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 405.</span>&mdash;Transverse section of a silicula
-with narrow replum.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>◯&gt;&gt;: <i>Brassica</i> (Cabbage). The seeds are placed apparently in one
-row in each loculus (Fig. <a href="#fig398">398</a> <i>C</i>); the style is long and round;
-the valves have only 1 strong, longitudinal rib.&mdash;<i>Melanosinapis</i>
-(<i>M. nigra</i>, Black-mustard); the style is compressed, two-edged;
-the valves of the siliqua are one ribbed.&mdash;<i>Sinapis</i> (Mustard);
-quadrangular or flat style (in which in most cases there is a seed) and
-3–5 strong, longitudinal ribs on the valves.&mdash;<i>Eruca</i> differs from
-<i>Brassica</i> by the shorter siliqua, broad, sword-like “beak” and
-seeds in two rows.</p>
-
-<p>◯= (Fig. <a href="#fig399">399</a>): <i>Cardamine</i> (Bitter Cress) has a long,
-linear siliqua, with flat, unribbed, <i>elastic</i> valves.
-The leaves are most frequently pinnatifid or pinnate. <span class="smaller"><i>C.
-pratensis</i> reproduces by buds formed in the axils of the
-leaves.</span>&mdash;<i>Arabis</i> (Rock Cress); <i>Matthiola</i> (Stock);
-<i>Cheiranthus cheiri</i> (Wallflower); <i>Barbarea</i> (Winter
-Cress) (double-edged, quadrangular siliqua); <i>Nasturtium</i> (<i>N.
-officinale</i>, Water-cress); the siliqua of the latter genus is in
-some species short, in others long.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig406" style="width: 241px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig406.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 406.</span>&mdash;<i>Thlaspi arvense.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig407" style="width: 403px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig407.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 407.</span>&mdash;Silicula of <i>Capsella
-bursa-pastoris</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>◯‖ (Fig.<a href="#fig400">400</a>): <i>Sisymbrium</i> (Hedge Mustard) the valves of
-the siliqua are 3-ribbed.&mdash;<i>Erysimum</i>; <i>Hesperis</i>;
-<i>Schizopetalum</i> (with fimbriate petals).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_403">[403]</span></p>
-
-<p>4. <b>Fruit jointed</b> (Lomentaceæ). The fruit is divided by
-transverse walls into as many spaces as there are seeds, and dehisces
-at maturity, generally <i>transversely</i>, into a corresponding number
-of nut-like joints (“articulate-siliqua.”)</p>
-
-<p>◯=: <i>Crambe</i> (Kale, Fig. <a href="#fig408">408</a>). The fruit has only 2 joints. The
-lower one resembles a short, thick stalk, and is barren, the upper
-one is spherical, and has 1 seed.&mdash;<i>Cakile</i> (<i>C. maritima</i>,
-Sea-kale); the lower node is triangular, 1-locular, the upper one more
-ensiform, 1-locular (Fig. <a href="#fig409">409</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig408" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig408.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 408.</span>&mdash;Fruit of <i>Crambe maritima</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig409" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig409.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 409.</span>&mdash;<i>Cakile maritima.</i> Fruit (2/1).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig410" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig410.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 410.</span>&mdash;<i>Raphanus raphanistrum.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig411" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig411.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 411.</span>&mdash;<i>Raphanus sativus.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>◯&gt;&gt;: <i>Raphanus</i> has a long siliqua, which, in the garden Radish
-(<i>R. sativus</i>), is spongy and slightly abstricted (Fig. <a href="#fig411">411</a>), but
-neither opens nor divides transversely (a kind of dry berry), and which
-in the Wild Radish (<i>R. raphanistrum</i>) (Fig. <a href="#fig410">410</a>) is abstricted
-in the form of a string of pearls, and separates into many joints.
-<span class="smaller"><i>R. sativus</i>; the “Radish” is formed by the hypocotyl, after
-the bursting of its external, cortical portions (of which there are
-generally two patches at the top of the Radish).</span></p>
-
-<p>5. <b>Siliqua indehiscent</b> (Nucumentaceæ). The fruit is a short,
-<i>unjointed</i>, unilocular and 1-seeded nut, and the fruit-stalks
-are often long, slender, and drooping. (Sometimes a thin endosperm
-is present).&mdash;<i>Isatis</i> (Woad) has most frequently an oblong,
-small-winged nut; ◯‖ (Figs. <a href="#fig412_413">412</a>, <a href="#fig412_413">413</a>).&mdash;<i>Bunias</i>; <i>Neslia</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_404">[404]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>[The systematic division of this order given
-above is founded upon that of A. P. de Candolle. Prantl
-(<i>Engler and Prantl, Nat. Fam.</i>), 1891, adopts a somewhat
-different system, which may briefly be summarised as follows:&mdash;</p>
-</div>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li class="hangingindent"><i>A.</i> Hairs unbranched or absent; no glandular hairs.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent4">1. <span class="smcap">Thelypodieæ.</span> Stigma equally developed on all sides;
-style undivided or prolonged above the middle of the carpels, or
-turned back.&mdash;<i>Stanleyinæ</i>; <i>Heliophilinæ</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent4">2. <span class="smcap">Sinapeæ.</span> Stigma strongly developed above the
-placenta; style beaked or two-lobed.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent3"><i>a.</i> Cotyledons arising behind the bend of the
-embryo.&mdash;<i>Lepidiinæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="hangingindent3"><i>b.</i> Cotyledons arising at the bend of the embryo.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent6">α. Only lateral nectaries. Generally a silicula or indehiscent
-fruit.&mdash;<i>Cochleariinæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="hangingindent6">β. Generally a siliqua, more rarely a silicula or
-transversely-divided or indehiscent fruit. Nectaries generally
-lateral and median.&mdash;<i>Alliariinæ</i>; <i>Sisymbriinæ</i>;
-<i>Vellinæ</i>; <i>Brassicinæ</i>; <i>Cardamininæ</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent"><i>B.</i> Hairs collectively or partially branched, very rarely
-entirely absent; glandular hairs are sometimes also present.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent4">1. <span class="smcap">Schizopetaleæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="hangingindent4">2. <span class="smcap">Hesperideæ.</span> Stigma strongly developed above the
-placenta; style undivided or prolonged above the placentæ into
-shorter or longer lobes.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent3"><i>a.</i> Surface cells of the replum, not divided
-diagonally.&mdash;<i>Capsellinæ</i>; <i>Turritinæ</i>;
-<i>Erysiminæ</i>; <i>Alyssinæ</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent3"><i>b.</i> Surface cells of the replum divided
-diagonally.&mdash;<i>Malcolmiinæ</i>; <i>Hesperidinæ</i>;
-<i>Moricandiinæ</i>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig412_413" style="width: 300px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig412_413.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 412.</span>&mdash;<i>Isatis tinctoria.</i> Fruit (Fig.
-412); and in longitudinal section (Fig. 413). (Mag.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> Honey is secreted by the nectaries
-mentioned above; but the position of the stamens is not always
-the most favourable for pollination by insects (in these flowers
-the honey-seeking insect must touch the anthers with one of its
-sides and the stigma with the other), and self-fertilisation is
-common. In some species (<i>Cardamine pratensis</i>) the long
-stamens turn their anthers outwards towards the small stamens,
-so that 3 anthers surround each of the two large entrances to
-the nectaries.</p>
-
-<p>1200 species (180 genera), especially in the cold and temperate
-parts of the Old World (Europe, W. Asia). Many are <i>weeds</i>
-in this country, <i>e.g.</i> Wild Cabbage (<i>Brassica
-campestris</i>), Charlock (<i>Sinapis arvensis</i>), Wild
-Radish (<i>Raphanus raphanistrum</i>) and others.&mdash;The order
-is acrid and oleaginous. Oil is obtained from many of the
-oil-containing seeds, especially of the Rape (<i>Brassica
-napus</i>), Summer-Rape (the oil-yielding cultivated form of the
-Field-Cabbage) and <i>Camelina</i>. Several are pot-herbs or
-fodder plants, <i>e.g.</i> Cabbage</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_405">[405]</span></p>
-
-<p>(<i>Brassica oleracea</i>) with its numerous varieties:
-Cauliflower (var. <i>botrytis</i>; the entire inflorescence
-is abnormally branched and fleshy), Kohlrabi (var.
-<i>gongylodes</i>, with swollen, tuberous stem), Kale,
-Red-Cabbage, White-Cabbage, etc.; <i>B. campestris</i>, var.
-<i>rapifera</i> (Turnip); <i>B. napus</i>, var. <i>rapifera</i>
-(Swede); <i>Raphanus sativus</i> (Radish from W. Asia), <i>R.
-caudatus</i> (long Radish); <i>Nasturtium officinale</i> (Water
-Cress), <i>Lepidium sativum</i> (Garden Cress), and <i>Barbarea
-præcox</i> (Early Cress); <i>Crambe maritima</i> (Sea-Kkale).
-The seeds of the following are especially used as spices: (the
-flour of) <i>Melanosinapis</i> (Black-mustard), and <i>Sinapis
-alba</i> (White-mustard), which are <i>officinal</i> like the
-root of <i>Cochlearia armoracia</i> (Horse-radish, E. Eur[**.]).
-The herbaceous parts of <i>Cochlearia officinalis</i> and
-<i>danica</i> are medicinal.&mdash;A blue dye (woad) is extracted
-from <i>Isatis</i>.&mdash;Ornamental plants: <i>Cheiranthus
-cheiri</i> (Wallflower), <i>Matthiola</i> (Stock),
-<i>Iberis</i>, <i>Hesperis</i>, <i>Lunaria</i>, and others
-(especially from S. Eur.). Sweet-scented flowers are rare.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig414" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig414.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 414.</span>&mdash;<i>Gynandropsis pentaphylla.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig415" style="width: 346px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig415.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 415.</span>&mdash;<i>Capparis spinosa.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Capparidaceæ</b> (<b>Capers</b>). The relationship
-with the Cruciferæ is so close that certain forms are with
-difficulty distinguished from them. The diagram of the flower
-is the same in the number and position of its parts, but it
-differs in the modifications which occur in the development of
-the stamens. In some genera all 4 stamens are undivided; in
-others both the 2 median ones are divided as in the Cruciferæ
-(6 stamens, but <i>not tetradynamous</i>) (Fig. <a href="#fig414">414</a>); in other
-genera only 1 of these; in other instances again they are
-divided into more than 2; and finally the 2 lateral ones also
-may be found divided, so that <i>indefinite stamens</i> occur
-(Fig. <a href="#fig415">415</a>). The bicarpellate gynœceum is <i>unilocular</i>
-(without replum), but more than 2 carpels may occur. The ovary
-is elevated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_406">[406]</span> on a <i>stalk</i> (sometimes as much as 1 foot
-in length); also between the stamens and corolla a similar
-stalk may be found (Fig. <a href="#fig414">414</a>). The fruit is long and siliquose
-(<i>Cleome</i>, <i>Polanisia</i>, <i>Gynandropsis</i>), or a
-berry (<i>Capparis</i>). Endosperm absent. Some have zygomorphic
-flowers. Gamosepalous calyx and perigynous flowers also
-occur.&mdash;350 species; especially in the Tropics. The majority are
-trees and shrubs, and they differ also from the Cruciferæ in
-having distinct stipules present in some species.</p>
-
-<p>“Capers” are the flower buds of the climbing, thorny shrub,
-<i>Capparis spinosa</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig415">415</a>), which grows in the
-Mediterranean.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 11. <b>Cistifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flowers in this family are perfect, regular (except <i>Resedaceæ,
-Violaceæ</i>), hypogynous, the perianth-leaves free (a few have them
-slightly united), æstivation most frequently imbricate; they are
-eucyclic in the andrœcium, and most frequently in the other parts, and
-generally 5-merous with S5, P5, A5 + 5, G3, but other numbers also
-occur; several have <i>indefinite stamens</i>, but the stamens arise
-(where the development is known) in <i>centrifugal order</i> and are
-arranged, often very distinctly, <i>in bundles</i>; in other words,
-the large number of stamens is formed by the splitting of a small
-number (most frequently 5); a true spiral arrangement is never found.
-Gynœceum syncarpous, multicarpellary (<i>Dilleniaceæ</i> and a few
-<i>Resedaceæ</i> are apocarpous), most frequently the number of carpels
-is 3, forming a <i>unilocular ovary</i> with <i>parietal placentæ</i>,
-but parallel with this, multilocular ovaries, with the ovules placed
-in the inner angle of the loculi, are also found, and a few genera
-have a free, centrally-placed placenta. The fruit is most frequently
-a capsule. The dehiscence is never with a “replum,” <i>i.e.</i> the
-persistent frame of the placenta, as in the family Rhœadinæ. One
-half of the orders has endosperm (<i>Violaceæ</i>, <i>Cistaceæ</i>,
-<i>Droseraceæ</i>, <i>Bixaceæ</i>, <i>Ternstrœmiaceæ</i>, etc.),
-the other has no endosperm (<i>Resedaceæ</i>, <i>Hypericaceæ</i>,
-<i>Elatinaceæ</i>, <i>Tamaricaceæ</i>, etc.); some have a curved, the
-majority a straight embryo. <span class="smaller">The family is scarcely quite natural; in
-the future the orders will probably be arranged differently.</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Resedaceæ (Mignonettes).</b>&mdash;Herbs or small shrubs with
-spirally-placed leaves and very small, gland-like stipules (as in
-Cruciferæ); the ☿, hypogynous flowers are <i>zygomorphic</i>, and
-arranged in racemes or spikes typically without bracteoles. The
-zygomorphic structure is produced by the <i>greater development of the
-posterior side of the flower</i>, especially the petals and the nectary
-(“disc,” in Fig. <a href="#fig416">416</a> <i>d</i>) which is situated between<span class="pagenum" id="Page_407">[407]</span> the petals
-and stamens; in general there are 5–8 free sepals and petals, the
-latter consisting of a large scale-like <i>sheath</i> with a fimbriated
-blade (see Fig. <a href="#fig416">416</a>); stamens numerous; carpels 6–2 united together;
-ovary unilocular with parietal placentæ, but <i>the cavity of the
-ovary is not closed</i> at the top. In <i>Astrocarpus</i> the gynœceum
-is apocarpous. The fruit is most frequently a capsule; the seeds are
-reniform, without endosperm, and the embryo is <i>curved</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>This order connects the Rhœadinæ with the Cistifloræ. It is
-closely allied to the Rhœadinæ by its external appearance, even
-by the smell and taste, the parietal placentation, structure of
-the seeds, the inflorescences, etc., whilst by the irregular
-flowers and the disc placed at the posterior side of the
-flower, <i>it is allied to Capparidaceæ</i>, but differs from
-this order in not having its characteristic number (2–4) and
-by the very different mode of dehiscence of the fruit, etc. It
-differs from the other orders of this family chiefly in the
-fact that the number of the perianth-leaves is not constantly
-5. In <i>Reseda luteola</i> both the calyx and corolla appear
-to be 4-leaved, because the posterior sepal is suppressed, and
-the 2 posterior petals are united. Where there are 10 stamens,
-they stand in 2 whorls, <i>i.e.</i> in front of the sepals and
-petals; if there are several, their position depends upon the
-splitting.&mdash;<i>Astrocarpus</i> is remarkable for its apocarpous
-fruit and the position of the ovules on the <i>dorsal</i> suture
-of the carpel.</p>
-
-<p>The yellow, flat disc at the back of the flower serves as a
-nectary, the honey being protected by the lobes of the petals.
-If pollination by insects is not effected, then self-pollination
-may take place, at all events in <i>R. odorata</i>.</p>
-
-<p>45 species; the majority in the Mediterranean and in Persia.
-<i>Reseda odorata</i> (from Egypt) is cultivated on account of
-its sweet scent; <i>R. luteola</i> (“Dyer’s Weed”) yields a
-yellow dye.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig416" style="width: 248px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig416.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 416.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Reseda odorata</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Droseraceæ (Sundews).</b> Herbs, chiefly living on moors
-or in water, and whose leaves are adapted to catch and digest small
-animals. With regard to the flower, they are closely allied to the
-Violaceæ, especially to those with regular flowers. <i>Drosera</i>
-(Sundew) has a long-stalked scorpioid cyme with regular, ☿, hypogynous
-flowers, 5-merous as in <i>Viola</i>. S5, P5, A5, G3 (in a syncarpous
-gynœceum, with free, bifid styles and basal or parietally-placed ovules
-in the unilocular ovaries). The capsule opens also as in <i>Viola</i>,
-but, among other differences, the styles are free, the seeds very
-small, and surrounded by a loosely lying, thin shell. <span class="smaller"><i>Drosera</i>
-has radical, long-stalked leaves with the blade (Fig. <a href="#fig417">417</a>) covered by
-numerous strong glandular hairs, placed on the edge and in the middle;
-when small animals are caught by these hairs, the latter and the
-entire<span class="pagenum" id="Page_408">[408]</span> blade close slowly over them dissolving and absorbing all the
-digestible matter as nourishment.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig417" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig417.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 417.</span>&mdash;Leaf-rosette of <i>Drosera
-rotundifolia</i> (nat. size), and a leaf (magnified).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Dionæa muscipula</i> (Fly-trap; N. Am.) has the same
-appearance as <i>Drosera</i>, but the leaves are constructed
-as in Fig. <a href="#fig418">418</a>. The stalk is flat and winged, the blade small,
-circular, with powerful, pointed teeth along the edge, and on
-its surface are 6 small bristles (<i>A</i>), which are very
-sensitive. When these are touched the blade quickly closes,
-folding along the midrib (<i>B</i>, <i>C</i>) and imprisoning
-the irritating object, the teeth round the edges fitting like
-the teeth of a trap. If it happens to be an insect or similar
-body, a digestive fluid is secreted which, like the gastric
-juice, dissolves the digestible portions. <i>Aldrovandia
-vesiculosa</i> (Central and S. Europe) captures small aquatic
-animals in a similar manner; it is a floating, aquatic plant,
-the two halves of its leaves also close together when irritated
-(Fig. <a href="#fig419A">419</a>).&mdash;<i>Drosophyllum.</i></p>
-
-<p>About 110 species; most of them in the temperate regions.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig418" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig418.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 418.</span>&mdash;<i>Dionæa muscipula.</i> Leaves
-(nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Orders 3 and 4. <b>Sarraceniaceæ and Nepenthaceæ.</b> These
-two orders are perhaps most closely allied to the Droseraceæ
-and agree with these, among other things, in the manner of
-taking nourishment. Like the Droseraceæ they absorb nitrogenous
-food from dissolved animal matter by means of their leaves,
-which are specially constructed both to catch, to retain,
-and to digest any small<span class="pagenum" id="Page_409">[409]</span> animals which may be caught. The
-<span class="smcap">Sarraceniaceæ</span> are North American marsh-plants (10
-species) which have pitcher-like leaf-stalks, in the cavity of
-which a fluid (with properties approaching those of gastric
-juice) is secreted, and which bear at the apex a small, lid-like
-blade; these leaf-stalks are the catching and digestive
-organs.&mdash;<i>Sarracenia, Darlingtonia.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig419A" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig419a.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig419B" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig419b.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 419.</span>&mdash;<i>Aldrovandia vesiculosa</i>:
-<i>A</i> a plant (nat. size). <i>B</i> Leaf (mag.); the blade is
-closed; the winged stalk is prolonged into 4–6 irritable bristles.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig420" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig420.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 420.</span>&mdash;<i>Nepenthes</i> (reduced).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Nepenthaceæ</span> has only 1 genus, <i>Nepenthes</i> (the
-Pitcher-plant; about 35 species), especially found in tropical
-E. Asia; the majority are climbing shrubs. The leaf-stalks are
-twining organs, and terminate either simply in a tendril, or
-in addition to this, with a pitcher-shaped body (which in some
-species may be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_410">[410]</span> as much as a foot in length) on whose upper edge
-a lid-like structure is found (Fig. <a href="#fig420">420</a>). In this pitcher, as
-among the Sarraceniaceæ, a fluid is secreted which is able to
-digest the animals captured (sometimes rather large) and which
-corresponds in some degree to the gastric juice.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Violaceæ (Violets).</b> The flowers are ☿, and generally
-zygomorphic, hypogynous, with S5, P5, A5, G3 (Fig. <a href="#fig421">421</a>). The stamens
-are closely applied to the ovary, they have a very short filament,
-and at their summit generally a membranous appendage formed by
-the prolongation of the connective (Fig. <a href="#fig422">422</a> <i>g</i>). The ovary
-is unilocular with 3 parietal placentæ; style undivided (Fig. <a href="#fig422">422</a>
-<i>B</i>). The fruit is usually a 3-valved capsule, opening along the
-dorsal sutures (Fig. <a href="#fig423">423</a>). Embryo straight; endosperm fleshy (Fig.
-<a href="#fig425">425</a>).&mdash;Many are herbaceous plants (<i>e.g. Viola</i>), but in
-the Tropics shrubs are also found (<i>e.g. Ionidium</i>); a few
-are lianes; the leaves are scattered, with stipules, and involute in
-the bud.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig421" style="width: 255px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig421.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 421.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Viola</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig422" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig422.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 422.</span>&mdash;The large-flowered form of <i>Viola
-tricolor</i>: <i>A</i> the flower in median longitudinal section;
-<i>B</i> the gynœceum.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Viola.</i> The sepals are prolonged backwards beyond the point of
-insertion (appendiculate); the corolla is polypetalous, descending
-imbricate, and zygomorphic, its anterior petal being larger than the
-others and provided with a spur (Fig. <a href="#fig421">421</a>). The 2 anterior of the 5
-almost sessile stamens are provided with a spur-like nectary, which
-protrudes a considerable distance into the petaloid spur (Figs. <a href="#fig421">421</a>,
-<a href="#fig422">422</a> <i>n</i>, <i>sp</i>). The style is club-like, and bears the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_411">[411]</span>
-stigma in a groove on the anterior side (Fig. <a href="#fig422">422</a> <i>st</i>). <span class="smaller">Herbs
-with rhizomes, or annuals; flowers solitary. <i>V. odorata</i>,
-<i>canina</i>, etc., have cleistogamic flowers which produce fruit in
-addition to the large, coloured (violet) flowers. The Pansy (<i>V.
-tricolor</i>) has large flowers adapted for insect-pollination, and
-also smaller, less conspicuous ones designed for self-pollination. The
-stigma, as in Fig. <a href="#fig422">422</a> <i>A</i>, <i>st</i>, and <i>B</i>, is situated
-on the anterior side of the stylar-head, immediately in front of the
-channel leading down to the spur (<i>sp</i>); below it is situated
-a valve, easily covered with pollen when the proboscis of an insect
-is introduced into the spur, but which closes upon its withdrawal;
-cross-pollination is thus secured.&mdash;The sweet-scented <i>V. odorata</i>
-is visited by the honey-bee, which insures cross-pollination, and
-in the absence of insect visits it effects self-fertilisation by
-cleistogamic flowers. The conspicuous but scentless <i>V. tricolor</i>,
-var. <i>vulgaris</i>, is less frequently visited by insects
-(humble-bees). In <i>V. silvatica</i> and <i>V. canina</i> the pollen
-is carried on the head or proboscis of the honey-sucking bee.&mdash;The
-fruits of <i>V. odorata</i> bury themselves slightly in the soil. In
-the others the fruits are raised above the ground; the 3 boat-shaped
-valves close together along the central line, and eject the seeds,
-one by one, with much violence, so that they are thrown to a great
-distance.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig423" style="width: 305px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 423–425.</span>&mdash;<i>Viola Tricolor.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig423.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 423.</span>&mdash;Capsule after dehiscence (nat.
-size).]</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig424" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig424.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 424.</span>&mdash;External view of the seed.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig425" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig425.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 425.</span>&mdash;Seed in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The <i>Alsodeia</i>-group has regular or almost regular
-flowers. Gamopetalous corollas are found in <i>Paypayroleæ</i>.
-<i>Sauvagesieæ</i> differs the most by its regular corolla, and
-5–∞ free or united staminodes.</p>
-
-<p>250 species; especially in the Tropics.&mdash;The
-<i>Ionidium</i>-species are used as ipecacuanha. A number of
-<i>Viola</i>-species are cultivated as garden plants, especially
-<i>V. odorata</i> (sweet-scented Violet) and <i>V. tricolor</i>,
-which have a large number of varieties.</p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Frankeniaceæ.</b> A small order with doubtful
-relationships. Perennial herbs or shrubs; beach plants with
-nodose stem. Sepals united, petals free. Unilocular ovary,
-with 3–4 parietal placentæ. Fruit a capsule. Embryo straight,
-endospermous. Especially in S. Europe, Africa, on the shores of
-the Mediterranean and Atlantic.</p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Tamaricaceæ (Tamarisks).</b> To this order belong
-only <i>Tamarix</i> and <i>Myricaria</i>. They are shrubs of a
-cypress- or heather-like appearance, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_412">[412]</span> the scattered leaves
-are very small, sessile, scale-like or linear, adpressed,
-entire, and usually glaucous, and the branches are slender and
-whip-like. The flowers are borne in small spikes or racemes,
-and are small, reddish or whitish, regular, ☿, hypogynous and
-polypetalous; formula S5, P5, A5 + 0 (<i>Tamarix</i>, which
-often has stipular teeth at the base of the filaments), or
-A5 + 5 (<i>Myricaria</i>, in which the stamens are united
-at the base); the number 4 may appear instead of 5, but
-in either case there is usually a tricarpellate gynœceum,
-which is <i>unilocular</i> and has either parietal placentæ
-(<i>Myricaria</i>) or a small basal placenta (<i>Tamarix</i>);
-1 trifid style, or 3 styles. Capsule dehiscing along the dorsal
-suture, and resembling the Willows in having a unilocular ovary
-with numerous <i>woolly</i> seeds; but the seed-wool in this
-case is borne on the chalaza, and may be attached to a long
-stalk.&mdash;Some <i>Tamarix</i>-species shed part of their branches
-in the winter.&mdash;40 species; North Temperate, on the sea-shores
-or steppes, especially in Asia. Ornamental shrubs: <i>Myricaria
-germanica</i>, and <i>Tamarix gallica</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Cistaceæ.</b> Shrubs or herbs, natives especially of the
-Mediterranean region. Flowers generally in raceme-like scorpioid cymes,
-regular, ☿, hypogynous; sepals 5, free, <i>twisted</i> in the bud, of
-which the two outer are generally much smaller than the others; petals
-5, free, <i>twisted</i> in the bud (in the direction <i>opposite</i> to
-the sepals), fugacious; stamens <i>numerous</i>; gynœceum syncarpous,
-carpels usually 3–5, style simple, ovary unilocular, with parietal
-placentation (seldom divided into loculi, with axile placentation).
-The ovules are <i>orthotropous</i> in opposition to some of the other
-orders of this family. The capsule dehisces along the dorsal sutures;
-embyro <i>curved</i>. The leaves are simple, undivided, generally
-opposite and stipulate.&mdash;<span class="smaller">They are Violaceæ with regular flowers,
-numerous stamens, and curved embryo. The numerous stamens are in
-reality only one or two 5-merous whorls, divided into a large number
-of stamens; these are formed, therefore, in descending order, like the
-lobes of many compound foliage-leaves.</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Helianthemum</i> (Rock-Rose), has 3 carpels.&mdash;<i>Cistus</i> has 5
-(-10) carpels.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>About 70 species; temperate climates, especially about the
-Mediterranean. The resin of the <i>Cistus</i>-species has been
-used medicinally (ladanum).</p>
-
-<p>Order 9. <b>Bixaceæ.</b> This order is closely allied to
-the Cistaceæ and Ternstrœmiaceæ; like these it has regular,
-5-merous, hypogynous flowers with numerous stamens, unilocular
-ovary and <i>parietal</i> placentæ; sometimes unisexual flowers;
-it differs in having anatropous ovules, in the æstivation of
-the sepals, etc. All species (about 180) are trees or shrubs,
-with scattered, simple leaves, which usually have stipules,
-and are occasionally dotted with pellucid oil-glands.&mdash;<i>Bixa
-orellana</i> (Trop. Am.) is the best known species; it has a
-2-valved capsule; the seeds are enclosed in a shiny <i>red,
-fleshy testa</i>, which contains the well-known orange or yellow
-dye, annatto.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_413">[413]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 10. <b>Dilleniaceæ.</b> Gynœceum usually apocarpous,
-seed arillate. The flower has most frequently S5, P5, and
-compound stamens (one or more bundles); sometimes irregular. 200
-species; Tropical; woody plants, many lianes.&mdash;<i>Dillenia</i>,
-<i>Candollea</i>, <i>Pleurandra</i>, <i>Davilla</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<p>Order 11. <b>Elatinaceæ</b> (<b>Water-worts</b>). About 25
-species belong to this order; especially in temperate climates.
-They are small, creeping, rooted, aquatic plants, with opposite
-or verticillate leaves and <i>stipules</i>. The flowers are
-solitary or situated in small dichasia in the leaf-axils,
-they are small, regular, ☿, hypogynous, with free petals, the
-same number in all 5 whorls (Sn, Pn, An + n, Gn), 3-merous
-(<i>e.g. Elatine hexandra</i>), 4-merous (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>E. hydropiper</i>), or 5-merous (<i>Bergia</i>); the
-corolla-stamens are sometimes suppressed; petals imbricate
-without being twisted; the ovary is 3–4–5-locular, with 3–4–5
-<i>free styles</i>; the capsule dehisces septicidally. The seeds
-are orthotropous or curved, often transversely ribbed, endosperm
-wanting. The order is most nearly allied to Hypericaceæ, whose
-primitive form it appears to represent.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig426" style="width: 329px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig426.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 426.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Hypericum
-quadrangulum</i>: <i>S</i> indicates the bud of the helicoid cyme in
-the axil of the bracteole β.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig427" style="width: 218px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig427.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 427.</span>&mdash;<i>Hypericum.</i> Flower with three
-bundles of stamens.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 12. <b>Hypericaceæ</b> (<b>St. John’s-worts</b>). This order
-is recognised by its always <i>opposite</i> or <i>verticillate</i>,
-<i>simple</i>, and entire, penninerved leaves, without stipules, and
-usually dotted with <i>pellucid</i> glands; by the always ☿, regular,
-hypogynous flowers in a cymose inflorescence; the generally 5-merous
-calyx and corolla, with sepals and petals free; the stamens 3–5,
-numerously branched (Figs. <a href="#fig426">426</a>, <a href="#fig427">427</a>); and the gynœceum, 3–5-carpellate,
-styles usually <i>free</i>. The ovary is 3–5-locular, or unilocular
-with 3–5 parietal placentæ. Fruit a capsule (dehiscing septicidally) or
-berry. Endosperm absent.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The inflorescence is a <i>dichasium</i> or <i>helicoid cyme</i>.
-The structure of the flowers is the same as that of the
-foregoing orders: S5, P5; succeeding these in some cases are two
-5-merous whorls of stamens in regular alternation, of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_414">[414]</span> which the
-inner is epipetalous; but the outer whorl is only represented by
-5 small scales (Fig. <a href="#fig427">427</a>), or is altogether absent (<i>Hypericum
-calycinum</i>, <i>H. hircinum</i>), and the inner divided
-into numerous stamens, that is, these 5 stamens are so deeply
-divided that 5 <i>epipetalous</i> groups bearing anthers are
-found (as in the Cistaceæ); in other cases the flower becomes
-<i>3-merous after the petals</i>, stamens 3 + 3 following in
-regular alternation (Figs. <a href="#fig426">426</a>, <a href="#fig427">427</a>), the outer whorl of stamens
-in these cases is also present as staminodes (Fig. <a href="#fig427">427</a>), or may
-be altogether suppressed. Carpels 3–5. <i>The petals are often
-twisted</i> in the bud, and are then oblique.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><i>Hypericum.</i> Some species have a square stem; in these cases the
-leaves are placed opposite the edges. Fruit a capsule.&mdash;<i>Vismia</i>
-has a berry.&mdash;<span class="smaller">The flowers of <i>Hypericum</i> have no honey, and
-supply only pollen; self-pollination often takes place.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>About 240 species; the tropical ones being often shrubs or
-trees; the others generally perennial shrubs.&mdash;<i>Hypericum</i>,
-St. John’s-wort, contains a resinous, red matter, which can be
-extracted with alcohol. The American gamboge is the dried sap of
-species of <i>Vismia</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 13. <b>Guttiferæ</b>, or <b>Clusiaceæ</b>. Closely allied
-to the Hypericaceæ and Ternstrœmiaceæ. Leaves opposite or
-verticillate. The flowers are often unisexual; stamens united;
-the gynœceum has most frequently a sessile, radiating or
-shield-like stigma.</p>
-
-<p>370 species; chiefly in the Tropics (Am.). They are principally
-woody plants and their bark contains a yellow gum resin,
-“gamboge,” which is extracted from <i>Garcinia morella</i>
-(E. Ind.) and others. Mangosteen (<i>Garcinia mangostana</i>
-S.E. Asia), and <i>Mammea americana</i> (W. Ind.), have very
-delicious fruits. To this order also belong <i>Platonia
-insignis</i>, <i>Pentadesma butyracea</i> (the Butter-tree),
-<i>Clusia</i>, <i>Calophyllum</i>, <i>Cataba</i>, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 14. <b>Ternstrœmiaceæ.</b> Trees and shrubs with scattered,
-simple, and often more or less leathery, evergreen, penninerved
-leaves, without stipules (Fig. <a href="#fig428">428</a>). The two most important genera
-are: <i>Camellia</i> and the closely allied <i>Thea</i> (by some
-authorities these are united into one genus). The flowers are regular,
-hypogynous, and situated singly on very short stalks. A number of green
-floral-leaves are placed below the calyx and gradually pass over into
-the sepals, and the leaves (5–6) of the calyx again gradually pass over
-into the corolla (this being especially marked in <i>Camellia</i>),
-of which the number of leaves varies (5, 6, 7 and upwards); the calyx
-and the corolla are <i>acyclic</i> or <i>eucyclic</i>; the petals are
-slightly united at the base; stamens <i>numerous</i> in many whorls,
-the external ones are arranged in bundles and united with the petals
-as in the Columniferæ; gynœceum syncarpous; styles often <i>free</i>
-nearly to the base; ovary 3–5-locular, ovules numerous in each loculus.
-The fruit is a woody capsule.&mdash;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_415">[415]</span><span class="smaller">Other genera show more distinctly
-than these the same structure as in the preceding orders, namely: S5,
-P5, A5 + 5, of which the calyx-stamens are often suppressed, and the
-petal-stamens divided into numerous stamens.&mdash;<i>Kielmeyera</i> (S.
-Am.)</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>260 species; especially in the Tropics (E. Asia, Am.) The leaves
-of <i>Thea chinensis</i> (or <i>Camellia thea</i>), the Tea-tree
-(E. Asia), are cultivated for the well-known “tea,” and contain
-theine: the best are the young, still hairy leaves, of greyish
-colour; there are many varieties. Ornamental plants, <i>Camellia
-japonica</i> and <i>Actinidia</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig428" style="width: 417px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig428.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 428.</span>&mdash;<i>Thea chinensis</i> (reduced).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Closely allied to this order are: Order 15. <b>Rhizoboleæ</b>
-(with enormously large hypocotyl&mdash;hence the name), and Order 16.
-<b>Marcgraviaceæ</b> (partly epiphytes, with dimorphic leaves
-and cup- or helmet-like, coloured, honey-secreting floral-leaves,
-which serve to attract insects).</p>
-
-<p>Order 17. <b>Dipterocarpaceæ.</b> This order has taken
-its name from the large wings attached to the fruits in
-<i>Dipterocarpus</i> (the wings being largely developed sepals);
-trees and shrubs from Trop. Asia. 180 species. Camphor ready
-prepared is found in the stem of <i>Dryobalanops camphora</i>.
-<i>Hopea</i>; <i>Vateria</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_416">[416]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 12. <b>Gruinales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flowers are hypogynous, ☿, polypetalous, usually
-regular (except <i>Pelargonium</i>, <i>Tropæolaceæ</i>,
-<i>Balsaminaceæ</i>) and <i>throughout 5-merous</i>: S5, P5, A5
-+ 5, or 5 + 0, G5 (<i>epipetalous</i>). The stamens soon fall
-off and are <i>obdiplostemonous</i>, often united at the base
-(<i>monadelphous</i>); the corolla-stamens are in some completely
-suppressed (<i>e.g. Balsaminaceæ</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig438">438</a>), in others
-reduced to teeth (<i>Linum</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig431">431</a>; <i>Erodium</i>). The
-<i>Tropæolaceæ</i> have 3 carpels and only 8 stamens (Fig. <a href="#fig437">437</a>).
-Ring-like nectaries are not present, but at most only glandular bodies,
-borne outside the base of the stamens. Ovaries many-locular. The
-ovules as a rule are pendulous, with the micropyle directed outwards
-(Fig. <a href="#fig431">431</a>, B), and the radicle therefore also points outwards. Usually
-<i>herbs</i>. Related to the Columniferæ.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Oxalidaceæ.</b> Most of the species are herbs with
-rhizomes; the leaves are stalked, <i>compound</i>, with entire leaflets
-which are folded and bent backwards in the bud (and in the sleep
-position), exstipulate; some species have sensitive leaves. The flowers
-(Fig. <a href="#fig429">429</a>) are regular, and have S5, P5, which are <i>twisted</i>
-to the left or right in æstivation, A5 + 5, all united at the base
-(monadelphous), gynœceum 5-carpellate, <i>styles 5 free</i>, stigmas
-capitate, ovary 5-locular, ovules numerous. The fruit is a <i>capsule
-opening</i> with clefts <i>on the dorsal sutures</i> through which the
-seeds are ejected, while the <i>fleshy, external layer of the testa</i>
-springs off elastically. Embryo straight. Endosperm.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig429" style="width: 269px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig429.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 429.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Oxal’s acetosella</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Oxalis</i> (Wood-Sorrel). Leaves digitate. Species also
-occur with phyllodia, <i>i.e.</i> leaf-like petioles placed
-vertically without lamina; a few have pinnate leaves. The
-flowers are situated singly or in dichasia, and unipared
-scorpioid cymes. The pollination is effected by insects. Some
-species are trimorphic (long-, short-, medium-styled flowers)
-and some, <i>e.g. O. acetosella</i>, have cleistogamic
-flowers in addition to the ordinary ones. Glands are found on
-the outer side of the corolla-stamens or of all the stamens.
-<i>O. tetraphylla</i> and others have adventitious edible roots,
-resembling tap-roots.&mdash;<i>Averrhoa</i> is a tropical tree, with
-berries and pinnate leaves.</p>
-
-<p>235 species (205 belong to <i>Oxalis</i>); chiefly in S. Africa
-and Trop. America.&mdash;Oxalate of potash is contained in the leaves
-of <i>Oxalis</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_417">[417]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Linaceæ.</b> Herbs with scattered or opposite, sessile,
-<i>simple</i>, small, entire leaves, without (rarely with small)
-stipules. The flowers (Fig. <a href="#fig430">430</a>) are regular, 5- or 4-merous. Petals
-are free, <i>twisted</i>, quickly falling off. Stamens united at the
-base; the petal-stamens <i>are either reduced to teeth</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig431">431</a>
-<i>A</i>, <i>m</i>) <i>or entirely suppressed</i>. <i>Styles free.</i>
-The (5–4) epipetalous loculi of the ovary are incompletely halved by
-<i>false divisional walls</i>, each half contains one ovule (Fig. <a href="#fig431">431</a>
-<i>C</i>). The fruit is a spherical <i>capsule, dehiscing along the
-divisional wall</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig432">432</a>); the 10 (-8) seeds have a straight
-embryo and very slight endosperm (Fig. <a href="#fig433">433</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig430" style="width: 200px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 430–433.</span>&mdash;<i>Linum usitatissimum.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig430.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 430.</span>&mdash;The Flax plant.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig431" style="width: 444px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig431.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 431.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i> Flower after removal of
-sepals and petals; <i>m</i> petal-stamens reduced to teeth. <i>B</i>
-Longitudinal section of ovary. <i>C</i> Transverse section of capsule.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig432" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig432.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 432.</span>&mdash;Capsule (nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig433" style="width: 300px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig433.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 433.</span>&mdash;Transverse and longitudinal section
-of seed: <i>bl</i> the cotyledons; <i>k</i> the plumule; <i>R</i> the
-radicle; <i>fr</i> the endosperm; <i>sk</i> the testa.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_418">[418]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Linum</i> (Flax) has 5-merous flowers. <span class="smaller">The main axis terminates
-in a flower; and the succeeding branching is cymose, or unipared
-scorpioid branching by unilateral development, and the flowers in
-consequence of the vigorous sympodial development of the lateral axis
-(and also by the leaves being displaced and pushed aside), assume a
-position apparently lateral (<i>i.e.</i> racemose) without bracts;
-each branch of the sympodium generally has 2 leaves. The testa is
-shining and smooth when dry, but its external cellular layer becomes
-mucilaginous in water.</span>&mdash;<i>Radiola</i> has a 4-merous flower. It is
-a small herb with opposite leaves, and regular, dichasial branching.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The anthers and stigmas in <i>L. catharticum</i> and
-<i>usitatissimum</i> develop simultaneously, and
-cross-pollination as well as self-pollination takes place. <i>L.
-grandiflorum</i>, <i>perenne</i>, and others, are dimorphic
-(short-and long-styled). There are 5 nectaries outside the
-stamens.</p>
-
-<p>130 species; <i>Linum</i> and <i>Radiola</i> are native
-genera.&mdash;<i>L. usitatissimum</i> is extensively cultivated
-in Europe (especially in Russia and Belgium), N. America and
-elsewhere (its home no doubt being Asia), partly on account
-of the oil (linseed oil) which is extracted from the seeds,
-and partly on account of the bast of the stem, which has very
-thick-walled cells. The seeds and oil are <span class="allsmcap">OFFICINAL</span>.
-The species cultivated in ancient times was <i>L.
-angustifolium</i>. Several species are cultivated as ornamental
-plants.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Geraniaceæ.</b> The majority are herbs with dichasial
-branching, and scattered or opposite, stalked, <i>palminerved</i>
-(rarely penninerved) leaves with small <i>stipules</i>. The flowers are
-regular (except <i>Pelargonium</i>) and 5-merous, with 10 or 5 stamens,
-which are slightly united at the base. Nectaries alternate with the
-corolla-stamens. The ovary is most frequently 5-locular, deeply
-5-grooved, and bears 1 <i>well developed style</i> (“beak”), which
-towards the apex divides into 5 branches bearing stigmas; ovules 1 in
-each loculus, pendulous or ascending. <i>The 5 carpels become detached
-from one another when ripe</i>, and bend or <i>roll back</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig434">434</a>)
-or become <i>spirally twisted</i> in the upper “beak-like” part (Figs.
-<a href="#fig435">435</a>, <a href="#fig436">436</a>), whilst a <i>central column</i> (septal column) persists;
-each carpel, in consequence, remains either closed, and the fruit is a
-5-merous <i>schizocarp</i> whose nut-like lower portion, containing the
-seed, is forced into the ground, thus burying the seed by the movements
-of the spirally-twisted, hygroscopic “beak” (Figs. <a href="#fig435">435</a>, <a href="#fig436">436</a>); or it
-opens along the ventral suture, so that the seeds may fall out, and it
-is then a 5-valved <i>capsule</i>, with septicidal dehiscence (Fig.
-<a href="#fig434">434</a>) and the rolling up often takes place so suddenly and violently
-that the seeds are shot out to considerable distances. The embryo is
-usually green and <i>curved</i>, and the <i>cotyledons are folded</i>;
-endosperm is wanting.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_419">[419]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Geranium</i> (Crane’s-bill) has 5 + 5 stamens,and a septicidal
-capsule; the carpels most frequently remain suspended from the apex of
-the column (Fig. <a href="#fig434">434</a>). The leaves are most frequently palminerved. The
-flowers are situated solitarily or 2 together (2-flowered scorpioid
-cyme).&mdash;<i>Erodium</i> (Stork’s-bill); inflorescence a many-flowered
-unipared scorpioid cyme, stamens 5 + 0 (petal-stamens are wanting),
-and fruit a schizocarp whose carpels become detached; their beaks are
-hairy on the internal surface and <i>twist themselves spirally</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig436">436</a>). The umbellate inflorescences are composed of multiflowered
-scorpioid cymes. The leaves are often penninerved.&mdash;<span class="smaller">The most
-primitive type is represented by <i>Biebersteinia</i>: S5, P5, A5
-+ 5, G5 (ovaries <i>free</i>, and styles united above); fruit 5
-small nuts. The most advanced type is <i>Pelargonium</i>, which has
-<i>zygomorphic</i> flowers, the posterior sepal being prolonged into a
-spur which becomes adnate to the peduncle; the petals are unequal in
-size; some of the petal-stamens are often wanting. (<i>Erodium</i> may
-be slightly zygomorphic).</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig434" style="width: 218px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig434.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 434.</span>&mdash;<i>Geranium sanguineum.</i> Fruit (3/1).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig435" style="width: 434px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig435.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 435.</span>&mdash;<i>Pelargonium.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig436" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig436.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 436.</span>&mdash;<i>Erodium cicutarium</i>, detached
-carpel.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> The large-flowered <i>Geranium</i>-species
-are protandrous, <i>e.g. G. pratense</i> (one whorl
-of stamens opens first, and then the other, and succeeding
-these the stigmas, after shedding the pollen the stamens
-bend outwards); the small-flowered are also adapted, with
-various modifications, for self-pollination.&mdash;470 species;
-moderately hot climates, especially S. Africa.&mdash;Several
-<i>Pelargonium</i>-species, with numerous varieties, are
-ornamental plants (from S. Africa).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Tropæolaceæ.</b> Herbaceous, juicy plants which have
-scattered, long-stalked, peltate leaves without stipules, and
-often<span class="pagenum" id="Page_420">[420]</span> climb by their sensitive petioles. The flowers are situated
-singly in the axils of the foliage-leaves on long stalks, and are
-<i>zygomorphic</i>, the receptacle under the posterior sepal being
-prolonged <i>into a spur</i>; there are also differences between the
-posterior and anterior petals, the 2 posterior petals situated on
-the border of the spur being <i>perigynous</i>, and the edge of the
-anterior petals adjoining the claw fringed. After the 5 sepals (which
-are more or less coloured) and the 5 petals, follow 8 <i>stamens</i>
-(as the 2 median ones are suppressed, one from each whorl) and a
-gynœceum formed of 3 carpels; in each of the 3 loculi of the 3-grooved
-ovary is 1 ovule. The fruit is a <i>schizocarp</i> and divides into
-3 1-seeded, <i>drupe-like</i> fruitlets, which do not (as in the
-Geraniaceæ) leave any pronounced column between them. Endosperm is
-wanting. The cotyledons are thick and sometimes slightly coalescent.
-<span class="smaller">Tubers often occur.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig437" style="width: 221px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig437.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 437.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Tropæolum</i>:
-<i>sp</i>, spur.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Tropæolum.</i>&mdash;About 40 species; all from America.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span>&mdash;The spur is the receptacle for the
-nectar; the flowers are protandrous; the anthers open first,
-and one by one take up a position in front of the entrance to
-the spur, resuming their original position when the pollen is
-shed; the stigma finally takes their place after the filaments
-have bent backwards.&mdash;These plants have an acrid taste (hence
-the name “Nasturtium,” “Indian Cress”), on which account the
-flower-buds and young fruits of <i>T. majus</i> are used as
-capers. Some species are ornamental plants.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Balsaminaceæ.</b> Herbaceous, chiefly annual plants with
-juicy, brittle stems, so transparent that the vascular bundles may be
-distinctly seen. The leaves are simple, usually scattered, penninerved
-and dentate; stipules are wanting, but sometimes large glands are
-present in their place at the base of the petioles. The flowers are
-strongly zygomorphic; of their five 5-merous whorls the petal-stamens
-are suppressed (S5, P5, A5 + 0, G5); the sepals are <i>coloured</i>,
-the 2 <i>anterior ones</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig438">438</a> <i>3</i>, <i>5</i>) <i>are very
-small</i> or entirely suppressed, <i>the posterior one</i> is very
-large and <i>elongated into a spur</i>, and the 2 lateral ones pushed
-forward; sometimes the weight of the spur turns the flower completely
-round, so that the posterior leaves assume an anterior position;
-apparently only 3 petals, since the lateral and the posterior petals
-become united in pairs, and the anterior is larger<span class="pagenum" id="Page_421">[421]</span> and differently
-shaped; the 5 stamens have very short and thick filaments united at
-the base, and their anthers finally adhere together and remain in
-this condition, covering over the gynœceum; the filaments ultimately
-rupture at the base, and the entire anthers are raised on the apex of
-the gynœceum as it grows up. The gynœceum has a <i>sessile stigma</i>
-and a 5-locular ovary. The fruit is a capsule which, on maturity, opens
-suddenly when irritated, dividing into valves from the base upwards,
-and as the 5 valves roll up elastically, the seeds are shot out on all
-sides to considerable distances; a central column persists (Fig. <a href="#fig439">439</a>).
-The embryo is straight, and without endosperm.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig438" style="width: 213px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig438.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 438.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Impatiens
-glanduligera</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig439" style="width: 267px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig439.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 439.</span>&mdash;Fruit of <i>Impatiens</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Impatiens</i>; in Europe only <i>I. noli-me-tangere</i>. 225
-species; especially from Asia. Several species have two kinds of
-flowers: small, cleistogamic, but fertile; and large, coloured
-flowers, which in <i>I. balsamine</i> (ornamental plant, E.
-Ind.) are protandrous and pollinated by hive-and humble-bees, as
-they suck the honey from the spur.</p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Limnanthaceæ.</b> The flowers are regular and differ
-from all the other orders in the family by having the carpels
-not in front of the petals, but <i>in front of the sepals</i>
-(which are <i>valvate</i>), and further, the loculi are nearly
-<i>free individually</i>, but with a <i>common gynobasic</i>
-style; the ovules are <i>ascending</i> and <i>apotropous</i>
-(anatropous with ventral raphe). The fruit is a schizocarp, with
-nut-like cocci.&mdash;<i>Limnanthes</i> (4 species; N. Am.) perhaps
-belongs to another family.</p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Humiriaceæ.</b> Trees and shrubs; about 20 species;
-Trop. Am.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 13. <b>Columniferæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The chief characteristics of the orders belonging to this family
-are the ☿, regular, generally 5-merous, <i>hypogynous</i> flowers
-with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_422">[422]</span> 5-merous <i>calyx</i>, sepals united and <i>valvate</i> in
-the bud; petals 5, free (often <i>twisted</i> in the bud); stamens
-∞ <i>e.g.</i>: 10, in two whorls, but one of these is more or less
-suppressed, often altogether wanting, or replaced by 5 staminodes,
-while <i>the other</i> (inner whorl) <i>is generally divided more
-or less deeply</i> into a large number of anther-bearing filaments.
-The filaments too (except <i>Tiliaceæ</i>) are <i>united into a
-tube</i>, which, especially in the <i>Malvaceæ</i>, forms a long
-column in the centre of the flower, surrounding the gynœceum (Figs.
-<a href="#fig445">445</a>, <a href="#fig448">448</a>); in this case, which is the most pronounced, the filaments
-are united into one bundle (<i>monadelphous</i>), in other instances,
-<i>polyadelphous</i>. The number of carpels varies greatly (2 to
-about 50), but they are nearly always united and form a syncarpous
-multilocular gynœceum.&mdash;The vegetative characters also closely agree,
-the leaves <i>are always scattered and generally stipulate</i>; all
-the green portions very often bear <i>stellate hairs</i>, and the
-bark in all the 3 orders is <i>rich in tough bast</i>. Mucilage is
-often present in cells or passages.&mdash;This family is connected with the
-<i>Ternstrœmiaceæ</i>, from which it is very hard to draw a sharp line
-of demarcation, and it is also allied to the <i>Cistaceæ</i> and to the
-<i>Gruinales</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Sterculiaceæ</b> (including Buettneriaceæ). This is,
-no doubt, the least modified order, and one in which the stamens
-occur undivided. Obdiplostemonous. The 10 stamens in two whorls
-are most frequently united at the base into a short tube, and have
-<i>4-locular, extrorse</i> anthers. The calyx-stamens are nearly always
-simple, tooth-like staminodes, situated on the edge of the tube, or
-are entirely suppressed. The same relation is found, for instance,
-in the Ampelidaceæ and Rhamnaceæ, namely <i>5 stamens in front of
-the 5 petals</i>; not infrequently the 5 stamens are doubled (Fig.
-<a href="#fig441">441</a>). Unisexual flowers are found in <i>Sterculia</i>, <i>Cola</i>,
-<i>Heritiera</i>. The corolla is often wanting, or developed in an
-unusual manner. Each loculus of the ovary (generally 5) always contains
-more than one ovule. Fruit a capsule. Androgynophore often present
-(<i>Helicteres</i>; <i>Sterculia</i>, etc.).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Hermannia</i>, <i>Mahernia</i>, <i>Melochia</i>,
-etc., have flat petals with twisted æstivation; 5
-undivided stamens, which usually are but slightly united
-at the base, and most frequently, without staminodes.
-<i>Thomasia</i>; <i>Helicteres</i>; <i>Sterculia</i>
-(free follicles).&mdash;<i>Theobroma</i>, <i>Rulingia</i>,
-<i>Buettneria</i>, <i>Commersonia</i>, <i>Guazuma</i>, etc., have
-petals concave at the base, and terminating in a limb abruptly
-bent back, and at the boundary between them most frequently
-ligular outgrowths, as in certain genera of the Caryophyllaceæ;
-stamens 5–15–∞, anthers at the edge of a short tube and 5 linear
-staminodes (Fig. <a href="#fig441">441</a>).&mdash;The Cocoa-tree (<i>Theobroma</i>), (Fig.
-<a href="#fig440">440</a>) bears large, reddish-yellow, berry-like fruits, resembling
-short cucumbers,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_423">[423]</span> but ultimately becoming leathery to woody;
-in each of the 5 loculi are 2 (apparently only 1) rows of
-horizontal, oily seeds, as large as almonds. Cotyledons large,
-thick, and irregularly folded. Endosperm absent (Fig. <a href="#fig442">442</a>).</p>
-
-<p>49 genera, with about 750 species; almost entirely confined to
-the Tropics; none in Europe or in N. Asia.&mdash;The seeds of the
-Cocoa-tree (<i>T. cacao</i>, <i>bicolor</i>, <i>glaucum</i>,
-etc., natives of Trop. Am., especially north of the Equator) are
-used for chocolate and are also <i>officinal</i> (“Cocoa-beans,”
-“Cocoa-butter,” “Oil of Theobroma”). Theobromine. <i>Cola
-acuminata</i>, Africa.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig440" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig440.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 440.</span>&mdash;<i>Theobroma cacao.</i> Branch with
-flowers and fruits (⅙).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig441" style="width: 258px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 441–442.</span>&mdash;<i>Theobroma cacao.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig441.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 441.</span>&mdash;Diagram of the flower: <i>st</i> barren stamens.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig442" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig442.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 442.</span>&mdash;<i>B</i> Seed in transverse section: <i>n</i>
-hilum. <i>A</i> Embryo after the removal of one of the cotyledons.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Tiliaceæ.</b> This differs from the other orders of the
-Columniferæ chiefly in the stamens being entirely <i>free</i> from each
-other, and also <i>divided</i> into many filaments, <i>as far as the
-base</i>, or at all events very far down, so that the <i>flower appears
-to have numerous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_424">[424]</span> stamens</i> or to be <i>slightly</i> polyadelphous
-(Fig. <a href="#fig443">443</a>); in addition to this, it may be observed that the anthers
-are <i>4-locular</i> and <i>introrse</i>. In <i>Luehea</i> the groups of
-stamens alternate with the petals. In a few genera (<i>Corchorus</i>,
-<i>Triumfetta</i>) 10 free and single stamens are found in 2 whorls;
-but, in the majority, groups of free stamens in separate bundles. The
-stamens are more or less united in <i>Apeiba, Luehea</i>. Style simple.
-Ovary 2-locular. The ovules are pendulous; raphe turned inwards. The
-calyx readily falls off; the æstivation of the entirely free petals is
-slightly imbricate (<i>not twisted</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig443" style="width: 300px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig443.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 443.</span>&mdash;Inflorescence of <i>Tilia</i>, with
-its winged bracteole (<i>h</i>); <i>a</i>, <i>a</i> axis of the shoot;
-the vegetative bud is seen between the inflorescence and the axis of
-the shoot; <i>b</i> petiole of foliage-leaf.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Tilia</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig443">443</a>, <a href="#fig444">444</a>). Calyx and corolla 5-merous; the 5
-staminal leaves (opposite the petals) divided as far as the base into a
-large number of stamens which are free or united into groups; gynœceum
-with 5 loculi in the ovary (opposite the sepals); there are 2 ovules
-in each loculus, though the ovary ripens into a 1-seeded nut, which
-is not detached from the axis of the inflorescence, but is carried
-away by the wind, whirling round and round, its large-winged bracteole
-serving as a parachute (Fig. <a href="#fig443">443</a>).&mdash;<span class="smaller">Only trees, with alternate,
-obliquely heart-shaped and dentate leaves; stellate hairs, as in the
-other Columniferæ, are often present. The terminal bud of the branch
-always fails to develop, and the growth is then continued sympodially
-by the uppermost axillary buds. The <span class="allsmcap">INFLORESCENCE</span> (Figs.
-<a href="#fig443">443</a>, <a href="#fig444">444</a>) is a 3–7-flowered dichasium (Fig. <a href="#fig444">444</a> <i>t</i>, <i>d</i>,
-<i>e</i>), which is developed in the axil of a foliage-leaf (Fig. <a href="#fig444">444</a>).
-The first of its 2 bracteoles (<i>a</i>) is large, thin, leaf-like,
-and united with the inflorescence, the lower portion of which forms a
-broad wing, its so-called “bract”; the second bracteole (<i>b</i>), on
-the other hand, remains scale-like, and supports a winter foliage-bud
-covered with bud-scales which thus is situated at the base<span class="pagenum" id="Page_425">[425]</span> of the
-inflorescence, and is a bud of the 2nd order, in relation to the
-vegetative shoot. This bud is always found beneath the inflorescence
-on the branch placed horizontally, and the winged bracteole is always
-found above it, a relation which is connected with the fact that the
-2 rows of shoots on the sides of a branch are <i>antidromous</i> with
-regard to each other.&mdash;The dichasium itself (Fig. <a href="#fig444">444</a>) terminates with
-the flower (<i>t</i>); it has 3 floral-leaves (<i>c</i>, <i>d</i>,
-<i>e</i>), which soon fall off; <i>c</i> is barren: the other two
-bear flowers, or few-flowered dichasia, or unipared scorpioid cymes
-(indicated in the figure).&mdash;The foliage-leaves are folded in the bud
-upon the median line (1, 2, 3 in Fig. <a href="#fig444">444</a> are foliage-leaves with
-their 2 stipules), the inner half is broader than the outer, and after
-unfolding is turned away from the mother-axis (the position of the new
-inflorescences and vegetative buds is indicated in their axils on the
-figure).&mdash;The cotyledons on germination appear above the ground as
-large, <i>lobed</i> leaves.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Of the other genera some have a bell-shaped, gamosepalous calyx,
-some have no corolla, the anthers of some open at the apex
-(<i>Aristotelia</i>, <i>Elæocarpus</i>, etc.), the majority
-have a capsule, some have berries, or drupes, some separate
-into fruitlets, etc.&mdash;<i>Corchorus</i>, <i>Triumfetta</i>
-(nut, with hooked bristles), <i>Luehea</i>, <i>Apeiba</i>, etc.
-<i>Sparmannia</i> is an African genus; 4-merous flowers; fruit
-a warted capsule; filaments numerous and sensitive to touch,
-the external ones are without anthers and moniliform above. The
-plant is covered with numerous soft and stellate hairs, and at
-the apex of the branches bears several cymose umbels.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig444" style="width: 438px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig444.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 444.</span>&mdash;Diagram of the inflorescence of
-<i>Tilia</i> and the vegetative bud; the position of the leaves is
-indicated, and also the position of the inflorescences, which develop
-from their axils in the following year.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination</span> in <i>Tilia</i> is effected by insects,
-especially bees and Diptera, which swarm round the tree tops,
-allured by the numerous strongly-scented flowers and the
-easily accessible honey (formed in the hollow sepals). As the
-flowers are pendulous, the nectar is protected from ruin;
-and, in addition, the inflorescence is more or less concealed
-beneath the foliage-leaf. Self-pollination is impossible, on
-account of protandry.&mdash;About 470 species (nearly all trees
-and shrubs); especially in the Tropics, only a few being
-found in the temperate, none in the polar regions, or in
-high mountainous districts.&mdash;The inflorescence of the native
-species of <i>Tilia</i> is medicinal. The wood is used for
-charcoal.&mdash;The majority are used for timber, and for the sake of
-the bast (“Bast,” “Jute,” the bast of <i>Corchorus textilis</i>,
-<i>Luehea</i>, and others).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Malvaceæ</b> (<b>Mallows</b>). The plants are easily
-recognised by the scattered, simple, <i>palminerved</i>, most
-frequently lobed, stipulate <i>leaves</i>, folded in the bud; the
-perfect, regular, hypogynous flowers, with <i>gamosepalous</i>,
-persistent, 5-merous calyx<span class="pagenum" id="Page_426">[426]</span> with <i>valvate</i> æstivation; the 5
-<i>petals twisted</i> in the bud and united with one another at the
-base, and by the 5 <i>apparently numerous stamens</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig445">445</a>,
-<a href="#fig448">448</a>), with the filaments <i>united into a tube</i>, with <i>reniform
-bilocular anthers</i> opening by a crescentic slit (in 2 valves).
-Carpels 3–∞ united into one gynœceum; the <i>embryo is curved and the
-cotyledons are folded</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig447">447</a>, <a href="#fig451">451</a>); endosperm scanty, often
-mucilaginous.&mdash;Most of the plants belonging to this order are herbs,
-often closely studded with <i>stellate hairs</i>. The leaves are most
-frequently palmatifid or palmatisect.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig445" style="width: 409px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig445.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 445.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal section through the
-flower of <i>Malva silvestris</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig446" style="width: 316px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig446.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 446.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Althæa rosea</i>:
-<i>i</i> the epicalyx.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>An <i>epicalyx</i> is often found formed by <i>floral-leaves</i>
-placed close beneath the calyx, in some 3, in others several.
-The median sepal is posterior in the species without epicalyx,
-often anterior in those which have an epicalyx.&mdash;The petals are
-<i>twisted either to the right or to the left</i> in accordance
-with the spiral of the calyx; they are most frequently oblique,
-as in the other plants with twisted corollas, so that the
-portion covered in the æstivation is the most developed.
-The corolla drops off as a whole, united with the staminal
-tube.&mdash;Only the 5 petal-stamens are developed, but they are
-divided into a number of stamens, placed in 2 rows, and provided
-only with <i>half</i>-anthers (leaf-segments, see Fig. <a href="#fig446">446</a>;
-the sepal-stamens are completely suppressed); these 5 staminal
-leaves are then united into a tube, frequently 5-dentate at
-the top, and bearing the anthers on its external side. The
-pollen-grains are specially large, spherical and spiny. There
-are from 3 to about 50 carpels united into one gynœceum and
-placed round the summit of the axis which most frequently
-projects between them. There is only 1 style, which is generally
-divided into as many stigma-bearing branches as there are
-carpels (Figs. <a href="#fig445">445</a>, <a href="#fig448">448</a>). The fruit is a schizocarp or capsule.
-Endosperm (Figs. <a href="#fig447">447</a> A, <a href="#fig451">451</a>) scanty, often mucilaginous round
-the <i>embryo</i>, which is rich in oil.</p>
-
-<p>The order is the most advanced type of Columniferæ; it stands
-especially near to the Sterculiaceæ, but is separated from these
-and from the Tiliaceæ, among other characters, by its 2-locular
-(ultimately 1-chambered) anthers.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The sub-orders may be arranged as follows:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_427">[427]</span></p>
-
-<p>I. Carpels in one whorl.</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <b>The fruit a capsule</b>, <span class="smaller">most frequently with
-loculicidal dehiscence, and many seeds in each loculus</span>.</p>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Gossypieæ.</span> The staminal-column is naked at the apex,
-blunted, or 5-dentate.&mdash;<i>Gossypium</i> (the Cotton plant) has an
-epicalyx of 3 large ovate-cordate leaves, an almost entire, low and
-compressed calyx. Solitary flowers. Large, most frequently yellow,
-corollas. A 3–5-valved capsule with many spherical seeds. “Cotton” is
-the seed-hairs developed upon the entire surface of the seeds (Fig.
-<a href="#fig447">447</a>), and consists of long, 1-cellular hairs, filled with air (and
-therefore white); these are thin-walled, with a large lumen, and during
-drying twist spirally, and come together more or less in the form of
-bands. They consist of cellulose, and have a cuticle.&mdash;<i>Hibiscus</i>
-has several, most frequently narrow, epicalyx-leaves, a distinct
-5-toothed or 5-partite calyx.&mdash;<i>Abutilon</i>; <i>Modiola</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig447" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig447.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 447.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i> Seed of <i>Gossypium</i>
-with hairs; <i>B</i> the same in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Bombaceæ.</span> The staminal tube is more or
-less deeply cleft into bundles, sometimes almost to the base;
-pollen smooth, style simple with capitate, lobed stigma. Almost
-all plants belonging to this group are trees, and in many
-instances have large barrel-shaped stems, that is, swollen in
-the centre, and sometimes covered with large warts. The wood is
-exceptionally light and soft. The flowers are often enormously
-large, and have beautiful petals; in some they unfold before
-the leaves. The capsule-wall is sometimes closely covered on
-its inner service with long, silky, woolly hairs, while the
-seeds themselves are generally without hairs. These hairs,
-however, on account of their brittle nature, cannot be used
-like those of the Cotton-plant. Digitate leaves are found in
-the <i>Baobab-tree</i> (<i>Adansonia</i>) from Africa, noted
-for its enormously thick, but short stem, and in the American
-<i>Silk-cotton trees</i> (<i>Bombax</i>, <i>Eriodendron</i>,
-<i>Chorisia</i>). <i>Ochroma</i>, <i>Cheirostemon</i>,
-<i>Durio</i>, and others also belong to this group. <i>Durio</i>
-is noted for its delicious fruits, which have a most unpleasant
-smell.</p>
-
-<p>[<i>Bombax malabaricum</i> is diplostemonous; the five
-sepal-stamens repeatedly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_428">[428]</span> branch, and the filaments bear
-unilocular anthers; the five petal-stamens bear bilocular
-anthers.]</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <b>Schizocarps</b>, with 1-seeded fruitlets, most frequently
-nut-like and reniform (Figs. <a href="#fig449">449</a>, <a href="#fig451">451</a>).</p>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Malveæ, Mallow Group.</span> The carpels are arranged in
-one whorl (Fig. <a href="#fig449">449</a>); the number of stylar-branches equals that of
-the carpels; fruitlets 1-seeded, reniform, indehiscent, but detaching
-themselves from one another and from the persistent central column
-(Figs. <a href="#fig450">450</a>, <a href="#fig451">451</a>).&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Malva</i> has an <i>epicalyx of 3 free
-leaves</i>. A flower with 2 suppressed bracteoles is situated in
-the axil of the foliage-leaves; one of these supports a homodromous
-foliage-shoot which forms a repetition of the main axis, the other
-an antidromous flower which continues the branching as a unipared
-scorpioid cyme.&mdash;<i>Althæa</i>, Rose Mallow, has an <i>epicalyx of
-6–9 leaves united at the base</i>.&mdash;<i>Lavatera</i>, <i>Sida</i>,
-<i>Anoda</i>, <i>Bastardia</i>, etc., have no epicalyx.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig448" style="width: 200px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 448–451.</span>&mdash;<i>Malva silvestris.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig448.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 448.</span>&mdash;The flower after removal of the
-perianth (5/1).]</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig449" style="width: 385px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig449.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 449.</span>&mdash;The fruit (5/1).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig450" style="width: 188px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig450.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 450.</span>&mdash;A fruitlet (5/1).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig451" style="width: 260px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig451.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 451.</span>&mdash;The same in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>4.</b> <span class="smcap">Ureneæ</span>, have always only 5 carpels arranged
-in 1 whorl, with 1 ovule in each loculus, and the fruit
-a schizocarp, generally with nut-like fruitlets provided
-with warts and hooks; but in some they dehisce by 2 valves
-(capsule). They differ principally from the other groups <i>in
-having twice as many stylar-branches as carpels</i>; the
-staminal tube is naked at the point, blunt or 5 toothed.&mdash;The
-genera <i>Urena</i>, <i>Pavonia</i>, <i>Malachra</i>,
-<i>Malvaviscus</i> (with <i>berry-like fruits</i>) belong to
-this group.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>II. Carpels arranged in a spherical head in five groups opposite to the
-petals.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>5.</b> <span class="smcap">Malopeæ</span>, differ from all the others in
-having a large number of fruitlets arranged irregularly in a
-round head, and separating considerably from each<span class="pagenum" id="Page_429">[429]</span> other even
-before maturity; there is, however, only 1 style, divided into
-a corresponding number of branches (this condition may be
-considered to have arisen from the branching [dédoublement]
-of 5 <i>carpels</i>). <i>Malope</i> has 3 large, heart-shaped
-(<i>Kitaibelia</i> 6–9) epicalyx-leaves, united at the base.
-<i>Palava</i> has no epicalyx.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> The majority have protandrous flowers,
-and are pollinated by insects. Between the basal portions of
-the 5 petals, there are 5 nectaries, protected from the rain
-by hairs, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Malva silvestris</i>. When the
-flower first opens the numerous anthers occupy the centre of the
-flower, and the still undeveloped stigmas are concealed in the
-staminal tube; in the next stage the anthers are withered and
-empty, and the stigmas protrude and assume their places (Fig.
-<a href="#fig452">452</a>). The large-flowered forms, it appears, are pollinated only
-by insects; but self-pollination takes place in small-flowered
-forms, as, for example, in <i>Malva rotundifolia</i>, in which
-the stylar-branches, twisting themselves, place the stigmas in
-between the undeveloped anthers.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig452" style="width: 493px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig452.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 452.</span>&mdash;<i>Anoda hastata</i>: <i>a</i> the
-bud just opened, the stigmas are concealed by the anthers; <i>b</i>
-fully opened flower in ♂-stage; the upper stamens are developed first,
-and then the others in descending order; the stylar-branches are
-now visible, and lie bent back on the staminal column; <i>c</i> all
-the stamens project upwards, and all the anthers are open, but the
-stylar-branches are still bent back; d the anthers are emptied and
-the filaments shrunk together, but the styles have now straightened
-themselves upwards, and the stigmas are in the receptive condition.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Distribution.</span> 800 species (63 genera), most of which
-are natives of the Tropics, especially America. <i>Althæa</i>
-and some of the species of <i>Malva</i> are natives of the
-temperate regions of the Old World, the latter is also found in
-North America. <i>Gossypium</i> is tropical, no doubt especially
-Asiatic (<i>G. herbaceum</i> from India; <i>G. arboreum</i> from
-Upper Egypt). Cotton was introduced into Greece in the time of
-Herodotus, and was cultivated in America before the arrival of
-the Europeans.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> Pungent and poisonous properties are entirely
-wanting; <i>mucilage</i>, on the other hand, is found
-in abundance in all parts of the plant. Medicinal: the
-root of <i>Althæa officinalis</i>, leaves and flowers of
-<i>Malva</i>-species (<i>M. silvestris<span class="pagenum" id="Page_430">[430]</span> vulgaris</i> and
-<i>borealis</i>) and <i>Gossypium</i>.&mdash;The seeds contain a
-large quantity of <i>fatty oil</i>, which is in some cases
-extracted (Cotton-seeds and others). <i>The seed-hairs of the
-Cotton plant</i> are the most important product of the order.
-The cultivated forms of Cotton belong to several species:
-<i>G. barbadense</i>, <i>herbaceum</i>, <i>religiosum</i>,
-<i>arboreum</i> (Nankin), <i>hirsutum</i>, and others. According
-to other botanists, there are only 3 species. <i>Bast</i>
-is obtained from <i>e.g. Hibiscus cannabinus</i>
-(Gambo-hemp, Africa), <i>Paritium tiliaceum</i> and <i>Sida
-retusa</i>. The fruits of certain species of <i>Hibiscus</i>
-(<i>e.g. H. esculentus</i>, from Tropical Africa)
-are used in tropical countries as a vegetable before they
-are ripe.&mdash;<i>The colouring matter</i> in the flowers of
-<i>Althæa rosea</i>, var. <i>nigra</i>, is used for colouring
-wines, and hence is extensively cultivated in certain parts
-of Europe.&mdash;<i>Ethereal oils and sweet-scented flowers</i>
-are rare; but several species possess a peculiar musk-like
-odour (<i>Malva moschata</i>, <i>Hibiscus abelmoschus</i>,
-and others).&mdash;Many are cultivated as <i>ornamental plants</i>
-on account of the large flowers, <i>e.g.</i> Hollyhock (<i>A.
-rosea</i>, etc.), <i>Lavatera trimestris</i>, <i>Malope
-grandiflora</i> and <i>trifida</i>, <i>Malva</i>-species,
-<i>Hibiscus rosa sinensis</i>, <i>syriaca</i>;
-<i>Sphæralcea</i>, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 14. <b>Tricoccæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The very large order <i>Euphorbiaceæ</i> and three smaller ones belong
-to this family. They have in common: <i>unisexual</i>, hypogynous,
-frequently regular flowers, the perianth most frequently single, rarely
-double, or entirely wanting; there is such a great variety in the
-structure and parts of the flower that one only can be cited as the
-<i>rule</i>: viz. the simple gynœceum composed of 3 carpels forming a
-3-locular ovary, which is frequently more or less deeply grooved (hence
-the name, <i>Tricoccæ</i>); in the inner angles of the loculi are found
-1 or 2 (never several) pendulous (except <i>Empetraceæ</i>), anatropous
-ovules, with upward and outwardly turned, frequently swollen, micropyle
-(Fig. <a href="#fig455">455</a>). The seed most frequently has a large endosperm and a
-straight embryo (Figs. <a href="#fig455">455</a> <i>B</i>, <a href="#fig464">464</a>).&mdash;<span class="smaller">The family approaches
-the nearest to the Gruinales and Columniferæ; it may perhaps be
-regarded as an offshoot from the Sterculiaceæ.</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Euphorbiaceæ.</b> Flowers unisexual. In each of the loculi
-of the ovary, generally 3, there are 1 or 2 pendulous ovules with
-upward and outwardly turned micropyle. The placenta protrudes above the
-ovules (Figs. <a href="#fig454">454</a>, <a href="#fig461">461</a> <i>B</i>). On the ripening of the capsule the 3
-carpels separate septicidally, frequently with great violence, ejecting
-the seeds and leaving a central column. Endosperm copious.&mdash;For the
-rest, the flowers present all stages, from genera with calyx and
-corolla, to those which are the most reduced in Nature, namely the
-naked, 1-stamened flowers of <i>Euphorbia</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The same variety which is found in the flower is also present in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_431">[431]</span> the
-vegetative parts. Some are herbs, as our Spurges, others are shrubs and
-trees; some African <i>Euphorbia</i>-species even resemble the habit
-of a Cactus. Leaf-like branches with rudimentary leaves are found in
-<i>Phyllanthus</i> (sub-genus <i>Xylophylla</i>) (Fig. <a href="#fig456_458">456</a>). The leaves
-are scattered or opposite, often stipulate; they are nearly always
-simple. Large, highly-branched cells containing a great quantity of
-pungent latex are found in many, and watery juice in others. Glands and
-glandular hairs are general.&mdash;Only a few genera can be considered in
-this book.</p>
-
-<p>As an example of the most perfect flowers (which partly reproduce the
-Geraniaceous type) may be mentioned, <i>Croton</i>, <i>Manihot</i>, and
-<i>Jatropha</i>; 5 sepals, 5 petals, sometimes gamopetalous, andrœcium
-diplostemonous, or many-stamened, often monodelphous.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig453" style="width: 300px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 453–455.</span>&mdash;<i>Ricinus communis.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig453.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 453.</span>&mdash;♂-flower (magnified).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig454" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig454.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 454.</span>&mdash;♀-flower in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig455" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig455.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 455.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i> seed entire;
-<i>B</i> in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Ricinus</i> (Castor-oil) (Figs. <a href="#fig453">453–455</a>); monœcious; the
-♂-flowers, situated in the lower portion of the inflorescence, have 5
-perianth-leaves and a large number of branched stamens; the ♀-flower
-has 3–5 perianth-leaves; 3 bifid styles. Leaves peltate, palmately
-lobed. The seeds (Fig. <a href="#fig455">455</a>) contain an abundance of fatty oil and large
-aleurone grains.&mdash;<i>Mercurialis</i> (Mercury): the perianth is most
-frequently 3-merous; in the ♂-flowers 9–12 stamens; in the ♀-flowers
-most frequently a <i>2-locular</i> gynœceum.&mdash;<i>Phyllanthus</i>: Pr3 +
-3, A3, united in some and forming a column in the centre of the flower
-(Figs. <a href="#fig456_458">457</a>, <a href="#fig456_458">458</a>); <i>Xylophylla</i> is a section of this genus.&mdash;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_432">[432]</span>
-<i>Hura crepitans</i> (Sand-box tree) has a many-carpellate gynœceum,
-which separates with great violence when ripe.&mdash;A drupe is found in
-<i>Hippomane mancinella</i> (the Mancinil-tree, W. Ind.)&mdash;<i>Alchornea
-(Coelebogyne) ilicifolia</i> is well known on account of its
-“parthenogenesis”; only the ♀-plant has been introduced into Europe,
-but it nevertheless produces seeds capable of germination; these have
-generally several embryos.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig456_458" style="width: 221px">
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 456–458.</span>&mdash;<i>Phyllanthus (Xylophylla)
-angustifolius.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig456_458.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 456.</span>&mdash;Leaf-like branch with flowers (nat. size).</p>
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 457.</span>&mdash;♂-flower; and</p>
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 458</span>, ♀-flower (mag.).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Euphorbia</i> (Spurge) has the most reduced flowers, which are
-borne in a very complicated inflorescence. Each ♂-flower (Fig. <a href="#fig460">460</a>
-<i>B</i>) is naked, and consists of one stamen only (terminal on the
-axis). In the closely allied genus <i>Anthostema</i>, a small perianth
-is situated at the place where, in <i>Euphorbia</i>, there is a joint
-in the “filament,” (Fig. <a href="#fig461">461</a> <i>A</i>). The ♀-flowers (Fig. <a href="#fig460">460</a>) are
-naked, with a 3-locular ovary and 3 bifid styles. (<i>Anthostema</i>
-has a distinct perianth (Fig. <a href="#fig461">461</a> <i>B</i>); in a few Euphorbias traces
-of a perianth are present). In <i>Euphorbia</i> the ♂-and ♀-flowers are
-grouped into flower-like inflorescences termed “cyathia.” Each cyathium
-consists of a centrally placed ♀-flower which is first developed,
-surrounded by 5 groups of ♂-flowers (stamens) placed in a zig-zag, with
-a centrifugal order of development (Figs. <a href="#fig459">459</a>, <a href="#fig460">460</a> <i>B</i>), that
-is, in unipared scorpioid cymes; these flowers are surrounded by an
-<i>involucre</i> of 5 leaves united into a <i>bell-shaped structure</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig459">459</a>, 1–5) (resembling a calyx); on its edge are placed 4,
-generally crescent-like, yellow glands, one in each of the intervals,
-except one, between the lobes of the involucre (shaded in Fig. <a href="#fig459">459</a>; see
-also Fig. <a href="#fig460">460</a> <i>A</i>). Scale-like<span class="pagenum" id="Page_433">[433]</span> thin structures (floral-leaves?)
-are situated between the ♂-flowers. The ♀-flower has a long stalk, and
-finally bends down on one side, namely to the place on the edge of the
-involucre where the gland is not developed. These cyathia are again
-arranged in an inflorescence which commences as a 3–5-rayed umbellate
-cyme (pleiochasium), the branches of which ramify dichasially and
-finally as scorpioid cymes.&mdash;Latex, with peculiar-shaped starch-grains,
-is found in laticiferous <i>cells</i> (especially in the Cactus-like,
-leafless species.)</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig459" style="width: 472px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig459.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 459.</span>&mdash;Diagram of an inflorescence
-(cyathium) of <i>Euphorbia</i> with 3 floral-leaves, <i>m</i>,
-<i>n</i>, <i>o</i>, supporting other cyathia which are subtended by 2
-floral-leaves (bracteoles; <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>). 1–5, the involucral
-leaves in their order of development; the shaded portions are the
-crescentic glands.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig460" style="width: 609px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig460.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 460.</span>&mdash;<i>Euphorbia lathyris</i>: <i>A</i>
-an (entire) inflorescence (cyathium); <i>B</i> the same after the
-removal of the involucre.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig461" style="width: 334px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig461.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 461.</span>&mdash;<i>Anthostema</i>: ♂- (<i>A</i>)
-and ♀-(<i>B</i>) flowers; <i>p</i> the perianth; <i>ar</i> the node;
-<i>o</i> the ovule.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>205 genera; more than 3,000 species; especially in the
-Tropics.&mdash;Many are used on account of the oil, and of
-the pungent (aperient, poisonous, anthelmintic,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_434">[434]</span> etc.)
-properties in the latex or the seeds. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>:
-“Cascarilla-bark” of <i>Croton eluteria</i>; the fatty oil
-of the seeds of <i>Croton tiglium</i> (Trop. Asia); “Castor
-oil” from <i>Ricinus communis</i> (Africa, and cultivated
-in all warm climates throughout the world); the glandular
-hairs of <i>Mallotus philippinensis</i> (“Kamala”); this also
-yields a red dye. Gum “Euphorbium” is the hardened (resinous)
-latex of the <i>Cactus</i>-like <i>Euphorbia resinifera</i>
-(Morocco).&mdash;<span class="smcap">Nutritive</span> plants: <i>Manihot utilissima</i>
-and other species (Maniok, Am.). Their large, farinaceous
-roots form a very important article of food in the Tropics
-(Cassava-flour, Tapioca or Brazilian arrowroot). The fresh
-latex of the root in some species is a powerful poison; but the
-poisonous properties are diminished by roasting or cooking.
-<i>Caoutchouc</i> is obtained from <i>Siphonia elastica</i>
-(Trop. S. Am.). The vegetable tallow of the Chinese tallow-tree
-(<i>Stillingia sebifera</i>) is used in large quantities in
-soap factories. An indigo-like <i>dye</i> is obtained from
-<i>Crozophora tinctoria</i>, and is also found in <i>Mercurialis
-perennis</i>. Shellac is obtained from <i>Aleurites
-laccifera</i>. <span class="smcap">Ornamental</span> plants: <i>Acalypha</i>,
-<i>Croton</i>, <i>Dalechampia</i>.&mdash;<i>Hippomane</i> is
-poisonous.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Buxaceæ.</b> This order differs from the
-Euphorbiaceæ in having the micropyle turned inwards; the
-♂-flower has a 4-partite perianth and 4 stamens; the ♀-flower
-a 6-partite perianth and 3 carpels. Capsule with loculicidal
-dehiscence, the inner layer being detached elastically from the
-outer.&mdash;30 species. Shrubs without latex and with evergreen
-leaves.&mdash;<i>Buxus sempervirens</i> (Box) is an ornamental shrub
-(poisonous); it has a very hard and valuable wood which is used
-for wood-engraving and carving.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig462" style="width: 200px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 462–464.</span> <i>Callitriche stagnalis.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig462.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 462.</span>&mdash;♂-flower with the 2 bracteoles and the solitary
-stamen.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig463" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig463.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 463.</span>&mdash;♀-flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig464" style="width: 355px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig464.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 464.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal
-section of the ripe fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Callitrichaceæ.</b> Aquatic plants, growing at the
-bottom of shallow water, with opposite, simple, undivided,
-entire, exstipulate leaves, which are generally crowded and
-form a rosette in the apex of the branches. The flowers are
-unisexual (monœcious) and borne singly in the leaf-axils; they
-have no perianth, but are provided with two delicate bracteoles;
-the ♂-flowers consist of only <i>1 terminal stamen</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig462">462</a>); the ♀-flowers of a bicarpellate gynœceum (Fig. <a href="#fig463">463</a>) which
-is originally 2-locular, but later on becomes 4-locular, as in
-the case of the gynœceum of the Labiatæ, by the formation of
-a false partition-wall; in each loculus there is 1 pendulous
-ovule with the micropyle turned outwards. Fruit a <i>4-partite
-schizocarp</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig464">464</a>). 25 species.&mdash;<i>Callitriche.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 4 (?). <b>Empetraceæ.</b> 4 species. <i>Empetrum</i>;
-<i>E. nigrum</i> (Crowberry)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_435">[435]</span> is a heather-like, moorland,
-evergreen undershrub with linear leaves, having a deep groove
-closed with hairs, on the under side. The <i>erect ovules</i>
-show the greatest deviation from the Euphorbiaceæ. Diœcious
-(and ☿); S3, P3; in the ♂-flower, 3 stamens; in the ♀-flower, a
-6–9-locular ovary. Fruit a <i>drupe</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 15. <b>Terebinthinæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The diagram of the flower (Figs. <a href="#fig465">465–467</a>) is the same as in the
-Gruinales, namely S, P, A2 and G in whorls of 5 (less frequently 3,
-4, 6, 8), and the same modifications also occur with the suppression
-of the petal-stamens, etc. But a <i>ring</i> or sometimes <i>cup-like
-glandular structure</i> (<i>disc</i>) is found <i>between</i> the
-andrœcium and the gynœceum (Figs. <a href="#fig465">465</a>, <a href="#fig466">466</a>). The flowers similarly
-are regular, <i>hypogynous</i>, ☿ and polypetalous, though exceptions
-are found to all these characters: thus, for example, united sepals
-and petals frequently occur, and, in some orders, unisexual flowers
-by the suppression of one sex. In most cases the flowers are small,
-greenish-yellow, and arranged in paniculate inflorescences. The
-carpels (most frequently 5) are free in a few, but generally united
-into a multilocular gynœceum; rarely more than 1 or 2 ovules in each
-loculus. The gynœceum in the Anacardiaceæ is so reduced that it has
-only 1 fertile loculus with 1 ovule.&mdash;The <i>ovules are epitropous</i>,
-<i>i.e.</i> anatropous with outward-turned raphe (except the
-Anacardiaceæ).&mdash;The majority of the species are trees and shrubs with
-scattered, often <i>compound (pinnate) leaves</i> without stipules,
-and as in addition they frequently contain <i>aromatic, especially
-turpentine-like substances</i>, they assume a certain resemblance to
-the Walnut trees, and were formerly classed with them mainly on this
-account. In a series of genera the volatile, scented oils are found in
-special glands in the bark of the branches and in the leaves, in the
-latter case appearing as <i>pellucid dots</i>. This family includes
-several orders which are somewhat difficult to distinguish from each
-other.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Connaraceæ.</b> This order forms the connecting
-link between Terebinthinæ and Rosifloræ (<i>Spiræa</i>) as
-well as Leguminosæ, with which they are sometimes classed.
-The flowers have 5 5-merous whorls; 2 ovules in each loculus;
-micropyle turned upwards. Fruit a <i>follicle</i>, rarely a
-collection of follicles. Seed with aril. Shrubs with scattered
-(most frequently pinnate) leaves, without stipules. 170 species.
-Tropical.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Meliaceæ.</b> Trees and shrubs with scattered,
-often pinnate leaves without pellucid dots and exstipulate; the
-leaflets are nearly always entire. Flowers small in paniculate
-inflorescences. Calyx and corolla 4–5-merous; 2 whorls of
-stamens; 3–5 carpels in the gynœceum. A very characteristic
-feature is the union of the filaments into a tube, on the
-edge of which stipule-like teeth are often found. There are
-most frequently 2 ovules in the loculi;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_436">[436]</span> fruit a capsule with
-many winged seeds in <i>Swietenia</i> (Mahogany tree; Trop.
-Am.), <i>Cedrela</i>, etc.; berries in others. The wood of
-<i>Cedrela</i> is used for making cigar boxes. 550 species;
-tropical.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Rutaceæ.</b> Leaves glandular with pellucid dots. The type
-is the same as that of the family. Flowers 4–5-merous. The ovary is
-most frequently 4–5-grooved. Disc well pronounced, often appearing as
-a “gynophore.” The majority are shrubs with alternate or opposite,
-compound, more rarely simple, leaves.</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> The ovary is deeply 2–5-cleft with basal styles which are
-more or less united; the carpels in some genera are entirely free
-(groups 1, 2). The fruit is capsular and most frequently dehisces like
-follicles along the ventral suture or septicidally, so that a horn-like
-internal layer (endocarp) separates elastically from the external layer.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Zanthoxyleæ.</span> <i>Zanthoxylum</i>;
-<i>Choisya</i>; <i>Evodia</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Boronieæ.</span> Australia.&mdash;<i>Correa.</i></p>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Diosmeæ.</span> Heather-like shrubs;
-Africa.&mdash;<i>Diosma</i>, <i>Coleonema</i>, <i>Empleurum</i> and
-<i>Barosma</i>. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: <i>Barosma crenulata</i> and
-<i>betulina</i>, “broad Buchu leaves” (<i>B. serratifolia</i>
-and <i>Empleurum serrulatum</i>, “narrow Buchu-leaves”).</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig465" style="width: 534px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig465.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 465.</span>&mdash;<i>Ruta.</i> Flower (mag.).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig466" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig466.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 466.</span>&mdash;<i>Ruta.</i> Longitudinal section of
-flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig467" style="width: 297px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig467.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 467.</span>&mdash;<i>Ruta.</i> Floral diagram.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>4.</b> <span class="smcap">Ruteæ.</span> <i>Ruta</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig465">465–467</a>) <i>graveolens</i>
-is an herbaceous, glaucous, strongly smelling plant with bipinnate
-leaves and yellow flowers; the terminal flower is 5-merous, the others
-4-merous (S. Eur.).&mdash;<i>Dictamnus</i>; zygomorphic flower. <span class="smaller">The
-individual carpels<span class="pagenum" id="Page_437">[437]</span> of the fruit separate from each other, and dehisce
-like follicles, upon which the internal layer is detached elastically
-and springs out, carrying the seeds with it. Several species are
-ornamental plants.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>5.</b> <span class="smcap">Cusparieæ.</span> American. Flowers
-often zygomorphic with gamopetalous corolla; stamens
-5.&mdash;<i>Ticorea</i>; <i>Galipea</i> (<i>G. officinalis</i>; S.
-Am.; “Cortex angosturæ”); <i>Cusparia</i>; <i>Almeidea</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> The ovary is entire or only slightly grooved; the style is
-terminal, undivided. The fruit is most frequently a drupe or berry.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>6.</b> <span class="smcap">Toddalieæ.</span> <i>Ptelea</i>; winged fruit.
-The buds are enclosed in the leaf-sheath. <i>Skimmia</i>;
-<i>Phellodendron</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig468" style="width: 350px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 468–470.</span>&mdash;<i>Citrus vulgaris.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig468.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 468.</span>&mdash;Branch with compound leaves.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig469" style="width: 296px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig469.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 469.</span>&mdash;Transverse section of fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig470" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig470.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 470.</span>&mdash;Flowers (after the removal of the petals).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>7.</b> <span class="smcap">Aurantieæ</span>, <span class="smcap">Orange Group</span>. Fruit a berry
-with a leathery external layer.&mdash;The most typical flower is found for
-example in <i>Limonia</i>: S5, P5, A5 + 5, G5 (2–5).&mdash;<i>Citrus</i>
-has 4–5–8-merous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_438">[438]</span> flowers, a gamosepalous, dentate calyx, free petals,
-one whorl of stamens which are split irregularly into several bundles
-(Fig. <a href="#fig470">470</a>). The fruit is a <i>multilocular berry</i> provided with a
-thick, tough, outer layer. The juicy pulp, which fills up the loculi
-and envelopes the seeds, is formed from many large-celled, juicy
-hair-structures which arise on the inner side of the walls of the
-loculi and by degrees entirely fill them up; the dissepiments remain
-thin, and form the partitions so easily separating from each other
-(Fig. <a href="#fig469">469</a>). The seeds in many instances are remarkable for containing
-several embryos. The blade of the leaf is separated from the frequently
-winged stalk by a <i>node</i> (and hence is a compound leaf with only
-the terminal leaflet developed?) (Fig. <a href="#fig468">468</a>); in other genera, as
-<i>Triphasia</i>, there is a fully developed trifoliate leaf. Thorns
-are frequently developed.&mdash;<span class="smaller">The species of this genus, which is a
-native of the warmer parts of S. E. Asia, are very hard to separate.
-The differences are found in the forms of the fruit, the leaves and
-the leaf-stalks, and in the number of stamens. <i>Citrus medica</i>,
-“Cedrat” (Ind.); <i>C. limonum</i>, “Citron,” “Lemon” (introduced
-into Italy in the 3rd to 4th century). <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: the fruits
-and essential oil of Lemon. <i>C. aurantium</i> from E. Asia, the
-Orange (introduced into Italy in the 14th century). <i>C. vulgaris</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig468">468</a>), Bitter Orange (introduced into Europe at the time of the
-Crusades); the unripe Bitter Oranges, and peel of the Bitter Orange
-is officinal; it is from the flowers of this species especially that
-the essence of Neroli is made. <i>C. limetta</i>, <i>C. bergamia</i>,
-Bergamot; essence of Bergamot is officinal. <i>C. decumana</i>, Pomalo,
-a native of the Islands of the Pacific. About 780 species; chiefly
-tropical.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Burseraceæ.</b> Fruit a drupe; 1–5 stones. The bark,
-as well as the other parts, contain strong aromatic resins and
-balsams, and hence several species are used: the Myrrh tree,
-<i>Commiphora</i> (<i>Balsamodendron</i>) from Arabia and
-Africa; <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: Myrrha (<i>Commiphora myrrha</i>).
-Mecca-balsam from <i>C. opobalsamum</i>, Arabia; E. Africa. The
-Incense-tree (<i>Boswellia</i>) from the same parts of the globe
-and E. India. The incense of <i>B. carteri</i> is medicinal
-(Frankincense). The resin (Elemi) of <i>Protium</i>-species
-is officinal, and is used technically for varnish (S. Am.).
-Takamahaka-resin from <i>Elaphrium</i> (S. Am.) <i>Protium</i>
-(<i>Icica</i>); <i>Amyris</i> (1 carpel). 270 species; tropical.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Zygophyllaceæ.</b> The majority have opposite,
-pinnate leaves with stipules. <i>Leaves without pellucid
-dots.</i> The filaments have a scale on the inner side. The most
-important is <i>Guaiacum officinale</i> (West India), the wood
-(Lignum Vitæ) of which is very hard and heavy, this wood and
-Gum-guaiacum are officinal. Others have a peculiar repulsive
-smell and taste: the Creosote shrub (<i>Larrea mexicana</i>)
-and <i>Zygophyllum simplex</i>. <i>Tribulus terrester</i> is a
-common weed in S. Europe. <i>Fagonia. Peganum harmala</i>
-(South of Russia) yields a red dye.&mdash;110 species; especially in
-the Tropics; several species in sandy deserts. <i>Nitraria.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Simarubaceæ.</b> This order is distinguished by
-the abundance of <i>bitter</i> substances which it contains
-(Quassine) especially in the bark and the wood. The wood
-of <i>Quassia amara</i> (Guiana, Antilles) is officinal;
-<i>Picraena<span class="pagenum" id="Page_439">[439]</span> excelsa</i> yields Jamaica Quassia; the bark of
-<i>Simaruba</i>, <i>Simaba</i>-species and others is used.
-<i>Ailanthus glandulosa</i> is a garden plant (pinnate leaves,
-winged fruit).&mdash;110 species. Tropical.</p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Ochnaceæ.</b> Flowers diplostemonous, 5-merous.
-The unilocular ovaries, which are individually free, project
-considerably into the air around the gynobasic style; 1 ovule
-in each loculus; the fruitlets are drupes. Shrubs; leaves
-alternate, with stipules. <i>Ochna</i>; <i>Ouratea</i>.&mdash;160
-species; tropical; especially American.</p>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Anacardiaceæ.</b> The ovary rarely contains more
-than 1 ovule, even though there be several loculi and several
-carpels; in <i>Anacardium</i> all the 10 stamens except one
-become suppressed. Resin passages.&mdash;<i>Anacardium.</i> The
-most peculiar feature is the development of the flower-stalk
-into a fleshy body about the form and size of a pear (<i>A.
-occidentale</i> from Trop. Am. and <i>A. orientale</i> from
-E. Ind.) which bears the kidney-shaped nut (the so-called
-“Cashew-nut”) on its apex. <i>Mangifera indica</i> (the
-Mango-tree, from E. Ind.) is cultivated in several tropical
-countries on account of its delicious drupe. Similarly, species
-of <i>Spondias</i> (<i>S. dulcis</i>, Pacific Islands, <i>S.
-lutea</i>). Several species of <i>Rhus</i> are ornamental shrubs
-in this country, for instance, <i>R. typhina</i> (N. Am.), <i>R.
-cotinus</i> (the Wig-tree, the <i>barren</i> flower-stalks
-of the panicles being feather-like and hairy); <i>R.
-toxicodendron</i> (Poisonous Sumach, from N. Am.) is poisonous.
-Chinese galls are produced by the sting of a leaf-louse
-(<i>Aphis chinensis</i>) on <i>R. semialata</i> (China), and
-Japanese wax is from the seeds of <i>R. succedanea</i> (Japan).
-Considerable quantities of Sumach (<i>R. coriaria</i>) are used
-in tanning and as a black dye. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: the mastic
-resin of <i>Pistacia lentiscus</i> (the Mastic-tree, from the
-Mediterranean). The fruits of <i>Pistacia vera</i> (Syria) are
-edible; <i>P. terebinthus</i> and others yield turpentine.&mdash;450
-species; tropical.</p>
-
-<p>Order 9. <b>Icacinaceæ.</b> Flowers 4–5-merous; haplostemonous;
-receptacle convex or cup-like surrounding the gynœceum; in
-the (single) loculus of the ovary, 2 anatropous, pendulous
-ovules.&mdash;200 species; tropical.</p>
-</div>
-
-<h4>Family 16. <b>Aesculinæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The essential characters of this family are in the main the same as
-those of the Terebinthinæ and Gruinales. The flowers are hypogynous,
-perfect, with free petals, 5-merous (S5, P5, typically A5 + 5, all of
-which, however, are not generally developed; in our native orders there
-are only 7–8 stamens), and most frequently a <i>3-merous, 3-locular
-gynœceum</i> (less frequently 2 or 5 carpels with as many loculi). In
-each loculus there are usually only 1–2 ovules. A deviation from the
-preceding families is the frequent <i>zygomorphy</i> of the flower,
-with, as a rule an <i>oblique</i> plane of symmetry (Fig. <a href="#fig471">471</a>). When a
-<i>disc</i> is developed it is placed <i>outside</i> the stamens. The
-majority have no endosperm (Fig. <a href="#fig473">473</a>).&mdash;The members of the family are
-nearly all trees.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The family is closely allied to the Terebinthinæ, but unlike
-this it never has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_440">[440]</span> aromatic properties, and differs also
-in the position of the nectary, in the flowers, which are
-often irregular with a reduction in the number of stamens,
-and in the ovule which is usually ascending with micropyle
-pointing downwards (the Terebinthinæ having the micropyle
-turned upwards), etc. It is also related to Frangulinæ, the
-Staphyleaceæ being the chief connecting link; but the Æsculinæ
-generally have compound leaves.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Staphyleaceæ.</b> Leaves opposite, often compound.
-Flowers regular, ☿, 5-merous in calyx and corolla, 5-stamened.
-The stamens are placed <i>outside</i> the nectary. Ovary
-syncarpous or 2–3-partite with free styles. The capsule is
-thin, bladder-like, 2–3-locular, opening at the apex, and
-has several very hard seeds with a shining testa without
-aril. Endosperm. <i>Staphylea pinnata</i> (S. Europe) and
-<i>trifoliata</i> (N. Am.) are cultivated in gardens; they have
-white flowers in pendulous, axillary racemes or panicles.&mdash;16
-species.&mdash;<i>Staphylea</i> is found in the Tertiary of N.
-America.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Melianthaceæ.</b> Glaucous shrubs with scattered,
-pinnate leaves, and large stipules. <i>Melianthus.</i>&mdash;8
-species; S. Africa.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Sapindaceæ.</b> Trees or shrubs, often climbing by tendrils
-(lianes with anomalous structure of the stem) and with compound leaves.
-The flowers, in most cases, are small, insignificant, and without
-scent, and in some polygamous and zygomorphic. S4–5, P4–5, A8 (less
-frequently 5–10) inside the nectary (disc); ovary generally 3-locular,
-with 1–2 ovules in each loculus (raphe ventral, micropyle turned
-downwards). Seed without endosperm, often with an aril. The embryo is
-often thick and curved (Fig. <a href="#fig473">473</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig471" style="width: 481px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 471–473.</span>&mdash;<i>Æsculus hippocastanum.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig471.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 471.</span>&mdash;Diagram of the flower and of a scorpioid cyme.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig472" style="width: 217px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig472.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 472.</span>&mdash;Flower in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig473" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig473.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 473.</span>&mdash;Seed in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Æsculus</i> (Horse-Chestnut). Trees with opposite, digitate,
-dentate leaves without stipules; the inflorescence is composed of
-unipared scorpioid cymes arranged in a pyramidal panicle (termed a
-thyrsus). The flowers are irregular, with an <i>oblique plane of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_441">[441]</span>
-symmetry</i> (through the 4th sepal, Fig. <a href="#fig471">471</a>); there are 5 sepals,
-5 free petals, of which the one lying between S<sup>3</sup> and S<sup>5</sup> is the
-smallest (see Fig. <a href="#fig471">471</a>) and may be absent; stamens 7 (5 + 2), three
-being suppressed; gynœceum simple, 3-carpellary and 3-locular, with
-single style; of the two ovules one is ascending, the other descending
-(Fig. <a href="#fig472">472</a>).&mdash;The fruit is a 3-valvate, sometimes spiny, capsule,
-with loculicidal dehiscence, the seed having a large hilum, a curved
-embryo without endosperm and united cotyledons (the radicle lies in
-a fold of the testa, Fig. <a href="#fig473">473</a>). <i>Æ. hippocastanum</i> (Greece,
-Asia), introduced into cultivation about 300 years ago; the majority
-of the other species, <i>e.g. Æ. pavia</i>, etc., several of
-which are frequently cultivated in gardens, are from N. America.
-<span class="smaller">The flower of the Horse-Chestnut is adapted for bees, whose abdomen
-touches the anthers or style when visiting the flower. The flowers are
-protogynous.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The other Sapindaceæ have most frequently 4 sepals, 8 stamens,
-various fruits (septicidal capsule, nuts with or without wings,
-schizocarp), etc. <i>Serjania</i>, <i>Cardiospermum</i>,
-<i>Sapindus</i>, <i>Koelreuteria</i>, etc. (about 118 genera,
-970 species). The seeds of <i>Paullinia sorbilis</i> contain
-caffeine, and are used as “Pasta guaranà,” in the North Western
-Brazils in the manufacture of a common drink. <i>Nephelium</i>
-(or <i>Euphoria</i>) <i>litchi</i> (with edible aril), and other
-species, from Asia.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig474" style="width: 358px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig474.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 474.</span>&mdash;Samara of <i>Acer platanoides</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Aceraceæ.</b> This order is so closely allied to the
-Sapindaceæ, that some authorities have classed it with them. The
-main difference is in the <i>regularity</i> of the flowers, and
-the <b>2</b>-merous gynœceum (in abnormal cases several carpels
-occur).&mdash;They are trees, and, like the Horse-Chestnuts, have opposite
-leaves without stipules; in <i>Acer</i> the leaves are palminerved,
-but imparipinnate in <i>Negundo</i>, a plant frequently cultivated in
-gardens. The flowers are often unisexual, polygamous (some species
-have ☿-, ♂-and ♀-flowers); sepals 5, petals 5 free, <b>stamens 8</b>
-(that is, 5 + 5, but the two median ones are absent) inside a large
-disc. Fruit a samara (schizocarp) with 2 <i>winged, nut-like</i>
-fruitlets (Fig. <a href="#fig474">474</a>).<span class="pagenum" id="Page_442">[442]</span> In each of the 2 loculi of the ovary are 2
-ovules. Embryo <i>curved</i>, with thin, <i>folded</i> cotyledons.
-Endosperm absent.&mdash;<span class="smaller">The inflorescences are racemes with a more or
-less elongated main axis and terminal flower (which sometimes has 10
-stamens); when the lateral branches are developed they are similar
-to the main axis. In some species both corolla and petal-stamens are
-suppressed. <i>Acer</i> is pollinated by insects, <i>Negundo</i> by the
-wind.&mdash;88 species; North Temperate zone. <i>Acer</i> in the Tertiary
-from the Oligocene. The following are native plants: Maple (<i>Acer
-campestre</i>), Sycamore (<i>A. pseudoplatanus</i>, doubtful native).
-Important as avenue trees and timber. Sugar is obtained from the spring
-sap of the Sugar Maple (N. Am.).</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Malpighiaceæ.</b> A tropical (especially American)
-order closely related to the Aceraceæ, having often the same
-form of fruit (but 3-partite). Some species are lianes with
-anomalous stem-structure. Leaves opposite. The flowers are
-regular or obliquely zygomorphic (the plane of symmetry passing
-through sepal 3), with S5, P5, A5 + 5, G3; 1 pendulous ovule
-in each loculus. Important characteristics for identification
-are the numerous grandular structures on the sepals.
-Peculiar 2-spined hairs are found in some. <i>Malpighia</i>,
-<i>Bunchosia</i>, <i>Galphimia</i>, <i>Tetrapterys</i>,
-<i>Heteropterys</i>, etc.&mdash;About 600 species.</p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Erythroxylaceæ.</b> Sepals 5, petals 5 (with a
-ligular corona), 10 stamens in one bundle. Gynœceum 3-locular.
-Fruit a drupe. Tropical (especially American) trees and shrubs,
-the <i>Coca-plant</i> (<i>Erythroxylon coca</i>) being best
-known. Its leaves are considered by the inhabitants of Chile and
-Peru to be one of the indispensable necessaries of life; they
-are chewed, and possess intoxicating, exhilarating properties,
-and contain the alkaloid cocaine, which is frequently employed
-as a local anæsthetic.&mdash;103 species; chiefly in America.</p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Vochysiaceæ.</b> Trees; Trop. Am. 1 stamen.&mdash;140
-species.</p>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Trigoniaceæ.</b> Shrubs; Trop. Am.&mdash;30 species.</p>
-
-<p>Order 9. <b>Tremandraceæ.</b> Polygalaceæ with regular
-flowers.&mdash;27 species. Australia.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig475" style="width: 287px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig475.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 475.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Polygala</i>: <i>d</i>
-a gland in the posterior side of the flower; α and β the two caducous
-bracteoles.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 10. <b>Polygalaceæ.</b> Herbs or shrubs (some tropical
-species are lianes) with scattered (rarely opposite), simple and
-most frequently quite entire leaves, without stipules. The flowers
-are usually borne in terminal spikes or racemes, and are strongly
-zygomorphic (<i>the plane of symmetry being median</i>); they have
-5 free sepals, the 2 <i>lateral ones</i> of which (4 and 5 in Figs.
-<a href="#fig475">475</a>, <a href="#fig476">476</a>) are very large, <i>petaloid</i>, and frequently project on
-each side like the “wings” of a Pea-flower; petals 5, of which the
-two lateral ones are wanting or rudimentary (dotted on Fig. <a href="#fig475">475</a>), and
-the <i>anterior</i> “the <i>keel</i>” (Fig. <a href="#fig476">476</a> <i>c</i>) is large,
-hollow and boat-shaped, and frequently<span class="pagenum" id="Page_443">[443]</span> with a lobed or fimbriated
-edge (Fig. <a href="#fig476">476</a> <i>A</i> and <i>B</i>, <i>c</i>); stamens 8, the two
-median ones being absent, all <i>united</i> into a tube split along the
-back, which is also slightly united to the keel (the anthers, often
-2 locular, <i>open by pores</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig476">476</a> <i>B</i>, <i>st</i>); the
-2 median carpels form a bilocular ovary. 1 pendulous ovule in each
-loculus (Figs. <a href="#fig476">476</a> <i>C</i>, <a href="#fig475">475</a>); capsule compressed with loculicidal
-dehiscence, rarely a nut. <i>Polygala</i> (Milk-wort).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>470 species; distributed over the whole globe (none Arctic).
-<span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: the root of <i>P. senega</i>, from N. Am.
-Some are used as ornamental plants.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination</span>. The flowers of <i>Polygala</i> are
-pollinated by insects (chiefly bees). The fimbriated processes
-of the anterior petal support the insect when it alights. The
-anthers lie on each side of the stigma in the pouch of the
-anterior petal; the apex of the style is spoon-shaped, and
-immediately behind it is a viscid stigmatic lobe. In reaching
-the honey the proboscis of the insect must come in contact
-with the pollen and the viscid stigma, by which it is rendered
-sticky; this ensures the pollen adhering to the proboscis and so
-being carried to other flowers.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig476" style="width: 594px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig476.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 476.</span>&mdash;<i>Polygala amara.</i> Parts of
-the flower (mag.) <i>A</i> Flower from side, 1-5 sepals: <i>c</i>
-keel; <i>B</i> flower from above spread out: <i>st</i> the 8 stamens;
-<i>c</i> fimbriated edge of “keel”; <i>C</i> ovary with style and
-stigma.</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 17. <b>Frangulinæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The plants belonging to this family, with very few exceptions,
-are trees or shrubs. The leaves are usually simple; stipules may
-be absent or present. The flowers in almost all the orders are
-<i>small, green or whitish</i>; they are <i>always regular</i>,
-4-<i>or</i> 5-<i>merous</i> with 2–5 <i>carpels</i>, but never have
-more than 1 <i>whorl of stamens</i>, which in <i>Rhamnaceæ</i> and
-<i>Ampelidaceæ</i> are placed <i>opposite</i> the petals (typically 5
-+ 5 or 4 + 4 stamens, of which however either the external or internal
-whorl is always wanting); hypogynous or slightly perigynous, in
-<i>Rhamnaceæ</i> only strongly perigynous or epigynous; generally ☿;
-the calyx is inconspicuous; petals free or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_444">[444]</span> slightly united. Gynœceum
-simple; <i>ovary generally multilocular</i>; style short or entirely
-wanting. A <i>disc</i> is nearly always developed in the flower, but
-is found sometimes inside the staminal whorl, sometimes outside it or
-between the stamens. The ovules are apotropous (anatropous with dorsal
-or ventral raphe).</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Celastraceæ.</b> <i>Euonymus europæa</i> (Spindle-tree)
-may be chosen as a type. It is a shrub with simple, opposite leaves
-and small caducous stipules. The small, greenish-yellow flowers, borne
-in regularly-branched dichasia, are regular, ☿, with 4 whorls, 4-(or
-5-) merous in regular alternation. There is a <i>thick disc</i> upon
-which the polypetalous corolla (imbricate in the bud) and the stamens
-are borne, with a slightly perigynous insertion. The style is short and
-thick; the ovary has 2 <i>erect</i> ovules in each loculus. The fruit
-is a red, 4-valvate capsule with loculicidal dehiscence; the seeds are
-few in number, and have a large, red-yellow <i>aril</i> (developed from
-the micropyle). Embryo green, in a large, fleshy, white endosperm.
-<span class="smaller">The dingy yellow flowers are generally visited only by flies and
-ants for the sake of the honey secreted by the disc, and while they
-run about on the flowers they touch the anthers and stigmas, now with
-one part of the body, now with another. The flower is protandrous. The
-stigmas are not developed till several days after the opening of the
-anthers.&mdash;<i>Celastrus</i>, <i>Cassine</i>, <i>Catha</i>, etc.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>38 genera; 300 species. Distributed over the entire globe, with
-the exception of the colder districts, and especially in the
-Tropics. Some are ornamental bushes (<i>Euonymus japonica</i>).
-The leaves of <i>Catha edulis</i> are used by the Arabs and
-Abyssinians in the same way as those of <i>Coca</i> by the
-Peruvians.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Hippocrateaceæ.</b> 150 species; tropical; chiefly
-lianes. S5, P5, A3, G3. Anthers extrorse.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig477" style="width: 337px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig477.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 477.</span>&mdash;<i>Ilex aquifolium</i>: magnified
-flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Aquifoliaceæ (Hollies).</b> The genus <i>Ilex</i> forms
-almost the entire order. (175 species out of 180; especially from S.
-Am.) They are shrubs or trees with scattered, leathery, simple leaves
-(in <i>Ilex aquifolium</i>, spiny) with very small stipules. The
-flowers are small, white, and borne in few-flowered inflorescences in
-the axils of the foliage-leaves; they are most frequently unisexual
-and diœcious. There are 4–5 sepals, petals, stamens and carpels in
-regular alternation; the calyx and <i>corolla</i> have their leaves
-<i>slightly</i> connate;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_445">[445]</span> stamens slightly adnate to the corolla; the
-ovary is generally almost spherical with a thick, sessile stigma (Fig.
-<a href="#fig477">477</a>). This order deviates especially from <i>Celastraceæ</i> in the
-<i>absence of the disc</i> and in having only 1 (<i>pendulous</i>)
-ovule in each of the 4 loculi of the ovary, and in having a
-<i>drupe</i> with generally 4 stones. Embryo extremely small, at the
-apex of the large endosperm, with the radicle directed upwards.&mdash;<span class="smaller">3
-genera.&mdash;<i>I. aquifolium</i> (Holly) principally on the coasts of
-European countries; from Norway to W. Denmark, and further westward.
-It is a common garden shrub with stiff, shining leaves and red fruits.
-Several South American species contain so much <i>caffeine</i>
-that they may be used as a beverage in the place of tea (<i>I.
-paraguayensis</i>, Paraguay tea, or Maté). The Holly does not contain
-caffeine.</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Ampelidaceæ (Vines).</b> Shrubs with the stem swollen
-at the insertion of the petioles and climbing by <i>tendrils borne
-opposite the leaves</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig478">478</a>, <a href="#fig479">479</a>). The leaves are scattered
-(generally 1/2), stalked, stipulate, frequently palminerved and
-lobed, divided or compound. The small, greenish flowers are generally
-borne in paniculate <i>inflorescences, whose position is the same as
-that of the tendrils</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig478">478</a>); they are hypogynous or slightly
-perigynous, ☿, with 4–5 sepals, petals, stamens (which, as in the
-Rhamneæ, are <i>opposite the petals</i>; Fig. <a href="#fig480">480</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>)
-and 2 carpels. The calyx is very small, entire, or slightly dentate;
-corolla <i>valvate</i>, and in some falling off as a hood, since the
-individual parts remain united at the summit (Fig. <a href="#fig480">480</a> <i>A</i>).
-Between the stamens and gynœceum is situated an hypogynous <i>disc</i>,
-with 5 lobes alternating with the stamens (Fig. <a href="#fig480">480</a> <i>A</i>,
-<i>B</i>, <i>E</i>). In each loculus of the 2-locular ovary there are
-2 <i>erect</i> ovules (<i>E</i>); the style is short or wanting. The
-fruit is a <i>berry</i>. The embryo is small and lies in a horny,
-sometimes slightly folded (ruminate) endosperm (Fig. <a href="#fig480">480</a> <i>C</i>,
-<i>D</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig478" style="width: 418px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 478–481.</span>&mdash;<i>Vitis vinifera.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig478.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 478.</span>&mdash;Branch with bunch of grapes.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig479" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig479.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 479.</span>&mdash;Diagram of the position of leaf and tendrils. The
-branch is divided into sections on the sympodial theory (the successive
-generations, I, II, III, IV, are alternately white and shaded);
-<i>k</i> buds.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig480" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig480.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 480.</span>&mdash;A Flower throwing off the corolla; <i>B</i> flower
-after the removal of the corolla; <i>C</i>, <i>D</i> longitudinal and
-transverse section of seed; <i>E</i> longitudinal section of gynœceum;
-<i>s</i> calyx.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig481" style="width: 385px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig481.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 481.</span>&mdash;Diagram of branch and position of leaves;
-<i>sl</i> tendril; <i>lt</i> the main axis; <i>ax</i> stipules of the
-foliage-leaf shown below; <i>g</i> axillary-bud (the dwarf-branch);
-<i>v</i> its fore-leaf; <i>l<sub>1</sub> l<sub>2</sub></i> its first two
-foliage-leaves with their stipules; <i>lt<sub>1</sub></i> long-branch in the
-axil of <i>v</i> (everything appertaining to this branch is entirely
-black); <i>v<sub>1</sub></i> the first leaf of this branch.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Vitis</i> and <i>Ampelopsis</i> (5-merous flowers);
-<i>Cissus</i> (4-merous flower); <i>Leea</i> (without stipules,
-corolla gamopetalous). The inflorescence in <i>Pterisanthes</i>
-(E. Ind.) has a peculiar, flat, leaf-like axis, on the edges of
-which ♂-flowers are borne, and on the surface ♀-flowers.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">TENDRILS</span> in Ampelidaceæ are modified branches,
-since they bear leaves and may be abnormally developed as
-branches with foliage-leaves, and finally the inflorescences
-are borne in the position of the tendrils, and tendrils are met
-with which are partly inflorescences. The explanation of the
-position of the tendril, namely, right opposite the foliage-leaf
-but without a subtending-leaf, has been much disputed. The
-relative positions are as follows: in <i>Vitis vinifera</i>
-the following two kinds of shoots and relative positions are
-found (the other species deviate in one or other particular),
-(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">Long-branches</span>, which have 2 scale-leaves
-and a large number of foliage-leaves with a divergence of
-1/2;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_446">[446]</span> opposite the lowest 3–5 foliage-leaves no tendrils are
-found, then follow: 2 foliage-leaves with tendrils, 1 without a
-tendril, 2 with and 1 without, etc., with great regularity. Buds
-are developed in the axils of the foliage-leaves<span class="pagenum" id="Page_447">[447]</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig479">479</a>):
-these develop into (<i>b</i>) <span class="allsmcap">DWARF-BRANCHES</span>, which
-commence with 1 laterally-placed scale-leaf (fore-leaf; Fig. <a href="#fig481">481</a>
-<i>v</i>) succeeded by several foliage-leaves with a divergence
-of 1/2 (in a plane at right angles to that of the mother-shoot),
-but the whole shoot is extremely small, and often dries up
-and drops off in the autumn, so that only the scale-leaf,
-<i>v</i>, with the bud (Fig. <a href="#fig481">481</a> <i>lt<sub>1</sub></i>) in its axil
-remains. This bud in the following year developes into a new
-long-branch, and since its leaves lie in a plane at right angles
-to that of the dwarf-branch, their plane coincides with that
-of the long-branch from which it is developed (the grandmother
-axis).&mdash;The tendrils no doubt may most correctly be regarded as
-the modified main axis which has been pushed aside by a lateral
-branch. The branches are then sympodia, whose successive shoots
-bear alternately 1 and 2 foliage-leaves: thus, on the figure
-there are portions altogether of 5 shoots (I.-V.), the 1-leaved
-ones are shaded, the 2-leaved ones are white. The following
-facts however are adverse to this theory: (1) the first leaf on
-an axillary bud is then situated 180° from the subtending leaf
-(<i>e.g.</i> the lowermost shaded leaf, Fig. <a href="#fig479">479</a>, 180° from the
-lowermost white leaf), whilst the rule in the Dicotyledons is
-that it is placed only about 90° to one side. (2) The buds (Fig.
-<a href="#fig479">479</a> <i>K</i>) from which the dwarf-branches develop, must then
-be accessory and sister-buds to the sympodial shoots, but their
-first leaves have a different relative position to this, which
-is very peculiar, and a still more remarkable fact is that the
-buds, <i>K</i>, etc. are similar in structure and present in
-<i>all the axils</i>; thus we <i>only</i> find accessory buds
-in the cases where no tendrils are opposite to the leaves, and
-the main bud must then be considered to be suppressed. (3) The
-development proves that the tendrils arise on the side of a
-vigorous growing-point of the stem or by its division, and do
-not develop, as might be expected, from the apex of the shoot.
-But these relations however, find their analogues and are all
-capable of explanation, whereas other less natural modes of
-explanation are opposed to them.</p>
-
-<p>435 species; especially in the Tropics; they are rarer in
-America. In N. Am. some <i>Vitis</i>-species and <i>Ampelopsis
-quinquefolia</i> are found. <i>Vitis vinifera</i> is supposed to
-have originated in the districts East and South of the Caspian
-Sea. Wine is obtained from <i>Vitis</i>-species, especially
-<i>V. vinifera</i>, and “raisins,”&mdash;(the name “currants,” given
-to a special variety with small, seedless fruits, is derived
-from Corinth).&mdash;The species of <i>Ampelopsis</i> (Virginian
-Creeper) are cultivated as ornamental plants.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Rhamnaceæ.</b> <i>The stamens are placed opposite the
-petals</i> as in the Ampelidaceæ (Fig. <a href="#fig482">482</a>), but the flowers are
-<i>much more perigynous or entirely epigynous</i>. The trees and shrubs
-belonging to this order have simple, most frequently penninerved leaves
-with stipules; frequently thorny (modified branches). The flowers
-are inconspicuous, sometimes unisexual (Fig. <a href="#fig482">482</a>), and have 5 (-4)
-sepals, petals, stamens, and generally 3 (2–5) carpels. The calyx has
-<i>valvate</i> æstivation. The petals are very <i>small</i> (generally
-less than the sepals), often spoon-like, hollow, and embracing the
-stamens; <i>a disc covers the inner surface of the thalamus</i> or the
-base of the style in the epigynous flower; gynœceum simple,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_448">[448]</span> with one
-style and one <i>erect ovule in each loculus</i>. The fruit is most
-frequently a <i>drupe</i>. The embryo is large, often green or yellow,
-with endosperm.</p>
-
-<p><i>Rhamnus</i> (Buckthorn) has a juicy drupe with 3 (2–4) stones,
-surrounded at the base by the persistent portion of the receptacle; the
-disc is thin. <i>R. cathartica</i> (common Buckthorn): diœcious, with
-opposite, serrate leaves. <i>R. frangula</i> (Alder Buckthorn): flowers
-☿, with scattered, entire leaves.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Ceanothus</i> (N. Am., with
-richly-flowered inflorescences and a fruit closely resembling that of
-the Euphorbias). <i>Phylica</i>, <i>Pomaderris</i> (Austr., fruit a
-capsule). <i>Zizyphus</i>, <i>Paliurus</i>, <i>Colletia</i> (S. Am.)
-are thorny shrubs; <i>C. spinosa</i> has thorny shoots with small,
-caducous leaves; the seedling has normal foliage-leaves. Others climb
-by tendrils as in the Ampelidaceæ, <i>e.g. Gouania</i>.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig482" style="width: 700px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig482.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 482.</span>&mdash;<i>Rhamnus cathartica</i>: <i>A</i>
-long-styled ♂-flower; <i>pet</i> petals; <i>B</i> short-styled
-♂-flower; <i>C</i> long-styled ♀-flower; <i>D</i> short-styled ♀-flower
-(after Darwin).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>475 species, 40 genera; chiefly in temperate and tropical
-climes. Some are medicinal plants, the bark and fruit having
-purgative properties (the bark of <i>Rhamnus frangula</i>
-and “Cascara Sagrada” from the bark of <i>R. purshiana</i>
-are officinal). The fruits and seeds of others are edible,
-for example, the fruits of <i>Zizyphus lotus</i>, <i>Z.
-vulgaris</i>, <i>Z. spina Christi</i>, etc. Green and yellow
-<i>dyes</i> are obtained from the fruit of <i>R. cathartica</i>,
-<i>infectoria</i> and others (Avignon grain). <i>Ceanothus-</i>,
-<i>Rhamnus-</i> and evergreen <i>Phylica</i>-species are
-ornamental shrubs.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 18. <b>Thymelæinæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>Exclusively trees or shrubs with simple, entire, scattered leaves
-without stipules. They have a <i>strongly perigynous</i>, regular,
-<i>4-merous</i> flower. The receptacle (often coloured) envelopes
-a simple gynœceum formed of <b>1</b> <i>carpel</i> and with, in
-most cases, <b>1</b> ovule, bearing on its edge 4 (or 5) petaloid
-sepals and, but rarely at the same time, small, scale-like petals.
-The corolla is most frequently entirely wanting (and hence these
-plants were formerly reckoned among the Monochlamydeæ); frequently
-only one of the 2 whorls of stamens, which are situated on the inner
-side of the edge of the receptacle, is developed. The fruit is most
-frequently a <i>1-seeded</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_449">[449]</span> berry or drupe, or a nut which may be
-falsely berry-like, the partly persistent receptacle being fleshy and
-enveloping it.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>This family appears the most nearly allied to the Frangulinæ,
-especially the Rhamnaceæ, and may be considered as a further
-development of these in the direction of the petaloid
-development of the receptacle and reduction of the corolla and
-gynœceum, which in this instance only consists of one carpel.
-Another deviation is that both the whorls of stamens are
-present, while one of these is always wanting in Frangulinæ.
-They also appear to be related to the Lauraceæ (see page <a href="#Page_391">391</a>).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Thymelæaceæ.</b> The flowers are most frequently ☿ (Fig.
-<a href="#fig483">483</a>). The receptacle is high, generally tubular, coloured, and bears
-on its edge the 4-(or 5)-merous calyx, with imbricate æstivation. The
-corolla is wanting or is represented by small scales. The stamens are
-situated on the inside of the receptacle, and number 4 + 4 (or 5 + 5);
-stigma capitate. 1 <i>pendulous ovule</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig483">483</a> <i>B</i>), the
-<i>radicle pointing upwards</i>. The fruit is most frequently a berry.
-<span class="smaller">A disc is sometimes developed. Endosperm wanting or very slight.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig483" style="width: 546px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig483.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 483.</span>&mdash;<i>Daphne mezereum</i>: <i>A</i>
-flower; <i>B</i> longitudinal section of pistil.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Daphne</i> (Spurge-Laurel, Fig. <a href="#fig483">483</a>) has a deciduous
-receptacle, often coloured; sepals 4; petals absent; stamens 4 +
-4. Berry.&mdash;<i>Gnidia</i> (corolla); <i>Pimelea</i> (2 stamens);
-<i>Thymelæa</i>; <i>Passerina</i> and others.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>400 species; chiefly in the warm, sub-tropical zone, especially
-the Cape and Australia. Only <i>Daphne</i> and <i>Thymelæa</i>
-in Europe. In the fruit and bark of some, for example
-<i>Daphne</i>, pungent, burning and poisonous properties are
-found. The bark of <i>D. mezereum</i> (native and cultivated)
-and <i>D. laureola</i> is officinal. A specially tough bast is
-found in some species, for example <i>Lagetta lintearia</i>
-(Lace-tree, Jamaica), which is used in weaving. Some are
-cultivated in gardens as ornamental shrubs, especially species
-of <i>Daphne</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Elæagnaceæ.</b> Shrubs or trees, which are easily
-recognised by the covering of <i>peltate hairs</i> found upon almost
-all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_450">[450]</span> parts of the plant, causing them to assume a <i>silvery</i>
-or rusty-brown appearance. Stipules are absent; the leaves are
-simple, most frequently scattered. Flowers (Figs. <a href="#fig484">484</a>, <a href="#fig485">485</a>)
-frequently unisexual. The sepals are valvate, 2-4; the <i>corolla
-is wanting</i>; <i>stamens</i> 4 + 4 or 0 + 4. The ovule is
-<i>erect</i> and <i>the radicle turned downwards</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig486">486</a>).
-The fruit is a <i>nut</i>, but becomes <i>a false fruit</i>, being
-surrounded by the persistent receptacle or the lower part of it,
-and thus assuming a berry- or drupe-like appearance (Fig. <a href="#fig486">486</a>).
-Endosperm insignificant.&mdash;<i>Shepherdia</i> (opposite leaves) has 4
-sepals, 4+4 stamens, as in <i>Daphne</i>. Diœcious.&mdash;<i>Elæagnus</i>
-(Silver-leaf) is ☿, has 4–6 sepals, and 4–6 stamens alternating with
-them. <i>Hippophaë</i> is diœcious; it has 2 sepals and 4 stamens
-in the ♂-flower (perhaps properly speaking 2+2 stamens); thorny
-(stem-structures).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>16 species; especially ornamental shrubs, <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Elæagnus argentea</i>, <i>angustifolia</i>; <i>Hippophaë
-rhamnoides</i> and <i>Shepherdia canadensis</i>. Northern Temp.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig484" style="width: 266px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 484–486.&mdash;<i>Elæagnus angustifolia.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig484.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 484.</span>&mdash;Floral diagram.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig485" style="width: 188px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig485.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 485.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal section through the flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig486" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig486.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 486.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal section
-through the fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 3 (?). <b>Proteaceæ.</b> This order has its chief centre
-in the dry regions of Australia (6/10–7/10 of about 1,000
-species), a smaller number in S. Africa (2/10–3/10). a few
-species in S. Am. Trees or shrubs, leaves generally scattered,
-without stipules, and more or less dry, leathery, evergreen,
-and often of very different forms on the same plant (undivided,
-compound, etc.) The flowers are ☿ (rarely unisexual), and
-<i>4-merous</i> in the single, petaloid perianth and in
-the staminal whorl; 1 carpel; sometimes zygomorphic. The
-perianth-leaves are generally almost free, with <i>valvate</i>,
-æstivation, often leathery. Small scales alternating with the
-perianth are often found at the base of the ovary. The stamens
-generally have extremely short filaments, and are situated
-opposite, sometimes quite on the tip of the perianth-leaves, in
-a spoon-like groove. The gynœceum is 1-locular, has 1–several
-ovules, and is often raised on a stalk-like internode. The fruit
-is a follicle or nut. The seeds, most frequently winged, have
-no endosperm.&mdash;<i>Protea</i>, <i>Manglesia</i>, <i>Hakea</i>,
-<i>Banksia</i>, <i>Grevillea</i>, etc.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_451">[451]</span> 50 genera; about 1,000
-species. Several species are cultivated in our conservatories
-for the sake of the flowers, which are beautifully coloured and
-arranged in crowded inflorescences. Protandrous. It is doubtful
-whether they were existent in Europe in the Tertiary Period.
-The true systematic position of the order is doubtful. They are
-related to the Leguminosæ and Rosifloræ, but more closely no
-doubt to the two preceding orders.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 19. <b>Saxifraginæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flower is generally perfect, regular and polypetalous, usually
-<i>perigynous</i> or <i>epigynous</i>, <i>eucyclic</i> and 5-merous;
-most frequently S5, P5, A5 + 5 or 5 + 0 and G<b>2</b>-5, but other
-numbers are found, especially 4; the flowers are very frequently
-obdiplostemonous. The calyx is sometimes large and the corolla small;
-the carpels in some are entirely free, in others more or less united.
-Endosperm is found in the majority. <span class="smaller">The hypogynous forms approach
-the Cistifloræ, the others the following families, especially the
-Rosifloræ. This family is not, upon the whole, so well defined and
-natural as most of the others. The Saxifragaceæ proper, approach very
-near to the Rosaceæ, especially <i>Spiræa</i>, and form a transition
-to it. The forms with opposite leaves, as <i>Philadelphus</i>, etc.,
-approach the Myrtifloræ, just as the Escalloniæ appear to be closely
-allied to Bicornes, especially <i>Vacciniaceæ</i>. Finally through
-<i>Pittosporaceæ</i>, they pass over to the Frangulinæ. The family
-terminates in very reduced forms, on the one hand in the arborescent
-orders with crowded inflorescences, on the other perhaps in the very
-remarkable order <i>Podostemaceæ</i>.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig487" style="width: 327px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig487.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 487.</span>&mdash;Diagram of a 6-merous flower
-(<i>Sedum hispanicum</i>): <i>w</i> branch of scorpioid cyme in the
-axil of the bracteole β.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Crassulaceæ.</b> Nearly all are herbs or small shrubs with
-round, succulent branches and scattered, <i>fleshy</i>, often more
-or less round leaves, which are very rarely incised, and never have
-stipules. The flowers are generally borne in dichasia or unipared
-scorpioid cymes, which again may be arranged in racemes, umbels, etc.;
-they are regular, ☿, hypogynous or perigynous, and most frequently have
-free sepals and petals (gamopetalous corollas with sessile stamens are
-found in <i>Cotyledon</i>, <i>Bryophyllum</i>, <i>Echeveria</i>, and
-others); the floral formula is Sn, Pn, An + n, Gn, where n may have
-very different values, partly depending upon the size of the flower
-(<i>e.g.</i> 4–7 in <i>Sedum</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig487">487</a>; 6–30 in <i>Sempervivum</i>;
-4 in <i>Rhodiola</i>, <i>Bryophyllum</i>, and <i>Kalanchoë</i>; 5 in
-<i>Echeveria</i>, <i>Umbilicus</i>, <i>Cotyledon</i>). The carpels
-are <i>free</i> and are <i>placed opposite the petals</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig487">487</a>). Fruit a <i>syncarp composed of follicles</i> containing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_452">[452]</span> many,
-small seeds without endosperm. Outside each carpel is found a small,
-nectariferous scale (Fig. <a href="#fig487">487</a>). <span class="smaller">The northern genus, <i>Rhodiola</i>,
-is diœcious. The petal-stamens are wanting in some (<i>Crassula</i>,
-<i>Bulliarda</i>, and others). The floral-leaves are very often
-displaced upon their axillary branches. A multicarpellary gynœceum also
-occurs.</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Sedum</i> (Stonecrop) is generally 5-merous with 10 stamens;
-<i>Sempervivum tectorum</i> (House-leek), 12-merous, and with 24
-stamens. <span class="smaller">The leaves of <i>Bryophyllum calycinum</i> very readily
-form buds, and also frequently exude water from the edges.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>485 species; especially Temp. (Cape, Europe). Principally used
-as ornamental plants.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Saxifragaceæ.</b> The flowers are 4–5-merous with <b>2</b>
-(-3) carpels, most frequently: S5, P5, A5 + 5 (obdiplostemonous), G2.
-They are regular, ☿, polypetalous, hypogynous, perigynous or most
-frequently <i>more or less epigynous</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig488">488</a>). The carpels may
-be individually quite free, but are more frequently united at the
-base, or the entire portion enclosing the ovules is united into a
-1- or 2-locular ovary, the styles, however, are always free. <i>Fruit
-a capsule</i> with many seeds; endosperm present.&mdash;They are herbs,
-most frequently with <i>scattered</i> leaves without stipules; but the
-leaf-base is broad. The inflorescences are most frequently cymose,
-and a displacement of the floral-leaves is frequent (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Chrysosplenium</i>).&mdash;<span class="smaller">Some <i>Saxifraga</i>-species, <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>S. sarmentosa</i>, have irregular flower with an <i>oblique</i>
-plane of symmetry. The petal-stamens in some may be wanting:
-<i>Heuchera</i>, species of <i>Saxifraga</i> and <i>Mitella</i>. The
-corolla is wanting in others.</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Saxifraga</i> (Saxifrage): S5, P5, A5 + 5, G2 (Fig. <a href="#fig488">488</a>); capsule
-bilocular, opening along the ventral suture between the 2 persistent
-styles. <span class="smaller"><i>S. granulata</i> has small tubers at the base of the
-stem.</span>&mdash;<i>Chrysosplenium</i> (Golden Saxifrage): 4 sepals, <i>no
-corolla</i>, 4 + 4 stamens; 1-locular capsule.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Protandry is most frequently found in <i>Saxifraga</i>,
-with the stamens successively bending towards the gynœceum;
-protogyny is more rare. In other genera there is protogyny
-without any movement of the stamens; <i>Chrysosplenium</i> is
-homogamous.&mdash;About 300 species; mostly in temperate climates.
-<i>Saxifraga</i> is especially Alpine. <i>S. crassifolia</i> and
-other species, <i>Hoteia japonica</i>, <i>Tellima</i>, etc., are
-ornamental plants.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig488" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig488.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 488.</span>&mdash;<i>Saxifraga granulata.</i>
-Longitudinal section of flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_453">[453]</span></p>
-
-<p>The following genera are allied to the Saxifragaceæ:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <i>Parnassia</i> (about 14 species; <i>P. palustris</i>,
-Grass of Parnassus). The flower is slightly perigynous, and has
-S5, P5, 5 fertile sepal-stamens, and 5 petal-stamens, which are
-developed as barren staminodes, palmately-lobed, and (3–) 4
-carpels united in a 1-locular ovary with (3–) 4 parietal placentæ.
-Capsule.&mdash;<span class="smaller">Protandrous. The flower has a slightly oblique plane of
-symmetry, which is especially shown during its development and in the
-order of sequence in which the anthers dehisce: originally they lie
-closely round the gynœceum; the anthers dehisce extrorsely, first
-the one which is placed opposite the most external sepal (the 2/5
-arrangement is very distinct in the calyx), the filament elongating so
-that the anther lies over the ovary, and this is followed successively
-by the 4 others in a zig-zag line; the filaments bend backwards after
-the pollen is shed and the anthers drop off, and the stigmas are not
-developed until this is completed. The barren stamens are palmately
-divided into an uneven number (7, 9, 11) of lobes, tapering from the
-centre towards the edge, and bearing apparently glandular tips; their
-gland-like appearance is supposed to allure flies to visit the flower,
-or they may act as a kind of fence which compels the insects to enter
-the flower in a certain way, and thus effect pollination; the honey is
-secreted on their inner side, and not by the gland-like tips.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig489" style="width: 405px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig489.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 489.</span>&mdash;Portion of <i>Cephalotus
-follicularis</i>: <i>k</i> pitcher-like leaf with thick corrugated edge
-(<i>m</i>) and lid (<i>l</i>); <i>b</i> foliage-leaf of the ordinary
-form.]</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <i>Adoxa moschatellina</i> (Moschatel). This is a perennial,
-creeping herb; the horizontal rhizome has an unlimited growth, and
-bears, in a <i>scattered</i> arrangement, both foliage-leaves,
-and white, fleshy scale-leaves. The aerial stem bears 2 opposite
-foliage-leaves and a capitate inflorescence of 5 flowers, 4 placed
-laterally (in opposite pairs) and 1 terminally. The flower is
-semi-epigynous, the calyx<span class="pagenum" id="Page_454">[454]</span> gamosepalous, corolla absent. The stamens
-are divided to the base, so that each filament bears a bilocular
-anther. The style is free, deeply cleft. The <i>terminal</i> flower has
-2 bracteoles, 4 sepals, 4 stamens, cleft to the base, and a 4-locular
-ovary. The bracts of the <i>lateral</i> flowers are displaced on
-the flower-stalk, as in <i>Chrysosplenium</i>, and united with the
-2 bracteoles into a kind of 3-leaved involucre; these flowers have
-5 sepals, 5 split stamens with 2-locular anthers, and a 5-locular
-ovary. 1 pendulous ovule in each loculus. Fruit a <i>drupe</i>,
-green-coloured, with 1–5 stones.&mdash;This plant, which would perhaps
-be best placed in a special order, has also been classed with the
-Araliaceæ and Caprifoliaceæ.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The following are also allied to this order:
-<i>Escalloniaceæ</i> (arborescent plants with simple, scattered,
-leathery leaves), <i>Cunoniaceæ</i> (arborescent with opposite
-leaves), <i>Cephalotaceæ</i> (with pitcher-like, insect-catching
-leaves; Australia; Fig. <a href="#fig489">489</a>) and <i>Francoaceæ</i>. These have
-respectively 85, 107, 1 and 3 species.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig490" style="width: 283px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 490–492.</span>&mdash;<i>Ribes rubrum.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig490.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 490.</span>&mdash;Floral diagram.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig491" style="width: 472px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig491.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 491.</span>&mdash;Flower in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig492" style="width: 180px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig492.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 492.</span>&mdash;Seeds in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Ribesiaceæ</b> (<b>Currants</b>). 5-stamened Saxifragaceæ
-with epigynous flowers.&mdash;Moderately sized shrubs with <i>scattered</i>,
-stalked and palminerved, and generally palmilobed leaves, with a large
-leaf-sheath. The flowers (Figs. <a href="#fig490">490</a>, <a href="#fig491">491</a>), most frequently borne in
-<i>racemes</i>, are regular, <i>epigynous</i>, and have often, <i>above
-the ovary</i>, a cup- or bell-shaped, or tubular prolongation of the
-receptacle, on which the sepals, petals and stamens are situated; they
-have 5 sepals (often large, coloured), 5 <i>small</i>, free petals,
-only <b>5</b> stamens (opposite the sepals) and a <b>2</b>-carpellate
-gynœceum with a <i>unilocular</i> ovary and 2 <i>parietal</i> placentæ
-bearing many ovules. The fruit is a <i>berry</i>, whose seeds have a
-fleshy and juicy outer covering (Fig. <a href="#fig492">492</a>). <span class="smaller">In some species, for
-example <i>Ribes grossularia</i>, there is found an unbranched, or a
-3–5-branched spine, very closely resembling the spiny leaves of the
-<i>Berberis</i>, but which, however, are emergences springing from
-the base of the petiole. <i>Ribes</i> has two kinds of branches:
-long-branches and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_455">[455]</span> dwarf-branches, the latter alone bearing the
-flowers.</span>&mdash;<i>Ribes</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig490">490–492</a>). The blades of the leaf are
-folded or rolled together in vernation. <i>R. alpinum</i> is diœcious.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>75 species; especially from the N. Temp. regions (especially
-N. Am.).&mdash;The receptacle secretes honey on its inner surface.
-The Gooseberry-flower is slightly protandrous, others are
-homogamous; insect-and self-pollination are found. The
-following are <span class="allsmcap">FRUIT BUSHES</span>: <i>R. nigrum</i> (Black
-Currant), <i>R. rubrum</i> (Red Currant), <i>R. grossularia</i>
-(Gooseberry), originating in Northern Europe and Asia.
-<span class="smcap">Ornamental bushes</span>: the North American <i>R. aureum</i>
-(Golden Currant) and <i>R. sanguineum</i> (Blood-red Currant),
-etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig493" style="width: 241px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig493.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 493.</span>&mdash;<i>Deutzia crenata.</i> Longitudinal
-section of flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Hydrangeaceæ.</b> Shrubs, with simple, opposite
-leaves, without stipules; flowers generally epigynous,
-4–5-merous (Fig. <a href="#fig493">493</a>).&mdash;<i>Hydrangea</i> (<i>H. hortensia</i>,
-etc.). Shrubs from N. Am. and E. Asia; corolla often valvate.
-The inflorescence, as in the case of the inflorescence of
-<i>Viburnum opulus</i> (Guelder Rose), has often irregular,
-large, but barren flowers at the circumference, whilst the
-others are much smaller, regular and ☿; the barren flowers are
-mostly 4-merous; in these cases it is the calyx which is large
-and petaloid, while the other parts of the flower are more or
-less suppressed. The branches of the inflorescence appear to
-be partially devoid of floral-leaves, since they are displaced
-upon the main axis.&mdash;<i>Philadelphus</i>; racemes (with terminal
-flower), sepals 4 (valvate), petals 4 (twisted), stamens many,
-and carpels 4 (opposite the petals), forming a 4-locular
-ovary. The numerous stamens (20–30) occur by the splitting of
-the sepal-stamens and are often therefore placed in distinct
-bundles. Fruit a capsule. <i>Ph. coronaria</i> (Syringa, Mock
-Orange-blossom), from S. Eur., is a common ornamental shrub, as
-also is <i>Deutzia</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig493">493</a>) from N. Am. and E. Asia. The
-latter has S5, P5, A5 + 5, G3.&mdash;About 70 species.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5 (?). <b>Pittosporaceæ.</b> This order has its home
-especially in Australia (90 species). The flower has S5, P5,
-A5 (episepalous), G2 (3–5), most frequently a unilocular ovary
-with many ovules in 2 rows, borne on 2 parietal placentæ,
-or a bilocular ovary. Some have berries, others capsules.
-<i>Pittosporum, Citriobatus, Sollya, Billardiera.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Hamamelidaceæ.</b> Flowers more or less epigynous,
-with S4, P0 or 4, 4 fertile sepal-stamens, and 4 barren
-petal-stamens, bilocular ovary with 1–2 ovules in each loculus.
-Fruit a capsule. <i>Hamamelis</i>: one species in Japan and one
-in N. Am. <i>Fothergilla. Liquidambar</i>: monœcious;
-flowers in capitula or spikes; ♂-flowers without perianth,
-stamens indefinite; ♀-flower: slight perianth, 2-locular ovary
-with many ovules. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: “Styrax-balsam,” which is
-obtained by boiling the bark of <i>Liq. orientalis</i>, from
-Asia Minor. <i>Liquidambar</i> and <i>Parrotia</i> are found as
-fossils in the Upper Oligocene; <i>Hamamelis</i> perhaps in the
-Chalk.</p>
-
-<p>Finally two orders with very reduced flowers are included in
-this family.</p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Platanaceæ.</b> Trees, with large, scattered,
-palminerved and lobed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_456">[456]</span> leaves, and ochreate stipules; the buds
-are concealed in a hollow at the base of the petiole. The
-bark falls off in large scales. ♂-and ♀-flowers (monœcious)
-in crowded, spherical inflorescences which are placed at
-wide intervals on a terminal, thin, and pendulous axis. The
-flowers have an insignificant calyx and corolla; the ♂-flower
-has few stamens; ♀-flower, perigynous, with 4 free carpels, 1
-<i>pendulous</i>, <i>orthotropous</i> ovule in each. Fruit a
-nut; endosperm absent. 5 species; frequently grown in avenues
-and parks. <i>P. occidentalis</i> (N. Am.); <i>P. orientalis</i>
-(W. Asia.).</p>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Podostemaceæ.</b> Aquatic plants, especially in
-swiftly running water, with somewhat of an Alga-like, Moss-like,
-or thalloid appearance; they show themselves in many ways to
-be adapted to their mode of life and situations (having a
-dorsiventral creeping stem, the flowers sunk in hollows, a
-formation of haptera upon the roots, and thalloid assimilating
-roots and thalloid stems, etc.). Tropical; 100 species.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 20. <b>Rosifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The leaves are scattered, stipulate, or have at least a well developed
-sheath, which is generally prolonged on each side into a free portion
-(“adnate stipules”). The flowers are regular, <i>perigynous</i> or
-<i>epigynous</i>. Calyx and corolla 5 (-4)-<i>merous</i> with the usual
-position. The corolla is always polypetalous. The stamens are present
-in very varying numbers (5–∞) and position, but <i>always</i> placed
-in 5-<i>or</i> 10-<i>merous whorls</i>; they <i>are frequently</i> 20
-in 3 whorls (10 + 5 + 5; see Figs. <a href="#fig494">494</a>, <a href="#fig502">502</a>, <a href="#fig505">505</a>); the nearer they are
-placed to the circumference, the longer they are; they are generally
-<i>incurved in the bud, or even rolled up</i>. The number of the
-carpels is from 1–∞; in most cases all are <i>individually free</i>
-(syncarp), and when they are united it is in every case with the
-ovaries only, whilst the <i>styles</i> remain more or less <i>free</i>
-(<i>Pomaceæ</i>, species of <i>Spiræa</i>). The <i>seeds</i> have a
-straight embryo, and usually no endosperm.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The perianth and stamens are most frequently <i>perigynous</i>
-on the edge of the widened receptacle; its form varies between
-a flat cupule and a long tube or a cup (Figs. <a href="#fig495">495</a>, <a href="#fig496">496</a>, <a href="#fig498">498</a>,
-<a href="#fig499">499</a>, <a href="#fig500">500</a>); the carpels are situated on its base or inner
-surface, in some instances on a central conical elongation of
-the floral axis (Fig. <a href="#fig496">496</a>). The carpels in <i>Pomaceæ</i> also
-unite more or less with the hollow receptacle, or this grows
-in and fills up the space between the carpels, so that a more
-or less epigynous flower is formed (Fig. <a href="#fig504">504</a>).&mdash;The following
-numbers of <i>stamens</i> occur: 5, 10 (in 1 whorl), 15 (10
-+ 5), 20 (10 + 5 + 5), 25 (10 + 10 + 5), 30-50 (in 10-merous
-whorls)&mdash;compare the diagrams. The theoretical explanation of
-this relation of the 10-merous whorls and their alternation with
-the 5-merous whorls is not definitely determined; a splitting
-of the members of the 5-merous whorls may be supposed, but the
-development shows no indication of this, and it is not supported
-in any other way. Several genera have “<i>gynobasic</i>” styles,
-that is, the style springs from the base of the ovary (Fig. <a href="#fig497">497</a>
-<i>A</i>, <i>B</i>).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_457">[457]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The Rosifloræ are on one side closely related to the
-Saxifragaceæ (especially through <i>Spiræa</i>) from which it
-is difficult to separate them, and to the Myrtifloræ; on the
-other side they are allied, through the Mimosaceæ with the large
-number of stamens, and through the Amygdalaceæ with its single
-carpel, to the Leguminosæ. The family begins with forms which
-have many-seeded follicles, and passes on the one side to forms
-with nuts and drupes in perigynous flowers, and on the other
-side to the Pomaceæ.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Rosaceæ.</b> Herbs or shrubs, generally with compound
-leaves and persistent (adnate) stipules, flower <i>perigynous</i>,
-<i>gynœceum formed of many free</i> (therefore oblique) <i>carpels,
-syncarps</i> with fruitlets of various kinds. The exceptions are noted
-under the genera.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig494" style="width: 267px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig494.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 494.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Comarum palustre</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig495" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig495.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 495.</span>&mdash;Flower of <i>Spiræa lanceolata</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Spiræeæ</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig495">495</a>) has 2–many ovules in each ovary,
-while in the other groups there is generally only 1, and never more
-than 2 ovules in each loculus. There are generally 5 <i>cyclic</i>
-carpels and the fruit is 5 <i>follicles</i>, which are not enclosed
-by the receptacle. The majority are shrubs. Stipules are often
-wanting.&mdash;<i>Spiræa</i> (Meadow-Sweet). The flowers are generally borne
-in richly flowered inflorescences of various forms. The carpels, in
-some species, unite together and form a <i>simple</i> gynœceum with
-free styles (an approach to the <i>Pomaceæ</i>).&mdash;<span class="smaller">Closely allied
-to <i>Spiræa</i> are the East Asiatic shrubs: <i>Kerria japonica</i>,
-which has solitary flowers, in this country nearly always double (the
-fruit a nut), and <i>Rhodotypos kerrioides</i> which has opposite
-leaves, a remarkable feature among the Rosifloræ; it has a 4-merous
-flower, a well developed disc inside the andrœcium, and a drupe.
-Closely allied also is <i>Gillenia</i> (N. Am.) differing chiefly in
-the ascending ovules, <i>Spiræa</i> having pendulous ovules, and a more
-tubular receptacle.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The groups <i>Quillajeæ</i> and <i>Neuradeæ</i> form a
-transition from <i>Spiræa</i> to <i>Pomaceæ</i>. In the first
-group, which contains only trees or shrubs with generally simple
-leaves, the carpels are either free or united (into a capsule);
-in the second the receptacle unites with the carpels, which are
-themselves often united together; in this case, too, the fruit
-is a capsule. <i>Quillaja</i> (S. Am.); <i>Exochorda</i> (China).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_458">[458]</span></p>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Potentilleæ</span> (Figs. <a href="#fig494">494</a>, <a href="#fig496">496</a>, <a href="#fig497">497</a>). The flower has
-an “<i>epicalyx</i>” (Fig. <a href="#fig494">494</a> <i>C</i>) alternating with the sepals
-and formed by their stipules which are united in pairs, and hence
-its leaves are often more or less deeply bifid. The receptacle is
-cupular and often quite insignificant. The sepals are valvate in the
-bud. The large number of fruitlets are <i>achenes</i>, borne on a
-well-developed convex portion of the receptacle (<span class="smaller">the Ranunculeæ
-resemble the Potentilleæ, but have no epicalyx, no enlarged receptacle,
-and spirally-placed stamens</span>). Most of the species are herbs with
-dichasial inflorescences, often arranged in racemes.&mdash;<i>Potentilla</i>
-(Cinquefoil). The achenes are borne on a <i>dry</i>, hairy receptacle;
-the style is situated towards the apex of the ovary, and is not
-prolonged after flowering. Herbs with digitate, in some, however,
-pinnate leaves, and generally yellow flowers.&mdash;<i>Comarum</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig494">494</a>) (Marsh Cinquefoil) forms, by its fleshy-spongy receptacle, a
-transition to the next genus.&mdash;<i>Fragaria</i> (Strawberry) (Fig.
-<a href="#fig496">496</a>). The receptacle becomes finally fleshy, coloured, and falls
-off (biologically it is a berry); the numerous fruitlets (drupes
-with thin pericarp) have basal styles (Fig. <a href="#fig497">497</a>); leaves trifoliate;
-long, creeping runners.&mdash;<i>Geum</i> (Avens) has a terminal style
-which after flowering elongates into a long beak, with the apex
-(after the uppermost part has been thrown off) bent back into a
-hook, thus furnishing a means of distribution for the fruits. Leaves
-pinnate.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Dryas</i> comprises 3 Arctic or Alpine species with
-simple leaves and solitary flowers, the calyx and corolla 8–9-merous,
-the fruit resembles that of <i>Geum</i>, but the styles become still
-longer and feather-like (a flying apparatus).</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig496" style="width: 550px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 496, 497.</span>&mdash;<i>Fragaria vesca.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig496.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 496.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal section of flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig497" style="width: 225px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig497.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 497.</span>&mdash;A carpel, entire, and in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Rubeæ.</span> <i>Rubus</i> (Bramble) has the same form of
-receptacle as the <i>Potentilleæ</i>, but <i>no epicalyx</i>; <i>the
-fruitlets are drupes</i>, not enclosed by the persistent calyx. Most
-frequently shrubs or undershrubs<span class="pagenum" id="Page_459">[459]</span> with prickles (emergences), glandular
-bristles and compound leaves. In the Raspberry (<i>R. idæus</i>) the
-fruitlets unite together and detach themselves from the receptacle.</p>
-
-<p><b>4.</b> <span class="smcap">Roseæ.</span> <i>Rosa</i>; the receptacle is hollow,
-ovoid and contracted beneath the insertion of the calyx (Fig. <a href="#fig498">498</a>),
-ultimately <i>fleshy</i> and <i>coloured</i>; it encloses a large
-number of fruitlets which are achenes as hard as stones (“hip,”
-biologically a berry).&mdash;Shrubs with imparipinnate leaves and adnate
-stipules. <span class="smaller">The sepals show clearly the order of their development (a
-divergence of 2/5), the two outer ones on both sides are lobed, the
-third one on one side only, and the two last, whose edges are covered
-by the others, are not lobed at all. <i>Prickles</i> (emergences) are
-generally present and in some species are placed in regular order,
-being found immediately below each leaf (usually two) although at
-somewhat varying heights.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig498" style="width: 416px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig498.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 498.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal section of flower of
-<i>Rosa</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig499" style="width: 546px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 499, 500.</span>&mdash;<i>Agrimonia eupatoria.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig499.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 499.</span>&mdash;Flower in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig500" style="width: 332px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig500.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 500.</span>&mdash;Fruit and receptacle in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>5.</b> <span class="smcap">Agrimonieæ.</span> The receptacle is more or less cup- or
-bell-shaped, and almost closed at the mouth; it is persistent and
-envelopes the <i>nut-like fruitlets</i>, but is <i>dry</i>, and
-in some species hard, the fruitlets being firmly attached to it.
-In biological connection with this the number of the carpels is
-generally only 1 or 2, and the whole becomes a <i>false nut</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig500">500</a>). Herbs.&mdash;<i>Agrimonia</i> (Agrimony; Figs. <a href="#fig499">499</a>, <a href="#fig500">500</a>);
-the perianth is 5-merous, stamens 5–20. The receptacle bears
-externally, on the upper surface, a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_460">[460]</span> number of hooked bristles
-which serve as a means of distribution for the 1–2 achenes which
-are enclosed in it, and hence the entire flower finally falls off.
-The inflorescence is a long upright raceme. <span class="smaller">These bristles are
-arranged in whorls of 5 and 10, of which the uppermost alternate
-with the sepals.</span>&mdash;<i>Alchemilla</i> (Ladies-mantle; Fig. <a href="#fig501">501</a>)
-has 8 green perianth-leaves in two whorls (some authorities consider
-the four outer as an epicalyx, and the flower therefore apetalous),
-and 4 stamens <i>alternating with the innermost whorl</i>. There is
-only one carpel with a <i>basal</i> style and capitate stigma. The
-flowers are small and greenish, the filaments jointed. The anthers
-open by one extrorse cleft. The leaf-sheath entirely envelops the
-stem; the leaves are palminerved. <i>A. aphanes</i> has often only
-1–2 stamens. <span class="smaller">The following genera, with 4-merous flowers borne in
-short spikes or capitula, are allied to this group. <i>Sanguisorba</i>
-has entomophilous, ☿-flowers with 4(-20) stamens, 1 carpel; stigma
-papillose.&mdash;<i>Poterium</i>; spike or capitulum, the uppermost flowers
-are ♀, the lowermost ♂, and some intermediate ones ☿ (the order of
-opening is not always centripetal); S4, P0, A20–30, G2, the long styles
-having brush-like stigmas (wind-pollination). Leaves imparipinnate.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig501" style="width: 480px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig501.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 501.</span>&mdash;Flower of <i>Alchemilla</i> in
-longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> A yellow ring on the inner side of the
-receptacle, inside the stamens, serves as a nectary when any
-honey is formed; this, for instance, is not the case in <i>Rosa,
-Agrimonia</i>, <i>Spiræa ulmaria</i>, <i>S. filipendula</i>,
-<i>S. aruncus</i>, etc., to which the insects (especially
-flies and bees) are allured by the quantity of pollen.
-Homogamy and slight protogyny are frequent, in many instances
-self-pollination also is finally possible. <i>Poterium</i>, with
-the long-haired stigma, is wind-pollinated.&mdash;About 550 (1100?)
-species, especially in northern temperate regions.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Uses.
-Officinal</span>: the petals of <i>Rosa centifolia</i> and
-<i>gallica</i>, the fruits of the Raspberry (<i>Rubus
-idæus</i>), the rhizome of <i>Geum urbanum</i>, the flowers
-of the Koso-tree (<i>Hagenia abyssinica</i> or <i>Brayera
-anthelmintica</i>).&mdash;The bark of <i>Quillaja saponaria</i>
-(Chili) is used as soap and contains <i>saponin</i>. “Attar of
-Roses” from <i>Rosa damascena</i>, <i>centifolia</i> and other
-species, especially from the southern slopes of the Balkans.
-Many species and varieties of Roses are <span class="allsmcap">ORNAMENTAL</span>
-plants: from S. Europe, <i>Rosa lutea</i> (the Yellow Rose),
-<i>R. gallica</i> (the French Rose) and <i>R. rubrifolia</i>;
-from W. Asia, <i>R. centifolia</i>, of which the Moss Roses
-(<i>R. muscosa</i> and <i>cristata</i>) are varieties, and <i>R.
-damascena</i>; from India and N. Africa, <i>R. moschata</i>
-(the Musk Rose); from China, <i>R. indica</i> (Tea Rose)
-etc., besides the native species and the varieties which have
-been derived from them. In addition, <i>Kerria japonica</i>,
-species of <i>Potentilla</i>, <i>Rubus odoratus</i> from N.
-Am., and many species of <i>Spiræa</i> from South-eastern
-Europe and N. Am. <span class="smcap">Esculent</span>: the “hips” of <i>R.
-mollissima</i>, <i>R. pomifera</i>, etc.; the fruits of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_461">[461]</span>
-<i>Rubus</i>-species: Raspberry (<i>R. idæus</i>), Cloudberry
-(<i>R. chamæmorus</i>), Blackberry (<i>R. fruticosus</i>), etc.;
-of <i>Fragaria</i>-species (<i>F. vesca</i>, <i>collina</i>,
-<i>grandiflora</i>, etc).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Amygdalaceæ.</b> Trees or shrubs with rosaceous flowers;
-leaves simple with caducous stipules; a regular, <i>perigynous</i>
-flower, the receptacle being partly thrown off by a circular slit;
-sepals 5, petals 5, stamens 20–30; <i>gynœceum simple, formed of
-1 carpel</i> (hence oblique, Fig. <a href="#fig502">502</a>), with terminal style and 2
-pendulous ovules, ripening into a <i>drupe</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig503">503</a>).&mdash;The leaves
-are penninerved and frequently have <i>glands</i> on the stalks and
-edges; <i>thorns</i> (modified branches) often occur, <i>i.e.</i>
-dwarf-branches, which, after producing a few leaves, terminate their
-growth in a thorn (<i>e.g. Prunus spinosa</i>). <span class="smaller">The vernation
-of the <i>foliage-leaves</i> varies in the different genera; in the
-Almond, Peach, Cherry, and Bird-Cherry they are folded; in the Apricot,
-Plum, Sloe and Bullace, rolled together. In some the flowers unfold
-before the leaves (<i>Amygdalus</i>, <i>Armeniaca</i>). That the
-gynœceum is formed of 1 carpel is evident in this as in other instances
-(<i>e.g.</i> in the Leguminosæ, which are closely related to this
-order), from the fact that the carpel is oblique, and has only one
-plane of symmetry, and similarly in the fruit there is a longitudinal
-groove on one side which indicates the ventral suture. It is only
-exceptionally that both ovules are developed. In abnormal instances
-more than 1 carpel is developed.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig502" style="width: 274px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig502.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 502.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Prunus virginiana</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Fruit hairy</span>: <i>Amygdalus</i> (<i>A. communis</i>,
-Almond-tree) has a dry pulp which is detached irregularly, when
-ripe, from the wrinkled, grooved, ovoid and somewhat compressed
-stone.&mdash;<i>Persica</i> (<i>P. vulgaris</i>, Peach-tree) differs from
-the Almond in having a juicy pulp, not detachable from the stone, which
-is deeply grooved and has pits in the grooves (Fig. <a href="#fig503">503</a>). (<span class="smaller">The
-name of the genus is derived from Persia, though it is a native of
-China.</span>).&mdash;<i>Armeniaca</i> (<i>A. vulgaris</i>, Apricot) has a
-hairy, velvety fruit, but the stone is smooth and has two ribs along
-one of the edges; the pulp is juicy. (<span class="smaller">The generic name has been
-given on the incorrect assumption that it was a native of Armenia; its
-home is China.</span>)</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig503" style="width: 344px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig503.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 503.</span>&mdash;Fruit of the Peach. The pulp is cut
-through so that the stone is visible.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_462">[462]</span></p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Fruit glabrous</span> (<i>i.e.</i> without hairs):
-<i>Prunus</i> (Plum) has a glabrous fruit with bluish bloom; the stone
-is compressed, smooth or wrinkled. The flowers are borne solitarily or
-in couples, and open before or at the same time as the leaves; they
-are borne on shoots without foliage-leaves.&mdash;<i>Cerasus</i> (Cherry)
-has a glabrous, spherical fruit, without bloom, and a spherical
-stone. The flowers are situated in 2–many-flowered umbels or racemes,
-and open at the same time as the leaves or a little before them.
-<span class="smaller"><i>Long-stalked</i> flowers in <i>umbels</i> are found in <i>C.
-avium</i> (Wild Cherry), <i>C. vulgaris</i> (the cultivated Cherry,
-from Western Asia); <i>racemes</i> at the apex of leaf-bearing branches
-and small spherical fruits are found in <i>C. padus</i> (Bird Cherry),
-<i>C. virginiana</i>, <i>C. laurocerasus</i> (Cherry-laurel), <i>C.
-mahaleb</i>.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> <i>Prunus spinosa</i> (Sloe, Blackthorn)
-is protogynous, but the stamens are developed before the stigma
-withers. Honey is secreted by the receptacle. <i>Cerasus
-padus</i> (Bird-Cherry) agrees in some measure with <i>P.
-spinosa</i>. In the flowers of the Plum and Cherry the stamens
-and stigma are developed simultaneously and self pollination
-seems general; the stigma, however, overtops the inner stamens
-and thus promotes cross-pollination.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Distribution.</span>
-114 species in the N. Temp, zone; few in the warmer regions;
-the majority from W. Asia. <i>C. vulgaris</i>, from the regions
-of the Caspian; <i>Prunus spinosa</i>, <i>insititia</i>
-(Bullace), <i>domestica</i> (Plum, from the Caucasus,
-Persia).&mdash;<span class="smcap">Uses</span>, principally as fruit-trees: Cherry,
-Plum, Apricot, etc.; “Almonds” are the seeds of <i>Amygdalus
-communis</i> (W. Mediterranean), “bitter,” “sweet,” and
-“shell” almonds are from different varieties, the latter being
-remarkable for the thin, brittle stone. In the majority of
-species and in almost all parts of the plant (especially the
-bark, seed and leaves) is found the glycoside, <i>amygdalin</i>,
-which forms prussic acid. Many form <i>gum</i>, and the seeds
-have <i>fatty oils</i> (“Almond oil”). <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>:
-the seeds and oil of <i>Amygdalus communis</i>, and the fruit
-of the Cherry; in other countries also the leaves of <i>C.
-laurocerasus</i>.&mdash;The stems of <i>Cerasus mahaleb</i> are used
-for pipes. Ornamental Shrubs: <i>Amygdalus nana</i>, <i>Cerasus
-laurocerasus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <i>Chrysobalanaceæ.</i> Tropical Amygdalaceæ with
-zygomorphic flower and gynobasic style. 200 species; especially
-Am. and Asia. <i>Chrysobalanus icaco</i> (Cocoa-plum) is
-cultivated on account of its fruit (Am.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Pomaceæ.</b> Trees and shrubs, most frequently with simple
-leaves and caducous stipules. The flowers (Fig. <a href="#fig505">505</a>) have 5 sepals, 5
-petals and generally 20 stamens (10 + 5 + 5, or 10 + 10 + 5). There are
-from 1–5 <i>carpels</i>, which unite entirely or to some extent with
-each other, and with the hollow, fleshy receptacle (the <i>flower</i>
-becoming <i>epigynous</i>), (Figs. <a href="#fig505">505</a>, <a href="#fig506">506</a>, <a href="#fig507">507</a>). The carpels are
-nearly always free on the ventral sutures, rarely free at the sides
-also. The whole outer portion of the fruit becomes fleshy, but the
-portions of the pericarp surrounding the loculi (endocarp) are most
-frequently formed of sclerenchymatous cells, and are more or less<span class="pagenum" id="Page_463">[463]</span>
-firm (the “core”). The nature of the fruit varies, according to the
-thickness and hardness of the endocarp, being either a “berry” or a
-“drupe” (see <i>A</i> and <i>B</i>). When the endocarp is thin and
-parchment-like, the fruit has the characteristics of a berry, each
-of the 5 loculi generally present containing several seeds; but when
-this is hard the fruit resembles a drupe, only one seed is developed
-in each loculus, and the number of the loculi is reduced to one or
-two. There are nearly always 2 ovules in the loculi of the ovary, but
-in <i>Cydonia</i> there are a large number in 2 rows. In the genera
-which have stones, only one seed is developed in each stone. The genera
-are distinguished mainly in accordance with the kind of fruit and the
-number of ovules and seeds.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig504" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig504.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 504.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal and transverse
-section through the flowers of <i>A</i>, <i>B Cotoneaster</i>;
-<i>C Cydonia</i>; <i>D Malus communis</i>; <i>E</i>
-<i>Raphiolepis</i>; <i>F Cydonia</i>; <i>G Mespilus</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig505" style="width: 325px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig505.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 505.</span>&mdash;Floral diagram of <i>Mespilus
-germanica</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Sorbeæ.</span> <span class="smcap">The endocarp is parchment-like or
-papery</span> (drupe, with thin stone or berry).</p>
-
-<p>1. <i>Pyrus</i> and <i>Cydonia</i>; carpels completely embedded in the
-cup-like receptacle, styles always free.&mdash;<i>Pyrus</i>: the fruit is
-glabrous, and has only a small calyx, withering or deciduous, and a
-5-locular ovary with at most 2 ascending ovules in each<span class="pagenum" id="Page_464">[464]</span> loculus (Fig.
-<a href="#fig504">504</a> <i>D</i>). The large flowers are situated in few-flowered umbels
-or corymbs. <span class="smaller"><i>P. communis</i> (Pear; free styles, Fig. <a href="#fig507">507</a>; it has
-the well-known pear-shaped fruit; the core is reduced to several groups
-of sclerenchymatous cells embedded in the pulp, the leaf-stalk is as
-long as the blade).</span>&mdash;<i>Cydonia</i> (Quince) has a hairy fruit with
-<i>many seeds in 2 rows</i> in each loculus of the endocarp (Figs. <a href="#fig504">504</a>
-<i>C</i>, <i>F</i>; <a href="#fig506">506</a>); the testa of these seeds is mucilaginous.
-<i>C. vulgaris</i>, large, terminal flowers on lateral branches, and
-large leaf-like, persistent sepals.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig506" style="width: 277px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig506.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 506.</span>&mdash;<i>Cydonia vulgaris.</i>
-Longitudinal section of fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig507" style="width: 535px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig507.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 507.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal section of Pear flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>2. <i>Malus</i> and <i>Amelanchier</i> (<i>Aronia</i>); carpels free
-on the ventral edge; styles united. <i>Malus communis</i> (Apple)
-the fruit is “umbilicate” at the base; no sclerenchymatous cells in
-the pulp; styles united at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_465">[465]</span> the base (Fig. <a href="#fig504">504</a> <i>D</i>); leaf-stalk
-shorter than the blade. <i>Sorbus</i> (Mountain-ash) differs only
-in having a 2–3-locular fruit with extremely thin endocarp. Cymose
-inflorescences in umbellate cymes. <span class="smaller"><i>S. aucuparia</i> has pinnate
-leaves, <i>S. aria</i> (White-beam) and other species have simple
-leaves.&mdash;<i>Amelanchier</i> (the Service-tree) has a false divisional
-wall springing from the dorsal suture, and more or less projecting into
-each of the loculi of the ovary; <i>Raphiolepis</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig504">504</a> <i>E</i>)
-has racemes and a juicy berry; <i>Eriobotrya japonica</i> (Loquat).</span></p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Cratægeæ.</span> <span class="smcap">The endocarp is hard and bony</span>
-(“drupes,” generally with several, sometimes, however, with only
-1–2 stones, rarely one multilocular stone; only 1 seed in each of
-the loculi).&mdash;<i>Cratægus</i> (Hawthorn, May). There are 1–5 stones
-in the spherical or ovoid fruit. The disc, found on the apex of the
-fruit, inside the small, withered calyx, is small (much less than the
-transverse section of the fruit). Shrubs with thorns (branches) and
-moderately large flowers borne in corymbs.&mdash;<i>Mespilus</i> (Medlar)
-differs from the last-named only in having a <i>large disc</i> at
-the apex of the fruit, inside the large, <i>leaf-like sepals</i>,
-<i>i.e.</i> almost equal to the greatest diameter of the fruit. The
-flowers are solitary and terminal.&mdash;<i>Cotoneaster</i> is chiefly
-distinguished from the others by its syncarps, the 2–5 carpels (and
-stones) being free from one another, and only united to the receptacle
-by a larger or smaller portion of their dorsal surface (Figs. <a href="#fig504">504</a>
-<i>A</i>, <i>B</i>). Small shrubs with leathery leaves, generally
-covered with white, felted hairs on the lower surface, and with small
-flowers; the fruit is red or black.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Pear, Apple, Mountain Ash and Hawthorn have protogynous
-flowers which secrete honey, and are conspicuous to ensure
-insect pollination.&mdash;180 species; in the northern temperate
-regions.&mdash;Pear and Apple are especially cultivated as fruit
-trees in a number of varieties; the Paradise Apple (<i>Pyrus
-baccata</i>); especially in southern countries also the Quince
-(from N. Persia and the Caucasian districts), Medlar and
-<i>Amelanchier vulgaris</i>. <i>Malus pumila</i> (Caucasus,
-Altai) and <i>M. dasyphylla</i> (Orient, S. Eur.) are regarded
-as primitive forms of the Apple-tree; <i>M. sylvestris</i>,
-which grows wild in European forests, appears to have been less
-used. The early Lake-dwellers in Switzerland had the apple-tree
-both wild and cultivated.&mdash;The original form of the Pear is
-supposed to be <i>Pyrus achras</i> (Central Asia).&mdash;Many of
-the species of <i>Cratægus</i>, some with double flowers, and
-<i>Pyrus (Chænomeles) japonica</i>, with brilliant red flowers,
-are cultivated as ornamental shrubs. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: Quince
-pips, on account of the mucilaginous testa.&mdash;The fruits contain
-free organic acids and sugar; prussic acid may be obtained from
-the seeds. The wood of the Pear-tree is used in manufactures.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_466">[466]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 21. <b>Leguminosæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The most characteristic feature is, that the <i>gynœceum is
-1-locular</i> and formed of <i>1 carpel, the ventral suture of which is
-turned posteriorly</i>. The fruit, in most instances, is a <i>pod</i>
-(legume), which opens generally along both sutures, the two valves
-twisting more or less in opposite directions. <span class="smaller">In other instances it
-opens along one suture only, or as a pyxidium (Red Clover), or it is
-indehiscent, in which case it is more or less berry-like (<i>e.g.</i>
-the Tamarind, Carob-bean), or it is a drupe (<i>e.g.</i> the
-Tonquin-bean), or a 1–few-seeded nut (<i>e.g. Melilotus</i>), or
-a lomentum, which divides transversely into as many joints as there are
-seeds (<i>Ornithopus</i>, see Fig. <a href="#fig513">513</a>).</span></p>
-
-<p>The inflorescences belong to the <i>centripetal</i> type (<i>i.e.</i>
-indefinite); cymes do not occur. The flowers are <i>zygomorphic</i>,
-with vertical plane of symmetry, seldom regular; <i>5-merous</i>
-with but a few exceptions, ☿, and slightly <i>perigynous</i>. The
-following diagram is the most general (Fig. <a href="#fig511">511</a>): 5 sepals, with the
-<i>unpaired sepal median and anterior</i>, 5 petals, 5 + 5 stamens,
-all in alternating whorls, 1 carpel. The calyx is most frequently
-gamosepalous, the gynœceum is narrowed down at the base to a short
-stalk and, in the majority, is more or less bent. The seed is most
-frequently kidney-shaped, with a smooth, hard and shining testa,
-the hilum being very distinct. <i>Endosperm is wanting</i>, or is
-reduced to a thin layer, which is of service when the seed swells
-during germination. The vegetative parts have these features in
-common, namely, the <i>leaves are scattered, stipulate</i>, and
-almost always <i>compound</i>. Peculiar <i>sleep-movements</i> and
-<i>sensitiveness</i> are found in some, chiefly in the Mimosas.
-Many, probably all, Leguminosæ have <i>small tubercles on their
-roots</i> which are produced by a kind of bacterium, and assist in the
-assimilation of free nitrogen. Spontaneous movements are exhibited by
-<i>Desmodium gyrans</i> (Telegraph-plant).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>This family is closely allied to the Rosifloræ, with which
-it agrees in the scattered leaves, the presence of stipules,
-the generally 5-merous and most frequently perigynous
-flowers with eucyclic stamens, and the absence of endosperm.
-<i>Amygdalaceæ</i> and <i>Chrysobalanaceæ</i>, with solitary
-carpels, approach on one side to the Leguminosæ, among which
-genera with drupes are also found; <i>Mimosaceæ</i>, with their
-many stamens, form a connecting link on the other side. In this
-respect the Mimosa-genus <i>Affonsea</i>, and certain Cæsalpineæ
-and Swartzieæ, are of special interest in having more than
-one carpel (syncarp), a condition which is sometimes met with
-abnormally in other Leguminosæ, as well as in Amygdalaceæ. About
-7,000 species of the Leguminosæ are known.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Cæsalpiniaceæ.</b> These are <i>leguminous plants with
-straight embryo and a flower which is not papilionaceous and has not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_467">[467]</span>
-the same æstivation</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig508">508–510</a>); but in reality there is not
-a single characteristic which absolutely distinguishes them from the
-Papilionaceæ.&mdash;The majority are arborescent; the leaves as a rule
-are pinnate or bipinnate. The flower is 5-merous, most frequently
-perigynous and slightly zygomorphic; the calyx is free or gamosepalous,
-the corolla polypetalous with <i>ascending imbricate æstivation</i>
-(<i>i.e.</i> the two lowest petals envelop the lateral ones, and these
-again the posterior; Fig. <a href="#fig508">508</a>); 10 <i>free stamens</i>; fruit various.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig508" style="width: 271px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 508–510.</span>&mdash;<i>Cassia floribunda.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig508.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 508.</span>&mdash;Floral diagram.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig509" style="width: 309px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig509.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 509.</span>&mdash;Flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig510" style="width: 408px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig510.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 510.</span>&mdash;The same in long. sect.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Cassia</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig508">508–510</a>) is the largest genus (about 200
-species); it has an almost hypogynous, zygomorphic flower with 5 free
-sepals and petals; of the 10 stamens the 3 posterior are generally
-barren, the others are of very unequal length and open at the apex by
-<i>pores</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig509">509</a>). In some (the <i>Senna</i> group) the fruit is
-a flat, short, thin, dehiscing pod; in others (<i>Cathartocarpus</i>)
-it is round, long, woody or fleshy, indehiscent, and divided
-internally by more or less fleshy transverse walls into as many
-cells as there are seeds.&mdash;The following also have <span class="allsmcap">DEHISCENT
-FRUITS</span>: <i>Bauhinia</i> (often lianes, tropical climbers with
-tendrils [stem-structures] and anomalous stems), <i>Copaifera</i>,
-<i>Hæmatoxylon</i> (whose pod does not dehisce along the suture,
-but laterally), <i>Cercis</i> (simple leaves; the corolla resembles
-that of the Papilionaceæ, but the posterior petal is the smallest,
-and is enveloped by the 2 lateral ones, which are enveloped in their
-turn by the 2 anterior).&mdash;<span class="smcap">Fruit Indehiscent</span>: <i>Tamarindus
-indica</i>; the pod is almost round, often a little abstricted between
-the seeds; the wall is formed by a thin, brittle external layer,
-enclosing an acid pulp; well-developed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_468">[468]</span> septa are present, between
-the seeds; the most internal layer is parchment-like. Calyx 4-merous
-by the coalescence of 2 sepals. Only 3 fertile stamens.&mdash;<i>Ceratonia
-siliqua</i> (Carob-bean, Locusts); the pod is long, compressed, with
-thick sutures, and has a wall, the central part of which is more or
-less leathery, fleshy and sweet; there are transverse septa between the
-seeds, as in the Tamarind. Embryo greenish in endosperm. The flower
-is without a corolla, 5 stamens.&mdash;<i>Pterogyne</i> (winged fruit),
-etc.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Kramerieæ</span> with <i>Krameria</i> is an anomalous group.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Distribution.</span> 80 genera, with 740 species; almost
-exclusively in the Tropics. The Carob-tree and <i>Cercis</i>
-grow in the Mediterranean basin. The largest and most widely
-distributed genus is <i>Cassia</i>, which is found as trees,
-shrubs, and weeds in all tropical countries. The order has
-many important uses to mankind. <span class="smcap">Medicinal</span>: the leaves
-and pods of <i>Cassia acutifolia</i> and <i>angustifolia</i>
-(officinal, Senna-leaves), the fruit-pulp of the
-<i>Cassia</i>-sub-genus, <i>Cathartocarpus</i>. Rhatany root
-from <i>Krameria triandra</i> (Peru, officinal). <i>Balsam</i>
-is extracted from a number of <i>Copaifera</i>-species (Balsam
-of Copaiba) from S. Am. (officinal), and from <i>Hymenæa</i>
-(Copal balsam), <i>Trachylobium</i> and others. <i>Edible
-fruits</i> are obtained especially from the Carob-tree (from the
-East) and the Tamarind (officinal). The heart-wood of several
-species of <i>Cæsalpinia</i>, such as <i>C. brasiliensis</i>
-(the Pernambuco-tree), <i>echinata</i> (Red-tree), and
-<i>sappan</i>, yield <i>dyes</i>; <i>Hæmatoxylon</i> (<i>H.
-campechianum</i>, Logwood), <i>Copaifera bracteata</i>
-(Amarant-tree).&mdash;<i>Timber</i> is obtained from many
-(<i>Melanoxylon</i> and others). In Europe they are of
-little importance as ornamental plants, these being confined
-principally to the species of <i>Gleditschia</i> (<i>G.
-triacantha</i>, from N. Am.) and <i>Cercis</i> (the Judas-tree,
-<i>C. siliquastrum</i>, S. Eur.), which are cultivated in
-gardens; but in tropical gardens beautiful flowering species,
-<i>e.g.</i> of <i>Cassia</i>, <i>Poinciana</i>, <i>Brownea</i>,
-are found, and the most beautiful of all ornamental plants, the
-Indian <i>Amherstia nobilis</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig511" style="width: 271px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig511.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 511.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Faba vulgaris</i>:
-<i>f</i> the standard; <i>v</i> the wings; <i>k</i> the keel.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Papilionaceæ.</b> The flower (Figs. <a href="#fig511">511</a>, <a href="#fig512">512</a>) is
-<i>strongly zygomorphic</i> and somewhat perigynous (Fig. <a href="#fig512">512</a>
-<i>B</i>; most frequently more on one side than the other). The calyx
-is <i>gamosepalous</i> and persistent. The polypetalous corolla has
-<i>descending</i> imbricate æstivation, the posterior, large leaf,
-the <i>standard</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig511">511</a> <i>f</i>; <a href="#fig512">512</a> <i>B’</i>, <i>e</i>),
-<i>covering in the bud</i> the two lateral ones, the <i>wings</i>
-(Figs. <a href="#fig511">511</a> <i>v</i>; <a href="#fig512">512</a> <i>B’</i>, <i>a</i>), which again cover the
-two anterior; these are united in the form of a boat, the <i>keel</i>
-(<i>k</i> and <i>c</i>); the wings and the two petals of the keel are
-very unsymmetrical. That the keel is formed of two petals is seen by
-its position (in front of one sepal)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_469">[469]</span> and by the two often more or less
-free claws. The 10 (5 + 5) <i>stamens</i> (monadelphous) <i>are either
-all united into one bundle, or into two bundles</i> (diadelphous),
-the posterior one being free (Fig. <a href="#fig512">512</a> <i>C</i>). The ovules are
-<i>curved</i> and <i>also the embryo</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig512">512</a> <i>G</i>),
-especially the hypocotyl, so that the radicle assumes a position close
-to the edge of the thick, fleshy cotyledons. Endosperm wanting; the
-cotyledons are very rich in proteid reserve material. The forms of the
-fruit and exceptions are described under the genera.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig512" style="width: 700px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig512.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 512.</span>&mdash;<i>Pisum sativum</i>: <i>A</i>
-entire flower; <i>B</i> in longitudinal section; <i>C</i> gynœceum
-and stamens; <i>D</i> gynœceum; <i>B’</i> corolla dissected, <i>e</i>
-standard, <i>a</i>, <i>a</i> wings, <i>c</i> keel; <i>D</i> seed opened
-to show the cotyledons (<i>c</i>), the radicle (<i>r</i>), the plumule
-(<i>g</i>); <i>E</i> fruit (legume); <i>F</i> seed.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Geocarpic</i> fruits, <i>i.e.</i> those which penetrate
-the soil during their development and ripen underground, are
-found in <i>e.g. Arachis hypogæa</i> (see page <a href="#Page_472">472</a>),
-<i>Trifolium subterraneum</i>, <i>Vicia amphicarpæa</i>.
-<i>Germination</i> takes place in various ways. In the
-majority the cotyledons are raised above the ground as green,
-leaf-like bodies; in the Vicieæ they remain thick and white,
-and are always enclosed in the testa, and are therefore never
-able to take part in the work of assimilation; in species of
-<i>Phaseolus</i>, on the other hand, they are raised well above
-the ground and become green, but remain however thick and fleshy.</p>
-
-<p><b>1, 2.</b> The two groups <span class="smcap">Podalyrieæ</span> (the
-majority of the genera are Australian) and <span class="smcap">Sophoreæ</span>
-(<i>Sophora</i>, <i>Edwardsia</i>, etc.), represent the oldest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_470">[470]</span>
-type, as they have 10 <i>free stamens</i> and so form the
-transition to the Cæsalpiniaceæ. Nearly all are trees and shrubs.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Astragaleæ.</span> Herbs or shrubs, less frequently
-trees, with <i>imparipinnate</i> leaves (without tendrils). The
-flowers are generally borne in racemes or spikes. Stamens monadelphous
-or diadelphous.&mdash;<i>Astragalus</i> (Milk-Vetch) has the legume
-incompletely divided longitudinally into 2 loculi by a septum formed
-by the incurved dorsal suture. Diadelphous.&mdash;<i>Glycyrrhiza</i>
-(Liquorice); <i>Colutea</i> (Bladder-Senna) from S. Europe;
-<i>Robinia</i> (the false Acacia) with thorny stipules;
-<i>Indigofera</i> (the Indigo plant); <i>Amorpha</i> (which has only
-one petal, namely the standard, and the fruit a nut), <i>Caragana</i>,
-<i>Wistaria</i> (a climbing shrub), <i>Galega</i>. <i>Carmichælia
-australis</i>, when old, produces flat branches with scale-like leaves.</p>
-
-<p><b>4.</b> <span class="smcap">Vicieæ.</span> <i>Climbing herbs</i> with
-<i>paripinnate</i> leaves, the midrib ending in a point or frequently
-in a <i>tendril</i>, which generally is branched, representing lateral
-veins without mesophyll; stamens diadelphous; the cotyledons remain
-underground on germination.&mdash;<i>Vicia</i> (Vetch) has a filamentous
-style, hairy towards the tip, and a pod with many seeds; climbing
-by means of tendrils; the leaves have many leaflets.&mdash;<i>Faba</i>
-(<i>F. vulgaris</i>, Horse-bean) is erect, without tendrils; its pod
-is thick with spongy septa between the seeds.&mdash;<i>Ervum</i> (Lentil)
-has a pod with only 1–2 seeds, and sweeping hairs (stylar-brush) on
-the inner side of the style.&mdash;<i>Pisum</i> (Pea; Fig. <a href="#fig512">512</a>) has very
-large stipules, the bent style has a hollow groove on the anterior
-side. <i>P. sativum</i> (Common Pea), <i>P. arvense</i> (Grey
-Pea).&mdash;<i>Lathyrus</i> (Sweet Pea) generally has an angular, winged
-stem and most frequently only a few pairs of leaflets. The style is
-flattened, with sweeping hairs on the back. <span class="smaller">In <i>L. aphaca</i>
-the stipules alone are developed into foliage-leaves, while the
-remainder of the leaf is modified into a tendril.</span>&mdash;<i>Cicer</i>
-has a nearly straight embryo and imparipinnate leaves with dentate or
-incised leaflets. <i>C. arietinus</i> (Chick-pea).&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Abrus</i>
-(<i>precatorius</i>, etc.); the seeds (“Crab’s eyes,” “Paternoster
-peas,” “Jequirity”) are scarlet with a black spot round the hilum.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>5.</b> <span class="smcap">Phaseoleæ.</span> Herbs, twining or erect, but not climbing
-by tendrils; the leaves are imparipinnate, generally <i>ternate</i>,
-and bear small, linear bodies resembling stipules at the base of
-the stalks of the leaflets. The inflorescences are most frequently
-compound, groups of few flowers being situated on short, nodose,
-lateral axes borne on a longer stem. On germination the cotyledons
-are raised a considerable distance above the ground, and become<span class="pagenum" id="Page_471">[471]</span>
-greenish, but do not become leaf-like; in <i>P. multiflorus</i> they
-remain underground. Stamens as in the Vetches.&mdash;<i>Phaseolus</i>
-(Kidney-bean): the keel with the stamen and style is spirally
-<i>twisted</i> (to the right). Herbs, twining to the left.&mdash;<span class="smaller">The
-“Calabar-bean” (<i>Physostigma venenosum</i>), <i>Erythrina</i>,
-<i>Clitoria</i>, <i>Glycine</i>, <i>Soja</i>, <i>Mucuna</i>,
-<i>Apios</i>, <i>Canavalia</i>, <i>Vigna</i>, <i>Dolichos</i>,
-<i>Cajanus</i>, <i>Rhynchosia</i>, etc.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>6.</b> <span class="smcap">Trifolieæ</span> (<span class="smcap">Clovers</span>). Herbs with
-<i>ternate</i> leaves, the leaflets are often dentate with the veins
-prolonged into the teeth; stamens diadelphous; fruit 1-locular,
-1–few-seeded, pyxidium-like, irregularly dehiscent, or more frequently
-a <i>nut</i>. The flowers are generally borne in capitula, racemes,
-or spikes.&mdash;<i>Trifolium</i> (Clover). The corolla is gamopetalous.
-The calyx persists, together with the corolla, round the ripe fruit.
-The inflorescence is a spike, capitulum or capitate umbel; the leaves
-are ternate, and have adnate stipules.&mdash;<i>Medicago</i> (Medick).
-The corolla falls off after flowering; fruit curved like a sickle
-or spirally twisted; it is a nut, and opens with difficulty. Leaves
-ternate.&mdash;<i>Melilotus</i> (Melilot) has a small, spherical or
-lanceolate, thick and wrinkled fruit, which as a rule is indehiscent.
-The inflorescence is a raceme, often long, or a spike, sometimes a
-capitulum. Leaves ternate.&mdash;<i>Ononis</i> (Rest-harrow) differs in
-having monadelphous stamens and in being more shrub-like and bushy, and
-in having a normal, 2-valved pod, by which characteristic it approaches
-the Genisteæ. The flowers are generally rose-coloured, solitary, or in
-few-flowered racemes in the leaf-axils. Thorns (branches) are often
-present; the leaves are compound with only one small leaflet (the
-terminal one), or ternate with adnate stipules.</p>
-
-<p><b>7.</b> <span class="smcap">Loteæ.</span> Herbs with ternate or imparipinnate leaves,
-with entire leaflets. In the latter case, when the lowest pair of
-leaflets is placed quite close to the sheath, the stalk is wanting,
-and apparently a trifoliate leaf with large stipules is developed.
-Flowers in an umbel or capitulum. Stamens monadelphous or diadelphous,
-the filaments (either all of them, or only the 5 sepal-stamens) are
-widened at the top.&mdash;<i>Lotus</i> (Bird’s-foot-trefoil) has a long,
-round pod.&mdash;<i>Tetragonolobus.</i>&mdash;<i>Anthyllis</i> (Lady’s-finger);
-the fruit is a nut, which is distributed by the wind by means of the
-membranous, bladder-like calyx, which completely encloses and falls off
-with it.</p>
-
-<p><b>8.</b> <span class="smcap">Genisteæ.</span> The majority are shrubs or trees with
-apparently simple leaves, <i>i.e.</i> compound leaves with only one
-leaflet (the terminal leaflet), or ternate leaves; the stipules in
-most instances<span class="pagenum" id="Page_472">[472]</span> are very small or are entirely wanting; stamens
-monadelphous.&mdash;<i>Genista</i> (Dyer’s-weed) has apparently simple
-leaves; the branches often terminate in a thorn. <span class="smaller">The strongly-winged
-stems in <i>G. sagittalis</i> are its most important organs of
-assimilation. <i>Bossiæa rufa</i> has flat branches, its leaves
-being reduced to small, pointed stipules.</span>&mdash;<i>Sarothamnus</i>
-(Broom) has switch-like, angular branches and often both the
-apparently simple and ternate leaves on the same shoot; style spirally
-rolled.&mdash;<i>Cytisus</i> (Laburnum). <i>Ulex</i> (Furze; <span class="smaller">in <i>U.
-europæus</i>, the seedlings bear a few foliage leaves, but the leaves
-succeeding these are modified into thorns</span>); <i>Spartium</i>;
-<i>Crotalaria</i>, etc.&mdash;<i>Lupinus</i> (Lupin) is allied to this
-group; it has a thick, often somewhat fleshy pod, and digitate leaves
-with adnate stipules.&mdash;<i>Retama.</i></p>
-
-<p><b>9.</b> <span class="smcap">Hedysareæ</span> are especially recognised by having
-the ovary divided by transverse septa into as many cells as there
-are seeds, the fruit thus becomes a <i>lomentum</i>, dehiscing
-transversely into nut-like joints (Fig. <a href="#fig513">513</a>).&mdash;<i>Ornithopus</i>
-(Bird’s-foot); <i>Coronilla</i>; <i>Hippocrepis</i>; <i>Onobrychis</i>
-(Sainfoin) has a fruit with only 1 joint (<i>i.e.</i> a 1-seeded nut);
-<i>Desmodium</i>; <i>Alhagi</i>; <i>Hedysarum</i>, etc.&mdash;<i>Arachis
-hypogæa</i> (Earth-nut) has a pod which is abstricted between the
-seeds, and is indehiscent, but is not multilocular nor a true lomentum;
-it is reticulately wrinkled externally, and ripens underground; the
-basal part of the ovary is prolonged after flowering, attaining a
-length of several inches, and buries the young fruit in the soil. The
-embryo is straight.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Desmodium gyrans</i> is well-known for its
-motile leaflets.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig513" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig513.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 513.</span>&mdash;<i>Hedysarum coronarium.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>10.</b> <span class="smcap">Dalbergieæ.</span> 25 genera; especially in
-Tropical America; the majority are trees, a few shrubs or
-lianes; the leaves are simple or imparipinnate. The fruit is
-<i>indehiscent</i> in all; in some it is a winged, in others
-a wingless <i>nut</i> (<i>Machærium</i>, <i>Dalbergia</i>,
-<i>Centrolobium</i>, etc.), in others, again, a drupe,
-<i>e.g.</i> in <i>Dipteryx</i> (Tonquin-bean) and <i>Andira</i>.
-In some genera the embryo is straight.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> Especially effected by Bees. The nectar
-is secreted by a ring or disc-like portion round the base
-of the gynœceum or the inner surface of the receptacle. The
-flower is constructed with a peculiar mechanism to ensure
-cross-pollination by insects. The pollen is shed just before
-the flower opens, and is retained in a pouch formed by the
-keel. An insect visiting the flower uses the wings and keel
-for a landing-stage, and in attempting to reach the honey
-presses down the wings and the keel which are locked together
-near the standard; the stylar-brush by this means is forced
-through the apical opening of the keel and a little pollen is
-thus swept out and deposited upon the abdomen of the visiting
-insect as it presses against the apex of the keel;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_473">[473]</span> the insect
-thus carries away pollen and may effect cross-pollination. In
-the different flowers this arrangement is modified in various
-ways to promote pollination. 5000 species (319 genera);
-especially in the Tropics, where many are important forest
-trees.&mdash;The following plants are used <span class="allsmcap">FOR FOOD</span>:
-<i>Pisum sativum</i> (W. Asia?) and <i>arvense</i> (Italy);
-<i>Phaseolus vulgaris</i> (Kidney-bean, American; <i>Dolichos
-sinensis</i> was known to the Greeks and Romans under the name
-“φασηλος,” “phaseolus”), <i>P. compressus</i> (French-bean),
-etc.; <i>Faba vulgaris</i> (Field-bean, Horse-bean;
-from the Old World); <i>Ervum lens</i> (Lentil, Eastern
-Mediterranean); in tropical countries the oil-containing seeds
-of <i>Arachis hypogæa</i>.&mdash;The following are <span class="allsmcap">FODDER</span>
-plants: <i>Vicia sativa</i>, <i>Faba vulgaris</i>, <i>Onobrychis
-sativa</i> (Sainfoin), <i>Medicago sativa</i> (Lucerne),
-and <i>lupulina</i> (Medick), species of <i>Trifolium</i>,
-<i>Hedysarum coronarium</i>. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: “Liquorice
-root,” from <i>Glycyrrhiza glabra</i> (S. Europe); “Red
-Sandalwood,” from <i>Pterocarpus santalinus</i> (Tropical
-E. Asia); Gum Tragacanth, from <i>Astragalus</i>-species
-(E. Mediterranean); Balsam of Peru, from <i>Toluifera
-pereiræ</i>, and Balsam of Tolu, from <i>Toluifera balsamum</i>.
-Calabar-beans, from <i>Physostigma venenosum</i>; Kino,
-from <i>Pterocarpus marsupium</i>; the pith of <i>Andira
-araroba</i> is used under the name of “Chrysarobin.”&mdash;Of use
-<span class="allsmcap">TECHNICALLY</span>: <i>Genista tinctoria</i> (yellow dye) and
-<i>Indigofera-species</i> (Indigo), the bast of <i>Crotalaria
-juncea</i> (Sunn Hemp); the seeds of <i>Dipteryx</i>,
-which contain Coumarin, and are highly scented, and Balsam
-of <i>Myroxylon</i>. <span class="smcap">Poisonous</span>: the seeds of
-<i>Laburnum</i> (<i>Cytisus laburnum</i>), various species
-of <i>Lathyrus</i>, and <i>Abrus precatorius</i>; the latter
-contain two poisonous proteids, paraglobulin and albumose,
-which resemble snake-poison in their effects. The following
-are <span class="allsmcap">ORNAMENTAL</span> plants: <i>Phaseolus multiflorus</i>
-(Scarlet runner, from America), <i>Robinia pseudacacia</i>,
-<i>Amorpha</i>, <i>Colutea</i>, <i>Coronilla</i>, <i>Indigofera
-dosua</i>, <i>Wistaria polystachya</i>, <i>Cytisus laburnum</i>
-(Laburnum, S. Europe, Orient.) and other species.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Mimosaceæ.</b> The flowers are most frequently hypogynous
-and <i>regular</i>, the æstivation of the corolla is <i>valvate</i>
-and, in the majority of instances, that of the calyx also. The flower
-is 4-merous, less frequently 5- or 3-merous.&mdash;The flowers are generally
-small, but are always borne in compact, round <i>capitula</i> or spikes
-(Fig. <a href="#fig514">514</a>); they are hypogynous or perigynous. The calyx is generally
-<i>gamosepalous</i> and the corolla <i>gamopetalous</i>, the latter
-being frequently wanting. The stamens are equal or double the number
-of the petals (<i>Mimosa</i>, etc., in <i>M. pudica</i>, <i>e.g.</i>
-S4, P4, A4, G1) or (in <i>Acacia</i>, <i>Inga</i>, etc.) in a large,
-indefinite number, free or monadelphous, often united to the corolla
-(Fig. <a href="#fig514">514</a> <i>b</i>). The colour of the flower in most cases is due to
-the long and numerous stamens. The <i>fruit</i> is various. The embryo
-is <i>straight</i> as in the Cæsalpiniaceæ. <i>Entada</i> and many
-species of <i>Mimosa</i> have a flat, straight, or somewhat sickle-like
-pod, which resembles the siliqua of the Cruciferæ in that the sutures
-(in this instance, however, dorsal and ventral suture) persist as a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_474">[474]</span>
-frame, but the intermediate portion divides, as in the transversely
-divided siliqua, into as many nut-like portions as there are seeds.
-Some species have a pod of enormous dimensions. The seeds of <i>Entada
-gigalobium</i> are often carried from the West Indies to the N. W.
-coasts of Europe by the Gulf Stream.&mdash;The fruit of <i>Acacia</i>
-in some species is an ordinary pod, in others it is transversely
-divided, or remains an undivided fruit, a nut.&mdash;This order includes
-both trees and herbaceous plants, which are often thorny; the leaves
-are usually bipinnate (Fig. <a href="#fig514">514</a>) and are sensitive, and also possess
-sleep-movements.&mdash;Many Australian Acacias have compound leaves only
-when young, but when old have <i>phyllodia</i>, <i>i.e.</i> leaf-like
-petioles without blades, placed vertically. A large number have thorny
-stipules, which in some (<i>Acacia sphærocephala</i>) attain an
-enormous size, and serve as a home for ants, which in return protect
-their host-plant against the attacks of other, leaf-cutting ants.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig514" style="width: 544px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig514.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 514.</span>&mdash;<i>Acacia farnesiana</i>: <i>a</i>
-inflorescence; <i>b</i> flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_475">[475]</span></p>
-
-<p>Other genera besides those mentioned are: <i>Adenanthera</i>,
-<i>Desmanthus</i>, <i>Parkia</i>, <i>Inga</i> (with rather fleshy,
-indehiscent fruit), <i>Calliandra</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>1350 species (30 genera); none natives of Europe, their
-home being the Tropics and sub-tropical regions, especially
-Australia and Africa.&mdash;Fossils in Tertiary.&mdash;Gums are found
-in many species of <i>Acacia</i>, especially the African (Gum
-arabic) and Australian, of which some are <i>officinal</i>. The
-bark, and also the fruits, contain a large amount of <i>tannic
-acid</i> and are used as astringents and in tanning (“Bablah” is
-the fruits of several species of <i>Acacia</i>). Catechu is a
-valuable tanning material extracted from the wood of <i>Acacia
-catechu</i> (E. Ind). The flowers of <i>Acacia farnesiana</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig514">514</a>) are used in the manufacture of perfumes. With us
-they are cultivated as ornamental plants, <i>e.g. A.
-lophantha</i> and many others, in conservatories.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 22. <b>Passiflorinæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flowers are most frequently regular, 5-merous in the three
-most external whorls, eucyclic and perigynous or epigynous, less
-frequently hypogynous. A characteristic feature is that the
-ovary is <i>tricarpellary</i>, <i>unilocular</i>, and with 3
-<i>parietal</i> placentæ which sometimes meet in the central line
-(<i>Cucurbitaceæ</i>). The styles are generally free and <i>bifid</i>.
-To all these characteristics, however, there are exceptions. <span class="smaller">The
-Cucurbitaceæ are sometimes placed among the Sympetalæ, close to the
-Campanulinæ, but they are not allied to the Sympetalæ, from which they
-differ especially, for instance, in the structure of the ovule. The
-position of the Begoniaceæ in this family is also open to doubt.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig515" style="width: 700px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig515.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 515.</span>&mdash;<i>Passiflora cœrulea</i>
-(reduced).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_476">[476]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Passifloraceæ</b> (<b>Passion-flowers</b>). The majority
-are herbs which climb by means of tendrils (modified branches) and
-have scattered, stipulate leaves, often palminerved and lobed (Fig.
-<a href="#fig515">515</a>). The flowers, which are often large and beautiful, are regular, ☿,
-with S5, P5, A5, G3; the calyx and corolla are <i>perigynous</i>, and
-immediately inside the corolla is the “corona,” consisting of numerous,
-tapering, filamentous bodies, or sometimes united in rings, most
-frequently petaloid and coloured; the stamens are raised on a long,
-round internode above the <i>cup-like receptacle</i>; immediately above
-these is the gynœceum with its 3 free styles and capitate stigmas; the
-ovary is unilocular with 3 parietal placentæ. Fruit most frequently a
-<i>berry</i>. The seeds have an aril.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>210 species; especially in Tropical America. Several
-<i>Passiflora</i>-species are ornamental plants, and the fruits
-of some species are edible.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Papayaceæ.</b> The best known representative is the
-Papaw (<i>Carica papaya</i>), a Tropical American tree whose stem is
-usually unbranched, and bears at its summit several large, palmilobed
-leaves on long stalks. The stem and leaves have latex. The large,
-Melon-like berries are edible, and for this reason it is cultivated
-in the Tropics. Flowers unisexual, with slightly different structure
-in the ♂-and ♀-flowers, besides intermediate forms. The ♂-flower has
-a gamopetalous, the ♀-flower a polypetalous corolla.&mdash;The milky juice
-contains a substance with similar action to pepsine. 10 stamens. 5
-carpels.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Turneraceæ.</b> 85 species; especially in America.</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Samydaceæ.</b> 160 species; tropical.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Loasaceæ.</b> Herbaceous plants seldom shrubs, sometimes
-climbing, and nearly always studded with <i>stiff hairs</i>, in some
-instances stinging or hooked. The leaves are most frequently palmilobed
-and without stipules. The flowers are regular, ☿, polypetalous,
-entirely <i>epigynous</i>, with 4–5 sepals, petals and stamens, or more
-frequently (by splitting) many stamens, those which are placed before
-the sepals being generally barren and more or less petaloid; carpels
-most frequently 3, united into an inferior, unilocular ovary with 3
-parietal placentæ, above which the receptacle is generally more or less
-prolonged. Fruit a capsule; in <i>Gronovia</i> an ovary with 1 ovule
-and fruit a nut.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>115 species; principally from S. Am. A number of annuals are
-often grown in our gardens: <i>Bartonia aurea</i> (California);
-<i>Mentzelia</i>; <i>Cajophora</i>; <i>Gronovia</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_477">[477]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Datiscaceæ.</b> 4 species, especially in the
-Tropics.&mdash;<i>Datisca cannabina</i> (Asia Minor) resembles the Hemp
-in external appearance. The flowers are diœcious, insignificant;
-♂-flowers: a low, gamosepalous calyx, no corolla, and an indefinite
-number of stamens; ♀-flowers; <i>epigynous</i>; ovary unilocular with
-free, mostly bifid, styles, and generally 3 parietal placentæ. In most
-cases the ovary is not entirely closed at the top (as in <i>Reseda</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig516" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig516.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 516.</span>&mdash;<i>Begonia rex</i> (reduced).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Begoniaceæ.</b> This order principally comprises herbs or
-under-shrubs with succulent stems (having scattered vascular bundles in
-the pith); the leaves are arranged in two rows (a divergence of 1/2)
-and <i>are asymmetrical</i>, as a rule more or less obliquely cordate,
-or ovate with cordate base (Fig. <a href="#fig516">516</a>); large, caducous stipules are
-present. Inflorescences dichasial, or unipared scorpioid cymes; the
-flowers are unisexual; the first ones (the oldest) are ♂-flowers, while
-♀-flowers are found especially on the younger axes. The ♂-flowers
-have most frequently 2 + 2 coloured perianth-leaves, and many stamens
-collected into a head in the centre of the flower; the ♀-flowers are
-<i>epigynous</i> with 5 coloured perianth-leaves (placed spirally with
-a divergence of 2/5) and a trilocular ovary, bearing 3 bifid styles
-and 3 wings (the wings usually of unequal size); in the inner angle of
-each loculus<span class="pagenum" id="Page_478">[478]</span> there is one large projecting placenta, or two plate-like
-placentæ (the bent back edges of the carpels) studded with ovules.
-Fruit a capsule, with many extremely small seeds.&mdash;<i>Begonia.</i></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>420 species; almost all from the Tropics (Am., Asia).&mdash;Many
-species, with varieties and hybrids, are ornamental plants in
-houses and conservatories, chiefly on account of the form,
-colour and markings of their leaves; but also for their very
-beautiful flowers. They reproduce easily by adventitious buds
-from leaves and portions of leaves placed on damp soil; some
-have bulbils. Like the Oxalideæ they contain an acid sap.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig517" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig517.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 517.</span>&mdash;<i>Ecballium agreste.</i> Diagram of
-a ♂-and a ♀-flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Cucurbitaceæ.</b> The flower is <i>epigynous</i>, and,
-as a rule, is also provided with a leaf-like, cup- or bell-shaped
-receptacle above the ovary, to which the perianth and stamens are
-attached; the flowers are regular, <i>unisexual</i>, with rudiments of
-the other sex, and 5-merous: sepals 5, narrow and pointed, with the
-median sepal posterior (Fig. <a href="#fig517">517</a>), petals 5, stamens 5, and carpels
-3 (rarely 4–5); the corolla is <i>gamopetalous</i> in the majority,
-polypetalous in some; generally plicate-valvate in the bud. <i>The
-anthers in the ♂-flowers are extrorse, and monothecious, i.e. only
-one half of each of the anthers of the 5 stamens is developed</i>,
-the <i>pollen-sac</i> having frequently a peculiar [**rtilde]-shaped
-curve (Fig. <a href="#fig518">518</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>); the stamens are <i>either all
-united</i> into a column (<i>e.g.</i> in <i>Cucurbita</i>), or they
-are <i>united in pairs</i>, so that only one remains free (Figs. <a href="#fig517">517</a>
-<i>A</i>; <a href="#fig518">518</a> <i>A</i>); in the latter case there appears to be one
-small stamen with a ~-shaped, curved pollen-sac and two larger
-ones, each with two curved pollen-sacs placed as in Fig. <a href="#fig517">517</a> <i>A</i>.
-The original form appears to be <i>Fevillea</i> with free petals and
-5 free stamens. Sometimes the rudiment of a gynœceum is present. The
-carpels are united into an <i>ovary</i> with 3 (4–5) placentæ formed by
-their united edges. These are thick, fleshy, and <i>bifid</i>, bearing
-a number of ovules on each side (Figs. <a href="#fig517">517</a> <i>B</i>; <a href="#fig518">518</a> <i>C</i>,
-<i>D</i>); in general the placentæ are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_479">[479]</span> so large that they not only
-meet in the centre, but also fill up the ovary as far as the wall of
-the pericarp. The whole interior of the fruit thus becomes a juicy mass
-in which three lines may be seen, meeting in the centre (the boundaries
-of the individual placentæ), and near the circumference 6 groups of
-seeds (Fig. <a href="#fig518">518</a> <i>D</i>). When the carpels are equal in number to
-the petals they alternate with them. The <i>style</i> is short and
-thick, and generally divided into 3 (4–5) branches, with a horse-shoe
-shaped stigma on each branch (Fig. <a href="#fig518">518</a> <i>C</i>). The <i>fruit</i>
-is most frequently a many-seeded <i>berry</i>; in some it attains a
-considerable size and has a firm external layer (<i>Cucurbita</i>,
-<i>Lagenaria</i>, etc.). <i>The embryo is straight</i>, has <i>no
-endosperm</i>, but contains a large quantity of <i>oil</i>. The
-exceptions to the above characters will be found under the genera.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig518" style="width: 454px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig518.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 518.</span>&mdash;<i>Citrullus colocynthis</i>:
-<i>A</i> ♂-flower, cut open and spread out; <i>B</i> stamen; <i>C</i>
-♀-flower in long section; <i>h</i> receptacle; <i>ca</i> calyx;
-<i>D</i> transverse section of ovary.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Exclusively herbs, generally with stiff hairs and yellow flowers. Many
-species are annuals, others are perennial, having tuberous roots or
-hypocotyls. The leaves are scattered, long-stalked, in most cases more
-or less heart-shaped, palminerved, palmilobed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_480">[480]</span> and exstipulate; in
-their axils are found both flowers (singly, or in an inflorescence)
-and a vegetative bud, and outside the axil, <i>on the anodic<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> side
-of the leaf, a simple or branched tendril</i>, by which the plant
-<i>climbs</i> (exceptions: <i>e.g. Ecballium</i>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The position of the flowers, branches and tendrils situated
-in and near the leaf-axils is as follows. In the leaf-axils,
-a flower is borne (as a branch of the first order), ♂ or ♀,
-according to the conditions of the various genera. This branch
-is not situated in the centre of the axil, but is removed
-slightly towards the anodic side of the leaf. Of its two
-bracteoles as a rule only the one lying on the anodic side is
-developed, namely as a tendril, which is displaced to a position
-outside the axil. The branch of the first order bears on its
-catodic side an inflorescence (in the axil of the suppressed
-bracteole), on the anodic side a vegetative bud which grows out
-into a branch like the main axis. The subtending leaf of this
-branch is thus the tendril; but when it has several arms the
-condition is complicated by the appearance of an accessory bud
-which unites with its subtending leaf, the tendril, its leaves
-also becoming tendrils (situated on an undeveloped internode);
-the many-branched tendril is thus a branch, and the tendril-arms
-are its leaves, except the main arm which is its subtending
-leaf. Other explanations of these difficult relations have been
-given.&mdash;The <i>germination</i> is somewhat peculiar, owing to
-the fact that a heel-like prolongation is formed at the base
-of the hypocotyl to assist in separating the two halves of the
-testa from each other, and to facilitate the unfolding of the
-cotyledons.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><i>Cucurbita</i> (Pumpkin, Marrow) has branched tendrils; the flowers
-are monœcious, and are borne singly; the corolla is bell-shaped, and
-divided almost as far as the middle. The stamens are all united into a
-tube; the compressed seeds have a thick, blunt edge.&mdash;<i>Cucumis</i>
-has (generally) unbranched tendrils; the ♀-flowers are borne singly,
-whilst the ♂-flowers are borne in groups: the corolla is divided
-nearly as far as the base, and the stamens are united 2-2-1.
-The connective is elongated above the anthers. The seeds have a
-sharp edge.&mdash;<i>Citrullus</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig518">518</a>) has a corolla similar to
-<i>Cucumis</i>, but ☿-and ♂-flowers are borne singly; the stigma is
-only 3-lobed, the fruit most frequently spherical.&mdash;<i>Ecballium</i>
-(Squirting Cucumber, only 1 species, E. <i>elaterium</i>) has no
-tendrils, and is therefore not a climber. The oblong fruit is pendulous
-from the apex of its stalk, and when ripe is distended with an acrid,
-watery fluid; on being touched the fruit is detached, and the seeds,
-together with the watery fluid, are violently ejected through<span class="pagenum" id="Page_481">[481]</span> the
-aperture formed at the base of the fruit. The ♂-flowers are borne in
-racemes near the solitary ♀-flowers (Fig. <a href="#fig517">517</a>).&mdash;<i>Bryonia</i> (White
-Bryony) has chiefly unbranched tendrils and small, greenish-yellow,
-usually diœcious flowers with rotate corolla, in many-flowered
-inflorescences; the small, spherical berry has no specially firm outer
-layer, and generally only few seeds. The tap-root and a few of the
-other roots are tuberous. <i>B. alba</i> (berry black; monœcious) and
-<i>dioica</i> (berry red; diœcious). <span class="smaller">Among other genera may be
-mentioned: <i>Lagenaria</i> (Gourd); the fruit has a woody external
-layer which, after the removal of the pulpy integument, may be used as
-a gourd. <i>Luffa</i> has a polypetalous corolla; the fruit is dry,
-and consists internally of a network of vascular bundles; it opens by
-an aperture at the summit. <i>Benincasa</i>; the fruit has a close,
-bluish coating of wax. <i>Trichosanthes</i> (Snake Cucumber) has a
-thin, round, long and curved fruit. <i>Momordica</i>; the fleshy fruit
-opens and ejects the seeds. <i>Cyclanthera</i> takes its name from the
-staminal column which is found in the centre of the ♂-flower, bearing
-a bilocular, ring-like anther which opens by a horizontal cleft. The
-fruit is unilocular by suppression, has 1 placenta, and when touched
-opens and ejects the seeds. <i>Sicyos</i> and <i>Sechium</i> have
-only unilocular ovaries with one pendulous ovule. <i>Sechium</i>
-has, moreover, 5 free stamens, of which only one is halved, the
-other 4 having both halves of the anther. <i>Fevillea</i> and
-<i>Thladiantha</i> also have 5 free stamens. <i>Dimorphochlamys</i> has
-dimorphic flowers.</span></p>
-
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination</span> is effected by insects, chiefly bees
-or wasps, the nectar being secreted by the inner, yellow
-portion of the receptacle; in the ♂-flower access is gained
-to the nectar through the slits between the stamens, which
-arch over the nectary.&mdash;85 genera; about 637 species;
-especially in the Tropics. Only two are found in the whole
-of N. Europe, <i>Bryonia alba</i> and <i>dioica</i>; in S.
-Europe, <i>Ecballium</i> also. Most of the cultivated species
-have been obtained from Asia, such as the Cucumber, Melon,
-Colocynth, several <i>Luffa</i>-species (the “Gourds” mentioned
-in Scripture are <i>Cucumis chate</i>); from Africa, the
-Water-melon, <i>Cucurbita maxima</i>, and others; from S. Am.,
-no doubt, the Pumpkin (<i>C. pepo</i> and <i>melopepo</i>).
-<span class="smcap">Uses.</span> Many species are used in medicine or for
-domestic purposes. <i>Bitter</i>, <i>poisonous properties</i>
-are found; the fruits of the two <i>officinal</i> ones are
-purgative: <i>Citrullus colocynthis</i> (Mediterranean, E.
-India, Ceylon) and <i>Ecballium elaterium</i>, as well as
-various tropical species, the roots of Bryonia, etc.&mdash;The
-following are cultivated <span class="allsmcap">AS ARTICLES OF FOOD</span>:
-Pumpkin (<i>Cucurbita pepo</i>, etc.), Cucumber (<i>Cucumis
-sativus</i>), Melon (<i>Cucumis melo</i>), the Water-melon
-(<i>Citrullus vulgaris</i>), <i>Sechium edule</i> (Chocho),
-certain species of <i>Luffa</i> (the young fruit). The Bottle
-Gourd is cultivated in tropical countries for the sake of its
-hard pericarp, which is useful for bowls, bottles, etc. The
-fruits of <i>Luffa</i> have a number of reticulately felted,
-tolerably firm vascular bundles, which render them serviceable
-in various ways (as a kind of “sponge”). The Cucurbits are of no
-use in the manufactures. Only a few are cultivated as ornamental
-plants, chiefly as curiosities.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_482">[482]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 23. <b>Myrtifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The leaves are most frequently <i>opposite</i>, <i>simple</i>,
-<i>entire</i> (rarely dentate), and <i>exstipulate</i>. The flowers are
-<i>regular</i> and <i>epigynous</i> (perigynous in <i>Lythraceæ</i>
-and a few others), ☿, polypetalous; the number of members in a
-whorl is generally 4 or 5 (S, P, A, or most frequently A 2, G), but
-sometimes it becomes (<i>e.g.</i> Myrtles and <i>Lythraceæ</i>) very
-large in the andrœcium by splitting, and in the gynœceum also is
-often different. (When suppression takes place it is principally in
-the corolla and petal-stamens.) In nearly all instances the calyx
-is <i>valvate</i>. Gyncœceum multicarpellary, multilocular, with
-only one <i>style</i> (except <i>Haloragidaceæ</i>). In the majority
-the ovules are situated on an axile placenta in the multilocular
-ovary. <i>Endosperm is wanting</i> in the majority.&mdash;<span class="smaller">Less
-important exceptions: <i>Rhizophoraceæ</i> and <i>Gunnera</i> have
-stipules. <i>Haloragidaceæ</i> have several styles and endosperm.
-<i>Rhizophora</i> also has endosperm.</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Lythraceæ.</b> <i>Hermaphrodite</i>, <i>perigynous</i>
-flowers which are <i>most frequently <b>6</b>-merous</i>, viz. S 6
-(often with a <i>commissural</i> “<i>epicalyx</i>,” Fig. <a href="#fig519">519</a> <i>c</i>),
-one segment posterior, P 6, A 6 + 6 or 6 + 0 and G <b>2–6</b>, forming
-a 2–6-locular ovary with many ovules in the loculi, style single,
-and capitate stigma. The <i>gynœceum is free</i> at the base of the
-tubular, or bell-shaped, <i>thin</i>, strongly veined receptacle,
-which bears the other leaf-whorls on its edge and inner side. Fruit
-a capsule. No endosperm.&mdash;To this order belong both herbs, shrubs
-and trees. The branches are frequently square, the leaves always
-<i>undivided</i>, <i>entire</i>, and without stipules, or with several
-very small stipules, and often opposite. The calyx is valvate. The
-flower is regular (except <i>Cuphea</i>) and frequently large and
-beautiful. The stamens are generally incurved in the bud, and the
-petals irregularly folded.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig519" style="width: 353px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig519.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 519.</span>&mdash;<i>Lythrum salicaria. c</i>
-the “epicalyx.”</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Lythrum</i> (Loose-strife). The flower is diplostemonous and
-6-merous, with a long, tubular receptacle with epicalyx-teeth (Fig.
-<a href="#fig519">519</a> <i>c</i>). The 12 stamens are arranged in two tiers on the
-inner side of the receptacle. The gynœceum is bicarpellary. <span class="smaller">The
-flowers are borne in small dichasia in the leaf-axils, and their
-number is increased by accessory inflorescences beneath the main
-inflorescence.&mdash;The native species, <i>L. salicaria</i>, is trimorphic
-(long-styled, mid-and short-styled forms, Fig. <a href="#fig520">520</a>). Cross-pollination
-is chiefly effected by humble-bees<span class="pagenum" id="Page_483">[483]</span> and bees, which seek the nectar
-formed at the bottom of the receptacle. Other species are only
-dimorphic, or even monomorphic.</span>&mdash;Closely allied are, <i>Nesæa</i>,
-<i>Diplusodon</i>, <i>Lagerstrœmia</i>, and <i>Cuphea</i>, whose flower
-resembles that of <i>Lythrum</i>, but is zygomorphic. In <i>Cuphea</i>
-the receptacle is oblique and at the back prolonged into a <i>spur</i>,
-in which the nectar, secreted by a gland situated behind the ovary,
-is collected; the calyx and corolla gradually become reduced in size
-toward the anterior side of the flower; the reverse, however, is the
-case with the 11 stamens (the posterior one is absent); the posterior
-loculus in the bilocular ovary is sometimes barren; the fruit, when
-ripe, dehisces along the posterior side, the ovary as well as the wall
-of the receptacle being ruptured by the placenta, which expands and
-projects freely. <span class="smaller">The flowers stand singly in the centre of the stem,
-between the pairs of leaves. This may be explained as follows: of the
-two foliage-leaves in each pair, one supports a foliage-shoot, the
-other a flower; the foliage-shoot remains in the axil, but the flower
-is displaced through the length of an entire internode to the next pair
-of leaves, and then assumes a position between these two leaves. All
-foliage-shoots stand in two rows, the flowers in two other rows.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig520" style="width: 318px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig520.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 520.</span>&mdash;<i>Lythrum salicaria.</i> One
-side of the perianth is removed from all three flowers. <i>A</i>
-is long-styled, <i>B</i> mid-styled, and <i>C</i> short-styled.
-The direction of the arrows and dotted lines indicates the best
-(legitimate) methods of crossing.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Peplis</i> (Water-purslane), a small, annual plant, with
-thin, bell-shaped receptacle without projecting nerves. The
-small flowers have no petal-stamens, and often also no corolla;
-fruit indehiscent.&mdash;<i>Ammannia</i> is closely allied to it.</p>
-
-<p>365 species; 30 genera; mostly in the Tropics, and more
-especially S. Am.&mdash;Some yield <i>dyes</i>, <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Lawsonia inermis</i> (cultivated in Africa and Asia) and
-<i>Lagerstrœmeria indica</i>; some contain tannin; others are
-ornamental plants, especially in gardens in warm countries.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Blattiaceæ.</b> 12 species. Tropical Asia and
-Africa. Trees. Formerly included with <i>Punica</i>, but best
-placed as an independent order.</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Melastomaceæ.</b> A very natural and very large
-order (150 genera; 2,500 species), its home being chiefly in
-tropical S. America, especially the Brazils (termed by Schouw
-“The kingdom of Palms and Melastomaceæ”). There are both
-herbaceous and arborescent species, which are easily recognized
-by the opposite or verticillate, simple leaves which have (with
-the exception of a few heather-like species) 3–5–7–9 curved
-veins proceeding from the base of the leaf, and connected very
-regularly by closely parallel, transverse<span class="pagenum" id="Page_484">[484]</span> veins. The flower
-is perigynous or epigynous; its type is that of the Onagraceæ
-(4–5-merous; 1 whorl of sepals, petals and carpels, 2 of
-stamens); the calyx is valvate, the corolla is twisted (to
-the left) in æstivation; the stamens are very characteristic;
-in the bud they are geniculate; the anther opens in the often
-long, beak-like, prolonged point, with 1, less frequently with
-2 pores, and has generally ear-like appendages at its base.
-The fruit is a berry or capsule. These large and beautiful
-flowering-plants play a very important part in South American
-landscapes; otherwise they are of slight importance (a few are
-cultivated in conservatories, <i>e.g. Centradenia</i>,
-<i>Medinilla</i>, <i>Lasiandra</i>, <i>Tibouchina</i>,
-<i>Miconia</i>, etc.).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Œnotheraceæ</b> (or <b>Onagraceæ</b>). The flowers are
-arranged in racemes or spikes, ☿, epigynous, regular, polypetalous,
-<i><b>4</b>-merous in all 5 whorls</i> (1 whorl of sepals, petals and
-carpels, 2 of stamens); 2–3–5–6-merous flowers are less frequent;
-<i>the calyx is valvate</i>, the <i>corolla twisted</i> in æstivation
-(the left edge being covered). Gynœceum simple with multilocular
-ovary; the <i>style is undivided</i>, filiform, and bears a capitate
-or 4-partite stigma; endosperm wanting; embryo straight.&mdash;The majority
-are herbs, especially water- and marsh-plants; several are shrubs. No
-essential oils. The leaves are alternate or opposite, always single,
-and without (or with very small) stipules. <span class="smaller">The odourless flowers
-sometimes have a coloured calyx. In some instances (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Œnothera</i>, <i>Fuchsia</i>) the receptacle is prolonged more or
-less beyond the inferior ovary, and finally falls off. The stamens are
-obdiplostemonous (carpels epipetalous); the petal-stamens are sometimes
-suppressed. The anthers in some genera are divided into storeys. The
-well-pronounced, triangular pollen-grains are connected together by
-viscous threads. Small stipules are sometimes found, <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Fuchsia</i>, <i>Lopezia</i>.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig521" style="width: 664px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig521.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 521.</span>&mdash;Flower of <i>Lopezia</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <b>Fruit a capsule.</b> <i>Œnothera</i> (Evening Primrose)
-is 4-merous, has 8 stamens, a tubular receptacle, and an oblong
-capsule with loculicidal dehiscence leaving a centrally placed
-column, bearing the seeds.&mdash;<i>Epilobium</i> (Willow-herb) deviates
-from <i>Œnothera</i> especially in the seeds being hairy (at the
-chalazal end of the seed).&mdash;<i>Chamænerium</i> is a Willow-herb
-with zygomorphic flowers.&mdash;<span class="smaller">The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_485">[485]</span> following may be included here:
-<i>Clarkia</i>, <i>Eucharidium</i> (an <i>Œnothera</i> with 4
-stamens and 3-lobed petals), <i>Godetia</i> and <i>Boisduvalia</i>,
-<i>Jussiæa</i> (dehiscence septicidal), <i>Isnardia</i> (petal-stamens
-absent, sometimes the petals also).&mdash;<i>Lopezia</i> has a peculiar,
-zygomorphic flower (Fig. <a href="#fig521">521</a>); one of the four sepals is bent forwards
-and the other 3 backwards; the posterior petals are narrower than
-the 2 anterior ones which are turned obliquely backwards and bent
-like a knee, with a greenish nectary at the bend; 2 stamens, one only
-fertile (the posterior), while the anterior is barren, petaloid, and
-spoon-shaped; both are sensitive, which is essential for pollination.
-In Fig. <a href="#fig521">521</a>, <i>a</i> represents an early stage, in which the stamen
-and style lie concealed in the staminode; <i>b</i> is the ♂ stage, the
-stamen projects from the centre of the flower; <i>c</i>, the ♀ stage,
-the style occupies the place of the stamen.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <b>Fruit a berry.</b> <i>Fuchsia</i> generally has a coloured
-calyx and tubular receptacle; the corolla may be wanting.</p>
-
-<p><b>C.</b> <b>Fruit a nut.</b> <i>Circæa</i> (Enchanter’s Nightshade)
-has a 2-merous flower (S2, P2, A2 + 0 [petal-stamens are wanting], G2).
-The flowers are borne in racemes without bracts.&mdash;<i>Gaura.</i></p>
-
-<p><b>D.</b> <b>Fruit a drupe.</b> <i>Trapa</i> (Horn-nut); a peculiar
-aquatic plant; the submerged stem has long internodes and lanceolate
-leaves, falling off at an early period, but at each node are found 4
-long roots with thin, lateral roots (sometimes erroneously regarded as
-leaves) borne pinnately; the stem reaching the surface of the water,
-bears a rosette of rhombic foliage-leaves, with large, inflated stalks
-containing air, and forming the floating apparatus of the plants.
-In the axils of the leaves (as in <i>Gunnera</i>) 8 small, stipular
-structures are present. The flowers are solitary in the axils of the
-foliage-leaves (S4, P4, A4 + 0, G2), <i>semi</i>-epigynous. There is
-an 8-lobed, crenate disc on the free portion of the ovary; one ovule
-in each loculus. The fruit is a <i>drupe</i> with 4 (or 2) prominent
-horns (the persistent sepals), which after the pulp has decayed away
-bear a series of hooks turned downwards on each side, <i>i.e.</i>
-sclerenchymatous bundles which formerly lay concealed in the pulp of
-the sepals. <span class="smaller">The germination is peculiar: one of the cotyledons is
-large, and its thick extremity remains in the fruit, the other however
-is small and is pushed out at the apex of the fruit together with the
-radicle and plumule; the development of the root soon ceases, and the
-plumule usually grows into a stem entirely without branches, similar
-to the one described above, only that 1–2 precisely similar shoots
-arise in the axil of each cotyledon, so that each embryo produces 3–5
-shoots.&mdash;<i>Trapa</i>, by its mode of life, its 1-seeded fruit, etc.,
-forms a transition to <i>Haloragidaceæ</i>.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The large-flowered forms are adapted for insect-pollination and
-are often protandrous, the small-flowered ones are homogamous
-and may pollinate themselves. <i>Œnothera</i> is adapted for
-hawk-moths and bees.&mdash;330 species; especially in temperate
-climates, chiefly in the Northern Hemisphere. <i>Epilobium</i>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_486">[486]</span>
-<i>Circæa</i> are natives of this country; <i>Trapa</i> is
-extinct in this country, it has been found in a semi-fossilized
-condition near Cromer and in bogs in Denmark, and existed
-in Sweden until a few years ago; <i>Œnothera</i> has been
-introduced from N. Am.&mdash;A number of N. Am. species are grown
-as ornamental plants in our gardens. The seeds of <i>Trapa
-natans</i> are edible, and used as food in China.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Haloragidaceæ.</b> This is a reduced form of the
-Œnotheraceæ, and principally differs from these in the presence
-of <i>endosperm</i> and <i>free styles</i>. <i>Only 1 ovule in
-each loculus.</i>&mdash;84 species distributed over the entire globe;
-the majority are aquatic plants. The most advanced type is
-<i>Myriophyllum</i> (Water-Milfoil), with a regular, epigynous
-flower (S4, P4, A4 + 4, G4), most frequently <i>diclinous</i>
-(monœcious); the fruit is a <i>2–4-partite schizocarp</i>.
-Aquatic plants, most frequently with pectinate, pinnate
-leaves.&mdash;<i>Haloragis.</i>&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Gunnera</i> (a dozen species from
-the Southern Hemisphere) forms the next step in the reduction. Large,
-scattered, rough-haired, and softly-spined leaves, with small flowers
-in crowded inflorescences. The flower, when most complete, has S2, P2,
-A2 (petal-stamens) and G2, forming an inferior, unilocular ovary with
-1 ovule. It is remarkable for the great number of stipules placed in
-transverse rows in the leaf-axils, for the peculiar glandular organs,
-and for the colonies of <i>Nostoc</i>, which are found embedded in the
-cortex as a kind of parasite.</span>&mdash;The simplest form is <i>Hippuris</i>
-(Mare’s-tail) with an extremely small, crenate or entire calyx, without
-corolla, and with only one stamen and one carpel, forming an inferior,
-unilocular ovary with only one ovule. Fruit a drupe with thin pulp.
-<span class="smaller">It is an aquatic plant with creeping, sympodial rhizome, and erect
-unbranched shoots, bearing numerous small, verticillate leaves. The
-small flowers are situated singly in the leaf-axils.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Rhizophoraceæ.</b> Tropical trees or shrubs (50
-species, the best known being <i>Rhizophora mangle</i>,
-Mangrove) which grow gregariously, especially along the banks of
-rivers and by sea-coasts, where the water is quiet and brackish,
-and where they form the so-called Mangrove-swamps. Aerial roots
-are formed on the stems and branches (Fig. <a href="#fig522">522</a> <i>A</i>). The
-seeds germinate in the fruit, which by arrest contains only one
-seed (Fig. <a href="#fig522">522</a> <i>B</i>), before it is detached from the tree.
-The radicle projects considerably from the seed, and hangs down
-freely in the air; when the embryo is finally detached from
-the mother-plant, the separation is effected by the hood-like
-cotyledon, which entirely envelops the plumule, becoming
-detached from the rest of the embryo, which falls down, while
-the hood-like cotyledon remains enclosed in the fruit. The
-embryo, after it has fallen, strikes root, and continues growing
-in the undisturbed mud under the trees, or perhaps it may first
-be drifted about by the water, being well adapted for this by
-its peculiar, tough nature, and large, intercellular spaces.&mdash;It
-may also further be remarked that the anther is divided into a
-number of small loculi. The leaves are stipulate. The endosperm
-projects from the micropyle, growing out from the base of the
-seed, and thus serves as an organ of suction to convey nutriment
-to the embryo from the mother-plant.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_487">[487]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Combretaceæ.</b> Trees and shrubs, partly lianes.
-An inferior, unilocular ovary with few pendulous ovules.
-<i>Conocarpus</i> and <i>Laguncularia</i> form, in conjunction
-with the species of Rhizophoraceæ, the tropical Mangrove-swamps.
-<i>Terminalia.</i>&mdash;280 species; Tropics.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig522" style="width: 716px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig522.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 522.</span>&mdash;<i>Rhizophora mangle</i> with the germinating fruit
-(much reduced).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Myrtaceæ (Myrtles).</b> The plants belonging to this order
-are shrubs or trees, the majority being easily recognised by the
-vegetative characters. The leaves, for instance, are most frequently
-opposite, without stipules, undivided and entire, parchment-like or
-leathery, evergreen, <i>aromatic</i>, finely dotted by <i>pellucid
-glands containing essential oils</i>; the venation is penninerved
-with a nerve just inside and running parallel to the edge of the
-leaf. The flowers are regular, epigynous (Figs. <a href="#fig523_524">523</a>, <a href="#fig523_524">524</a>, <a href="#fig525">525</a>) and ☿,
-most frequently <b>4-</b> or 5-merous in the calyx and corolla, with
-<i>many</i> stamens (by splitting, so that they are often in several
-distinct bundles) and an ovary with one style, formed of 2–5–many
-carpels; the receptacle is most frequently united for its entire
-length with the ovary. The fruit varies, but is <i>most frequently a
-berry</i>. The embryo is thick, often curved, with united cotyledons;
-no endosperm.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_488">[488]</span></p>
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Myrteæ, Myrtle Group.</span> Chiefly American, though some
-are found also in Africa and Asia. The fruit is a <i>berry</i>
-with generally 2–5 loculi in the ovary, and many ovules in
-each.&mdash;<i>Myrtus</i>; <i>Eugenia</i> (the petals fall off together
-as a hood in the Clove, <i>E. caryophyllata</i>, Figs. <a href="#fig523_524">523</a>, <a href="#fig523_524">524</a>);
-<i>Myrcia</i>; <i>Jambosa</i>; <i>Amomis</i>; <i>Psidium</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">Puniceæ, Pomegranate Group.</span> Only 2 species (<i>Punica
-granatum</i>; from Persia, Afghanistan), differing in several respects
-from the typical form of the Myrtaceæ. The leaves are generally
-<i>opposite</i>, without glands and marginal veins. The receptacle,
-calyx and corolla are red; the latter 5–8–(generally 6-) merous. Calyx
-valvate and corolla folded as in Lythraceæ, stamens also and epicalyx
-as in this order. The most characteristic feature is the inferior,
-spherical berry, with dry pericarp, formed from two whorls of carpels
-in two tiers (Fig. <a href="#fig525">525</a>); the interior whorl, which is also the lower,
-has 3 carpels, and the placentæ are situated in the inner angles of
-the 3 loculi; the external whorl is 5-merous, and the placentæ have
-originally the same position in the inner angles of the loculi, but
-their position is changed to the outer side of the loculi owing to the
-growth of the wall of the ovary, which takes place early, causing the
-carpels to become, as it were, turned inside out, so that the part
-which was turned downwards is turned upwards, and the part which was
-turned inwards becomes turned outwards (as in <i>Mesembrianthemum</i>).
-The edible part of the fruit is the <i>fleshy testa</i>, as in
-<i>Ribes</i>. The cotyledons are rolled together spirally.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig523_524" style="width: 624px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 523, 524.</span>&mdash;<i>Eugenia caryophyllata.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig523_524.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 523.</span>&mdash;Flowers (nat. size).</p>
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 524.</span>&mdash;A bud (“clove”), long. sec. (mag.).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig525" style="width: 256px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig525.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 525.</span>&mdash;<i>Punica granatum.</i> Flower,
-long. sec. (nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_489">[489]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Lecythideæ.</span> The majority are South American.
-The leaves are scattered, without pellucid glands, and
-frequently dentate. The flowers are zygomorphic. The woody
-fruits are either indehiscent, or open by a lid. To this belong:
-<i>Bertholletia</i> (<i>B. excelsa</i>), the seeds well known
-as “Brazil-nuts,” <i>Lecythis</i> (Sapucaia-nuts from <i>L.
-ollaria</i>), <i>Barringtonia</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>4.</b> <span class="smcap">Leptospermeæ.</span> Almost entirely from Australia
-and the East Asian and Pacific Islands. The fruit is a
-<i>capsule</i>. The leaves are scattered, and in some placed
-edgewise by the twisting of the leaf-stalks.&mdash;<i>Eucalyptus</i>,
-the Australian Gum-tree; the calyx falls off like a lid (Figs.
-<a href="#fig526">526</a>, <a href="#fig527">527</a>). Some of the species attain gigantic heights, <i>E.
-amygdalina</i> 140–150 m. with a diameter of 8 m. The leaves
-in <i>E. globulus</i> are opposite and dorsiventral on the
-young plant; on the older scattered, placed edgewise by the
-twisting of the leaf-stalk, and isolateral; <i>Metrosideros</i>,
-<i>Calothamnus</i> (stamens distinctly polyadelphous),
-<i>Melaleuca</i>, <i>Leptospermum</i>, <i>Callistemon</i> (the
-flowers are borne in spikes whose axis continues to grow after
-flowering, thus several zones of fruits may be seen on the same
-branch).</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig526" style="width: 436px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 526, 527.</span>&mdash;<i>Eucalyptus globulus.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig526.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 526.</span>&mdash;Long. sect. of flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig527" style="width: 201px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig527.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 527.</span>&mdash;Flower opening.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>5.</b> <span class="smcap">Chamælaucieæ.</span> Australian shrubs with
-heath-like appearance; they differ from the other Myrtaceæ in
-having a unilocular ovary with few, basal ovules, and a 1-seeded
-<i>nut</i>. The sepals are often pappus-like, and divided into
-many bristles.&mdash;<i>Chamælaucium</i>, <i>Darwinia</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<p>This large order (2,100 species) is confined almost entirely to
-the Tropics, being found principally in America and Australia.
-In Europe, only <i>Myrtus communis</i>.&mdash;Several are useful
-on account of the large quantity of <i>volatile oils</i>
-(contained in internal glands): the flower-buds (“Cloves”) of
-<i>Eugenia caryophyllata</i> (the Moluccas, cultivated in the
-Tropics, Figs. <a href="#fig523_524">523</a>, <a href="#fig523_524">524</a>); the unripe, dry berries (“Pimento”)
-of <i>Myrtus pimenta</i> (<i>Pimenta officinalis</i>, W.
-Indies); Cajeput oil is extracted from <i>Melaleuca minor</i>
-and <i>leucadendron</i> (East Asian Islands). <i>Eucalyptus
-globulus</i> (Australia) has of late years become well known
-on account of its rapid growth, its hard wood, and its
-antipyretic qualities; it is cultivated on swampy soils, which
-it helps to drain.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: “Cloves,” and the
-cork of both stem and root of <i>Punica granatum</i>. Several
-have <span class="allsmcap">EDIBLE FRUITS</span>, such as <i>Psidium guyava</i>
-(Guava, var. <i>pomiferum</i> and <i>pyriferum</i>, Am.),
-<i>Eugenia cauliflora</i> and others, <i>E. jambosa</i>,
-<i>Punica granatum</i> (the Pomegranate), etc. <span class="smcap">Edible
-seeds</span> (with abundance of <i>fatty oil</i>): “Brazil nuts”
-from <i>Bertholletia excelsa</i> (Trop. S. Am.). “Bay-rum” is
-extracted from the leaves<span class="pagenum" id="Page_490">[490]</span> and fruits of the Bayberry-tree
-(<i>Pimenta acris</i>, W. Ind.); Guava-rum from the berries
-of <i>Eugenia floribunda</i>. <i>Tannin</i> is found in large
-quantities <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Punica</i>. <i>Gum</i> is formed
-by many Australian Eucalypti (“Gum-trees”). <span class="smcap">Ornamental
-plants</span> cultivated in this country are: <i>Myrtus
-communis</i> (Mediterranean), several in conservatories,
-especially the Australian Leptospermeæ, Eucalyptæ and others.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 24. <b>Umbellifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flower is regular, ☿, and <i>completely epigynous</i>, 5- or
-4-merous, with <b>1</b> whorl of stamens and 5–2 carpels. <i>Sepals
-very small, tooth-like.</i> The <i>corolla is polypetalous, most
-frequently valvate in æstivation</i> (least pronounced in the
-Umbelliferous plants). Round the base of the styles, which are
-generally free, there is an <i>epigynous</i> (undivided, or divided)
-<i>nectar-disc</i> (“stylar-foot”: Figs. <a href="#fig528">528</a> <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>,
-<i>D</i>; <a href="#fig539">539</a>); the number of loculi in the ovary equals that of
-the carpels; <i>only <b>1</b> pendulous (anatropous) ovule</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig528">528</a> <i>C</i>) <i>in each loculus</i>. Endosperm copious (Fig.
-<a href="#fig528">528</a> <i>D</i>). To this must be added that the inflorescence in the
-majority of cases is an <i>umbel</i> or a capitulum, especially in the
-<i>Umbelliferæ</i> and <i>Araliaceæ</i>. Stipules are absent, but most
-frequently the base of the petiole forms a large sheath.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The Umbellifloræ are on one side so closely allied to the
-Frangulinæ, especially Rhamnaceæ, that they may perhaps be
-regarded as the epigynous continuation of this family. On
-the other hand, the similarities to the Rubiales, especially
-those between Cornaceæ and Sambuceæ, are so great that there
-is scarcely any character to distinguish them except the
-polypetalous corolla of the former and the gamopetalous corolla
-of the latter. Whether this is more than a merely analogous
-resemblance, and if not, whether the Cornaceæ at least should
-not be included in the Rubiales, must be left in abeyance.&mdash;The
-sepals are very small, as is generally the case in epigynous
-flowers.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Cornaceæ.</b> The majority of the species are shrubs
-with solid internodes, <i>opposite</i> (rarely scattered)
-leaves, which are <i>simple</i>, <i>entire</i> (rarely incised),
-penninerved, <i>without</i> stipules or large sheaths; flowers
-<i><b>4</b>-merous</i> (most frequently S4, P4, A4, G2), borne
-in dichasia which are either collected into corymbs (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Cornus sanguinea</i>), or in closely crowded umbels or capitula
-(<i>Cornus mas</i>, <i>C. suecica</i>), in which latter case there is
-often a <i>large</i>, leafy, or coloured, most frequently 4-leaved
-<i>involucre</i> round the base of the inflorescence; the <i>style is
-undivided</i>, with lobed stigma; the raphe of the ovule is turned
-<i>outwards</i>. The fruit is a <i>berry</i> or a <i>drupe</i>, with a
-1–4-locular stone or 2 free stones.</p>
-
-<p><i>Cornus</i> (Dogwood, Cornel) has S4, P4, A4, G2. Leaves opposite.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_491">[491]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Drupe</i> with a bilocular, 2-seeded stone.&mdash;<i>Aucuba</i>,
-diœcious; unilocular ovary; 1 ovule; 1-seeded
-berry.&mdash;<i>Garrya.</i>&mdash;<i>Helwingia.</i></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>80 species; N. Temp. The fruits of <i>Cornus mas</i> are edible;
-the wood is very hard; gum is found in some. Several species of
-<i>Cornus</i> and <i>Aucuba japonica</i> (Japan) are cultivated
-as ornamental shrubs.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Araliaceæ (Ivies).</b> Principally <i>trees</i> or
-<i>shrubs</i> with <i>solid stems</i>. The leaves are <i>scattered</i>,
-simple or compound, with a sheath more or less developed. The flowers
-are most frequently situated in umbels or capitula which are either
-borne singly or in racemes, or in paniculate inflorescences. The small,
-most frequently yellowish-green flowers are <b>5</b>-<i>merous</i>, in
-the calyx, corolla, and andrœcium; the gynœceum may be 5-merous or may
-have some other number (<b>2</b>-∞). The styles are most frequently
-several, free; the <i>raphe</i> of the ovules is turned <i>inwards</i>
-as in the Umbelliferous plants. The fruit is a <i>drupe</i> or
-<i>berry</i>.&mdash;<span class="smaller">Stellate hairs often occur. The petals generally
-have a broad base, and a thick apex which is slightly incurved, and a
-distinctly valvate æstivation.</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Hedera helix</i> (Ivy) climbs by adventitious roots. The leaves are
-palminerved and lobed on the sterile branches, but often ovate and not
-lobed on the flowering branches. <span class="smaller">The flowers are yellowish-green
-and open in the autumn; they are slightly protandrous, and are visited
-by flies and wasps. Berries black. Endosperm ruminate.&mdash;<i>Panax.</i>
-<i>Aralia</i> (with <i>Dimorphanthus</i>).</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>375 species, 51 genera; especially in the Tropics (E.
-Asia).&mdash;The Ivy, several species of <i>Aralia</i>, <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>A. japonica</i> (<i>Fatsia</i>), <i>Gastonia palmata</i>, are
-cultivated as ornamental plants. Paper is manufactured from the
-pith of <i>Aralia papyrifera</i> (China).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Umbelliferæ.</b> <i>The stem is herbaceous</i> with
-<i>hollow internodes</i>; the leaves are <i>scattered</i>, and have
-a broad, amplexicaul base, a <i>large, most frequently inflated
-sheath</i>, and generally a pinnate (often very much dissected)
-blade. <span class="smaller">Entire leaves are found in <i>Hydrocotyle vulgaris</i>;
-<i>Bupleurum</i>.</span></p>
-
-<p>The flowers are ☿, regular, small, but collected in <i>compound
-umbels</i>, that is, in “simple umbels,” which again are borne in
-umbels (for exceptions see <i>Hydrocotyleæ</i>); the external flowers
-in the simple umbel have often subtending bracts, which surround
-the base as an <i>involucre</i>, and may be termed the <i>small
-involucre</i>; the internal ones have no bracts; when involucral leaves
-are present at the base of the compound umbel, they may be termed the
-<i>large involucre</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig528" style="width: 666px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig528.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 528.</span>&mdash;<i>Daucus carota</i> with flower and
-fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The <i>flower</i> has <b>5</b> sepals (the median, as usual,
-posterior), <b>5</b> petals, <b>5</b> stamens and <b>2</b> carpels (in
-the median line) (Fig. <a href="#fig528">528</a>). The calyx is often scarcely indicated.
-The petals have a short claw<span class="pagenum" id="Page_492">[492]</span> are most frequently obcordate, or have
-an incurved apex (Fig. <a href="#fig528">528</a> <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>), being incurved in the
-bud; they are white, rarely yellow (Fennel and Parsnips), blue or
-red. The flowers are sometimes zygomorphic, especially those on the
-circumference of the umbel, and in that case it is the petal which
-is directed outside (anterior) which is the largest, and the two
-posterior are the smallest (<i>e.g. Heracleum</i>). The stamens are
-<i>incurved</i> in the bud. The 2 <i>free styles</i> unite at the base
-into the “stylar-foot” (<i>stylopod</i>), a swollen nectary (Fig. <a href="#fig528">528</a>
-<i>B</i>, <i>C</i>); the ovary is bilocular, the raphe of the ovules
-being directed inwards. <i>The fruit is a schizocarp</i>, <i>dividing
-into two mericarps</i>; the plane in which these separate coincides
-with that of the union of the carpels, and the two <i>nut-like
-mericarps</i> are in most genera kept together for awhile at the top
-of a thin, bifid, or undivided stalk (<i>carpophore</i>) which is in
-direct continuation with the flower-stalk (Fig. <a href="#fig537">537</a>). Each mericarp
-has most frequently 5 more or less strongly projecting ridges, the
-<i>primary ridges</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig530">530</a>, <a href="#fig532">532</a>, <a href="#fig534">534</a>, <a href="#fig535">535</a>, etc.), of which 3
-lie on the back of the mericarp, the <i>dorsal ridges</i>, and 2 on
-its edge near the plane of division, the <i>marginal ridges</i>; five
-of these (10 ridges<span class="pagenum" id="Page_493">[493]</span> in all in the entire fruit) are placed opposite
-the calyx-teeth and the others between them. In some genera there are
-in addition 4 <i>secondary ridges</i> to each mericarp between the
-primary ones (Fig. <a href="#fig528">528</a> <i>E</i>: the secondary ridges bear the long
-bristles). Inside these secondary ridges, or inside the grooves between
-the primary ridges, when the secondary ridges are absent, <i>oil
-ducts</i> (vittæ, schizogenous ducts) are found in the pericarp, most
-frequently one in each groove; two are also often found on the ventral
-side of each mericarp (Figs. <a href="#fig528">528</a> <i>E</i>, 530 <i>ol</i>, etc.). The
-seed is most frequently united with the pericarp. The <i>embryo</i>
-is <i>small</i> and lies high up in the large, most frequently horny
-endosperm (Fig. <a href="#fig528">528</a> <i>D</i>).&mdash;The endosperm <i>does not contain
-starch, but oil</i>, and presents three different forms, of important
-systematic value: (<b>a</b>) those which are quite flat on the ventral
-side (<i>i.e.</i> the side turned towards the plane of splitting)
-(Figs. <a href="#fig528">528</a> <i>E</i>, <a href="#fig530">530</a>, <a href="#fig531">531</a>, <a href="#fig534">534</a>, etc.): the majority of the genera,
-<span class="smcap">Orthospermeæ</span> (<i>e.g. Carum</i>, <i>Pastinaca</i>);
-(<b>b</b>) those in which the endosperm on the ventral side is provided
-with a longitudinal groove, often deep: <span class="smcap">Campylospermeæ</span>
-(<i>e.g. Anthriscus</i>); the transverse section is nearly
-a crescent (Fig. <a href="#fig532">532</a>); (<b>c</b>) those in which the endosperm is
-concave on the ventral side (hollow in both longitudinal and transverse
-sections): <span class="smcap">Cœlospermeæ</span> (<i>e.g. Coriandrum</i>) (Fig.
-<a href="#fig538">538</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The genera are distinguished first of all by the endosperm and
-forms of fruit, the ridges and oil-ducts; then by the form of
-the umbel, the calyx and corolla, by the absence or presence of
-an involucre, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig529" style="width: 150px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig529.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 529.</span>&mdash;<i>Hydrocotyle vulgaris.</i>
-Transverse section of fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Hydrocotyleæ</span>, <span class="smcap">Penny-wort Group</span>. <i>Capitula</i> or
-<i>simple umbels</i> (all the other groups have compound umbels). No
-oil-ducts. Orthospermous.&mdash;<i>Hydrocotyle</i> (Penny-wort). The fruit
-is <i>considerably compressed</i> laterally (Fig. <a href="#fig529">529</a>). The calyx-teeth
-are small. The leaves are peltate.&mdash;<i>Didiscus.</i>&mdash;<i>Sanicula</i>
-(Sannicle). The umbels are small, capitate, generally collected
-in a raceme; calyx-teeth distinct. ♂-and ♀-flowers in the same
-umbel. The fruits are round, studded with hooked bristles. No
-carpophore.&mdash;<i>Astrantia</i> has an umbel surrounded by a large,
-often coloured involucre, with this exception it is the same as the
-preceding, but the fruit is slightly compressed, with 5 equal ridges.
-<i>Hacquetia</i> (<i>Dondia</i>).&mdash;<i>Eryngium</i> (Sea Holly): leaves
-often thorny. The flowers <i>are all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_494">[494]</span> sessile</i>, the inflorescence
-is thus a capitulum; each flower is often subtended by a bract, which
-is thorny like the involucre, resembling the burrs of the Teasel. The
-sepals are large.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Lagœcia</i>: one of the loculi of the ovary is
-suppressed.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig530" style="width: 511px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig530.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 530.</span>&mdash;Fruit of <i>Carum petroselinum</i>:
-<i>fr</i> endosperm; <i>ol</i> oil-ducts.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig531" style="width: 299px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig531.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 531.</span>&mdash;<i>Pimpinella.</i> Transverse
-section of fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Ammieæ</span>, <span class="smcap">Caraway Group</span> (Figs. <a href="#fig530">530–532</a>).
-The fruit has only the 10 primary ridges; it is usually short,
-almost spherical or broadly ovate and distinctly <i>compressed</i>
-laterally. Oil-canals are most frequently present. Orthospermous
-(except <i>Conium</i>).&mdash;<i>Cicuta</i> (Cow-bane). Pointed
-calyx-teeth. Glabrous herbs with pinnate or bipinnate leaves. <span class="smaller"><i>C.
-virosa</i> has a thick, vertical rhizome, divided by transverse
-septa into many compartments; the leaflets are narrow, lanceolate,
-and dentate; the large involucre is wanting.</span>&mdash;<i>Apium</i>
-(Celery). No calyx-teeth. <i>A. graveolens</i>, a maritime plant,
-has neither large nor small involucre; the umbels are short-stalked
-or sessile.&mdash;<i>Carum</i> (Caraway). Calyx-teeth small; the large
-involucre is wanting or is only few-leaved. <i>C. carvi</i> (Caraway).
-<i>C. petroselinum</i>, (Parsley) (Fig. <a href="#fig530">530</a>). <i>Falcaria</i>;
-<i>Ammi</i>; <i>Helosciadium</i>; <i>Bupleurum</i> (Hare’s-ear) with
-simple leaves and yellow corolla; <i>Pimpinella</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig531">531</a>);
-<i>Sium</i>; <i>Ægopodium</i> (<i>A. podagraria</i>, Gout-weed) has
-bi- or tri-ternate leaves, with ovate, dentate leaflets; the large
-involucre is wanting.&mdash;<i>Conium</i> is campylospermous (Fig. <a href="#fig532">532</a>);
-the short, broadly ovate fruit has distinctly projecting, often wavy
-crenulate ridges. <i>C. maculatum</i> (Hemlock) has a round, smooth
-stem with purplish spots.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig532" style="width: 470px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig532.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 532.</span>&mdash;<i>Conium maculatum.</i> Fruit
-entire and in transverse section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_495">[495]</span></p>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Scandiceæ.</span> This group has a distinctly oblong
-or linear fruit which is <i>slightly compressed laterally</i>,
-and generally prolonged upwards into a “beak”; wings absent.
-<i>Campylospermous.</i> Otherwise as in the Ammieæ.&mdash;<i>Anthriscus</i>
-(Beaked Parsley) has a lanceolate fruit, round on the dorsal
-side, without ridges, but with a ten-ridged beak.&mdash;<i>Scandix</i>
-(Shepherd’s-needle).&mdash;<i>Chærophyllum</i> (Chervil): fruit lanceolate
-or linear with low, blunt ridges; beak absent or very short. <i>C.
-temulum</i> has a red-spotted, hairy stem.&mdash;<i>Myrrhis</i> (Cicely) has
-a short beak and sharp, almost winged ridges. <i>M. odorata</i> (Sweet
-Cicely) has very long fruits.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig533" style="width: 365px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig533.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 533.</span>&mdash;<i>Œnanthe phellandrium.</i> Fruit
-entire and in transverse section. <i>emb</i> The embryo; <i>ol</i> the
-oil-ducts; <i>fr</i> endosperm.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig534" style="width: 282px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig534.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 534.</span>&mdash;<i>Fœniculum vulgare.</i> Fruit in
-transverse section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>4.</b> <span class="smcap">Seselineæ</span>, <span class="smcap">Fennel Group</span> (Figs. <a href="#fig533">533</a>, <a href="#fig534">534</a>).
-The fruit is slightly elliptical or oblong, in transverse section
-circular or nearly so, without grooves in the dividing plane; only
-primary ridges are present. Orthospermous.&mdash;<i>Fœniculum</i> (Fennel)
-has yellow petals; both involucres are wanting; the fruit is oblong.
-The ridges are thick, all equally developed, or the lateral ridges are
-slightly larger (Fig. <a href="#fig534">534</a>).&mdash;<i>Æthusa</i> (<i>A. cynapium</i>, Fool’s
-Parsley); the large involucre is wanting or is reduced to one leaf, the
-small involucre is composed of three linear leaves which hang downwards
-on the outer side of the umbels. The fruit is spherical-ovate,
-with thick, sharp, keeled ridges, the lateral ones of which are
-the broadest.&mdash;<i>Œnanthe</i> (Dropwort); the fruit (Fig. <a href="#fig533">533</a>) has
-usually an ovate, lanceolate form, with distinct, pointed sepals and
-long, erect styles; the ridges are very blunt, the marginal ones a
-trifle broader than the others.&mdash;<i>Seseli</i>, <i>Libanotis</i>,
-<i>Cnidium</i>, <i>Silex</i>, <i>Silaus</i>, <i>Meum</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_496">[496]</span></p>
-
-<p><b>5.</b> <span class="smcap">Peucedaneæ</span>, <span class="smcap">Parsnip Group</span> (Figs. <a href="#fig535">535–537</a>).
-The fruit is most frequently very strongly <i>compressed</i> dorsally,
-with broad, mostly <i>winged</i>, lateral ridges. Only primary ridges.
-The dorsal ridges may project considerably, but are not winged.
-Orthospermous.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig535" style="width: 487px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig535.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 535.</span>&mdash;<i>Archangelica officinalis.</i>
-Transverse section of fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig536" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig536.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 536.</span>&mdash;<i>Scorodosma fœtidum.</i>
-Transverse section of fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>a.</b> The winged lateral ridges stand <i>out from each other</i>,
-so that the fruit appears to be 4-winged (Fig. <a href="#fig535">535</a>).&mdash;<i>Angelica</i>;
-<i>Archangelica</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig535">535</a>); <i>Levisticum</i> (Lovage).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig537" style="width: 319px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig537.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 537.</span>&mdash;<i>Heracleum sphondylium.</i> Fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>b.</b> The winged lateral ridges lie <i>close together</i>, and
-form one wing on each side of the fruit (Fig. <a href="#fig536">536</a>).&mdash;<i>Pastinaca</i>
-(Parsnip). Corolla yellow. The dorsal ridges are very weak; the
-oil-ducts do not reach quite as far as the base of the fruit.
-Both large and small involucres are wanting; leaflets ovate.
-<i>Anethum</i> (Dill) is a Parsnip with more distinct dorsal
-ridges and filamentous leaflets. <i>Peucedanum</i> (Hog’s-fennel);
-<i>Ferula</i> (with <i>Scorodosma</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig536">536</a>, and <i>Narthex</i>);
-<i>Dorema</i>.&mdash;<i>Heracleum</i> (Cow-parsnip); the flowers in the
-margin of the umbels are often very large, zygomorphic, and project
-like rays, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>H. sibiricum</i>. The fruit is very flat,
-with very small dorsal ridges; the oil-ducts are more or less club-like
-and <i>do not reach as far as</i> the base of the fruit (Fig. <a href="#fig537">537</a>).
-<i>Imperatoria</i>; <i>Tordylium</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>6.</b> <span class="smcap">Dauceæ</span>, <span class="smcap">Carrot Group</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig528">528</a>). The fruit
-has 18 ridges, <i>i.e.</i> each fruitlet has 5 primary and 4 secondary
-ridges, the latter being often more prominent and projecting further
-than the primary ones. The oil-ducts are situated under the secondary
-ridges (Fig. <a href="#fig528">528</a>).</p>
-
-<p><b>a.</b> <span class="smcap">Orthospermous</span>: <i>Daucus</i> (Carrot). The secondary
-ridges project much further than the primary, and bear on their crests
-a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_497">[497]</span> series of hooked spines (Fig. <a href="#fig528">528</a> <i>D</i>, <i>E</i>); these are
-much longer than the small bristles on the primary ridges. <span class="smaller">The
-involucral leaves of <i>D. carota</i> (Carrot) are numerous and deeply
-pinnate; the inflorescence contracts during the ripening of the fruit,
-and since the external umbels have longer stalks than the central ones,
-they arch over them, and the inflorescence becomes hollow. For the
-terminal flower, see below.</span>&mdash;<i>Cuminum</i>; <i>Laserpitium</i>;
-<i>Melanoselinum</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>b.</b> <span class="smcap">Campylospermous</span>: <i>Torilis</i> (Hedge Parsley).
-The primary ridges are covered with bristles; the secondary ridges are
-not. very distinct on account of the spines, which entirely fill up the
-grooves. <i>Caucalis</i> (Bur Parsley).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig538" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig538.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 538.</span>&mdash;<i>Coriandrum sativum</i>: <i>b</i>
-secondary ridges; <i>d</i> primary ridges; <i>f</i> endosperm; <i>l</i>
-embryo.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>c.</b> <span class="smcap">Cœlospermous</span>: <i>Coriandrum</i> (Coriander) has a
-smooth, spherical fruit (Fig. <a href="#fig538">538</a>) with a distinct, 5-dentate calyx,
-the two anterior (<i>i.e.</i> turned outward) teeth being generally
-longer than the others; the two fruitlets scarcely separate from each
-other naturally; all the ridges project only very slightly, the curved
-primary ones least, the secondary ridges most.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> The flowers are adapted for
-insect-pollination; they secrete nectar at the base of the
-styles; individually they are rather small and insignificant,
-but yet are rendered conspicuous by being always crowded in
-many-flowered inflorescences. <i>Protandry</i> is common,
-sometimes to such an extent that the stamens have already fallen
-off before the styles begin to develop (Fig <a href="#fig539">539</a>, 2). Insect
-visits are more frequent and numerous as the inflorescences are
-more conspicuous. The flowers as a rule are ☿, but ♂-flowers
-are often found interspersed among the others (Fig. <a href="#fig539">539</a>), and
-the number of these becomes greater on the umbels developed at
-the latest period. A terminal flower, which differs from the
-others in form, and in <i>Daucus carota</i> often in colour also
-(purple), is sometimes found in the umbel. The nectar lies so
-exposed and flat that the flowers are principally visited by
-insects with short probosces, especially Diptera; bees are less
-frequent visitors, and butterflies rare.&mdash;1400 species (175
-genera); especially from temperate climates in Europe, Asia, N.
-Am. About 68 species in this country.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_498">[498]</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig539" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig539.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 539.</span>&mdash;<i>Anthriscus silvester</i>: 1
-♂-flower; 2 ☿-flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> A few are cultivated as ornamental plants.
-They are, however, useful in medicine,<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> and for culinary
-purposes on account of the <i>essential oils</i> and
-<i>gum-resins</i> which in many are formed in root, stem,
-and fruit. The <span class="allsmcap">FRUITS</span> of the following are used:
-<i>Carum carvi</i> [+] (Caraway), <i>Carum petroselinum</i>
-(Parsley; also the leaves and root; its home is the Eastern
-Mediterranean); <i>Fœniculum capillaceum</i> [+] (Fennel; S.
-Europe); <i>Pimpinella anisum</i> [+] (Anise; E. Mediterranean);
-<i>Coriandrum sativum</i> [+] (Coriander; S. Eur.); <i>Œnanthe
-phellandrium</i> (Water Dropwort); <i>Cuminum cyminum</i>
-(Point Caraway; Africa; cultivated in S. Europe); <i>Anethum
-graveolens</i> (Dill). The <span class="allsmcap">LEAVES</span> of the following
-are used as pot-herbs: <i>Anthriscus cerefolium</i> (Chervil);
-<i>Myrrhis odorata</i> (Sweet Cicely; Orient.); <i>Conium
-maculatum</i> [+] (the green portions; Hemlock). Besides
-Parsley, the <span class="allsmcap">ROOTS</span> of the following are used:
-Carrot, Parsnip, <i>Sium sisarum</i> (Sugar-root; E. Asia);
-<i>Chærophyllum bulbosum</i> (Chervil-root); <i>Levisticum
-officinale</i> (foliage-shoots; S. Europe); <i>Imperatoria
-ostruthium</i>; <i>Apium graveolens</i> (Celery, the root in
-conjunction with the internodes); <i>Pimpinella saxifraga</i>
-and <i>magna</i> (Pimpinell); <i>Archangelica</i> (Angelica,
-the root of <i>A. norvegica</i> was formerly an article of
-food in Norway). <i>Poisonous alkaloids</i> are found in a
-few, such as Fool’s Parsley (<i>Æthusa cynapium</i>), Hemlock
-(<i>Conium maculatum</i>), Cow-bane (<i>Cicuta virosa</i>) and
-species of <i>Œnanthe</i>.&mdash;<i>Gum-resin</i> is extracted from
-various species: “Galbanum” from <i>Ferula galbaniflua</i> [+]
-and <i>rubricalis</i> [+] (Persia); Asafœtida from <i>Ferula
-scorodosma</i> [+] and <i>F. narthex</i> [+]; Ammoniac-gum from
-<i>Dorema ammoniacum</i> [+], all from Central and S. W. Asia.
-“<i>Silphium</i>” was an Umbelliferous plant which grew in
-ancient times in Cyrene, and from which the Romans extracted a
-valued condiment.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>Family 25. <b>Hysterophyta.</b></p>
-
-<p>This family (with the exception of Aristolochiaceæ) includes only
-parasitic plants. Partly on this ground, and partly because they all
-have <i>epigynous</i> flowers, they are considered to belong to the
-youngest type (which is expressed in the name ὕστερος, the one that
-comes after). It is not certain to which of the preceding families they
-are most nearly allied. <span class="smaller">Again, it is a matter of doubt<span class="pagenum" id="Page_499">[499]</span> whether the
-Aristolochiaceæ are related to the others; they are by Engler united
-with Rafflesiaceæ into one family, <i>Aristolochiales</i>.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig540" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig540.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 540.</span>&mdash;Flower of <i>Aristolochia
-clematitis</i> (long. sect.). <i>A</i> Before pollination, and <i>B</i>
-after: <i>n</i> stigma; <i>a</i> anthers; <i>t</i> an insect; <i>kf</i>
-ovary.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <i>Aristolochiaceæ.</i> The majority are perennial herbs or
-twining shrubs, whose stalked, simple, and generally more or less
-cordate or reniform leaves are borne in 2 rows and are exstipulate.
-The flowers are <i>hermaphrodite</i>, <i>epigynous</i>, regular or
-zygomorphic; perianth-leaves united, <i>simple</i> but most frequently
-<i>petaloid</i> and 3-merous; 6 or 12 (in <i>Thottea</i> as many as
-36) stamens with <i>extrorse</i> anthers. The ovary is more or less
-completely 4–6-locular with ovules attached in the inner angles of
-the loculi (Fig. <a href="#fig540">540</a> <i>kf</i>). The style is short, and has a large,
-radiating stigma (Fig. <a href="#fig540">540</a> <i>n</i>). Fruit a capsule. Seeds rich in
-endosperm.</p>
-
-<p><i>Asarum europæum.</i> Each shoot has 2 reniform foliage-leaves,
-between which the terminal flower is borne (the rhizome becomes
-a sympodium by development of the bud in the axil of the upper
-foliage-leaf). The flower is <i>regular</i> and has a bell-shaped
-perianth with 3 outer valvate, and 3 inner small segments (which
-may be wanting). <b>12</b> (2 × 6) free, extrorse stamens, 6
-carpels.&mdash;<i>Aristolochia clematitis</i> (Birth-wort) has an erect,
-unbranched stem, bearing many flowers in the leaf-axils, in a zig-zag
-row (accessory buds in a unipared scorpioid cyme). The flowers are
-zygomorphic (Fig. <a href="#fig540">540</a>), formed by 3 alternating, 6-merous whorls. The
-perianth has a lower, much-distended part (<i>k</i>), succeeded by a
-narrow, bent tube (<i>r</i>), which passes over into an oblique, almost
-tongue-like projection<span class="pagenum" id="Page_500">[500]</span> (6 vascular bundles indicate that the number
-6 is prevalent here, as in <i>Asarum</i>); <b>6</b> stamens (Fig. <a href="#fig540">540</a>
-<i>a</i>), with the dorsal portion turned upwards, are united with
-the short style to form a <i>stylar column</i>; they are placed quite
-beneath the 6 commissural stigmatic rays, which arch over them as
-short, thick lobes. <span class="smaller">Protogynous; <span class="smcap">Pollination</span> is effected
-in <i>Arist. clematitis</i> by small flies; these enter the erect
-unfertilised flower through the tube (Fig. <a href="#fig540">540</a> <i>A</i>, <i>l</i>)
-without being prevented by the stiff, downwardly-turned hairs which
-line the tube and prevent their escape; they find the stigma (<i>n</i>)
-fully developed, and may pollinate it with the pollen they have brought
-with them. The stigmas then straighten and wither (<i>B</i>, <i>n</i>),
-the anthers open, and the flies may again be covered with pollen; but
-the hairs which blocked up the tube do not wither until the anthers
-have shed their pollen, and only then allow the imprisoned flies to
-escape and effect cross-pollination. Prior to pollination, the flowers
-stand erect, but after this has taken place they become pendulous, and
-the perianth soon withers.&mdash;<i>A. sipho</i> (Pipe-flower), another
-species, is a climber, and often grown in gardens; it has only one row
-of accessory buds in the leaf-axils.&mdash;200 species; chiefly in S. Am.
-<span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: the rhizome of <i>Aristolochia serpentaria</i> (N.
-Am.).</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig541" style="width: 460px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig541.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 541.</span>&mdash;A fruit of <i>Myzodendron
-brachystachyum</i> (slightly mag.) germinating on a branch.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Santalaceæ.</b> Parasites containing chlorophyll,
-which, by the help of peculiar organs of suction (haustoria)
-on their roots, live principally on the roots of other
-plants. Some are herbs, others under-shrubs. The regular,
-most frequently ☿-flowers have a simple perianth, which is
-gamophyllous, 3- or 5 partite with the segments valvate in
-the bud, and a corresponding number of stamens opposite the
-perianth-leaves. In the inferior ovary there is a <i>free,
-centrally placed</i>, often long and curved <i>placenta</i>
-with three ovules (one opposite each carpel); these are naked,
-or in any case have an extremely insignificant integument.
-Fruit a nut or drupe. Seed without testa. Endosperm fleshy. 225
-species; chiefly in the Tropics.&mdash;<i>Thesium</i>, a native,
-is a herb with scattered, linear leaves and small 5-merous
-flowers (P5, A5, G3) in erect racemes; the subtending bracts
-are displaced on the flower-stalks. Fruit a nut.&mdash;<i>Osyris</i>
-(diœcious shrub; 3-merous flowers) is another European
-genus.&mdash;<i>Santalum album</i>, which grows in E. Ind., yields
-the valuable, scented Sandalwood, the oil of which is used
-medicinally.&mdash;<i>Quinchamalium.</i></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_501">[501]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Myzodendron</i> is a reduced form of the Santalaceæ; the
-♂-flowers are without perianth; the perianth of the ♀-flower
-is 3-merous. About 7 species; S. Am.; parasitic on a Beech
-(<i>Nothofagus</i>). The fruit has 3 feathery brushes,
-alternating with the lobes of the stigma, which serve as flying
-organs and to attach the fruits to a branch (Fig. <a href="#fig541">541</a>), the
-brushes twining round as soon as they come in contact with it.
-There is only 1 seed in the fruit, which germinates by a long,
-negatively heliotropic hypocotyl, and is attached by a radicle
-modified into an haustorium.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Loranthaceæ</b> (<b>Mistletoes</b>). Plants containing
-chlorophyll which are parasites on trees, and most frequently have
-opposite, simple, entire leaves and regular, epigynous, often
-unisexual, 2- or 3-merous flowers, with single or double perianth.
-Stamens equal in number and opposite to the perianth-leaves, free,
-or in varying degrees united to one another. The inferior ovary is
-constructed as in the Santalaceæ, the ovules being situated on a low,
-free, centrally-placed placenta, but the placenta and ovules unite with
-the wall of the ovary into <i>one connected, parenchymatous mass</i>,
-in which <i>the embryo-sacs are imbedded</i>. Only 1 (less frequently
-2–3) of the 1–6 embryo-sacs is fertile. The number of the carpels
-however varies. The fruit is a <i>1-seeded berry</i>, whose inner layer
-is changed into a <i>tough slimy mass</i> (bird-lime), which serves to
-attach the fruits to other plants.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The two groups, <i>Loranthoideæ</i> and <i>Viscoideæ</i>,
-are distinguished by the fact that the former has a distinct
-“calyculus,” <i>i.e.</i> an entire or lobed, or dentate swelling
-on the receptacle below the perianth. The majority of the
-Loranthoideæ have a petaloid perianth; in all the Viscoideæ, on
-the other hand, it is sepaloid.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig542" style="width: 278px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig542.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 542.</span>&mdash;<i>Viscum album</i>: <i>A</i>
-branch with leaves and berries: <i>a</i> scale-leaves; <i>b</i>
-foliage-leaves; <i>n m n</i> flowers; <i>B</i> seedling,
-the bark of the branch being removed; <i>C</i> an older embryo which
-still retains the cotyledons.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig543" style="width: 355px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig543.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 543.</span>&mdash;To the left the Rafflesiaceous
-<i>Cytinus hypocistus</i>, parasitic on the roots of <i>Cistus</i>. To
-the right the Balanophoraceous <i>Cynomorium coccineum</i>, parasitic
-on the roots of <i>Salicornia</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_502">[502]</span></p>
-
-<p>The Mistletoe (<i>Viscum album</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig542">542</a>) is a native, evergreen
-plant which may be found growing on almost any of our trees (sometimes
-on the Oak), and, like other Loranthaceæ, it produces swellings of
-the affected branches. <span class="smaller">Its spherical white berries (Fig. <a href="#fig542">542</a>
-<i>A</i>) enclose (1–) 2–3 green embryos; they are eaten by birds
-(especially Thrushes), and are partly sown with their excrement,
-partly struck or brushed off the branches of the trees, the seed
-being enclosed, at maturity, by viscin, <i>i.e.</i> “bird-lime.”
-The seeds may also germinate on the branches, without having first
-passed through the alimentary canal of the birds. On germination,
-the hypocotyl-axis first appears, as in Fig. <a href="#fig541">541</a>, and bends towards
-the branch; the apex of the root then broadens, and forms at the
-end a disc-like haustorium, from the centre of which a root-like
-body grows through the bark into the wood, and ramifies between the
-bark and wood. Suckers are developed on the root like strands which
-are formed in this manner, without, however, having a rootcap; they
-are green, and penetrate the wood by the medullary rays (Fig. <a href="#fig542">542</a>
-<i>C</i>). Adventitious buds may also be developed from the root-like
-strands which break<span class="pagenum" id="Page_503">[503]</span> through the bark and emerge as young plants.
-The young stem quickly ceases its longitudinal growth, and lateral
-shoots are developed from the axils of its foliage-leaves. These and
-all following shoots have a similar structure; each of them bears
-a pair of scale-leaves (Fig. <a href="#fig542">542</a> <i>A</i>, <i>a</i>) and a pair of
-foliage-leaves (Fig.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_504">[504]</span> <a href="#fig542">542</a> <i>A</i>, <i>b</i>), and then terminates its
-growth, if it does not produce an inflorescence; new lateral shoots
-proceed from the axils of the foliage-leaves, and the branching, in
-consequence, is extremely regular and falsely dichotomous. Only one
-internode (shoot-generation) is formed each year, so that each fork
-indicates one year. The foliage-leaves fall off in the second year.
-The inflorescence is a 3(-5)-flowered dichasium (Fig. <a href="#fig542">542</a> <i>A</i>,
-<i>m</i> is the central flower, <i>n</i> the lateral). The plants are
-<i>diœcious</i>; the ♂-flower as a rule is 2-merous: perianth 2 + 2,
-each leaf of which bears on its inner side 6–20 pollen-sacs, each of
-which opens by a pore; this relationship may be considered to have
-arisen from the union of the perianth-leaves with the multilocular
-stamens (2 + 2) placed opposite them. The ♀-flowers always have
-Pr 2 + 2, G2.&mdash;<i>Loranthus</i> is also found in Europe (it has
-a 3-merous flower), especially in the central and south-eastern
-districts, on <i>Quercus cerris</i> and <i>Q. pubescens</i>; but
-the great majority of the 520 species grow in the Tropics on trees
-which they ornament with their often brightly-coloured flowers, and
-ultimately kill when present in too great numbers. The pollination in
-the numerous Loranthaceæ with unisexual flowers, is effected by the
-wind. In <i>Viscum album</i> this takes place in autumn, the actual
-fertilisation in the following spring, and the maturity in November
-or December; in the succeeding month of May the berry is ready to
-germinate, and falls off.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> Birdlime from <i>Viscum album</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Rafflesiaceæ</b> and Order 5. <b>Balanophoraceæ</b>.
-These orders comprise <i>root-parasites</i>, almost entirely
-devoid of chlorophyll; they are reddish or yellow, without
-foliage-leaves (Fig. <a href="#fig543">543</a>). As far as our knowledge of these
-rare tropical plants extends, they have thalloid organs of
-vegetation resembling the root-like strands of <i>Viscum</i>,
-or they are filamentous and branched like Fungus-hyphæ; they
-live in and on the tissues of the host-plant, from which their
-flowering-shoots, often of mushroom-like form, are subsequently
-developed (Fig. <a href="#fig543">543</a>). In order to unfold they must often break
-through the tissues of the host-plant.</p>
-
-<p>Of the <span class="smcap">Rafflesiaceæ</span>, <i>Cytinus hypocistus</i> is
-found in S. Europe living on roots of <i>Cistus</i>-plants
-and to some extent resembling <i>Monotropa</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig543">543</a>).
-<i>Rafflesia</i> is the best known; it lives on roots of
-<i>Cissus</i>-species (belonging to the Ampelidaceæ) in Java;
-its yellowish-red, stinking flowers attain a gigantic size (one
-metre or more in diameter), and are borne almost directly on the
-roots of the host-plant. Besides these there are other genera:
-<i>Brugmansia</i>, <i>Pilostyles</i>, <i>Hydnora</i>.&mdash;To
-<span class="smcap">Balanophoraceæ</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig543">543</a>) belong: <i>Balanophora</i>,
-<i>Langsdorffia</i>, <i>Scybalium</i>, <i>Sarcophyte</i>,
-<i>Helosis</i>, etc., and in S. Europe, <i>Cynomorium
-coccineum</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class 2. <b>Sympetalæ.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The characters which separate this from the first Sub-class, the
-Choripetalæ, have been described on page <a href="#Page_336">336</a>. They consist in the
-following: the flower is always verticillate, generally with <b>5</b>
-sepals, <b>5</b> petals, <b>5</b> stamens, and <b>2</b> carpels (in the
-median plane), the calyx is generally persistent and gamosepalous, the
-corolla is gamopetalous and united to the stamens, which are therefore<span class="pagenum" id="Page_505">[505]</span>
-adnate to it, the ovules have only <i>one</i> thick integument and a
-small nucellus. (The exceptions are noted later.)</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>This Sub-class is no doubt more recent than the Choripetalæ; it
-is also peculiar in including fewer trees and shrubby forms than
-the latter.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Sympetalæ may be separated into 2 sections:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Pentacyclicæ (five-whorled).</span> The flowers in this
-section have 5 <i>whorls equal in number</i>, namely, 2 staminal whorls
-in addition to the calyx, corolla, and carpels; in some instances,
-one of the staminal whorls is rudimentary or entirely suppressed, but
-in this case it is frequently the sepal-stamens which are suppressed,
-and the whorl which is present stands opposite the petals. The flowers
-are regular. The <i>number of carpels equals that of the sepals</i>,
-but in one of the orders (<i>Bicornes</i>) they are opposite the
-petals (the flower being obdiplostemonous); in the other two orders
-(<i>Primulinæ</i> and <i>Diospyrinæ</i>) they are placed opposite the
-sepals (the flower being diplostemonous). This section is the most
-closely allied to the Choripetalæ, since the petals may sometimes
-be found entirely free, and the stamens inserted directly on the
-receptacle (Ericaceæ); ovules with two integuments are also found.
-<span class="smaller">It is very doubtful, whether the orders included under this head
-have any relationship with the other Sympetalæ. They appear in any case
-to represent older types.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Tetracyclicæ (four-whorled).</span> The flowers have only
-4 whorls, namely, beside sepals, petals, and carpels, only one whorl
-of stamens, which alternates with the petals; there is no trace of
-the second staminal whorl, and when the number of carpels is the same
-as that of the preceding whorls (“isomerous”) they alternate with
-the stamens; but in most cases there are 2 <i>carpels placed in the
-median plane</i> (see the diagrams, <i>e.g.</i> Figs. <a href="#fig559">559</a>, <a href="#fig567">567</a>, <a href="#fig583">583</a>,
-<a href="#fig590">590</a>, etc.). This section is the largest, and the one which shows the
-characteristics of the Sympetalæ best. Very irregular flowers are met
-with.</p>
-
-<p>The following families belong to the <b>Pentacyclicæ</b>: 26,
-<i>Bicornes</i>; 27, <i>Diospyrinæ</i>; 28, <i>Primulinæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The remaining families belonging to the <b>Tetracyclicæ</b> are:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><b>a.</b> <span class="smcap">Hypogynous</span> flowers (with a few exceptions): 29,
-<i>Tubifloræ</i>; 30, <i>Personatæ</i>; 31, <i>Nuculiferæ</i>; 32,
-<i>Contortæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>b.</b> <span class="smcap">Epigynous</span> flowers: 33, <i>Rubiales</i>; 34,
-<i>Dipsacales</i>; 35, <i>Campanulinæ</i>; 36, <i>Aggregatæ</i>. The
-ovaries and ovules in the last family are always reduced to one; and at
-the same time the fruits become nuts, and the flowers are united into
-crowded inflorescences.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_506">[506]</span></p>
-
-<h3 class="smaller"><b>A. Pentacyclicæ</b>.</h3>
-
-<h4>Family 26. <b>Bicornes.</b></h4>
-
-<p>This family is chiefly composed of shrubs, less frequently of small
-trees, or perennial herbs; their leaves are undivided, most frequently
-evergreen, stiff and leathery, and always without stipules. The flowers
-are ☿ and <i>regular</i>, rarely slightly zygomorphic, most frequently
-obdiplostemonous, and 4- or 5-merous through all the 5 whorls. <i>The
-stamens are attached to the receptacle</i>, and as a rule are quite
-free from the petals, an attachment which is very rare among the
-Gamopetalæ. They have a simple gynœceum with <i>one</i> undivided
-style, a commissural stigma, and a <i>multilocular</i> ovary, whose
-axile placentæ project considerably into the loculi, and bear a large
-number of ovules. <span class="smaller">The placentæ are sometimes not united, and in
-consequence, the ovary is 1-locular with incomplete partition-walls,
-<i>e.g. Pyrola</i>, <i>Monotropa</i>.</span> Embryo straight, with
-endosperm. <i>The carpels are placed opposite the petals.</i></p>
-
-<p>The <i>diagram</i> is generally Sn, Pn, An + n, Gn, in which n is
-4 or 5. To this may be added, that the <i>corolla is in most cases
-gamopetalous</i>, but in some (especially <i>Pyrolaceæ</i>) perfectly
-polypetalous; and that the <i>anthers usually open by pores</i>, and
-often have <i>two horn-like</i> appendages (hence the name “Bicornes”)
-(Figs. <a href="#fig545">545</a>, <a href="#fig546">546</a>); frequently the two halves of the anther are also
-widely separated from each other at the upper end, so that the pores
-are placed each one at the end of its own tube (Fig. <a href="#fig546">546</a>); the
-pollen-grains in the majority are united into <i>tetrads</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig542">542</a>
-<i>D</i>).&mdash;The flowers, as a rule, are pendulous and borne in racemes,
-coloured (red or white), but odourless. When the fruit is a capsule,
-the placenta with the seeds attached persists as a central column. A
-<i>mycorhiza</i> occurs on many.</p>
-
-<p>The majority of plants belonging to this family inhabit cold and
-temperate countries, or high mountains in tropical regions; they prefer
-cold and dry or damp places (bogs, heaths, etc.). Plentiful in N.
-America.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Pyrolaceæ.</b> Perennial <i>herbs</i>; <i>petals most
-frequently quite free from each other</i>, and falling off singly
-after flowering; <i>the anthers are without appendages</i>, and open
-by pores (Fig. <a href="#fig544">544</a>), or by a transverse slit. The placentæ are thick.
-The seeds in the <i>capsule-like</i> fruit (loculicidal dehiscence)
-are exceedingly small and light, they have a sac-like testa which
-loosely envelops them, an oily endosperm, and an <i>extremely simple
-embryo</i>, which consists<span class="pagenum" id="Page_507">[507]</span> only of an ellipsoidal, cellular mass,
-without cotyledons or differentiation into plumule and radicle.</p>
-
-<p><i>Pyrola</i> (Winter-green) is green, and has also large evergreen
-foliage-leaves. The flowers, 5-merous, are most frequently borne in
-racemes without a terminal flower; the anthers are extrorse in the
-bud with the pores in the lower portion (Fig. <a href="#fig544">544</a> <i>A</i>), but they
-become inverted at a later period, so that the pores open at the top
-(Fig. <a href="#fig544">544</a> <i>C</i>). <span class="smaller"><i>P. uniflora</i> has a single, terminal
-flower; it winters by its roots, producing from these in the spring
-aerial, quite unbranched shoots. <i>Chimaphila umbellata.</i></span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig544" style="width: 551px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig544.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 544.</span>&mdash;<i>Pyrola minor</i>: <i>A</i>
-portions of a young flower; <i>B</i> the stigma; <i>C</i> portions of
-an older flower (longitudinal section).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Monotropa</i> (Yellow Bird’s-nest) is very pale yellow, without
-chlorophyll, succulent, and has only scale-like leaves closely pressed
-upon the stem; it is a saprophyte. The raceme has a terminal flower,
-and is pendulous before flowering. The anthers open by a semicircular,
-transverse cleft. <span class="smaller"><i>M. hypopitys</i> reproduces chiefly by
-root-shoots.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>About 30 species, especially N. Europe, N. America, and N. Asia.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Ericaceæ.</b> The flower (Fig. <a href="#fig545">545</a>) is <i>hypogynous</i>,
-the median sepal posterior; corolla, <i>gamopetalous</i>; the stamens
-are generally <i>2-horned</i>, and the fruit is a <i>capsule</i>,
-less frequently a berry or drupe. At the base of the ovary is a
-nectar-secreting disc (Fig. <a href="#fig545">545</a> <i>B</i>). This order comprises shrubs
-or undershrubs (rarely small trees), which are evergreen, and as a rule
-have densely crowded leaves.</p>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Ericeæ, Heath Group.</span> Flowers most frequently
-<i>4-merous</i> (S4, P4, A4 + 4, G4, united in a 4-locular gynœceum),
-rarely 5-merous. The withered corolla <i>persists</i> after flowering.
-The leaves are most frequently acicular, opposite or verticillate; the
-buds are without scales. The fruit is a capsule.&mdash;<i>Calluna</i> (<i>C.
-vulgaris</i>, Ling) has a deeply 4-cleft corolla, which is less than
-the coloured calyx; capsule with septicidal dehiscence.&mdash;<i>Erica</i>
-(about 420 species; <i>E. tetralix</i>, Cross-leaved Heath) has a
-tubular or bell-shaped, 4-dentate corolla, which is much longer than
-the calyx. Capsule with loculicidal dehiscence.&mdash;<i>Pentapera.</i></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_508">[508]</span></p>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Andromedeæ.</span> The flowers are 5-merous (S5, P5, A5
-+ 5, G5), with <i>deciduous</i> corolla. Capsule with loculicidal
-dehiscence. The leaves are scattered, and incline more to the ordinary
-broad-leaved forms.&mdash;<i>Andromeda</i>; <i>Gaultheria</i>; <i>Cassandra
-(Lyonia)</i>; <i>Cassiope</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig545" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig545.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 545.</span>&mdash;<i>Arctostaphylos uva-ursi.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Arbuteæ.</span> The flowers as in the preceding group
-(Fig. <a href="#fig545">545</a>), but the fruit is a berry or drupe. <i>Arctostaphylos</i>
-(<i>A. uva-ursi</i>, Bear-berry) has a drupe with 5 stones in a dry,
-farinaceous pulp; in other species there is 1 stone with several
-loculi. <i>Arbutus</i> (<i>A. unedo</i>, Strawberry-tree) has a
-spherical berry.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Pollination</i> is effected by means of insects, especially
-by bees. The pollen is light and dry, and is shaken out
-through the pores of the anthers when the insects agitate the
-horn-like appendages during their visits. Self-pollination
-takes place, no doubt, in many cases.&mdash;800 species; the very
-large genus, <i>Erica</i>, especially in S. Africa (the
-Cape).&mdash;<span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: the leaves of <i>Arctostaphylos
-uva ursi</i>. <i>Arbutus unedo</i> (S. Europe) has an
-edible, peculiarly warted (strawberry-like) fruit. Many
-<i>Erica</i>-species are cultivated as ornamental plants.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Rhodoraceæ</b> (<b>Rhododendrons</b>). This differs from
-the preceding order in the <i>median sepal being anterior</i>, and
-hence the position of the other floral whorls is also reversed. The
-flower is <i>hypogynous</i>, in most cases 5-merous; the corolla is
-most frequently deeply cleft or polypetalous, and falls off after
-flowering; the anthers open by pores, and have <i>no horn-like
-appendages</i>. <i>Capsule</i> with <i>septicidal</i> dehiscence.&mdash;The
-shrubs or small trees belonging to this order have, like the Vaccineæ,
-ordinary foliage-leaves, and the buds are generally provided with
-<i>large bud-scales</i>.</p>
-
-<p><i>Rhododendron</i> has 10 stamens, and a slightly zygomorphic
-flower with deeply 5-cleft corolla (the section <i>Azalea</i> has
-frequently<span class="pagenum" id="Page_509">[509]</span> only 5 stamens, the petal-stamens being absent). They
-are Alpine plants (200 species) in the mountains of Asia, especially
-the Himalayas; some in S. Europe.&mdash;<i>Menziesia.</i>&mdash;<i>Ledum</i>;
-small, rusty-brown, hairy shrubs with polypetalous, expanded, star-like
-corolla.&mdash;<i>Kalmia</i> (N. Am.) has a cupular corolla, with 10 small,
-pocket-like depressions in which the anthers are concealed until the
-arched, elastic filaments are freed from this position by means of
-the insects, when they quickly straighten themselves in the centre
-of the flower.&mdash;<i>Phyllodoce</i>; <i>Loiseleuria</i> (5 stamens);
-(<i>Clethra</i> (?); also placed among the Ternstrœmiaceæ).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>About 270 species. Several species are ornamental plants.
-Several plants of the order are more or less <i>narcotic</i>.
-<i>Ledum palustre</i> has been used as a substitute for hops.</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Diapensiaceæ.</b> Hypogynous flower. 3 floral-leaves
-beneath the flower (S5, P5, A5 + 0, G3). Stamens on the throat
-of the corolla. Pollen-grains single. Disc absent. Capsule
-loculicidal.&mdash;9 species from the Arctic regions. It is doubtful
-whether this order should be included in the Bicornes; perhaps
-it would be more correctly assigned to the <i>Polemoniaceæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Epacridaceæ.</b> This order comprises those species
-of the family which are confined to Australia and the South Sea
-Islands. They are shrub-like plants, resembling the Ericaceæ in
-habit, in the inflorescence, and in the structure, form, and
-colour of the flower. They differ especially in having only 1
-<i>whorl of stamens</i> (placed opposite the sepals) and in the
-anthers having only 2 loculi, and opening by a longitudinal
-slit. Fruit most frequently a drupe (or loculicidal capsule).
-<i>Epacris</i>-and <i>Styphelia</i>-species are ornamental
-plants. About 325 species.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Vacciniaceæ</b> (<b>Bilberries</b>). <i>The flower</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig546">546</a>) <i>is epigynous, the corolla gamopetalous</i>, and <i>the
-fruit a berry</i>. The latter is most frequently spherical, and bears
-on its apex the calyx, which is generally very low, almost entire, and
-with a <i>disc-like expansion</i> inside. The flower is 4- or 5-merous
-(Fig. <a href="#fig546">546</a> <i>B</i>, <i>D</i>). The anthers have 2 pores, and are most
-frequently 2-horned (Fig. <a href="#fig546">546</a> <i>F</i>, <i>G</i>). Small shrubs; the
-leaves are scattered, not needle-like.</p>
-
-<p><i>Vaccinium</i> (Bilberry, Whortleberry) has an urceolate,
-gamopetalous, only slightly dentate corolla, and horn-like appendages
-to the anthers (Fig. <a href="#fig546">546</a>). <span class="smaller"><i>V. vitis idæa</i> (Cowberry)
-is evergreen, with flowers in racemes, and bright red berries;
-<i>V. myrtillus</i> (Bilberry) and <i>V. uliginosum</i> (Bog
-Whortleberry) both have black berries with a blue bloom, leaves
-deciduous.</span>&mdash;<i>Oxycoccus</i> has a <i>polypetalous</i> corolla
-with the petals projecting backwards. Anthers without appendages.
-<span class="smaller"><i>O. palustris</i> (Cranberry) has a slender, creeping stem, and is
-evergreen. Dark red berry.</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_510">[510]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Pollination essentially the same as the preceding order.&mdash;320
-species; especially in N. Am. Some are useful on account of
-their edible fruits, especially <i>Vaccinium myrtillus</i> and
-<i>V. vitis-idæa</i>, and in a less degree <i>Oxycoccus</i>,
-etc. The fruits of <i>V. myrtillus</i> are <i>officinal</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig546" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig546.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 546.</span>&mdash;<i>Vaccinium uliginosum</i> (var.
-<i>microphyllum</i>). The parts of the flower <i>A-E</i> are enlarged
-5–6 times; <i>C</i> and <i>E</i> are longitudinal sections; <i>B</i>
-and <i>D</i> the flower seen from above; <i>F</i> and <i>G</i> a stamen
-seen from the back and front; <i>H</i> the style and stigma.</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 27. <b>Diospyrinæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flowers are <i>regular</i>, gamopetalous, typically diplostemonous,
-with the same number throughout all 5 whorls, thus: Sn, Pn, An + n,
-Gn, where n most frequently =5 (4–6), rarely 3, 7 or 8. Of the two
-whorls of stamens the one opposite the sepals is often present only
-as rudiments or is entirely suppressed, and the completely developed
-<i>stamens are thus placed opposite the petals</i>. The carpels are
-generally placed opposite the sepals. The <i>ovary is multilocular</i>
-with the ovules attached in the inner angles. The fruit is most
-frequently a <i>berry</i>. The seeds are large, generally solitary,
-or a few in each loculus.&mdash;All plants belonging to this family are
-<i>trees</i> or shrubs with <i>scattered</i>, <i>single</i>, <i>most
-frequently entire</i>, <i>penninerved</i> and <i>leathery</i> leaves
-without stipules; the majority are tropical (America, Asia), some are
-found in N. Am. and the Mediterranean.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Sapotaceæ.</b> Plants with latex; anthers extrorse,
-1 <i>erect</i> ovule in each loculus; fruit a berry; the
-seeds with bony, shiny brown testa have a large, lateral
-hilum. The leaves are frequently covered with silky hairs.&mdash;A<span class="pagenum" id="Page_511">[511]</span>
-useful order in several respects (400 tropical species).
-The wood of some genera, such as <i>Sideroxylon</i> (Iron
-wood) and <i>Bumelia</i>, is as hard as iron. The latex of
-<i>Palaquium</i> (<i>P. oblongifolium</i>, <i>P. gutta</i>, and
-other species), <i>Mimusops</i> and <i>Payena</i> (Sumatra, E.
-Ind.), is the raw material of <i>gutta percha</i>. The following
-have very delicious fruits: <i>Lucuma mammosa</i>, <i>Achras
-sapota</i>, <i>Chrysophyllum cainito</i> (Star-apple), etc. The
-seeds of <i>Bassia</i> (E. Ind.) contain a large quantity of a
-fatty oil. <i>Isonandra</i>, <i>Mimusops schimperi</i> are often
-found in the Egyptian royal tombs.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Ebenaceæ.</b> Plants without latex, often diœcious;
-flowers with a more or less leathery perianth. The number of
-stamens is sometimes increased (by splitting?); ovules 1–2,
-<i>pendulous</i> in each loculus. Fruit a berry.&mdash;250 species;
-chiefly tropical. Some are well known on account of their hard
-and black-coloured heart-wood, <i>e.g. Maba ebenus</i>
-(the Moluccas) and <i>Diospyros ebenum</i> (Ebony-wood, from
-Tropical Asia) and others.&mdash;The fruits are edible <i>e.g.</i>
-of <i>Diospyros lotus</i> (Date-plum, Asia), which is also
-cultivated as an ornamental shrub, together with several other
-species.</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Styracaceæ.</b> The flower is more or less
-<i>epigynous</i>, and the corolla is almost <i>polypetalous</i>.
-The stamens (by splitting?) are more than double the number
-of the petals, and often united at the base. Stellate hairs
-are frequent.&mdash;235 species; Tropical Asia and America, a few
-for example in the East.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: Gum-benzoin from
-<i>Styrax benzoin</i> and perhaps other species (Sumatra and
-Siam). <i>Halesia tetraptera</i> (N. Am.) is an ornamental shrub
-with 4-winged fruits.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig547" style="width: 258px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig547.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 547.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Primula</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 28. <b>Primulinæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flowers are <i>regular</i>, ☿, <i>hypogynous</i>, and gamopetalous.
-The <i>stamens</i> are <i>equal in number</i> to the petals (Fig. <a href="#fig547">547</a>)
-and <i>are placed opposite to them</i>. The ovary is <i>unilocular</i>,
-with <i>a free, central</i> placenta with 1–many ovules.&mdash;The flower
-is a further development of the Diospyrinæ; the suppression of the
-calyx-stamens, which commenced in this family, is carried further
-in the Primulinæ, so that in the majority of cases no trace of them
-is present, but in certain species and genera (<i>Samolus</i>,
-<i>Lysimachia thyrsiflora</i>, <i>Soldanella</i>, certain Myrsineæ)
-some small bodies (scales, teeth, etc.) are found in the position of
-the suppressed stamens. Again, the lateral portions of the carpels
-are suppressed, so that the <i>ventral placentæ</i> with the ovules
-are separated from the dorsal portions, and <i>are united into a
-free central placenta</i>; this theory is supported by the branching
-of the vascular bundles, the development, and various comparative
-considerations.&mdash;Sn, Pn, A0 + n, Gn; where n = 4–8, generally 5. The
-carpels are placed opposite the sepals (Fig. <a href="#fig547">547</a>).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_512">[512]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Primulaceæ</b> (<b>Primroses</b>). This order has <i>many
-ovules</i> attached to a <i>thick, free, central placenta</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig547">547</a>); <i>style undivided</i> with a <i>capitate</i> stigma; ovules
-semi-anatropous; fruit a <i>capsule</i> with many seeds.</p>
-
-<p>All the plants belonging to this order are <i>herbs</i>; stipules
-wanting; the flower is most frequently 5-merous (S5, P5, A0 + 5, G5;
-except <i>Centunculus</i> and <i>Trientalis</i>). The corolla and
-capsule have various forms, but the capsule generally opens by teeth at
-the apex. The ovules are semi-anatropous (in <i>Hottonia</i> they are
-anatropous), and the seeds are therefore <i>peltate</i>, with the hilum
-situated in the centre of one side. The endosperm is fleshy or horny.
-The flowers are borne either in racemes or in umbels; as <i>bracteoles
-are typically</i> absent (Fig. <a href="#fig547">547</a>), cymose branching does not occur.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig548" style="width: 327px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig548.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 548.</span>&mdash;<i>Primula</i>: dimorphic flowers.
-<i>A</i> short-styled; <i>B</i> long-styled.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig549" style="width: 443px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig549.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 549.</span>&mdash;<i>Cyclamen persicum.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Primula</i> (Primrose) has most frequently a vertical rhizome,
-bearing a rosette of leaves at its summit, and long-stalked umbels;
-corolla <i>rotate</i> or slightly funnel-shaped; the capsule opens
-at the apex by 5 <i>teeth</i>. The flowers in some species are
-heterostyled (long-styled or short-styled; Fig. <a href="#fig548">548</a>). Closely allied
-are <i>Androsace</i> (with ovate, cup-shaped corolla-tube and ligular
-scales, alternating with the corolla-lobes) and <i>Soldanella</i>
-(funnel-shaped corolla with laciniate lobes and most frequently
-ligular scales).&mdash;<i>Hottonia</i> (Water-Violet) is an aquatic plant
-with pectinate leaves and heterostyled flowers.&mdash;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_513">[513]</span><i>Cortusa.</i>
-<i>Dodecatheon. Cyclamen</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig549">549</a>) has solitary,
-long-stalked flowers, and a rotate corolla with the lobes reflexed; the
-stalk of the capsule rolls up spirally; the tuberous rhizome is formed
-by the hypocotyledonary internode. Only 1 cotyledon.&mdash;<i>Lysimachia</i>
-(Money-wort); stem-internodes well developed, leaves opposite or
-verticillate, calyx almost polysepalous, corolla deeply 5-partite
-(Fig. <a href="#fig550">550</a>). The flowers are solitary or in racemes.&mdash;<i>Anagallis</i>
-(Pimpernel), leaves opposite, flowers solitary; the fruit a
-pyxidium (Fig. <a href="#fig551">551</a>); similarly in <i>Centunculus</i>, which is
-4-merous.&mdash;<i>Trientalis</i>, the flowers are most frequently
-7-merous.&mdash;<i>Glaux</i> (Sea Milk-wort) is a creeping maritime plant
-with opposite leaves; flowers solitary in the leaf-axils, <i>corolla
-absent</i>, but with coloured calyx. <span class="smaller">The petals are usually
-developed later than the stamens in the Primulaceæ; but in this
-instance they are entirely suppressed.</span>&mdash;<i>Samolus</i> (Brookweed)
-differs from all the others in having an <i>epigynous</i> flower;
-barren sepal-stamens are also present. The bracts in the racemose
-inflorescences are displaced along the flower-stalks.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig550" style="width: 475px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig550.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 550.</span>&mdash;<i>Lysimachia thyrsiflora.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig551" style="width: 261px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig551.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 551.</span>&mdash;<i>Anagallis arvensis.</i> Fruit
-dehiscing.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> Insect-pollination in the majority;
-cross-pollination is promoted in some by heterostyly (Fig.
-<a href="#fig548">548</a>).&mdash;300 species; especially in northern temperate zones; the
-majority on mountains (<i>Soldanella</i>, <i>Androsace</i>,
-etc.); almost absent in the Tropics. A large number are
-<span class="allsmcap">ORNAMENTAL PLANTS</span>, <i>e.g. Primula auricula</i>
-(from the Alps), <i>P. sinensis</i> (China), <i>P. elatior</i>
-(Oxslip, a native) and <i>grandiflora</i>, etc. <i>Cyclamen
-europæum</i> (Alpine Violet); the tubers are poisonous.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Myrsinaceæ.</b> Trees or shrubs; evergreen, tropical
-Primulaceæ with fleshy fruits and few seeds, embedded in the
-placenta. The leaves are nearly always dotted with yellow glands
-(schizogenous resin-receptacles).&mdash;550 species; especially
-Am.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ornamental plants</span>: <i>Ardisia crenulata</i>
-(W. Ind.); other genera: <i>Clavija</i>, <i>Maesa</i>,
-<i>Theophrasta</i> (barren sepal-stamens), <i>Myrsine</i>,
-<i>Jacquinia</i> (barren sepal-stamens), etc.&mdash;<i>Ægiceras</i>,
-allied to this order, comprises arborescent plants, often
-growing with <i>Rhizophora</i> in tropical forests, along the
-shore. The embryo germinates while still in the fruit.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_514">[514]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Plumbaginaceæ.</b> This order has a position of the stamens
-similar to that in Primulaceæ (S5, P5, A0 + 5, G5), but it differs from
-these in the flower, which has generally a <i>membranous</i>, dry,
-thin, coloured, folded, almost entire calyx and an <i>almost entirely
-polypetalous corolla</i>, which, as a rule, has twisted æstivation
-and is <i>only united</i> with the stamens <i>at its base</i>; but
-more especially it differs in the ovary, which bears 5 <i>free</i>
-or almost free <i>styles</i> and only 1 <i>basal</i> ovule with a
-<i>long</i>, twisted funicle (the placenta of the Primulaceæ is here so
-much reduced that it bears only 1 ovule). The fruit is a <i>nut</i> or
-<i>capsule</i>. The radicle is turned outwards. Endosperm mealy.&mdash;To
-this order belong herbs or under-shrubs, which are especially natives
-of the sea-coast and of salt-steppes; they also resemble the Primulaceæ
-in the scattered, undivided, entire leaves (without stipules), often in
-rosettes, and the inflorescence borne on a long stalk. In opposition to
-the Primulaceæ, the <i>bracteoles are typically present, and hence the
-branching is generally cymose</i> (scorpioid).</p>
-
-<p><i>Armeria</i> (Thrift) has a round <i>capitulum</i>, composed of
-closely-packed dichasia, surrounded at its base by an involucre with
-peculiar prolongations, directed downwards, and united into a sheath
-protecting the intercalary zone of growth. The pericarp is finally
-ruptured at the base, and drops off like a hood.&mdash;In <i>Statice</i>
-(Sea-lavender), the unipared scorpioid cymes are prolonged and
-collected into panicle-like inflorescences.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Plumbago</i> is
-the genus which approaches nearest to the Primulaceæ, and differs
-most from the characters given above. It has capitate or spike-like
-inflorescences, a salver-shaped corolla, and the stamens are not
-attached to the corolla. The style is only divided at the extremity;
-the calyx is not membranous, but is covered with sticky, glandular
-hairs.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>250 species; chiefly in the Mediterranean and about the Caspian
-Sea, on salt-steppes and beaches. Some are Tropical; a few are
-ornamental plants.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller"><b>B. Tetracyclicæ.</b></h3>
-
-
-<h4><b>a. Tetracyclicæ with hypogynous flowers.</b></h4>
-
-
-<h4>Family 29. <b>Tubifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flower is regular, ☿, and <i>hypogynous</i>. The gamopetalous type
-is present in this family with great uniformity, without suppression
-or splitting; S5, P5, A5, G2 (3–5). The stamens are all fertile,
-alternating with the lobes of the corolla. Gynœceum with 2, more
-seldom 3–5 syncarpous carpels. Style nearly always simple; 2 dorsal
-stigmas. In each carpel 2–∞ ovules. At the base of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_515">[515]</span> ovary is
-found a yellowish ring-like nectary (Fig. <a href="#fig552">552</a> C), sometimes 5-sinuate
-or 5-partite.&mdash;The leaves are nearly always scattered; stipules are
-absent.&mdash;<span class="smaller">The Solanaceæ, which formerly were classed here, are so
-closely allied to the Personatæ, that it would be unnatural not to
-place them first in this family; and the Boraginaceæ (which were also
-placed in the Tubifloræ) appear to be best united, with the Labiatæ and
-others, into one family Nuculiferæ.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Polemoniaceæ.</b> The flowers are regular; S5, P5,
-A5, G3. The calyx and corolla have united leaves, the petals
-<i>twisted</i> to the right in <i>æstivation</i> (all the left
-edges being covered). The ovary is 3-locular with 2–∞ ovules
-in each loculus; the style is trifid at the apex; the fruit
-is a 3-valved capsule. Embryo straight; endosperm fleshy. The
-inflorescences are dichasia passing over into unipared helicoid
-cymes (the shoot of the <i>lower</i> bracteole being the
-more strongly developed).&mdash;Herbs without latex. 150 species;
-especially Western N. Am.&mdash;<i>Phlox</i> (salver-shaped corolla;
-entire, opposite leaves), <i>Polemonium</i> (campanulate
-or almost rotate corolla; scattered, pinnate leaves),
-<i>Leptosiphon</i>, <i>Gilia</i>, <i>Collomia</i>, <i>Cobæa</i>
-(climbing, like the Vetches, by tendrils at the ends of the
-leaves), etc. They are frequently ornamental plants.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Hydrophyllaceæ.</b> This order approaches very
-closely to the Boraginaceæ. Herbs with pinnate or palmate
-leaves; S5, P5, A5, G2. The lobes of the corolla are imbricate
-in æstivation. Generally 2 median carpels. The ovary is
-<i>most frequently unilocular</i>, and the seeds are situated
-on 2 <i>parietal placentæ</i>; capsule 2-valved; embryo
-straight; endosperm fleshy. In the corolla-tube, opposite the
-corolla-lobes, there are frequently appendages of various forms,
-which resemble those of <i>Cuscuta</i>. The inflorescences
-correspond exactly with those of the Boraginaceæ, being
-<i>unipared scorpioid cymes</i>, which, prior to opening,
-<i>are tightly rolled up</i>.&mdash;130 species, especially in N.
-Am. (California, etc.). Many annual species of <i>Phacelia</i>,
-<i>Nemophila</i>, <i>Whitlavia</i>, <i>Eutoca</i>,
-<i>Cosmanthus</i>, etc., are cultivated in gardens as ornamental
-plants. <i>Hydrolea</i> (has a bilocular ovary, and two free
-styles).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Convolvulaceæ</b> (<b>Bindweeds</b>). The flower
-is regular, hypogynous, with 5 almost free sepals (quincuncial
-æstivation), P5, A5, G2 (rarely 3–5). The <i>corolla</i> is very
-characteristic; it is (with various forms) almost entire, or slightly
-5-lobed, and <i>folded</i> longitudinally <i>in the bud</i> in such
-a way that 5 projecting, flat portions, tapering towards the top and
-frequently differing in colour and hairiness from the rest, are visible
-externally and applied close together, while the remainder of the
-corolla is folded inwards (Fig. <a href="#fig552">552</a> A); and hence the whole corolla
-is <i>strongly twisted to the right</i> in the bud. The gynœceum most
-frequently has a bilocular ovary; <i>in each loculus</i> there are
-<i>only</i> 2 (erect) <i>anatropous ovules</i> on the placenta, which
-is not especially thickened (Fig. <a href="#fig552">552</a> <i>D</i>, <i>E</i>); each loculus
-is sometimes divided into two by a false septum (a relationship with
-the <i>Boraginaceæ</i>, etc.); style simple with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_516">[516]</span> most frequently a
-bilobed stigma, or a bipartite style. The fruit is nearly spherical,
-most frequently a <i>capsule</i>. The seeds are erect, and have a large
-hilum at the base. The embryo is <i>curved</i>, with leaf-like, thin,
-bilobed, most frequently folded cotyledons; <i>endosperm absent or
-mucilaginous</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Convolvuleæ, Bindweed Group.</span> The majority are
-<i>twining</i> (to the left) <i>herbs</i>, with <i>latex</i>. The
-leaves are scattered, without stipules, often long stalked, and
-nearly always with cordate base; some are palmately lobed. The
-flowers are most frequently solitary in the leaf-axils, large,
-quickly withering.&mdash;<i>Convolvulus</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig552">552</a>), <i>Calystegia</i>
-(unilocular ovary, 2 large bracteoles), <i>Ipomœa</i>, <i>Batatas</i>,
-<i>Evolvulus</i> (with a doubly bifid style), <i>Calonyction</i>,
-<i>Pharbitis</i>, etc.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig552" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig552.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 552.</span>&mdash;<i>Convolvulus scammonia.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Dichondreæ.</span> This group is a more primitive
-form, not twining, and without latex. It has 2 <i>free</i>
-carpels with basal style (as in Boraginaceæ) and valvate corolla.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Cuscuteæ, Dodder Group</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig553">553</a>). Parasites, with
-round, filamentous stems, bearing only scale-like leaves and almost
-destitute of chlorophyll (they are reddish or yellowish); they are
-parasitic upon other plants, around which they twine, first with
-narrow, compact coils from which haustoria (Fig. <a href="#fig553">553</a> <i>A</i>) are
-developed which enter the host-plant, and then with wider coils by
-which they raise themselves to other portions of their host or try
-to reach other plants. On germination a very temporary primary root
-is developed, which bears root-hairs as far as the tip (rootcap is
-wanting); it only serves as a kind of reservoir for water, and perishes
-very soon after the seedling has fastened on to a host. The embryo
-is filamentous and rolled up <i>spirally</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig553">553</a> <i>C</i>),
-and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_517">[517]</span> is sometimes destitute of cotyledons. The flowers are crowded
-into capitulate inflorescences, complicated by accessory shoots (Fig.
-<a href="#fig553">553</a> <i>A</i>); they have S5, P5 (<i>imbricate</i> æstivation), A5
-(and beneath the stamens 5 scales on the corolla-tube), G2. Fruit a
-capsule opening by a lid.&mdash;<i>Cuscuta europœa</i>, <i>C. epilinum</i>
-(Flax-Dodder), <i>C. epithymum</i> (Lesser-Dodder), <i>C. trifolii</i>
-(Clover-Dodder), etc., are parasitic on different hosts, or parasitic
-each on its own particular host.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig553" style="width: 623px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig553.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 553.</span>&mdash;<i>Cuscuta trifolii</i>, parasitic
-on Red Clover. <i>A</i> A portion of the stem with an inflorescence
-and haustoria (mag.); <i>B</i> seed (nat. size); <i>C</i> seed (mag.);
-<i>D</i> embryo (nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>840 species; the majority in the Tropics, especially Am. Many
-are ornamental plants. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: some on account of
-their purgative properties: the tuberous roots of <i>Ipomæa
-purga</i> (Jalap, from Mexico) and the dried latex (“Scammony”)
-of <i>Convolvulus scammonia</i> (from the East). The tuberous
-roots of <i>Batatas edulis</i> (Trop. S. Am.) are used as a
-common vegetable (Sweet Potato) in the Tropics.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 30. <b>Personatæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The type of the flower is: S5, P5, A5 (of which one, or in some cases
-several, are suppressed), and G2. The flowers are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_518">[518]</span> <i>hypogynous</i>,
-☿, perfect with gamopetalous corolla, but most frequently irregular
-(medianly zygomorphic, except <i>Solanaceæ</i>), the <i>corolla</i>
-being <i>bilabiate</i> (divided into a posterior part of two lobes
-and an anterior part of three lobes), and the <i>stamens</i> 4,
-<i>didynamous</i> (the posterior being suppressed). The ovary has
-2 loculi (only 1 in <i>Utriculariaceæ</i>, <i>Gesneriaceæ</i>,
-<i>Orobanche</i>); the placenta in the first-named orders (1–7) is most
-frequently very thick, and bears a <i>great many ovules</i> (Figs.
-<a href="#fig554">554</a>, <a href="#fig555">555</a>, <a href="#fig557">557</a>, <a href="#fig562">562</a>); the number of ovules in the last orders (8–9) is
-considerably reduced (Fig. <a href="#fig570">570</a>).</p>
-
-<p>Special mention may be made of the apparently 4-merous flower which
-is found, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Veronica</i> and <i>Plantago</i> (Figs.
-<a href="#fig567">567</a>, <a href="#fig562">562</a> <i>C</i>, <a href="#fig570">570</a>, <a href="#fig571">571</a>), and which arises from the typical
-5-merous flower by the suppression of the posterior sepal and the
-posterior stamen, and by the union of the two posterior petals into
-one.&mdash;Terminal flowers very seldom occur on the main axis, and would
-not harmonise well with the very irregular form of the flower. When
-they do occur, they are, as a rule, “peloric,” <i>i.e.</i> regular (in
-<i>Linaria vulgaris</i> two kinds of peloric flowers occur,&mdash;one with
-5 spurs, and one without spurs). The halves of the anthers are often
-divided as far as the base, and laterally so widely separated from each
-other as to assume an almost straight line (Figs. <a href="#fig563">563</a>, <a href="#fig564">564</a>). There is
-generally a nectary (“disc”) round the base of the ovary, often 5-lobed
-(or divided into free glands).&mdash;A common vegetative characteristic is
-the <i>absence of stipules</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The 9 orders of the Personatæ are: 1, Solanaceæ; 2, Nolanaceæ;
-3, Scrophulariaceæ; 4, Utriculariaceæ; 5, Gesneriaceæ; 6,
-Bignoniaceæ; 7, Pedaliaceæ; 8, Acanthaceæ; 9, Plantaginaceæ.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig554" style="width: 290px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig554.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 554.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Petunia</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Solanaceæ.</b> The flower (Figs. <a href="#fig554">554</a>, <a href="#fig555">555</a>, <a href="#fig559">559</a>) is
-hypogynous, regular (zygomorphic in <i>Hyoscyamus</i>), ☿, and
-gamopetalous, with S5, P5 (most frequently <i>imbricate</i> or
-<i>valvate</i>), A5, G2, the 2 carpels being placed obliquely (Fig.
-<a href="#fig554">554</a>); the bilocular ovary has a very <i>thick axile placenta</i> (Figs.
-<a href="#fig554">554</a>, <a href="#fig555">555</a> <i>H</i>, 557), which extends almost as far as the wall of
-the ovary. The fruit is a capsule or berry; the seeds are more or less
-reniform, and the embryo is <i>curved</i> (rarely straight), in a
-fleshy endosperm (Figs. <a href="#fig555">555</a> <i>F</i>, <i>G</i>; <a href="#fig561">561</a>).&mdash;Both arborescent
-and herbaceous forms are found in the order; leaves scattered without
-stipules,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_519">[519]</span> but with variously formed laminæ (always penninerved). <i>A
-peculiar leaf-arrangement</i> is found in many species, viz. the leaves
-are borne <i>in pairs, a large and a smaller one together</i>; these
-pairs stand in 2 rows, and the flowers are then situated <i>between</i>
-the individual leaves in each pair, apparently <i>not</i> in a leaf
-axil. The inflorescences are frequently unipared scorpioid cymes
-without floral-leaves.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig555" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig555.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 555.</span>&mdash;<i>Atropa belladonna</i>: <i>A</i>
-is reduced.]</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Zygomorphic flowers occur, and thus form a transition to the
-closely allied Scrophulariaceæ; the zygomorphy sometimes shows
-itself only in the relative length of the stamens, sometimes
-also in the corolla (<i>Hyoscyamus</i>).&mdash;<i>Nicandra</i> is
-5-merous throughout all the whorls.&mdash;The peculiar relative
-<i>leaf-arrangement</i> in this order occurs from sympodial
-branching and displacement. The most simple is, <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Datura</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig556">556</a> <i>A</i>); each shoot-generation
-in the floral parts of the plant has only 2 foliage-leaves
-(<i>f<sup>1</sup></i> and <i>f<sup>2</sup></i>), and then terminates in a flower;
-the axillary buds of both the foliage-leaves are developed
-and form a dichasium, but since the leaves are displaced on
-their axillary-shoots as far, or almost as far, as the first
-leaf of these axillary-shoots, the flowers are borne singly
-on the dichasial branches, and all the branches appear to be
-without subtending leaves (Shoot I is white, II shaded, III
-white, etc., diagram <i>A</i>). <i>Scopolia</i> and others
-(Fig. <a href="#fig556">556</a> <i>B</i>) differ in that the lowest and smallest
-(<i>f<sup>1</sup></i>) of the two leaves on each shoot is barren, and
-is therefore not displaced; but the upper one (the second
-bracteole, <i>f<sup>2</sup></i>) is displaced as in the first instance,
-and consequently it assumes a position near the first leaf
-(the shaded leaf <i>f<sup>2</sup></i> of shoot I being placed near the
-white leaf <i>f<sup>1</sup></i> of shoot II, etc.,) of the next youngest
-shoot-generation,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_520">[520]</span> and hence the leaves are borne in pairs; the
-flower placed between the two leaves of a pair is therefore the
-terminal flower of the shoot to which the smaller of the two
-leaves belongs, and the larger leaf is the subtending leaf for
-the floral shoot itself.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig556" style="width: 546px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig556.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 556.</span>&mdash;Diagrammatic representation of the
-branching in Solanaceæ. The various shoot-generations are white or
-shaded.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig557" style="width: 419px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig557.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 557.</span>&mdash;Fruit of <i>Hyoscyamus niger</i>
-after removal of calyx.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig558" style="width: 260px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig558.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 558.</span>&mdash;Fruit of <i>Datura stramonium</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Fruit a capsule.</span> <i>Nicotiana</i> (Tobacco) has
-a 2-valved capsule with septifragal dehiscence; the valves separate
-at the apex; the corolla is funnel-shaped, tubular, salver-shaped
-or campanulate. The flowers in panicles.&mdash;<i>Datura</i> (<i>D.
-stramonium</i>, Thorn-apple) has a (frequently spiny) capsule (Fig.
-<a href="#fig558">558</a>), which is <i>falsely 4-locular</i> (at the top, bilocular)
-and opens septifragally with 4 valves. The lower part of the
-calyx persists as a thick collar<span class="pagenum" id="Page_521">[521]</span> (see Fig. <a href="#fig558">558</a>). The corolla is
-funnel-shaped. The flowers are solitary, large.&mdash;<i>Hyoscyamus</i>
-(<i>H. niger</i>, Henbane) has a pyxidium (Fig. <a href="#fig557">557</a>) enclosed in the
-campanulate, completely persistent, thick-walled calyx. The flowers
-are slightly <i>zygomorphic</i>, and borne in unipared scorpioid
-cymes. <span class="smaller"><i>Scopolia</i> (pyxidium); <i>Fabiana</i> (Heather-like
-shrub); <i>Petunia</i> (slightly zygomorphic flower; funnel-shaped
-corolla); <i>Nierembergia</i>; <i>Brunfelsia</i> (almost a drupe);
-<i>Franciscea</i>; <i>Browallia</i>.</span>&mdash;Among those with capsular
-fruits are found the most anomalous forms, which by their zygomorphic
-flowers and often didynamous stamens present the transition to the
-Scrophulariaceæ: <i>Salpiglossis</i>; <i>Schizanthus</i> (lobed petals;
-2 perfect, and 3 rudimentary stamens).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig559" style="width: 363px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 559–561.</span>&mdash;<i>Solanum tuberosum.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig559.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 559.</span>&mdash;Flower (1/1).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig560" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig560.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 560.</span>&mdash;Stamen, ejecting pollen.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig561" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig561.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 561.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal section of seed.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Fruit a berry.</span> <i>Solanum</i> (Nightshade); rotate
-corolla (Fig. <a href="#fig559">559</a>). The stamens have short filaments, the anthers
-stand erect, close together round the style, like a cone in the centre
-of the flower, and open by pores at the apex (Fig. <a href="#fig560">560</a>). <span class="smaller"><i>S.
-tuberosum</i> (the Potato-plant); the Potato-tuber is a swollen,
-underground stem; the “eyes” are buds, situated in the axils of
-its scale-like, quickly-perishing leaves.</span>&mdash;<i>Lycopersicum</i>
-resembles <i>Solanum</i> in the flower, but the united anthers open
-by longitudinal clefts and have an apical appendage. The cultivated
-species, <i>L. esculentum</i> (Tomato), has often a higher number
-than 5 in the flower, and in the fruit several loculi of unequal
-size.&mdash;<i>Physalis</i> (Winter Cherry); the calyx ultimately swells
-out in the form of a bladder, becomes coloured, and loosely envelopes
-the spherical berry.&mdash;<i>Capsicum</i> (Guinea Pepper-plant); some
-species have very large, irregular, rather dry (red, yellow, black)
-berries, which are unilocular in the upper part.&mdash;<i>Lycium</i> (false
-Tea-plant); the corolla is salver- or funnel-shaped; shrubs; often
-thorny.&mdash;<i>Atropa</i> (<i>A. belladonna</i>, Deadly Nightshade,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_522">[522]</span> Fig.
-<a href="#fig555">555</a>); corolla campanulate; the calyx projects beneath the spherical,
-black berry. The flowers are borne singly.&mdash;<i>Mandragora</i>;
-(Mandrake); <i>Nicandra</i> (ovary often 5-locular).&mdash;<span class="smaller">A small
-tropical group: <span class="smcap">Cestreæ</span> (<i>Cestrum</i>, <i>Habrothamnus</i>,
-etc.) has an almost <i>straight</i> embryo, which may also be
-found <i>e.g</i>. in species of <i>Nicotiana</i>. Related to the
-Scrophulariaceæ.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>About 1,500 species; the majority within the Tropics, outside
-these limits especially in America. <i>Solanum nigrum</i>
-is a common weed.&mdash;<i>The Potato-plant</i> (<i>Solanum
-tuberosum</i>), from Peru and Chili, was introduced into
-Europe in 1584 by Sir Walter Raleigh. (Potatoes = Batatos).
-The fruits of several serve as <i>condiments</i>: Chilies or
-Pod-pepper (<i>Capsicum annuum</i> and <i>longum</i>), and the
-Cayenne-pepper (<i>C. baccatum</i> and others), whose fruits
-also are officinal, were brought to Europe from S. America by
-Columbus, and are commonly cultivated in Tropical America;
-<i>Lycopersicum esculentum</i> (Tomato) and others from Peru;
-<i>Solanum ovigerum</i> (Egg-plant); <i>Solanum melongena</i>,
-etc. <i>Poisonous</i>, <i>acrid</i>, <i>narcotic</i> properties
-(alkaloids, etc., solanine, nicotine, atropine, hyoscyamine)
-are found in many: <i>Atropa belladonna</i> (from S. Europe;
-the roots and leaves are officinal); <i>Solanum dulcamara</i>
-(Bitter-sweet; formerly officinal), <i>S. toxicarium</i>
-(Guiana); <i>Datura stramonium</i> from Asia (leaves and seeds
-officinal), <i>D. sanguinea</i>, <i>metel</i>, <i>tatula</i>,
-and others; <i>Hyoscyamus</i> (officinal: the leaves and seeds
-of <i>H. niger</i>); <i>Nicotiana tabacum</i> (Virginian
-tobacco, officinal: the leaves), <i>N. rustica</i> and others
-from Trop. America (<i>Tobacco</i> was introduced into Europe
-in 1560); <i>Cestrum</i>-species. <i>Duboisia myoporoides</i>
-(Australia); the leaves contain <i>hyoscyamine</i> and are used
-in medicine. A number of species of these genera are ornamental
-plants.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Nolanaceæ.</b> These most resemble the Convolvulaceæ
-in the corolla, but the Solanaceæ in their branching, and
-leaf-arrangement (in pairs, etc.). The diagram is the same as
-in <i>Nicandra</i> with 5 carpels, but the fruits of this order
-most frequently form, by invaginations in various directions,
-an ovary (with 1 style) consisting of numerous and irregularly
-grouped, 1-ovuled cells; the fruit is a schizocarp with many
-1-seeded fruitlets.&mdash;<i>Nolana</i> (Western S. America): a few
-are ornamental plants.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Scrophulariaceæ.</b> The flower is hypogynous, ☿,
-<i>zygomorphic</i>, with the usual type: S5, P5, A5, and G2, the
-latter placed <i>in the median plane</i>; some genera have all 5
-stamens developed (Fig. <a href="#fig562">562</a> <i>A</i>), but most frequently the
-posterior one is suppressed and the flower becomes <i>didynamous</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig562">562</a> <i>B</i>). The fruit, as in the capsular-fruited Solanaceæ,
-is a bilocular, 2-valved <i>capsule</i>, with a <i>thick, axile
-placenta</i>, and most often septicidal dehiscence (Fig. <a href="#fig563">563</a> <i>C</i>).
-The <i>numerous seeds</i> are not reniform as in many Solanaceæ, and
-have a <i>straight, or only slightly curved embryo</i>, with abundant
-endosperm (Fig. <a href="#fig563">563</a> <i>D</i>).&mdash;The majority are herbs; some are
-arborescent; the leaves are opposite or scattered, but stipules are
-wanting as in the whole family.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The Scrophulariaceæ are closely allied to the Solanaceæ, and
-there is, properly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_523">[523]</span> speaking, no characteristic feature which
-absolutely separates them. The somewhat irregular corolla,
-with five stamens of unequal length in <i>Verbascum</i>, is
-also found in <i>Hyoscyamus</i>; curved and straight embryos
-are found in both orders. The activation of the corolla in the
-Scrophulariaceæ is <i>simple imbricate</i>, in the Solanaceæ
-most frequently <i>folded imbricate</i> (in <i>Atropa</i> and
-those allied to it, imbricate without folding). The genera
-(about 164) are distinguished according to the form of the
-corolla, number of stamens, inflorescence, arrangement of the
-leaves, etc. <i>Verbascum</i> belongs to the most primitive
-5-stamened forms, and from it proceed a long series down to
-<i>Veronica</i>, with only two stamens and most frequently the
-posterior sepal suppressed.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig562" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig562.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 562.</span>&mdash;Diagrams. <i>A Verbascum</i>;
-<i>B Linaria</i>; <i>C Veronica</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Antirrhineæ, Snapdragon Group.</span> This has most
-frequently a descending æstivation of the petals (the posterior petals
-are outside the lateral ones, which again enclose the anterior; Fig.
-<a href="#fig562">562</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>). The plants belonging to this group are not
-parasites.</p>
-
-<p><b>a.</b> <b>5-stamened.</b>&mdash;<i>Verbascum</i> (Mullein, Fig. <a href="#fig563">563</a>
-<i>A</i>) has a slightly irregular, rotate corolla; five stamens
-(frequently covered with woolly hairs), of which the two anterior
-ones are the longer and differ often also in other respects. <span class="smaller">The
-inflorescences are racemose, often with several series of accessory
-dichasia in the axil of each primary floral-leaf. The leaves are
-scattered and, together with the stems, are often covered with a grey
-felt of branched hairs.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig563" style="width: 355px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig563.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 563.</span>&mdash;<i>Verbascum thapsiforme.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_524">[524]</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig564" style="width: 391px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig564.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 564.</span>&mdash;<i>Antirrhinum majus.</i> A flower,
-and the upper lip of a flower with the stamens.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig565" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig565.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 565.</span>&mdash;<i>Scrophularia nodosa.</i>
-Protogynous flower in various stages: <i>A</i> ♀ stage; <i>g</i> the
-stigma projecting from the throat of the corolla; <i>B</i> the same in
-longitudinal section; <i>C</i> ♂ stage, the stigma is bent down and its
-former position occupied by the stamens; <i>s</i> staminode; <i>g</i>
-stigma; <i>d</i> nectary.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig566" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig566.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 566.</span>&mdash;<i>Digitalis purpurea.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>b.</b> <b>4-stamened, didynamous</b> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig564">564</a>).&mdash;<i>Scrophularia</i> (Fig-wort, Fig. <a href="#fig565">565</a>) has cymose
-inflorescences in a panicle; the corolla (Fig. <a href="#fig565">565</a>) is urceolate,
-short two-lipped; the posterior stamens are present as a scale below
-the upper lip of the corolla (Fig <a href="#fig565">565</a> <i>s</i>). <span class="smaller"><i>S. nodosa</i>
-has a tuberous rhizome.&mdash;<i>Pentstemon</i>; the posterior stamen
-is barren and very long.</span>&mdash;<i>Antirrhinum</i> (Snapdragon). The
-corolla (Fig. <a href="#fig564">564</a>) is personate, <i>i.e.</i> bilabiate, but with
-the under lip arched to such an extent that it meets the upper lip,
-closes the corolla throat, and entirely conceals the stamens and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_525">[525]</span>
-style; the corolla-tube is produced into a short pouch at the base
-on the anterior side. The capsule is oblique and opens by 2–3 pores,
-formed by small, dentate valves. In <i>Linaria</i> (Toad-flax) the
-pouch is produced into a spur. Sometimes there are traces of the
-posterior stamens. The capsule opens by large pores (one for each
-loculus), produced by large, many-partite valves. <i>L. vulgaris</i>
-reproduces by suckers.&mdash;<i>Digitalis</i> (Foxglove, Fig. <a href="#fig566">566</a>) has
-long racemes with drooping flowers; the posterior sepal is small
-(a step towards complete suppression, as in <i>Veronica</i>); the
-corolla is obliquely campanulate, and generally nearly 4-lobed, the
-two posterior petals coalescing.&mdash;<i>Alonsoa</i>; <i>Nemesia</i>;
-<i>Chelone</i>; <i>Herpestis</i>; <i>Mimulus</i>; <i>Torenia</i>;
-<i>Vandellia</i>; <i>Limosella</i> (<i>L. aquatica</i>, Mud-wort,
-native); <i>Scoparia</i>; <i>Capraria</i>; <i>Erinus</i> (found on
-the Roman Camp at Chesters, Northumberland, and supposed to have
-been introduced from Spain by the Roman soldiers); <i>Celsia</i>
-(near <i>Verbascum</i>); <i>Maurandia</i>; <i>Lophospermum</i>;
-<i>Rhodochiton</i>; <i>Collinsia</i>; <i>Nycterinia</i>, etc.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig567" style="width: 289px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig567.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 567.</span>-Flower of <i>Veronica</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>c.</b> <b>2-stamened.</b>&mdash;<i>Gratiola</i> (Water-hyssop). 5-partite
-calyx. The upper lip of the corolla is undivided or slightly bifid;
-the two anterior stamens are either entirely absent or are reduced
-to staminodes (a transition to <i>Veronica</i>).&mdash;<i>Veronica</i>
-(Speedwell), most frequently 4-partite calyx; 4-lobed, rotate,
-zygomorphic corolla with 2 perfect stamens and no trace of the others
-(Figs. <a href="#fig567">567</a>, <a href="#fig562">562</a> <i>c</i>); capsule with loculicidal dehiscence.
-<i>Calceolaria</i>; the corolla has two slipper-like lips.</p>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Rhinantheæ, Yellow-rattle Group.</span> Herbs, all of which
-(with the exception of <i>Lathræa</i>) are annual <i>parasites</i>
-with green foliage-leaves. They attach themselves by haustoria to the
-roots of other plants and draw nourishment from them. The majority
-turn black when dried. Racemose inflorescences. In many the calyx
-is 4-partite, the posterior sepal being absent, or very small. The
-corolla is distinctly bilabiate (Fig. <a href="#fig568">568</a>), with <i>most frequently
-ascending æstiration</i>; in the majority it does not become detached
-at the base, but by means of a ring-like cut some distance up the
-tube; 4 didynamous stamens; pollen-grains dry, easily falling out;
-the anthers are often furnished at the base with bristles or hairs
-(Fig.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_526">[526]</span> <a href="#fig568">568</a>) which play a part in the pollination, the probosces
-of the insects, being forcibly pushed against them, agitate the
-anthers and shake out the pollen-grains. Capsule with loculicidal
-dehiscence.&mdash;<i>Euphrasia</i> (Eye-bright), <i>Melampyrum</i>
-(Cow-wheat), <i>Rhinanthus</i> (Yellow-rattle), <i>Odontites</i>
-(Bartsia), <i>Pedicularis</i> (Louse-wort), and <i>Lathrœa</i>
-(Tooth-wort) all have native species. The last named is pale yellow,
-or reddish (without chlorophyll); <span class="smaller">it is a parasite on the roots
-of the Hazel, Beech and other shrubs, having an aerial stem, and an
-underground, perennial rhizome, covered with opposite, scale-like, more
-or less fleshy leaves with a number of internal glandular, labyrinthine
-cavities. The inflorescence is a unilateral raceme. It approaches
-<i>Gesneriaceæ</i> in having a <i>unilocular</i> ovary with two
-parietal placentæ.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig568" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig568.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 568.</span>&mdash;<i>Euphrasia officinalis.</i> Flower
-of the large and the small-flowered forms; showing the anthers and
-stigmas.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The mechanical contrivances for <span class="allsmcap">POLLINATION</span> are so
-numerous that no general principle can be laid down. Personate
-flowers, like those of <i>Antirrhinum</i> are only accessible to
-strong insects, such as humble-bees, which can force themselves
-between the two lips, and so become dusted with pollen on
-the back. In <i>Euphrasia</i> and other <i>Rhinantheæ</i>
-the insects become covered with smooth, powdery pollen when
-they shake the anther-apparatus in touching the hairs and
-bristles mentioned above. <i>Scrophularia nodosa</i> is
-protogynous (Fig. <a href="#fig565">565</a>). <i>Digitalis purpurea</i>, however,
-is protandrous. <i>Mimulus luteus</i> and some others have
-sensitive stigmatic lobes, which shut up on being touched. The
-<i>Veronica</i>-species constitute a series, from large-flowered
-down to small-flowered forms, and parallel with them are found
-various gradations from insect-to self-pollination. In some (as
-<i>Euphrasia officinalis</i>, <i>Rhinanthus crista galli</i>)
-there are two kinds of flowers: large, which are pollinated
-by insects, and small, which are self-pollinated (Fig. <a href="#fig568">568</a>).
-<i>Lathræa squamaria</i> (Tooth-wort) is a protogynous
-spring-flowering plant, largely visited by humble-bees. Others
-have cleistogamic flowers. <i>Nycterinia capensis</i> opens its
-flowers at night.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_527">[527]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>2,000 species; chiefly from the Temp. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>:
-<i>Digitalis purpurea</i> (the leaves; Europe), a poisonous
-plant. <i>Verbascum thapsus</i> and <i>thapsiforme</i>,
-<i>Veronica officinalis</i> (“Herba V.”), <i>Gratiola
-officinalis</i> (“Herba”) have medicinal uses. The whole
-of the Scrophulariaceæ are more or less suspicious, if
-not actually poisonous, and none serve as food. Many are
-<span class="allsmcap">ORNAMENTAL PLANTS</span>: <i>Mimulus luteus</i> (N. America),
-<i>Paulownia imperialis</i> (the only species; in Japan; a
-tree), <i>Antirrhinum vulgare</i> (S. Eur.), <i>Linaria</i>,
-<i>Pentstemon</i>, <i>Veronica</i>, <i>Calceolaria</i> (Peru,
-Chili, etc.).</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig569" style="width: 416px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig569.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 569.</span>&mdash;Leaf of <i>Utricularia vulgaris</i>,
-with bladder. Median longitudinal section through a bladder containing
-a <i>Cyclops</i>. At a a hair of the upper-lip, at <i>i</i> 2 bristles
-of the under-lip of the entrance (<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>); in the latter
-are placed 4 bristles <i>h</i>; <i>k</i> stalk of the bladder, in which
-is seen a vascular bundle. (After Cohn.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Utriculariaceæ.</b> To this order belong only perennial,
-<i>insectivorous</i>, <i>aquatic</i>, and <i>marsh-plants</i> (200
-species) with a more or less characteristic appearance. They differ
-from the Scrophulariaceæ, especially in having <b>2</b> stamens
-(the anterior) and a <i>unilocular ovary</i>, with <i>free, central
-placenta</i> (like that of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_528">[528]</span> Primulaceæ). For the rest the flower
-is distinctly bilabiate, both in the calyx and corolla. Two-valved
-capsule; no endosperm.</p>
-
-<p><i>Pinguicula</i> (Butter-wort) has a rosette of leaves close to the
-ground; these are sticky, covered with glandular hairs, and roll round
-any small insects which may be caught upon them; flowers solitary,
-terminal on a long scape; calyx, 5-partite; corolla with spur. The
-embryo germinates with 1 cotyledon.&mdash;<i>Utricularia</i> (Bladder-wort).
-Our native species are floating, <i>without roots</i>, with hair-like,
-divided leaves, studded with peculiar bladders (in the Tropics there
-are terrestrial species, with ordinary foliage). The bladders (Fig.
-<a href="#fig569">569</a>) have an aperture, closed by a valve opening inwards, so that small
-aquatic animals are allowed to enter, but are not able to escape; they
-are thus entrapped in the bladders, and are probably used as food.
-Calyx bipartite; corolla personate with spur.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The <i>embryo</i> of <i>Utricularia</i> is very imperfect,
-scarcely more than a spherical, cellular mass, with a few slight
-leaf-rudiments. On the germination of <i>U. vulgaris</i>,
-several bristle-like leaves develop into a compact rosette; the
-stem then develops, and also the finely-divided, bladder-bearing
-leaves. A primary root is not developed. The stems branch
-copiously and in a very peculiar manner. The growing-point of
-the stem is rolled spirally.&mdash;The stigmatic lobes are sensitive
-and close on being touched; self-pollination often takes place,
-however, in <i>Pinguicula</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Gesneriaceæ.</b> The flower in this order may be
-both <i>epigynous</i> (<i>Gesnerieæ</i>) and <i>hypogynous</i>
-(<i>Cyrtandreæ</i>), but otherwise is nearly the same as in
-Scrophulariaceæ, only that <i>the ovary is unilocular</i>,
-with 2 <i>parietal</i>, often bifid, <i>placentæ</i>. Of the
-5 stamens the posterior is rudimentary, or (more rarely)
-entirely wanting, and the others are didynamous (Cyrtandreæ
-have often only 2 stamens); their anthers are generally
-glued into a quadrangular mass. The majority are herbs with
-juicy stems, opposite, verticillate or scattered leaves
-without stipules, often, like the stems, thick and juicy,
-soft-haired or glabrous. The corollas are often highly-coloured
-(scarlet, red-yellow, etc., and spotted internally), large
-and magnificent, so that many species are ornamental plants.
-<span class="smcap">Gesnerieæ</span> (often epigynous) have endosperm; S.
-Am.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cyrtandreæ</span>, hypogynous, without endosperm; Asia,
-S. Africa.&mdash;<i>Streptocarpus</i>, neither the primary root nor
-primary shoot attains development; one of the cotyledons dies,
-while the other grows and becomes a very large foliage-leaf,
-from which spring adventitious roots and adventitious
-inflorescences.</p>
-
-<p>500 species. <i>Gloxinia</i>, <i>Achimenes</i>, <i>Gesneria</i>,
-<i>Alloplectus</i>, <i>Tydæa</i>, <i>Columnea</i>,
-<i>Nægelia</i>, <i>Æschynanthus</i>, and others, especially in
-the forests of tropical America. Some are epiphytes on trees,
-others prefer the leaf-mould of the forest and crevices of
-cliffs. Several genera have peculiar, catkin-like, underground
-shoots, with scale-like compact leaves; others have tubers.</p>
-
-<p><i>Orobanche</i> (Broom-rape) is allied to this order as a
-<i>parasitic</i> form. It is a parasite on the roots of other
-plants, not like <i>Lathræa</i> by means of thin rootbranches<span class="pagenum" id="Page_529">[529]</span>
-with haustoria, but growing with the base of its stem in close
-contact with its host, and probably even often protruding a kind
-of thallus into it, in a manner similar to the Loranthaceæ. Its
-aerial shoots are not entirely destitute of chlorophyll, but are
-not green; they only bear scale-leaves and terminate in a raceme
-or spike-like inflorescence.&mdash;Some <i>Orobanche</i>-species
-are detrimental to various cultivated plants (Hemp, Lucerne,
-Tobacco, etc.). The flowers are strongly zygomorphic; the
-posterior sepal is often wanting, and the anterior are united to
-the two lateral ones. Ovary unilocular, as in Gesneraceæ, with 2
-or 4 parietal placentæ.&mdash;The exceedingly small seeds have a very
-rudimentary embryo, formed of an ellipsoidal, cellular mass,
-without indication of cotyledons or other organs.&mdash;About 100
-species; especially in the Mediterranean region.</p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Bignoniaceæ.</b> 500 species; nearly all trees and
-shrubs, and to a great extent lianes, climbing by tendrils
-(modified leaves), which are sometimes terminated by a
-special clasping apparatus. These lianes have, as a rule, an
-<i>anomalous stem structure</i>, the wood being either divided
-into four wedges at right angles to each other, separated
-by four grooves filled with secondary wood-parenchyma, or a
-greater number of wedges occur, by the cambium ceasing to
-form wood in several places. The leaves are most frequently
-opposite and compound; the flowers in the main are similar to
-the didynamous Scrophulariaceæ, and especially resemble those
-of <i>Digitalis purpurea</i>; they are bilabiate, large, and
-beautiful, campanulate or trumpet-shaped, many of the prettiest
-ornamental plants in the Tropics belonging to this order. The
-fruit is most frequently a large, woody, 2-valved, siliqua-like,
-septifragal capsule, whose valves separate from the flat and
-broad partition-wall, which bears the large, generally winged
-seeds: <i>Tecoma</i>; <i>Bignonia</i>.&mdash;In gardens: <i>Catalpa
-syringæfolia</i> (Trumpet-wood); <i>Tecoma radicans</i> (from
-S. Am.).&mdash;“Palisander”-wood is from <i>Jacaranda</i> (S.
-Am.).&mdash;<i>Eccremocarpus</i> (N. Am.) forms, by its unilocular
-capsule, a transition to the Gesneriaceæ (<i>E. scaber</i>;
-herbaceous).</p>
-
-<p><i>Crescentia</i> is allied to this order; <i>C. cujete</i>
-(Calabash) is its best known species. The fruit (unilocular with
-2 parietal placentæ) is a very large, spherical or ellipsoidal
-berry, with a firm, finally woody outer layer. After the removal
-of the juicy interior, these are commonly used as drinking
-vessels in Tropical America.</p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Pedaliaceæ.</b> <i>Sesamum</i> (<i>orientale</i> and
-<i>indicum</i>); very important oil-plants, which from olden
-times have been cultivated in tropical Asia and Africa for food
-and as medicinal plants, and are now cultivated in America
-also. The seeds are used as a raw material in the manufacture
-of soap in Europe.&mdash;To this order also belong <i>Martynia</i>
-and <i>Craniolaria</i>, which have a long horned capsule and
-sensitive stigmas.&mdash;46 species.</p>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Acanthaceæ.</b> 1,500 species; mostly erect,
-slender, branched herbs or shrubs, rarely arborescent,
-especially in S. Am. and Ind. The branches frequently have
-swollen nodes; the leaves are <i>opposite</i>, penninerved,
-undivided, more or less lanceolate or elliptical, and generally
-leave a distinct scar when they fall off. Stipules are wanting.
-The flowers are solitary or in dichasia, which are arranged
-in 4-rowed spikes or racemes, each flower with its subtending
-bract, which may be brightly coloured, and most frequently
-also with two bracteoles. With regard to the corolla (which is
-often labiate, in any case irregular, and frequently prettily
-coloured), the 2 or 4 didynamous stamens<span class="pagenum" id="Page_530">[530]</span> (of whose anthers one
-half is inserted lower than the other, or suppressed) and the
-gynœceum, the Acanthaceæ are true Personatæ, approaching most
-nearly to the Scrophulariaceæ: they differ from the other orders
-especially in the <i>fruit</i>, which is a bilocular, 2-valved,
-often elastically dehiscing capsule, which never has more than
-2 rows, and in some only 2 seeds in each loculus, the seeds
-being often compressed and borne on <i>strong</i>, <i>curved</i>
-or <i>hook-like funicles</i> (<i>retinacula</i>) which persist
-after dehiscence. <i>Embryo curved without endosperm</i>;
-radicle pointed downwards.&mdash;Cleistogamic flowers are found in
-several species. Cystoliths are common.</p>
-
-<p>The following grow wild in Europe: <i>Acanthus</i>
-(<i>spinosus</i> and <i>mollis</i>, whose pinnatifid leaves
-served as models for the capitals of the Corinthian columns).
-The posterior sepal is the largest of all the leaves of the
-flower, and covers the other parts like a helmet; the 2 anterior
-sepals are united, and the two lateral ones are small and
-greenish; the corolla has no upper-lip, but only a 3-lobed
-under-lip. The anthers are bilocular; the filaments ultimately
-become very firm.&mdash;<i>Justicia</i>, <i>Eranthemum</i>,
-<i>Goldfussia</i>, <i>Thunbergia</i> (a twiner), <i>Ruellia</i>,
-<i>Dicliptera</i>, etc.&mdash;Ornamental plants in conservatories.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 9. <b>Plantaginaceæ</b> (<b>Plantains</b>). The flowers (Figs.
-<a href="#fig570">570</a>, <a href="#fig571">571</a>) are regular, ☿, hypogynous, with a <b>4</b>-partite,
-persistent calyx, a gamopetalous, <i>scarious</i> corolla with <b>4</b>
-projecting lobes, <b>4</b> stamens, incurved in the bud, later on
-projecting considerably, about equal in length, and a bilocular ovary
-with <i>one</i> long, filamentous, <i>undivided</i>, <i>feathery</i>,
-papillose style (see Fig. <a href="#fig571">571</a>). The ovary is most frequently bilocular
-with 1–few ovules in each loculus. An hypogynous disc is wanting. The
-fruit is a <i>pyxidium</i> with 1–few peltate seeds attached in each
-loculus (<i>Littorella</i> is in several respects an exception). All
-species are herbs, the majority with leaf-rosettes near the ground, and
-the flowers in spikes or capitula.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The labiate-like flowers are in this case entirely
-concealed under a regular, apparently 4-merous exterior.
-The structure of the flower, however, is the same as in the
-<i>Scrophulariaceæ</i>, only the reduction, which is found in
-<i>Veronica</i> (compare Figs. <a href="#fig562">562</a> <i>C</i>, <a href="#fig567">567</a> with <a href="#fig570">570</a>,
-<a href="#fig571">571</a>), is also present in this instance and the lobes are also
-more equally developed; the posterior petal corresponds to
-the bilobed upper-lip; the posterior stamen and the posterior
-sepal also are entirely wanting. In the development of the
-flower there is no trace of posterior sepal or stamen, and the
-posterior petal arises from one primordium, but the two anterior
-sepals arise before the lateral ones. The position of sepals and
-petals does not agree with that of a true 4-merous flower, which
-is represented in Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>E.</i> The bracteoles are always
-suppressed in <i>Plantago</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><i>Plantago</i> (Plantain, Rib-grass). The foliage-leaves are most
-frequently scattered, entire, with curved veins, arranged in a
-rosette close to the ground on an unlimited rhizome; the spike-like
-inflorescence is borne on a long scape; in some (<i>P. psyllium</i>)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_531">[531]</span>
-the leaves are opposite on a stem with well-developed internodes, and
-the inflorescences are borne in their axils. The order also presents
-a transition from insect-pollinated to wind-pollinated flowers.
-<span class="smaller">The flowers are protogynous, wind-pollinated in <i>P. major</i>
-and <i>P. lanceolata</i>, partly also in the other species, but
-insect pollination also occurs, and <i>P. media</i> has three kinds
-of flowers, some of which are adapted for wind-pollination (Fig.
-<a href="#fig571">571</a>), others, with short filaments, for insects.</span> <i>Littorella
-lacustris</i> (Shore-weed) is the most reduced of the Plantaginaceæ:
-an aquatic plant with rosettes of round, awl-like leaves and diclinous
-(monœcious) flowers. <span class="smaller">In the axils of the foliage-leaves is a very
-short 3-flowered spike, formed by 2 sessile ♀-flowers, and above them
-a long-stalked ♂-flower; all the flowers are lateral, the terminal one
-being absent, as in <i>Plantago</i>. The ♂-flower is essentially the
-same as in <i>Plantago</i>, but the ♀-flower has a scarious corolla,
-with a narrow, 3–4-dentate mouth, which closes tightly round the
-nut-like fruit.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig570" style="width: 227px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 570, 571.</span>&mdash;<i>Plantago media.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig570.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 570.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Plantago media</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig571" style="width: 448px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig571.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 571.</span>&mdash;Two different forms of the flower (magnified): 1, chiefly
-adapted for pollination by wind; 2, for insect-pollination. <i>a</i>
-The stigma; <i>b</i> the calyx; <i>k</i> the corolla.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The genus <i>Plantago</i> constitutes nearly the entire
-order (200 species). Some are widely distributed weeds
-(<i>e.g. P. major</i>, “The white man’s footstep”). In
-<i>P. psyllium</i> (S. Eur.) the integument of the seeds is
-mucilaginous, and swells considerably in water.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 31. <b>Nuculiferæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flowers are <i>hypogynous</i> and <i>zygomorphic</i> (in
-<i>Boraginaceæ</i> and <i>Cordiaceæ</i>, however, they are regular,
-except <i>Echium</i> and <i>Anchusa arvensis</i>). The calyx is
-gamosepalous, the corolla <i>bilabiate</i> (except in the two orders
-mentioned), mostly after 2/3, <i>i.e.</i> divided into a 2-leaved
-posterior portion, and a 3-leaved anterior portion.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_532">[532]</span> The æstivation
-of the corolla is nearly always descending.&mdash;In <i>Boraginaceæ</i>
-and <i>Cordiaceæ</i> there are 5 stamens of equal length; in the
-other orders 4 didynamous ones, or only 2 fertile; the posterior
-stamen is sometimes developed as a staminode, sometimes fertile (in
-<i>Stilbaceæ</i>). The ovary is formed of 2 median carpels (except
-some <i>Verbenaceæ</i>), with (1-) <b>2</b> ovules on each carpel;
-in the majority of the orders it is, however, divided by a false
-partition-wall between the dorsal and ventral sutures, into <b>4</b>
-<i>loculi</i>, each of which is often raised independently, causing
-the style to be situated in the depression between the four lobes
-(“gynobasic” style, Figs. <a href="#fig572">572</a>, <a href="#fig573">573</a>, <a href="#fig575">575</a>, <a href="#fig579">579</a>). The fruit in these
-orders most frequently becomes a <i>4-partite schizocarp</i> with
-<i>nut-like fruitlets</i>. The other orders have a 1(-2)-locular
-ovary.&mdash;The leaves are <i>simple, without stipules</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The family is related to (and proceeds from) the
-<i>Tubifloræ</i>, especially <i>Convolvulaceæ</i>, which has an
-almost similar construction of the ovary. It is doubtful whether
-the <i>Cordiaceæ</i> and <i>Boraginaceæ</i> should be classed
-with the others.</p>
-
-<p>The orders are: 1, Cordiaceæ; 2. Boraginaceæ; 3, Verbenaceæ; 4,
-Labiatæ; 5, Selaginaceæ; 6. Globulariaceæ; 7, Stilbaceæ.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Cordiaceæ</b> unites Convolvulaceæ and Boraginaceæ.
-Tree-like plants with 5-(4–10) merous flowers, doubly bifid
-style, and drupe with 4 or less loculi. No endosperm; cotyledons
-folded.&mdash;185 species; tropical.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Boraginaceæ.</b> The vegetative parts are very
-characteristic: <i>herbs</i> with <i>cylindrical</i> stems and
-<i>scattered</i>, undivided, nearly always sessile, entire leaves,
-without stipules, and generally, together with the other green portions
-of the plant, covered with stiff hairs, consequently rough and often
-even stinging (hence the other name for the order <i>Asperifoliæ</i>).
-The inflorescences are <i>unipared scorpioid cymes</i> with the
-branches coiled spirally (“helicoid,” Fig. <a href="#fig573">573</a>) before the flowers
-open. The flower is perfect, <i>regular</i> (obliquely zygomorphic in
-<i>Echium</i> and <i>Anchusa arvensis</i>), hypogynous, gamopetalous:
-S5, P5 (often with ligular outgrowths), A5, G2, but each of the two
-loculi of the ovary becomes divided by a false partition-wall into two,
-each of which contains one <i>pendulous</i> anatropous ovule with the
-micropyle turned upwards; the four loculi arch upwards, so that the
-ovary becomes 4-lobed, and the style is then, as in the <i>Borageæ</i>,
-placed <i>at the base</i> (“gynobasic”) between the four projections
-(Figs. <a href="#fig572">572</a>, <a href="#fig573">573</a>). The fruit is a <i>4-partite schizocarp</i> with four
-nut-like fruitlets (Fig. <a href="#fig572">572</a>).&mdash;<i>Endosperm is wanting</i> (except in
-<i>Heliotropium</i>); the radicle is turned <i>upwards</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_533">[533]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">INFLORESCENCES</span> are often double unipared scorpioid
-cymes; the bud of the second bracteole is developed, that of
-the first suppressed; in some cases both the bracteoles are
-suppressed (<i>Myosotis</i>, <i>Omphalodes</i>, etc.), but
-in other instances all the first bracteoles (<i>a</i>) only
-are suppressed, and the others are then situated in two rows
-towards the under side of the coiled axis, while the flowers are
-situated on the upper side. Displacement of the branches or of
-the floral-leaves sometimes takes place. The flowers are often
-red at first, and later on become blue or violet; they hardly
-ever have any smell. The fruit entirely resembles that of the
-Labiatæ, but the radicle of the latter is turned downwards.
-The fruitlets present small differences which have systematic
-importance; they are hollow or flat at the base, attached to a
-flat or columnar receptacle, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Heliotropieæ.</span> This group deviates from the
-characteristics mentioned above in the undivided ovary and terminal
-(“apical”) style. In this, as well as in the fact that in some genera
-(<i>Tournefortia</i>, <i>Ehretia</i>, etc.) the fruit is a drupe,
-it connects this order with the Cordiaceæ. <i>Heliotropium</i>,
-<i>Tiaridium</i>, and others have schizocarps.</p>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Borageæ, Borage Group.</span> Style gynobasic; fruit a
-schizocarp.</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> The throat of the corolla is without ligules, or with very
-small ones.&mdash;<i>Pulmonaria</i> (Lung-wort); funnel-shaped corolla; a
-whorl of hairs in the corolla-throat.&mdash;<i>Echium</i> (Viper’s-bugloss)
-has zygomorphic flowers, the plane of symmetry almost coinciding
-with that of the very well-developed inflorescence (through the
-fourth sepal); the corolla is obliquely funnel-shaped, the style is
-more deeply cleft at the apex than in the others; stamens 2 longer,
-2 shorter, and 1 still shorter.&mdash;<i>Cerinthe</i> has a tubular
-corolla with five small teeth and two bilocular fruitlets. The
-bracts are large and leafy, and, like all the rest of the plant, are
-<i>almost glabrous</i>.&mdash;A few <i>Lithospermum</i>-species have a
-naked corolla-throat; others have small hairy ligules, which do not
-close the corolla-throat. The fruitlets are as hard as stone, owing
-to the presence of carbonate of lime and silica.&mdash;<i>Mertensia</i>
-(<i>Steenhammera</i>); <i>Arnebia</i>; <i>Nonnea</i> (small ligules).</p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> The corolla-throat is closed by, or in any case provided
-with <i>ligules</i>, <i>i.e.</i> scale-like bodies or small
-protuberances, situated in the throat of the corolla <i>opposite</i>
-the petals, and which are invaginations or <i>internal</i> spurs
-of the petals (Fig. <a href="#fig572">572</a> <i>D</i>).&mdash;The nuts in <i>Cynoglossum</i>
-(Hound’s-tongue) bear <i>hooked bristles</i> over the entire surface,
-or, in <i>Echinospermum</i>, only on the edge. The following have
-smooth nuts:&mdash;<i>Symphytum</i> (Comfrey) has a cylindrical, campanulate
-corolla, and prolonged-triangular, pointed ligules.&mdash;<i>Borago</i>
-(Borage) has a rotate corolla with projecting,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_534">[534]</span> emarginate ligules;
-the stamens have a horn-like appendage, projecting upwards from the
-back of the filament. The fruitlets are hollow below.&mdash;<i>Anchusa</i>
-(Alkanet, Fig. <a href="#fig572">572</a>). The corolla is salver-shaped; the ligules small,
-hairy protuberances. <i>A. (Lycopsis) arvensis</i> has an S-curved
-corolla-tube.&mdash;<i>Myosotis</i> (Forget-me-not, Fig. <a href="#fig573">573</a>); rotate
-corolla with small (yellow) protuberances in the throat; scorpioid
-cyme without floral-leaves; fruitlets flat.&mdash;<i>Omphalodes</i>;
-fruitlets hollow at the back, with a scarious, turned-in, toothed
-edge.&mdash;<i>Asperugo</i> (Mad-wort); the calyx grows after flowering,
-becoming large, compressed, and deeply bifid.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig572" style="width: 496px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig572.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 572.</span>&mdash;<i>Anchusa officinalis</i>: <i>A</i>
-diagram; the brocteole <i>a</i> is suppressed (dotted); β supports
-a flower. <i>B</i>, <i>C Myosotis</i>, the fruit, entire and
-with the calyx in longitudinal section. <i>D</i>, <i>F Alkanna
-tinctoria</i>: D the corolla opened (4/1); <i>e</i> the ligule;
-<i>f</i>, <i>g</i> the anthers; <i>E</i> gyncœceum (3/1); <i>F</i>
-fruit, with three fruitlets; <i>i</i> an aborted loculus; <i>h</i>
-disc.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Cross-pollination</span> is most commonly effected by
-insects (especially bees). There are a great many contrivances
-for pollination; some flowers are protandrous (<i>Echium
-vulgare</i>, <i>Borago officin.</i>), others are heterostylous
-(long-and short-styled: <i>Pulmonaria officin.</i>); the corona
-(ligules) is a protection against rain, and excludes certain
-insects. Some are barren when self-pollinated (<i>Pulmonaria<span class="pagenum" id="Page_535">[535]</span>
-officinalis</i>, <i>Echium vulgare</i>); others which have
-but little honey, may, failing insect-pollination, fertilise
-themselves, and in <i>Myosotis versicolor</i> this regularly
-occurs by the growth of the corolla during flowering, so
-that the anthers are brought into contact with the stigma.
-Honey is secreted on the hypogynous disc.&mdash;About 1,150
-species, growing especially in the northern temperate zone,
-<i>Mucilage</i> is found (<i>e.g.</i> in the <i>officinal</i>
-root of <i>Cynoglossum officinale</i>, in the root of
-<i>Symphytum</i>): red <i>dyes</i> are found in some roots
-(<i>e.g.</i> Alkanet-root, the root of <i>Alkanna tinctoria</i>,
-which is also medicinal; S. E. Europe, Asia Minor); some
-are <i>poisonous</i>: <i>Cynoglossum</i>, <i>Echium</i>,
-<i>Anchusa</i>, etc. Several species are ornamental plants.
-<i>Heliotropium</i> (Peru) is cultivated chiefly on account of
-its pleasant scent; essential oils are otherwise very rare.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig573" style="width: 240px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig573.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 573.</span>-<i>Myosotis.</i> Inflorescence and
-gynœceum.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Verbenaceæ.</b> The majority are shrubs; a few are
-herbs or trees (Teak-tree); some are lianes. The branches are
-often square. The leaves are opposite or verticillate, without
-stipules; in some compound. The inflorescences are racemes,
-spikes, capitula, or dichasia. Five sepals; five petals in a
-gamopetalous, zygomorphic corolla, which is often bilabiate, but
-rarely to such an extent as in the Labiatæ, and the upper lip
-in some is larger than the under, in others smaller; stamens
-four didynamous, or two; the ovary is entire (not grooved or
-divided), 1- or 2-locular, or, as in the Labiatæ, divided into
-four loculi with an <i>erect</i> ovule in each, but in some the
-anterior carpel is suppressed. One <i>terminal</i> style. The
-fruit is, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Verbena</i>, a 4 partite schizocarp
-with nut-like fruitlets; in <i>Vitex</i> (digitate leaves) a
-drupe with a 4-locular stone; in <i>Clerodendron</i> a similar
-fruit, with four free stones; in <i>Lantana</i> a bilocular
-stone, or two unilocular stones. The radicle is <i>turned
-downwards</i>. Endosperm small or absent.&mdash;<i>Lippia</i>,
-<i>Stachytarpheta</i>, <i>Bouchea</i>, <i>Priva</i>,
-<i>Citharexylon</i>, <i>Callicarpa</i>, etc.&mdash;The Verbenaceæ are
-closely allied to the Labiatæ; they differ especially in the
-ovary not being 4-lobed with gynobasic style, but undivided,
-almost spherical or ovoid with a terminal style. Again, the
-leaves are not so constantly opposite, and the inflorescences
-are various.</p>
-
-<p>730 species; especially in the Tropics; there are several
-in America, especially <i>Lantana-species</i>; shrubby
-weeds.&mdash;Many of those mentioned are <span class="allsmcap">ORNAMENTAL PLANTS</span>,
-especially <i>Verbena</i>; <i>Vitex agnus castus</i> is a S.
-European shrub. <i>Lippia citriodora</i> (S. Am.) etc., have
-strongly-scented leaves; the Teak tree (<i>Tectona grandis</i>)
-is one of the largest trees in East India, and has a very hard
-wood.</p>
-
-<p><i>Avicennia</i> is allied to this order; it inhabits the
-Mangrove swamps on tropical coasts. The endosperm emerges from
-the ovule, carrying the embryo with it; the embryo ultimately
-bursts the endosperm and lies free in the loculus of the
-fruit; this is then filled by the embryo with its large, green
-cotyledons, which are borne on an already hairy or rooted stem.
-The seedling thus developed falls from the tree, together with
-the fruit, and strikes root in the mud. One special cell of
-the endosperm at an earlier period becomes a highly-developed
-organ of suction, growing into a much-branched sac, very rich in
-protoplasm.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_536">[536]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Labiatæ.</b> The special characteristics are: the
-<i>square</i> stem, the <i>opposite leaves</i> (without stipules), the
-inflorescences which are formed by <i>two double unipared scorpioid
-cymes</i>, the <i>labiate</i> corolla, the 4 <i>didynamous</i>
-stamens (the posterior being entirely suppressed) (Fig. <a href="#fig574">574</a>), and the
-<i>4-partite schizocarp</i> with <i>nut-like fruitlets</i>. The floral
-formula is S5, P5, A5 (the posterior stamen is generally absent), G2.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig574" style="width: 382px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig574.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 574.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Lamium album</i>:
-<i>sv</i> dichasia.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>They are chiefly aromatic plants (herbs, shrubs, <i>e.g.</i> Lavender,
-or trees), volatile oil being formed in internal cells or in the
-glandular hairs, which cover all green parts. The stem is always more
-or less markedly square; the leaves are borne upon the flat sides,
-and are simple and penninerved, but vary in the other characters.
-The inflorescences are double unipared scorpioid cymes, which may
-be situated at some distance from one another in the axils of the
-foliage-leaves (Fig. <a href="#fig575">575</a> <i>A</i>), but frequently when the subtending
-leaves are bract-like, they are crowded into spike-like inflorescences
-(<i>Lavandula</i>, <i>Mentha</i>, <i>Salvia</i>, etc.), each of
-the so-called “whorls” (verticillaster, glomerulus) being a double
-unipared scorpioid cyme (Fig. <a href="#fig574">574</a>). (Solitary flowers are found in
-<i>e.g. Scutellaria</i>, and <i>Origanum</i>). The calyx is
-strongly gamosepalous, 5-toothed, often bilabiate (Fig. <a href="#fig575">575</a> <i>B</i>).
-The corolla is strongly bilabiate (Figs. <a href="#fig575">575</a>, <a href="#fig576">576</a>, etc.), with 2
-lobes in the upper lip and 3 lobes in the under lip (an approach to
-regularity occurs only when the upper lip is small, and thus resembles
-one lobe, as in <i>Mentha</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig578">578</a>) and <i>Lycopus</i>, so
-that the corolla approaches the 4-merous corolla of <i>Veronica</i>
-and <i>Plantago</i>). The posterior stamen in the diagram (Fig. <a href="#fig574">574*</a>) is entirely suppressed; in most of the genera the posterior
-lateral stamens are the smaller (Fig. <a href="#fig575">575</a> <i>D</i>), and are entirely
-suppressed in some (see below); in others, <i>e.g. Nepeta</i>,
-they are the longer. 2 stamens are found in <i>Salvia</i>,
-<i>Rosmarinus</i>, <i>Lycopus</i>, etc. The two halves of the anthers
-are often separated from one another, and are placed at an angle with
-each other. The gynœceum has 1 style with a bifid extremity (Fig. <a href="#fig575">575</a>
-<i>C</i>) bearing the stigma; the true bilocular ovary is divided by a
-false partition-wall into 4 loculi, each with 1 erect ovule (Fig. <a href="#fig575">575</a>
-<i>H</i>). These 4 loculi project so strongly that the ovary becomes
-deeply 4-lobed with the style situated in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_537">[537]</span> the centre of the lobes
-and at their base, “gynobasic” (Figs. <a href="#fig575">575</a>, <a href="#fig579">579</a>). A ring-like, often
-crenate, nectary surrounds the base of the ovary (Fig. <a href="#fig575">575</a> <i>G</i>,
-<i>H</i>). The embryo in this order, as in the <i>Verbenaceæ</i>, is
-directed downwards (Fig. <a href="#fig575">575</a> <i>J</i>) (it is directed upwards in the
-<i>Boraginaceæ</i>, which have an entirely similar fruit). <i>Endosperm
-absent.</i></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig575" style="width: 474px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig575.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 575.</span>&mdash;<i>Thymus vulgaris.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The 142 genera are mainly distinguished according to the form of
-the calyx and corolla, the number, direction, and length of the
-stamens, the forms of the nuts, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Ajugeæ, Bugle Group.</span> Calyx 10-nerved; the upper
-lip is small; 4 stamens. The ovary is not so strongly lobed as
-in the following group, so that it is most nearly allied to the
-<i>Verbenaceæ</i>. The nuts are reticulately wrinkled. <i>Ajuga</i>
-(Bugle) has a very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_538">[538]</span> small upper lip. The upper lip of <i>Teucrium</i>
-(Germander) is deeply cleft, and the two lobes are bent on their
-respective sides towards the under lip, which in consequence appears to
-be 5-lobed, and the upper lip to be wanting.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig576" style="width: 626px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig576.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 576.</span>&mdash;<i>Lamium album</i>: <i>A</i>
-lateral view of flower; <i>B</i> longitudinal section; <i>C</i> ovary
-with nectaries (<i>a</i>); <i>D</i> the apex of the style; <i>e</i>,
-upper lip of corolla; <i>c</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i> the three petals of
-the lower lip; <i>f</i> anthers; <i>g</i> stigma.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Stachydeæ, Betony Group.</span> The calyx is 5- or
-10-nerved. The upper lip of the corolla is most frequently <i>strongly
-arched</i> or helmet-shaped; 4 stamens, the <i>anterior pair the
-longer</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig576">576</a>).</p>
-
-<p><b>a.</b> A somewhat regular and 5–10-dentate calyx with
-<i>projecting</i> stamens.&mdash;<i>Stachys</i> (Betony, Woundwort); the
-lobes of the under lip are rounded off. The anterior filaments, after
-pollination, <i>bend outwards</i>. <i>Betonica</i>&mdash;<i>Ballota</i>
-(Horehound); the calyx is funnel-shaped, and has triangular, long,
-pointed, awn-like teeth.&mdash;<i>Galeopsis</i> (Hemp-nettle) has two
-conical protuberances on the under lip between the lateral and
-the central lobes. The anthers open by 2 <i>unequal</i> valves.
-<i>Lamium</i> (Dead-nettle, Fig. <a href="#fig576">576</a>) has dentate, lateral lobes on the
-under lip. <i>L. album</i> (White Dead-nettle), <i>L. rubrum</i>, etc.
-<i>Galeobdolon.</i>&mdash;<i>Leonurus</i>; <i>Phlomis</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>b.</b> Tubular, regular, often 10-toothed calyx and <i>concealed</i>
-stamens.&mdash;<i>Marrubium vulgare</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig577">577</a>); 10 calyx-teeth,
-hooked at the apex; many almost spherical whorls of flowers
-in the axils of the foliage-leaves, at some distance from one
-another.&mdash;<i>Sideritis.</i></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig577" style="width: 430px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig577.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 577.</span>&mdash;<i>Marrubium vulgare.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>c.</b> Strongly bilabiate calyx, the lips <i>closing together</i>
-after<span class="pagenum" id="Page_539">[539]</span> flowering.&mdash;<i>Scutellaria</i> (Skull-cap); the two lips of the
-calyx are entire, the upper lip has a large spur, and drops off on the
-ripening of the fruit. The flowers are generally solitary and turned to
-one side.&mdash;<i>Prunella</i> (Heal-all); the calyx is compressed, its two
-lips are strongly dentate, the upper lips closing slightly round the
-under. The stamens have a tooth-like projection beneath the anthers.</p>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Nepeteæ, Catmint Group.</span> 13–15 nerves in the calyx;
-this deviates from the other groups in the <i>posterior stamens being
-the longer</i>. The upper lip is slightly arched. <i>Nepeta</i>
-(Catmint), also <i>Glechoma</i> (Ground Ivy), with regular, and
-<i>Dracocephalum</i> with irregular calyx.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig578" style="width: 499px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig578.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 578.</span>&mdash;<i>Mentha aquatica</i>, var.
-<i>crispa</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>4.</b> <span class="smcap">Satureieæ, Mint Group.</span> The upper lip is <i>flat</i>,
-most frequently ovate, or almost spherical, and emarginate (Fig.
-<a href="#fig578">578</a>). The calyx is most frequently 5–10-nerved. 4 stamens, <i>the
-anterior being the longer</i>; rarely, 2 stamens only.&mdash;<i>Mentha</i>
-(Mint, Fig. <a href="#fig578">578</a>) has a regular, 5-dentate calyx, a small, almost
-regular, 4-partite corolla, and 4 erect stamens of nearly equal size.
-The verticillasters are many-flowered, and are often collected into
-cylindrical inflorescences. Herbs.&mdash;<i>Lycopus</i> (Gipsy-wort);
-corolla almost regular. 2 stamens, the posterior lateral ones are
-wanting. <i>Preslia</i>: 4-dentate calyx, 4-partite, regular corolla; 4
-stamens of equal size.&mdash;<i>Thymus</i> (Thyme, Fig. <a href="#fig575">575</a>) has a strongly
-bilabiate calyx, the throat being closed by a whorl of hairs (Fig. <a href="#fig575">575</a>
-B). The corolla is distinctly labiate. Under-shrubs, with small entire
-leaves; verticillasters few-flowered and separate.&mdash;<i>Origanum</i>
-(Marjoram); spike or capitate inflorescences with the flowers solitary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_540">[540]</span>
-in the axils of the rather large and distinctly 4-rowed (often
-slightly coloured) floral-leaves. <i>Melissa. Calamintha.</i>
-<i>Clinopodium</i> (Wild Basil). <i>Satureia. Hyssopus</i>
-(Hyssop); small, entire leaves; the verticillasters are situated
-unilaterally in a slender, spike-like inflorescence. <i>Lavandula</i>
-(Lavender); shrubs with verticillasters collected in cylindrical,
-long-stalked inflorescences; the calyx is tubular, has 13–15 nerves,
-the posterior tooth is much larger than the others. Stamens and
-style do <i>not</i> project. <span class="smaller"><i>Coleus</i> differs, among other
-characters, in having united filaments; the stamens and style are bent
-down and concealed in the boat-shaped under lip.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig579" style="width: 557px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig579.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 579.</span>&mdash;<i>Salvia officinalis.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>5.</b> <span class="smcap">Monardeæ, Salvia Group.</span> <i>Only the 2 anterior
-stamens are developed.</i>&mdash;<i>Salvia</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig579">579</a>); calyx deeply
-bilabiate; the upper lip of the corolla is generally strongly
-compressed. Rudiments of the two lateral stamens are present. The
-connective in the two fertile stamens is long and filamentous, and
-bears at the upper end a normal half-anther, but at the lower one a
-barren, often broader portion, against which the insect is obliged
-to push its proboscis during its visits to the flowers, causing the
-pollen-bearing half-anther to be pressed down against its back.
-Floral-leaves often coloured.&mdash;<i>Rosmarinus</i> (Rosemary); a shrub
-with leathery linear leaves, with rolled back edge. A small tooth on
-the filament represents the barren half of the anther. <i>Monarda.</i></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">POLLINATION</span> is generally effected by insects,
-especially bees; the under-lip is the landing-stage and the
-pollen is deposited on their backs. Cross-fertilisation is
-promoted by dichogamy; honey is secreted by an hypogynous disc
-and collected in the corolla-tube. Some genera are homogamous
-(<i>Lamium</i>, <i>Galeopsis</i>, etc.); others are dichogamous
-(protandrous); a few are <i>gynodiœcious</i>:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_541">[541]</span> ♀-and ☿-flowers
-in various relative sizes (<i>Glechoma hederaceum</i>,
-<i>Thymus</i>, <i>Salvia pratensis</i>, and others). The
-entrance of uninvited guests to the honey is often rendered
-difficult by whorls of hairs, etc. In numerous instances the
-upper lip protects the pollen from rain. <i>Cleistogamy</i> is
-found <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Lamium amplexicaule</i>.</p>
-
-<p>2,700 species; distributed over the entire globe, but the
-greater number in Mediterranean countries (especially in the
-Eastern regions), where many are shrub-like.&mdash;Poisonous and
-acrid properties are absent. On account of their <i>volatile
-oils</i> they are principally used as <i>condiments</i>,
-for <i>perfumery</i> and in <i>medicine</i> (the officinal
-parts are therefore nearly always “folia” and “herba,”
-in <i>Lavandula</i> the flowers, and the volatile oils
-extracted from them). Such are:<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a><i>Mentha piperita</i>
-[+] (Peppermint)&mdash;menthol is obtained from this species and
-from <i>M. arvensis</i>&mdash;<i>M. viridis</i> [+] (Spearmint),
-<i>M. crispa</i> (Curly-mint), <i>Thymus vulgaris</i> (Garden
-Thyme), <i>Melissa officinalis</i> (S. Eur.), <i>Hyssopus
-officinalis</i> (Hyssop, S. Eur.), <i>Origanum majorana</i>
-(Marjoram, from the Mediterranean), <i>O. vulgare</i> (Wild
-Marjoram), <i>creticum</i>, <i>smyrnæum</i>, etc., <i>Salvia
-officinalis</i> (S. Eur.), <i>Rosmarinus officinalis</i>
-(oil of Rosemary, S. Eur.), <i>Lavandula vera</i> [+] (oil
-of Lavender, S. Eur.). Also: <i>Satureia hortensis</i> (S.
-Eur.), <i>Ocimum basilicum</i> (E. India), <i>Pogostemon
-patchouli</i> (E. India), etc.&mdash;As <i>ornamental</i>
-plants, <i>e.g. Monarda</i>, <i>Plectranthus</i>,
-and <i>Coleus</i> (foliage-plants, often with red stems and
-leaves), <i>Stachys lanata</i> (white, woolly), <i>Phlomis</i>,
-<i>Salvia</i>-species, <i>Perilla</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Selaginaceæ.</b> 130 species; small, most
-frequently heath-like shrubs or herbs, mainly from S. Africa.
-They differ from the other Nuculiferæ especially in the
-bilocular, transversely-placed anthers of the 4 stamens (2
-stamens divided as far as the base (?)). The ovary has 2, or by
-suppression only 1 loculus, each with 1 ovule, and the fruit is
-a schizocarp dividing into two, or is a 1-seeded nut. Radicle
-turned upwards.&mdash;A few are ornamental plants (<i>Selago</i>,
-<i>Hebenstreitia</i>).</p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Globulariaceæ.</b> 12 species; especially in the
-Mediterranean. They form an analogy to the Compositæ, and in
-the main resemble <i>Jasione montana</i> in appearance, the
-flowers being crowded into a spherical head (hence their name)
-and supported by bracts, but <i>without</i> involucre; the ovary
-is <i>unilocular</i> with 1 pendulous ovule. The <i>1-seeded
-nut</i> is enveloped by the persistent calyx. The corolla is
-more or less labiate, the upper-lip is often absent as in the
-ligulate corollas of the Astereæ; stamens 4, didynamous, with
-transversely placed anthers opening by one transverse cleft.
-The leaves are scattered, simple, entire, and generally form a
-rosette. <i>Globularia.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Stilbaceæ.</b> Heath-like shrubs. The ovary is
-bilocular; 1 erect seed in each loculus, or the posterior cell
-is empty. <i>Stilbe.</i> 7 species. S. Africa.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 32. <b>Contortæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p><i>Hypogynous</i>, regular, ☿, gamopetalous flowers (Figs. <a href="#fig581">581</a>,
-<a href="#fig582">582</a>), which are generally 5- or 4-merous, with 5 or 4 stamens (with
-the exception of <i>Oleaceæ</i> and <i>Jasminaceæ</i> which have
-<i>only</i> 2 stamens, alternating with the carpels). The gynœceum
-is formed of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_542">[542]</span> 2 (nearly always median) carpels. The corolla <i>very
-frequently has twisted æstivation</i> (the upper edges of the petals
-being free; Fig. <a href="#fig581">581</a> <i>A</i>), and hence the individual lobes of
-the corolla are oblique, but the flower as a whole is regularly
-actinomorphic. A nectary, in the form of a honey-secreting ring or
-glands, is often found round the base of the ovary.&mdash;The leaves, with
-a few exceptions, are <i>opposite</i> and <i>without stipules</i>.
-Endosperm large (Fig. <a href="#fig581">581</a> <i>C</i>), except in <i>Jasminaceæ</i> and
-<i>Asclepiadaceæ</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The Apocynaceæ and the Asclepiadaceæ, on account of the free
-ovaries, without doubt represent a more primitive form, but the
-Asclepiadaceæ on the other hand form an offshoot on account of
-their peculiar pollen-masses. The Loganiaceæ form a transition
-to the Rubiaceæ.</p>
-
-<p>The orders are:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>A. <span class="smcap">Stamens</span> 5. 1, Gentianaceæ; 2, Apocynaceæ; 3,
-Asclepiadaceæ; 4, Loganiaceæ.</p>
-
-<p>B. <span class="smcap">Stamens</span> 2. 5, Oleaceæ; 6, Jasminaceæ; 7,
-Salvadoraceæ.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Gentianaceæ</b> (<b>Gentians</b>). <i>Glabrous</i> herbs,
-without latex; the opposite, undivided and <i>entire</i> leaves are
-often slightly united at the base; many have rosette-like radical
-leaves. <i>Stipules absent</i>. The flowers are generally borne in
-regular, dichotomously-branched <i>dichasia</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig580">580</a>, <a href="#fig581">581</a>
-<i>A</i>), which finally become transformed into unipared scorpioid
-cymes; the parts of the flower are 4–5-merous as far as the gynœceum,
-which is 2-merous; the calyx frequently is almost polysepalous; the
-corolla has distinctly twisted æstivation (the upper edges being
-free) (Fig. <a href="#fig581">581</a> <i>A</i>), except <i>Menyantheæ</i>. The carpels are
-<i>entirely</i> united, and most frequently form a <i>1-locular</i>
-ovary with 2 <i>parietal placentæ</i> bearing many ovules (often in
-several rows, Fig. <a href="#fig581">581</a> <i>D</i>, <i>F</i>). <i>Capsule</i>, 2-valved,
-with septicidal dehiscence, the incurved edges bearing the seeds (Fig.
-<a href="#fig581">581</a> <i>D</i>, <i>F</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig580" style="width: 360px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig580.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 580.</span>&mdash;<i>Erythræa.</i> Inflorescence. 1,
-2, 3, etc., the successive shoot-generations.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Gentianeæ.</span>&mdash;<i>Gentiana</i> (Gentian) has
-most frequently a tubular, campanulate or funnel-shaped corolla,
-sometimes with teeth between the corolla-lobes and fringed in
-the throat of the corolla; <i>G. lutea</i> has a rotate, yellow
-corolla.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Swertia</i>: rotate corolla; each lobe has at its base
-1–2 nectaries, with fringed edges.</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_543">[543]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Erythræa</i> (Centaury, Fig. <a href="#fig581">581</a>); corolla most frequently
-salver-shaped. The anthers ultimately become spirally twisted
-(<i>E</i>). The style prolonged, deciduous. The flower has the
-<i>Lobelia</i>-arrangement, <i>i.e.</i> the median sepal is anterior;
-the corolla is rose-coloured (in the native species). The capsule is
-semi-bilocular (Fig. <a href="#fig581">581</a> <i>F</i>, <i>G</i>).&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Cicendia</i> has
-a low creeping stem, fine as a thread, and small, yellow flowers,
-4-merous (without twisted anther).&mdash;<i>Chlora</i> (Yellow-wort)
-6–8-merous.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig581" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig581.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 581.</span>&mdash;<i>Erythræa centaurium.</i>
-Inflorescence, flower and fruit: <i>br<sup>1</sup></i>, <i>br<sup>2</sup></i> floral-leaves
-of the 1st and 2nd order; <i>G</i> a valve of the capsule separated
-from its fellow.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Menyantheæ.</span> <i>Menyanthes</i> (Buck-bean)
-deviates in several respects from the type of the order. The leaves
-are <i>scattered</i> and, in <i>M. trifoliata</i>, trifoliate;
-the corolla has <i>valvate</i> æstivation; the testa is also very
-hard (thin in the true Gentians). They are aquatic plants with
-creeping rhizome; the flowers borne in racemes, with terminal
-flower, heterostylous. The corolla is funnel-shaped with a very
-hairy throat.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Limnanthemum</i> with floating leaves, like the
-Water-lilies.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>575 species; distributed over the entire globe, but most
-numerous in <i>Alpine</i> districts. Neither poisonous nor
-nutritive plants are found, but several are used in medicine on
-account of the <i>bitter</i> properties so prevalent amongst
-them. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: the roots of <i>Gentiana lutea</i>.
-The roots of other species, <i>e.g. G. purpurea</i>,
-<i>punctata</i> and <i>pannonica</i> (Europe) and the leaves
-of <i>Menyanthes trifoliata</i> are medicinal. Some are grown
-as ornamental plants on account of the pure (often deep blue)
-colour of the flowers.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Apocynaceæ</b> (<b>Periwinkles</b>). Trees and shrubs (also
-lianes), less frequently herbs, generally <i>with latex</i>. The leaves
-are opposite, simple, entire, <i>without stipules</i>; the flowers are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_544">[544]</span>
-regular; corolla-lobes oblique, æstivation twisted. The stamens are
-individually free, and the <i>pollen-grains are free</i> or at most
-united in fours (see Asclepiadaceæ). The two carpels have 2–∞ ovules,
-in all cases there is only 1 style and a capitate stigma, which towards
-the base is widened out into a disc-like table (stigma-disc) abstricted
-in the centre; but the carpels in most of the genera (<i>e.g.</i> those
-mentioned below) are entirely separate, and the fruit consists of two
-<i>follicles</i>, the seeds of which often have a tuft of <i>woolly
-hairs</i> projecting from the micropyle, less frequently of two drupes.
-In some other genera there is a 1-locular (provided with 2 parietal
-placentæ) or a 2-locular ovary becoming a 2-valved capsule or a berry.
-Endosperm abundant.</p>
-
-<p><i>Vinca</i> (Periwinkle) has a salver-shaped corolla, which is twisted
-to the left in æstivation (<i>i.e.</i> the left edge of the petals is
-free); nectaries 2, alternating with the carpels; the summit of the
-style is hairy. Follicles; seeds without hairs. <span class="smaller">Mostly creeping,
-perennial, evergreen plants, whose large flowers are apparently
-axillary; in reality they are terminal, but by the development of the
-bud in the axil of one of the two uppermost leaves, they are thus
-displaced over the other leaf of the pair (a helicoid sympodium being
-formed).&mdash;<i>Plumeria</i>, <i>Tabernæmontana</i>, <i>Cerbera</i>
-(drupe). <i>Aspidosperma.</i></span></p>
-
-<p><i>Nerium</i> (Oleander). The leaves are in whorls of 3. Corolla
-funnel-shaped, in æstivation twisted to the right, and with a corona
-resembling that of <i>Lychnis</i>. The anthers are prolonged at the
-base and each also bears at the apex a long, linear, hairy appendage;
-these finally become spirally twisted. Follicles; seeds hairy.
-<i>Apocynum</i>, <i>Echites</i>, etc. <i>Epigynum</i> is epigynous.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>124 genera, 1,000 species; principally in the Tropics. Only
-2 species of <i>Vinca</i> are natives of this country; the
-following are cultivated as ornamental plants:&mdash;<i>Vinca
-minor</i>, <i>V. major</i>, <i>V. (Lochnera) rosea</i>,
-<i>Amsonia salicifolia</i>, <i>Nerium oleander</i> (Eastern
-Mediterranean). The <i>latex</i> of some is <i>poisonous</i>
-(<i>Tanghinia venenifera</i>, <i>Cerbera</i>). Caoutchouc is
-obtained from others (<i>Hankornia</i>, <i>Landolphia</i>,
-<i>Vahea</i>, etc.). Tough bast is frequently developed.
-The bark of <i>Aspidosperma quebracho</i> and the seeds of
-<i>Strophanthus hispidus</i> are used in medicine (also for
-African arrow-poison), the latter is officinal.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Asclepiadaceæ.</b> A natural and easily recognised order,
-closely allied to the Apocynaceæ, having, like it, frequently a
-poisonous latex, opposite, single, entire leaves and fundamentally
-the same floral diagram and floral structure (S5, P5, A5, G2); but in
-some the æstivation of the corolla is valvate. The carpels here also
-have <i>free ovaries</i>, but are united for some distance above into
-a <i>large, shield-like, 5-angular head</i>, having on its underside<span class="pagenum" id="Page_545">[545]</span>
-the true stigmas, and the fruit always consists of 2 <i>follicles</i>;
-seeds most frequently numerous and <i>hairy</i> at the micropyle
-(“vegetable silk”); endosperm scanty.&mdash;The order is distinguished from
-the Apocynaceæ and from all other plants also, except the Orchids, by
-having all the pollen-grains in each of the <b>2</b> loculi of the
-anthers (true 2-locular anthers) united into <i>one waxy, club-shaped
-pollen-mass</i> (“pollinium”), for the purpose of pollination by
-insects. These heavy masses, in order to secure pollination (as in the
-case of the Orchids), must be attached to sticky discs (corpuscula);
-there are 5 corpuscula, one at each of the corners of the 5-angular
-stylar-head (alternating with the anthers), and to each of these are
-attached 2 pollinia, one from each of the anthers situated on either
-side (thus each anther gives its right pollinium to one corpusculum and
-its left to another). The stamens are frequently united at the base,
-and each bears on the back a variously formed, petaloid appendage,
-termed a “cucullus.”</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig582" style="width: 465px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig582.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 582.</span>&mdash;<i>Asclepias cornuti. A</i>
-An open flower with the calyx (<i>k</i>) and corolla (<i>c</i>) turned
-down; the stamens are bent together and surround the gynœceum. <i>B</i>
-The andrœcium after removal of the sterile part (cucullus) of the
-anther, which functions as a nectary: <i>e</i> the lateral expansions
-of the fertile portion of the anthers; <i>f</i> the slit between the
-expansions of two contiguous anthers, through which the insect’s foot,
-and later a pollinium which is caught by it, is dragged, and behind
-which the only receptive part (stigma) is hidden; above the slit
-<i>f</i> is the gland (<i>r</i>), which secretes the horny corpusculum,
-which is split at its base and joined on either side with a pollinium
-(this is more distinctly seen in <i>D</i> and <i>E</i>). When the foot
-of the insect is caught in the slit (<i>f</i>) and is drawn upwards,
-it becomes entrapped in the slit of the corpusculum, which is then
-pulled out together with the pollinia firmly attached to it. In walking
-over the flowers the insect will draw its foot through other slits
-(<i>f</i>) and so leave the pollinia on the stigmas. <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>
-The gynœceum with the pollinia hanging freely. <i>E</i> A corpusculum
-and two pollinia.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>A peculiar relative position (and therefore a good, distinctive
-characteristic) is often found in the <i>inflorescence</i>, which is
-cymose; it is placed <i>between</i> the two leaves of a whorl, nearer
-to one than to the other. <span class="smaller">The leaf-pairs are placed obliquely in the
-floral region, at acute and obtuse angles, and not at right angles (as
-in the purely vegetative parts); the inflorescences are placed in two
-rows only which are nearly 90° from each other, and the two contiguous
-to one another are antidromous; they are in reality terminal, each
-on its own axis, and the entire floral portion of the shoot is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_546">[546]</span> a
-unipared scorpioid cymose sympodium; in addition, complications also
-arise through individual parts becoming united.&mdash;Herbs and shrubs, some
-twining or climbing.</span></p>
-
-<p>In <i>Asclepias</i> the corolla is bent back and there is a cup-like
-cucullus, from the base of which protrudes a horn-shaped body, bent
-inwards.&mdash;<i>Vincetoxicum</i> has a rotate corolla and a ring-like,
-5-lobed cucullus, without internal prominences.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Stapelia</i>
-(especially from S. Africa) is remarkable on account of its
-Cactus-like, leafless stems and large, brownish flowers, often with
-carrion-like smell. <i>Periploca</i> has more powdery pollinia
-(S. Eur., etc.); <i>Hoya carnosa</i> (Wax-flower; Trop. Asia) is
-a climber, and has small, annual, flower-bearing dwarf-branches.
-<i>Ceropegia.</i></span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>201 genera with 1700 species, distributed over all tropical
-countries; few outside these limits: no native species. Several
-are used in medicine on account of the pungent properties of
-the latex. Condurango-bark of <i>Gonolobus condurango</i>
-is medicinal. Caoutchouc is obtained from the latex of some
-(<i>e.g.</i> from <i>Cynanchum</i>). The seed-hairs, which
-are most frequently shining, silk-like, and white, are not
-sufficiently pliant to be of much value. Ornamental plants in
-our gardens: <i>Asclepias</i>-species, etc.</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Loganiaceæ.</b> Ovary single, with two loculi, in
-structure resembling the Rubiaceæ, but superior. 360 species are
-included in this order; the majority are tree-like, some lianes
-which climb by tendril-like branches. The <i>interpetiolar
-stipules</i> of some species are very characteristic (as in
-Rubiaceæ, to which they maybe considered to be closely related).
-The fruit is a capsule or berry. The most familiar genus is
-<i>Strychnos</i>, which has spherical berries with an often
-firm external layer, and compressed seeds with shield-like
-attachments; endosperm abundant. The leaves have 3–5 strong,
-curved nerves proceeding from the base.&mdash;<i>Spigelia.</i>&mdash;They
-have <i>no latex</i>, as in the two preceding orders, but many
-are <i>very poisonous</i> (containing the alkaloid “strychnine,”
-etc.); the South American arrow-poison, urare or curare, is made
-from various species of <i>Strychnos</i>, also an arrow-poison
-in the East Indian Islands (Java, etc.). <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>, the
-seeds of <i>Strychnos nux vomica</i> (“Vomic nut,” Ind.). The
-seeds of <i>Strychnos ignatii</i> (Ignatius-beans, medicinal),
-and others are poisonous.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Oleaceæ.</b> The leaves are always opposite. The
-inflorescences are racemes or panicles. The calyx and corolla are
-<i>4-merous</i>, more or less united, free in some species; the
-corolla has most frequently <i>valvate</i> æstivation. All four forms
-of fruit occur (see the genera). <i>Ovules pendulous</i>, 2 in each
-loculus (Fig. <a href="#fig583">583</a> <i>C</i>). Endosperm oily.&mdash;<i>Syringa</i> (Lilac)
-and <i>Forsythia</i> (anthers somewhat extrose) have <i>capsules</i>
-with loculicidal dehiscence and winged seeds.&mdash;<i>Fraxinus</i> (Ash)
-has <i>winged nuts</i> (samara) (Fig. <a href="#fig583">583</a> <i>D</i>); trees with
-most frequently imparipinnate leaves; the flowers are <i>naked</i>
-and sometimes unisexual (polygamous), the Manna Ash (<i>F.
-ornus</i>) has however a double perianth with 4 free petals (Fig.
-<a href="#fig583">583</a> <i>a</i>); in the native species, <i>F. excelsior</i>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_547">[547]</span> the
-flowers open before the foliage appears.&mdash;<i>Ligustrum</i> (Privet)
-has <i>berries</i>.&mdash;<i>Olea</i> (<i>O. europæa</i>; Olive) has
-<i>drupes</i>; the pulp and seeds of the ellipsoidal fruits are rich
-in oil. The lanceolate leaves are grey on the under surface, being
-covered with stellate hairs. In the wild state it is thorny (modified
-branches).&mdash;<i>Phillyrea</i>; <i>Chionanthus</i>.&mdash;Few species of
-<i>Linociera</i> have 4 stamens.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig583" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig583.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 583.</span>&mdash;<i>Fraxinus ornus</i>: <i>A</i>
-flower; <i>ca</i> calyx; co corolla; <i>B</i> gynœceum and calyx;
-<i>C</i> longitudinal median section of gynœceum; <i>D</i> fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>180 species; chiefly in the northern temperate zone. The
-<i>Olive-tree</i> (<i>Olea europæa</i>) has been an important
-cultivated plant from ancient times (Olive oil, Provence
-oil, “Sweet oil”). The best oil is extracted from the
-fruit-pulp. The fruits are edible. Home: Western Asia, Eastern
-Mediterranean. <span class="smcap">Timber</span>: the Ash (<i>Fr. excelsior</i>).
-<span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: the Manna Ash (<i>Fr. ornus</i>), cultivated
-in the Mediterranean countries for the sake of its saccharine
-juice, which flows out and coagulates into “Manna.”&mdash;The
-following are ornamental plants: species of <i>Ligustrum</i> and
-<i>Syringa</i> (introduced in the 16th century, from S.E. Europe
-and Asia), <i>Forsythia</i> (China, Japan; the large, yellow
-flowers are borne on dwarf-branches with scale-like leaves,
-before the opening of the foliage-leaves), <i>Chionanthus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Jasminaceæ.</b> The æstivation of the corolla is
-<i>imbricate</i>; the <i>ovules are erect</i>; seeds almost
-without endosperm; radicle directed downwards. The number
-of lobes in the calyx and corolla is not 4, but <i>e.g.</i>
-5, 8, 10, and variations are sometimes found in the same
-individual. The fruit is a berry or capsule. Many species
-are twiners, and their scattered or opposite leaves are most
-frequently imparipinnate.&mdash;120 species; especially in Trop.
-Asia (E. India). Some <i>Jasminum</i>-species are cultivated as
-ornamental shrubs in the warmer districts on account of their
-elegant foliage, and beautiful, sweet-scented flowers, the
-essential oil of which is also used in perfumery; the best known
-are: <i>J. sambac</i> and <i>grandiflorum</i>. <i>Nyctanthes
-arbor-tristis</i> opens its sweet-scented flowers only at night
-(E. India).</p>
-
-<p>Order 7 (?). <i>Salvadoraceæ.</i> 8–9 species; Asia,
-Africa.&mdash;<i>Salvadora.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_548">[548]</span></p>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller"><b>b. Tetracyclicæ with epigynous flowers.</b></h3>
-
-
-<h4>Family 33. <b>Rubiales.</b></h4>
-
-<p><i>The leaves are always opposite or verticillate. The flower is
-epigynous</i>, ☿, 5-(or 4-) merous, with the usual sympetalous diagram;
-2–5 carpels. The inflorescences are frequently dichasial. The sepals
-are small, reduced to teeth, and become almost entirely suppressed
-in the higher forms.&mdash;The flower is regular in <i>Rubiaceæ</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_549">[549]</span> and
-some <i>Caprifoliaceæ</i>, but in other genera of this latter order
-(especially of <i>Lonicereæ</i>) it is unsymmetrical. In several
-genera of the order first mentioned the loculi of the ovary contain
-many ovules, but in the last the number of loculi and ovules becomes
-reduced. This is to some extent connected with the nature of the fruit
-which is many-seeded in most instances, namely a capsule or berry, but
-in others nut-like. Endosperm is present.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The family on one side is allied to the Contortæ (not
-only through the <i>Loganiaceæ</i> but also through the
-<i>Apocynaceæ</i>), and may be regarded as an epigynous
-continuation of this family; on the other side it is allied to
-the Valerianaceæ and Dipsacaceæ. Many points of agreement with
-the <i>Cornaceæ</i> and <i>Araliaceæ</i> are also found, and
-in fact several Caprifoliaceæ are distinguished from these by
-hardly any other feature than the gamopetalous corolla.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig584" style="width: 426px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig584.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 584.</span>&mdash;<i>Cinchona calisaya.</i> Flowering
-branch.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Rubiaceæ.</b> Leaves opposite (or verticillate), undivided
-and entire, with <i>interpetiolar stipules</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig586">586</a>). Flowers
-epigynous and hermaphrodite, <i>regular</i>, 4- or 5-merous with the
-usual arrangement (Figs. <a href="#fig585">585</a>, <a href="#fig588">588–590</a>); corolla gamopetalous, in
-æstivation often valvate; ovary <i>frequently 2-locular</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig585" style="width: 700px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig585.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 585.</span>&mdash;<i>Cinchona calisaya. A</i>
-entire flower; <i>B</i> after removal of the corolla; <i>C</i>
-longitudinal section of ovary; <i>D</i> fruit; <i>E</i> seed.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>There are no external characters which at once distinguish
-this exceedingly large order, as in many other natural orders
-(Compositæ, Umbelliferæ, etc.), but the <i>opposite</i> leaves
-with <i>interpetiolar stipules</i> form an excellent mark of
-recognition. It is divided into many sub-orders and groups,
-especially characterised by the nature of the ovary (1 or
-several ovules in each loculus), and of the fruit (schizocarp,
-berry, drupe, capsule).&mdash;The corolla is bilabiate in 4 genera;
-its æstivation in some is twisted; in <i>Capirona</i>, etc., the
-filaments are of unequal size. The ovary is semi-epigynous in
-<i>Henriquezia</i>, etc. In <i>Morinda</i> all the fleshy fruits
-coalesce into one multiple fruit.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_550">[550]</span></p>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Cinchoneæ.</span> The fruit is a 2-valved <i>capsule</i>,
-with many winged seeds (Fig. <a href="#fig585">585</a>). <i>Cinchona</i> (Quinine, Fig. <a href="#fig584">584</a>).
-Trees and shrubs with the foliage and inflorescence somewhat resembling
-<i>Syringa</i>; the corolla also being of a lilac colour, more or
-less salver- or funnel-shaped, and frequently edged with a fringe of
-hairs (Fig. <a href="#fig585">585</a>), is somewhat similar to that of <i>Menyanthes</i>.
-Their home is the Andes from Bolivia to Venezuela, varying in altitude
-from 1–3000 metres. There are now large plantations in Java and E.
-India. <span class="smaller">(The name “quinine” is of Indian origin; that of the genus
-“<i>Cinchona</i>,” is from the Spanish Duchess Cinchon, who in 1638
-first introduced the bark into Europe.) The following are closely
-allied: <i>Cascarilla</i>, <i>Remijia</i>, <i>Ladenbergia</i>,
-<i>Manettia</i>, <i>Bouvardia</i>, etc.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Gardenieæ.</span> Trees and shrubs, frequently
-having a many-locular berry. <i>Randia</i>, <i>Gardenia</i>,
-<i>Genipa</i>, <i>Hamelia</i>, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Coffeeæ.</span> Only 1 seed in each of the two loculi of
-the ovary; <i>the fruit is a drupe with 2 stones</i>. <i>Coffea</i>
-has an ellipsoidal fruit about the size and colour of a cherry;
-the two thin-shelled, parchment-like stones are enclosed by a thin
-layer of pulp; the two seeds are flat on the side turned to one
-another, which has also a deep, longitudinal groove curving to the
-sides. The endosperm is hard, horny and greyish (without starch);
-the small embryo lies in the lower end near the circumference. The
-Coffee-plant (<i>C. arabica</i>) is a small tree, or more frequently,
-and especially in plantations, a shrub with large dark-green leaves
-and scented, white flowers. Its home is in Tropical Africa; it is
-now cultivated in many tropical countries. <i>C. liberica</i>, W.
-Africa.&mdash;<i>Cephaëlis</i> (<i>C. ipecacuanha</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig586">586</a>; the roots
-are officinal).&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Psychotria</i>, <i>Chiococca</i>, <i>Ixora</i>,
-<i>Hydnophytum</i>, <i>Myrmecodia</i>, etc.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig586" style="width: 418px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig586.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 586.</span>&mdash;<i>Cephaëlis ipecacuanha.</i>
-Portion of a branch: <i>st</i> stipules.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>4.</b> <span class="smcap">Spermacoceæ.</span> Chiefly small shrubs and herbs,
-many of which are weeds in tropical countries. The stipular
-sheaths bear numerous bristles at the edge. <i>Spermacoce</i>,
-<i>Borreria</i>, <i>Diodia</i>, <i>Richardsonia</i>, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>5.</b> <span class="smcap">Stellatæ.</span> <i>Herbaceous plants with</i> verticillate
-leaves (Figs.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_551">[551]</span> <a href="#fig587">587</a>, <a href="#fig588">588–590</a>); <i>the stipules are large, leaf-like</i>,
-and resemble the lamina of the leaves, so that <i>the leaves appear to
-be placed several in a whorl</i>, while in reality there are only two
-opposite leaves, the stipules of which project <i>freely</i>, and are
-not erect (Fig. <a href="#fig587">587</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig587" style="width: 334px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig587.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 587.</span>&mdash;<i>Rubia tinctorum.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="smaller">In some cases there are apparently 4 leaves in the whorl, and then
-2 of these are leaves, and the other two are their interpetiolar
-stipules. When there are apparently 6 leaves, then the two of these
-which are opposite each other are leaves, and the other four are
-stipules; if there are several members in the whorl, then a division of
-the stipules has taken place. The proof of this theory is founded upon
-the fact that not more than 2 of the leaves of the whorl ever support
-buds (which, in addition, are seldom of equal vigour), and also that
-the whorls do not alternate with each other, which, according to the
-rules of the position of the leaves, they should do if all the members
-of a whorl had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_552">[552]</span> equal value. If there are, for instance, 4 members in
-two successive whorls, they stand right above one another, and do not
-alternate. The development and anatomical relations (the branching of
-the vascular bundles) also point to the same conclusion.</span>&mdash;All the
-other groups of the order have only 2 small scale-like interpetiolar
-stipules, or they form at the base of the leaf-stalks an interpetiolar
-sheath, having often a toothed edge (Fig. <a href="#fig586">586</a>).&mdash;Another characteristic
-feature in this group is that the calyx is rudimentary, the corolla
-<i>valvate</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig588">588</a>), and that each of the two loculi of the
-ovary has only 1 ovule. The fruit is a <i>schizocarp dividing into
-2 fruitlets</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig590">590</a>). <span class="smaller">The forms of the fruit, as well as
-many other characters, as, for example, the epigynous flower, the
-rudimentary calyx, the two free or almost free styles, present
-interesting analogous resemblances to the polypetalous order of the
-Umbelliferæ.</span> This group has its home chiefly in the temperate
-regions of the northern hemisphere, especially about the Mediterranean;
-it is the only group which occurs in this country, represented by 4
-genera.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig588" style="width: 263px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 588–590.</span>&mdash;<i>Rubia tinctorum.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig588.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 588.</span>&mdash;Diagram.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig589" style="width: 392px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig589.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 589.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal section of flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig590" style="width: 371px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig590.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 590.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal section of fruit (3/1).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Galium</i> (Cleavers) is almost destitute of a calyx; it has a
-small <i>4-partite, rotate corolla</i>, 4 stamens, and 2 free styles.
-The fruitlets are <i>nut-like</i>. The inflorescence is a paniculate
-dichasium passing into helicoid cymes.&mdash;<i>Asperula</i> (Woodruff) is
-distinguished from the above by its salver- or funnel-shaped corolla.
-1 style.&mdash;<i>Rubia</i> (Madder, Figs. <a href="#fig587">587–590</a>) has almost the same
-form of corolla as <i>Galium</i>, but (most frequently) a <i>5-merous
-flower</i>, and the fruitlets are “<i>drupes</i>.” <span class="smaller"><i>Sherardia</i>
-(Field Madder); the flowers are clustered in closely arranged cymes
-surrounded by <i>an involucre</i>; <i>the calyx has 6 distinct
-teeth</i>, while the number of petals and stamens is 4. The corolla is
-funnel-shaped.&mdash;<i>Vaillantia. Crucianella.</i></span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">DISTRIBUTION OF SEEDS</span>, in some instances, is
-promoted by hooked appendages on the fruitlets (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Galium aparine</i>).</p>
-
-<p>The small flowers of the Stellatæ are frequently collected
-in compact inflorescences, and are therefore rendered
-more conspicuous; slight protandry is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_553">[553]</span> found in some,
-self-pollination in the species which are less conspicuous.
-Many species are heterostylous. <i>Myrmecodia</i>,
-<i>Hydnophytum</i>, and other genera have large tubers
-(hypocotyledonous stems), whose labyrinthine cavities and
-passages are inhabited by ants.</p>
-
-<p>About 4,500 species; tropical or sub-tropical except the
-Stellatæ; especially American. The tropical ones are mostly
-trees.&mdash;Several are <span class="smaller">OFFICINAL</span> on account of the large
-amount of <i>alkaloids</i> and <i>glycosides</i> which they
-contain. The most important are the Cinchonas (<i>Cinchona
-calisaya</i>, <i>C. succirubra</i>, <i>C. officinalis</i>,
-<i>C. micrantha</i>, etc.), whose bark contains the well-known
-febrifuge and tonic, Quinine, Cinchonin, etc.; Quinine is
-also found in <i>Exostemma</i>, <i>Ladenbergia</i>, and
-<i>Remijia</i>. The root “Ipecacuanha” (an emetic) from
-<i>Cephaëlis ipecacuanha</i> (Brazils). Caffeine is officinal.
-The use of the seeds of the coffee plant (“the beans”) was first
-known in Europe in 1583.&mdash;There are only a few which contain
-<i>aromatic</i> properties, principally among the Stellatæ
-(coumarin in <i>Asperula odorata</i>, the Woodruff), in which
-group <i>colouring materials</i> are also found. The root and
-root-stalks of <i>Rubia tinctorum</i>, the Madder (S. Eur.,
-Orient., Fig. <a href="#fig587">587</a>), were formerly largely used for dyeing,
-but are now superseded by the analine colours. Red dyes are
-also obtained from the roots of species of <i>Asperula</i>
-and <i>Galium</i>. Gambier is a splendid colouring material,
-obtained from <i>Uncaria gambir</i> (S.E. Asia), which is
-used in dyeing and tanning.&mdash;The order does not furnish many
-ornamental flowers.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Caprifoliaceæ.</b> This order agrees with the Rubiaceæ
-in having opposite leaves and an epigynous flower, most frequently
-5-merous with the ordinary tetracyclic diagram, but in some species it
-is zygomorphic; the corolla has imbricate æstivation, <i>carpels 3–5,
-most frequently 3</i> (not 2, which is the most usual number in the
-Rubiaceæ). The fruit is generally a <i>berry</i> or a <i>drupe</i>, but
-the most important, and in any case most easily recognisable feature,
-is the <i>absence of stipules</i>; in exceptional cases, where they
-are present, they are not interpetiolar, and are most frequently
-small.&mdash;<span class="smaller">The majority of plants belonging to this order are shrubs
-or trees. Compound leaves sometimes occur. Stipules only appear in a
-few species of <i>Lonicera</i>, <i>Sambucus</i> and <i>Viburnum</i>;
-in the common Elder (<i>Sambucus nigra</i>) they are in some instances
-glandular and small, but in other cases larger and more leaf-like (upon
-long, well-developed shoots); in the Dwarf Elder (<i>S. ebulus</i>)
-they have the normal leaf-like form; in <i>Viburnum opulus</i> they
-are present as narrow lobes at the base of the petiole; in others they
-are completely absent. The leaves are frequently penninerved, rarely
-palminerved. The calyx, as in the Stellatæ and Aggregatæ, is often very
-insignificant.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Lonicereæ, Honeysuckle Group.</span> This has
-<i>campanulate or tubular corollas</i> which are often zygomorphic;
-in connection with the length of the corolla the <i>style is long,
-filamentous</i>, and most frequently has a large, capitate stigma.
-There are <i>several ovules</i> in the loculi of the ovary, and the
-fruit is most frequently a <i>berry</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_554">[554]</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig591" style="width: 416px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig591.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 591.</span>&mdash;<i>Lonicera.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Lonicera</i> (Honeysuckle). Shrubs, sometimes twiners. The corolla
-in some species is considerably bilabiate (Fig. <a href="#fig591">591</a>), with 4 lobes in
-the upper lip, and 1 in the under lip, but in others more regular,
-tubular, or campanulate. The flowers are either borne in capitate
-inflorescences, which are compound and formed of closely compressed
-3-flowered dichasia (sect. <i>Caprifolium</i>), or in dichasia with
-2 flowers (the terminal flower is wanting). The ovaries and fruits
-coalesce in some (sect. <i>Xylosteum</i>). <span class="smaller">The opposite leaves in
-some species unite with each other and form a broad collar encircling
-the stem (Fig. <a href="#fig591">591</a>). Above the primary bud 1–2 accessory buds are often
-found in the leaf-axils.&mdash;<i>Diervilla</i> (<i>Weigelia</i>); with a
-2-locular, 2-valved capsule.&mdash;<i>Symphoricarpus</i> (Snowberry) has
-an almost regular, funnel-shaped corolla; a peculiar feature is found
-in the ovary which has 4 loculi, the 2 median having many ovules in 2
-rows, all of which are aborted; the 2 lateral ones, on the other hand,
-each have only 1 ovule which is developed. Different forms of leaves
-are frequently found on the same branch; they are entire or lobed.</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_555">[555]</span></p>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Sambuceæ, Elder Group</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig592">592</a>). This has a
-<i>rotate</i>, <i>regular corolla</i>, extrorse anthers, a very short
-and thick (or almost absent) <i>style</i>, with tripartite stigmas, and
-only 1 pendulous ovule in each of the 3 (-5) loculi of the ovary. The
-fruit is a “<i>drupe</i>” with 1–3 (-5) stones. The inflorescence is
-made up of <i>cymes grouped in an umbel-like arrangement</i>.</p>
-
-<p><i>Sambucus</i> (Elder, Fig. <a href="#fig592">592</a>) has <i>imparipinnate</i> leaves
-and a “drupe” with 3 (-5) <i>stones</i>. Between the calyx and the
-style a disc remains on the apex of the fruit. <i>S. nigra</i> with
-black fruit; <i>S. racemosa</i> with red fruit; <i>S. ebulus</i> is a
-perennial herb; the others are woody.&mdash;<i>Viburnum</i> (Guelder-rose)
-has <i>simple</i> leaves (penninerved or palminerved, entire, dentate
-or lobed), and a “drupe” with only 1 <i>stone</i>, which is compressed,
-cartilaginous, and parchment-like; 2 of the loculi of the ovary
-are aborted. <span class="smaller">(In <i>V. opulus</i> the marginal flowers of the
-inflorescence are barren, and in that case their corollas are generally
-specially large; the cultivated <i>Viburnum</i> has only barren
-flowers, with large corollas.)</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig592" style="width: 700px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig592.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 592.</span>&mdash;<i>Sambucus nigra</i>: <i>cor</i>
-corolla; <i>s</i> calyx.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Linnæeæ.</span> <i>Linnæa borealis</i> (the only
-species) is an extreme form of the order; it has a 2-flowered
-dichasium, funnel-shaped, slightly bilabiate corollas (2/3);
-4 didynamous stamens. Two of the 3 loculi of the ovary have
-several ovules which are not developed, while the third has only
-1 ovule, which developes into a seed. The fruit is a nut, which
-is enveloped by the two large bracteoles, which are covered by
-sticky, glandular hairs, and serve as a means of distribution.
-It is a small undershrub.</p>
-
-<p>[<i>Adoxa</i>, which was formerly classed in this order,
-appears, according to recent investigations, to be more properly
-placed among the Saxifraginæ.]</p>
-
-<p>In cases where the flowers are small, as in <i>Sambucus</i>
-and <i>Viburnum opulus</i>, they are rendered conspicuous by
-being arranged in closely-packed inflorescences; they are
-massed together and form large surfaces, and in the last named
-are still more conspicuous on account of the barren, but large
-ray-flowers, which are of service in this respect. Honey is
-secreted in the nectaries at the base of the styles. In the
-genera with rotate flowers, as <i>Viburnum</i> and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_556">[556]</span> other
-Sambuceæ, the honey lies so exposed and in such a thin layer,
-that only flies and insects with short probosces can procure it;
-bees, however, visit these flowers for the sake of the pollen.
-There is hardly any nectar in the Elder; self-pollination
-frequently takes place. The flowers of the Caprifoliaceæ,
-which, with their long corolla-tube are adapted for evening-and
-night-flying insects with long probosces, open in the evening,
-and at that time give off their strongest scent.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Distribution.</span> 230 species; especially outside
-the Tropics in the Northern Hemisphere. In this
-country they are found especially in hedges and as
-under-shrubs.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: the flowers and fresh fruits
-of the Elder (<i>S. nigra</i>), the fruits (“berries”) being
-also used in the household. <span class="smcap">Ornamental shrubs</span>: species
-of <i>Lonicera</i>, <i>Symphoricarpus</i>, <i>Diervilla</i>,
-which are chiefly from N. Am., <i>Abelia</i> and <i>Viburnum</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 34. <b>Dipsacales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The leaves are <i>opposite and without stipules</i>. The flower (Figs.
-<a href="#fig593">593</a>, <a href="#fig595">595</a>, <a href="#fig598">598</a>, <a href="#fig599">599</a>, <a href="#fig600">600</a>) is <i>epigynous</i>, <i>zygomorphic</i> or
-<i>asymmetrical</i>, 5-merous with S5, P5, stamens typically 5, but
-by suppression <i>never more than 4</i>, sometimes less, carpels 3–2.
-The calyx is more or less insignificant, and almost suppressed in the
-extreme forms. The ovary has 3–1 loculi, but <i>only one loculus</i>
-has an ovule, which is <i>pendulous</i> with the micropyle <i>turned
-upwards</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig594">594</a>). Fruit a nut. Embryo straight, with the radicle
-<i>pointing upwards</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig597">597</a>), without or with endosperm.</p>
-
-<p>The inflorescences are distinct dichasia in Valerianaceæ, but in
-Dipsacaceæ and Calyceraceæ they are crowded together into capitula.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>This family is closely allied to the Rubiales through the
-Valerianaceæ, which have almost the same structure as many
-of the Caprifoliaceæ. It attains the highest development in
-the Dipsacaceæ, which are composite plants, but differs from
-Compositæ in the position of the ovule, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Valerianaceæ.</b> Herbaceous plants or under-shrubs with
-opposite leaves, often pinnate; stipules absent. The flowers are borne
-in <i>dichasia</i> and in <i>scorpioid cymose inflorescences</i> and
-are <i>entirely without any plane of symmetry</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig593">593</a>). The
-calyx and corolla are 5-merous, but the calyx is frequently very
-insignificant and ultimately a pappus, as in Compositæ; the corolla
-is frequently saccate or produced into a spur at the base. Most
-frequently, only 3 (4–1) of the 5 stamens are developed; these are
-free. Carpels <b>3</b>, which form an inferior <i>ovary</i>, often with
-3 <i>loculi</i>, but only <i>1 of the loculi</i> contains <b>1</b>
-<i>pendulous, anatropous ovule</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig593">593</a>, <a href="#fig594">594</a> <i>A</i>), the other
-loculi are empty<span class="pagenum" id="Page_557">[557]</span> and shrink up more or less completely. (Compare Fig.
-<a href="#fig593">593</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>). Style 1, stigma tripartite. Endosperm absent;
-embryo straight, with the radicle directed <i>upwards</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The inflorescences are dichasia, or unipared scorpioid cymes
-with the branches developed in the axil of the second bracteole.
-Both the bracteoles are generally present and frequently form
-4 very regular, longitudinal rows on the branches of the
-inflorescence.&mdash;5 stamens do not occur (except perhaps in
-<i>Patrinia</i>). The suppression of stamens and carpels takes
-place most readily on the anterior side of the flower and that
-turned towards the first bracteole (<i>a</i>) (Fig. <a href="#fig593">593</a>), whose
-branch is suppressed in the dichasium; after this the posterior
-median stamen is next suppressed.</p>
-
-<p>By the vegetative characters as well as by the inflorescence
-and the flower, the order is allied to the Caprifoliaceæ and
-especially to the Sambuceæ.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig593" style="width: 269px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig593.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 593.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i> Diagram of <i>Valeriana
-officinalis</i>. <i>B</i> Diagram of <i>Centranthus</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>In the least modified (oldest) forms, <i>Patrinia</i> and
-<i>Nardostachys</i>, there is an almost regular flower, a 5-merous
-calyx, 4 stamens, and 3 loculi in the ovary, 2 of which however
-are barren. The stamens in <i>Valerianella</i> are reduced to
-3, in <i>Fedia</i> to 2 (posterior), and the calyx is less
-distinctly 5-dentate; the 2 empty loculi in the ovary are still
-visible. <i>Fedia</i> has a small spur at the base of the corolla.
-<i>Valeriana</i> has a very reduced, hair-like calyx (pappus),
-an unsymmetrical, salver-shaped corolla with a <i>sac-like</i>,
-nectariferous spur at the base, 3 stamens and only 1 loculus in
-the ovary (Figs. <a href="#fig594">594</a>, <a href="#fig593">593</a>). <i>Centranthus</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig593">593</a>) is still
-further reduced. The corolla has a spur and only 1 stamen; <span class="smaller">unipared
-scorpioid cymes with 4 rows of bracteoles. In the last two genera there
-is a peculiar wall in the corolla-tube, which divides it longitudinally
-into two compartments (indicated by a dotted line in Fig. <a href="#fig593">593</a>), one of
-which encloses the style. This wall is low in <i>Valeriana</i>, but in
-<i>Centranthus</i> it reaches as far as the throat.&mdash;The rays of the
-<i>pappus</i> are pinnately branched and rolled up before the ripening
-of the fruit. 12–20 in number (Fig. <a href="#fig594">594</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>).</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Val. officinalis</i> and others are protandrous: in the
-first period the stamens project from the centre of the flower
-(Fig. <a href="#fig595">595</a> <i>a</i>), the stigmas in the second (<i>b</i>) when
-the stamens have become bent backwards. (<i>V. dioica</i> is
-diœcious<span class="pagenum" id="Page_558">[558]</span> with large ♂-and small ♀-flowers).&mdash;275 species;
-especially from the temperate and colder parts of the
-northern hemisphere of the Old World, Western North America
-and the Andes.&mdash;<i>Bitter</i> properties are characteristic,
-such for instance as the volatile acid and volatile oil of
-<i>Valeriana</i>; these occur especially in the rhizomes.
-<span class="smcap">Officinal</span>; the rhizomes of <i>V. officinalis</i>.&mdash;The
-true Indian “Nardus,” an important medicine and perfume in
-India, is extracted from <i>Nardostachys</i> (Himalaya). A
-variety of <i>Valerianella olitoria</i> is sometimes used as
-salad.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig594" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig594.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 594.</span>&mdash;<i>Valeriana</i>: <i>A</i> ovary
-(longitudinal section); <i>B</i> ripe fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig595" style="width: 361px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig595.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 595.</span>&mdash;<i>Valeriana</i>: <i>a</i> flower in
-the ♂ stage; <i>b</i> in the ♀.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig596" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig596.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 596.</span>&mdash;<i>Centranthus ruber.</i> Flower,
-its lowermost portion (the ovary and spur) in longitudinal section. (Mag.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig597" style="width: 239px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig597.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 597.</span>&mdash;<i>Scabiosa atropurpurea.</i> Fruit
-in longitudinal section. Inside the “epicalyx” may be seen the fruit
-drawn out into a beak, with straight embryo and radicle directed
-upwards.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Dipsacaceæ</b> (<b>Teasels</b>). Herbs with <i>opposite</i>
-leaves without stipules. The flowers are situated in compact capitula
-each with an involucre. A characteristic feature of the order is
-that <i>each flower</i> of the capitulum has a <i>gamophyllous</i>
-“<i>epicalyx</i>”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_559">[559]</span> (Figs. <a href="#fig597">597</a>, <a href="#fig599">599</a>, <a href="#fig600">600</a>), which envelopes the inferior
-ovary. The flowers (Figs. <a href="#fig599">599</a>, <a href="#fig600">600</a>) are ☿, 5-merous (S5, P5, stamens
-typically 5, G<b>2</b>), but the calyx often expands at the edge into a
-membrane with 5, or an indefinite number of bristles or teeth (pappus,
-Figs. <a href="#fig597">597</a>, <a href="#fig600">600</a>), and the <i>zygomorphic, funnel-shaped corolla</i> is
-sometimes 5-lobed and bilabiate (2/3), but most frequently 4-partite
-(Fig. <a href="#fig599">599</a>), the two lobes of the upper lip coalescing into one lobe, as
-in certain Labiatæ, <i>Veronica</i> and <i>Plantago</i>; the æstivation
-is <i>imbricate</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig598" style="width: 330px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 598–600.</span>&mdash;<i>Dipsacus fullonum.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig598.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 598.</span>&mdash;Inflorescence (the flowers in a zone below the apex
-commence to flower first).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig599" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig599.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 599.</span>&mdash;Flower (4/1).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig600" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig600.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 600.</span>&mdash;The same in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>The stamens are never more than 4</i>, the posterior one
-<i>remaining undeveloped</i>; they <i>usually have free anthers</i>
-which generally project considerably (Fig. <a href="#fig599">599</a>). The ovary is
-unilocular with 1 <i>pendulous</i> ovule and bears 1 <i>undivided
-style</i>; fruit a nut with 1 <i>seed, containing endosperm</i> and
-with the radicle turned <i>upwards</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig597">597</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The flowers do not always open in centripetal order, a fact
-which may be observed especially in the Dipsacaceæ, in which a
-zone of flowers round the centre of the capitulum opens first,
-and the flowering then proceeds both upwards and downwards (Fig.
-<a href="#fig598">598</a>). This has probably some connection with the fact that the
-capitulum has arisen from the coalescence of several dichasial
-inflorescences. In species of <i>Scabiosa</i> the flowers
-open simultaneously at the circumference, or in a zone at the
-centre.&mdash;The morphological explanation of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_560">[560]</span> “<i>epicalyx</i>”
-is not quite certain; in all probability it is formed from two
-united bracteoles, for an “epicalyx” is distinctly formed in
-this way in one of the Valerianaceæ, <i>Phyllactis</i>.&mdash;The
-<i>ray-flowers</i> are larger and more irregular, labiate or
-ligulate, than the disc-flowers, yet not in so high a degree as
-in the Compositæ.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> A scarious bract to each flower. <i>Scabiosa</i> has a
-5-lobed corolla; the “epicalyx” has a dry, scarious, often finally
-large collar, and the true calyx is formed of long bristles (generally
-5) (Fig. <a href="#fig597">597</a>). <i>Succisa pratensis</i> (Devil’s-bit) has a 4-lobed
-corolla, the collar of the “epicalyx” is herbaceous; the calyx as in
-the preceding.&mdash;<i>Pterocephalus.</i>&mdash;<i>Dipsacus</i> (Teasel); large,
-spiny and stiff-haired herbs with capitula, or short, thick spikes on
-which both the involucral-leaves and bracts project considerably, and
-are stiff and spinose (Fig. <a href="#fig598">598</a>). The “epicalyx” has short teeth, or is
-almost entire. <span class="smaller">The leaves of the stem unite together in pairs, so
-that shallow cups are formed round the stems in which rain-water may
-collect.&mdash;<i>Cephalaria.</i>&mdash;<i>Morina</i>: the flowers are falsely
-verticillate as in the Labiatæ; the calyx has 2 laterally-placed,
-entire, or emarginate lobes; 2 stamens, or 2 large and 2 small ones.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> Bristles, but <i>no</i> true bract to each flower.
-<i>Knautia</i>; the corolla is 4-partite, the calyx cup-like, with many
-bristles or teeth on the edge.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination</span> is in many species effected by insects.
-The honey is secreted by a ring round the base of the style.
-The flowers in our native species are considerably protandrous.
-Gynodiœcious flowers also occur.&mdash;150 species; especially in
-the Mediterranean and the Orient; the order is not represented
-in the South Sea Islands, Australia and America.&mdash;The heads of
-the true Teasel (<i>Dips. fullonum</i>) are used for carding
-wool, on account of the elastic bracts, which are hooked at
-the point. The order has bitter properties; tanin, etc.; but
-no species are used in medicine or the household.&mdash;<i>Scabiosa
-atropurpurea</i>, etc., are used as ornamental plants.</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Calyceraceæ.</b> This order resembles the Compositæ
-in the valvate æstivation of the corolla and the more or less
-united stamens, and the Dipsacaceæ in the undivided style,
-pendulous ovule and endosperm. The calyx is frequently composed
-of 5 distinct scales. An “epicalyx” is wanting.&mdash;20 species;
-America.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 35. <b>Campanulinæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flower is <i>epigynous</i>, perfect, with 5 sepals, 5 petals, and
-5 stamens in regular alternation, and <b>3</b> (2–5) carpels. The
-sepals in all cases are <i>distinct</i>, but narrow and pointed, so
-that the æstivation is open. The corolla is gamopetalous with (as in
-the Compositæ) <i>valvate</i>, or slightly infolded-valvate æstivation.
-The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_561">[561]</span> stamens are nearly always <i>situated on the torus</i> without
-being united to the corolla (Figs. <a href="#fig601">601</a>, <a href="#fig604">604</a>). The anthers adhere or
-unite and form a tube with introrse anthers from which the pollen is
-swept out by the projecting, brush-like hairs on the style (as in the
-Compositæ). The ovary is <b>3</b>-(2–5) locular, <i>many ovules</i>
-in each loculus. The fruit is generally a <i>many-seeded</i> capsule
-(or berry). Embryo in the centre of a fleshy <i>endosperm</i>.&mdash;The
-majority are herbs with scattered leaves, without stipules. The
-presence of <i>latex</i> and <i>inulin</i>, together with the
-tubular formation of the anthers, the pollination, etc., indicate a
-relationship with the Compositæ.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The <i>Cucurbitaceæ</i> are by some authorities placed in this
-family as being most closely related to the Campanulaceæ.
-Although the corolla is most frequently gamopetalous, and other
-similarities to the Campanulaceæ are present, yet on account
-of the structure of the ovule, and for other reasons, the
-Cucurbitaceæ are here placed in the Choripetalæ. The Campanulinæ
-without doubt proceed upwards to the Compositæ, with which, in
-addition to the occurrence of inulin and laticiferous vessels
-(Cichorieæ), there are many corresponding features both in the
-structural and biological relations (epigyny, valvate æstivation
-of the corolla, tendency of the anthers to adhere or unite,
-protandry with a stylar-brush, etc.) The inflorescence of
-<i>Jasione</i> is almost identical with that of the Compositæ.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Campanulaceæ</b> (<b>Campanulas</b>). The flowers are
-<i>regular</i> and in some only semi-epigynous, 5-merous, except in the
-gynœceum which is 3-merous (the unpaired, median carpel being generally
-posterior), more rarely 2–5-merous, and has a corresponding number
-of stigmas and loculi in the ovary; the placentation is axile with a
-large number of ovules. The median sepal is posterior. The stamens
-frequently have broad, free bases (Fig. <a href="#fig601">601</a> <i>H</i>) which cover
-the nectariferous upper surface of the ovary; the anthers only fit
-loosely together, and become separated as soon, as the pollen is shed
-(Fig. <a href="#fig601">601</a> <i>G</i>), 1 long style, which is studded by sweeping-hairs
-(stylar-brush), which ultimately become invaginated; the stigmas do
-not unfold until the stamens have shed the pollen (Fig. <a href="#fig601">601</a> <i>E</i>,
-<i>G</i>). Fruit a capsule.&mdash;Herbs, more rarely under-shrubs or shrubs,
-with latex and scattered, undivided leaves without stipules. The
-inflorescence is most frequently a raceme or spike <i>with</i> terminal
-flower.</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> Capsule opening at the side by pores and small valves:
-<i>Campanula</i> (Canterbury-bell); the corolla is bell-shaped, rarely
-almost rotate; capsule obconical. <span class="smaller">The pores of the capsule are
-found near the top of the fruit when it is erect, and near the base
-when it is pendulous,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_562">[562]</span> so that the seeds are not liberated unless the
-capsule is forcibly shaken, and they are thus ejected to a considerable
-distance.</span>&mdash;<i>Phyteuma</i> (Rampion) has free petals, which for a
-long time adhere at the apex and form a tube round the stamens (Fig.
-<a href="#fig601">601</a>); inflorescence compact, spike-like or capitate, in the latter case
-resembling that of the Compositæ, and frequently with an involucre
-similar to the one possessed by this order. <span class="smaller"><i>Specularia</i>
-(rotate corolla, prismatic capsule), <i>Michauxia</i> (flower
-8-merous).&mdash;<i>Symphyandra</i> has syngenesious anthers.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> Capsule with valves at the apex, loculicidal dehiscence:
-<i>Jasione</i>; the petals are almost free. The anthers are united at
-the base (syngenesious). The flowers are situated in capitate umbels
-with involucres.&mdash;<i>Wahlenbergia</i>; <i>Platycodon</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig601" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig601.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 601.</span>&mdash;<i>Phyteuma spicatum.</i> Flowers
-and parts of flowers in various stages of development.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>C.</b> Berry: <i>Canarina</i>; flower, 6-merous; leaves
-opposite.</p>
-
-<p>Protandry is general (Fig. <a href="#fig601">601</a>). 510 species; principally in
-temperate countries. Several genera furnish ornamental plants,
-but are of little use for other purposes. The roots of some
-<i>Campanula</i>-and <i>Phyteuma</i>-species are large and may
-serve as pot-herbs (<i>C. rapunculus</i>, <i>P. spicatum</i>).</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Cyphiaceæ.</b> In this order the corolla is
-zygomorphic and the stamens free, hence it is intermediate
-between orders 1 and 3.&mdash;About 24 species; Africa.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Lobeliaceæ</b> (<b>Lobelias</b>). This order may briefly
-be described as Campanulaceæ with <i>zygomorphic</i> flowers and
-anthers <i>united into a tube</i>, in most cases slightly bent;
-generally 2 carpels and an <i>inverted</i> position of the flower,
-<i>i.e.</i> the median sepal is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_563">[563]</span> turned anteriorly (Fig. <a href="#fig602">602</a>)
-(a position which is found to occur within the Campanulaceæ). A
-twisting of the peduncle takes place even before flowering (as in the
-Orchids) so that the ordinary position of the 5-merous Dicotyledons
-appears to be restored. The zygomorphy of the flower is especially
-present in the corolla, which has a <i>bipartite</i> under-lip and a
-<i>tripartite</i> upper-lip, and is, in <i>Lobelia</i>, anteriorly
-(apparently posteriorly) deeply cleft (Fig. <a href="#fig602">602</a>). There is 1 style,
-but the stigma is capitate and bilobed and surrounded at its base by a
-<i>whorl of hairs</i>, which assists in pollination (as a stylar-brush)
-in the same manner as the sweeping-hairs in the Campanulaceæ and
-Compositæ. There is <i>no terminal flower</i> in the spicate, or
-racemose inflorescences.&mdash;<i>Lobelia</i> has a capsule, several others
-have berries. <span class="smaller"><i>Isotoma</i> (regular flower); <i>Heterotoma</i>
-has a spur; <i>Siphocampylos</i>; <i>Lysipoma</i> (pyxidium);
-<i>Clintonia</i> (1–locular fruit). <i>Metzleria</i> (all the petals
-are free).</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig602" style="width: 297px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig602.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 602.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Lobelia fulgens</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig603" style="width: 204px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 603, 604.</span>&mdash;<i>Lobelia syphilitica.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig603.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 603.</span> Flower (2/1).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig604">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig604.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 604.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal
-section of the same.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Entomophilous and protandrous. About 500 species, especially in
-the Tropics; in this country, <i>L. dortmanna</i> (margin of
-lakes).&mdash;Several are cultivated in gardens and conservatories
-as ornamental plants (<i>Lobelia bicolor</i>, <i>erinus</i>,
-<i>fulgens</i>, etc., <i>Siphocampylos</i>, <i>Centropogon</i>).
-The latex of several species of <i>Tupa</i> is poisonous;
-caoutchouc is also obtained from them. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>:
-“herba <i>Lobeliæ</i>” (the alkaloid lobeline) from the
-poisonous <i>L. inflata</i> (N. Am.).</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Goodeniaceæ.</b> Chiefly Australian (200 species),
-closely related to Orders 3 and 5, but without latex. The style
-is provided with a “collecting-cup” which receives the pollen
-before the flower opens; it has a small, hairy aperture through
-which the pollen is forced out by the stigmas, and through
-which they emerge when the pollen is shed; it is sensitive
-and exhibits movements<span class="pagenum" id="Page_564">[564]</span> when touched.&mdash;Herbs, under-shrubs,
-less frequently shrubs. <i>Goodenia</i>, <i>Leschenaultia</i>,
-<i>Scævola</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Stylidiaceæ</b> (or <b>Candolleaceæ</b>); 100
-species, the majority Australian; zygomorpbic flowers, but
-with the ordinary position. The anterior petal is very small.
-The chief characteristic feature is the presence of only 2
-stamens (with extrorse anthers) which are united with the style
-and form a <i>stylar-column</i>; this is bent like a knee and
-sensitive at the bend to such a degree that when touched it
-jerks violently across the flower to the opposite side and then
-loses its sensitiveness.&mdash;Herbs, less frequently under-shrubs.
-<i>Stylidium</i> (<i>Candollea</i>).</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 36. <b>Aggregatæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flowers, which are borne in “capitula” (Figs. <a href="#fig605">605</a>, <a href="#fig610">610</a>), are
-<i>epigynous</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig605">605</a> <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>), <i>5-merous</i> in
-the calyx, corolla and andrœcium, the corolla is <i>valvate</i> in
-æstivation, with <b>2</b> carpels (S5, P5, A5, G2). The anthers
-are united into a tube (syngenesious) (except <i>Ambrosieæ</i>)
-which surrounds the bifid style. There is never more than <b>1</b>
-<i>loculus</i> in the ovary, with <b>1</b> <i>erect</i>, anatropous
-ovule. The fruit is a 1–seeded nut (cypsela), with thin pericarp, the
-calyx generally persists as a tuft of hairs (<i>pappus</i>) (Fig.
-<a href="#fig606">606</a>) on the summit of the fruit. Embryo <i>without endosperm</i>; the
-radicle <i>directed downwards</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Only 1 Order: Compositæ.</p>
-
-<p>With respect to the inflorescence and the development of the individual
-flowers, there is a very close resemblance to the Dipsacaceæ, which
-stand on the same plane of progression as the Compositæ. But while
-the latter are allied to Campanulinæ as the last stage in the
-process of evolution, the Dipsacaceæ form the final stage of the
-Rubiales-Dipsacales.</p>
-
-<p>Order <b>Compositæ</b>. (For the principal characteristics compare
-those of the family.) The Compositæ are chiefly herbs, but trees
-and shrubs also occur in tropical countries. The leaves may be
-scattered or opposite, but have no stipules. The outer leaves of
-the <i>involucre</i> as a rule are barren, especially when numerous
-and imbricate, while the innermost ones support the ray-flowers
-of the capitulum; in a few instances all are fertile (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Tragopogon</i>, <i>Tagetes</i>). The <span class="allsmcap">CAPITULA</span> are
-many-flowered, with the exception, <i>e.g.</i> of <i>Echinops</i>,
-which has 1-flowered capitula (see page <a href="#Page_570">570</a>). The capitula are again
-arranged in inflorescences, most frequently corymbose with centrifugal
-order of development. The <i>form of the receptacle</i> is an important
-character for the division of the genera (flat, convex, conical), and
-also the <i>presence of scales</i>;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_565">[565]</span> these may be one scale (bract) for
-each flower (Fig. <a href="#fig610">610</a> <i>br</i>), or a large number of bristles, which
-do not each correspond to a leaf, or the receptacle may be entirely
-without covering (<i>naked</i>). The flowers open in acropetal order
-in each capitulum. All the flowers in a capitulum may be of the same
-<i>sex</i>, and their form and colour are in that case the same, or
-the sexes may be different, in which case the form and colour are also
-most frequently different: the ray-flowers have projecting labiate or
-ligulate corollas, while the disc-flowers have tubular corollas. As a
-rule in the latter case the ♀ flowers are at the circumference, and the
-☿ in the centre, less frequently ♀-flowers at the edge and ♂-flowers
-in the centre. The ray-flowers in some genera are neuter (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Centaurea</i>). Some are diœcious.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig605" style="width: 628px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig605.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 605.</span>&mdash;<i>Calendula arvensis</i>: <i>A</i>
-capitulum; <i>B</i> capitulum in longitudinal section; <i>C</i>
-♀-flower; <i>D</i> ☿-flower; <i>E</i> the stamens; <i>F</i> capitulum
-with ripe fruits; <i>G</i> ripe fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>There is no trace of an epicalyx (in contrast to the Dipsacaceæ, which
-they generally so resemble). The formation of the <span class="allsmcap">CALYX</span> is
-very varied. The calyx always consists of a very small cushion-like
-structure, most frequently developed later than the corolla; the 5
-corners, which correspond to the 5 sepals, in a few<span class="pagenum" id="Page_566">[566]</span> instances are
-raised as 5 large, flat, membranous bodies, <i>e.g.</i> in species
-of <i>Xeranthemum</i>, <i>Catananche</i>, <i>Sphenogyne</i>, etc.;
-in other instances each of these bears a shorter or longer bristle
-on its apex, followed by others in rather uncertain numbers and
-with but slight indications of order, on the edge and on the outer
-side of the calyx between the 5 points; in other instances, again,
-the calyx is covered with bristles and hairs without any indication
-of order or definite number (Fig. <a href="#fig606">606</a> <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>); finally
-instances occur in which the edge is raised as a membranous collar,
-irregularly toothed and notched, or divided into small scales. There
-are naturally differences in the means of distribution corresponding
-to the differences in structure of the calyx. The fruits <i>a</i> and
-<i>b</i> represented in Fig. <a href="#fig606">606</a> are distributed by the wind, those
-like <i>c</i>, on the other hand, by attaching themselves to animals
-and human beings. The rays of the pappus are termed <i>rough</i> when
-special cells project a little beyond the surface, but if these grow
-out, and are hair-like, the pappus is said to be <i>feathery</i>. In
-some genera the pappus is raised on a long stalk, which is developed
-from the upper part of the fruit, and termed a <i>beak</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig606">606</a>
-<i>a</i>). The pappus does not attain its full development till the
-ripening of the fruit, <i>i.e.</i> until it is about to be of use.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig606" style="width: 653px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig606.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 606.</span>&mdash;<i>a</i> Fruit of <i>Taraxacum</i>;
-<i>b</i> of <i>Senecio</i>; <i>c</i> of <i>Bidens</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">COROLLA</span> has various forms: (<i>a</i>) <i>tubular</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig605">605</a> <i>D</i>), with a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_567">[567]</span> shorter or longer tube, not always of the
-same bore throughout and especially slightly widened at the top to
-form a bell-shaped opening, with 5 <i>regular</i> teeth: (<i>b</i>)
-<i>labiate</i> after 2/3, <i>i.e.</i> with 2 petals in the upper
-and 3 in the under lip: (<i>c</i>) <i>ligulate</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the
-corolla is split for a considerable distance on the posterior side
-(as in the Labiate genus <i>Teucrium</i>) and prolonged into a long,
-strap-like portion (Fig. <a href="#fig609">609</a> <i>A</i>), which projects upwards. A
-distinction must, however, be drawn between the true and false ligulate
-corolla. In the first case the corolla has 5 teeth at the apex (Fig.
-<a href="#fig609">609</a> <i>A</i>) and is made up of all the petals of the corolla united
-together; this is the usual condition in the <i>Ligulate-flowered</i>.
-In the latter case (Fig. <a href="#fig605">605</a> <i>C</i>) the tongue has only 3 teeth
-(or is more irregularly 2–3-dentate), and is only formed of 3 petals;
-the corolla is then truly bilabiate, the tongue is the large under
-lip, and the upper lip is very slightly developed, or even at an early
-stage quite suppressed. This false “ligulate” corolla is found among
-the <i>ray-flowers</i>; sometimes the upper lip is seen quite plainly,
-<i>e.g.</i> in <i>Tagetes</i>, especially in the double capitula.
-<span class="smaller">The <span class="allsmcap">VENATION</span> of the corolla is peculiar; there are always
-commisural veins which branch dichotomously at the angles between
-the teeth of the corolla, and send a branch into the edge of the two
-nearest teeth. The midrib is frequently absent, but may be present,
-and then it has sometimes no connection with the other veins of the
-corolla.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig607" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig607.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 607.</span>&mdash;<i>Centaurea cyanus</i>: <i>A</i>
-the anther-tube (<i>st</i>) with the crescentic curved filament before
-irritation; <i>g</i> the style; <i>k</i> the base of the corolla;
-<i>B</i> the same after irritation, the anthers are drawn further down.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">STAMENS</span> are attached to the corolla, and have free
-filaments (<i>Silybum</i> has united filaments), but the anthers, which
-at first are free, adhere together and form a tube (Fig. <a href="#fig605">605</a> <i>E</i>:
-only <i>Ambrosieæ</i> have free anthers). The <i>connective</i> is
-generally prolonged, and protrudes above the anthers as a thin, brown
-membrane of various forms (Fig. <a href="#fig605">605</a> <i>E</i>); appendages of various
-forms may also be found at the base of the anthers. The anthers open
-introrsely, and the pollen must be carried out at the top of the tube
-by upward growth of the style, and by means of the “stylar-brush”
-(Figs. <a href="#fig607">607</a>, <a href="#fig608">608</a>, <a href="#fig609">609</a>); the filaments are sometimes sensitive
-(<i>e.g.</i> in the Corn-flower, Fig. <a href="#fig607">607</a>), and shorten on being
-touched, so that the anther-tube is pulled downwards, and the pollen
-swept out at the top (Figs. <a href="#fig607">607</a>, <a href="#fig608">608</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_568">[568]</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig608" style="width: 320px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig608.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 608.</span>&mdash;<i>Cirsium arvense</i>: <i>A</i>
-the upper portion of a flower, the pollen (<i>e</i>) is being ejected;
-<i>B</i> part of the upper portion of the style with stylar-brush
-(<i>b</i>, <i>c</i>) and the stigmatic papillæ (<i>d</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig609" style="width: 320px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig609.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 609.</span>&mdash;<i>Leontodon autumnale</i>: <i>A</i>
-ligulate flower; <i>B</i> extremity of the style with stylar-brush
-(<i>a</i>), stigma (<i>b</i>) and pollen-grains (<i>c</i>). <i>C</i>
-<i>Centaurea cyanus</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig610" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig610.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 610.</span>&mdash;<i>Achillea millefolium.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">STYLE</span> divides at the apex into two branches (Figs.
-<a href="#fig609">609</a>, <a href="#fig610">610</a>), both of which generally bear on the inner surface two
-lines of stigmatic papillæ (Fig. <a href="#fig610">610</a> <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>) and being
-in shape, etc., very varied, are therefore employed as systematic
-characters.&mdash;<span class="smaller">The most important types are: <b>A.</b> The style
-is uniformly cylindrical; its branches are semi-cylindrical,
-long, and with long hairs, and finally bend backwards; the stylar
-branches bear slightly projecting stigmatic papillæ on the inner
-side. This form is characteristic of the <i>Cichorieæ</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig609">609</a>
-<i>A B</i>). <b>B.</b> The style is uniformly cylindrical;
-the branches are long, cylindrical or club-like, short,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_569">[569]</span> not rolled
-back, with fine hairs externally; the stigmatic lines do not reach
-beyond the centre, and do not meet together. Characteristic of
-<i>Eupatorium</i>, <i>Petasites</i>, <i>Tussilago</i>. <b>C.</b> The
-style is thickened beneath the stigmatic branches in the form of a
-knob, or very hairy (Fig. <a href="#fig609">609</a> <i>C</i>); the stigmatic lines reach
-as far as the apex of the branches and then converge; sometimes the
-stigmatic branches are united as far as the apex. Characteristic of
-the <i>Cynareæ</i>. <b>D.</b> The stylar branches are lanceolate,
-or linear, pointed; externally flat and thickly covered with hairs
-in the upper portion; the stigmatic lines cease where the hairs
-commence externally. Characteristic of <i>Aster</i>, <i>Bellis</i>,
-<i>Inula</i>, <i>Dahlia</i>, etc. <b>E.</b> The stylar branches are
-linear, with long, brush-like hairs at the apex, where they are either
-abruptly cut off or prolonged into a very hairy, conical appendage;
-the stigmatic lines are broad, <i>reach as far</i> as the brush-like
-hairs, and do not meet together (Fig. <a href="#fig610">610</a>). Characteristic of
-<i>Senecio</i>, <i>Helianthus</i>, <i>Xanthium</i>, <i>Gnaphalium</i>,
-<i>Artemisia</i>, <i>Anthemis</i>, and others related to these.</span></p>
-
-<p>A <i>ring-like nectary</i> is found round the base of the style.</p>
-
-<p>The thin-walled <i>cypsela</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig606">606</a>), with seeds fitting closely
-to the pericarp, has many different forms (smooth, ribbed, spined,
-etc.); its point of attachment generally lies at the lowest end but
-sometimes it is drawn obliquely up the side (<i>Centaurea</i>, etc.).
-The calyx, persistent on the apex of the fruit, has been described
-above. Some genera have two or three different forms of fruits in
-each capitulum.&mdash;The embryo is straight, with the radicle <i>turned
-downwards</i>, and <i>without endosperm</i>, but is rich in oil.</p>
-
-<p>The variously flowered capitula, whose normal tubular disc-flowers have
-been changed to ligulate flowers, may be termed “double flowers.”</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The relationship of the Compositæ to the Campanulinæ has been
-described above (page 561). The alliance with the Dipsacaceæ
-is more apparent than real. Similar capitate inflorescences
-also occur as the final stage in other lines of descent, as in
-<i>Eryngium</i> among the <i>Umbelliferæ</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>1. Cynareæ, Thistle Group.</b> Flowers all ☿, regular, with
-<i>tubular</i> corollas. The receptacle is covered with numerous
-<i>bristles</i>, which surround the flowers without any definite
-order, or the edges of the grooves in which these are placed have a
-well-marked fringe. The involucral leaves are numerous, imbricate,
-and are either prolonged into a <i>thorn</i> or terminate with a
-<i>membranous edge</i>. The style has been described on page <a href="#Page_568">568</a>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig609">609</a> <i>C</i>). Nearly all have a hairy or feathery pappus. The
-filaments are sensitive.</p>
-
-<p><i>Carduus</i> (Thistle); capitula ovoid; involucral leaves
-compact, imbricate, with thorny points; the pappus-rays are
-<i>hair-like</i> and united at the base by a ring (<i>i.e.</i> the
-calyx), and fall off together.&mdash;<i>Cirsium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig608">608</a>) has a
-<i>feathery</i> pappus, in other respects it is like <i>Carduus</i>.
-<span class="smaller"><i>C. arvense</i> reproduces and passes the winter by means of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_570">[570]</span>
-suckers.</span>&mdash;<i>Cynara</i> (Artichoke) has a feathery pappus and
-large, <i>solitary</i> capitulum, with broad involucral leaves; these
-have a fleshy base like the receptacle (edible).&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Silylum</i>
-has united filaments. <i>S. marianum</i> (Milk-thistle), has leaves
-with numerous <i>white spots</i>. <i>Onopordon</i> (Cotton-thistle).
-<i>Cnicus</i> (<i>C. benedictus</i>) has a large, many-spined thorn
-on the involucral leaves; pappus trimorphic.</span>&mdash;<i>Lappa</i>
-(Burdock) is easily recognized by the <i>hooked involucral leaves</i>,
-which assist in the distribution of the fruit; in this respect it
-differs from the other inflorescences, and also in the fact that the
-pappus is short, and quickly falls off, without serving as a means
-of distribution.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Carlina</i>; the external involucral leaves
-are <i>leafy</i>, <i>thorny</i>, with branched or unbranched spines
-standing straight out or bent backwards; the <i>internal ones are
-dry</i>, and prolonged as <i>dry</i>, <i>coloured</i>, radiating
-<i>scales</i>. The well-developed bristles on the receptacle and edge
-of the calyx are <i>deeply cleft and lobed</i>.</span>&mdash;<i>Centaurea</i>
-(Knap-weed, Fig. <a href="#fig607">607</a>). The ray-flowers are neuter, and generally
-larger than the disc-flowers; the involucral leaves are regularly
-imbricate, but are frequently provided at the apex with a dry, chaffy,
-often lobed, fringed appendage. The attachment of the fruit is
-lateral. <i>Serratula</i> (Saw-wort).&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Carthamus</i>, the outer
-and inner involucral leaves differ very much.</span>&mdash;<i>Echinops</i>
-(Globe-thistle) is characterised by having “compound capitula,”
-<i>i.e.</i> there is only one flower in each capitulum, but many
-such capitula are collected into a spherical head, which at the base
-may also have a few involucral leaves. The individual capitula have
-narrow, linear involucral leaves. <span class="smaller">(There are altogether about
-150 species of Compositæ with 1-flowered capitula, all from warm
-countries.)</span>&mdash;<i>Xeranthemum</i>, <i>Staehelina</i>, <i>Jurinea</i>,
-<i>Saussurea</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>2. Mutisieæ, Labiate-flowered Group.</b> Tropical (S.
-American) forms whose zygomorphic flowers have a bilabiate
-corolla (2/3). The involucre is nearly the same as in the
-Thistles.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>3. Cichorieæ, Chicory Group</b> (or <span class="smcap">Ligulifloræ</span>). The
-flowers are all ☿ and have a <i>ligulate, 5-dentate</i> corolla.
-The stylar branches are thin and prolonged (Fig. <a href="#fig609">609</a> <i>B</i>).
-<i>Laticiferous vessels</i> occur in the majority (in this feature they
-resemble the Lobeliaceæ and Campanulaceæ).</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> The pappus is <i>wanting</i>, or it is <i>scale-like</i>,
-but not long and hairy.&mdash;<i>Cichorium</i> (Chicory); capitula with
-<i>blue flowers</i>, borne singly or a few together in the leaf-axil;
-there are two whorls of involucral leaves, an outer one of short and
-radiating, an inner of more numerous, longer and erect leaves; pappus,
-scale-like.&mdash;<i>Lapsana</i> (Nipplewort). The few involucral leaves are
-nearly of the same size, and persist forming a sort of capsule round
-the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_571">[571]</span> fruits, which are entirely without a pappus. There are only a few
-flowers in the small capitula.&mdash;<i>Arnoseris</i> (Swine’s-succory),
-<i>Catananche</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> The pappus is long and <i>hairy</i> (not branched),
-generally fine and snowy-white. There are <i>no scales</i> on the
-receptacle. The two genera first considered have <i>beaked</i>
-fruits.&mdash;<i>Taraxacum</i> (Dandelion) (Fig. <a href="#fig606">606</a> <i>a</i>); the capitula
-are many-flowered, and borne singly on the top of a leafless, hollow
-stalk.&mdash;<i>Lactuca</i> (Lettuce) has many small, few-flowered capitula
-borne in panicles.&mdash;<i>Crepis</i> (Hawksbeard).&mdash;<i>Hieracium</i>
-(Hawk-weed) has many imbricate involucral leaves, and a stiff, brittle,
-brownish pappus.&mdash;<i>Sonchus</i> (Sow-thistle); the capitula, when a
-little old, have a broad base, and are abstricted above in the form of
-a jug; involucral leaves imbricate; the fruit is compressed, without a
-beak, ridged. The soft, white pappus falls off collectively.</p>
-
-<p><b>C.</b> The pappus is <i>feathery</i> and branched; no scales
-on the receptacle.&mdash;<i>Tragopogon</i> (Goat’s-beard) generally
-has 8 involucral leaves in one whorl. The fruit has a long
-beak; the rays of the pappus are interwoven in the form of an
-umbrella.&mdash;<i>Scorzonera</i> has fruits like the preceding, but almost
-without any beak; involucral leaves many, imbricate.&mdash;<i>Leontodon</i>
-(Hawkbit) has a slightly feathery pappus, rays not interwoven; beak
-absent.&mdash;<i>Picris.</i></p>
-
-<p><b>D.</b> Long, chaff-like, deciduous scales on the receptacle; pappus
-<i>feathery</i>.&mdash;<i>Hypochœris</i> (Cat’s-ear).</p>
-
-<p><b>4. Eupatorieæ, Hemp-agrimony Group.</b> All the flowers are most
-frequently ☿; corollas tubular and regular; the involucral leaves are
-not stiff and spiny; the receptacle is not covered with stiff bristles.
-The stylar branches are long, club-like, or gradually tapering. There
-is no swelling below the stigma.</p>
-
-<p><i>Eupatorium</i> (Hemp-agrimony); all the flowers are
-☿.&mdash;<i>Petasites</i> (Butterbur); ray-flowers ♀, disc-flowers ☿ or ♂;
-sometimes diœcious. Capitula in racemes or panicles. The leaves develop
-after the flowering.&mdash;<i>Tussilago</i> (<i>T. farfara</i>, Colt’s-foot)
-has a solitary capitulum borne on a scaly, scape-like stem; the
-ray-flowers are ♀ with <i>ligulate</i> corollas, disc-flowers ♂. The
-leaves unfold after the flowering. <i>Ageratum</i>, <i>Mikania</i>,
-<i>Vernonia</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>5. Astereæ, Aster Group</b> (or <span class="smcap">Radiatæ</span>, Ray-flowered).
-The flowers are of two forms and different sexes; the ray-flowers
-are ♀ (sometimes neuter), most frequently with irregular, <i>falsely
-ligulate</i>, radiating corollas; the disc-flowers are ☿, regular,
-with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_572">[572]</span> tubular corollas (Fig. <a href="#fig610">610</a>). Sometimes only tubular flowers are
-present, as <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Senecio vulgaris</i> (Groundsel), and
-the exterior of the capitulum is then as in the Eupatorieæ. The stylar
-branches are straight, more or less flat and short (Fig. <a href="#fig610">610</a>).</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Anthemideæ.</span> Involucral leaves imbricate, generally
-membranous at the edge; <i>pappus wanting</i>, or at most a
-<i>membranous margin</i> to the calyx, but without hairs.</p>
-
-<p>[+]. <i>Chaff-like bracts</i> on the receptacle are found in
-<i>Anthemis</i> (Chamomile), <i>Anacyclus</i> (<i>A. officinarum</i>),
-<i>Achillea</i> (Milfoil, Fig. <a href="#fig610">610</a>), <i>Santolina</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<p>[++]. A <i>naked</i> receptacle is found in the following:
-<i>Bellis</i> (Daisy) has solitary capitula on leafless stalks
-with white ray-flowers.&mdash;<i>Matricaria</i> (Wild Chamomile) has
-a conical receptacle. <span class="smaller">(<i>M. chamomilla</i> has a very high,
-hollow receptacle; <i>M. inodora</i> has large, odourless capitula,
-and the receptacle is not hollow.)</span>&mdash;<i>Chrysanthemum</i>
-(Ox-eye) most frequently large, solitary capitula; flat
-receptacle.&mdash;<i>Pyrethrum</i>; pappus scanty.&mdash;With these are classed
-<i>Tanacetum</i> (Tansy) and <i>Artemisia</i> (Wormwood) with tubular
-corollas only.</p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Heliantheæ.</span> Most frequently a bract to each flower
-is found on the receptacle. The pappus is never exactly hairy, but
-consists of scales, spines, etc., and the fruits are most frequently
-compressed (Fig. <a href="#fig606">606</a> <i>c</i>).&mdash;<i>Helianthus</i> (Sun-flower); <i>H.
-tuberosus</i> (Jerusalem Artichoke) has tuberous underground stems.
-<i>Dahlia</i> has tuberous roots (Am.). <i>Bidens</i> (Bur-marigold,
-Fig. <a href="#fig606">606</a> <i>c</i>); the fruits are compressed with 2 (or more) spines
-provided with reflexed barbs.&mdash;<i>Calliopsis</i>; <i>Rudbeckia</i>;
-<i>Zinnia</i>; <i>Tagetes</i> has united involucral leaves, and
-yellow, transparent oil-glands. <i>Spilanthes</i>, <i>Galinsoga</i>,
-<i>Melampodium</i>, <i>Silphium</i> (Compass-plant), <i>Helenium</i>,
-<i>Gaillardia</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>C.</b> <span class="smcap">Calenduleæ</span> have 1–2 rows of involucral leaves,
-a naked receptacle, and large, crescent-shaped, irregularly warted
-fruits, of different forms in the same capitulum; pappus absent (Fig.
-<a href="#fig605">605</a>).&mdash;<i>Calendula</i> (Marigold); ray-flowers ♀, disc-flowers ♂.</p>
-
-<p><b>D.</b> <span class="smcap">Senecioneæ</span>, have a fine, <i>hairy</i>, white pappus;
-no bracts, otherwise as in Anthemideæ. The involucral leaves are most
-frequently in 1–2 rows.&mdash;<i>Senecio</i> (Groundsel) has two whorls
-of involucral leaves, which most frequently have black tips, the
-external being much shorter than the internal ones (<i>S. vulgaris</i>
-has all flowers ☿ and alike).&mdash;<i>Cacalia</i>, <i>Doronicum</i>,
-<i>Cineraria</i>, <i>Ligularia</i>, <i>Arnica</i> (<i>A. montana</i>;
-large, long-stalked capitula; leaves opposite, forming a kind of
-rosette).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_573">[573]</span></p>
-
-<p><b>E.</b> <span class="smcap">Astereæ</span> have a bristle-like, unbranched pappus,
-often of a dingy brown; receptacle naked; involucral leaves
-numerous, imbricate.&mdash;<i>Solidago</i> (Golden-rod); capitula small,
-yellow-flowered, borne in panicles. <i>Aster</i>; disc-flowers
-most frequently yellow, ray-flowers violet; <i>Callistephus</i>;
-<i>Erigeron</i> (Flea-bane)&mdash;<i>Inula</i>.&mdash;All the corollas are
-tubular in: <i>Gnaphalium</i> (Cud-weed); involucral leaves dry,
-rattling, often coloured; the foliage-leaves and stem often white with
-woolly hairs; ray-flowers ♀, with narrow, tubular corolla; disc-flowers
-☿ (few). <i>Antennaria</i> (Cat’s-foot; diœcious), <i>Filago</i>,
-<i>Helichrysum</i>, <i>Ammobium</i>, <i>Rhodanthe</i> and others.
-<i>Leontopodium</i> (<i>L. alpinum</i>, “Edelweiss”).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>F.</b> <span class="smcap">Ambrosieæ</span>, a very reduced type of
-Compositæ, differing from the others in having <i>free
-anthers</i>; the capitula are generally unisexual, monœcious,
-the ♂ borne in a terminal inflorescence, the ♀ in the
-leaf-axils. In other respects they are most closely related to
-<i>Heliantheæ</i>.&mdash;<i>Xanthium.</i> In the ♂-capitula there
-are many flowers without calyx, but with tubular corolla and
-free involucral leaves. In the ♀-capitula there are only 2
-flowers, which are entirely destitute of both calyx and corolla;
-involucral leaves 2-spined, united to form an ovoid, bilocular
-envelope, each compartment containing one flower. The envelope
-of involucral leaves unites with the fruits, enclosing them at
-maturity with a hard covering from which numerous hook-like
-spines project, assisting very greatly in the distribution of
-the fruit. The whole structure thus finally becomes a 1- or
-2-seeded <i>false</i> nut.&mdash;<i>Ambrosia</i>, the ♀ capitulum
-1-flowered.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> The flowers are somewhat insignificant,
-but become very conspicuous owing to a number being crowded
-together in one inflorescence. The corollas of the ray-flowers,
-being often very large (<i>Astereæ</i>; <i>Centaurea</i>),
-frequently render the capitula still more conspicuous. The
-capitula display many biological phenomena similar to those
-often shown by the individual flowers in other orders, e.g.
-by periodically opening and closing, in which the involucral
-leaves resemble the calyx in their action. (The name “Compositæ”
-originates from the term “flos compositus,” composite flower).
-An abundance of honey is formed, which to some extent fills
-up the corolla-tube, and since insects may visit a number
-of flowers in the course of a short period they are very
-frequently visited, especially by butterflies and bees. The
-pollination has been described on page <a href="#Page_567">567</a>. Protandry is
-universal. In the bud the tips of the styles, covered by the
-sweeping-hairs, lie closely enveloped by the anther-tube; in
-the next stage the style grows through the tube and sweeps
-out the pollen as it proceeds; ultimately the stylar branches
-expand and the stigma is then prepared to receive the pollen.
-In many, the sensitiveness of the filaments assists in sweeping
-out the pollen at the exact moment of the insect visit.
-Regular self-pollination is found <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Senecio
-vulgaris</i>; wind-pollination <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Artemisia</i>
-and the plants related to it.</p>
-
-<p>This extremely natural and well-defined order is the largest
-(and no doubt one of the youngest?); it embraces 10–12,000
-known species (in 770 genera), or about one-tenth of all
-Flowering-plants. They are distributed over the whole globe, but
-are most numerous in temperate countries; the majority prefer
-open<span class="pagenum" id="Page_574">[574]</span> spaces; a smaller number are forest-forms. They abound
-especially in open districts in America.</p>
-
-<p>Among the substances frequently found may be mentioned:
-<span class="smcap">Inulin</span> (especially in the subterranean parts),
-<span class="smcap">Bitter</span> materials, Tannin, volatile oils, fatty
-oils in the fruits. <span class="smcap">Medicinal</span>:<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> “Herba” of
-<i>Artemisia absinthium</i> (Wormwood) and <i>maritima</i>[+]
-(Sea-wormwood), <i>Achillea millefolium</i>; the <i>leaves</i>
-of <i>Cnicus benedictus</i> and <i>Tussilago farfara</i>; the
-unopened <i>capitula</i> of <i>Artemisia maritima</i>, var.
-<i>stechmanniana</i>; the <i>capitula</i> of <i>Tanacetum</i>,
-<i>Matricaria chamomilla</i>[+] (wild Chamomile), <i>Anthemis
-nobilis</i>[+] (common Chamomile); the separate flowers of
-<i>Arnica</i>; the <i>roots</i> of <i>Arnica montana</i>[+],
-<i>Taraxacum officinale</i>[+], <i>Anacyclus officinarum</i>[+],
-<i>Lappa major</i>, <i>minor</i>, <i>nemorosa</i> and
-<i>tomentosa</i>, <i>Inula helenium</i> and <i>Artemisia
-vulgaris</i>; the latex of <i>Lactuca virosa</i>[+]. The
-following are cultivated for food:&mdash;<i>Lactuca sativa</i>
-(Lettuce), <i>Cichorium endivia</i> (from E. Asia, for salads),
-<i>Cynara scolymus</i> (Artichoke, Mediterranean), <i>Scorzonera
-hispanica</i> (S. Eur.), <i>Helianthus tuberosus</i> (Jerusalem
-Artichoke, from N. Am., introduced into Europe 1616),
-<i>Cichorium intybus</i> (roots as “chicory,”) <i>Tragopogon
-porrifolium</i> (Salsafy), <i>Artemisia dracunculus</i>.
-<span class="smcap">Oil</span> is extracted from the following (the seeds):
-<i>Helianthus annuus</i> (Peru), <i>Madia sativa</i>
-(Chili), <i>Guizotia oleifera</i> (Abyssinia). <span class="smcap">Dyes</span>
-from: <i>Carthamus tinctorius</i> (Safflower, used in the
-preparation of rouge; Egypt), <i>Serratula tinctoria</i>.
-<span class="smcap">Insect-powder</span> from: <i>Pyrethrum cinerariifolium</i>
-(Dalmatia) and <i>roseum</i> (Persia, Caucasus). The
-following are cultivated in houses and gardens for the
-sake of their scented leaves:&mdash;<i>Tanacetum balsamita</i>
-(Balsam), <i>Artemisia abrotanum</i> (Southernwood) and <i>A.
-argentea</i>. A great many of the genera enumerated are
-cultivated in dwelling-houses for the sake of the flowers;
-<i>e.g. Pericallis cruenta</i> (generally termed
-“Cineraria”). <i>Asteriscus pygmæus</i> is supposed to be the
-genuine “Rose of Jericho”; the involucral leaves envelop the
-fruits after their ripening and keep them enclosed for 8–10
-months until rain occurs.</p>
-</div>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_575">[575]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="smaller">APPENDIX ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class="smcap center">By M. C. POTTER.</p>
-
-
-<p>The earliest systems of classification were derived from the properties
-and uses of plants; and it was not until some two centuries ago
-that any scientific grouping of plants was attempted. Aristotle and
-Theophrastus had adopted the groups of Trees, Shrubs and Herbs as the
-chief divisions of the Vegetable Kingdom, a system which persisted
-and was employed by Tournefort and Ray as late as the end of the 17th
-century. The arrangement by which these three divisions were separated
-into smaller divisions was often founded upon a single character, such
-as the formation of the corolla, the form of fruit, that of the calyx
-and corolla, etc. All these systems of classification which brought
-into close proximity plants distinguished by some one character alone,
-could only be considered as <i>artificial</i>, since plants related to
-one another would not necessarily be included in the same group. As the
-knowledge of the morphology, physiology, and reproduction of plants
-increased, such systems were recognised as unscientific, and it became
-the aim of botanists to establish a <i>natural</i> system, founded upon
-mutual relationships, which would associate together <i>only</i> those
-plants which are truly allied.</p>
-
-<p>The following are some of the chief systems of classification which
-will show the gradual development of the natural system, and may be of
-service to students making use of this text-book.<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
-
-
-<p>System of <span class="smcap">John Ray</span> (1703).</p>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>&ensp;I. Herbæ.</li>
-  <li class="i2">A. <span class="smcap">Imperfectæ</span> (Flowerless).</li>
-  <li class="i2">B. <span class="smcap">Perfectæ</span> (Flowering).</li>
-  <li class="i4"><i>Dicotyledones</i>.</li>
-  <li class="i4"><i>Monocotyledones.</i></li>
-  <li class="space">II. Arbores.</li>
-  <li class="i2">A. <i>Monocotyledones.</i></li>
-  <li class="i2">B. <i>Dicotyledones.</i></li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Ray was the first botanist who recognised the importance of the one
-or two seed-leaves of the embryo, and initiated the division of the
-Flowering-plants into Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_576">[576]</span></p>
-
-
-<p>System of <span class="smcap">Linnæus</span> (1733).</p>
-
-<p>In his well known artificial system Linnæus divided the Vegetable
-Kingdom into twenty-four classes, based upon the number, relative
-position and union of the stamens with regard to each other, and also
-to the gynœceum.</p>
-
-<table summary="classes" class="smaller">
- <tr>
-    <td class="center">Class</td>
-    <td class="right">I.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Monandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht">Flowers with</td>
-    <td class="right">1</td>
-    <td class="cht">stamen.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">II.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Diandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„</td>
-    <td class="right">2</td>
-    <td class="cht">stamens.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">III.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Triandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„</td>
-    <td class="right">3</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;„</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">IV.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Tetrandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„</td>
-    <td class="right">4</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;„</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">V.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Pentandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„</td>
-    <td class="right">5</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;„</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">VI.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Hexandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„</td>
-    <td class="right">6</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;„</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">VII.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Heptandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„</td>
-    <td class="right">7</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;„</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">VIII.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Octandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„</td>
-    <td class="right">8</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;„</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">IX.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Enneandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„</td>
-    <td class="right">9</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;„</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">X.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Decandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„</td>
-    <td class="right">10</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;„</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XI.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Dodecandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„</td>
-    <td class="right" colspan="2">11 to 19 stamens.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XII.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Icosandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„</td>
-    <td class="right" colspan="2">20 or more stamens inserted on the calyx.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XIII.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Polyandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„</td>
-    <td class="right" colspan="2">20 or more stamens inserted on the receptacle.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XIV.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Didynamia.</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">Stamens didynamous.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XV.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Tetradynamia.</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&ensp;tetradynamous.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XVI.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Monadelphia.</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">Filaments united into 1 bundle.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XVII.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Diadelphia.</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„&ensp;2 bundles.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XVIII.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Polyadelphia.</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„&ensp;several bundles.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XIX.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Syngenesia.</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">Anthers united together.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XX.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Gynandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">Stamens and pistil united.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XXI.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Monœcia.</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">Flowers diclinous, ♂ and ♀ on the same plant.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XXII.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Diœcia.</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;♂ and ♀ on different plants.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XXIII.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Polygamia.</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">♂-, ♀-, and ☿-flowers on the same plant.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XXIV.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Cryptogamia.</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">Flowerless plants (Ferns, Mosses, Algæ, Fungi).</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>These classes were further divided into orders, according to the
-number of styles, as Monogynia, flowers with 1 style; Digynia,
-with 2 styles, etc. Thus a Dock (<i>Rumex</i>), having 6 stamens
-and 3 styles, would be placed in Class VI., <span class="smcap">Hexandria</span>,
-and Order III., Trigynia.</p>
-
-<p>Class XIV. was divided into two orders. Order I., Gymnospermia,
-with seeds apparently naked, comprising the Labiatæ; and
-Order II., Angiospermia, with the seeds enclosed in a capsule
-(<i>Bartsia</i>, <i>Rhinanthus</i>).</p>
-
-<p>Class XV. was divided into two orders: Order I., Siliculosa,
-fruit a silicula (<i>Capsella</i>); and Order II., Siliquosa,
-fruit a siliqua (<i>Brassica</i>).</p>
-
-<p>Class XIX. was divided into Order I., Æqualis, all the flowers
-perfect (<i>Sonchus</i>); Order II., Superflua, flowers in
-the centre perfect, those at the circumference with pistils
-only (seemingly superfluous), <i>e.g. Aster</i>; Order
-III., Frustranea, flowers in the centre perfect, those at the
-circumference neuter, <i>e.g. Centaurea</i>.</p>
-
-<p>“Fragments” of a natural system have also come down to us from
-Linnæus, who himself always recognised the imperfection of his
-artificial system.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_577">[577]</span></p>
-
-
-<p class="p1">System of <span class="smcap">Antoine Laurent de Jussieu</span> (1789).</p>
-
-<table summary="system" class="smaller">
-  <tr>
-    <th></th>
-    <th></th>
-    <th></th>
-    <th></th>
-    <th></th>
-    <th class="pag">Class</th>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="5"><b>Acotyledones.</b> Plants without cotyledons: Fungi, Ferns, Mosses, Algæ, Naiades</td>
-    <td class="right">I.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="6"><b>Monoctyledones.</b> Plants with <i>one</i> cotyledon:&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1" colspan="5">1. Stamens hypogynous</td>
-    <td class="right">II.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1" colspan="5">2.&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&ensp;perigynous</td>
-    <td class="right">III.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1" colspan="5">3.&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&ensp;epigynous</td>
-    <td class="right">IV.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="6"><b>Dicotyledones.</b> Plants with <i>two</i> cotyledons:&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1a" rowspan="3">1. <span class="smcap">Apetalæ</span></td>
-    <td class="brckt" rowspan="3"><img src="images/big_left_bracket.png" alt="big left bracket"
-      style="height:4.5em;padding:0 0em 0 0em;" /></td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">Stamens epigynous</td>
-    <td class="right">V.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">&emsp;„&emsp;perigynous</td>
-    <td class="right">VI.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">&emsp;„&emsp;hypogynous</td>
-    <td class="right">VII.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1a">2. <span class="smcap">Monopetalae</span></td>
-    <td class="brckt" rowspan="4"><img src="images/big_left_bracket.png" alt="big left bracket"
-      style="height:5.5em;padding:0 0em 0 0em;" /></td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">Corolla hypogynous</td>
-    <td class="right">VIII.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">&emsp;„&emsp;perigynous</td>
-    <td class="right">IX.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td class="cht1a" rowspan="2">&emsp;„&emsp;epigynous,</td>
-    <td class="brckt" rowspan="2"><img src="images/big_left_bracket.png" alt="big left bracket"
-      style="height:2.5em;padding:0 0em 0 0em;" /></td>
-    <td class="cht">anthers connate</td>
-    <td class="right">X.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;„&emsp;free</td>
-    <td class="right">XI.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1a" rowspan="3">3. <span class="smcap">Polypetalæ</span></td>
-    <td class="brckt" rowspan="3"><img src="images/big_left_bracket.png" alt="big left bracket"
-      style="height:4.5em;padding:0 0em 0 0em;" /></td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">Stamens epigynous</td>
-    <td class="right">XII.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">&emsp;„&emsp;hypogynous</td>
-    <td class="right">XIII.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">&emsp;„&emsp;perigynous</td>
-    <td class="right"> XIV.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1" colspan="6">4. <span class="smcap">Diclines irregulares</span>, male and female flowers
-on different plants, corolla generally absent.</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-
-<p>System of <span class="smcap">A. P. de Candolle</span> (1819).</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>&ensp;I. <b>Vasculares.</b> Plants with vascular bundles.</li>
-  <li class="i1">1. <span class="smcap">Exogenæ.</span> Vascular bundles arranged in a ring.</li>
-  <li class="i2">A. <i>Diplochlamydeæ.</i> Calyx and corolla present.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent7"><i>a.</i> Thalamifloræ. Corolla polypetalous and hypogynous.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent7"><i>b.</i> Calycifloræ. Corolla perigynous or epigynous; stamens inserted on the calyx.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent7"><i>c.</i> Corollifloræ. Corolla gamopetalous; stamens inserted on the corolla.</li>
-  <li class="i2">B. <i>Monochlamydeæ.</i> Perianth simple.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent4">2. <span class="smcap">Endogenæ.</span> Vascular bundles scattered, the youngest in the centre.</li>
-  <li class="i2">A. <i>Phanerogamæ.</i> Flowers present.</li>
-  <li class="i2">B. <i>Cryptogamæ.</i> Flowers absent.</li>
-  <li class="space">II. <b>Cellulares.</b> Vascular bundles absent.</li>
-  <li class="i1">1. <span class="smcap">Foliaceæ.</span> Leaves present.</li>
-  <li class="i1">2. <span class="smcap">Aphyllæ.</span> Leafless.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_578">[578]</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Robert Brown</span> published in 1827 his discovery of the
-gymnospermy of the ovules of the Coniferæ and Cycadeæ, and showed
-that the Gymnosperms, which had previously been classed with the
-Dicotyledons, must be regarded as an independent group.</p>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p>System of <span class="smcap">Stephen Endlicher</span> (1836–40).</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>&ensp;I. <b>Thallophyta.</b> No differentiation into stem and root.</li>
-  <li class="i1">1. <span class="smcap">Protophyta.</span> Class I., Algæ; Class II., Lichenes.</li>
-  <li class="i1">2. <span class="smcap">Hysterophyta.</span> Class III., Fungi.</li>
-  <li class="space">II. <b>Cormophyta.</b> Differentiated into stem and root.</li>
-  <li class="i1">1. <span class="smcap">Acrobrya.</span> Stem growing at the point.</li>
-  <li class="i2"><i>Anophyta</i> (Hepaticæ, Musci).</li>
-  <li class="i2"><i>Protophyta</i> (Filices, etc.).</li>
-  <li class="i2"><i>Hysterophyta</i> (Balanophoreæ, etc.).</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent4">2. <span class="smcap">Amphibrya.</span> Stem growing at the circumference (Monocotyledons).</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent4">3. <span class="smcap">Acramphibrya.</span> Stem growing both at the point and circumference.</li>
-  <li class="i2"><i>Gymnosperma</i> (Coniferae).</li>
-  <li class="i2"><i>Apetala.</i> Perianth single or absent.</li>
-  <li class="i2"><i>Gamopetala.</i> Petals gamopetalous.</li>
-  <li class="i2"><i>Dialypetala.</i> Petals polypetalous.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p>System of <span class="smcap">A. Brongniart</span> (1843).</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>&ensp;I. <b>Cryptogamæ.</b> Plants without flowers.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent4">1. <span class="smcap">Amphigenæ.</span> Not differentiated into stem or leaf (Algæ, Fungi, Lichenes).</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent4">2. <span class="smcap">Acrogenæ.</span> Plants with stem and leaf (Muscineæ, Filicinæ).</li>
-  <li class="space">II. <b>Phanerogamæ.</b> Plants with flowers.</li>
-  <li class="i1">3. <span class="smcap">Monocotyledones.</span></li>
-  <li class="i2"><i>a.</i> Albuminosæ. Seeds with endosperm.</li>
-  <li class="i2"><i>b.</i> Exalbuminosæ. Seeds without endosperm.</li>
-  <li class="i1">4. <span class="smcap">Dicotyledones.</span></li>
-  <li class="i2"><i>a.</i> Angiosepermæ.</li>
-  <li class="i3">α. Gamopetalæ.</li>
-  <li class="i3">β. Dialypetalæ.</li>
-  <li class="i2"><i>b.</i> Gymnospermæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_579">[579]</span></p>
-
-
-<p>System of <span class="smcap">John Lindley</span> (<i>Vegetable Kingdom</i>, 1845).</p>
-
-<table summary="system" class="smaller">
-  <tr>
-    <td class="center" colspan="3">Asexual, or Flowerless Plants.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht">Stem and leaves undistinguishable</td>
-    <td class="right">I.</td>
-    <td class="cht"><b>Thallogens.</b></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht">Stem and leaves distinguishable</td>
-    <td class="right">II.</td>
-    <td class="cht"><b>Acrogens.</b></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="center" colspan="3">Sexual, or Flowering Plants.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht">Fructification springing from a thallus</td>
-    <td class="right">III.</td>
-    <td class="cht"><b>Rhizogens.</b></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht">Fructification springing from a stem.</td>
-    <td class="right"></td>
-    <td class="cht"></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Wood of stem youngest in the centre; cotyledon
-single. Leaves parallel-veined, permanent; wood
-of stem always confused</td>
-    <td class="right1">IV.</td>
-    <td class="cht1b"><b>Endogens.</b></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Leaves net-veined, deciduous; wood of the stem,
-when perennial, arranged in a circle with a central pith</td>
-    <td class="right1">V.</td>
-    <td class="cht1b"><b>Dictyogens.</b></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Wood of stem youngest at the circumference, always
-concentric; cotyledons, 2 or more.</td>
-    <td class="right"></td>
-    <td class="cht"></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht">Seeds quite naked</td>
-    <td class="right">VI.</td>
-    <td class="cht"><b>Gymnogens.</b></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht">Seeds inclosed in seed-vessels</td>
-    <td class="right">VII.</td>
-    <td class="cht"><b>Exogens.</b></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p>System of <span class="smcap">Alexander Braun</span> (1864).</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>&emsp;I. <b>Bryophyta.</b></li>
-  <li class="i2">1. <span class="smcap">Thallodea</span> (Algæ, Fungi, Lichenes).</li>
-  <li class="i2">2. <span class="smcap">Thallophyllodea</span> (Charas, Mosses).</li>
-  <li>&ensp;II. <b>Cormophyta.</b></li>
-  <li class="i2">1. <span class="smcap">Phyllopterides</span> (Ferns, Equisetums).</li>
-  <li class="i2">2. <span class="smcap">Maschalopterides</span> (Lycopods).</li>
-  <li class="i2">3. <span class="smcap">Hydropterides</span> (Water-ferns).</li>
-  <li>III. <b>Anthophyta.</b></li>
-  <li class="i2"><span class="smcap">Gymnospermæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">1. <i>Frondosæ</i> (Cycadeæ).</li>
-  <li class="i4">2. <i>Acerosæ</i> (Coniferæ).</li>
-  <li class="i2"><span class="smcap">Angiospermæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">1. <i>Monocotyledones.</i></li>
-  <li class="i4">2. <i>Dicotyledones.</i></li>
-  <li class="i6">Apetalæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">Sympetalæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">Eleutheropetalæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">W. Hofmeister</span> published from 1849 to 1851 his researches
-upon the embryology of the Phanerogams, and upon the embryology
-and life-history of the Vascular Cryptogams, and established the
-phylogenetic connection existing between the Mosses, Vascular
-Cryptogams and Phanerogams.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_580">[580]</span></p>
-
-
-<p>System of <span class="smcap">Hooker</span> and <span class="smcap">Bentham</span> (<i>Genera
-plantarum</i>, 1862–1883).</p>
-
-<p class="center p1 smaller"><b>DICOTYLEDONES.</b></p>
-
-<p class="center p1 sm"><b>I. POLYPETALÆ.</b></p>
-
-<p>Series I. <b>Thalamifloræ.</b> Calyx most often free from the ovary.
-Petals uniseriate or often 2–∞-seriate. Stamens ∞ or definite, inserted
-on the receptacle, often small, or raised, or stipitate. Ovary most
-frequently free.</p>
-
-<p>Cohort I. <span class="smcap">Ranales.</span> Stamens ∞, or if definite the perianth
-is 3–∞-seriate. Carpels apocarpous, or immersed in the receptacle.
-Endosperm usually abundant, fleshy.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 1. Ranunculaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;2. Dilleniaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;3. Calycanthaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;4. Magnoliaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;5. Anonaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;6. Menispermaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;7. Berberideæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;8. Nymphæaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort II. <span class="smcap">Parietales.</span> Stamens ∞ or definite. Ovary
-unilocular, or divided into loculi by spurious dissepiments, with
-parietal placentation. Endosperm absent or fleshy.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order&ensp;&nbsp;9. Sarraceniaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;10. Papaveraceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;11. Cruciferæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;12. Capparideæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;13. Resedaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;14. Cistineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;15. Violarieæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;16. Canellaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;17. Bixineæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-
-<p>Cohort III. <span class="smcap">Polygalinæ.</span> Stamens definite. Ovary usually
-perfectly or imperfectly bilocular. Micropyle often superior. Fruit
-very often compressed laterally. Endosperm very often abundant and
-fleshy.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 18. Pittosporeæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;19. Tremandreæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;20. Polygaleæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;20<i>a.</i> Vochysiaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort IV. <span class="smcap">Caryophyllineæ.</span> Stamens definite, or rarely ∞.
-Ovary unilocular, or imperfectly septate. Placenta central, more rarely
-parietal. Micropyle inferior. Embryo curved, rarely straight. Endosperm
-farinaceous.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 21. Frankeniaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;22. Caryophylleæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;23. Portulaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;24. Tamariscineæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort V. <span class="smcap">Guttiferales.</span> Sepals inbricate. Stamens usually ∞.
-Ovary septate, placentæ on the inner angles of the loculi. Endosperm
-absent or fleshy.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 25. Elatineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;26. Hypericineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;27. Guttiferæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;28. Ternstrœmiaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;29. Dipterocarpeæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;30. Chlænaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_581">[581]</span></p>
-
-<p>Cohort VI. <span class="smcap">Malvales.</span> Sepals valvate. Stamens usually ∞ or
-monadelphous. Ovary septate, placentæ on the inner angles of the
-loculi. Endosperm absent or fleshy.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 31. Malvaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;32. Sterculiaceae.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;33. Tiliaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series II. <b>Discifloræ.</b> Calyx usually free from the ovary. Petals
-uniseriate. Stamens usually definite, inserted within, or upon, or
-around the receptacle, which is more often expanded as a disc. Ovary
-usually free, or embedded in the disc.</p>
-
-<p>Cohort VII. <span class="smcap">Geraniales.</span> Disc usually as a ring between
-the stamens, or adnate to the staminal tube, or reduced to glands
-alternating with the petals, more rarely absent. Gynœceum entire, or
-more often lobed, or sub-apocarpous. Ovules most often 1–2 in each
-loculus, <i>pendulous</i>, <i>raphe ventral</i>. Leaves various.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 34. Lineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;35. Humiriaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;36. Malpighiaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;37. Zygophylleæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;38. Geraniaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;39. Rutaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;40. Simarubeæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;41. Ochnaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;42. Burseraceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;43. Meliaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;44. Chailletiaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort VIII. <span class="smcap">Olacales.</span> Disc cupular or annular, free, or
-bearing the stamens and petals on its edge. Gynœceum entire. Ovules 1–3
-in the unilocular ovaries, or 1–2 in each loculus, <i>pendulous</i>,
-<i>raphe dorsal</i>. Leaves simple.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 45. Olacineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;46. Ilicineæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort IX. <span class="smcap">Celastrales.</span> Disc tumid, adnate to the calyx, or
-covering its base. Stamens inserted round the disc or affixed to its
-margin. Gynœceum usually entire. Ovules most often two in each loculus,
-<i>erect</i>, <i>raphe ventral</i>. Leaves simple, or rarely compound.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 47. Celastrineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;48. Stackhousieæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;49. Rhamneæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;50. Ampelideæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort X. <span class="smcap">Sapindales.</span> Disc various. Stamens variously inserted
-on the disc. Gynœceum entire, or more often lobed, or sub-apocarpous.
-Ovules more often 1–2 in each loculus, <i>ascending</i> with
-<i>ventral</i> raphe, or reversed, or <i>solitary</i> and <i>pendulous
-from an ascending funicle</i>, or rarely ∞ horizontal. Leaves pinnate,
-or more rarely simple or digitate.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 51. Sapindaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;52. Sabiaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;53. Anacardiaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Anomalous orders, or rather genera,&mdash;</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 54. Coriarieæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;55. Moringeæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series III. <b>Calycifloræ.</b> Calyx-tube usually surrounding the
-ovary, or adnate to it. Petals uniseriate, inserted on the calyx-tube.
-Stamens ∞ or definite, inserted on the calyx-tube, or most often on the
-disc lining the calyx-tube. Ovary often enclosed by the calyx-tube, or
-inferior.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_582">[582]</span></p>
-
-<p>Cohort XI. <span class="smcap">Rosales.</span> Carpels solitary, or free, or united at
-the base, more rarely at the apex; styles distinct, or very rarely
-united into a column, and easily separated.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 56. Connaraceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;57. Leguminosæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;58. Rosaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;59. Saxifrageæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;60. Crassulaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;61. Droseraceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;62. Hamamelideæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;63. Bruniaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;64. Halorageæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort XII. <span class="smcap">Myrtales.</span> Ovary syncarpous, inferior, or enclosed
-in the calyx-tube, usually divided into loculi; style undivided. Ovules
-2–∞ in the loculi.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 65. Rhizophoreæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;66. Combretaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;67. Myrtaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;68. Melastomaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;69. Lythrarieæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;70. Onagrarieæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort XIII. <span class="smcap">Passiflorales.</span> Ovary syncarpous, inferior or
-superior, enclosed in the calyx-tube or exserted, unilocular with
-parietal placentation, or divided into loculi; styles distinct, one
-style divided, or undivided.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 71. Samydaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;72. Loaseæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;73. Turneraceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;74. Passifloreæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;75. Cucurbitaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;76. Begoniaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;77. Datisceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort XIV. <span class="smcap">Ficoidales.</span> Ovary syncarpous, inferior or
-superior, divided into loculi with sub-basilar placentæ, or more rarely
-unilocular with parietal placentæ. Styles distinct, or divided at the
-apex. Embryo curved or excentric.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 78. Cacteæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;79. Ficoideæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort XV. <span class="smcap">Umbrellales.</span> Ovary syncarpous, inferior, crowned
-by the disc, divided into loculi, or unicarpellate. Styles distinct or
-divided at the apex. Ovules solitary and pendulous in the loculi.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 80. Umbelliferæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;81. Araliaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;82. Cornaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-
-<p class="center sm p1"><b>II. GAMOPETALÆ.</b></p>
-
-<p>Series I. <b>Inferæ.</b> Ovary inferior. Stamens equal to the lobes of
-the corolla, rarely fewer.</p>
-
-<p>Cohort I. <span class="smcap">Rubiales.</span> Stamens adnate to the corolla. Ovary
-2–∞-locular, loculi 1–∞-ovuled.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 83. Caprifoliaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;84. Rubiaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort II. <span class="smcap">Asterales.</span> Stamens adnate to the corolla. Ovary
-formed of 2 carpels, unilocular and 1-ovuled.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 85. Valerianeæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;86. Dipsaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;87. Calycereæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;88. Compositæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_583">[583]</span></p>
-
-<p>Cohort III. <span class="smcap">Campanales.</span> Stamens generally free from the
-corolla. Ovary 2–6-locular, loculi most often ∞-ovuled.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 89. Stylidieæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;90. Goodenovieæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;91. Campanulaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series II. <b>Heteromeræ.</b> Ovary most often superior. Stamens free
-from the corolla, opposite to, or double the lobes of the corolla, or
-∞, or if epipetalous, equal and alternating with them. Carpels more
-than 2.</p>
-
-<p>Cohort IV. <span class="smcap">Ericales.</span> Stamens double the lobes of the corolla,
-or alternating with them. Ovary 2–∞-locular. Seeds small, frequently
-minute.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 92. Vacciniaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;93. Ericaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;94. Monotropeæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;95. Epacrideæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;96. Diapensiaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;97. Lennoaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort V. <span class="smcap">Primulales.</span> Stamens equal to and opposite the lobes
-of the corolla. Ovary unilocular, with a free central placenta, 1–∞
-ovules.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order&ensp;&nbsp;98. Plumbagineæ</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;99. Primulaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;100. Myrsineæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort VI. <span class="smcap">Ebenales.</span> Stamens equal to and opposite the lobes
-of the corolla, or double, or ∞. Ovary 2–∞-locular. Seeds few and
-large. Trees or shrubs.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 101. Sapotaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;102. Ebenaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;103. Styraceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series III. <b>Bicarpellatæ.</b> Ovary most often superior. Stamens
-equal, or fewer than the lobes of the corolla, and alternating with
-them. Carpels 2, rarely 1 or 3.</p>
-
-<p>Cohort VII. <span class="smcap">Gentianales.</span> Corolla regular. Stamens equal to
-the lobes of the corolla, or if fewer, usually alternating with the
-carpels. Leaves generally opposite.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 104. Oleaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;105. Salvadoraceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;106. Apocynaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;107. Asclepiadeæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;108. Loganiaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;109. Gentianeæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort VIII. <span class="smcap">Polemoniales.</span> Corolla regular. Stamens equal to
-the lobes of the corolla. Leaves generally alternate.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 110. Polemoniaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;111. Hydrophyllaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;112. Boragineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;113. Convolvulaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;114. Solanaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort IX. <span class="smcap">Personales.</span> Corolla most often irregular or
-oblique. Posterior stamen less than the others, more often reduced to a
-staminode, or altogether absent. Ovary ∞-ovuled, or 2-ovuled.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 115. Scrophularineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;116. Orobanchaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;117. Lentibularieæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;118. Columelliaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;119. Gesneraceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;120. Bignoniaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;121. Pedalineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;122. Acanthaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_584">[584]</span></p>
-
-<p>Cohort X. <span class="smcap">Lamiales.</span> Corolla most often irregular or oblique.
-Posterior stamen less than the others, most frequently reduced to a
-staminode or absent. Carpels 1-ovuled or with 2 collateral ovules.
-Fruit enclosed in the persistent calyx, indehiscent, and with one seed,
-or dehiscing into 2 or 4, rarely ∞, 1-seeded nuts.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 123. Myoporineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;124. Selagineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;125. Verbenaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;126. Labiateæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Anomalous Order 127. Plantagineæ.</p>
-
-
-<p class="center sm p1"><b>III. MONOCHLAMYDEÆ.</b></p>
-
-<p>Perianth simple, lobes or segments 1–2-seriate and often sepaloid, or
-small, or wanting.</p>
-
-<p>Series I. <b>Curvembryeæ.</b> Endosperm frequently farinaceous. Embryo
-curved, excentric, lateral or peripheral, rarely straight. Ovules most
-frequently 1 in the ovary, or 1 in each loculus. Flowers ☿, in some
-genera unisexual or polygamous. Petals very rare. Stamens equal to the
-segments of the perianth, rarely fewer or more.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 128. Nyctagineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;129. Illecebraceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;130. Amarantaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;131. Chenopodiaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;132. Phytolaccaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;133. Batideæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;134. Polygonaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series II. <b>Multiovulatæ Aquaticæ.</b> Aquatic herbs, submerged.
-Ovary syncarpous; ovules numerous in each loculus or on each placenta.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 135. Podostemaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series III. <b>Multiovulatæ Terrestres.</b> Terrestrial trees or
-shrubs. Ovary syncarpous; ovules numerous in each loculus or on each
-placenta.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 136. Nepenthaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;137. Cytinaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;138. Aristolochiaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series IV. <b>Micrembryeæ.</b> Ovary syncarpous, monocarpous, or
-apocarpous. Ovules generally solitary in each carpel, rarely 2 or few.
-Endosperm copious, fleshy, or rarely farinaceous. Embryo very minute.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 139. Piperaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;140. Chloranthaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;141. Myristiceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;142. Monimiaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series V. <b>Daphnales.</b> Ovary monocarpous, very rarely syncarpous,
-with 2–4 loculi; ovules in the ovary or in each loculus, solitary, or
-in pairs. Trees or shrubs, very rarely herbs; flowers generally ☿.
-Perianth perfect, sepaloid, 1–2 seriate. Stamens perigynous, equal to
-the lobes of the perianth, or double unless fewer.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 143. Laurineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;144. Proteaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;145. Thymelæaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;146. Penæaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;147. Elæagnaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series VI. <b>Achlamydosporeæ.</b> Ovary unilocular, 1–3 ovules. Ovules
-most frequently poorly developed before flowering. Seeds endospermous,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_585">[585]</span>
-but without testa, either free in the pericarp or attached to its
-walls. Perianth generally perfect, sepaloid or petaloid.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 148. Loranthaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;149. Santalaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;150. Balanophoreæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series VII. <b>Unisexuales.</b> Flowers unisexual. Ovary syncarpous
-or monocarpous, ovules in the ovary or in each loculus, solitary, or
-in pairs. Endosperm copious, fleshy, or scanty, or absent. Trees or
-shrubs, rarely herbs. Stipules generally present. Perianth sepaloid, or
-minute, or absent. Styles equal in number to the carpels, not rarely
-bifid.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 151. Euphorbiaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;152. Balanopseæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;153. Urticaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;154. Platanaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;155. Leitnerieæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;156. Juglandeæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;157. Myricaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;158. Casuarineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;159. Cupuliferæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series VIII. <b>Ordines Anomali.</b> Anomalous Orders.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 160. Salicineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;161. Lacistemaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;162. Empetraceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;163. Ceratophylleæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p class="center sm p1"><b>GYMNOSPERMEÆ</b></p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 164. Gnetaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;165. Coniferæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;166. Cycadaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-
-<p class="center sm p1"><b>MONOCOTYLEDONES.</b></p>
-
-<p>Series I. <b>Microspermæ.</b> At least the inner series of the perianth
-petaloid. Ovary inferior, unilocular, with 3 parietal placentæ, or
-rarely 3-locular, with axile placentation. Seeds minute, numerous,
-without endosperm.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 167. Hydrocharideæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;168. Burmanniaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;169. Orchideæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series II. <b>Epigynæ.</b> At least the inner series of the perianth
-petaloid. Ovary most often inferior. Endosperm copious.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 170. Scitamineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;171. Bromeliaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;172. Hæmodoraceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;173. Irideæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;174. Amaryllideæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;175. Taccaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;176. Dioscoreaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series III. <b>Coronarieæ.</b> At least the inner series of perianth
-petaloid. Ovary free, very rarely slightly adnate at the base.
-Endosperm copious.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 177. Roxburghiaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;178. Liliaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;179. Pontederiaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;180. Philydraceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;181. Xyrideæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;182. Mayaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;183. Commelinaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;184. Rapateaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_586">[586]</span></p>
-
-<p>Series IV. <b>Calycinæ.</b> Perianth sepaloid, small, rigid, or
-herbaceous (inner series subpetaloid or small). Ovary free. Endosperm
-copious.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 185. Flagellarieæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;186. Juncaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;187. Palmæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series V. <b>Nudifloræ.</b> Perianth absent, or reduced to hairs or
-scales. Ovary superior, carpel solitary, or if many, syncarpous,
-1–∞-ovuled. Endosperm most frequently present.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 188. Pandaneæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;189. Cyclanthaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;190. Typhaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;191. Aroideæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;192. Lemnaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series VI. <b>Apocarpæ.</b> Perianth 1–2-seriate, or absent. Carpels
-superior, solitary, or if more, apocarpous. Endosperm absent.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 193. Triurideæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;194. Alismaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;195. Naiadaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series VII. <b>Glumaceæ.</b> Flowers solitary, sessile in the axils of
-bracts and arranged in capitula or spikelets with bracts. Segments of
-perianth small, scale-like, glumaceous or absent. Ovary 1-ovuled, or
-divided into 1-ovuled loculi. Endosperm present.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 196. Eriocauleæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;197. Centrolepideæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;198. Restiaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;199. Cyperaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;200. Gramineæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p>Classification of the Thallophytes proposed by <span class="smcap">Sachs</span>
-(<i>Text-Book of Botany</i>, English Edition, 1882).</p>
-
-<table summary="system" class="smaller">
-  <tr>
-    <td class="center" colspan="4"><b>THALLOPHYTES.</b></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="chtr"><i>Containing chlorophyll.</i></td>
-    <td class="cht1" colspan="3"><i>Not containing chlorophyll.</i></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="center" colspan="4">Class I. <b>Protophyta.</b></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="chtr">Cyanophyceæ.</td>
-    <td class="cht1" colspan="3">Schizomycetes.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="chtr">Palmellaceæ (in part).</td>
-    <td class="cht1" colspan="3">Saccharomycetes.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="center" colspan="4">Class II. <b>Zygosporeæ.</b></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="center" colspan="4">Conjugating cells motile.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="chtr">Pandorineæ.</td>
-    <td class="cht1" colspan="3">Myxomycetes.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="chtr">(Hydrodictyeæ).</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3"></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="center" colspan="4">Conjugating cells stationary.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="chtr">Conjugatæ (including Diatomaceæ).</td>
-    <td class="cht1" colspan="3">Zygomycetes.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="center" colspan="4">Class III. <b>Oosporeæ.</b></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="4">Sphæroplea.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1c" colspan="2" rowspan="2">Vaucheria (<i>Cœloblastæ</i>).</td>
-    <td class="brckt" rowspan="2"><img src="images/big_left_bracket.png" alt="big left bracket"
-      style="height:2.5em;padding:0 0em 0 0em;" /></td>
-    <td class="cht">Saprolegnieæ.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht"></td>
-    <td class="cht">Peronosporeæ.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht">Volvocineæ.</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3"></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht">Œdogonieæ.</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3"></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht">Fucoideæ.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_587">[587]</span></td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3"></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="center" colspan="4">Class IV. Carposporeæ.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="chtr">Coleochæteæ.</td>
-    <td class="cht1" colspan="3">Ascomycetes (including Lichens).</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="chtr">Florideæ.</td>
-    <td class="cht1" colspan="3">Æcidiomycetes (Uredineæ).</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="chtr">Characeæ.</td>
-    <td class="cht1" colspan="3">Basidiomycetes.</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p>System of <span class="smcap">A. W. Eichler</span> (1883).</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>A. <b>Cryptogamæ.</b></li>
-  <li class="i2">I. <b>Thallophyta.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">1. Class. <span class="smcap">Algæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Group. Cyanophyceæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Diatomeæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">3&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Chlorophyceæ.</li>
-  <li class="i8">1 Series. Conjugatæ.</li>
-  <li class="i8">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Zoosporeæ.</li>
-  <li class="i8">3&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Characeæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">4 Group. Phæophyceæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">5&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Rhodophyceæ.</li>
-  <li class="i4">2. Class. <span class="smcap">Fungi.</span></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Group. Schizomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Eumycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i8">1 Series. Phycomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i8">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Ustilagineæ.</li>
-  <li class="i8">3&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Æcidiomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i8">4&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Ascomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i8">5&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Basidiomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i6">3 Group. Lichenes.</li>
-  <li class="space i2">II. <b>Bryophyta.</b></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Group. Hepaticæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Musci.</li>
-  <li class="space i2">III. <b>Pteridophyta.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">1 Class. <span class="smcap">Equisetinæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">2&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Lycopodinæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">3&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Filicinæ.</span></li>
-  <li>B. <b>Phanerogamæ.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">1. Gymnospermæ.</li>
-  <li class="i4">2. Angiospermæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>The subdivisions of the Phanerogamæ have with little variation been
-adopted in this book.</p>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_588">[588]</span></p>
-
-<p>Classification of the <span class="smcap">Thallophytes</span>, adopted in the 3rd Danish
-Edition (1891). [Algæ by Wille; Fungi by Rostrup (<i>after Zopf</i>).]</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li><b>I. DIVISION. THALLOPHYTA.</b></li>
-  <li class="i2">I. Sub-division. <b>Algæ.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">1 Class. <span class="smcap">Chlorophyceæ</span> (<span class="smcap">Green Algæ</span>).</li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Family. Conjugatæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Protococcoideæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">3&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Confervoideæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">4&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Siphoneæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">5&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Gyrophyceæ.</li>
-  <li class="i4">2 Class. <span class="smcap">Phæophyceæ</span> (<span class="smcap">Brown Algæ</span>).</li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Family. Syngeneticæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Dinoflagellata.</li>
-  <li class="i6">3&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Pyritophyceæ (Diatomeæ).</li>
-  <li class="i6">4&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Phæosporeæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">5&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Cyclosporeæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">6&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Dictyoteæ.</li>
-  <li class="i4">3 Class. <span class="smcap">Aciliatæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i5a">A. Sub-class. <i>Schizophyceæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Family. Myxophyceæ (Blue-Green Algæ).</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Bacteria.</li>
-  <li class="i5a">B. Sub-class. <i>Rhodophyceæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Family. Bangioideæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Florideæ.</li>
-  <li class="i2">&nbsp;II. Sub-division. <b>Myxomycetes.</b></li>
-  <li class="i2">III.&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;<b>Fungi.</b></li>
-  <li class="center">A. <b>Phycomycetes.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">1 Class. <span class="smcap">Oomycetes.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">2&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Zygomycetes.</span></li>
-  <li class="center">B. <b>Mycomycetes.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">3 Class. <span class="smcap">Basidiomycetes.</span></li>
-  <li class="i5a">A. Sub-class. <i>Protobasidiomycetes.</i></li>
-  <li class="i5a">B.&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;<i>Autobasidiomycetes.</i></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Family. Hymenomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Gasteromycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i6">3&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Basidiolichenes.</li>
-  <li class="i4">4 Class. <span class="smcap">Ascomycetes.</span></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Family. Gymnoasci.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Perisporieæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">3&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Pyrenomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i6">4&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Discomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i6">5&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Ascolichenes.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_589">[589]</span></p>
-
-
-<p>System of <span class="smcap">A. Engler</span> (<i>Syllabus der Vorlesungen</i>, etc.,
-1892).</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li><b>I. DIVISION. MYXOTHALLOPHYTA.</b></li>
-  <li class="i2">Sub-division. <b>Myxomycetes.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">1 Class. <span class="smcap">Acrasieæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">2&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Plasmodiophorales.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">3&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Myxogasteres.</span></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Series. Ectosporeæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Endosporeæ.</li>
-  <li class="space"><b>II. DIVISION. EUTHALLOPHYTA.</b></li>
-  <li class="i2">I. Sub-division. <b>Schizophyta.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">1 Class. <span class="smcap">Schizophyceæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">2&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Schizomycetes.</span></li>
-  <li class="i2">II. Sub-division. <b>Dinoflagellata.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">Class. <span class="smcap">Dinoflagellata.</span></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Series. Adinida.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Dinifera.</li>
-  <li class="i2">III. Sub-division. <b>Bacillariales.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">Class. <span class="smcap">Bacillariales.</span></li>
-  <li class="i2">IV. Sub-division. <b>Gamophyceæ.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">1 Class. <span class="smcap">Conjugatæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">2&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Chlorophyceæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i5a">1 Sub-class. <i>Protococcales.</i></li>
-  <li class="i5a">2&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;<i>Confervales.</i></li>
-  <li class="i5a">3&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;<i>Siphoneæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="i4">3 Class. <span class="smcap">Charales.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">4&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Phæophyceæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i5a">1 Sub-class. <i>Phæosporeæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="i5a">2&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;<i>Cyclosporeæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="i4">5 Class. <span class="smcap">Dictyotales.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">6&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Rhodophyceæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i5a">1 Sub-class. <i>Bangiales.</i></li>
-  <li class="i5a">2&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;<i>Florideæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Series. Nemalionales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Gigartinales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">3&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Rhodymeniales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">4&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Cryptonemiales.</li>
-  <li class="i2">V. Sub-division. <b>Fungi.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">1 Class. <span class="smcap">Phycomycetes.</span></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Series. Zygomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Oomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i8">1 Sub-series. Chytridiales.</li>
-  <li class="i8">2&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&emsp;Mycosiphonales.</li>
-  <li class="i4">2 Class. <span class="smcap">Mesomycetes.</span></li>
-  <li class="i5a">1 Sub-class. <i>Hemiasci.</i></li>
-  <li class="i5a">2&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;<i>Hemibasidii.</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_590">[590]</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">3 Class. <span class="smcap">Mycomycetes.</span></li>
-  <li class="i5a">1 Sub-class. <i>Ascomycetes.</i></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Series. Exoasci.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Carpoasci.</li>
-  <li class="i8">1 Sub-series. Gymnoascales.</li>
-  <li class="i8">2&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&emsp;Perisporiales.</li>
-  <li class="i8">3&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&emsp;Pyrenomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i10">Appended.  Pyrenolichenes.</li>
-  <li class="i8">4 Sub-series. Hysteriales.</li>
-  <li class="i8">5&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&emsp;Discomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i10">Appended.  Discolichenes.</li>
-  <li class="i5a">2 Sub-class. <i>Basidiomycetes.</i></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Series. Protobasidiomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i8">1 Sub-series. Uredinales.</li>
-  <li class="i8">2&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&emsp;Auriculariales.</li>
-  <li class="i8">3&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&emsp;Tremellinales.</li>
-  <li class="i8">4&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&emsp;Pilacrales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2 Series. Autobasidiomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i8">1 Sub-series. Dacryomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i8">2&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&emsp;Hymenomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i10">Appended.  Hymenolichenes.</li>
-  <li class="i8">3 Sub-series. Phalloideæ.</li>
-  <li class="i8">4&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&emsp;Gasteromycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i10">Appended.  Gasterolichenes.</li>
-  <li class="i11">Fungi imperfecti.</li>
-  <li class="space"><b>III. DIVISION. EMBRYOPHYTA ZOIDIOGAMA</b> (Archegoniatæ).</li>
-  <li class="i2">I. Sub-division. <b>Bryophyta (Muscinei).</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">1 Class. <span class="smcap">Hepaticæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Series. Marchantiales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Anthocerotales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">3&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Jungermanniales.</li>
-  <li class="i8">1 Sub-series. Anacrogynæ.</li>
-  <li class="i8">2&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&emsp;Acrogynæ.</li>
-  <li class="i4">2 Class. <span class="smcap">Musci.</span></li>
-  <li class="i5a">1 Sub-class. <i>Sphagnales.</i></li>
-  <li class="i5a">2&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;<i>Andreæales.</i></li>
-  <li class="i5a">3&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;<i>Archidiales.</i></li>
-  <li class="i5a">4&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;<i>Bryales.</i></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Series. Cleistocarpæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Stegocarpæ.</li>
-  <li class="i8">1 Sub-series. Acrocarpæ.</li>
-  <li class="i8">2&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&emsp;Pleurocarpæ.</li>
-  <li class="i2">II. Sub division. <b>Pteridophyta.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">1 Class. <span class="smcap">Filicales.</span></li>
-  <li class="i5a">1 Sub-class. <i>Filices.</i></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Series. Planithallosæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Tuberithallosæ.</li>
-  <li class="i5a">2 Sub-class. <i>Hydropterides.</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_591">[591]</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">2 Class. <span class="smcap">Equisetales.</span></li>
-  <li class="i5a">1 Sub-class. <i>Isosporæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="i5a">2&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;<i>Heterosporæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="i4">3 Class. <span class="smcap">Sphenophyllales.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">4&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Lycopodiceles.</span></li>
-  <li class="i5a">1 Sub-class. <i>Isosporæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="i5a">2&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;<i>Heterosporæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="space"><b>IV. DIVISION. EMBRYOPHYTA SIPHONOGAMA.</b></li>
-  <li class="center">(Siphonogamæ, Phanerogamæ).</li>
-  <li class="i2">I. Sub-division. <b>Gymnospermæ.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">1 Class. <span class="smcap">Cycadales.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">2&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Cordaitales.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">3&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Bennettitales.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">4&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Coniferæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">5&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Gnetales.</span></li>
-  <li class="i2">II. Sub-division. <b>Angiospermæ.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">1 Class. <span class="smcap">Chalazogamæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i6">Series. Verticillatæ.</li>
-  <li class="i4">2 Class. <span class="smcap">Acrogamæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i5a">1 Sub-class. <i>Monocotyledoneæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;1 Series. Pandanales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Helobiæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;3&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Glumifloræ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;4&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Principes.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;5&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Synanthæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;6&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Spathifloræ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;7&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Farinosæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;8&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Liliifloræ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;9&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Scitamineæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">10&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Microspermæ.</li>
-  <li class="i5a">2 Sub-class. <i>Dicotyledoneæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="center space">1 Group of Series. Archichlamydeæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;1 Series. Piperales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Juglandales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;3&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Salicales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;4&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Fagales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;5&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Urticales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;6&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Proteales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;7&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Santalales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;8&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Aristolochiales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;9&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Polygonales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">10&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Centrospermæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">11&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Ranales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">12&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Rhœadales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">13&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Sarraceniales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">14&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Rosales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">15&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Geraniales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">16&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Sapindales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">17&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Rhamnales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">18&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Malvales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">19&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Parietales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">20&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Opuntiales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">21&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Thymelæales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">22&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Myrtifloræ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">23&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Umbellifloræ.</li>
-  <li class="center space">2 Group of Series. Sympetalæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Series. Ericales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Primulales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">3&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Ebenales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">4&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Contortæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">5&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Tubifloræ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">6&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Plantaginales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">7&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Rubiales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">8&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Aggregatæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">9&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Campanulatæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_592">[592]</span></p>
-
-
-<p class="center p2">TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS.</p>
-
-<div class="parent">
-<ul class="left">
-  <li>S&ensp;= Sepals.</li>
-  <li>P&ensp;= Petals.</li>
-  <li>Pr = Perianth.</li>
-  <li>A&ensp;= Andrœcium.</li>
-  <li>G&ensp;= Gynœceum.</li>
-</ul>
-</div>
-
-
-<div class="parent">
-<ul class="left">
-  <li>♂ = Male.</li>
-  <li>♀ = Female.</li>
-  <li>☿ = Hermaphrodite.</li>
-  <li>∞ = Indefinite.</li>
-</ul>
-</div>
-
-<p>Names of continents and countries have sometimes been abbreviated, for
-example:&mdash;Am. = America; As.=Asia; Af. = Africa; Ind. = India, etc.
-N., S., E., W., = North, South, East, West; Temp. = Temperate Regions;
-Trop. = Tropics.</p>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_593">[593]</span></p>
-
-<h2>INDEX.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Abelia,
-    <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">Abies,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_246">246</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_264">264</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_265">265</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>Abietaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_255">255</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_263">263</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-  <li>Abrus,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Abutilon,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acacia,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_474">474</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">False,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acalypha,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acanthaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_518">518</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acer,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aceraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aceranthus,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acetabularia,
-    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
-  <li>Achillea,
-    <a href="#Page_568">568</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Achimenes,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Achlya,
-    <a href="#Page_107">107</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-  <li>Achnantheæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Achras,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acinetæ,
-    <a href="#Page_68">68</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aconitum,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acorin,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acorus,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_304">304</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acrasieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acrocarpi,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acrocomia,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acrogynæ,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acrospermaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acrostichum,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acrotonous,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acrotylaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acrotylus,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Actæa,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_380">380</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Actinidia,
-    <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-  <li>Adansonia,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-  <li>Adder’s tongue,
-    <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
-  <li>Adenanthera,
-    <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
-  <li>Adiantum,
-    <a href="#Page_201">201</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_206">206</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-  <li>Adinida,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-  <li>Adlumia,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Adonis,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-  <li>Adoxa,
-    <a href="#Page_453">453</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_555">555</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aerobic,
-    <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
-  <li>Æchmea,
-    <a href="#Page_319">319</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Æcidiospores,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
-  <li>Æcidium,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_150">150</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ægiceras,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ægilops,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ægopodium,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li>
-  <li>Æschynanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Æsculinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Æsculus,
-    <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
-  <li>Æthalium,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Æthusa,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Affonsea,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agapanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agar-Agar,
-    <a href="#Page_33">33</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agaricaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agaricinei,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agathis,
-    <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agave,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agaveæ,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ageratum,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aggregatæ,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agraphis,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agrimonia,
-    <a href="#Page_459">459</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agrimonieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agrimony,
-    <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agropyrum,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agrostemma,
-    <a href="#Page_365">365</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agrostideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agrostis,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ahnfeltia,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ailanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aira,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aizoaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aizoideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aizoon,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ajuga,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ajugeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li>
-  <li>Akebia,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Akinetes,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alaria,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-  <li>Albugo,
-    <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
-  <li>Albumen,
-    <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
-  <li>Albuminous,
-    <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
-  <li>Albumose,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alchemilla,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alchornea,
-    <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alcoholic fermentation,
-    <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alder,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_118">118</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aldrovandia,
-    <a href="#Page_408">408</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aleurites,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Algæ,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Algal-Fungi,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alhagi,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alisma,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alismaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alismeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alkanet,
-    <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alkanna,
-    <a href="#Page_534">534</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alliariinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Allieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Allium,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_313">313</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alloplectus,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Allosorus,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-  <li>Almeidea,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
-  <li>Almond,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alnus,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_118">118</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_341">341</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alocasia.
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aloë,
-    <a href="#Page_274">274</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_313">313</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aloineæ,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alonsoa,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alopecurus,
-    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alpine Violet,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alpinia,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alsine,
-    <a href="#Page_364">364</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alsineæ,
-    <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alsodeia,
-    <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alsophila,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alstrœmeria,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alstrœmerieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alternanthera,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
-  <li>Althæa,
-    <a href="#Page_426">426</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_429">429</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Althenia,
-    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alyssinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alyssum,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amanita,
-    <a href="#Page_167">167</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amarantaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_364">364</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amarant-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amarantus,
-    <a href="#Page_368">368</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amarylleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amaryllidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amaryllis,
-    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amber,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ambrosia,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ambrosieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_567">567</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ambrosinia,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amelanchier,
-    <a href="#Page_464">464</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amentaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amherstia,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_594">[594]</span></li>
-  <li>Ammannia,
-    <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ammi,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ammieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ammobium,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ammoniac-gum,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ammophila,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amomis,
-    <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amorpha,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ampelidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ampelopsis,
-    <a href="#Page_445">445</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amphidinium,
-    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amphigastria,
-    <a href="#Page_181">181</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amphipleureæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amphisphæriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amphithecium,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amphitropideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amphoreæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amsonia,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amygdalaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amygdalin,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amygdalus,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amyris,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anabæna,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anacampseros,
-    <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anacamptis,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anacamptodon,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anacardiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anacardium,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anacrogynæ,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anacyclus,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anadyomene,
-    <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anaerobic,
-    <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anagallis,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anamirta,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ananassa,
-    <a href="#Page_319">319</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anastatica,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anathyllis,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anatropous,
-    <a href="#Page_242">242</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anchusa,
-    <a href="#Page_150">150</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_531">531</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_534">534</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ancylistaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ancylonema,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Andira,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Andreæa,
-    <a href="#Page_185">185</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_187">187</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-  <li>Andrœcium,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-  <li>Androgenesis,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-  <li>Andromeda,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Andromedeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Andropogon,
-    <a href="#Page_289">289</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Andropogoneæ,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Androsace,
-    <a href="#Page_512">512</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Androspore,
-    <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aneimia,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anelatereæ,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anemone,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anemoneæ,
-    <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anemonopsis,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anethum,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aneura,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Angelica,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Angiopteris,
-    <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
-  <li>Angiospermæ,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_234">234</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_250">250</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
-  <li>Angiosperms,
-    <a href="#Page_237">237</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_245">245</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-  <li>Angiosporeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-  <li>Angosturæ, Cortex,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anguliferæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anise,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anlage,
-    <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-  <li>Annatto,
-    <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
-  <li>Annularia,
-    <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
-  <li>Annulariæ,
-    <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
-  <li>Annulus,
-    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">inferus,
-    <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">superus,
-    <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anoda,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anodic,
-    <a href="#Page_480">480</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anomodon,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anona,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anonaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Antennaria,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anthemideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anthemis,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anther,
-    <a href="#Page_237">237</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Fibrous layer of,
-    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Structure of,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anthericeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anthericum,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li>
-  <li>Antheridium,
-    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
-  <li>Antherozoid,
-    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anthocarp,
-    <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anthoceros,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_187">187</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_189">189</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anthoceroteæ,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
-  <li>Antholyza,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anthostema,
-    <a href="#Page_432">432</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anthoxanthum,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anthrax bacillus,
-    <a href="#Page_31">31</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_39">39</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anthriscus,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anthurium,
-    <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anthyllis,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Antiaris,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Antipodal cells,
-    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-  <li>Antirrhineæ,
-    <a href="#Page_523">523</a>.</li>
-  <li>Antirrhinum,
-    <a href="#Page_524">524</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li>
-  <li>Antisepsis,
-    <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apeiba,
-    <a href="#Page_424">424</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apetalæ,
-    <a href="#Page_336">336</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aphanizomenon,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aphanocapsa,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aphanochæte,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aphthæ,
-    <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aphyllanthes,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apiocystis,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apios,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apiosporium,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apium,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aplanogametangium,
-    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aplanogametes,
-    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aplanospores,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apocynaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_543">543</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apocynum,
-    <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apogamy,
-    <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aponogeton,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aponogetonaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apospory,
-    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apostasia,
-    <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apostasieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_328">328</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apothecium,
-    <a href="#Page_118">118</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apple,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_464">464</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apricot,
-    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aquifoliaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aquilegia,
-    <a href="#Page_378">378</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_381">381</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arabis,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Araceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_276">276</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arachis,
-    <a href="#Page_469">469</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aralia,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-  <li>Araliaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_454">454</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>.</li>
-  <li>Araucaria,
-    <a href="#Page_237">237</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
-  <li>Araucariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_257">257</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_263">263</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arbor vitæ,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arbuteæ,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arbutus,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Archangelica,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Archegoniata,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
-  <li>Archegonium,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_184">184</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Development of,
-    <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
-  <li>Archesporium,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
-  <li>Archicarp,
-    <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-  <li>Archidium,
-    <a href="#Page_193">193</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arctostaphylos,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arcyria,
-    <a href="#Page_7">7</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ardisia,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Areca,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Areca-palm,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arecineæ,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arenaria,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arenga,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Argemone,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aria,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aril,
-    <a href="#Page_255">255</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arineæ,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arisarum,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aristida,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aristolochia,
-    <a href="#Page_499">499</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aristolochiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aristolochiales,
-    <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aristotelia,
-    <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-  <li>Armeniaca,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
-  <li>Armeria,
-    <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li>
-  <li>Armillaria,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_169">169</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arnebia,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arnica,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arnoseris,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aronia,
-    <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arrack,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arrow-head,
-    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arrow-poison,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_595">[595]</span></li>
-  <li>Arrowroot,
-    <a href="#Page_327">327</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Artabotrys,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Artemisia,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arthonia,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arthoniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arthrosporous,
-    <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arthrotaxis,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-  <li>Artichoke,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Jerusalem,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Artocarpeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li>
-  <li>Artocarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arum,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_304">304</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arundo,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asafœtida,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asarum,
-    <a href="#Page_499">499</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asclepiadaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asclepias,
-    <a href="#Page_545">545</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ascobolaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ascobolus,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ascocarps,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ascocorticium,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ascogone,
-    <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ascoidea,
-    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ascoideaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ascolichenes,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ascomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_114">114</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ascophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_73">73</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ascospore,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ascus,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aseroë,
-    <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asexual reproductive cells,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ash,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asimina,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asparageæ,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asparagus,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aspen,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aspergillus,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asperifoliæ,
-    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asperococcus,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asperugo,
-    <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asperula,
-    <a href="#Page_552">552</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asphodelus,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_313">313</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aspidistra,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aspidium,
-    <a href="#Page_203">203</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_207">207</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aspidosperma,
-    <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asplenium,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Astelia,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aster,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Astereæ,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asteriscus,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asterocystis,
-    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asterophylliteæ,
-    <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asterophyllites,
-    <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
-  <li>Astragaleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Astragalus,
-    <a href="#Page_114">114</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Astrantia,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li>
-  <li>Astrocarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
-  <li>Atherurus,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
-  <li>Athyrium,
-    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_207">207</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-  <li>Atragene,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
-  <li>Atraphaxis,
-    <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
-  <li>Atriplex,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Atripliceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
-  <li>Atropa,
-    <a href="#Page_519">519</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_523">523</a>.</li>
-  <li>Atropine,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Attalea,
-    <a href="#Page_297">297</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Attar of Roses,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aubrietia,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aucuba,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aulacomnium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aurantieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
-  <li>Auricula,
-    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
-  <li>Auricularia,
-    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
-  <li>Auriculariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
-  <li>Austrian Pine,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-  <li>Autobasidia,
-    <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
-  <li>Autobasidiomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
-  <li>Autœcious,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
-  <li>Autoxenous,
-    <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
-  <li>Auxiliary cells,
-    <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
-  <li>Auxospore,
-    <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
-  <li>Avena,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aveneæ,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Avens,
-    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
-  <li>Averrhoa,
-    <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li>
-  <li>Avicennia,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Avignon grain,
-    <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
-  <li>Awlwort,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Awn,
-    <a href="#Page_288">288</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
-  <li>Azalea,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Azolla,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>“Bablah,”
-    <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bacillus,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_28">28</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_30">30</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_31">31</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_35">35</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_36">36</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">anthracis,
-    <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent4">diphtheriæ, lepræ, mallei, tetani, tuberculosis, typhosus,
-    <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bacteria,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bacterium,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_28">28</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_30">30</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_35">35</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bactris,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bæomyces,
-    <a href="#Page_140">140</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Balanophora,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Balanophoraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ballota,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li>
-  <li>Balsaminaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li>
-  <li>Balsamodendron,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Balsam of Copaiba,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">of Peru,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bamboo,
-    <a href="#Page_289">289</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_292">292</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bambusa,
-    <a href="#Page_289">289</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bambuseæ,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Banana,
-    <a href="#Page_324">324</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
-  <li>Baneberry,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bangia,
-    <a href="#Page_77">77</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bangioideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
-  <li>Banksia,
-    <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li>
-  <li>Baobab,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-  <li>Barbacenia,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Barbarea,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Barberries,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>Barbula,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bark-canker,
-    <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
-  <li>Barley,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_292">292</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Barosma,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Barringtonia,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bartonia,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bartramia,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bartsia,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Basella,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
-  <li>Baselleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
-  <li>Basidial-layer,
-    <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
-  <li>Basidiocarp,
-    <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
-  <li>Basidiolichenes,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Basidiomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_114">114</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_144">144</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
-  <li>Basidiospore,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Basidium,
-    <a href="#Page_89">89</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_144">144</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
-  <li>Basitonous,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bassia,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bast,
-    <a href="#Page_251">251</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_425">425</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bastardia,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
-  <li>Batatas,
-    <a href="#Page_516">516</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-  <li>Batidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Batis,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Batrachium,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-  <li>Batrachospermum,
-    <a href="#Page_80">80</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bauhinia,
-    <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bayberry-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Bay-rum,”
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Beaked parsley,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
-  <li>Beak-rush,
-    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bear-berry,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Beard lichen,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Beech,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Beef-steak fungus,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Beer-yeast,
-    <a href="#Page_177">177</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
-  <li>Beet,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
-  <li>Beet-root,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Beggiatoa,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_28">28</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
-  <li>Begonia,
-    <a href="#Page_477">477</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.</li>
-  <li>Begoniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_475">475</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bellis,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Benincasa,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Berberidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>Berberis,
-    <a href="#Page_149">149</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bergamot,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bergia,
-    <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
-  <li>Berteroa,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bertholletia,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_596">[596]</span></li>
-  <li>Beta,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_370">370</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Betel,
-    <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
-  <li>Betonica,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li>
-  <li>Betony,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li>
-  <li>Betula,
-    <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li>
-  <li>Betulaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li>
-  <li>Biarum,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
-  <li>Biatorella,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bicornes,
-    <a href="#Page_336">336</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li>
-  <li>Biddulphieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bidens,
-    <a href="#Page_566">566</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Biebersteinia,
-    <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bignonia,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bignoniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_518">518</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bilberry,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Billardiera,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Billbergia,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bindweed,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li>
-  <li>Biota,
-    <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
-  <li>Birch,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bird-cherry,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Birdlime,
-    <a href="#Page_501">501</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bird’s-foot,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bird’s-foot-trefoil,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Biscutella,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bitter-cress,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bitter-sweet,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bixa,
-    <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bixaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
-  <li>Blackberry,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
-  <li>Black-boy,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Black-currant,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Black-mustard,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Black-pepper,
-    <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
-  <li>Blackthorn,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Bladder” plums,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bladder-senna,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bladder-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Blasia,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Blattiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-  <li>Blechnum,
-    <a href="#Page_209">209</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bletia,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Blight,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-  <li>Blindia,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Blinks,
-    <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-  <li>Blitum,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
-  <li>Blood-red Currant,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Blue-green Algæ,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bocconia,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Boehmeria,
-    <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
-  <li>Boerhaavia,
-    <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bog-mosses,
-    <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bog-myrtle,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bog Wortleberry,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Boisduvalia,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-  <li>Boletus,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bomarea,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bombaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bombax,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bonnemaisonia,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bonnemaisoniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Borage,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Borageæ,
-    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Boraginaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_531">531</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li>
-  <li>Borago,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li>
-  <li>Borassinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Borassus,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Borderea,
-    <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li>
-  <li>Boronieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Borreria,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Boschia,
-    <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bossiæa,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Boswellia,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bo-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Botrychium,
-    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
-  <li>Botrydiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
-  <li>Botrydium,
-    <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
-  <li>Botrytis,
-    <a href="#Page_128">128</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bottle-gourd,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bouchea,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bougainvillea,
-    <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-  <li>Boussingaultia,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bouvardia,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bovista,
-    <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bowenia,
-    <a href="#Page_253">253</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bowiea,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Box,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brachypodium,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brachythecium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bracken-fern,
-    <a href="#Page_207">207</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bract,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bracteole,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_275">275</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bradypus,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brahea,
-    <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bramble,
-    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
-  <li>Branching of Palm,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brand-fungi,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brand-spores,
-    <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brasenia,
-    <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brassica,
-    <a href="#Page_399">399</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brassicinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brayera,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brazil-nuts,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bread-fruit,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Briza,
-    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brome,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bromeliaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bromus,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_289">289</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brookweed,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Broom,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Broom-rape,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brosimum,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Broussonetia,
-    <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li>
-  <li>Browallia,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brown Algæ,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brownea,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brownian movement,
-    <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brugmansia,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brunfelsia,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bryaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bryonia,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bryophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bryophyta,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bryopsidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bryopsis,
-    <a href="#Page_60">60</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bryum,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Buchu,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Buck-bean,
-    <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li>
-  <li>Buckthorn,
-    <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
-  <li>Buckwheat,
-    <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
-  <li>Buettneria,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Buettneriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bugle,
-    <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bulbine,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bulbochæte,
-    <a href="#Page_55">55</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bulbocodium,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bulbophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bulgaria,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bulgariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bullace,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bulliarda,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bull-rush,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bumelia,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bunchosia,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bunias,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bupleurum,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li>
-  <li>Burdock,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Burmanniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bur-marigold,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bur Parsley,
-    <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bur-reed,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Burseraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Butcher’s broom,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Butomeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Butomus,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-  <li>Butterbur,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Butter-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Butter-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Butyric-acid-bacíllus,
-    <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
-  <li>Buxaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Buxbaumia,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Buxbaumiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Buxus,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Cabbage,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cabomba,
-    <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cabombeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cacalia,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cactaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cacti,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cactifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cæoma,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cæsalpinia,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cæsalpiniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caffeine,
-    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cajanus,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cajeput-oil,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cajophora,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cakile,
-    <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_597">[597]</span></li>
-  <li>Calabar-bean,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calabash,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caladium,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calamagrostis,
-    <a href="#Page_289">289</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calamintha,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calamites,
-    <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calamus,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calamus-oil,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calandrinia,
-    <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calathea,
-    <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calceolaria,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calcocytaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calendula,
-    <a href="#Page_565">565</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calenduleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caliciaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calicium,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calla,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calliandra,
-    <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
-  <li>Callianthemum,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
-  <li>Callicarpa,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calligonum,
-    <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calliopsis,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Callistemon,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Callistephus,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Callithamnion,
-    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_79">79</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Callitrichaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Callitriche,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Callitris,
-    <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calloria,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calluna,
-    <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calocera,
-    <a href="#Page_158">158</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calonyction,
-    <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calothamnus,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calothrix,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caltha,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_380">380</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_381">381</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calycanthaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calycanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calyceraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_556">556</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calypogeia,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calypso,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calyptospora,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calyptra,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calystegia,
-    <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calyx-stamens,
-    <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li>
-  <li>Camelina,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Camellia,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-  <li>Campanula,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_561">561</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li>
-  <li>Campanulaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_561">561</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li>
-  <li>Campanulinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>.</li>
-  <li>Camphor,
-    <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li>
-  <li>Campion,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Campylopus,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Campylospermeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
-  <li>Campylotropous,
-    <a href="#Page_242">242</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
-  <li>Canada-balsam,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cananga,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Canarina,
-    <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li>
-  <li>Canary-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Canavalia,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Candollea,
-    <a href="#Page_413">413</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li>
-  <li>Candolleaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cane,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Canker,”
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-  <li>Canna,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cannabaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cannabis,
-    <a href="#Page_357">357</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cannaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
-  <li>Canterbury-bell,
-    <a href="#Page_561">561</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cantharellei,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cantharellus,
-    <a href="#Page_170">170</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caoutchouc,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li>
-  <li>Capers,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Capillitium,
-    <a href="#Page_7">7</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
-  <li>Capirona,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>.</li>
-  <li>Capnodium,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-  <li>Capparidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Capparis,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
-  <li>Capraria,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caprification,
-    <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caprificus,
-    <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caprifoliaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_454">454</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_548">548</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_556">556</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_557">557</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caprifolium,
-    <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</li>
-  <li>Capsella,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Capsellinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Capsicum,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Capsosira,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-  <li>Capsule,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caragana,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caraway,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cardaminæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cardamine,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cardamom,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cardiospermum,
-    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carduus,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carex,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_247">247</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carica,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cariceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caries dentium,
-    <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carlina,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carludovica,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carmichælia,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carnation,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carnaueba-wax,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carob-bean,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carpels,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carpinus,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carpoasci,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_115">115</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carpogonium,
-    <a href="#Page_77">77</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carpophore,
-    <a href="#Page_91">91</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carpospore,
-    <a href="#Page_77">77</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carragen,
-    <a href="#Page_33">33</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carrot,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_497">497</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carthamus,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carum,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carya,
-    <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caryophyllaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_336">336</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caryopsis,
-    <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caryota,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cascara,
-    <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cascarilla,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cashew-nut,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cassandra,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cassava,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cassia,
-    <a href="#Page_467">467</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cassine,
-    <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cassiope,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cassytha,
-    <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li>
-  <li>Castanea,
-    <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li>
-  <li>Castilloa,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Castor-oil,
-    <a href="#Page_431">431</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Casuarinaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li>
-  <li>Casuarina,
-    <a href="#Page_273">273</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
-  <li>Casuarinifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cataba,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Catabrosa,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Catalpa,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Catananche,
-    <a href="#Page_566">566</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Catasetum,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
-  <li>Catch-fly,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Catechu,
-    <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
-  <li>Catha,
-    <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
-  <li>Catharinea,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cathartocarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_467">467</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Catmint,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Catodic,
-    <a href="#Page_480">480</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cat’s-ear,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cat’s-foot,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cat’s-tail,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cattle-beet,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cattleya,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caucalis,
-    <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caudicle,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caulerpa,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_61">61</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caulerpaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cauliflower,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cayenne-pepper,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceanothus,
-    <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cecropia,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cedar,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cedrat,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cedrela,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cedrus,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>Celandine,
-    <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li>
-  <li>Celastraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
-  <li>Celastrus,
-    <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
-  <li>Celery,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Celidium,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cell, Vegetative,
-    <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
-  <li>Celosia,
-    <a href="#Page_368">368</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
-  <li>Celsia,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Celtideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cenangiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cenangium,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cenchrus,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Centaurea,
-    <a href="#Page_565">565</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_567">567</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_568">568</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_598">[598]</span></li>
-  <li>Centaury,
-    <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li>
-  <li>Centradenia,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Central cell,”
-    <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
-  <li>Centranthus,
-    <a href="#Page_557">557</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li>
-  <li>Centrolepidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
-  <li>Centrolepis,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
-  <li>Centrolobium,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Centropogon,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li>
-  <li>Centunculus,
-    <a href="#Page_512">512</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cephaëlis,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cephalanthera,
-    <a href="#Page_328">328</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cephalaria,
-    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cephalotaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cephalotaxeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cephalotus,
-    <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceramiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceramium,
-    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_80">80</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cerastium,
-    <a href="#Page_364">364</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cerasus,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceratiomyxa,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceratium,
-    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceratocapnos,
-    <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceratodon,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceratonia,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceratophyllaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceratophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceratostomaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceratozamia,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_253">253</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cerbera,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cercis,
-    <a href="#Page_467">467</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cereus,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cerinthe,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceropegia,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceroxylon,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cestreæ,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cestrum,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceterach,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cetraria,
-    <a href="#Page_138">138</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_141">141</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chænomeles,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chærophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chætangiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chætoceros,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chætocladiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chætocladium,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chætomiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chætomium,
-    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chætomorpha,
-    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chætopeltis,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chætophora,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chætophoraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chætopteris,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chalaza,
-    <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chalazogames,
-    <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chalazogams,
-    <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chamæcyparis,
-    <a href="#Page_268">268</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chamædorea,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chamædoris,
-    <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chamælaucieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chamælaucium,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chamænerium,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chamaerops,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_300">300</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chamæsiphon,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chamæsiphonaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chamomile,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chantransia,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chara,
-    <a href="#Page_65">65</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_66">66</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
-  <li>Characeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
-  <li>Characium,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chareæ,
-    <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
-  <li>Charlock,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cheilanthes,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cheiranthus,
-    <a href="#Page_399">399</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cheirostemon,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chelidonium,
-    <a href="#Page_394">394</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chelone,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chenopodiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_364">364</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chenopodieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chenopodina,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chenopodium,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cherry,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cherry-laurel,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chervil,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chervil-root,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chick-pea,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chickweed,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chicory,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chilies,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chimaphila,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chimonanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>China-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chinese galls,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chiococca,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chionanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chionodoxa,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chive,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlamydomonas,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlamydomoneæ,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlamydomucor,
-    <a href="#Page_97">97</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlamydospore,
-    <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlora,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlorangium,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chloranthaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chloranthus,
-    <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlorideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chloris,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlorochytrium,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlorococcum,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlorocystis,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlorophyceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlorophytum,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlorosphæra,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlorosphæraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlorosplenium,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlorotylium,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Choanephora,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-  <li>Choanephoraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chocho,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Choiromyces,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-  <li>Choisya,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chondrus,
-    <a href="#Page_79">79</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chorda,
-    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chordaria,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chordariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Choripetalæ,
-    <a href="#Page_336">336</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_337">337</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_561">561</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chorisia,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-  <li>Choristocarpaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Choristocarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chromaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chromulina,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chroococcaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chroococcus,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chrysalis Fungus,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chrysanthemum,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chrysarobin,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chrysobalanaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chrysobalanus,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chrysomonadinaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chrysomyxa,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chrysophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chrysopyxaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chrysopyxis,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chrysosplenium,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chylocladia,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chysis,
-    <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chytridiales,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chytridium,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cibotium,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cicely,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cicendia,
-    <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cicer,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cichorieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_561">561</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_568">568</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cichorium,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cicinnobolus,
-    <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cicuta,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cilioflagellata,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cimaruoli,
-    <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cimicifuga,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cinchona,
-    <a href="#Page_548">548</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cinchoneæ,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cinchonin,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cinclidotus,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cineraria,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cinnamon,
-    <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cinnamomum,
-    <a href="#Page_391">391</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cinquefoil,
-    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cipura,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Circaea,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-  <li>Circinate,
-    <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cirsium,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_568">568</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cissampelos,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cissus,
-    <a href="#Page_445">445</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cistaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cistifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_406">406</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cistus,
-    <a href="#Page_412">412</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.</li>
-  <li>Citharexylon,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Citriobatus,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_599">[599]</span></li>
-  <li>Citron,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Citronella oil,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Citrullus,
-    <a href="#Page_479">479</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_480">480</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Citrus,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cladium,
-    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cladochytrium,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cladonia,
-    <a href="#Page_139">139</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_140">140</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_141">141</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cladophora,
-    <a href="#Page_11">11</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cladophoraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cladosporium,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cladothrix,
-    <a href="#Page_27">27</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_33">33</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_34">34</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clamp-connections,
-    <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clarkia,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clastidium,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clatbrus,
-    <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clavaria,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clavariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-  <li>Claviceps,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_126">126</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clavija,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Claytonia,
-    <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cleavers,
-    <a href="#Page_552">552</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cleistocarpeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clematideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clematis,
-    <a href="#Page_378">378</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_380">380</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cleome,
-    <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clerodendron,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clethra,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Climacium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clinopodium,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clintonia,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clitocybe,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clitoria,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clivia,
-    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Closterium,
-    <a href="#Page_43">43</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clostridium,
-    <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cloudberry,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clover,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cloves,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Club-mosses,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
-  <li>Club-rush,
-    <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clusia,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clusiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cluster-cups,
-    <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clypeosphæriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cnicus,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cnidium,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cobæa,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coca,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocaine,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocci,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coccochromaticæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coccoloba,
-    <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocconeideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocconeis,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocconema,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocculus,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coccus,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cochineal,
-    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cochineal-insect,
-    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cochlearia,
-    <a href="#Page_398">398</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cochleariinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cock’s-comb,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cock’s-foot,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocoa-beans,
-    <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocoa-butter,
-    <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocoa-plum,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocoa-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocoanut,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_300">300</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocoanut, Double,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocoanut-palm,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocoineæ,
-    <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocos,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Codiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
-  <li>Codiolum,
-    <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
-  <li>Codium,
-    <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cœlastrum,
-    <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cœlebogyne,
-    <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cœloglossum,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cœlospermeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cœlosphærium,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cœnobia,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cœnogonium,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coffea,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coffeeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coffee,
-    <a href="#Page_555">555</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coffee-plant,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coix,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cola,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
-  <li>Colchicaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-  <li>Colchiceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-  <li>Colchicin,
-    <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
-  <li>Colchicum,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coleochætaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coleochæte,
-    <a href="#Page_57">57</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coleonema,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coleorhiza,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coleosporium,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coleus,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Collema,
-    <a href="#Page_138">138</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Colletia,
-    <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
-  <li>Collinsia,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Collomia,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Collybia,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Colocasia,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Colocynth,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Colts-foot,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Columba-root,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Columbine,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Columella,
-    <a href="#Page_187">187</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_189">189</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
-  <li>Columnea,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Columniferæ,
-    <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li>
-  <li>Colus,
-    <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
-  <li>Colutea,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Comarum,
-    <a href="#Page_457">457</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
-  <li>Combretaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</li>
-  <li>Comfrey,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Comma-bacillus,
-    <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-  <li>Commelina,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
-  <li>Commelinaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
-  <li>Commersonia,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Commiphora,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Compass-plant,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Compositæ,
-    <a href="#Page_556">556</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_561">561</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li>
-  <li>Comptonia,
-    <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
-  <li>Condurango-bark,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cone,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cone-scales,
-    <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
-  <li>Conferva,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Confervoideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-  <li>Conidia,
-    <a href="#Page_87">87</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Liberation and distribution of,
-    <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
-  <li>Conidial-layers,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Conidiocarp,
-    <a href="#Page_89">89</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
-  <li>Conidio-fructification,
-    <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
-  <li>Conidiophore,
-    <a href="#Page_87">87</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coniferæ,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_237">237</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_252">252</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Female flower of,
-    <a href="#Page_255">255</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Pollination,
-    <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coniocybe,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Conium,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Conjugatæ,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_41">41</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Conjugation,
-    <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
-  <li>Connaraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li>
-  <li>Conocarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</li>
-  <li>Conomitrium,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Contortæ,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>.</li>
-  <li>Convallaria,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Convallariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Convallarieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Convolvulaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>.</li>
-  <li>Convolvuleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li>
-  <li>Convolvulus,
-    <a href="#Page_114">114</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_516">516</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-  <li>Co-operating cells,
-    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-  <li>Copaifera,
-    <a href="#Page_467">467</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Copal-balsam,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Copernicia,
-    <a href="#Page_300">300</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Copper-beech,
-    <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coprinarius,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coprinei,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coprinus,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coptis,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cora,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corallina,
-    <a href="#Page_79">79</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corallinaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coralliorrhiza,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corallorhiza,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coral-root,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corchorus,
-    <a href="#Page_424">424</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cordaitaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cordiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47–61</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_531">531</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cordyceps,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cordyline,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Core,”
-    <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_600">[600]</span></li>
-  <li>Coriander,
-    <a href="#Page_497">497</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coriandrum,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_497">497</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cork-elm,
-    <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cork-oak,
-    <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cormophyta,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cormophytes,
-    <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cornaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_490">490</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cornel,
-    <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corn-cockle,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corn-flower,
-    <a href="#Page_567">567</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corn-poppy,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cornus,
-    <a href="#Page_490">490</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corona,
-    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coronilla,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Correa,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corrigiola,
-    <a href="#Page_365">365</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corsinia,
-    <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corsiniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cortex angosturæ,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corticium,
-    <a href="#Page_144">144</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cortinarius,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cortusa,
-    <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corydalis,
-    <a href="#Page_334">334</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_396">396</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corylaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_341">341</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corylus,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_343">343</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_344">344</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corypha,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coscinodisceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coscinodiscus,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coscinodon,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cosmanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cosmarium,
-    <a href="#Page_42">42</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_43">43</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Costus,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cotoneaster,
-    <a href="#Page_463">463</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Cotton”
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_429">429</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cotton-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cotton-thistle,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cotyledon,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cotyledons,
-    <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
-  <li>Couch,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coumarin,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cover-scale,
-    <a href="#Page_255">255</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cow-bane,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cowberry,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cow-parsnip,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cow-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cow-wheat,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Crab’s-eyes,”
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crambe,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
-  <li>Craniolaria,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crassula,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crassulaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cratægeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cratægus,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Craterellus,
-    <a href="#Page_162">162</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-  <li>Craterocolla,
-    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crenothrix,
-    <a href="#Page_30">30</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
-  <li>Creosote,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crepis,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crescentia,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crinum,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crocus,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cronartium,
-    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crotalaria,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Croton,
-    <a href="#Page_431">431</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crowberry,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crown-imperial,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crozophora,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crucianella,
-    <a href="#Page_552">552</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crucibulum,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cruciferæ,
-    <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crucifers,
-    <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crucigenia,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cruoria,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cryptogams,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Vascular,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cryptoglena,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cryptogramme,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cryptomeria,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cryptonemia,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cryptonemiales,
-    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ctenanthe,
-    <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ctenium,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ctenomyces,
-    <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cubeb,
-    <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cucubalus,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cucullus,
-    <a href="#Page_545">545</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cucumber,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cucumis,
-    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_480">480</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cucurbita,
-    <a href="#Page_478">478</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_479">479</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_480">480</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cucurbitaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_475">475</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_478">478</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_561">561</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cucurbitariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cud-weed,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cuminum,
-    <a href="#Page_497">497</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cunninghamia,
-    <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cunoniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cuphea,
-    <a href="#Page_482">482</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cupressaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_257">257</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_262">262</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cupressus,
-    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_245">245</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_268">268</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cupule,
-    <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cupuliferæ,
-    <a href="#Page_341">341</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
-  <li>Curare,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Curculigo,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Curcuma,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Curly-mint,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Currants,
-    <a href="#Page_447">447</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li>
-  <li>Curvembryæ,
-    <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cuscuta,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cuscuteæ,
-    <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Cushion,”
-    <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cusparia,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cusparieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cutleria,
-    <a href="#Page_68">68</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cutleriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_11">11</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyanophyceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyanophyll,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyanotis,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyathea,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyatheaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyathium,
-    <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyathus,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cycadaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cycadeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_252">252</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cycas,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_231">231</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_251">251</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_252">252</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_253">253</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyclamen,
-    <a href="#Page_334">334</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_512">512</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyclanthaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyclanthera,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyclolobeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyclosporeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_68">68</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cydonia,
-    <a href="#Page_463">463</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cylindrocapsa,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cylindrocapsaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cylindrocystis,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cylindrospermum,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cymbella,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cymbelleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cymodocea,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cymopolia,
-    <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cynanchum,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cynara,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cynareæ,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cynips,
-    <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cynodon,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cynodontium,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cynoglossum,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cynomorium,
-    <a href="#Page_503">503</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cynosurus,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cypella,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyperaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_283">283</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyperus,
-    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyphella,
-    <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyphiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cypress,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cypripedileæ,
-    <a href="#Page_329">329</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cypripedilum,
-    <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cypripedium,
-    <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cypsela,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyrtandreæ,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cystocarp,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cystoclonium,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cystopteris,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cystopus,
-    <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cytinus,
-    <a href="#Page_503">503</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cytisus,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Dacrydium,
-    <a href="#Page_255">255</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_260">260</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dacryomitra,
-    <a href="#Page_158">158</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dacryomyces,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_158">158</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dacryomycetaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dacryomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dactylis,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dactylococcus,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dædalea,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_601">[601]</span></li>
-  <li>Dahlia,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Daisy,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dalbergia,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dalbergieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dalechampia,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Damasonium,
-    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dammara,
-    <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
-  <li>Danæa,
-    <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dandelion,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Daphne,
-    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li>
-  <li>Darlingtonia,
-    <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li>
-  <li>Darwinia,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dasycladaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dasycladus,
-    <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dasyscypha,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-  <li>Date-palm,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_299">299</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Date-plum,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Datisca,
-    <a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li>
-  <li>Datiscaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li>
-  <li>Datura,
-    <a href="#Page_519">519</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_520">520</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dauceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-  <li>Daucus,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_492">492</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-  <li>Davallia,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Davilla,
-    <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
-  <li>Deadly nightshade,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dead-nettle,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li>
-  <li>Delesseria,
-    <a href="#Page_79">79</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_80">80</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Delesseriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Delphinieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-  <li>Delphinium,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dendrobium,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Derbesia,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
-  <li>Derbesiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dermatea,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dermateaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dermateales,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dermatophyton,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dermocarpa,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Desmanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
-  <li>Desmarestia,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Desmarestiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Desmidiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_18">18</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_42">42</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-  <li>Desmidium,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Desmodium,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Deutzia,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Devil’s-bit,
-    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dianthus,
-    <a href="#Page_364">364</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diapensiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diatoma,
-    <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diatomaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_19">19</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diatomeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diatomin,
-    <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diatoms,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diatrypaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diatrype,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dicentra,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_396">396</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dichaenaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dichelyma,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dichondreæ,
-    <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dichorisandra,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dichospermum,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dicksonia,
-    <a href="#Page_207">207</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diclinous,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dicliptera,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dicotyledones,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dicranella,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dicranum,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dictamnus,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dictyochaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dictyonema,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dictyosiphon,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dictyosiphonaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dictyosphærium,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dictyostelium,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dictyota,
-    <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dictyotaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dictyotales,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dicypellium,
-    <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li>
-  <li>Didiscus,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li>
-  <li>Didymium,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dieffenbachia,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dielytra,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diervilla,
-    <a href="#Page_554">554</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li>
-  <li>Digitalis,
-    <a href="#Page_524">524</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li>
-  <li>Digraphis,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dill,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dillenia,
-    <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dilleniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dimorphanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dimorphochlamys,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dinifera,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dinobryinaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dinobryon,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dinoflagellata,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_18">18</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dinophysis,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diodia,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diœcious,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dionæa,
-    <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dioon,
-    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dioscorea,
-    <a href="#Page_322">322</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dioscoreaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_276">276</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diosma,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diosmeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diospyrinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_510">510</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diospyros,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diphtheria,
-    <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diphyscium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diplarrhena,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diplecolobeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diplococcus,
-    <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diploderma,
-    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diplostemonous,
-    <a href="#Page_335">335</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diplusodon,
-    <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dipsacaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_556">556</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_558">558</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_559">559</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dipsacales,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_556">556</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dipsacus,
-    <a href="#Page_559">559</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dipterocarpaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dipterocarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dipteryx,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Discelium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Discolichenes,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Discomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-  <li>Discosporangium,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Disease,
-    <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-  <li>Disinfection,
-    <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dispora,
-    <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-  <li>Distichium,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Doassansia,
-    <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
-  <li>Docidium,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dock,
-    <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dodder,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_516">516</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dodecatheon,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dog’s-tail,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dogwood,
-    <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dolichos,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dondia,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dorema,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Doronicum,
-    <a href="#Page_240">240</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dorstenia,
-    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dothideaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-  <li>Double Cocoanut,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Doum-palm,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Draba,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dracæna,
-    <a href="#Page_274">274</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dracæneæ,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dracocephalum,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dracunculus,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dragon’s blood,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dragon-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Draparnaldia,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Drimys,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>Drosera,
-    <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li>
-  <li>Droseraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
-  <li>Drosophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dryas,
-    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dryobalanops,
-    <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dry-rot,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dry yeast,
-    <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
-  <li>Duboisia,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Duckweed,
-    <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dudresnaya,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dumontia,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dumontiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Durio,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-  <li>Durra,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dwarf-elder,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dwarf-male,
-    <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dwarf-palm,
-    <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dyer’s Weed,
-    <a href="#Page_407">407</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Earth-nut,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Earth-star,
-    <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
-  <li>Earth-tongue,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eating-chestnut,
-    <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ebenaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ebony,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ecballium,
-    <a href="#Page_478">478</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_480">480</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_602">[602]</span></li>
-  <li>Eccremocarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Echeveria,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li>
-  <li>Echinocactus,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_376">376</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-  <li>Echinodorus,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Echinops,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Echinopsis,
-    <a href="#Page_376">376</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-  <li>Echinospermum,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Echites,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Echium,
-    <a href="#Page_531">531</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_534">534</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ectocarpaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ectocarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_69">69</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Edelweiss,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Edwardsia,
-    <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li>
-  <li>Egg-cell,
-    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-  <li>Egg-fertilisation,
-    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-  <li>Egg-plant,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ehretia,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eichhornia,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elachista,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elachistaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elæagnaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elæagnus,
-    <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elæis,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elæocarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elaphomyces,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elaphrium,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elatereæ,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elaters,
-    <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elatinaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elatine,
-    <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elder,
-    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_555">555</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elemi,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elettaria,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eleusine,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elisma,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elm,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elodea,
-    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elymus,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elyna,
-    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-  <li>Embryo,
-    <a href="#Page_246">246</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_247">247</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-  <li>Embryo-sac,
-    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
-  <li>Emericella,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Emex,
-    <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
-  <li>Empetraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Empetrum,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Empleurum,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Empusa,
-    <a href="#Page_101">101</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
-  <li>Enantioblastæ,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
-  <li>Encephalartos,
-    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-  <li>Enchanter’s Nightshade,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-  <li>Encoeliaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Endocarpon,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Endomyces,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
-  <li>Endophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
-  <li>Endophytic parasites,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li>Endosperm,
-    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_246">246</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
-  <li>Endospermous,
-    <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
-  <li>Endosphæra,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Endospore,
-    <a href="#Page_89">89</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
-  <li>Endosporous,
-    <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
-  <li>Endothecium,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-  <li>Endozoic Fungi,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li>Enhalus,
-    <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
-  <li>Entada,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li>
-  <li>Enteromorpha,
-    <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-  <li>Entoderma,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Entomophthora,
-    <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
-  <li>Entomophthoraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
-  <li>Entomophthorales,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
-  <li>Entyloma,
-    <a href="#Page_109">109</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_111">111</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-  <li>Enzyme,
-    <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epacridaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epacris,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ephebe,
-    <a href="#Page_139">139</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ephedra,
-    <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ephemerum,
-    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epibasal,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epichloë,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epiclemmydia,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epidendreæ,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epidendron,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epigynum,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epilobium,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epimedium,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epipactis,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epipetalous,
-    <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epiphyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epiphytic parasites,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epipogon,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epipyxis,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Episepalous,
-    <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epithemia,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epizoic Fungi,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li>Equisetaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_221">221</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_234">234</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
-  <li>Equisetinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_221">221</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
-  <li>Equisetum,
-    <a href="#Page_200">200</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_206">206</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_221">221</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_222">222</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eragrostis,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eranthemum,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eranthis,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ergot,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eria,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erica,
-    <a href="#Page_507">507</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ericaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ericeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erigeron,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erinus,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eriobotrya,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eriocaulaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eriocaulon,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eriodendron,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eriophorum,
-    <a href="#Page_285">285</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erodium,
-    <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eruca,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ervum,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eryngium,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erysiminæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erysimum,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erysiphaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erysiphe,
-    <a href="#Page_119">119</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_120">120</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erythræa,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erythrina,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erythronium,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erythrotrichia,
-    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erythroxylaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erythroxylon,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Escalloniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li>
-  <li>Escalloniæ,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eschalot,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eschsholzia,
-    <a href="#Page_393">393</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Esparto grass,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euactæa,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euaspergillus,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euastrum,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eucalyptus,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eucharidium,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eucharis,
-    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euchlæna,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eucomis,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eudorina,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eugeissonia,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eugenia,
-    <a href="#Page_488">488</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euglena,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eunotieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euonymus,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eupatorieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eupatorium,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euphacidiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euphorbia,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_432">432</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euphorbiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euphorbium,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euphoria,
-    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euphrasia,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eupodisceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eurhynchium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eurotium,
-    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euryale,
-    <a href="#Page_386">386</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_387">387</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eusporangiatæ,
-    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euterpe,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euthora,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eutoca,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Evening Primrose,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li>
-  <li>Evernia,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Evodia,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Evolvulus,
-    <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li>
-  <li>Exalbuminous,
-    <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
-  <li>Exidia,
-    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
-  <li>Exoasci,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_115">115</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
-  <li>Exobasidium,
-    <a href="#Page_160">160</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-  <li>Exochorda,
-    <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-  <li>Exospore,
-    <a href="#Page_87">87</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
-  <li>Exostemma,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_603">[603]</span></li>
-  <li>Exuviella,
-    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_18">18</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eye-bright,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Eye-spot,”
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Faba,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fabiana,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fabroniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Fæchel,”
-    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-  <li>Facultative parasites,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fagonia,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fagus,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_347">347</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Fairy-rings,”
-    <a href="#Page_86">86</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_163">163</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
-  <li>Falcaria,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Fan,”
-    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fan-palm,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
-  <li>Farinosæ,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fatsia,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-  <li>Feather-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Feather palm,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fedia,
-    <a href="#Page_557">557</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fegatella,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fennel,
-    <a href="#Page_492">492</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Ferment of wine,”
-    <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fermentation,
-    <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Alcoholic,
-    <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ferns,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Stem of,
-    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">True,
-    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Water,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Various,
-    <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ferraria,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ferula,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fescue,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Festuca,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Festuceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fevillea,
-    <a href="#Page_478">478</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ficaria,
-    <a href="#Page_334">334</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ficus,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_354">354</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_355">355</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Field-horsetail,
-    <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
-  <li>Field-madder,
-    <a href="#Page_552">552</a>.</li>
-  <li>Field-thistle,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fig-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_524">524</a>.</li>
-  <li>Filago,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Filament,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
-  <li>Filbert,
-    <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
-  <li>Filices,
-    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Systematic division of,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
-  <li>Filicinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_234">234</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fiori di fico,
-    <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fiorin,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fir,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_170">170</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_263">263</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_264">264</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fir-cones,
-    <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
-  <li>Firneedle-rust,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fissidens,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fissidentaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fission-Algæ,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fission-Fungi,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fission-plants,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fistulina,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Flag,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Flagellata,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-  <li>Flagellatæ,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Flax,
-    <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li>
-  <li>Flea-bane,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Fleur de vin,”
-    <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
-  <li>Floral-leaves,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-  <li>Florideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_77">77</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
-  <li>Flower,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Monocotyledonous,
-    <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
-  <li>Flowering-plants,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
-  <li>Flowering-rush,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Flowers-of-tan,
-    <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fly-mould,
-    <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fly-mushroom,
-    <a href="#Page_167">167</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fly-trap,
-    <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fœniculum,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Foliage-leaves,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fontinalaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fontinalis,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fool’s-parsley,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Foot,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fore-leaf,
-    <a href="#Page_275">275</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
-  <li>Forget-me-not,
-    <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
-  <li>Forskohlea,
-    <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
-  <li>Forsythia,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fossil Gymnosperms,
-    <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fothergilla,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fourcroya,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fovea,
-    <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
-  <li>Foxglove,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fox-tail,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fragaria,
-    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fragilarieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Franciscea,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Francoaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li>
-  <li>Frangulinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_443">443</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li>
-  <li>Frankeniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
-  <li>Frankincense,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fraxinus,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>French-bean,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>French Rose,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Freycinetia,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fritillaria,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_313">313</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Frog-bit,
-    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Fruit,”
-    <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fruit,
-    <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fruit-bearers,
-    <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fruit-bodies,
-    <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Fruit-forms,”
-    <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
-  <li>Frullania,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Frustule,
-    <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-  <li>Frustulia,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fucaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fuchsia,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fucoideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fucus,
-    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_73">73</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_74">74</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fuligo,
-    <a href="#Page_6">6</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fumago,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fumaria,
-    <a href="#Page_396">396</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fumariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fumitory,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Funaria,
-    <a href="#Page_182">182</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Funariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Funckia,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_313">313</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fundaments,
-    <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fungi,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fungi-galls,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fungi Imperfecti,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fungus chirurgorum,
-    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">laricis,
-    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
-  <li>Funicle,
-    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
-  <li>Furcellaria,
-    <a href="#Page_79">79</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Furze,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fusicladium,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Gagea,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gaillardia,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Galactodendron,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Galangal,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Galanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Galaxaura,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Galaxia,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Galbanum,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Galega,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Galeobdolon,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li>
-  <li>Galeopsis,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.</li>
-  <li>Galinsoga,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Galipea,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
-  <li>Galium,
-    <a href="#Page_552">552</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Galphimia,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gambier,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gamboge,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gambo-hemp,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gametangium,
-    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gamete,
-    <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gametophore,
-    <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gametophyte,
-    <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gamopetalæ,
-    <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
-  <li>Garcinia,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Garden-cress,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gardenia,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gardenieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Garidella,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-  <li>Garlic,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Garrya,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gasteria,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gasterolichenes,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gasteromycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gastonia,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gaultheria,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gaura,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-  <li>Geaster,
-    <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gelidiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gelidium,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_604">[604]</span></li>
-  <li>Genipa,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Genista,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Genisteæ,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gentian,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gentiana,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gentianaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gentianeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>.</li>
-  <li>Geoglossum,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-  <li>Geonoma,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Georgiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Geraniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
-  <li>Geranium,
-    <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li>
-  <li>Germ-pores,
-    <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gesneria,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gesneriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_518">518</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gesnerieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Geum,
-    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gigartina,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gigartinaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gigartinales,
-    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gilia,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gillenia,
-    <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gills,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ginger,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ginkgo,
-    <a href="#Page_255">255</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_257">257</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_260">260</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gipsy-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gladiolus,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glandulæ,
-    <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glasswort,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glaucium,
-    <a href="#Page_394">394</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glaucocystis,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glaux,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gleba,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glechoma,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gleditschia,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gleichenia,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gleicheniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glenodinium,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-  <li>Globba,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Globe-thistle,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Globularia,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Globulariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glœocapsa,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glœotrichia,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gloiopeltis,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gloiosiphoniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gloxinia,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glume,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glumifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glyceria,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glycine,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glycyrrhiza,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glyptostrobus,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gnaphalium,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gnetaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_251">251</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_271">271</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gneteæ,
-    <a href="#Page_252">252</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gnetum,
-    <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gnidia,
-    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gnomonia,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gnomoniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Goat’s-beard,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Godetia,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-  <li>Godlewskia,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Golden-currant,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Golden-rod,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Golden Saxifrage,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Goldfussia,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gold-of-pleasure,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gomontia,
-    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gomontiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gomphonema,
-    <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gomphonemeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gomphosphæria,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gomphrena,
-    <a href="#Page_368">368</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gonatozygon,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gongrosira,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gonidia,
-    <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gonimoblast,
-    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-  <li>Goniotrichaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
-  <li>Goniotrichum,
-    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gonium,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gonococcus,
-    <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gonolobus,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Goodenia,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li>
-  <li>Goodeniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gooseberry,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Goosefoot,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gossypieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gossypium,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_429">429</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gouania,
-    <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Gourds,”
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gout-weed,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gracilaria,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Grains of Paradise,”
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gramineæ,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_283">283</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-  <li>Grape-disease,
-    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
-  <li>Graphiola,
-    <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
-  <li>Graphis,
-    <a href="#Page_140">140</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Grasses,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-  <li>Grass-flower,
-    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
-  <li>Grass-fruit,
-    <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
-  <li>Grass of Parnassus,
-    <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li>
-  <li>Grass-wrack,
-    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-  <li>Grateloupiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gratiola,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li>
-  <li>Green Algæ,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Greenheart,”
-    <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
-  <li>Grevillea,
-    <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li>
-  <li>Griffithsia,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Grimmia,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Grimmiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gronovia,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ground Ivy,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Groundsel,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gruinales,
-    <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li>
-  <li>Guaiacum,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Guano,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-  <li>Guava,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Guava-rum,
-    <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li>
-  <li>Guazuma,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Guelder-rose,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_555">555</a>.</li>
-  <li>Guepinia,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
-  <li>Guinea-corn,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Guinea Pepper-plant,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Guizotia,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gulf-weed,
-    <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gum-arabic,
-    <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gum-benzoin,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gum-tragacanth,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gum-trees,
-    <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gunnera,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_482">482</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-  <li>Guttapercha,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Guttiferæ,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gymnadenia,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gymnoascaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gymnoascales,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gymnoascus,
-    <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gymnodinium,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gymnogramme,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gymnospermæ,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_234">234</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_250">250</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gymnosperms,
-    <a href="#Page_244">244</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Fossil,
-    <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gymnosporangium,
-    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gymnosporeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gymnostomum,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gymnozyga,
-    <a href="#Page_42">42</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gynandræ,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
-  <li>Gynandropsis,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gynerium,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gynœceum,
-    <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gynophore,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gynostemium,
-    <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gysophila,
-    <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Habenaria,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hablitzia,
-    <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li>
-  <li>Habrothamnus,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hacquetia,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hæmanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hæmatoxylon,
-    <a href="#Page_467">467</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hæmodoraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hæmodorum,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hagenia,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hair-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hakea,
-    <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li>
-  <li>Halesia,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Halianthus,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Halidrys,
-    <a href="#Page_73">73</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-  <li>Halimeda,
-    <a href="#Page_62">62</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
-  <li>Halimus,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
-  <li>Halophila,
-    <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
-  <li>Haloragidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_482">482</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-  <li>Haloragis,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_605">[605]</span></li>
-  <li>Halymenia,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hamamelidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hamamelis,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hamelia,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hankornia,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hapalosiphon,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-  <li>Haplomitrium,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Haplospora,
-    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-  <li>Haptera,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hard-fern,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hare’s-ear,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hart’s-tongue,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Harzsticken,”
-    <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
-  <li>Haschisch,
-    <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hassalia,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-  <li>Haustoria,
-    <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hawkbit,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hawksbeard,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hawthorn,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hay-bacillus,
-    <a href="#Page_37">37</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_38">38</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hazel,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hazel-nut,
-    <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heal-all,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heath,
-    <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hebenstretia,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hechtia,
-    <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hedera,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hedge-mustard,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hedge-parsley,
-    <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hedwigia,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hedycarya,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hedychium,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hedyosmum,
-    <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hedysareæ,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hedysarum,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helenium,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heleocharis,
-    <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heliantheæ,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helianthemum,
-    <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helianthus,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helichrysum,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heliconia,
-    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heliconiæ,
-    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helicophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helicteres,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heliophilinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heliotropieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heliotropium,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hellebore,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helleboreæ,
-    <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helleborus,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_380">380</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helminthocladiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helobieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helosciadium,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helosis,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helotiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helotium,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helvella,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helvellaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helvellales,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helwingia,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hemerocallideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hemerocallis,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_313">313</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hemiasci,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hemibasidii,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hemichlamydeous,
-    <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hemileia,
-    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hemlock,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hemp,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hemp-agrimony,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hemp-nettle,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li>
-  <li>Henbane,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Henriquezia,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hepaticæ,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hepialus,
-    <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heracleum,
-    <a href="#Page_492">492</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-  <li>Herb-Paris,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heritiera,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hermannia,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hermaphrodite,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
-  <li>Herminium,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hermodactylus,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hernandia,
-    <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li>
-  <li>Herniaria,
-    <a href="#Page_365">365</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Herpestis,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Herposteiron,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Herpotrichia,
-    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hesperideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hesperidinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hesperis,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heteranthera,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heterobasidion,
-    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heterocysteæ,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heterocysts,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heterœcious,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heteromerous,
-    <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heteropteris,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heterosphæria,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heterosphæriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heterosporous Vascular Cryptogams,
-    <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heterotoma,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heuchera,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hibiscus,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hickory,
-    <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hieracium,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hierochloa,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Higher Fungi,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hilum,
-    <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
-  <li>Himanthalia,
-    <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-  <li>Himantidium,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hip,
-    <a href="#Page_459">459</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hippocrateaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hippocrepis,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hippomane,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hippophaë,
-    <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hippuris,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Hochblatt,”
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hog’s-fennel,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-  <li>Holbœllia,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Holcus,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Holly,
-    <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hollyhock,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Holochlamydeous,
-    <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
-  <li>Holosteum,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Homalia,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Homalothecium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Homocysteæ,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Homoiomerous,
-    <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
-  <li>Honckenya,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Honesty,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Honey-dew,
-    <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
-  <li>Honey-leaves,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
-  <li>Honeysuckle,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hookeriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hop,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hopea,
-    <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hordeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hordeum,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Horehound,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hormidium,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hormogonia,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hornbeam,
-    <a href="#Page_157">157</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_343">343</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li>
-  <li>Horned Pond-weed,
-    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-  <li>Horn-nut,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-  <li>Horn-poppy,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Horn-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Horse-bean,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Horse-chestnut,
-    <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
-  <li>Horse-radish,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Horsetails,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hosta,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hoteia,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hottonia,
-    <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hound’s-tongue,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>House-leek,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Houttuynia,
-    <a href="#Page_359">359</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hoya,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Humiriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li>
-  <li>Humulus,
-    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_357">357</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hura,
-    <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hyacintheæ,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hyacinthus,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_313">313</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hyalotheca,
-    <a href="#Page_42">42</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydnaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydnophytum,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydnora,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydnum,
-    <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydra,
-    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrangea,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrangeaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrastin,
-    <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrastis,
-    <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrilla,
-    <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrocharis,
-    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrocharitaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrocleis,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrocotyle,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrocotyleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrodictyaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrodictyon,
-    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_606">[606]</span></li>
-  <li>Hydrolea,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrophyllaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydropterideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydruraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrurus,
-    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hygrophorei,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hygrophorus,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hylocomium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hymenæa,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hymenium,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hymenogaster,
-    <a href="#Page_174">174</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_175">175</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hymenogastraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hymenolichenes,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hymenomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hymenophore,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hymenophyllaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_206">206</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hymenophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hyoscyamine,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hyoscyamus,
-    <a href="#Page_518">518</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_519">519</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_520">520</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_523">523</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypecoum,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypericaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypericum,
-    <a href="#Page_413">413</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypha,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hyphæ-like threads,
-    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hyphæne,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypholoma,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypnaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypnum,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypobasal,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypochæris,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypochnus,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypocreaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypocreales,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypoderma,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypodermaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypomyces,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hyporhodius,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypothecium,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypoxideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypoxis,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypoxylon,
-    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypsophyllary leaves,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hyssop,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hyssopus,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hysteriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hysteriales,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hysterium,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hysterophyta,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Iberis,
-    <a href="#Page_398">398</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Icacinaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Iceland-lichen,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Iceland-moss,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ice-plant,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
-  <li>Icica,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ignatius-beans,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ilex,
-    <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
-  <li>Illecebrum,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Illicieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>Illicium,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>Impatiens,
-    <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li>
-  <li>Imperatoria,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Incense,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Indian-corn,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Indian-cress,
-    <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li>
-  <li>Indigo,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Indigofera,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Indusium,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
-  <li>Inflorescence of Palm,
-    <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
-  <li>Infusoria,
-    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
-  <li>Inga,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
-  <li>Integuments,
-    <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
-  <li>Inula,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Inulin,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Involucre,
-    <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
-  <li>Involution-forms,
-    <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ionidium,
-    <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ipecacuanha,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ipomæa,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-  <li>Iridaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Iris,
-    <a href="#Page_276">276</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Irish-moss,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Iron-bacteria,
-    <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
-  <li>Iron-wood,
-    <a href="#Page_339">339</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Irpex,
-    <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
-  <li>Isactis,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Isaria,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-  <li>Isatis,
-    <a href="#Page_403">403</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Isnardia,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-  <li>Isoëtaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
-  <li>Isoëtes,
-    <a href="#Page_200">200</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_228">228</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_230">230</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
-  <li>Isogamous fertilisation,
-    <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
-  <li>Isolepis,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-  <li>Isonandra,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Isopyrum,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Isosporous Vascular Cryptogams,
-    <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
-  <li>Isothecium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Isotoma,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ivy,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ixia,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ixora,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Jacaranda,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jack,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jacquinia,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jalap,
-    <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jambosa,
-    <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li>
-  <li>Japanese wax,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jasione,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_561">561</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jasminaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jasmine,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jasminum,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jateorhiza,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jatropha,
-    <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jequirty,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jerusalem-Artichoke,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jonquil,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Judas’-ear,
-    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
-  <li>Judas-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Juglandaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_337">337</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li>
-  <li>Juglandifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li>
-  <li>Juglans,
-    <a href="#Page_349">349</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
-  <li>Juncaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_283">283</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
-  <li>Juncaginaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
-  <li>Juncus,
-    <a href="#Page_283">283</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jungermannia,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jungermannieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
-  <li>Juniper,
-    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_268">268</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
-  <li>Juniperus,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_268">268</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jurinea,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jussiæa,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-  <li>Justicia,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jute,
-    <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Kalanchoë,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kale,
-    <a href="#Page_403">403</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kalmia,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kæmpferia,
-    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kamala,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kaulfussia,
-    <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kefir-grains,
-    <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kelp,
-    <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kerria,
-    <a href="#Page_457">457</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kidney-bean,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kielmeyera,
-    <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-  <li>“King Charles and the Oak,”
-    <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kingia,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kino,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kitaibelia,
-    <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
-  <li>Knap-weed,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Knapwell,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Knautia,
-    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</li>
-  <li>Knot-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li>
-  <li>Knowltonia,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kobresia,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kochia,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
-  <li>Koeleria,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Koelreuteria,
-    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
-  <li>Koenigia,
-    <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kohlrabi,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Krameria,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kramerieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Koso-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Labellum,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_323">323</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
-  <li>Labiatæ,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_536">536</a>.</li>
-  <li>Labiate-flowered,
-    <a href="#Page_567">567</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Laburnum,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_607">[607]</span></li>
-  <li>Labyrinth Fungus,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lace-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lacmus,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lactarius,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lactoridaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lactoris,
-    <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lactuca,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ladanum,
-    <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ladenbergia,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ladies-mantle,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lady-fern,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lady’s-finger,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lælia,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lagenandra,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lagenaria,
-    <a href="#Page_479">479</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lagenedium,
-    <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lagerstrœmia,
-    <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lagetta,
-    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lagœcia,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li>
-  <li>Laguncularia,
-    <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lagurus,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lamellæ,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Laminaria,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Laminariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lamium,
-    <a href="#Page_536">536</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lamprothamnus,
-    <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
-  <li>Landolphia,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Langsdorffia,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lantana,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lappa,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lapsana,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Larch,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-  <li>Larch-canker,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-  <li>Larch-fungus,
-    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lardizabalaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Larix,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>Larkspur,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-  <li>Larrea,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Laserpitium,
-    <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lasiandra,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li>
-  <li>Latania,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lathræa,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lathyrus,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lattice-rust,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
-  <li>Laudatea,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lauraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_391">391</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-  <li>Laurus,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_391">391</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_392">392</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lavandula,
-    <a href="#Page_536">536</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lavatera,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lavender,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Oil of,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lawsonia,
-    <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leafy-mosses,
-    <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leathesia,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leaven,
-    <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lecanora,
-    <a href="#Page_140">140</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lechenaultia,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lecidea,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lecythideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lecythis,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ledum,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leea,
-    <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leek,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leersia,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leguminosæ,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
-  <li>Legume,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lejolisia,
-    <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lemanea,
-    <a href="#Page_80">80</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lemaneaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lemna,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lemnaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lemon,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lentil,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lentinus,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leontice,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leontodon,
-    <a href="#Page_568">568</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leontopodium,
-    <a href="#Page_593">593</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leonurus,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lepidiinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lepidium,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lepidocaryinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lepidodendraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lepidozia,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lepiota,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leptobryum,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leptogium,
-    <a href="#Page_140">140</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leptomitus,
-    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leptopleura,
-    <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leptopuccinia,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leptosiphon,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leptospermeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leptospermum,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leptosporangiatæ,
-    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_212">212</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leptothrix,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_33">33</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_35">35</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leptotrichum,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lepturus,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lescuræa,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leskea,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leskeaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lessonia,
-    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lettuce,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leucobryaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leucobryum,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leucodon,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leucojum,
-    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leuconostoc,
-    <a href="#Page_28">28</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_29">29</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-  <li>Levisticum,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Liagora,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Libanotis,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
-  <li>Libocedrus,
-    <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lichen,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lichen-forming Ascomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Basidiomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lichenin,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lichina,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Licmophoreæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lignum Vitæ,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ligularia,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ligulate-flowered,
-    <a href="#Page_567">567</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ligule,
-    <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ligulifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ligustrum,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lilac,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lilæa,
-    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-  <li>Liliaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_274">274</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lilies,
-    <a href="#Page_311">311</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Liliifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lilium,
-    <a href="#Page_245">245</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_313">313</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lily of the Valley,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lime,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
-  <li>Limnanthaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li>
-  <li>Limnanthemum,
-    <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li>
-  <li>Limnanthes,
-    <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li>
-  <li>Limnocharis,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Limodorum,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
-  <li>Limonia,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
-  <li>Limosella,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Linaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li>
-  <li>Linaria,
-    <a href="#Page_523">523</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lindera,
-    <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ling,
-    <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li>
-  <li>Linnæa,
-    <a href="#Page_555">555</a>.</li>
-  <li>Linnæeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_555">555</a>.</li>
-  <li>Linociera,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Linseed,
-    <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
-  <li>Linum,
-    <a href="#Page_417">417</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
-  <li>Liparis,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lippia,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Liquidambar,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Liquorice,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Liriodendron,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Listera,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
-  <li>Litchi,
-    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lithoderma,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lithodermataceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lithophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lithospermum,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lithothamnion,
-    <a href="#Page_80">80</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Littorella,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_531">531</a>.</li>
-  <li>Liverworts,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_181">181</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
-  <li>Livistona,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_299">299</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_300">300</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lloydia,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Loasaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lobelia,
-    <a href="#Page_562">562</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lobeliaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_335">335</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lobeline,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lochnera,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Locusts,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lodicules,
-    <a href="#Page_288">288</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lodoicea,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Loganiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>.</li>
-  <li>Logwood,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Loiseleuria,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lolium,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lomandra,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lomaria,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lomentaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lomentaria,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_608">[608]</span></li>
-  <li>Lonicera,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_554">554</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lonicereæ,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Long-pepper,
-    <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
-  <li>Loose-strife,
-    <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lopezia,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lophiostomaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lophocolea,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lophodermium,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lophospermum,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Loquat,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Loranthaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
-  <li>Loranthoideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
-  <li>Loranthus,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Loteæ,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lotus,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Louse-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Love-in-the-mist,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lucerne,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lucuma,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Luehea,
-    <a href="#Page_424">424</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-  <li>Luffa,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lunaria,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lung-Lichen,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lung-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lunularia,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lupin,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lupinus,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Luzula,
-    <a href="#Page_283">283</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lychnis,
-    <a href="#Page_365">365</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lychnothamnus,
-    <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lycium,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lycogala,
-    <a href="#Page_6">6</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lycoperdaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lycoperdon,
-    <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lycopersicum,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lycopodiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lycopodieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lycopodinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_226">226</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_228">228</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_234">234</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lycopodium,
-    <a href="#Page_200">200</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_226">226</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_227">227</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_228">228</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lycopsis,
-    <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lycopus,
-    <a href="#Page_536">536</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lygeum,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lygodium,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lyme-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lyngbya,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lyngbyaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lyonia,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lysimachia,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lysipoma,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lythraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lythrum,
-    <a href="#Page_482">482</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Maba,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Machærium,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Mace,”
-    <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
-  <li>Macleya,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Maclura,
-    <a href="#Page_354">354</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Macrosporangium,
-    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
-  <li>Macrospore,
-    <a href="#Page_200">200</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_242">242</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_243">243</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_245">245</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
-  <li>Macrocystis,
-    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-  <li>Macrozamia,
-    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-  <li>Madder,
-    <a href="#Page_552">552</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Madia,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Madotheca,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mad-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li>
-  <li>Maesa,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Magnolia,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>Magnoliaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Magnolieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mahernia,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mahogany,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mahonia,
-    <a href="#Page_149">149</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Maiden-hair,
-    <a href="#Page_206">206</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-  <li>Maize,
-    <a href="#Page_289">289</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Maize-blight,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-  <li>Majanthemum,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malachium,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malachra,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malaxis,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malcolmiinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Male-Fern,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mallow,
-    <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malope,
-    <a href="#Page_429">429</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malopeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malpighiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malpighia,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malt,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malus,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_463">463</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_464">464</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malva,
-    <a href="#Page_426">426</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_429">429</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malvaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malveæ,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malvaviscus,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mamme,
-    <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mammea,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mammillæ,
-    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mammillaria,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mammoni,
-    <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mancinil-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mandragora,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mandrake,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Manettia,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mangifera,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Manglesia,
-    <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mango,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mangold,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mangosteen,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mangrove,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-  <li>Manihot,
-    <a href="#Page_431">431</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Manilla Hemp,
-    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
-  <li>Maniok,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Manna,”
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Manna Ash,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Manna-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Manna-lichen,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mannit,
-    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-  <li>Maple,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Maranta,
-    <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marantaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marasmiei,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marasmius,
-    <a href="#Page_168">168</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marattia,
-    <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marattiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_209">209</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_212">212</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marcgraviaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marchantia,
-    <a href="#Page_181">181</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_183">183</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_184">184</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marchantiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marchantieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mare’s-tail,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marigold,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marjoram,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marrow,
-    <a href="#Page_480">480</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marrubium,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marsilia,
-    <a href="#Page_216">216</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_217">217</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_219">219</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_220">220</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marsiliaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_218">218</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marsh Cinquefoil,
-    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marsh-marigold,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Martynia,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Masdevallia,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Massariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Massulæ,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Mast,”
-    <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mastic,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mastigobryum,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mastigocoleus,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Maté,
-    <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li>
-  <li>Matico,
-    <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
-  <li>Matricaria,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Matthiola,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Maurandia,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mauritia,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Maxillaria,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>May,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mayacaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
-  <li>Maydeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Meadow-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Meadow Rue,
-    <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
-  <li>Meadow-sweet,
-    <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mecca-balsam,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Meconopsis,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Medicago,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Medick,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Medinilla,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li>
-  <li>Medlar,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Meesea,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Megacarpæa,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melaleuca,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melampodium,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melampsora,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melampsorella,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melampyrum,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melanconidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melandrium,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melanogaster,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melanommaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_609">[609]</span></li>
-  <li>Melanoselinum,
-    <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melanosinapis,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melanospora,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melanoxylon,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melanthium,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melastomaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-  <li>Meliaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melianthaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melianthus,
-    <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melica,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melilotus,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melinophyl,
-    <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melissa,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melobesia,
-    <a href="#Page_80">80</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melocactus,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melochia,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melogrammataceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melon,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melosira,
-    <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melosireæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Menispermaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Menispermum,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mentha,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_536">536</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Menthol,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mentzelia,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Menyantheæ,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li>
-  <li>Menyanthes,
-    <a href="#Page_240">240</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_543">543</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Menziesia,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mercurialis,
-    <a href="#Page_431">431</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mercury,
-    <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
-  <li>Merendera,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mericarp,
-    <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li>
-  <li>Meridieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Merismopedium,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Merismopedium form,
-    <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mertensia,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Merulius,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mesembrianthemeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mesembrianthemum,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mesocarpaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mesomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mesotænium,
-    <a href="#Page_43">43</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mespilus,
-    <a href="#Page_463">463</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Metaxenous,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
-  <li>Metrosideros,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Metroxylon,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Metzgeria,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Metzleria,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li>
-  <li>Meum,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
-  <li>Michauxia,
-    <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li>
-  <li>Miconia,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li>
-  <li>Micrasterias,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microcachrys,
-    <a href="#Page_255">255</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_260">260</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microchæte,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microchloa,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Micrococcus,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_35">35</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microcoleus,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microconidia,
-    <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microcycas,
-    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microdictyon,
-    <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microglena,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Micropyle,
-    <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microsphæra,
-    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microspira-comma,
-    <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microspora,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microsporangia,
-    <a href="#Page_237">237</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microspore,
-    <a href="#Page_200">200</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microtea,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mignonette,
-    <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mikania,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mildews,
-    <a href="#Page_119">119</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
-  <li>Milfoil,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Milium,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Milk-thistle,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Milk-vetch,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Milk-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li>
-  <li>Millet,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mimosa,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mimosaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mimulus,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mimusops,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mint,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mirabilis,
-    <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mistletoe,
-    <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mitella,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mitromyces,
-    <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mitrula,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mnium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mock Orange-blossom,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Modiola,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-  <li>Moehringia,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mohria,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Molinia,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mollinedia,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mollisia,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mollisiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mollugo,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
-  <li>Momordica,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monacanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monangic,
-    <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monarda,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monardeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.</li>
-  <li>Money-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monimia,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monimiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monkshood,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monoblepharis,
-    <a href="#Page_102">102</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monocotyledones,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_273">273</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_274">274</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monocotyledonous flower,
-    <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monœcious,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monostroma,
-    <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monotropa,
-    <a href="#Page_334">334</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_506">506</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monstera,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
-  <li>Montia,
-    <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-  <li>Moonwort,
-    <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
-  <li>Moraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
-  <li>Moræa,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Morchella,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-  <li>Moreæ,
-    <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li>
-  <li>Morell,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-  <li>Moricandiinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Morina,
-    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</li>
-  <li>Morinda,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mortierellaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mortierella,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-  <li>Morus,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li>
-  <li>Moschatel,
-    <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li>
-  <li>Moss,
-    <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Moss-flower,”
-    <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
-  <li>Moss-fruit,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-  <li>Moss-rose,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mosses,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_181">181</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mougeotia,
-    <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
-  <li>Moulds,
-    <a href="#Page_31">31</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_94">94</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mountain-ash,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mountain-meal,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mountain-pine,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mouse-tail,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mucor,
-    <a href="#Page_97">97</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_98">98</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mucoraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Mucor-yeast,”
-    <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mucro,
-    <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mucuna,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mud-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Muehlenbeckia,
-    <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mulberry,
-    <a href="#Page_353">353</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mullein,
-    <a href="#Page_523">523</a>.</li>
-  <li>Murracytaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Musa,
-    <a href="#Page_324">324</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
-  <li>Musaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Muscardine,”
-    <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-  <li>Muscari,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Musci,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">frondosi,
-    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Muscineæ,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
-  <li>Museæ,
-    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mushroom,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
-  <li>Musk-rose,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mutisieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mycelium,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mycena,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mycoidea,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mycoideaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mycomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mycorhiza,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_175">175</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_180">180</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mycosiphonales,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myosotis,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_534">534</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myosurus,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_380">380</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myrcia,
-    <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myrica,
-    <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myricaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_337">337</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myricaria,
-    <a href="#Page_411">411</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myriophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myriotrichia,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myriotrichiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myristica,
-    <a href="#Page_392">392</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_610">[610]</span></li>
-  <li>Myristicaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myrmecodia,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myroxylon,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myrrh,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myrrha,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myrrhis,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myrsinaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myrsine,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myrtaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myrteæ,
-    <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myrtifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myrtle,
-    <a href="#Page_487">487</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myrtus,
-    <a href="#Page_488">488</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myxamœba,
-    <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myxogasteres,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myxomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myxophyceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myzodendron,
-    <a href="#Page_500">500</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Naccaria,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nægelia,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Najadaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Najas,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nandina,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Narcissus,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nardostachys,
-    <a href="#Page_557">557</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nardus,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li>
-  <li>Narthecium,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-  <li>Narthex,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nasturtium,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li>
-  <li>Navicula,
-    <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
-  <li>Naviculeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Neck-canal-cells,
-    <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
-  <li>Neckera,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Neckeraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nectandra,
-    <a href="#Page_392">392</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nectria,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-  <li>Neea,
-    <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-  <li>Negundo,
-    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nelumbo,
-    <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nelumboneæ,
-    <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nemalion,
-    <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nemalionales,
-    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nemastomaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nemesia,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nemophila,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Neomeris,
-    <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
-  <li>Neottia,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
-  <li>Neottieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
-  <li>Neovossia,
-    <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nepenthaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_408">408</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nepenthes,
-    <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nepeta,
-    <a href="#Page_536">536</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nepeteæ,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nephelium,
-    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nephrolepis,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nephroselmis,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nerium,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nesæa,
-    <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-  <li>Neslia,
-    <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nest-fungi,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nettle,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_352">352</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
-  <li>Neuradeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-  <li>Neuwiedia,
-    <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nicandra,
-    <a href="#Page_519">519</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nicotiana,
-    <a href="#Page_520">520</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nicotine,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nidularia,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nidulariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nierembergia,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nigella,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_380">380</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nightshade,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nigritella,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nile-lily,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nipa,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nipplewort,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nitella,
-    <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nitelleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nitraria,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nitrifying Bacteria,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nitzchieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Noble Pine,
-    <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
-  <li>Noctiluca,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nodularia,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nolana,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nolanaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_518">518</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Noli-me-tangere,
-    <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nonnea,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nonsexual reproduction,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nostoc,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_23">23</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_27">27</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_29">29</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_138">138</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nostocaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nostocopsis,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nothofagus,
-    <a href="#Page_347">347</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_348">348</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
-  <li>Notorhizæ,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nucellus,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_243">243</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nuculiferæ,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_531">531</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nucumentaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nullipora,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nuphar,
-    <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nutmegs,
-    <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nutritive-tissue,
-    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nux vomica,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nyctaginiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nyctalis,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nyctanthes,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nycterinia,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nymphæa,
-    <a href="#Page_387">387</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nymphæaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nymphæeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li class="hangingindent">Oak,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_346">346</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_347">347</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oat,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_292">292</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oat-grain,
-    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oat-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Obdiplostemonous,
-    <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
-  <li>Obelidium,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-  <li>Obligate parasites,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ochna,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ochnaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ochroma,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ocimum,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ocrea,
-    <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li>
-  <li>Odonthalia,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Odontites,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Œdogoniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
-  <li>Œdogonium,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_11">11</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_55">55</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
-  <li>Œnanthe,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Œnothera,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-  <li>Œnotheraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oidia,
-    <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oidium,
-    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oidium forms,
-    <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oil-mould,
-    <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oil-palm,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Olea,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oleaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oleander,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oligorus,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Olive,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Olive-brown Seaweeds,
-    <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
-  <li>Olive Oil,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Olpidiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-  <li>Olpidieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-  <li>Olpidium,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-  <li>Olyreæ,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Omphalodes,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li>
-  <li>Onagraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oncidium,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oncobyrsa,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Onion,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Onobrychis,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ononis,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Onopordon,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ooblastema-filaments,
-    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oocystis,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oogamous fertilisation,
-    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oogonium,
-    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oophyte,
-    <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oosphere,
-    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oospore,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-  <li>Operculum,
-    <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ophiocytium,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ophioglossaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_209">209</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ophioglossum,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_211">211</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ophiopogon,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ophrydeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ophrys,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
-  <li>Opium-poppy,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oplismenus,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Opuntia,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orange,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orchid, diagram of flower,
-    <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orchidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orchideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_611">[611]</span></li>
-  <li>Orchids,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orchis,
-    <a href="#Page_276">276</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oreobolus,
-    <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oreodoxa,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Organs of attachment,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
-  <li>Origanum,
-    <a href="#Page_536">536</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ornithogalum,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ornithopus,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orobanche,
-    <a href="#Page_334">334</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orontieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orontium,
-    <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orris-root,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orseille,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orthoploceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orthospermeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orthothecium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orthotrichum,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orthotropous,
-    <a href="#Page_242">242</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oryza,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oryzeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oscillaria,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_23">23</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oscillariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Osiers,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
-  <li>Osmunda,
-    <a href="#Page_209">209</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Osmundaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ostioles,
-    <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ostropa,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ostropaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ostrya,
-    <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
-  <li>Osyris,
-    <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ouratea,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ouvirandra,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ovary,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ovule,
-    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_242">242</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ovuliferous scale,
-    <a href="#Page_256">256</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oxalidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oxalis,
-    <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ox-eye,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oxslip,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oxybaphus,
-    <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oxycoccus,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_510">510</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oxyria,
-    <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oyster Mushroom,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Padina,
-    <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pæonia,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pæonieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pæpalanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
-  <li>Palaquium,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Palava,
-    <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pales,
-    <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
-  <li>Palisander-wood,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paliurus,
-    <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
-  <li>Palm,
-    <a href="#Page_275">275</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_276">276</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Branching of,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Inflorescence of,
-    <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
-  <li>Palm-oil,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Palm-wax,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Palm-wine,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Palmæ,
-    <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
-  <li>Palmella-stage,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
-  <li>Palmyra-palm,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paludella,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pampas-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Panama hats,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Panax,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pancratium,
-    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pandanaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pandanus,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pandorina,
-    <a href="#Page_45">45</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paniceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Panicum,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pansy,
-    <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
-  <li>Panus,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Papaveraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li>
-  <li>Papaver,
-    <a href="#Page_394">394</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Papaw,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Papayaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paper-mulberry tree,
-    <a href="#Page_354">354</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Papilionaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_335">335</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pappus,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_566">566</a>.</li>
-  <li>Papyrus,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paradise apple,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paraglobulin,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paraphyses,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paraguay tea,
-    <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li>
-  <li>Parasites,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
-  <li>Parasites, endophytic,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">endozoic,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">epiphytic,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">epizoic,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">facultative,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">obligate,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">pathogenic,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li>Parasitic Bacteria,
-    <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
-  <li>Parasol-fungus,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pariana,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
-  <li>Parietaria,
-    <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paris,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paritium,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Parkia,
-    <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
-  <li>Parmelia,
-    <a href="#Page_140">140</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_141">141</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Parnassia,
-    <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paronychia,
-    <a href="#Page_365">365</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paronychieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Parrotia,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Parsley,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Parsnip,
-    <a href="#Page_492">492</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Parthenogenesis,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pasanea,
-    <a href="#Page_346">346</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paspalum,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pasta guaranà,
-    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pastinaca,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-  <li>Passerina,
-    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-  <li>Passiflora,
-    <a href="#Page_475">475</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Passifloraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Passiflorinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
-  <li>Passion-flower,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Patellaria,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Patellariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Patellea,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paternoster peas,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pathogenic Rod-Bacteria,
-    <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-  <li>Patrinia,
-    <a href="#Page_557">557</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paullinia,
-    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paulownia,
-    <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pavonia,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paxillei,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-  <li>Payena,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paypayroleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pea,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peach,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pear,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_464">464</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pedagnuoli,
-    <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pedaliaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_518">518</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pediastrum,
-    <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pedicularis,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peganum,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pelargonium,
-    <a href="#Page_418">418</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peliosanthes,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pellia,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pellitory,
-    <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peltigera,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pelvetia,
-    <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
-  <li>Penicillium,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
-  <li>Penium,
-    <a href="#Page_43">43</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pennisetum,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Penny-cress,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Penny-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pentacyclicæ,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pentadesma,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pentapera,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pentstemon,
-    <a href="#Page_524">524</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peplis,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pepper,
-    <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peppermint,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peperomia,
-    <a href="#Page_361">361</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pepperwort,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pereskia,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li>
-  <li>Perianth,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-  <li>Perichætium,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pericarp,
-    <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pericallis,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peridermium,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_154">154</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peridinea,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peridinin,
-    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peridinium,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peridiola,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peridium,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_89">89</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
-  <li>Perigynium,
-    <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
-  <li>Perilla,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Periphyses,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Periplasm,
-    <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
-  <li>Periploca,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Perisperm,
-    <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
-  <li>Perisporiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_612">[612]</span></li>
-  <li>Perisporiales,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_118">118</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peristome,
-    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-  <li>Perithecia,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
-  <li>Periwinkle,
-    <a href="#Page_543">543</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Perizonium,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pernambuco-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peronocarpic ascocarps,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peronospora,
-    <a href="#Page_101">101</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_104">104</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_105">105</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peronosporaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
-  <li>Persea,
-    <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
-  <li>Persica,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
-  <li>Personatæ,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pertusaria,
-    <a href="#Page_140">140</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Petals,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-  <li>Petasites,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Petiveria,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Petrocelis,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Petunia,
-    <a href="#Page_518">518</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peucedaneæ,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peucedanum,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peyssonellia,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peziza,
-    <a href="#Page_115">115</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pezizaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pezizales,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phacelia,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phacidiales,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phacidium,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phacotus,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phæophyceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phæophyl,
-    <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phæosporeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phæothamnion,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phagocytes,
-    <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phajus,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phalarideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phalaris,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phallaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phalloideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phallus,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phanerogams,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_234">234</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pharbitis,
-    <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pharus,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phascum,
-    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phaseoleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phaseolus,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_469">469</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phegopteris,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phellodendron,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
-  <li>Philadephus,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phillyrea,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Philodendron,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
-  <li>Philonotis,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phlebia,
-    <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phleum,
-    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phloëm,
-    <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phlœospora,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phlomis,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phlox,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phœniceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phœnix,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_299">299</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pholiota,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phormium,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_313">313</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phragmidium,
-    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phragmites,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phragmonema,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phrynium,
-    <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phycocyan,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phycoerythrin,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phycomyces,
-    <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phycomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phycophæin,
-    <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phycopyrrin,
-    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phycoxanthin,
-    <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phylica,
-    <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyllachora,
-    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyllactinia,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyllactis,
-    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyllanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_431">431</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyllitis,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyllobium,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyllocactus,
-    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyllocladus,
-    <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyllodia,
-    <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyllodoce,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phylloglossum,
-    <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyllophora,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyllosiphon,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyllosiphonaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
-  <li>Physalis,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Physarum,
-    <a href="#Page_6">6</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Physcia,
-    <a href="#Page_139">139</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Physcomitrium,
-    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Physiological varieties,
-    <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-  <li>Physoderma,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-  <li>Physostigma,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phytelephantinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phytelephas,
-    <a href="#Page_299">299</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyteuma,
-    <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phytoamœbæ,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phytolacca,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phytolaccaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phytomyxa,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phytophthora,
-    <a href="#Page_101">101</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_104">104</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_105">105</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
-  <li>Piassava,
-    <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
-  <li>Picea,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pichurim,
-    <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li>
-  <li>Picraena,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Picris,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Picrotoxine,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pilacraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pilacre,
-    <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pilea,
-    <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pilobolus,
-    <a href="#Page_99">99</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pilostyles,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pilularia,
-    <a href="#Page_216">216</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pimelea,
-    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pimenta,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pimento,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pimpernel,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pimpinell,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pimpinella,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pine,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_255">255</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_263">263</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pine-apple,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pine-shoot Fungus,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pinellia,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pinguicula,
-    <a href="#Page_334">334</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pink,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pin-mould,
-    <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pinnularia,
-    <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">Pinus,
-    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_264">264</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_265">265</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pinoideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_256">256</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_258">258</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pipe-flower,
-    <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li>
-  <li>Piper,
-    <a href="#Page_361">361</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
-  <li>Piperaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pipereæ,
-    <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
-  <li>Piptocephalidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-  <li>Piptocephalis,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pircunia,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pisonia,
-    <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pistia,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pistacia,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pistil,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pistillaria,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pistillate,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pisum,
-    <a href="#Page_469">469</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pitcairnia,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pitcher-plant,
-    <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pittosporaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pittosporum,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Placenta,
-    <a href="#Page_237">237</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
-  <li>Placochromaticæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plagiochila,
-    <a href="#Page_189">189</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plagiothecium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plagiotropideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Planera,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Plankton,”
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-  <li>Planogametes,
-    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plantago,
-    <a href="#Page_335">335</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_531">531</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_536">536</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_559">559</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plantaginaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_518">518</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plantain,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plasmodia,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plasmodiophora,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plasmodiophorales,
-    <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
-  <li>Platanaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Platanus,
-    <a href="#Page_456">456</a>.</li>
-  <li>Platanthera,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plate-cultures,
-    <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_613">[613]</span></li>
-  <li>Platonia,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Platycerium,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-  <li>Platycodon,
-    <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li>
-  <li>Platystemon,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plectonema,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plectranthus,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pleospora,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pleosporaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pleurandra,
-    <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pleuridium,
-    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pleurocarpi,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pleurococcaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pleurococcus,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pleurorhizæ.
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pleurotænium,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pleurothallis,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pleurotus,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plocamium,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plum,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plumbaginaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plumbago,
-    <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plumeria,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plumule,
-    <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pneumathodia,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-  <li>Poa,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Pocket-plum,”
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Pockets,”
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pod,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pod-pepper,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Podalyrieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li>
-  <li>Podocarpeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
-  <li>Podocarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_251">251</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_255">255</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_261">261</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-  <li>Podophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Podosphæra,
-    <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-  <li>Podospora,
-    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-  <li>Podostemaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_456">456</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pogostemon,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Poinciana,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Point Caraway,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polanisia,
-    <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polemoniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polemonium,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polianthes,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pollinarium,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pollinia,
-    <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pollinodium,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pollen-chamber,
-    <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pollen-grain,
-    <a href="#Page_240">240</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_244">244</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pollen-sac,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_237">237</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pollen-tube,
-    <a href="#Page_244">244</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polycarpicæ,
-    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polycystis,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polydinida,
-    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polyembryony,
-    <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polygala,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polygalaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polygamous,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polygonaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polygonatum,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polygonifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polygonum,
-    <a href="#Page_359">359</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_360">360</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polyides,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polykrikos,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polypetalæ,
-    <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polyphagus,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polypodiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_206">206</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_209">209</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polypodium,
-    <a href="#Page_207">207</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polyporaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polyporus,
-    <a href="#Page_163">163</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polysiphonia,
-    <a href="#Page_79">79</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polystachya,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polystigma,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polytrichaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polytrichum,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pomaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_456">456</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pomaderris,
-    <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pomalo,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pomegranate,
-    <a href="#Page_488">488</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pomona-fungus,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pond-weed,
-    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pontederia,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pontederiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Poplar,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li>
-  <li>Poppies,
-    <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li>
-  <li>Populus,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pore-fungus,
-    <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
-  <li>Porogames,
-    <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
-  <li>Poronia,
-    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-  <li>Porphyra,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
-  <li>Porphyraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
-  <li>Portulaca,
-    <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-  <li>Portulacaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-  <li>Posidonia,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Potamogeton,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-  <li>Potamogetonaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-  <li>Potato-fungus,
-    <a href="#Page_104">104</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
-  <li>Potato-plant,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Potentilla,
-    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Potentilleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
-  <li>Poterium,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pothos,
-    <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pottia,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pottiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pouzolzia,
-    <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
-  <li>Prasiola,
-    <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-  <li>Preissia,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
-  <li>Preslia,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Primrose,
-    <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li>
-  <li>Primula,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_512">512</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Primulaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_512">512</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li>
-  <li>Primulinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pringsheimia,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Prionium,
-    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pritchardia,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
-  <li>Priva,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Privet,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Procarpium,
-    <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
-  <li>Proembryo,
-    <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
-  <li>Profichi,
-    <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
-  <li>Promycelium,
-    <a href="#Page_94">94</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pronucleus,
-    <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
-  <li>Prorocentrum,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-  <li>Protea,
-    <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li>
-  <li>Proteaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li>
-  <li>Prothallium,
-    <a href="#Page_198">198</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_244">244</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Secondary,
-    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
-  <li>Protistæ,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
-  <li>Protium,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Protobasidia,
-    <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
-  <li>Protobasidiomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
-  <li>Protococcaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Protococcoideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
-  <li>Protomyces,
-    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-  <li>Protomycetaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-  <li>Protonema,
-    <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
-  <li>Provence oil,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Prunella,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Prunus,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_118">118</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Psalliota,
-    <a href="#Page_167">167</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_168">168</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_169">169</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Psamma,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pseudophacidiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pseudopodium,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pseudotsuga,
-    <a href="#Page_264">264</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_265">265</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>Psidium,
-    <a href="#Page_488">488</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Psilotaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
-  <li>Psilotum,
-    <a href="#Page_201">201</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
-  <li>Psychotria,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ptelea,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pteridium,
-    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_207">207</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pteridophyta,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_198">198</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pterigynandrum,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pteris,
-    <a href="#Page_199">199</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_203">203</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pterisanthes,
-    <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pterocarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pterocarya,
-    <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pterocephalus,
-    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pterogoniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pterogyne,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pterostegia,
-    <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pterygophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ptilidium,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ptilota,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ptychogaster,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Puccinia,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_149">149</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
-  <li>Puff-ball,
-    <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pulmonaria,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pulque,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pulsatilla,
-    <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pumpkin,
-    <a href="#Page_480">480</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Punctaria,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Punica,
-    <a href="#Page_483">483</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_488">488</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li>
-  <li>Puniceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li>
-  <li>Puschkinia,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Putrefaction,
-    <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_614">[614]</span></li>
-  <li>Puya,
-    <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pycnidia,
-    <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pylaiella,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pyrenoid,
-    <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pyrenolichenes,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pyrenomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_118">118</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pyrenula,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pyrethrum,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pyrola,
-    <a href="#Page_334">334</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_506">506</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pyrolaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pyrrophyl,
-    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pyrus,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pythium,
-    <a href="#Page_101">101</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Quaking-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Quassia,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Quassine,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Quercifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_337">337</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li>
-  <li>Quercitron-wood,
-    <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
-  <li>Quercus,
-    <a href="#Page_341">341</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_346">346</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_347">347</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_348">348</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Quillaja,
-    <a href="#Page_457">457</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Quillajeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-  <li>Quill-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
-  <li>Quince,
-    <a href="#Page_464">464</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Quinchamalium,
-    <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li>
-  <li>Quinine,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Racomitrium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Radiatæ,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Radicle,
-    <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
-  <li>Radiola,
-    <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
-  <li>Radiolarias,
-    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
-  <li>Radish,
-    <a href="#Page_403">403</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Radula,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rafflesia,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rafflesiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_499">499</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Raisins,
-    <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rajania,
-    <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ralfsia,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ralfsiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ramalina,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ramenta,
-    <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ramié,
-    <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rampion,
-    <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li>
-  <li>Randia,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ranunculaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ranunculeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ranunculus,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_378">378</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_380">380</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rapateaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rape,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Raphanus,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
-  <li>Raphia,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Raphidium,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Raphiolepis,
-    <a href="#Page_463">463</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Raspberry,
-    <a href="#Page_459">459</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ravenala,
-    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ray-flowers,
-    <a href="#Page_567">567</a>.</li>
-  <li>Reboulia,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
-  <li>Receptacle,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
-  <li>Red Algæ,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>
-  <li>Red-beet,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Red-cabbage,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Red-clover,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-  <li>Red-currant,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Red-pine,
-    <a href="#Page_264">264</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Red-rot,”
-    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Red Sandalwood,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Red Seaweeds,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
-  <li>Red Snow,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-  <li>Red-strip,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
-  <li>Red-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Reed,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Reed-mace,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
-  <li>Reindeer Moss,
-    <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
-  <li>Reineckea,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Remijia,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Renealmia,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Replum,
-    <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
-  <li>Reseda,
-    <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
-  <li>Resedaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
-  <li>Resin,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rest-harrow,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Restiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
-  <li>Restio,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
-  <li>Restrepia,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Retama,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Reticularia,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Retinospora,
-    <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhamnaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_447">447</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhamnus,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhaphidophora,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhatany,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rheum,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_359">359</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhinanthaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhinantheæ,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhinanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhingia,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhipidium,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhipsalis,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_376">376</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizidiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizoboleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizocarpeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizoclonium,
-    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizoids,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizomorpha,
-    <a href="#Page_169">169</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizopaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizophora,
-    <a href="#Page_482">482</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_487">487</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizophoraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_482">482</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizophyllidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizophyllis,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizopods,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizopogon,
-    <a href="#Page_175">175</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizopus,
-    <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizosolenia,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodanthe,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodiola,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodochiton,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhododendron,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodomela,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodomelaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodophyceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodophyll,
-    <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodophyllidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodophyllis,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodoraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_335">335</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodotypus,
-    <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodymenia,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodymeniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodymeniales,
-    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhœadinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhopographus,
-    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhubarb,
-    <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhus,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhynchosia,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhynchospora,
-    <a href="#Page_285">285</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhytisma,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ribbon-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ribes,
-    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_454">454</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ribesiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rib-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li>
-  <li>Riccia,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_189">189</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ricciaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rice,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Richardia,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
-  <li>Richardsonia,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ricinus,
-    <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
-  <li>Riella,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ringworm,
-    <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rivina,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rivularia,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rivulariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Robinia,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Roccella,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rock-cress,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rock-rose,
-    <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rod-bacteria,
-    <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-  <li>Roestelia,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
-  <li>Roman spinach,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Roots,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Ropiness,”
-    <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rosa,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_459">459</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rosaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rose,
-    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rose-mallow,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rose of Jericho,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Roseæ,
-    <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rosellinia,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rosemary,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Oil of,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rosifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_456">456</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rosmarinus,
-    <a href="#Page_536">536</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rostellum,
-    <a href="#Page_329">329</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rotang,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
-  <li>Royal-fern,
-    <a href="#Page_209">209</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rubeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_615">[615]</span></li>
-  <li>Rubia,
-    <a href="#Page_551">551</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_552">552</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rubiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_548">548</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rubiales,
-    <a href="#Page_490">490</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_548">548</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_556">556</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rubus,
-    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rudbeckia,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ruellia,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rulingia,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rumex,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_359">359</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ruppia,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ruscus,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rush,
-    <a href="#Page_283">283</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-  <li>Russula,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Russulei,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rust of Wheat,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rusts,
-    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Rust spots,”
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ruta,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rutaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ruteæ,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rye,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rye-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rye-stem blight,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Sabal,
-    <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sabaleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saccharomyces,
-    <a href="#Page_177">177</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saccharomyces-forms,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saccharum,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Safflower,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saffron,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sagina,
-    <a href="#Page_364">364</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_365">365</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sagittaria,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sago,
-    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sago-palm,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sainfoin,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Salep,”
-    <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salicaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salicin,
-    <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salicifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salicornia,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salicornieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salisburia,
-    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salix,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_337">337</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salpiglossis,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salsafy,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salsola,
-    <a href="#Page_370">370</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salsoleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saltpetre formation,
-    <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saltwort,
-    <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salvadora,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salvadoraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salvia,
-    <a href="#Page_536">536</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salvinia,
-    <a href="#Page_201">201</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_216">216</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_217">217</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_218">218</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salviniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sambuceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_555">555</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_557">557</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sambucus,
-    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_555">555</a>.</li>
-  <li>Samolus,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Samydaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sandalwood,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sandarack resin,
-    <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sand-box tree,
-    <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sand-star,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sanguinaria,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sanguisorba,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sanicula,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sannicle,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sanseviera,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Santalaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li>
-  <li>Santalum,
-    <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li>
-  <li>Santolina,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sapindaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sapindus,
-    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saponaria,
-    <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saponin,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sapotaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_510">510</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saprolegnia,
-    <a href="#Page_102">102</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_107">107</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saprolegniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saprophytes,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sapucaia-nuts,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saranthe,
-    <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sarcina,
-    <a href="#Page_27">27</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_28">28</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sarcophyte,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sargassum,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_73">73</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sarothamnus,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sarracenia,
-    <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sarraceniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sarsaparilla,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sassafras,
-    <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li>
-  <li>Satureia,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Satureieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saurureæ,
-    <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saururus,
-    <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saussurea,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sauvagesieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saw-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saxifraga,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saxifragaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saxifrage,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saxifraginæ,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_555">555</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scabiosa,
-    <a href="#Page_558">558</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_559">559</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scævola,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scale-leaves,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scammony,
-    <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scandiceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scandix,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scapania,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scarlet-runner,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scenedesmus,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scheuchzeria,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schistostega,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schistostegaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schizæa,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schizæaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schizanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schizocarp,
-    <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schizocarpeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schizochlamys,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schizomeris,
-    <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schizomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schizopetaleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schizopetalum,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schizophyceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_23">23</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schizophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schizophyta,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_19">19</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schœnocaulon,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schœnoxiphium,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schœnus,
-    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schwendenerian Theory,
-    <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sciadium,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sciadopitys,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scilla,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scirpeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scirpus,
-    <a href="#Page_285">285</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scirrhia,
-    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scitamineæ,
-    <a href="#Page_276">276</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_323">323</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scitonemaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scleranthus,
-    <a href="#Page_365">365</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scleria,
-    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scleroderma,
-    <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sclerodermataceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sclerotinia,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sclerotium,
-    <a href="#Page_87">87</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scolopendrium,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scoparia,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scopolia,
-    <a href="#Page_519">519</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scorodosma,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scorzonera,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scotch Fir,
-    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scotinosphæra,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Screw Pine,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scrophularia,
-    <a href="#Page_524">524</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scrophulariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_518">518</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scutellaria,
-    <a href="#Page_536">536</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scutellum,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scyballium,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scytonema,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scytonemaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sea-holly,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sea-kale,
-    <a href="#Page_403">403</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sea-lavender,
-    <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sea-milkwort,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Seaweed,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sea-wormwood,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sebacina,
-    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
-  <li>Secale,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">cornutum,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sechium,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Sedimentary-yeast,”
-    <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sedum,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Seed,
-    <a href="#Page_247">247</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
-  <li>Seguieria,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Selaginaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">Selaginella,
-    <a href="#Page_200">200</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_203">203</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_228">228</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_229">229</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_230">230</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_232">232</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_245">245</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_254">254</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_616">[616]</span>.</li>
-  <li>Selaginellaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
-  <li>Selaginelleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
-  <li>Selago,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Selenastrum,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Selenipedilum,
-    <a href="#Page_329">329</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
-  <li>Seligeria,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Seligeriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Semele,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sempervivum,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Senebiera,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Senecio,
-    <a href="#Page_566">566</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Senecioneæ,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Senna,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sepals,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sequoia,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-  <li>Serapias,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Serjania,
-    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
-  <li>Serratula,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Serum,
-    <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
-  <li>Service-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sesamum,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Seseli,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
-  <li>Seselineæ,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sesleria,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sesuvium,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
-  <li>Seta,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-  <li>Setaria,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sexual reproduction,
-    <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sheep-seaweed,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Shellac,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Shepherdia,
-    <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li>
-  <li>Shepherd’s-needle,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
-  <li>Shepherd’s-purse,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sherardia,
-    <a href="#Page_552">552</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Sichel,”
-    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Sickle,”
-    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sicyos,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sida,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sideritis,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sideroxylon,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sigillariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
-  <li>Silaus,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sileneæ,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Silene,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Siler,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
-  <li>Siliceous earth,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-  <li>Siliculosæ angustiseptæ,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">latiseptæ,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Siliqua,
-    <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
-  <li>Siliquosæ,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Silk-cotton,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-  <li>Silphium,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Silver-leaf,
-    <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li>
-  <li>Silybum,
-    <a href="#Page_567">567</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Simaba,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Simaruba,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Simarubaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sinapeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sinapis,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Siphocampylos,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li>
-  <li>Siphoneæ,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
-  <li>Siphonia,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Siphonocladus,
-    <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sirosiphoniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sisal hemp,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sisymbriinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sisymbrium,
-    <a href="#Page_399">399</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sisyrinchium,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sium,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Skimmia,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
-  <li>Skull-cap,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Slime-fungi,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sloe,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sloth,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Smilaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Smilacina,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Smilax,
-    <a href="#Page_315">315</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Smut,”
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Smut-fungi,
-    <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
-  <li>Snake cucumber,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Snapdragon,
-    <a href="#Page_523">523</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_524">524</a>.</li>
-  <li>Snowberry,
-    <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</li>
-  <li>Snowdrop,
-    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
-  <li>Soapwort,
-    <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
-  <li>Soft-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Soja,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Solanaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_514">514</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_518">518</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_520">520</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Solanine,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Solanum,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Soldanella,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Solenia,
-    <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
-  <li>Solidago,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sollya,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Solomon’s seal,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sonchus,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sophora,
-    <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sophoreæ,
-    <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sorbus,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sordaria,
-    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sordariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-  <li>Soredia,
-    <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sorghum,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sori,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sorocea,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sorrel,
-    <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
-  <li>Southernwood,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sow-thistle,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spadicifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spadix,
-    <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sparassis,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sparaxis,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sparganium,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sparmannia,
-    <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spartium,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spathe,
-    <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spathicarpa,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spathulea,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spearmint,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Specularia,
-    <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li>
-  <li>Speedwell,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spergula,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spergularia,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spermacoce,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spermacoceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spermagonia,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spermaphyta,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spermatangia,
-    <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spermatia,
-    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_76">76</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_77">77</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_141">141</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spermatochnaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spermatochnus,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spermatozoid,
-    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sperm-nucleus,
-    <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spermocarp,
-    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spermogonia,
-    <a href="#Page_89">89</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_141">141</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spermothamnion,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphacelaria,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphacelariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphacelia,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphacelotheca,
-    <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphæralcea,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphærella,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphærellaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphæriales,
-    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphærobolaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphærobolus,
-    <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphærocarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphærococcaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphærophorus,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphæroplea,
-    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphæropleaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphærotheca,
-    <a href="#Page_120">120</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphærozosma,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphagneæ,
-    <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphagnum,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_194">194</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphenogyne,
-    <a href="#Page_566">566</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphenophyllaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphinctrina,
-    <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spigelia,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spikelet,
-    <a href="#Page_285">285</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spikes,
-    <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spilanthes,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spinach,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spinacia,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spindle-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spiræa,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_456">456</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_457">457</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spiræeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spiranthes,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spirilla,
-    <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spirillum,
-    <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spirochætæ,
-    <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spirochæte,
-    <a href="#Page_28">28</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_38">38</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spirodela,
-    <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spirogyra,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_617">[617]</span></li>
-  <li>Spirolobeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spirotænia,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spirulina,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Splachnaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Splachnum,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spondias,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sponges,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sporangia,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sporangial-layers,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sporangiocarp,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sporangio-fructification,
-    <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sporangiophore,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spores,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Liberation and Distribution of,
-    <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Germination of,
-    <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sporidia,
-    <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sporobolus,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sporocarp,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sporochnaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sporochnus,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sporogonium,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sporophylls,
-    <a href="#Page_223">223</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sporophyte,
-    <a href="#Page_181">181</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spring-spores,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spumaria,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spurge,
-    <a href="#Page_431">431</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spurge-laurel,
-    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spurry,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Squamariacæ,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Squills,”
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Squirting cucumber,
-    <a href="#Page_480">480</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stachydeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stachys,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stachytarpheta,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Staehelina,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stag-truffle,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stalk,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stamen,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
-  <li>Staminate,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stangeria,
-    <a href="#Page_253">253</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stanhopea,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stanleyinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stapelia,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Staphylea,
-    <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
-  <li>Staphyleaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
-  <li>Staphylococcus,
-    <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-  <li>Star-aniseed,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>Statice,
-    <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li>
-  <li>Staurastrum,
-    <a href="#Page_42">42</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_43">43</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Steenhammera,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stegocarpeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stellaria,
-    <a href="#Page_364">364</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_365">365</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stellatæ,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_552">552</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stemless Plants,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stemonitis,
-    <a href="#Page_7">7</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stephanospermum,
-    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stephanosphæra,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sterculia,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sterculiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stereocaulon,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stereum,
-    <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sterigmata,
-    <a href="#Page_144">144</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sterilization,
-    <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sticta,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_137">137</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stictidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stictidales,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stictis,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stigeoclonium,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stigma,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stigmaria,
-    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stigonema,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stilbaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stilbe,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stillingia,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stilophora,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stilophoraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stinkbrand,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stink-horn,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stipa,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stitchwort,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>St. John’s-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stock,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stonebrand,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stonecrop,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stone-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stork’s-bill,
-    <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stratiotes,
-    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-  <li>Strawberry,
-    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
-  <li>Strawberry-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Strelitzia,
-    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
-  <li>Streptocarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Streptochæta,
-    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
-  <li>Streptococcus,
-    <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-  <li>Streptopus,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Striaria,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Striariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Strickeria,
-    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stroma,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stromanthe,
-    <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
-  <li>Strophanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Struthiopteris,
-    <a href="#Page_209">209</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-  <li>Struvea,
-    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-  <li>Strychnine,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Strychnos,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sturmia,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stylar-column,
-    <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">-brush,
-    <a href="#Page_567">567</a>.</li>
-  <li>Style,
-    <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stylidiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stylidium,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stylochrysalis,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stylopod,
-    <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li>
-  <li>Styphelia,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Styracaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Styrax,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Styrax-balsam,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Subhymenial layer,
-    <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
-  <li>Subularia,
-    <a href="#Page_393">393</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_399">399</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Succisa,
-    <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sugar-beet,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sugar-cane,
-    <a href="#Page_289">289</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sugar-root,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sulphur-bacteria,
-    <a href="#Page_37">37</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sumach,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Summer-spores,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sundew,
-    <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sun-flower,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sunn hemp,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Surface yeast,”
-    <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
-  <li>Surirayeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Suspensor,
-    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_246">246</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
-  <li>Swamp cypress,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-  <li>Swarmspores,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
-  <li>Swede,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sweet Cicely,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sweet-flag,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sweet-gale,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sweet oil,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sweet-pea,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sweet-potato,
-    <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sweet-vernal,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Swertia,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>.</li>
-  <li>Swietenia,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Swine’s-succory,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sycamore,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Symbiosis,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sympetalæ,
-    <a href="#Page_336">336</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Symphoricarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_554">554</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li>
-  <li>Symphyandra,
-    <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li>
-  <li>Symphyllodium,
-    <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
-  <li>Symphytopleura,
-    <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
-  <li>Symphytum,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Symploca,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Synalissa,
-    <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
-  <li>Synandrium,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Synangium,
-    <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
-  <li>Syncarp,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
-  <li>Syncephalis,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-  <li>Synchytrieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-  <li>Synchytrium,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-  <li>Syncrypta,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Synedra,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Synergidæ,
-    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-  <li>Syngeneticæ,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-  <li>Syngonium,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Synura,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Syringa,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Systegium,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Systematic division of the Algæ,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">of Filices,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">of Fungi,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">of Monocotyledons,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">of Thallophytes,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">of Vascular Cryptogams,
-    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Tabellaria,
-    <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_618">[618]</span></li>
-  <li>Tabellarieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tabernæmontana,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Taccarum,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tacona,
-    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tagetes,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Takamahaka,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Talinum,
-    <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-  <li>Talipot,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tallow-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tamaricaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tamarind,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tamarindus,
-    <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tamarisk,
-    <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tamarix,
-    <a href="#Page_411">411</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tamus,
-    <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tanacetum,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tanghinia,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tannin,
-    <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tansy,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tapetum,
-    <a href="#Page_203">203</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
-  <li>Taphrina,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
-  <li>Taphrinaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tapioca,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tar,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>Taraxacum,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_566">566</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Targionia,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tassel Pond-weed,
-    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-  <li>Taxaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-  <li>Taxeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
-  <li>Taxodiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_257">257</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-  <li>Taxodium,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-  <li>Taxoideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_258">258</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
-  <li>Taxus,
-    <a href="#Page_237">237</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_255">255</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_257">257</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_261">261</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_262">262</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tea,
-    <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tea-plant, False,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tea-rose,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Teak-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tear-Fungus,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Teasel,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_558">558</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tecoma,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tectona,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Teesdalia,
-    <a href="#Page_398">398</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Telegraph-plant,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
-  <li>Teleutospores,
-    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tellima,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Terebinthinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li>
-  <li>Terfezia,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-  <li>Terminalia,
-    <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ternstrœmiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Testa,
-    <a href="#Page_247">247</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-  <li>Testudinaria,
-    <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tetmemorus,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tetracyclicæ,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tetradynamia,
-    <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tetragonia,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tetragonolobus,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tetraphis,
-    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tetrapoma,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tetrapteris,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tetraspora,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tetrasporaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tetraspores,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
-  <li>Teucrium,
-    <a href="#Page_567">567</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thalassia,
-    <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thalia,
-    <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thalictrum,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thallophyta,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thallus,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thamnidiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thamnidium,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thea,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thecaphora,
-    <a href="#Page_110">110</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thëin,
-    <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thelebolaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thelebolus,
-    <a href="#Page_109">109</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thelephora,
-    <a href="#Page_162">162</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thelephoraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thelygonum,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thelypodieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Theobroma,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
-  <li>Theobromine,
-    <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
-  <li>Theophrasta,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thesium,
-    <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thistle,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thladiantha,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thlaspi,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thomasia,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thorn-apple,
-    <a href="#Page_520">520</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thottea,
-    <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thrift,
-    <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thrinax,
-    <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thrush,
-    <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thuidium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thuja,
-    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thujopsis,
-    <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thunbergia,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thyme,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thymelæa,
-    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thymelæaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thymelæinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thymus,
-    <a href="#Page_537">537</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tiaridium,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tibouchina,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ticorea,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tigridia,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tilia,
-    <a href="#Page_424">424</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tiliaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tillandsia,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tilletia,
-    <a href="#Page_111">111</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_112">112</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tilletiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_110">110</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tilopteridaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tilopteris,
-    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-  <li>Timothy-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tinnantia,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tmesipteris,
-    <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
-  <li>Toad-flax,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Toad-rush,
-    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-  <li>Toadstools,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tobacco,
-    <a href="#Page_520">520</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Virginian,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Toddalieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
-  <li>Todea,
-    <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tofieldia,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tofieldieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tolu, Balsam of,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Toluifera,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tolypella,
-    <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tolypellopsis,
-    <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tolyposporium,
-    <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tolypothrix,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tomato,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tomentella,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tomentellaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tonquin-bean,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tooth-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tordylium,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-  <li>Torenia,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Torilis,
-    <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
-  <li>Torreya,
-    <a href="#Page_262">262</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-  <li>Touchwood,
-    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tournefortia,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trabeculæ,
-    <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tracheides,
-    <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trachylobium,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tradescantia,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trama,
-    <a href="#Page_167">167</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trametes,
-    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tragacanth, Gum,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tragopogon,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trapa,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-  <li>Travellers’ Palm,
-    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tremandraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tremella,
-    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_157">157</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tremellaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trentepohlia,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tribulus,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trichia,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trichocoma,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trichodesmium,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trichogyne,
-    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tricholoma,
-    <a href="#Page_168">168</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trichomanes,
-    <a href="#Page_206">206</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trichophilus,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trichosanthes,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trichosphæria,
-    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trichosphæriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trichostomum,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tricoccæ,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tricyrtis,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trientalis,
-    <a href="#Page_512">512</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trifolieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trifolium,
-    <a href="#Page_469">469</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Triglochin,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trigoniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trillium,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Triodia,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Triphasia,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Triphragmium,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
-  <li>Triplaris,
-    <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
-  <li>Triteleia,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Triticum,
-    <a href="#Page_288">288</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_619">[619]</span>.</li>
-  <li>Tritonia,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Triumfetta,
-    <a href="#Page_424">424</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trollius,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tropæolaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tropæolum,
-    <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li>
-  <li>True Ferns,
-    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
-  <li>True Laurels,
-    <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li>
-  <li>True Mosses,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Truffles,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trumpet-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trumpet-wood,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tryblidiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tryblidiales,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tryblidium,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tsuga,
-    <a href="#Page_265">265</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tuber,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tuberaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tubercles,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tubercularia,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tuberose,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tubifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_514">514</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tuburcinia,
-    <a href="#Page_110">110</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_111">111</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tulip,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tulipa,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tulipeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tupa,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li>
-  <li>Turkish-millet,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Turmeric,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Turneraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Turnip,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Turpentine,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Turritinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tussilago,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tydæa,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tylostoma,
-    <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tylostomaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
-  <li>Typha,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
-  <li>Typhaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Typhula,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Ulex,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ullucus,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ulmaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ulmeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ulmus,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ulothricaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ulothrix,
-    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_53">53</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ulva,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ulvaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-  <li>Umbelliferæ,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-  <li>Umbellifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li>
-  <li>Umbilicaria,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Umbilicus,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li>
-  <li>Uncaria,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Uncinia,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-  <li>Uncinula,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
-  <li>Upas-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Urare,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Uredinaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
-  <li>Uredo,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
-  <li>Urena,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ureneæ,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
-  <li>Urginea,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Urocystis,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-  <li>Uroglena,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Uromyces,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
-  <li>Urophlyctis,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-  <li>Urospora,
-    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-  <li>Urtica,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
-  <li>Urticaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li>
-  <li>Urticifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
-  <li>Usnea,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ustilaginaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_110">110</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ustilagineæ,
-    <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ustilago,
-    <a href="#Page_111">111</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ustulina,
-    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-  <li>Utricularia,
-    <a href="#Page_527">527</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Utriculariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_518">518</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li>
-  <li>Utriculus,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-  <li>Uvularia,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Vaccines,
-    <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vacciniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vaccinium,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_160">160</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_510">510</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vaginula,
-    <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vahea,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vaillantia,
-    <a href="#Page_552">552</a>.</li>
-  <li>Valeriana,
-    <a href="#Page_557">557</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li>
-  <li>Valerianaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li>
-  <li>Valerianella,
-    <a href="#Page_557">557</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vallisneria,
-    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
-  <li>Valloons,
-    <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vallota,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Valonia,
-    <a href="#Page_59">59</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-  <li>Valoniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-  <li>Valsa,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Valsaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vanda,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vandellia,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vandeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vanilla,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vascular Cryptogams,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_198">198</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Isosporous,
-    <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Heterosporous,
-    <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vateria,
-    <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vaucheria,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_33">33</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vaucheriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vegetable-ivory,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vegetable-silk,
-    <a href="#Page_545">545</a>.</li>
-  <li>Velamen,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vella,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vellinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vellosia,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vellosieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ve11theimia,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Velum partiale,
-    <a href="#Page_167">167</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">universale,
-    <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
-  <li>Venter,
-    <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ventral-canal-cell,
-    <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
-  <li>Venturia,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Veratreæ,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-  <li>Veratrin,
-    <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
-  <li>Veratrum,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
-  <li>Verbascum,
-    <a href="#Page_523">523</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li>
-  <li>Verbena,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Verbenaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vernonia,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Veronica,
-    <a href="#Page_335">335</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_523">523</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_527">527</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_536">536</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_559">559</a>.</li>
-  <li>Verpa,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-  <li>Verrucaria,
-    <a href="#Page_140">140</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vesicaria,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vetch,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vibriones,
-    <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
-  <li>Viburnum,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_555">555</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vicia,
-    <a href="#Page_469">469</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vicieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_469">469</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Victoria,
-    <a href="#Page_386">386</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vigna,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vinca,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vincetoxicum,
-    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vine,
-    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vinegar-bacterium,
-    <a href="#Page_31">31</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_32">32</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-  <li>Viola,
-    <a href="#Page_410">410</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
-  <li>Violaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li>
-  <li>Violets,
-    <a href="#Page_114">114</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li>
-  <li>Violet-stone,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Viper’s-bugloss,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Virginian-creeper,
-    <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li>
-  <li>Viscaria,
-    <a href="#Page_364">364</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Viscoideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
-  <li>Viscum,
-    <a href="#Page_501">501</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_502">502</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vismia,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vitex,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vitis,
-    <a href="#Page_445">445</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_446">446</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vochysiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Volkmannia,
-    <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
-  <li>Volva,
-    <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
-  <li>Volvaria,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Volvocaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-  <li>Volvox,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vomic nut,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Vorblatt,”
-    <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Wahlenbergia,
-    <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wallflower,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wall-lichen,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wall-rue,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-  <li>Walnut,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_349">349</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
-  <li>Water-cress,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Water-dropwort,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Water-ferns,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Water-fungi,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
-  <li>Water-hyssop,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Water-lilies,
-    <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
-  <li>Water-melon,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Water-milfoil,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_620">[620]</span></li>
-  <li>Water-net,
-    <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
-  <li>Water-purslane,
-    <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-  <li>Water-soldier,
-    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-  <li>Water-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
-  <li>Water-violet,
-    <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wax-flower,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Weberia,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Weigelia,
-    <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</li>
-  <li>Weingærtneria,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Weisia,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Weisiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wellingtonia,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-  <li>Welwitschia,
-    <a href="#Page_270">270</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Wendungszellen,”
-    <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
-  <li>West-Indian arrowroot,
-    <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
-  <li>Weymouth Pine,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wheat,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_292">292</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wheat-grain,
-    <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wheat, seedling of,
-    <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
-  <li>White-beam,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>White Bryony,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>White-cabbage,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>White-mustard,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>White Pine,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>White-pepper,
-    <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
-  <li>White-rot,
-    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
-  <li>White Water-lily,
-    <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
-  <li>Whitlavia,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Whortleberry,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wig-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wild Basil,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wild Cabbage,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Willow,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li>
-  <li>Willow-herb,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li>
-  <li>Winter-aconite,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Winter-cherry,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Winter-cress,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Winter-green,
-    <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li>
-  <li>Winter-spores,
-    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wistaria,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Witches’-brooms,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
-  <li>Woad,
-    <a href="#Page_403">403</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wolffia,
-    <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wood,
-    <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wood-rush,
-    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wood-sorrel,
-    <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li>
-  <li>Woodruff,
-    <a href="#Page_552">552</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Woodsia,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wormwood,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Woundwort,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Xanthellaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Xanthidium,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Xanthium,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Xanthorhiza,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-  <li>Xanthorrhæa,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Xeranthemum,
-    <a href="#Page_566">566</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Xerotes,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Xylaria,
-    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-  <li>Xylariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-  <li>Xylem,
-    <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
-  <li>Xylopia,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Xylophylla,
-    <a href="#Page_431">431</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
-  <li>Xylosteum,
-    <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</li>
-  <li>Xyridaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Yam,
-    <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li>
-  <li>Yeast-formation,
-    <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
-  <li>Yeast-fungi,
-    <a href="#Page_31">31</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-  <li>Yellow bird’s-nest,
-    <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li>
-  <li>Yellow-rattle,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Yellow Water-lily,
-    <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
-  <li>Yellow-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li>
-  <li>Yew,
-    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_261">261</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ylang-ylang,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Yorkshire-fog,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Yucca,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_313">313</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Zamia,
-    <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zannardinia,
-    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zannichellia,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zantedeschia,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zanthoxyleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zanthoxylum,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zea,
-    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zelkova,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zingiber,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zingiberaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_323">323</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zinnia,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zizania,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zizyphus,
-    <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zoochlorella,
-    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zoogametes,
-    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zooglœa,
-    <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zoogonicæ,
-    <a href="#Page_68">68</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zoosporangia,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zoospores,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zooxantella,
-    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zostera,
-    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_280">280</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zostereæ,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zygadenus,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zygochytriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zygomorphy,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zygomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zygophyllaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zygophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zygospore,
-    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zygote,
-    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zygnema,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zygnemaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-
-<p class="center p6 xs">Butler &amp; Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London.</p>
-
-
-<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> See Angiospermæ.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> According to the recent investigations of Winogradsky some
-micro-organisms (Nitrifying-bacteria) can build organic from inorganic
-matter. Sachs’ hypothesis that the first organisms must necessarily
-have contained chlorophyll is therefore untenable.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> Myxogasteres, Engler’s Syllabus, p. 1.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> Acrasieæ and Plasmodiophorales, <i>ibid.</i></p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> Myxophyceæ, Cyanophyceæ.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> The Bacteria are more usually included under Fungi. It
-seems better, however, to place them under the Algæ in a separate class
-with the Schizophyceæ.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> See Marshall Ward, “On the Characters or Marks employed
-for Classifying the Schizomycetes,” <i>Annals of Botany</i>, 1892.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> According to Hansen these are not disease forms, but occur
-regularly under certain conditions, <i>e.g.</i> temperature.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> Before fertilisation the oosphere divides and cuts off at
-the base one or more cells (polar bodies?), termed “wendungszellen.”</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> From the Greek μὐκης = Fungus, hence “mycology.”</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> This term is adopted as a translation of the German
-“anlage.”</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> Also termed Water-Fungi (Wasserpilzen).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> Antheridium is preferred in this sub-class as keeping a
-more uniform term (Kn).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> In the <i>resupinate</i> fruit-bodies a fertile and
-sterile surface cannot be distinguished (<i>cf.</i> Polyporaceæ and
-some <i>Stereum</i>-species).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> The two last genera are identical, the Algal part being a
-<i>Scytonema</i>, that of <i>Cora</i> a <i>Chroococcus</i>; while the
-same Fungus&mdash;a <i>Thelephora</i>&mdash;takes part in the formation of all
-three (A. Möller, Flora, 1893).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> Formerly termed <i>oophyte</i>.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> The oospore divides by a wall transverse or oblique to
-the longer axis of the archegonium. From the upper (epibasal) cell, the
-capsule (and seta) is derived, while the lower (hypobasal) gives rise
-to the <i>foot</i>. In <i>Riccia</i> the hypobasal half takes part in
-the formation of the sporangium.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> In the Polypodiaceæ unisexual prothallia as distinct as
-those of <i>Equisetum</i> are of common occurrence.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> The position of the annulus varies in the different
-orders; longitudinal in Polypodiaceæ, Hymenophyllaceæ, and Cyatheaceæ;
-transverse in Schizæaceæ, Gleicheniaceæ; indistinct or apical in
-Osmundaceæ, Ophioglossaceæ, Marattiaceæ, Salviniaceæ, Marsiliaceæ.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> The former genus <i>Pteris</i> is divided into
-<i>Pteris</i> and <i>Pteridium</i>.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> Floral-leaves (hypsophyllary leaves) are here adopted
-as an equivalent of the term “Hochblätter,” to signify leaves on the
-floral-shoot other than foliage or sporangia-bearing leaves. The
-term <i>bract</i> is applied only to leaves in whose axil a flower
-is borne, and <i>bracteoles</i> to leaves borne on the flower-stalk
-(<i>pedicel</i>).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> It may be here remarked that another explanation is
-possible, based on the study of the development (<i>K</i>).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> Piperaceæ, Nymphæaceæ.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> “Fore-leaf” is adopted as a translation of “Vorblatt.”</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> Regarding these and other abbreviations see the appendix
-in the book.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> Syncarp = cluster of fruits belonging to one flower.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> “Fan” and “sickle”
-are adopted as terms for these inflorescences from the German
-“<i>fæchel</i>” and “<i>sichel</i>.”</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> [Although unbranched stems are characteristic of the
-Palms, yet branched specimens are recorded from some eleven genera. The
-branches are developed from lateral buds, which in many instances only
-develope when the terminal bud has been destroyed. A few Palms develope
-axillary branches at the base of the stem; these form rhizomes, and
-give rise to clusters of aerial stems.]</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> The aggregation of the fruits of several distinct flowers
-into one mass.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> According to Pfitzer, the column is the prolongation of
-the floral axis beyond the insertion of the perianth, and is not formed
-by the coalescence of sporophylls (filament and style).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> <i>Cypripedilum</i> = <i>Cypripedium</i>.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> <i>Corallorhiza</i> = <i>Coralliorrhiza</i>.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> This is Eichler’s view.&mdash;According to Drude the perianth
-is absent; at the base of the bracts, a nectary or cup-like disc.
-Prantl holds the same view. According to Pax the perianth is absent,
-but there is a disc cup-like, or reduced to a single toothed scale.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> The fruit of the Walnut is thus a false fruit; and the
-term drupe must therefore not be used in the same sense as in the
-Rosaceæ.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> The pollen-tube in <i>Ulmus</i> does not enter the ovule
-through the micropyle.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> According to Prantl, some species of <i>Trollius</i>
-(<i>T. europæus</i>, and <i>asiatiacus</i>) have a perianth,
-differentiated into calyx and corolla, which does not pass over into
-the honey-leaves. The outer leaves of the perianth have frequently an
-incised apex, the intermediate ones sometimes present transitional
-forms to the inner, and sometimes there is a distinct boundary between
-them.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> If we suppose a spiral line drawn through the leaves
-<i>upwards</i> on a stem with scattered leaves (in the shortest way),
-then the side of the leaf first touched is the catodic, or descending,
-and the other the anodic, or ascending side.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> Those marked [+] are officinal, and when no home is
-stated, the plant is a native.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> Those which are officinal are indicated by [+].</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> Those marked with a [+] are officinal.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> For further reference see Sachs, <i>History of
-Botany</i>; Lindley, <i>Vegetable Kingdom</i>; Le Maout and Decaisne,
-<i>General System of Botany</i>, etc.</p>
-
-</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p class="transnote">Transcriber’s Notes:<br />
-
-1. Obvious printers’, punctuation and spelling errors have been
-corrected silently.<br />
-
-2. Where hyphenation is in doubt, it has been retained as in the
-original.<br />
-
-3. Some hyphenated and non-hyphenated versions of the same words have been
-retained as in the original.</p>
-
-
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