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-The Project Gutenberg eBook of A handbook of systematic botany, by
-Johannes Eugenius Warming
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
-will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
-using this eBook.
-
-Title: A handbook of systematic botany
-
-Author: Johannes Eugenius Warming
-
-Translator: Michael Cresse Potter
-
-Contributor: Emil Friedrich Knoblauch
-
-Release Date: July 21, 2022 [eBook #68580]
-
-Language: English
-
-Produced by: Peter Becker, Karin Spence and the Online Distributed
-             Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
-             produced from images generously made available by The
-             Internet Archive)
-
-*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HANDBOOK OF SYSTEMATIC
-BOTANY ***
-
-
-
-
-
-                              A HANDBOOK
-
-                                  OF
-
-                           SYSTEMATIC BOTANY
-
-                                  BY
-
-                            DR. E. WARMING
-
-         _Professor of Botany in the University of Copenhagen_
-
-                    WITH A REVISION OF THE FUNGI BY
-
-                           DR. E. KNOBLAUCH,
-                              _Karlsruhe_
-
-                       TRANSLATED AND EDITED BY
-                       M. C. POTTER, M.A. F.L.S.
-
-           _Professor of Botany in the University of Durham
-                College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne
-      Author of “An Elementary Text-book of Agricultural Botany”_
-
-                        WITH 610 ILLUSTRATIONS
-
-    [Illustration]
-
-                                London
-                        SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO
-                       NEW YORK: MACMILLAN & CO
-                                 1895
-
-
-
-
-                           BUTLER & TANNER,
-                      THE SELWOOD PRINTING WORKS,
-                          FROME, AND LONDON.
-
-
-
-
-                               PREFACE.
-
-
-The present translation of Dr. E. Warming’s _Haandbog i den
-Systematiske Botanik_ is taken from the text of the 3rd Danish
-Edition (1892), and from Dr. Knoblauch’s German Edition (1890), and
-the book has been further enriched by numerous additional notes which
-have been kindly sent to me by the author. Dr. Warming’s work has long
-been recognised as an original and important contribution to Systematic
-Botanical Literature, and I have only to regret that the pressure
-of other scientific duties has delayed its presentation to English
-readers. Dr. Warming desires me to record his high appreciation of the
-careful translation of Dr. Knoblauch, and his obligation to him for a
-number of corrections and improvements of which he has made use in the
-3rd Danish Edition. In a few instances I have made slight additions
-to the text; these, however, appear as footnotes, or are enclosed in
-square brackets.
-
-In the present Edition the Thallophytes have been revised and
-rearranged from notes supplied to me by Dr. Knoblauch, to whom I am
-indebted for the Classification of the Fungi, according to the more
-recent investigations of Brefeld. The Bacteria have been revised by
-Dr. Migula, the Florideæ rearranged after Schmitz, and the Taphrinaceæ
-after Sadebeck. The main body of the text of the Algæ and Fungi remains
-as it was originally written by Dr. Wille and Dr. Rostrup in the Danish
-Edition, though in many places considerable alterations and additions
-have been made. For the sake of comparison a tabular key to the
-Classification adopted in the Danish Edition is given in the Appendix.
-
-In the Angiosperms I have retained the sequence of orders in the Danish
-original, and have not rearranged them according to the systems
-more familiar to English students. In any rearrangement much of the
-significance of Dr. Warming’s valuable and original observations
-would have been lost, and also from a teacher’s point of view I have
-found this system of great value. Although at present it may not be
-completely satisfactory, yet as an attempt to explain the mutual
-relationships, development and retrogression of many of the orders, it
-may be considered to have a distinct advantage over the more artificial
-systems founded upon Jussieu’s Divisions of Polypetalæ, Gamopetalæ, and
-Apetalæ.
-
-With reference to the principles of the systematic arrangement adopted,
-I may here insert the following brief communication from the author
-(dated March, 1890), which he has requested me to quote from the
-preface of Dr. Knoblauch’s edition:--“Each form which, on comparative
-morphological considerations, is clearly less simple, or can be shown
-to have arisen by reduction or through abortion of another type having
-the same fundamental structure, or in which a further differentiation
-and division of labour is found, will be regarded as younger, and as
-far as possible, and so far as other considerations will admit, will
-be reviewed later than the ‘simpler,’ more complete, or richer forms.
-For instance, to serve as an illustration: EPIGYNY and PERIGYNY are
-less simple than HYPOGNY; the Epigynous _Sympetalæ_, _Choripetalæ_,
-_Monocotyledones_ are, therefore, treated last, the _Hydrocharitaceæ_
-are considered last under the _Helobieæ_, etc. ZYGOMORPHY is younger
-than ACTINOMORPHY; the _Scitamineæ_ and _Gynandræ_ therefore follow
-after the _Liliifloræ_, the _Scrophulariaceæ_ after the _Solanaceæ_,
-_Linaria_ after _Verbascum_, etc. FORMS WITH UNITED LEAVES indicate
-younger types than those with free leaves; hence the _Sympetalæ_
-come after the _Choripetalæ_, the _Sileneæ_ after the _Alsineæ_, the
-_Malcaceæ_ after the _Sterculiaceæ_ and _Tiliaceæ_, etc.
-
-“ACYCLIC (spiral-leaved) flowers are older than cyclic
-(verticillate-leaved) with a definite number, comparing, of course,
-only those with the same fundamental structure. The _Veronica_-type
-must be considered as younger, for example, than _Digitalis_
-and _Antirrhinum_, these again as younger than _Scrophularia_;
-_Verbascum_, on the contrary, is the least reduced, and therefore
-considered as the oldest form. Similarly the one-seeded, nut-fruited
-_Ranunculaceæ_ are considered as a later type (with evident abortion)
-than the many-seeded, folicular forms of the Order; the _Paronychieæ_
-and _Chenopodiaceæ_ as reduced forms of the _Alsineæ_ type; and the
-occurrence of few seeds in an ovary as generally arising through
-reduction of the many-seeded forms. The _Cyperaceæ_ are regarded as
-a form derived from the _Juncaceæ_ through reduction, and associated
-with this, as is so often the case, there is a complication of the
-inflorescence; the _Dipsacaceæ_ are again regarded as a form proceeding
-from the _Valerianaceæ_ by a similar reduction, and these in their
-turn as an offshoot from the _Caprifoliaceæ_, etc. Of course these
-principles of systematic arrangement could only be applied very
-generally; for teaching purposes they have often required modification.”
-
-In preparing the translation considerable difficulty has been
-experienced in finding a satisfactory rendering of several terms which
-have no exact equivalent in English. I may here especially mention the
-term Vorblatt (Forblad) which I have translated by the term bracteole,
-when it clearly applied to the first leaf (or leaves) on a pedicel; but
-in discussing questions of general morphology a term was much needed
-to include both vegetative and floral shoots, and for this I have
-employed the term “Fore-leaf.” Also, the term “Floral-leaf” has been
-adopted as an equivalent of “Hochblatt,” and the term “bract” has been
-limited to a leaf subtending a flower. I have followed Dr. E. L. Mark
-in translating the word “Anlage” by “Fundament.”
-
-At the end of the book will be found a short appendix giving an outline
-of some of the earlier systems of Classification, with a more complete
-account of that of Hooker and Bentham.
-
-In a book of this character it is almost impossible to avoid some
-errors, but it is hoped that these will be comparatively few. In
-correcting the proof-sheets I have received invaluable assistance
-from Dr. Warming and Dr. Knoblauch, who have kindly read through
-every sheet, and to whom I am greatly indebted for many criticisms
-and suggestions. I have also to thank Mr. I. H. Burkill for his kind
-assistance in looking over the proofs of the Monocotyledons and
-Dicotyledons, and Mr. Harold Wager for kindly reading through the
-proofs of the Algæ and Fungi. My thanks are also especially due to Mr.
-E. L. Danielsen, and I wish to take this opportunity of acknowledging
-the very considerable help which I have received from him in
-translating from the Original Danish.
-                                                     M. C. POTTER.
-_January, 1895._
-
-
-
-
-                          TABLE OF CONTENTS.
-
-             BEING THE SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION ADOPTED IN
-                          THE PRESENT VOLUME.
-
-      (_The Algæ and Fungi rearranged in co-operation with Dr. E.
-    Knoblauch, the other Divisions as in the 3rd Danish Edition._)
-
-
-                                                                PAGE
-
-                    DIVISION I. THALLOPHYTA                        4
-
-    A. Sub-Division. Myxomycetes, Slime-Fungi                      5
-
-    B. Sub-Division. Algæ                                          8
-
-        Class 1. SYNGENETICÆ                                      14
-
-          „   2. DINOFLAGELLATA                                   16
-
-          „   3. DIATOMEÆ                                         18
-
-          „   4. SCHIZOPHYTA                                      22
-
-              Family 1. Schizophyceæ                              22
-
-                 „   2. Bacteria                                  26
-
-        Class 5. CONJUGATÆ                                        41
-
-          „   6. CHLOROPHYCEÆ                                     46
-
-              Family 1. Protococcoideæ                            47
-
-                 „   2. Confervoideæ                              53
-
-                 „   3. Siphoneæ                                  59
-
-        Class 7. CHARACEÆ                                         64
-
-          „   8. PHÆOPHYCEÆ (OLIVE-BROWN SEAWEEDS)                68
-
-              Family 1. Phæosporeæ                                68
-
-                 „   2. Cyclosporeæ                               73
-
-        Class 9. DICTYOTALES                                      76
-
-          „  10. RHODOPHYCEÆ (RED SEAWEEDS)                       77
-
-              Family 1. Bangioideæ                                77
-
-                 „   2. Florideæ                                  78
-
-    C. Sub-Division. Fungi      84
-
-        Class 1. PHYCOMYCETES                                     96
-
-          Sub-Class 1. _Zygomycetes_                              96
-
-              „     2. _Oomycetes_                               100
-
-              Family 1. Entomophthorales                         102
-
-                 „   2. Chytridiales                             102
-
-                 „   3. Mycosiphonales                           104
-
-        Class 2. MESOMYCETES                                     108
-
-          Sub-Class 1. _Hemiasci_                                108
-
-              „     2. _Hemibasidii_                             109
-
-        Class 3. MYCOMYCETES (HIGHER FUNGI)                      114
-
-          Sub-Class 1. _Ascomycetes_                             114
-
-            Series 1. Exoasci                                    116
-
-               „   2. Carpoasci                                  118
-
-              Family 1. Gymnoascales                             118
-
-                 „   2. Perisporiales                            119
-
-                 „   3. Pyrenomycetes                            125
-
-                 „   4. Hysteriales                              132
-
-                 „   5. Discomycetes                             132
-
-                 „   6. Helvellales                              136
-
-                     Ascolichenes                                136
-
-          Sub-Class 2. _Basidiomycetes_                          144
-
-            Series 1. Protobasidomycetes                         145
-
-               „   2. Autobasidiomycetes                         157
-
-              Family 1. Dacryomycetes                            159
-
-                 „   2. Hymenomycetes                            159
-
-                 „   3. Phalloideæ                               172
-
-                 „   4. Gasteromycetes                           173
-
-                     Basidiolichenes                             176
-
-              Fungi Imperfecti                                   176
-
-
-                DIVISION II. MUSCINEÆ (MOSSES)                   181
-
-        Class 1. HEPATICÆ                                        188
-
-              Family 1. Marchantieæ                              190
-
-                 „   2. Anthoceroteæ                             191
-
-                 „   3. Jungermannieæ                            191
-
-        Class 2. MUSCI FRONDOSI                                  192
-
-              Family 1. Sphagneæ                                 193
-
-                 „   2. Schizocarpeæ                             195
-
-                 „   3. Cleistocarpeæ                            195
-
-                 „   4. Stegocarpeæ                              195
-
-
-                  DIVISION III. PTERIDOPHYTA                     198
-
-        Class 1. FILICINÆ                                        205
-
-          Sub-Class 1. _Filices_                                 205
-
-              Family 1. Eusporangiatæ                            210
-
-                 „   2. Leptosporangiatæ                         212
-
-          Sub-Class 2. _Hydropterideæ_                           215
-
-        Class 2. EQUISETINÆ (HORSETAILS)                         221
-
-          Sub-Class 1. _Isosporous Equisetinæ_                   221
-
-              „     2. _Heterosporous Equisetinæ_                225
-
-        Class 3. LYCOPODINÆ (CLUB MOSSES)                        226
-
-          Sub-Class 1. _Lycopodieæ_                              226
-
-              „     2. _Selaginelleæ_                            228
-
-        TRANSITION FROM THE CRYPTOGAMS TO THE PHANEROGAMS        234
-
-           Asexual Generation of the Cormophytes                 234
-
-           Sexual Generation; Fertilisation                      243
-
-
-               DIVISION IV. GYMNOSPERMÆ                          251
-
-        Class 1. CYCADEÆ (CYCADS)                                252
-
-          „   2. CONIFERÆ (PINE-TREES)                           255
-
-              Family 1. Taxoideæ                                 259
-
-                 „ 2. Pinoideæ                                   262
-
-        Class 3. GNETEÆ                                          270
-
-                  Fossil Gymnosperms                             271
-
-
-                   DIVISION V. ANGIOSPERMÆ                       273
-
-        Class 1. MONOCOTYLEDONES                                 274
-
-              Family 1. Helobieæ                                 278
-
-                 „   2. Glumifloræ                               283
-
-                 „   3. Spadicifloræ                             297
-
-                 „   4. Enantioblastæ                            308
-
-                 „   5. Liliifloræ                               309
-
-                 „   6. Scitamineæ                               323
-
-                 „   7. Gynandræ                                 328
-
-        Class 2. DICOTYLEDONES                                   334
-
-          Sub-Class 1. _Choripetalæ_                             337
-
-              Family 1. Salicifloræ                              337
-
-                 „   2. Casuarinifloræ                           339
-
-                 „   3. Quercifloræ                              340
-
-                 „   4. Juglandifloræ                            349
-
-                 „   5. Urticifloræ                              351
-
-                 „   6. Polygonifloræ                            358
-
-                 „   7. Curvembryæ                               363
-
-                 „   8. Cactifloræ                               375
-
-                 „   9. Polycarpicæ                              377
-
-                 „  10. Rhœadinæ                                 393
-
-                 „  11. Cistifloræ                               406
-
-                 „  12. Gruinales                                416
-
-                 „  13. Columniferæ                              421
-
-                 „  14. Tricoccæ                                 430
-
-                 „  15. Terebinthinæ                             435
-
-                 „  16. Aesculinæ                                439
-
-                 „  17. Frangulinæ                               443
-
-                 „  18. Thymelæinæ                               448
-
-                 „  19. Saxifraginæ                              451
-
-                 „  20. Rosifloræ                                456
-
-                 „  21. Leguminosæ                               466
-
-                 „  22. Passiflorinæ                             475
-
-                 „  23. Myrtifloræ                               482
-
-                 „  24. Umbellifloræ                             490
-
-                 „  25. Hysterophyta                             498
-
-          Sub-Class 2. _Sympetalæ_                               504
-
-                          _A. Pentacyclicæ_                      506
-
-              Family 26. Bicornes                                506
-
-                 „   27. Diospyrinæ                              510
-
-                 „   28. Primulinæ                               511
-
-                          _B. Tetracyclicæ_                      514
-
-              Family 29. Tubifloræ                               514
-
-                 „   30. Personatæ                               517
-
-                 „   31. Nuculiferæ                              531
-
-                 „   32. Contortæ                                541
-
-                 „   33. Rubiales                                548
-
-                 „   34. Dipsacales                              556
-
-                 „   35. Campanulinæ                             560
-
-                 „   36. Aggregatæ                               564
-
-    APPENDIX                                                     574
-
-    INDEX                                                        593
-
-
-
-
-                              CORRIGENDA.
-
-
-    Page 9, line 12 from top, for _Hydrodicton_ read _Hydrodictyon_.
-     „  14, lines 1 and 2 from top, for _as in the preceding case_
-        read _in this case_.
-     „  14,   „   2 and 15 from top, for _zygote_ read _oospore_.
-     „  88, line 15 from bottom, for _Periphyses_ read _periphyses_.
-     „ 124,   „   7  „    „   for _Chæromyces_ read _Choiromyces_.
-     „ 142,   „   2  „    „   and in Fig. 137, for _Bœomyces_ read
-        _Bæomyces_.
-     „ 152,   „   2  „   top, for _Pirus_ read _Pyrus_.
-     „ 152,   „   5  „    „   for _Crategus_ read _Cratægus_.
-     „ 216, Fig. 215, for _Salvina_ read _Salvinia_.
-     „ 306, line  6 from top, for _Pista_ read _Pistia_.
-     „ 316,   „  26   „   „   after Dracæna insert a comma.
-     „ 337,   „  13   „   „   for _end_ read _beginning_.
-     „ 483,   „  11   „  bottom, for _Lagerstrœmia_ read
-        _Lagerstrœmeria_.
-
-For ä, ö and ü read æ, œ and ue throughout.
-
-The following are not officinal in the British Pharmacopœia:--page 316,
-_Dracæna_ (Dragon’s-blood), _Smilax glabra_; p. 321, “Orris-root”;
-p. 326, species of _Curcuma_, _Alpinia officinarum_; p. 333,
-_Orchis_-species (“Salep”). On page 296, par. 4, only Pearl Barley is
-offic. in the Brit. Phar.
-
-
-
-
-               CLASSIFICATION OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
-
-
-The Vegetable Kingdom is arranged in 5 Divisions.
-
-Division I.--=Thallophyta=, =Stemless Plants=, or those which
-are composed of a “thallus,” _i.e._ organs of nourishment which
-are not differentiated into root (in the sense in which this term is
-used among the higher plants), stem, or leaf. Vascular bundles are
-wanting. Conjugation and fertilisation in various ways; among most of
-the Fungi only vegetative multiplication.
-
-   In contradistinction to the Thallophytes all other plants are
-   called “Stem-plants” (“Cormophyta”), because their shoots are
-   leaf-bearing stems. The name Thallophyta (Stemless-plants) is
-   to some extent unsuitable, since many of the higher Algæ are
-   differentiated into stem and leaf.
-
-The Thallophytes are again separated into 3 sub-divisions, namely:
-
-    Sub-Division =A.=--=Myxomycetes, Slime-Fungi=, with only 1 class.
-
-    Sub-Division =B.=--=Algæ=, with 10 classes:
-        Class 1. Syngeneticæ.
-          „   2. Dinoflagellata, Peridinea.
-          „   3. Diatomeæ, Diatoms.
-          „   4. Schizophyta, Fission Algæ.
-          „   5. Conjugatæ.
-          „   6. Chlorophyceæ, Green Algæ.
-          „   7. Characeæ, Stone-worts.
-          „   8. Phæophyceæ, Brown Algæ.
-          „   9. Dictyotales.
-          „  10. Rhodophyceæ, Red Algæ.
-
-    Sub-Division =C.=--=Fungi=, with 3 classes:
-        Class 1. Phycomycetes.
-          „   2. Mesomycetes.
-          „   3. Mycomycetes, Higher Fungi.
-
-Division II.--=Bryophyta or Muscineæ, Mosses.= These have
-leaf-bearing shoots, but neither true roots nor vascular bundles. The
-lowest Mosses have, however, a thallus. Fertilisation is accomplished
-by means of self-motile, spirally coiled spermatozoids, through the
-agency of water. From the fertilised oosphere a “fruit-body” (capsule)
-with unicellular organs of reproduction (spores) is produced. The spore
-on germination gives rise to the vegetative system, which bears the
-organs of sexual reproduction; and this system is divided into two
-stages--the protonema, and the leaf-bearing plant produced on it.
-
-Alternation of generations:
-
-     I. The protonema and the entire nutritive system which
-          bears the organs of sexual reproduction.
-    II. The capsule-like sporangium, with spores.
-     2 Classes: 1. Hepaticæ, Liverworts.
-                2. Musci, Leafy Mosses.
-
-Division III.--=Pteridophyta or Vascular Cryptogams=, =Fern-like
-Plants= having leaf-bearing shoots, true roots, and vascular bundles
-with tracheides and sieve-tubes. Fertilisation as in the Mosses. From
-the fertilised oosphere the leaf-bearing shoot arises, which bears
-on its leaves the reproductive organs, the spores, in capsule-like
-sporangia. From the germination of the spore a small prothallium is
-formed, which bears the sexual reproductive organs.
-
-Alternation of generations:
-
-     I. Prothallium with organs of sexual reproduction.
-    II. Leaf-bearing shoot with capsule-like sporangia.
-     3 Classes: 1. Filicinæ, True Ferns.
-                2. Equisetinæ, Horsetails.
-                3. Lycopodinæ, Club-mosses.
-
-Division IV.--=Gymnospermæ.= The vegetative organs are in the
-main similar to those in the 3rd Division; special shoots are modified
-into flowers for the service of reproduction. From the oosphere, which
-is fertilised by means of the pollen-tube, the leaf-bearing plant is
-derived; this passes the first period of its life as an embryo in
-the seed, and continues its development when the germination of the
-seed takes place. The organs corresponding to the spores of the two
-preceding Divisions, are called respectively the pollen-grain and
-embryo-sac. The pollen-grains are multicellular; i.e. they contain
-an indistinct prothallium. In the embryo-sac a prothallium, rich in
-reserve material (endosperm), with female organs of reproduction, is
-developed BEFORE FERTILISATION. The pollen-grains are carried
-by means of the wind to the ovules; these enclose the embryo-sac, and
-are situated on the open fruit-leaf (carpel), which has no stigma.
-
-Alternation of generations:
-
-     I. Prothallium = Endosperm in ovule.
-    II. Leaf-bearing plant, with flowers which produce the pollen-sac
-          and ovule.
-     3 Classes: 1. Cycadeæ.
-                2. Coniferæ.
-                3. Gnetaceæ.
-
-Division V.--=Angiospermæ=. The members of this group are very
-similar to those of Division IV. The ovules are, however, encased in
-closed fruit-leaves (ovary), which have a special portion (stigma)
-adapted for the reception and germination of the pollen-grains. The
-pollen-grains are bicellular, but with only a membrane separating
-the two nuclei; they are carried to the stigma by animals (chiefly
-insects), by the wind, or by some other means. Endosperm is not formed
-till AFTER FERTILISATION. Alternation of generations in the main as in
-the Gymnosperms, but less distinct; while the sexual generation, the
-prothallium, with the organs of fertilisation, is also strongly reduced.
-
-    2 Classes:[1] 1. Monocotyledones. Embryo with one seed-leaf.
-                  2. Dicotyledones. Embryo with two seed-leaves.
-
-   For a long time the vegetable kingdom has been divided
-   into. CRYPTOGAMS (so called because their organs
-   of reproduction remained for some time undiscovered), and
-   PHANEROGAMS or Flowering-plants which have evident
-   sexual organs.
-
-   The first three divisions belong to the Cryptogams, and the
-   third and fourth divisions to the Phanerogams. This arrangement
-   has no systematic value, but is very convenient in many ways.
-
-   The Cryptogams are also known as Spore-plants, since they
-   multiply by unicellular organs (spores), and the Phanerogams in
-   contradistinction are called Seed-plants (Spermaphyta), since
-   they multiply by seeds, multicellular bodies, the most important
-   part of which is the embryo (a plant in its infancy). Mosses,
-   Ferns, and Gymnosperms are together known as Archegoniatæ, since
-   they possess in common a female organ of distinct structure, the
-   Archegonium.
-
-
-
-
-                              DIVISION I.
-
-                             THALLOPHYTA.
-
-
-The thallus in the simplest forms is unicellular; in the majority,
-however, it is built up of many cells, which in a few instances are
-exactly similar; but generally there is a division of labour, so
-that certain cells undertake certain functions and are constructed
-accordingly, while others have different work and corresponding
-structure. Vessels or similar high anatomical structures are seldom
-formed, and the markings on the cell-wall are with few exceptions very
-simple. The Myxomycetes occupy quite an isolated position; their organs
-of nourishment are naked masses of protoplasm (plasmodia).
-
-As regards the external form, the thallus may be entirely without
-special prominences (such as branches, members), but when such are
-present they are all essentially alike in their origin and growth,
-that is, disregarding the hair-structures which may be developed. A
-shoot of a Seaweed or of a Lichen, etc., is essentially the same as
-any other part of the plant; only among the highest Algæ (Characeæ,
-certain Siphoneæ, _Sargassum_, and certain Red Seaweeds) do we find the
-same differences between the various external organs of the plant body
-as between stem and leaf, so that they must be distinguished by these
-names.
-
-_Roots_ of the same structure and development as in the Seed-plants
-are not found, but _organs of attachment_ (rhizoids and haptera) serve
-partly the biological functions of the root.
-
-SYSTEMATIC DIVISION OF THE THALLOPHYTES. To the Thallophytes belong
-three sub-divisions--Slime-Fungi, Algæ, and Fungi. Formerly the
-Thallophytes were divided into Algæ, Fungi, and Lichens. But this
-last group must be placed among the Fungi, since they are really
-Fungi, which live symbiotically with Algæ. The _Slime-Fungi_ must be
-separated from the true Fungi as a distinct subdivision. The _Algæ_
-possess a colouring substance, which is generally green, brown, or
-red, and by means of which they are able to build up organic compounds
-from carbonic acid and water. The Bacteria, especially, form an
-exception to the Algæ in this respect; like the Fungi and Slime-Fungi
-they have as a rule no such colouring material, but must have organic
-carbonaceous food; these plants form no starch, and need no light for
-their vegetation (most Fungi require light for fructification). The
-Myxomycetes, Bacteria, and Fungi derive their nourishment either as
-_saprophytes_ from dead animal or vegetable matter, or as _parasites_
-from living animals or plants (hosts), in which they very often cause
-disease.
-
-   A remark, however, must be made with regard to this division.
-   Among the higher plants so much stress is not laid upon the
-   biological relations as to divide them into “green” and
-   “non-green”; _Cuscuta_ (Dodder), a parasite, is placed among
-   the Convolvulaceæ, _Neottia_ and _Corallorhiza_, saprophytes,
-   belong to the Orchidacere, although they live like Fungi,
-   yet their relations live as Algæ. In the same manner there
-   are some colourless parasitic or saprophytic forms among the
-   Algæ, and stress must be laid upon the fact that not only the
-   Blue-green Algæ, but also the Bacteria, which cannot assimilate
-   carbonic-acid, belong to the Algæ group, Schizophyceæ. The
-   reason for this is that systematic classifications must be based
-   upon the relationship of form, development, and reproduction,
-   and from this point of view we must regard the Bacteria as
-   being the nearer relatives of the Blue-green Algæ. All the
-   Thallophytes, which are designated Fungi (when the entire
-   group of Slime-Fungi is left out), form in some measure a
-   connected series of development which only in the lower forms
-   (Phycomycetes) is related to the Algæ, and probably through them
-   has taken its origin from the Algæ; the higher Fungi have then
-   developed independently from this beginning. The distinction
-   of colour referred to is therefore not the only one which
-   separates the Algæ from the Fungi, but it is almost the only
-   characteristic mark by which we can at once distinguish the two
-   great sub-divisions of the Thallophytes.
-
-   The first forms of life on earth were probably “Protistæ,”
-   which had assimilating colour material, or in other words, they
-   were Algæ because they could assimilate purely inorganic food
-   substances, and there are some among these which belong to the
-   simplest forms of all plants. Fungi and Slime-Fungi must have
-   appeared later, because they are dependent on other plants which
-   assimilate carbon.[2]
-
-
-            _Sub-Division I._--=MYXOMYCETES, SLIME-FUNGI.=
-
-The Slime-Fungi occupy quite an isolated position in the Vegetable
-Kingdom, and are perhaps the most nearly related to the group of
-Rhizopods in the Animal Kingdom. They live in and on organic remains,
-especially rotten wood or leaves, etc., on the surface of which their
-sporangia may be found.
-
-They are organisms without chlorophyll, and in their vegetative
-condition are masses of protoplasm without cell-wall (_plasmodia_).
-They multiply by means of _spores_, which in the true Slime-Fungi[3]
-are produced in sporangia, but in some others[4] free. The spores
-are round cells (Fig. 1 _a_) which in all the true Slime-Fungi are
-surrounded by a cell-wall. The wall bursts on germination, and the
-contents float out in the water which is necessary for germination.
-They move about with swimming and hopping motions like swarmspores
-(_e_, _f_), having a cilia at the front end and provided with a
-cell-nucleus and a pulsating vacuole. Later on they become a little
-less active, and creep about more slowly, while they continue to alter
-their form, shooting out arms in various places and drawing them in
-again (_g_, _h_, _i_, _k_, _l_, _m_); in this stage they are called
-_Myxamœbæ_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--_a-l_ Development of “_Fuligo_” from
-  spore to Myxamœba; _a-m_ are magnified 300 times; _m_ is a
-  Myxamœba of _Lycogala epidendron_; _l´_ three Myxamœbæ of
-  _Physarum album_ about to unite; _o_, a small portion of
-  plasmodium, magnified 90 times.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--The plasmodium (_a_) of _Stemonitis
-  fusca_, commencing to form into sporangia (_b_); drawn on July
-  9. The dark-brown sporangia were completely formed by the next
-  morning; _c-e_ shows the development of their external form.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Four sporangia of _Stemonitis fusca_,
-  fixed on a branch. _a_ The plasmodium.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Sporangium of _Arcyria incarnata_. _B_
-  closed; _C_ open; _p_ wall of sporangium; _cp_ capilitium.]
-
-The Myxamœba grows whilst taking up nourishment from the material in
-which it lives, and multiplies by division. At a later stage a larger
-or smaller number of Myxamœbæ may be seen to coalesce and form large
-masses of protoplasm, _plasmodia_, which in the “Flowers of Tan” may
-attain the size of the palm of a hand, or even larger, but in most
-others are smaller. The plasmodia are independent, cream-like masses of
-protoplasm, often containing grains of carbonate of lime and colouring
-matter (the latter yellow in the Flowers of Tan). They creep about in
-the decaying matter in which they live, by means of amœboid movements,
-internal streamings of the protoplasm continually taking place; finally
-they creep out to the surface, and very often attach themselves to
-other objects, such as Mosses, and form sporangia (Fig. 2). These are
-stalked or sessile and are generally cylindrical (Fig. 3), spherical
-or pear-shaped (Fig. 4); they rarely attain a larger size than that of
-a pin’s head, and are red, brown, white, blue, yellow, etc., with a
-very delicate wall. In some genera may be found a “Capillitium” (Fig. 4
-_cp_), or network of branched fine strands between the spores. Flowers
-of Tan (_Fuligo septica_) has a fruit-body composed of many sporangia
-(an Æthalium), which has the appearance of flat, irregular, brown
-cakes, inside the fragile external layer of which a loose powder, the
-spores, is found. It generally occurs on heaps of tanners’ bark, and
-appears sometimes in hot-beds in which that material is used, and is
-destructive by spreading itself over the young plants and choking them.
-
-All the motile stages may pass into _resting stages_, the small forms
-only surrounding themselves with a wall, but the large ones at the
-same time divide in addition into polyhedral cells. When favourable
-conditions arise, the walls dissolve and the whole appears again as a
-naked (free-moving) mass of protoplasm.
-
-To the genuine Slime-Fungi belong: _Arcyria_, _Trichia_, _Didymium_,
-_Physarum_, _Stemonitis_, _Lycogala_, _Fuligo_, _Spumaria_,
-_Reticularia_.
-
-Some genera wanting a sporangium-wall belong to the Slime-Fungi:
-_Ceratiomyxa_, whose fruit-body consists of polygonal plates, each
-bearing stalked spores; _Dictyostelium_, in which the swarm-stage is
-wanting and which has stalked spores. _Plasmodiophora brassicæ_ preys
-upon the roots of cabbages and other cruciferous plants, causing large
-swellings. _Pl. alni_ causes coral-shaped outgrowths on the roots of
-the Alder (_Alnus_). _Phytomyxa leguminosarum_ may be found in small
-knobs (tubercles) on the roots of leguminous plants. It is still
-uncertain whether it is this Fungus or Bacteria which is the cause of
-the formation of these tubercles.
-
-
-                      _Sub-Division_ II.--=ALGÆ=.
-
-=Mode of Life.= The Algæ (except most of the Bacteria) are themselves
-able to form their organic material by the splitting up of the carbonic
-acid contained in the water, or air in some cases, and for this purpose
-need light. The majority live in water, fresh or salt, but many are
-present on damp soil, stones, bark of trees, etc.
-
-With the exception of the Bacteria, no saprophytes have actually been
-determined to belong to this group, and only very few true parasites
-(for instance, _Phyllosiphon arisari_, _Mycoidea_, etc.), but a
-good many are found epiphytic or endophytic on other Algæ, or water
-plants, and on animals (for instance, certain _Schizophyceæ_ and
-_Protococcoideæ_; _Trichophilus welckeri_ in the hairs of _Bradypus_,
-the Sloth), and several species in symbiotic relation to various Fungi
-(species of Lichen), to Sponges (_e.g. Trentepohlia spongiophila_,
-_Struvea delicatula_), and to sundry Infusoria and other lower
-animals as Radiolarias, _Hydra_, etc. (the so-called _Zoochlorella_
-and _Zooxantella_, which are perhaps partly stages in development of
-various Green and Brown Algæ).
-
-=Vegetative Organs.= The cells in all the Algæ (excepting certain
-reproductive cells) are surrounded by a membrane which (with the
-exception of the Bacteria) consists of pure or altered cellulose,
-sometimes forming a gelatinous covering, at other times a harder one,
-with deposits of chalk or silica formed in it. The cell-nucleus,
-which in the Schizophyta is less differentiated, may be one or more
-(_e.g. Hydrodictyon_, _Siphoneæ_) in each cell. Excepting in the
-majority of the Bacteria, _colour materials_ (of which _chlorophyll_,
-or modifications of it, always seems to be found) occur, which either
-permeate the whole cytoplasm surrounding the cell-nucleus, as in most
-of the coloured Schizophyta, or are contained in certain specially
-formed small portions of protoplasm (chromatophores).
-
-The individual at a certain stage of development consists nearly always
-of only one cell; by its division multicellular individuals may arise,
-or, if the daughter-cells separate immediately after the division, as
-in many of the simplest forms, the individual will, during the whole
-course of its existence, consist of only a single cell (unicellular
-Algæ). In multicellular individuals the cells may be more or less
-firmly connected, and all the cells of the individual may be exactly
-alike, or a division of labour may take place, so that certain cells
-undertake certain functions, and are constructed accordingly; this
-may also occur in parts of the cell in the large unicellular and
-multinuclear Algæ (Siphoneæ, p. 62).
-
-The cells in most of the Algæ belong to the _parenchymatous_ form;
-these, however, in the course of their growth, may very often become
-somewhat oblong; in many Algæ (particularly Fucoideæ and Florideæ)
-occur, moreover, _hyphæ-like threads_, which are very long, often
-branched, and are either formed of a single cell, or, more frequently,
-of a row of cells, having a well-pronounced apical growth. The
-parenchymatous as well as the hyphæ-like cells may, in the higher
-Algæ (especially in certain Fucoideæ and Florideæ), be further
-differentiated, so that they form well-defined anatomico-physiological
-systems of tissue, _i.e._ assimilating, conducting, storing, and
-mechanical.
-
-With regard to _the external form_, the thallus may present no
-differentiation, as in many unicellular Algæ, or in multicellular Algæ
-of the lower order, which are then either equally developed in all
-directions (_e.g. Pleurococcus_, Fig. 47), or form flat cell-plates
-(_Merismopedium_) or threads (_Oscillaria_, Fig. 21). The first step
-in the way of differentiation appears as a difference between apex and
-base (_Rivularia_, _Porphyra_); but the division of labour may proceed
-so that differences may arise between vegetative and reproductive cells
-(_Œdogonium_, Fig. 54); hairs and organs of attachment (rhizoids and
-haptera), which biologically serve as roots, are developed, and even
-leaves in certain forms of high order, belonging to different classes
-(_e.g. Caulerpa_, Fig. 59; _Characeæ_, Fig. 61; _Sargassum_, Fig. 72;
-and many Florideæ).
-
-=The non-sexual reproduction= takes place _vegetatively_, in many
-instances, simply by division into two, and more or less complete
-separation of the divisional products (Diatomaceæ, Desmidiaceæ (Fig.
-36), many Fission-plants, etc.), or by detached portions of the thallus
-(_e.g. Caulerpa_, _Ulva lactuca_, etc.; among many Schizophyceæ,
-small filaments known as _hormogonia_ are set free), or _asexually_ by
-special reproductive cells (_spores_) set free from the thallus; these
-may be either _stationary_ or _motile_. The stationary reproductive
-cells (spores) may either be devoid of cell-wall (tetraspores of the
-Florideæ), or may possess a cell-wall; in the latter case they may be
-formed directly from the vegetative cells, generally by the thickening
-of the walls (_akinetes_), or only after a process of re-juvenescence
-(_aplanospores_). Aplanospores, as well as akinetes, may either
-germinate immediately or may become resting-cells, which germinate only
-after a period of rest.
-
-THE MOTILE ASEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE CELLS are spherical, egg- or
-pear-shaped, naked, _swarmspores_ (_zoospores_), which have arisen
-in other cells (_zoosporangia_), and propel themselves through the
-water by means of cilia; or they are _Phyto-Amœbæ_, which have no
-cilia and creep on a substratum by means of pseudopodia. The cilia,
-which are formed from the protoplasm (in the Bacteria, however, from
-the membrane), are mostly situated at the pointed and colourless end,
-which is directed forwards when in motion, and are 1, 2 (Fig. 5 _B_),
-4 or more. Both the cilia in the Brown Algæ are attached to one side
-(Fig. 65); they are occasionally situated in a circle round the front
-end (_Œdogonium_, Fig. 6 _a_, and _Derbesia_), or are very numerous
-and situated in pairs distributed over a large part or nearly the
-whole of the zoospore (_Vaucheria_). Besides being provided with one
-or more nuclei (_Vaucheria_), they may also have a red “eye spot”
-and vacuoles, which are sometimes pulsating, _i.e._ they appear and
-reappear at certain intervals. The swarmspores move about in the
-water in irregular paths, and apparently quite voluntarily, revolving
-round their longer axes; but they come to the surface of the water in
-great numbers either because of their dependence on light, or driven
-by warm currents in the water, or attracted by some passing mass of
-food material. The swarmspores germinate, each forming a new plant,
-as their movement ceases they surround themselves with a cell-wall,
-grow, and then divide; in Fig. 6 _b_, two may be seen in the condition
-of germination, and about to attach themselves by means of the front
-end, which has been developed into haptera (see also Fig. 5 _B_, lowest
-figure).
-
-=The sexual reproduction= here, probably in all cases, consists in the
-coalescence of two masses of protoplasm, that is, in the fusion of
-their nuclei.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--_Cladophora glomerata. A_ The lower
-  cells are full of swarmspores, whilst from the upper one the
-  greater part have escaped through the aperture _m_. _B_ Free and
-  germinating swarmspores.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--_Œdogonium_: _a_ (free), _b_ germinating
-  swarmspores.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--_Zanardinia collaris. A_ Male
-  gametangia (the small-celled) and female gametangia
-  (large-celled). _C_ Female gamete. _D_ Male gamete. _B E_
-  Fertilisation. _F_ Zygote. _G_ Germinating zygote.]
-
-The simplest and lowest form is termed =conjugation=, or =isogamous=
-fertilisation, and is characterized by the fact that the two coalescing
-cells (termed gametes) are equal, or almost equal, in shape and size
-(the female gamete in the _Cutleriaceæ_, _e.g. Zanardinia collaris_,
-Fig. 7, is considerably larger than the male gamete). The cell in
-which the _gametes_ are developed is called a _gametaugium_, and the
-reproductive cell formed by their union--which generally has a thick
-wall and only germinates after a short period of rest--is termed a
-_zygote_ or _zygospore_. The conjugation takes place in two ways:--
-
-(_a_) In the one way the gametes are motile cells (_planogametes_,
-_zoogametes_, Fig. 8), which unite in pairs during their swarming
-hither and thither in the water; during this process they lie side by
-side (Fig. 8 _d_), generally at first touching at the clear anterior
-end, and after a time they coalesce and become a motionless _zygote_,
-which surrounds itself with a cell-wall (Fig. 8 _e_). This form of
-conjugation is found in _Ulothrix_ (Fig. 8 _d_), _Acetabularia_, and
-other Algæ (Figs. 45, 56, 66).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--_Ulothrix zonata_: a portion of
-  a thread with zoospores, of which two are formed in each
-  cell (zoosporangium), the dark spots upon them are the “red
-  eye-spots”; 1, 2, 3, 4 depict successive stages in the
-  development of the zoospores; _b_ a single zoospore, at _v_ the
-  pulsating vacuole; _c_ portion of a thread with gametes, of which
-  sixteen are formed in each gametangium; _d_ gametes free and in
-  conjugation; _e_ conjugation has been effected, and the formed
-  zygotes are in the resting condition.]
-
-(_b_) Among other Algæ (_e.g. Diatomaceæ_ and _Conjugatæ_), the
-conjugating cells continue to be surrounded by the cell-wall of
-the mother-cell (_aplanogametes_ in an _aplanogametangium_); the
-aplanogametangia generally grow out into short branches, which lie
-close together and touch one another, the wall at the point of contact
-is then dissolved (Fig. 39). Through the aperture thus formed, the
-aplanogametes unite, as in the first instance, and form a rounded
-zygote, which immediately surrounds itself with a cell-wall. Various
-modifications occur; compare Figs. 37, 39, 41, 43.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Fertilisation in the Bladder-wrack
-  (_Fucus vesiculosus_).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--_Sphæroplea annulina._]
-
-The highest form of the sexual reproduction is the =Egg- or Oogamous=
-fertilisation. The two coalescing cells are in the main unlike each
-other in form as well as size. The one which is considered as the male,
-and is known as the _spermatozoid_ (_antherozoid_), developes as a rule
-in large numbers in each mother-cell (_antheridium_); they are often
-self-motile (except in the Florideæ, where they are named _spermatia_),
-and are many times smaller than the other kind, the female, which
-is known as the _egg-cell_, (_oosphere_). The egg-cell is always a
-motionless, spherical, primordial cell which can either float about
-freely in the water, as in the Fucaceæ (Fig. 9), or is surrounded by
-a cell-wall (_oogonium_); generally only one oosphere is to be found
-in each oogonium, but several occur in _Sphæroplea_ (Fig. 10). The
-result of the spermatozoid coalescing with the egg-cell is, as in this
-case, the formation of a oospore, which generally undergoes a period of
-rest before germination (the Florideæ are an exception, a fruit-body,
-_cystocarp_, being produced as the result of coalescence).
-
-   An example of fertilisation is afforded by the Alga, _Sphæroplea
-   annulina_ (Fig. 10). The filamentous thallus is formed of
-   cylindrical cells with many vacuoles (_r_ in _A_); some cells
-   develope egg-cells (_B_), others spermatozoids (_C_), the latter
-   in a particularly large number. The egg-cells are spherical,
-   the spermatozoids of a club- or elongated pear-shape with two
-   cilia at the front end (_G_; _E_ is however a swarmspore).
-   The spermatozoids escape from their cells through apertures
-   in the wall (_o_ in _C_) and enter through similar apertures
-   (_o_ in _B_) to the egg-cells. The colourless front end of the
-   spermatozoid is united at first with the “receptive spot” of the
-   egg-cell (see _F_), and afterwards completely coalesces with
-   it. The result is the formation of a oospore with wart-like
-   excrescences (_D_).
-
-The female (_parthenogenesis_) or male (_androgenesis_) sexual cell
-may, sometimes without any preceding fertilisation, form a new
-individual (_e.g. Ulothrix zonata_, _Cylindrocapsa_, etc.).
-
-=Systematic division of the Algæ.= The Algæ are divided into the
-following ten classes:
-
-   1. SYNGENETICÆ; 2. DINOFLAGELLATA, or PERIDINEA; 3. DIATOMACEÆ;
-   4. SCHIZOPHYTA, FISSION-ALGÆ; 5. CONJUGATÆ; 6. CHLOROPHYCEÆ,
-   GREEN-ALGÆ; 7. CHARACEÆ, STONE-WORTS; 8. PHÆOPHYCEÆ; 9.
-   DICTYOTALES; 10. RHODOPHYCEÆ.
-
-Among the lowest forms of the Algæ, the Syngeneticæ, the
-Dinoflagellata, and the unicellular Volvocaceæ (Chlamydomoneæ),
-distinct transitional forms are found approaching the animal kingdom,
-which can be grouped as animals or plants according to their method of
-taking food or other characteristics. Only an artificial boundary can
-therefore be drawn between the animal and vegetable kingdoms. In the
-following pages only those forms which possess _chromatophores_,
-and have _no mouth_, will be considered as Algæ.
-
-
-                        Class 1. =Syngeneticæ.=
-
-The individuals are uni- or multicellular, free-swimming or motionless.
-The cells (which in the multicellular forms are loosely connected
-together, often only by mucilaginous envelopes) are naked or surrounded
-by a mucilaginous cell-wall, in which silica is never embedded. They
-contain one cell-nucleus, one or more pulsating vacuoles, and one to
-two band- or plate-like chromatophores with a brown or yellow colour,
-and sometimes a pyrenoid.
-
-Reproduction takes place by vegetative division, or asexually by
-zoospores, akinetes (or aplanospores?). Sexual reproduction is unknown.
-They are all fresh water forms.
-
-   To this class may perhaps be assigned the recently arranged and
-   very little known orders of _Calcocytaceæ_, _Murracytaceæ_,
-   _Xanthellaceæ_, and _Dictyochaceæ_, which partly occur in the
-   free condition in the sea, in the so-called “Plankton,” and
-   partly symbiotic in various lower marine animals.
-
-The _Syngeneticæ_ are closely related to certain forms in the
-animal kingdom, as the Flagellatæ.
-
-Order 1. =Chrysomonadinaceæ.= Individuals, uni- or multicellular,
-swimming in free condition, naked or surrounded by a mucilaginous
-covering. The cells are generally oval or elongated, with 2 (rarely
-only 1) cilia, almost of the same length, and generally with a red
-“eye-spot” at their base, and with 2 (rarely 1 only) band-shaped
-chromatophores. Reproduction by the longitudinal division of the
-individual cells either during the swarming, or during a resting stage;
-in the multicellular forms also by the liberation of one or more cells,
-which in the latter case are connected together.
-
-   A. Unicellular: _Chromulina_, _Cryptoglena_, _Microglena_,
-   _Nephroselmis_.
-
-   B. Multicellular: _Uroglena_, _Syncrypta_ (Fig. 11), _Synura_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--_Syncrypta volvox_: the multicellular
-  individual is surrounded by a mucilaginous granular envelope.]
-
-   Among the unicellular Chrysomonadinaceæ are probably classed
-   some forms which are only stages in the development of the
-   multicellular, or of other _Syngeneticæ_.
-
-Order 2. =Chrysopyxaceæ= are unicellular, and differ mainly
-from the preceding in being attached either on a slime-thread
-(_Stylochrysalis_), or enclosed in an envelope (_Chrysopyxis_,
-Fig. 12). They have two cilia, and multiply by longitudinal
-(_Chrysopyxis_) or transverse division, and the swarming of one of the
-daughter-individuals (zoospore). Division may also take place in a
-motionless stage (_palmella-stage_).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 12.--_Chrsopyxis bipes_: _m_ envelope, _Ec_
-  chromatophore, _cv_ contractile vacuole.]
-
-Order 3. =Dinobryinaceæ.= The individuals are originally attached,
-uni- or multicellular; each individual cell is distinctly contractile,
-and fixed at the bottom of a cup-shaped, open envelope. Cilia 2, but
-of unequal length. Asexual reproduction by zoospores, which are formed
-by straight or oblique longitudinal division of the mother-cell,
-during a palmella-stage which is produced in the winter aplanospores.
-_Epipyxis_, _Dinobryon_.
-
-Order 4. =Hydruraceæ.= The individuals are attached, without cilia,
-multicellular, branched, and with apical growth. The cells are
-spherical, but in the final stage almost spindle-shaped, and embedded
-in large masses of mucilage. Asexual reproduction by zoospores which
-are tetrahedric, with 1 cilia, and by resting akinetes. _Hydrurus_ is
-most common in mountain brooks.
-
-
-                      Class 2. =Dinoflagellata.=
-
-The individuals are of a very variable form, but always unicellular,
-and floating about in free condition. The cell is _dorsiventral_,
-_bilateral_, _asymmetric_ and generally surrounded by a colourless
-membrane, which has _no silica_ embedded in it, but is formed of
-a substance allied to _cellulose_. The membrane, which externally
-is provided with pores and raised borders, easily breaks up into
-irregularly-shaped pieces. In the forms which have longitudinal and
-cross furrows, _two cilia_ are fixed where these cross each other, and
-project through a cleft in the membrane; one of these cilia _projects
-freely_ and is directed longitudinally to the front or to the rear,
-the other one _stretches crosswise_ and lies close to the cell, often
-in a furrow (cross furrow). The chromatophores are coloured brown or
-green and may either be two parallel (_Exuviella_), or several radially
-placed, discs, which sometimes may coalesce and become a star-shaped
-chromatophore. The coloring material (pyrrophyl) consists, in addition
-to a modification of chlorophyl, also of _phycopyrrin_ and _peridinin_;
-this colour is sometimes more or less masked by the products of
-assimilation which consist of yellow, red or colourless oil (?) and
-starch. Cell-nucleus one: in _Polydinida_ several nuclei are found;
-contractile vacuoles many, which partly open in the cilia-cleft (Fig.
-13 _gs_). In some an eye-spot, coloured red by hæmatochrome, is found.
-Pyrenoids occur perhaps in _Exuviella_ and _Amphidinium_.
-
-THE REPRODUCTION takes place as far as is known at present, only
-by division. This, in many salt water forms, may take place in the
-swarming condition, and, in that case, is always parallel to the
-longitudinal axis. The daughter-individuals, each of which retains half
-of the original shell, sometimes do not separate at once from each
-other, and thus chains (_e.g._ in _Ceratium_) of several connected
-individuals may be formed. In others, the division occurs after
-the cilia have been thrown off and the cell-contents rounded. The
-daughter-cells then adopt entirely new cell-walls. A palmella-stage
-(motionless division-stage) sometimes appears to take place, and also
-aplanospores (?) with one or two horn-like elongations (_e.g._ in
-_Peridinium cinctum_ and _P. tabulatum_); at germination one, or after
-division, two or more, new individuals may be formed.
-
-Sexual reproduction has not been observed with certainty.
-
-The Dinoflagellata move forward or backward, turning round their
-longitudinal axes; in their motion they are influenced by the action
-of light. The motion possibly may be produced only by the transverse
-cilium, which vibrates rapidly; whilst the longitudinal cilium moves
-slowly, and is supposed to serve mainly as a steering apparatus. They
-live principally in salt water, but also in fresh.
-
-Besides the coloured forms, which are able to make their own organic
-compounds by the splitting up of the carbonic acid contained in the
-water, there are a few colourless forms (_e.g. Gymnodinium spirale_),
-or such as do not possess chromatophores (_Polykrikos_); these appear
-to live saprophytically, and may be able to absorb solid bodies with
-which they come in contact.
-
-Dinoflagellata occur in the “Plankton” of the open sea, where they form
-together with Diatomaceæ the basis for the animal life. It is known
-with certainty that some salt water forms (like the _Noctiluca_,
-which belongs to the animal kingdom and to which they are perhaps
-related) produce light, known as phosphorescence.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 13.--_A_ and _B Glenodinium cinctum_. _A_
-  seen from the ventral side, _B_ from behind; _fg_ transverse
-  cilium; _g_ longitudinal cilium; _ch_ chromatophores; _a_ starch;
-  _n_ cell-nucleus; _v_ vacuole; _oc_ eye-spot; _C Ceratium
-  tetraceros_ from the ventral side; _r_ the right, _b_ the
-  posterior horn; _lf_ longitudinal furrow; _gs_ cilium-cleft; _v_
-  vacuole; _g_ longitudinal cilium. (_A_ and _B_ mag. 450 times,
-  _C_ 337 times.)]
-
-   _Dinoflagellata_ (_Peridinea_, _Cilioflagellata_) are allied
-   through their lowest form (_Exuviella_) to the Syngeneticæ and
-   especially to the order Chrysomonadinaceæ. They may be divided
-   into three orders.
-
-Order 1. =Adinida.= Without transverse or longitudinal furrows, but
-enclosed in two shells, and with two parallel chromatophores in each
-cell. _Exuviella_, _Prorocentrum_.
-
-Order 2. =Dinifera.= With tranverse and generally longitudinal furrow.
-Many radially-placed, disc-formed chromatophores. The most common
-genera are--_Ceratium_ (Fig. 13), _Peridinium_, _Glenodinium_ (Fig.
-13), _Gymnodinium_, _Dinophysis_.
-
-Order 3. =Polydinida.= With several transverse furrows, no
-chromatophores, and several cell-nuclei. Only one genus--_Polykrikos_.
-
-   The order _Polydinida_ deviates in a high degree from the
-   other Dinoflagellata, not only by its many tranverse furrows,
-   each with its own transverse cilium, and by the absence of
-   chromatophores, but also in having several cell-nuclei and a
-   kind of stinging capsule, which otherwise does not occur within
-   the whole class. It may therefore be questionable whether this
-   order should really be placed in the vegetable kingdom.
-
-
-                         Class 3. =Diatomeæ.=
-
-The individuals--each known as a _frustule_--assume very various
-forms and may be unicellular or multicellular, but present no
-differentiation; many similar cells may be connected in chains,
-embedded in mucilaginous masses, or attached to mucilaginous
-stalks. The cells are bilateral or centric, often asymmetrical,
-slightly dorsiventral and have no cilia; those living in the free
-condition have the power of sliding upon a firm substratum. The cell
-contains 1 cell-nucleus and 1–2 plate-shaped or several disc-shaped
-chromatophores. The colouring material “_Melinophyl_” contains, in
-addition to a modification of chlorophyl, a brown colouring matter,
-_diatomin_. 1 or 2 pyrenoids sometimes occur. Starch is wanting and the
-first product of assimilation appears to be a kind of oil (?).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 14.--_Pinnularia_: _B_, from the edge, shows
-  the valves fitting together; _A_, a valve.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Various Diatomaceæ. A _Diatoma vulgare_.
-  B _Tabellaria flocculosa_. C _Navicula tumida_ (lateral views).
-  D _Gomphonema constrictum_ (lateral views). E _Navicula
-  west[=i][=i]_ (lateral views).]
-
-The cell-walls are _impregnated with silica_ to such a degree that
-they are imperishable and are therefore able to contribute in a great
-measure to the formation of the earth’s crust. The structure of their
-cell-wall is most peculiar and _differs from all other plants_ (except
-certain Desmidiaceæ); it does not consist of a single piece but is
-made up of two--the “shells”--(compare _Exuviella_ and _Prorocentrum_
-among the Dinoflagellata) which are fitted into each other, one being
-a little larger than the other and embracing its edge, like a box with
-its lid (Fig. 14 _B_). The two parts which correspond to the bottom
-and lid of the box are known as _valves_. Along the central line of
-the valves a longitudinal _rib_ may often be found, interrupted at
-its centre by a small cleft (perhaps homologous with the cilia-cleft
-of the Dinoflagellata), through which the protoplasm is enabled to
-communicate with the exterior (Fig. 14 _A_). It is principally by
-reason of the valves, which bear numerous fine, transverse ribs, striæ
-or warts, etc. (Figs. 14, 15, 17), that the Diatomeæ have become so
-well known and employed as test objects in microscopical science. When
-the division takes place, the two shells are separated a little from
-each other, and after the cell-contents have divided into two masses,
-two new shells are formed, one fitting into the larger valve, the
-other one into the smaller valve of the original frustule. The latter
-cell (frustule) is thus, upon the whole, smaller than the mother-cell,
-and as the cells do not increase in size, some frustules are smaller
-than the ones from which they are derived, and thus, by repeated
-divisions, it follows that smaller and smaller frustules are produced.
-This continued diminution in size is, however, compensated for by the
-formation, when the cells have been reduced to a certain minimum, of
-_auxospores_, 2–3 times larger. These may either be formed _asexually_
-by the protoplasm of a cell increasing, rounding off and surrounding
-itself with a new wall (_e.g. Melosira_) or after _conjugation_,
-which may take place with various modifications: 1. Two individuals
-unite after the secretion of a quantity of mucilage, and the valves
-then commence to separate from each other, on the side which the two
-individuals turn towards each other. The protoplasmic bodies now
-release themselves from their cell-wall, and each rounds off to form an
-ellipsoidal mass; these two protoplasmic masses (gametes) coalesce to
-form a zygote, the cell-nuclei and chromatophores also fusing together.
-The zygote increases in size, and surrounds itself with a firm, smooth,
-siliceous wall--the _perizonium_. The auxospores, whichever way they
-arise, are not resting stages. The germination of the zygote commences
-by the protoplasm withdrawing itself slightly from the cell-wall and
-constructing first the larger valve, and later on the smaller one;
-finally the membrane of the zygote bursts (_e.g. Himantidium_). 2.
-The conjugation occurs in a similar manner, but the protoplasm of the
-cells divides transversely before conjugation into two daughter-cells.
-Those lying opposite one another conjugate (Fig. 16) and form two
-zygotes. The formation of the perizonium, and germination take place
-as in the preceding instance (_e.g. Epithemia_). 3. Two cells place
-themselves parallel to each other, and each of the two cell-contents,
-without coalescing, becomes an auxospore. The formation of the wall
-takes place as in the preceding case. This is found in the Naviculeæ,
-Cymbelleæ, the Gomphonemeæ (_e.g. Frustulia_, _Cocconema_).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Conjugation of _Cymbella variabilis_.
-  _A_, The protoplasm in the two cells has divided into two masses;
-  _B_ these masses coalesce in pairs; the cells (_B C_) enclosed
-  in a mucilaginous matrix. _C D_ Auxospores and their formation.]
-
-The Diatomaceæ may be found in salt as well as in fresh water (often
-in such masses that the colour of the water or mud becomes yellow or
-brown; in the same manner the genera _Chætoceros_, _Rhizosolenia_,
-_Coscinodiscus_, and several others, form large slime-masses,
-“Plankton” on the surface of the sea), on damp soil and in dust blown
-by the wind. They occur as fossils in the recent formations, often
-in large deposits (siliceous earth, mountain meal), as in the cement
-lime in Jutland, the alluvial deposits beneath Berlin, in clay strata
-beneath peat bogs, in guano, etc. These accumulations of fossilized
-diatoms are used in the manufacture of dynamite and in various
-manufactures.
-
-The Diatomaceæ appear nearest to, and must be placed as a group
-co-ordinate with the Dinoflagellata, as they doubtless may be supposed
-to derive their origin from forms resembling _Exuviella_, and to have
-lost the cilia. The resemblances to the Desmidiaceæ which are striking
-in many respects, can only be conceived as analogies, and cannot be
-founded upon homologies, and it is therefore impossible to regard them
-as proof of genetic relationship. The family contains only one order.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Various Diatomeæ. _A Synedra radians._
-  _B Epithemia turgida_ (from the two different sides). _C Cymbella
-  cuspidata. D Cocconeis pediculus_ (on the right several
-  situated on a portion of a plant, on the left a single one more
-  highly magnified).]
-
-Order 1. =Diatomaceæ.= This order may be divided into two
-sub-orders, viz.--
-
-Sub-Order 1. =Placochromaticæ.= The chromatophores are discoid, large,
-1 or 2 in each cell; the structure of the valves is bilateral and
-always without reticulate markings. The following groups belong to
-this sub-order: _Gomphonemeæ_, _Cymbelleæ_, _Amphoreæ_, _Achnantheæ_,
-_Cocconeideæ_, _Naviculeæ_, _Amphipleureæ_, _Plagiotropideæ_,
-_Amphitropideæ_, _Nitzchieæ_, _Surirayeæ_, and _Eunotieæ_.
-
-Sub-Order 2. =Coccochromaticæ.= The chromatophores are granular, small
-and many in each cell. The structure of the cells is zygomorphic
-or centric, often with reticulate markings. The following groups
-belong to this sub-order: _Fragilarieæ_, _Meridieæ_, _Tabellarieæ_,
-_Licmophoreæ_, _Biddulphieæ_, _Anguliferæ_, _Eupodisceæ_,
-_Coscinodisceæ_, and _Melosireæ_.
-
-
-                 Class 4. =Schizophyta, Fission-Algæ.=
-
-The individuals are 1--many celled; the thallus consists in many of a
-single cell, in others of chains of cells, the cells dividing in only
-one definite direction (Figs. 18, 21). In certain Fission-Algæ the
-cell-chain branches (Fig. 30) and a difference between the anterior
-and the posterior ends of the chain is marked; in some, the cells may
-be united into the form of flat plates by the cell-division taking
-place in two directions; and in others into somewhat cubical masses, or
-rounded lumps of a less decided form, by the divisions taking place in
-three directions; or less defined masses may be formed by the divisions
-taking place in all possible directions.
-
-The cell-walls rarely contain cellulose, they often swell considerably
-(Figs. 20, 22), and show distinct stratifications, or they are almost
-completely changed into a mucilaginous mass in which the protoplasts
-are embedded, _e.g._ in _Nostoc_ (Fig. 22), and in the “Zooglœa” stage
-of the Bacteria (Fig. 27). Sexual reproduction is wanting. Vegetative
-reproduction by division and the separation of the divisional products
-by the splitting of the cell-wall or its becoming mucilaginous; among
-the Nostocaceæ, Lyngbyaceæ, Scytonemaceæ, etc., “Hormogonia” are found;
-in _Chamæsiphon_ and others single reproductive akinetes are formed.
-Many Fission-Algæ conclude the growing period by the formation of
-resting akinetes or aplanospores.
-
-The Schizophyta may be divided into 2 families:
-
-1. SCHIZOPHYCEÆ.
-
-2. BACTERIA.
-
-
-             Family 1. =Schizophyceæ,[5] Blue-Green Algæ.=
-
-All the Blue-green Algæ are able to assimilate carbon by means of
-a colouring material containing chlorophyll (cyanophyll); but the
-chlorophyll in this substance is masked by a blue (phycocyan), or red
-(phycoerythrin, _e.g._ in _Trichodesmium erythræum_ in the Red Sea)
-colouring matter which may be extracted from them in cold water after
-death. The colouring matter, in most of them, permeates the whole of
-the protoplasm (excepting the cell-nucleus), but in a few (_e.g._
-_Glaucocystis_, _Phragmonema_), slightly developed chromatophores are
-to be found. Where the cells are united into filaments (cell-chains) a
-differentiation into apex and base (_Rivulariaceæ_) may take place, and
-also between ordinary vegetative cells and heterocysts; these latter
-cannot divide, and are distinguished from the ordinary vegetative cells
-(Fig. 22 _h_) by their larger size, yellow colour, and poverty of
-contents. Branching sometimes occurs and is either true or spurious.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--_Microcoleus lyngbyanus_: _a_ portion of
-  a filament, the thick sheath encloses only one cell-chain; in one
-  place a cell is drawn out by the movement of the cell-chain; _b_
-  the cell-chain has divided into two parts (“hormongonia”) which
-  commence to separate from each other.]
-
-The cell-chain in the spurious branching divides into two parts,
-of which either one or both grow beyond the place of division
-(Fig. 18) and often out to both sides (_e.g. Scytonema_), the
-divisions however, always take place transversely to the longitudinal
-direction of the cell-chain. In the true branching a cell elongates
-in the direction transverse to the cell-chain, and the division
-then takes place nearly at right angles to the former direction
-(_Sirosiphoniaceæ_).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--_Cylindrospermum majus_: _a_ resting
-  akinete with heterocyst; _b-d_ germinating stages of a resting
-  akinete; _e_ filament with two heterocysts and the formation
-  of new akinetes; _f_ part of a filament with a heterocyst, and
-  mature resting akinete.]
-
-Cilia are wanting, but the filaments are sometimes self-motile (_e.g._
-hormogonia in _Nostoc_) and many partly turn round their axes, partly
-slide forward or backward (_Oscillaria_).
-
-Reproduction takes place by spores and hormogonia in addition to simple
-cell-division. Hormogonia are peculiar fragments of a cell-chain
-capable of motion, and often exhibit a vigorous motion in the sheath,
-until at last they escape and grow into a new individual (Fig. 18).
-The spores are reproductive akinetes (_Chamæsiphon_, etc.) or resting
-akinetes; these latter arise by the vegetative cells enlarging and
-constructing a thick cell-wall (Fig. 19 _e f_). On germination,
-this cell-wall bursts and the new cell-chain elongates in the same
-longitudinal direction as before (Fig. 19 _b c_). Many (_e.g._
-_Oscillaria_) may however winter in their ordinary vegetative stage.
-Aplanospores are wanting.
-
-The Fission-Algæ are very prevalent in fresh water and on damp soil,
-less so in salt water; they also often occur in water which abounds in
-decaying matter. Some are found in warm springs with a temperature as
-high as 50° C.
-
-The Family may be divided into 2 sub-families:
-
-1. HOMOCYSTEÆ (heterocysts are wanting): _Chroococcaceæ_, _Lyngbyaceæ_
-and _Chamœsiphonaceæ_.
-
-2. HETEROCYSTEÆ (heterocysts present): _Nostocaceæ_, _Rivulariaceæ_,
-_Scytonemaceæ_ and _Sirosiphoniaceæ_.
-
-Order 1. =Chroococcaceæ.= The individuals are 1--many-celled, but all
-the cells are uniform, united to form plates or irregular masses, often
-surrounded by a mucilaginous cell-wall, but never forming cell-chains.
-Multiplication by division and sometimes by resting akinetes, but
-reproductive akinetes are wanting. _Chroococcus_, _Aphanocapsa_,
-_Glœocapsa_ (Fig. 20), _Cœlosphærium_, _Merismopedium_, _Glaucocystis_,
-_Oncobyrsa_, _Polycystis_, _Gomphosphæria_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--_Glœocapsa atrata_: _A_, _B_, _C_, _D_,
-  _E_ various stages of development.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 21.--_Oscillaria_; =a= terminal, =b= central
-  portion of a filament.]
-
-Order 2. =Lyngbyaceæ (Oscillariaceæ).= The cells are discoid (Fig.
-21), united to straight or spirally twisted, free filaments, which are
-unbranched, or with spurious branching. The ends of the cell-chains
-are similar. Heterocysts absent. Reproduction by synakinetes, resting
-akinetes are wanting. _Oscillaria_ (Fig. 21), _Spirulina_, _Lyngbya_,
-_Microcoleus_, _Symploca_, _Plectonema_.
-
-Order 3. =Chamæsiphonaceæ.= The individuals are 1--many-celled,
-attached, unbranched filaments with differentiation into apex and base,
-without heterocysts. Multiplication by reproductive akinetes; resting
-akinetes are wanting. _Dermocarpa_, _Clastidium_, _Chamæsiphon_,
-_Godlewskia_, _Phragmonema_.
-
-Order 4. =Nostocaceæ.= The individuals are formed of multicellular,
-unbranched filaments, without differentiation into apex and base;
-heterocysts present. Reproduction by synakinetes and resting akinetes.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 22.--_Nostoc verrucosum. A_ The plant in
-  its natural size; an irregularly folded jelly-like mass. _B_ One
-  of the cell-chains enlarged, with its heterocysts (_h_), embedded
-  in its mucilaginous sheath.]
-
-Some genera are not mucilaginous, _e.g. Cylindrospermum_ (Fig. 19).
-The cell-chains in others, _e.g. Nostoc_, wind in between one another
-and are embedded in large structureless jelly-like masses, which may
-attain the size of a plum or even larger (Fig. 22); sometimes they are
-found floating in the water, sometimes attached to other bodies. Other
-genera as follows: _Aphanizomenon_ and _Anabæna_ (in lakes and smaller
-pieces of water); _Nodularia_ is partly pelagic. Some occur in the
-intercellular spaces of higher plants, thus _Nostoc_-forms are found
-in _Anthoceros_, _Blasia_, _Sphagnum_, _Lemna_, and in the roots of
-_Cycas_ and _Gunnera_; _Anabæna_ in _Azolla_.
-
-Order 5. =Rivulariaceæ.= The individuals are multicellular filaments,
-with differentiation into apex and base; spurious branching, and a
-heterocyst at the base of each filament, reproduction by synakinetes
-and resting akinetes, rarely by simple reproductive akinetes.
-_Rivularia_, _Glœotrichia_, _Isactis_, _Calothrix_.
-
-Order 6. =Scytonemaceæ.= The individuals are formed of multicellular
-filaments with no longitudinal division; differentiation into apex and
-base very slight or altogether absent; branching spurious; heterocysts
-present. Reproduction by synakinetes, rarely by resting akinetes and
-ordinary reproductive akinetes. _Tolypothrix_, _Scytonema_, _Hassalia_,
-_Microchæte_.
-
-Order 7. =Sirosiphoniaceæ.= The individuals are formed of multicellular
-threads with longitudinal divisions; true branching and heterocysts,
-and often distinct differentiation into apex and base. Reproduction
-by synakinetes, rarely by resting akinetes and ordinary reproductive
-akinetes. _Hapalosiphon_, _Stigonema_, _Capsosira_, _Nostocopsis_,
-_Mastigocoleus_.
-
-
-                       Family 2. =Bacteria.=[6]
-
-The Bacteria (also known as Schizomycetes, and Fission-Fungi) are the
-smallest known organisms, and form a parallel group to the Blue-green
-Algæ, but separated from these Algæ by the absence of their colouring
-material; chlorophyll is only found in a few Bacteria.
-
-The various forms under which the vegetative condition of the Bacteria
-appear, are termed as follows:
-
-1. GLOBULAR FORMS, COCCI (Figs. 27, 30 _c_): spherical or ellipsoidal,
-single cells, which, however, are usually loosely massed together and
-generally termed “_Micrococci_.”
-
-2. ROD-LIKE FORMS: more or less elongated bodies; the shorter forms
-have been styled “_Bacterium_” (in the narrower sense of the word),
-and the term “_Bacillus_” has been applied to longer forms which are
-straight and cylindrical (Figs. 28, 29, 30 _E_).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 23.--_Spirillum sanguineum._ Four specimens.
-  One has two cilia at the same end, the sulphur grains are seen
-  internally.]
-
-3. THREAD-LIKE FORMS: unbranched, long, round filaments, resembling
-those of _Oscillaria_, are possessed by _Leptothrix_ (very thin,
-non-granular filaments; Fig. 30 _A_, the small filaments) and
-_Beggiatoa_ (thicker filaments, with strong, refractile grains or drops
-of sulphur (Fig. 31); often self-motile). Branched filaments, with
-false branching like many _Scytonemaceæ_, are found in _Cladothrix_
-(Fig. 30 _B_, _G_).
-
-4. SPIRAL FORMS: Rod-like or filamentous bodies, which more or less
-strongly resemble a corkscrew with a spiral rising to the left. In
-general these are termed _Spirilla_ (Fig. 23); very attenuated spirals,
-_Vibriones_ (standing next to Fig. 30 _M_); if the filaments are
-slender and flexible with a closely wound spiral, _Spirochætæ_ (Fig.
-24).
-
-5. The MERISMOPEDIUM-FORM, consisting of rounded cells arranged in
-one plane, generally in groups of four, and produced by divisions
-perpendicular to each other.
-
-6. The SARCINA-FORM, consisting of roundish cells which are produced
-by cellular division in all the three directions of space, united into
-globular or ovoid masses (“parcels”) _e.g. Sarcina ventriculi_ (Figs.
-25, 26).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 24.--_Spirochæte obermeieri_, in active
-  motion (_b_) and shortly before the termination of the fever
-  (_c_); a blood corpuscles.]
-
-All Bacteria are unicellular. In the case of the micrococci this is
-self-evident, but in the “rod,” “thread,” and “spiral” Bacteria, very
-often numerous cells remain united together and their individual
-elements can only be recognised by the use of special reagents.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 25.--_Sarcina ventriculi._ One surface only
-  is generally seen. Those cells which are drawn with double
-  contour are seen with the correct focus, and more distinctly than
-  those cells lying deeper drawn with single contour.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 26.--_Sarcina minuta_: _a-d_ successive
-  stages of one individual (from 4–10 p.m.); _f_ an individual of
-  32 cells.]
-
-The condition termed “Zooglœa,” which reminds us of _Nostoc_, is
-produced by the cells becoming strongly mucilaginous. A number of
-individuals in active division are found embedded in a mass of
-mucilage, which either contains only one, or sometimes more, of the
-above-named forms. The individuals may eventually swarm out and
-continue their development in an isolated condition. Such mucilaginous
-masses occur especially upon moist vegetables (potatoes, etc.), on the
-surface of fluids with decaying raw or cooked materials, etc. The
-mucilaginous envelope is thrown into folds when the Bacteria, with
-their mucilaginous cell-walls, multiply so rapidly that there is no
-more room on the surface of the fluid.
-
-The cells of the Bacteria are constructed like other plant-cells in
-so far as their diminutive size has allowed us to observe them. The
-cell-wall only exceptionally shows the reactions of cellulose (in
-_Sarcina_, _Leuconostoc_; also in a Vinegar-bacterium, _Bacterium
-xylinum_); a mucilaginous external layer is always present. The body
-of the cell mostly appears to be an uniform or finely granulated
-protoplasm. Very few species (_e.g. Bacillus virens_) contain
-chlorophyll; others are coloured red (purple sulphur Bacteria); the
-majority are colourless. _Bacillus amylobacter_ shows a reaction
-of a starch-like material when treated with iodine before the
-spore-formation. Some Bacteria contain sulphur (see p. 37). The body,
-which has been described as a _cell-nucleus_, is still of a doubtful
-nature.
-
-Artificial colourings with aniline dyes (especially methyl-violet,
-gentian-violet, methylene-blue, fuchsin, Bismarck-brown and Vesuvin)
-play an important part in the investigations of Bacteria.
-
-MOVEMENT. Many Bacteria are self-motile; the long filaments of
-_Beggiatoa_ exhibit movements resembling those of _Oscillaria_. In many
-motile forms the presence of cilia or flagella has been proved by the
-use of stains; many forms have one, others several cilia attached at
-one or both ends (Fig. 23) or distributed irregularly over the whole
-body; the cilia are apparently elongations of the mucilaginous covering
-and not, as in the other Algæ of the protoplasm. In _Spirochæte_ the
-movement is produced by the flexibility of the cell itself. Generally
-speaking, the motion resembles that of swarm-cells (_i.e._ rotation
-round the long axis and movement in irregular paths); but either end
-has an equal power of proceeding forwards.
-
-   The swarming motion must not be confounded with the hopping
-   motion of the very minute particles under the microscope
-   (Brownian movement).
-
-VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION takes place by continued transverse division;
-hence the name “Fission-Fungi” or “Fission-Algæ,” has been applied to
-the Bacteria.
-
-SPORES. The spores are probably developed in two ways. In the
-ENDOSPOROUS species (Figs. 28, 29), the spore arises as a new cell
-inside the mother-cell. The spores are strongly refractile, smaller
-than the mother-cell, and may be compared to the aplanospores of other
-Algæ. In addition to these there are the ARTHROSPOROUS species in
-which the cells, just as in _Nostoc_ and other Blue-green Algæ, assume
-the properties of spores without previously undergoing an endogenous
-new construction, and are able to germinate and form new vegetative
-generations (Fig. 27). The formation of spores very often commences
-when the vegetative development begins to be restricted.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 27.--_Leuconostoc mesenterioides_: _a_
-  a zooglœa, natural size; _b_ cross section of zooglœa; _c_
-  filaments with spores; _d_ mature spores; _e-i_ successive stages
-  of germination; in _e_ portions of the ruptured spore-wall are
-  seen on the external side of the mucilaginous covering. (_b-i_
-  magnified 520.)]
-
-The spores germinate as in _Nostoc_ by the bursting of the external
-layer of the cell-wall, either by a transverse or longitudinal cleft,
-but always in the same way, in the same species (Fig. 28, example of
-transverse cleft).
-
-DISTRIBUTION. Bacteria and their germs capable of development, are
-found everywhere, in the air (dust), in surface water, and in the
-superficial layers of the soil. The number varies very much in
-accordance with the nature of the place, season, etc. They enter,
-together with air and food, into healthy animals and occur always in
-their alimentary tract.
-
-GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION depend upon the conditions of temperature.
-There is a certain minimum, optimum and maximum for each species; for
-instance (in degrees Centigrade)--
-
-                                  Minim.     Opt.   Maxim.
-    _Bacillus subtilis_             + 6     c. 30    + 50
-    _B. anthracis_                   15     20–25      43
-    _Spirillum choleræ asiaticæ_      8        37      40 (but grows
-                                                           only feebly
-                                                           if under
-                                                           16°).
-    _Bacterium tuberculosis_         28     37–38      42
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 28.--_Bacillus megaterium_: _a_ outline of a
-  living, vegetative cell-rod; _b_ a living, motile, pair of rods;
-  _p_ a similar 4-celled rod after the effects of iodine alcohol;
-  _c_ a 5-celled rod in the first stages of spore-formation; _d-f_
-  successive stages of spore-formation in one and the same pair
-  of rods (in the course of an afternoon); _r_ a rod with mature
-  spores; _g^1–g^3_ three stages of a 5-celled rod, with spores
-  sown in nutritive solution; _h^1–h^2_, _i_, _k_, _l_ stages of
-  germination; _m_ a rod in the act of transverse division, grown
-  out from a spore which had been sown eight hours previously.
-  (After de Bary; _a_ mag. 250, the other figures 600 times).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 29.--_Bacillus amylobacter._ Motile rods,
-  partly cylindrical and without spores, partly swollen into
-  various special shapes and with spore-formation in the swelling.
-  _s_ Mature spore, with thick mucilaginous envelope. (After de
-  Bary; mag. 600 times, with the exception of _s_, which is more
-  highly magnified.)]
-
-The functions of life cease on a slight excess of the maximum or
-minimum temperature, numbness setting in when either of these limits
-is passed. _Crenothrix_-threads provided with mucilaginous envelopes
-may, according to Zopf, sustain a temperature of-10°. Some Bacteria are
-said to be able to resist the exposure to as low a temperature as-110°
-for a short time. It is not known at what degree of cold the death of
-the Bacteria occurs: the greatest degree of heat which the vegetative
-cells can withstand is about the same as that for other vegetative
-plant-cells, namely, about 50–60° C. Certain Bacteria, _e.g. B.
-thermophilus_, grow and thrive vigorously at 70° C. Many spores, on the
-contrary, are able to bear far higher temperatures (in several species
-a temperature for some duration of above 100°, those of _Bacillus
-subtilis_, for instance, can withstand for hours a temperature of 100°
-in nutrient solutions; the spores remain capable of development after
-exposure to a dry heat of 123° C.).
-
-The _Desiccation_ of the air, if prolonged, kills many forms when in
-the vegetative condition. The spores however can bear a much longer
-period of dryness, some even several years.
-
-OXYGEN. Some species cannot live without a supply of free oxygen
-(_Aerobic_), _e.g._ the Vinegar-bacteria, the Hay-bacilli, the
-Anthrax-bacilli, the Cholera-_Microspira_. Other species again thrive
-vigorously without supply of free oxygen, and are even checked in their
-development by the admission of air (_Anaerobic_), _e.g._ the butyric
-acid Bacterium (_Clostridium butyricium_ = _Bacillus amylobacter_).
-A distinction may be drawn between obligate and facultative aerobics
-and obligate and facultative anaerobics. Several Bacteria, producing
-fermentation, may grow without the aid of oxygen when they are living
-in a solution in which they can produce fermentation; but, if this is
-not the case, they can only grow when a supply of oxygen is available.
-A great number of the pathogenic Bacteria belong to the facultative
-anaerobics.
-
-A luminous Bacterium (_Bacillus phosphorescens_) which in the presence
-of a supply of oxygen gives a bluish-white light, has been found in
-sea-water. Phosphorescent Bacteria have frequently been observed
-upon decaying sea-fish, as well as on the flesh of other animals; by
-transferring the Bacteria from cod fish to beef, etc., the latter may
-be made luminous.
-
-_Organic carbon compounds_ are indispensable for all Bacteria, (except,
-as it appears, for the nitrifying organisms), as they can only obtain
-the necessary supplies of _carbon_ from this source. The supplies
-of _nitrogen_, which also they cannot do without, can be obtained
-equally as well from organic compounds as from inorganic salts, such as
-saltpetre or ammonia-compounds. The various “ash-constituents” are also
-essential for their nourishment.
-
-While Moulds and Yeast-Fungi grow best in an acid substratum, the
-_Bacteria_, on the other hand, generally thrive _best_ in a _neutral_
-or slightly _alkaline_ one.
-
-In _sterilization_, _disinfection_, and _antisepsis_, means are
-employed by which the Bacteria are killed, or checked in their
-development, for instance, by heat (ignition, cooking, hot vapours,
-hot air, etc.), or poisons (acids, corrosive sublimate). The process
-of preserving articles of food, in which they are boiled and then
-hermetically sealed, aims at destroying the Bacteria, or the spores of
-those which already may be present in them, and excluding all others.
-
-As the Bacteria are unable to assimilate carbon from the carbonic
-acid of the air, but must obtain it from the carbon-compounds already
-in existence in the organic world, they are either _saprophytes_
-or _parasites_. Some are exclusively either the one or the other,
-_obligate_ saprophytes or parasites. But there are transitional
-forms among them, some of which are at ordinary times saprophytes,
-but may, when occasion offers, complete their development wholly or
-partly as parasites--_facultative parasites_; others are generally
-parasitic, but may also pass certain stages of development as
-saprophytes--_facultative saprophytes_.
-
-All chlorophyll-free organisms act in a transforming and disturbing
-manner on the organic compounds from which they obtain their
-nourishment, and while they themselves grow and multiply, they produce,
-each after its kind, compounds of a less degree of complexity, _i.e._
-they produce _fermentation_, _putrefaction_, sometimes the formation of
-_poisons_, and in living beings often _disease_.
-
-Those organisms which produce fermentation are called _ferments_;
-this word, however, is also employed for similar transformations in
-purely chemical materials (inorganic ferments or enzymes). Many organic
-(“living”) ferments, among which are Yeast-cells and Bacteria, give
-off during their development certain inorganic and soluble ferments
-(enzymes) which may produce other transformations without themselves
-being changed. Different organisms may produce in the same substratum
-different kinds of transformation; alcoholic fermentation may for
-instance be produced by different species of Fungi, but in different
-proportions, and the same species produces in different substrata,
-different transformations (_e.g._ the Vinegar-bacteria oxydize diluted
-alcohol to vinegar, and eventually to carbonic acid and water).
-
-   In the study of Bacteria it is absolutely necessary to sterilize
-   the vessels employed in cultivation, the apparatus, and nutrient
-   solutions, _i.e._ to free them from Bacteria germs and
-   also to preserve the cultures from the intrusion of any foreign
-   germs (“pure-cultures”). A firm, transparent, nutritive medium
-   is frequently employed. This may be prepared by adding to
-   the nutrient solutions (broth) either gelatine, or--when the
-   Bacteria are to be cultivated at blood-heat--serum of sheep’s or
-   calf’s blood, agar-agar or carragen; serum alone may in itself
-   serve as a nutrient medium. The so-called “plate-cultures” are
-   frequently employed, _i.e._ the germs are isolated by
-   shaking them with the melted liquid nutrient gelatine, which
-   is then spread on a glass plate and allowed to coagulate; when
-   later on the individual germs grow into colonies, these remain
-   separate in the solid substratum and it is easy to pursue
-   their further development. Similar plate-cultures may also be
-   cultivated in test-tubes and on microscopic slides. The slides
-   and glass plates must be placed in “moist chambers” free from
-   Bacteria. By sowing a few cells (if possible one) using a fine
-   platinum wire, pure cultures for further investigation may be
-   obtained.
-
-   In order to prove the relationship between pathogenic Bacteria
-   and certain diseases, the experimental production of pathogenic
-   Bacteria by the inoculation of Bacteria from pure cultures into
-   healthy animals, is very important.
-
-It has not so far been possible to establish a _classification_
-of the Bacteria, as the life-history of many species, has not yet
-been sufficiently investigated.[7] The opinions of botanists are at
-variance, in many cases, about the forms of growth of a particular
-kind. Some species are pleomorphic (many-formed) while others possess
-only one form.
-
-The following Bacteria are =Saprophytes=:--
-
-_Cladothrix dichotoma_ is common in stagnant and running water which is
-impregnated with organic matter; the cell-chains have false branching.
-According to Zopf, _Leptothrix ochracea_ is one of the forms of this
-species which, in water containing ferrous iron (_e.g._ as FeCO_{3}),
-regularly embeds ferric-oxide in its sheath by means of the activity
-of the protoplasm. _Leptothrix ochracea_ and other Iron-bacteria,
-according to Winogradsky (1888), do not continue their growth in water
-free from protoxide of iron; while they multiply enormously in water
-which contains this salt of iron. The large masses of ochre-coloured
-slime, found in meadows, bogs, and lakes, are probably due to the
-activity of the Iron-bacteria.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 30.--_Cladothrix dichotoma._]
-
-Those forms which, according to Zopf’s views, represent the forms
-of development of _Cladothrix dichotoma_ are placed together in
-Fig. 30. A represents a group of plants, seventy times magnified,
-attached to a Vaucheria. The largest one is branched like a tree, with
-branches of ordinary form; a specimen with spirally twisted branches
-is seen to the right of the figure, at the lower part some small
-_Leptothrix_-like forms. _B_ shows the manner of branching and an
-incipient _Coccus_-formation. _C_ a _Coccus_-mass whose exit from the
-sheath has been observed. _D_ the same mass as _C_ after the course of
-a day, the Cocci having turned into _rods_. _E_ a group of Cocci in
-which some have developed into shorter or longer rods. _F_ one of these
-rods before and after treatment with picric acid, which causes the
-chain-like structure to become apparent. _G_ a portion of a plant with
-conspicuous sheath, two lateral branches are being formed. _H_ part of
-a plant, whose cells have divided and form Cocci. The original form
-of the cells in which the Cocci are embedded may still be recognised.
-I. _Leptothrix_-filaments with conspicuous mucilaginous sheath, from
-which a series of rods is about to emerge; the rod near the bottom
-is dead, and has remained lying in the sheath. _K_ part of a plant
-which is forming Cocci, those at the top are in the zooglœa-stage, at
-the base they are elongating to form rods and _Leptothrix_-filaments.
-_L_ a portion of a branched _Cladothrix_, which divides into motile
-_Bacillus_-forms; the rays at the free ends indicate the currents
-which the cilia produce in the water. _M_ a spirally-twisted, swarming
-filament, before and after division into halves. _N_ part of a
-tree-like zooglœa with Cocci and short rods.--All of these spirilla,
-zooglœa, etc., which Zopf has connected with _Clad. dichotoma_, are
-according to Winogradsky, independent organisms.
-
-_Micrococcus ureæ_ produces _urinal fermentation_ (transformation of
-urinal matter into ammonium carbonate); aerobic; round cells generally
-united to form bent chains or a zooglœa.--Several other kinds of
-Bacteria have the same action as this one: in damp soil containing
-ammonia-compounds, _saltpetre-formations_ are produced by _M.
-nitrificans_ and several different kinds of Bacteria.
-
-_Micrococcus prodigiosus_ is found on articles of food containing
-starch; “bleeding bread” is caused by this Bacterium, which has the
-power of forming a red pigment; it also occurs in milk, and produces
-lactic acid.
-
-_Leuconostoc mesenterioides_ is the frog-spawn Bacterium (Fig. 27)
-which is found in sugar manufactories, and has the power of producing
-a viscous fermentation in saccharine solutions which have been derived
-from plants, _e.g._ in beetroot-sugar manufactories, where large
-accumulations of mucilage are formed at the expense of the sugar, with
-an evolution of carbonic acid. The cell-rows, resembling somewhat a
-pearl necklace, have thick mucilaginous cell-walls, and form white
-“Nostoc”-lumps. The mucilage eventually deliquesces and the cells
-separate from each other; arthrospores?--Similar viscous deteriorations
-occur in beer and wine, which may then be drawn out into long, string
-like filaments--“ropiness.”
-
-_Bacterium aceti_, the Vinegar-bacterium, oxidizes alcohol into
-acetic acid (acetous-fermentation) and forms a greyish covering of
-Bacteria (“Vinegar-mother”) on the surface of the liquid; the acetic
-acid formed, becomes by continued oxidization by _B. aceti_, again
-transformed into carbonic acid and water. Aerobic; short cylindrical
-cells, often united into chains, or to form a zooglœa; sometimes also
-rod-and spindle-shaped. The Vinegar-bacteria and other kinds with
-ball- or rod-forms sometimes become swollen, spindle-shaped, or oval
-links; they are supposed to be diseased forms[8] (“Involution-forms”).
-
-_Bacillus lacticus_ (_Bacterium acidi lactici_, Zopf) is always found
-in milk which has stood for some time, and in sour foods (cabbage,
-cucumbers, etc.); it turns the milk sour by producing lactic acid
-fermentation in the sugar contained in the milk; the lactic acid
-formed, eventually causes the coagulation of the casein. It resembles
-the Vinegar-bacteria, occurring as small cylindrical cells, rarely in
-short rows; not self-motile.--Several other Bacteria appear to act in
-the same way, some occurring in the mouth of human beings; some of
-these Bacteria give to butter its taste and flavour.
-
-The _kefir-grains_ which are added to milk for the preparation of
-kefir, contain in large numbers a Bacterium (_Dispora caucasica_) in
-the zooglœa-form, a Yeast-fungus, and _Bacillus lacticus_. Kefir is a
-somewhat alcoholic sour milk, rich in carbonic acid; it is a beverage
-manufactured by the inhabitants of the Caucasus, from the milk of cows,
-goats, or sheep, and is sometimes used as a medicine. In the production
-of kefir, lactic acid fermentation takes place in one part of the sugar
-contained in the milk, and alcoholic fermentation in another part, and
-the casein which had become curdled is partially liquefied (peptonised)
-by an enzyme of a Zooglœa-bacterium.
-
-_Bacillus amylobacter_ (_Bacillus butyricus_), the
-Butyric-acid-bacterium (Fig. 29), is a very common anaerobic which
-produces fermentation in sugar and lactic-acid salts, and whose
-principal product is _butyric acid_. It destroys articles of
-food and (together with other species) plays a part in the butyric
-acid fermentation which is necessary in the making of cheese; it is
-very active wherever portions of plants are decaying, in destroying
-the cellulose in the cell-walls of herbaceous plants, and is thus
-useful in the preparation of flax and hemp. The cells are self-motile,
-generally cylindrical, sometimes united into short rows; endosporous;
-the spore-forming cells swell, assume very different forms, and show
-granulose reaction. The germ-tube grows out in the direction of the
-long axis of the spore.
-
-_Bacillus subtilis_, the Hay-bacillus, is developed in all decoctions
-of hay; a slender, aerobic, self-motile Bacillus; endosporous
-(aplanospores); the spore-wall ruptures transversely on germination.
-
-_Crenothrix kuehniana_ occurs in the springs of many baths, in wells, in
-water or drain-pipes.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 31.--_Beggiatoa alba_: _a_ from a fluid
-  containing abundance of sulphuretted hydrogen; _b_ after lying 24
-  hours in a solution devoid of sulphuretted hydrogen; _c_ after
-  lying an additional 48 hours in a solution devoid of sulphuretted
-  hydrogen, by this means the transverse walls and vacuoles have
-  become visible.]
-
-_Beggiatoa_ (parallel with the Blue-green Alga _Oscillaria_). Long
-filaments formed of cylindrical cells which are attached by one
-of the ends, but which are nearly always free when observed. The
-filaments, like those of _Oscillaria_, describe conical figures in
-their revolutions, the free filaments slide upwards and parallel with
-one another; sheaths are wanting; strongly refractive sulphur drops
-are found in the interior. The Beggiatoas are the most prevalent
-_Sulphur-bacteria_. They occur, very commonly in large numbers,
-wherever plant or animal remains are decaying in water in which
-sulphuretted hydrogen is being formed; thus, for example, _B. alba_
-(Fig. 31) occurs frequently as a white covering or slimy film on mud
-containing organic remains. ~_B. mirabilis_ is remarkable for its
-size and its strong peristaltic movements.~ The Sulphur-bacteria
-oxidize the sulphuretted hydrogen, and accumulate sulphur in the
-shape of small granules of soft amorphic sulphur, which in the living
-cell never passes over into the crystalline state. They next oxidize
-this sulphur into sulphuric acid, which is immediately rendered
-neutral by absorbed salts of calcium, and is given off in the form
-of a sulphate, thus CaCO_{3} is principally changed into CaSO_{4}.
-In the absence of sulphur the nutritive processes are suspended, and
-consequently death occurs either sooner or later. The Sulphur-bacteria
-may exist and multiply in a fluid which only contains traces of
-organic matter, in which organisms devoid of chlorophyll are not able
-to exist. The Beggiatoas very frequently form white, bulky masses
-in sulphur wells and in salt water, the traces of organic material
-which the sulphur water contains proving sufficient for them. ~The
-cellulose-fermentation, to which the sulphur wells in all probability
-owe their origin, mainly procures them suitable conditions for
-existence. The CaCO_{3} and H_{2}S, formed during the cellulose
-fermentation by the reduction of CaSO_{4} is again changed into
-CaSO_{4} and CO_{2} by the Sulphur-bacteria (Winogradsky, 1887).--Other
-Sulphur-bacteria, the so-called purple Sulphur-bacteria, _e.g._
-_B. roseo-persicina_, _Spirillum sanguineum_ (Fig. 23), _Bacterium
-sulfuratum_, etc., have their protoplasm mixed with a red colouring
-matter (bacterio-purpurin) which, like chlorophyll, has the power,
-in the presence of light, of giving off oxygen (as proved by T. W.
-Englemann, 1888, in oxygen-sensitive Bacteria). The three purple
-Sulphur-bacteria mentioned, are, according to Winogradsky, not
-pleomorphic kinds but embrace numerous species.~
-
-Many _Spirilli_ (_Spirillum tenue_, _S. undula_, _S. plicatile_, and
-others) are found prevalent in decaying liquids.
-
-Bacteria (especially Bacilli) are the cause of many substances emitting
-a foul odour, and of various changes in milk.
-
-=Parasitic Bacteria= live in other living organisms; but the relation
-between “host” and parasite may vary in considerable degree. Some
-parasites do no injury to their host, others produce dangerous
-contagious diseases; some choose only a special kind as host, others
-again live equally well in many different ones. There are further
-specific and individual differences with regard to the _predisposition_
-of the host, and every individual has not the same receptivity at all
-times.
-
-THE HARMLESS PARASITES OF HUMAN BEINGS. Several of the above mentioned
-saprophytes may also occur in the alimentary canal of human beings;
-_e.g._, the Hay-bacillus, the Butyric-acid-bacillus, etc.; but the
-gastric juice prevents the development of others, at all events in
-their vegetative condition. _Sarcina ventriculi_, “packet-bacterium,”
-is only known to occur in the stomach and intestines of human beings,
-and makes its appearance in certain diseases of the stomach (dilation
-of the stomach, etc.) in great numbers, without, however, being the
-cause of the disease. It occurs in somewhat cubical masses of roundish
-cells (Fig. 25).
-
-LESS DANGEROUS PARASITES. In the mouth, especially between and on
-the teeth, a great many Bacteria are to be found (more than fifty
-species are known), _e.g. Leptothrix buccalis_ (long, brittle,
-very thin filaments which are united into bundles), Micrococci in
-large lumps, _Spirochæte cohnii_, etc. Some of them are known to be
-injurious, as they contribute in various ways to the decay of the
-teeth (_caries dentium_); a _Micrococcus_, for instance, forms lactic
-acid in materials containing sugar and starch, and the acid dissolves
-the lime salts in the external layers of the teeth: those parts of
-the teeth thus deprived of lime are attacked by other Bacteria, and
-become dissolved. Inflammation in the tissues at the root of a tooth,
-is probably produced by septic materials which have been formed by
-Bacteria in the root-canal.
-
-DANGEROUS PARASITES. In a large number of the infectious diseases of
-human beings and animals, it has been possible to prove that parasitic
-Bacteria have been the cause of the disease. Various pathogenic
-Bacteria of this nature, belonging to the coccus, rod, and spiral
-Bacteria groups, are mentioned in the following:--
-
-=Pathogenic Micrococci.= _Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus_ produces
-abscesses of various natures (boils, suppurative processes in internal
-organs). The same effects are produced by--
-
-_Streptococcus pyogenes_, which is the most frequent cause of malignant
-puerperal fever; it is perhaps identical with--
-
-_Streptococcus erysipelatis_, which is the cause of erysipelas in human
-beings.
-
-_Diplococcus pneumoniæ_ (A. Fränkel) is the cause of pneumonia, and of
-the epidemic cerebro-spinal meningitis.
-
-_Gonococcus_ (Neisser) is the cause of gonorrhea and inflammation of
-the eyes.
-
-=Pathogenic Rod-Bacteria.= _Bacterium choleræ gallinarum_, an aerobic,
-facultative parasite which produces fowl-cholera among poultry; it is
-easily cultivated on various substrata as a saprophyte. The disease
-may be conveyed both through wounds and by food, and may also be
-communicated to mammals.
-
-_Bacillus anthracis_, the _Anthrax bacillus_ (Fig. 32), chiefly attacks
-mammals, especially herbivorous animals (house mice, guinea-pigs,
-rabbits, sheep, cattle), in a less degree omnivorous animals (including
-human beings), and in a still less degree the Carnivores. Aerobic.
-Cylindrical cells, 3–4 times as long as broad, united into long
-rod-like bodies, which may elongate into long, bent, and twisted
-filaments. Not self-motile. Endosporous. Germination takes place
-without the throwing off of any spore-membrane (compare Hay-bacillus p.
-37 which resembles it). Contagion may take place both by introduction
-into wounds, and from the mucous membrane of the intestines or lungs,
-both by vegetative cells and by spores; in intestinal anthrax, however,
-only by spores. The Bacillus multiplies as soon as it has entered the
-blood, and the anthrax disease commences. The Bacilli not only give off
-poison, but also deprive the blood of its oxygen. Vegetative cells only
-occur in living animals. This species is a _facultative parasite_ which
-in the first stage is a saprophyte, and only in this condition forms
-spores.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 32.--_Anthrax bacillus_ (_Bacillus
-  anthracis_) with red (_b_) and white (_a_) blood-corpuscles.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 33.--_Anthrax bacillus._ The formation of the
-  spores; magnified 450 times.]
-
-_Bacillus tuberculosis_ produces tuberculosis in human beings, also
-in domestic animals (_perlsucht_). It is a distinct parasite, but may
-also live saprophytically. It is rod-formed, often slightly bent, and
-is recognised principally by its action with stains (when stained with
-an alkaline solution of methyl-blue or carbolic fuchsin, it retains the
-colour for a long time even in solutions of mineral acids, in contrast
-with the majority of well-known Bacteria): it probably forms spores
-which are able to resist heat, dryness, etc.
-
-   _Bacillus lepræ_ produces leprosy; _Bacillus mallei_ produces
-   glanders; _Bacillus tetani_, tetanus (the tetanus bacillus
-   is very common in soil; anaerobic); _Bacillus diphtheriæ_,
-   diphtheria; _Bacillus typhosus_, typhoid fever, etc.
-
-=Pathogenic Spiral Bacteria.= _Spirochæte obermeieri_ (Fig. 24)
-produces intermittent fever (febris recurrens); it makes its appearance
-in the blood during the attacks of fever, but it is not to be found
-during intervals when there is no fever. Obligate parasite.
-
-_Spirillum choleræ asiaticæ_ (_Microspira comma_) without doubt
-produces Asiatic cholera; an exceedingly motile spirillum, which is
-also found in short, bent rods (known as the “Comma-bacillus”), it
-lives in the intestines of those attacked by the disease, and gives off
-a strong poison which enters the body. It is easily cultivated as a
-saprophyte.
-
-A great many circumstances seem to show that a number of other
-infectious diseases (syphilis, small-pox, scarlet-fever, measles,
-yellow-fever, etc.) owe their origin to parasitic Bacteria, but this
-has not been proved with certainty in all cases.
-
-It has been possible by means of special cultivations (ample supply of
-oxygen, high temperature, antiseptic materials) to produce from the
-parasitic Bacteria described above (_e.g._ the fowl-cholera and the
-anthrax Bacteria) _physiological varieties_ which are distinct from
-those appearing in nature and possess a less degree of “virulence,”
-_i.e._ produce fever and less dangerous symptoms in those animals
-which are inoculated with them. The production of such physiological
-varieties has come to be of great practical importance from the fact
-that they are used as vaccines, _i.e._ these harmless species produce
-in the animals inoculated with them _immunity_ from the malignant
-infectious Bacteria from which they were derived. This immunity is
-effected by the change of the products of one or more of the Bacteria,
-but we do not yet know anything about the way in which they act on
-the animal organism. The white blood corpuscles, according to the
-Metschnikoff, play the part of “Phagocytes” by absorbing and destroying
-the less virulent Bacteria which have entered the blood, and by so
-doing they are gradually enabled to overcome those of a more virulent
-nature.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 34.--_a_ and _b_ The same blood-cell of a
-  Frog: _a_ in the act of engulfing an anthrax-bacillus; _b_ after
-  an interval of a few minutes when the bacillus has been absorbed.]
-
-
-                         Class 5. =Conjugatæ.=
-
-The Algæ belonging to this class have chlorophyll, and pyrenoids
-round which starch is formed. The cells divide only in one direction,
-they live solitarily, or united to form filaments which generally
-float freely (seldom attached). Swarm-cells are wanting. _The
-fertilisation is isogamous (conjugation) and takes place by means
-of aplanogametes._ The zygote, after a period of rest, produces,
-immediately on germination, one or more new vegetative individuals;
-sometimes akinetes or aplanospores are formed in addition. They only
-occur in fresh or slightly brackish water.
-
-Order 1. =Desmidiaceæ.= The cells generally present markings on the
-outer wall, and are mostly divided into two symmetrical halves by a
-constriction in the middle, or there is at least a symmetrical division
-of the protoplasmic cell-contents. The cell-wall consists nearly
-always of two layers, the one overlapping the other (Fig. 35 _C_). The
-cells either live solitarily or are united into unbranched filaments.
-The mass of protoplasm formed by the fusion of the two conjugating
-cells becomes the zygote, which on germination produces one (or after
-division 2, 4 or 8) new vegetative individual. The chromatophores are
-either star-, plate-, or band-shaped, and regularly arranged round the
-long axis of the cell.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 35.--A Cell of _Gymnozyga brebissonii_,
-  external view showing the distribution of the pores. _B A_
-  portion of the membrane of _Staurastrum bicorne_ with pores
-  containing protoplasmic projections. _C_ Cell-wall of _Hyalotheca
-  mucosa_ during cell-division: the central part, being already
-  formed, shows the connection with the divisional wall.]
-
-The Desmidiaceæ are not able to swim independently, many species,
-however, show movements of different kinds by rising and sliding
-forward on the substratum. These movements, which are partly dependent
-upon, and partly independent of light and the force of gravitation, are
-connected with the protrusion of a mucilaginous stalk. The mucilage,
-which sometimes surrounds the whole individual, may acquire a prismatic
-structure, it is secreted by the protoplasmic threads which project
-through certain pores definitely situated in the walls (Fig. 35
-_A_, _B_).
-
-VEGETATIVE MULTIPLICATION takes places by division. A good example of
-this is found in _Cosmarium botrytis_ (Fig. 36 _A-D_). The nucleus
-and chromatophores divide, and simultaneously the central indentation
-becomes deeper, the outer wall is then ruptured making a circular
-aperture through which the inner wall protrudes forming a short,
-cylindrical canal between the two halves to which it is attached (Fig.
-36 _C_). After elongation the canal is divided by a central transverse
-wall, which commences as a ring round its inner surface and gradually
-forms a complete septum. The dividing wall gradually splits, and the
-two individuals separate from each other, each one having an old and
-a new half. The two daughter-cells bulge out, receive a supply of
-contents from the parent-cells, and gradually attain their mature size
-and development (Fig. 36 _B-D_). Exceptions to this occur in some forms.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 36.--_Cosmarium botrytis. A-D_ Different
-  stages of cell-division.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 37.--_Cosmarium meneghinii_: _a-c_ same
-  individual seen from the side, from the end, and from the edge;
-  _d-f_ stages of conjugation; _g-i_ germination of the zygote.]
-
-CONJUGATION takes place in the simplest way in _Mesotænium_, where
-the two conjugating cells unite by a short tube (conjugation-canal),
-which is not developed at any particular point. The aplanogametes
-merge together after the dissolution of the dividing wall, like two
-drops of water, almost without any trace of preceding contraction, so
-that the cell-wall of the zygote generally lies in close contact with
-the conjugating cells. The conjugating cells in the others lie either
-transversely (_e.g. Cosmarium_, Fig. 37 _d_; _Staurastrum_, etc.),
-or parallel to one another (_e.g. Penium_, _Closterium_, etc.), and
-emit a short conjugation-canal (Fig. 37 _d_) from the centre of that
-side of each cell which is turned towards the other one. These canals
-touch, become spherical, and on the absorption of the dividing wall
-the aplanogametes coalesce in the swollen conjugation-canal (Fig.
-37 _e_), which is often surrounded by a mucilaginous envelope. The
-zygote, which is often spherical, is surrounded by a thick cell-wall,
-consisting of three layers; the outermost of these sometimes bears
-thorn-like projections, which in some species are simple (Fig. 37
-_f_), in others branched or variously marked; in some, however, it
-remains always smooth (_e.g._ _Tetmemorus_, _Desmidium_). Deviation
-from this mode of conjugation may occur within certain genera (_e.g._
-_Closterium_, _Penium_). Upon germination the contents of the zygote
-emerge, surrounded by the innermost layers of the wall (Fig. 37 _g_,
-_h_) and generally divide into two parts which develop into two new
-individuals, placed transversely to each other (Fig. 37 _i_); these may
-have a somewhat more simple marking than is generally possessed by the
-species.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 38.--Desmidiaceæ. _A Closterium
-  moniliferum_; _B Penium crassiusculum_; _C Micrasterias
-  truncata_ (front and end view); _D Euastrum elegans_; _E_
-  _Staurastrum muticum_ (end view).]
-
-   The most frequent genera are:--
-
-   _A._ Solitary cells: MESOTÆNIUM, PENIUM (Fig. 38 _B_),
-   CYLINDROCYSTIS, EUASTRUM (Fig. 38 _D_), MICRASTERIAS (Fig. 38
-   _C_), COSMARIUM (Fig. 36, 37), XANTHIDIUM, STAURASTRUM (Fig. 38
-   _E_), PLEUROTÆNIUM, DOCIDIUM, TETMEMORUS, CLOSTERIUM (Fig. 38
-   _A_), SPIROTÆNIA.
-
-   _B._ Cells united into filaments: SPHÆROZOSMA, DESMIDIUM,
-   HYALOTHECA, GYMNOZYGA, ANCYLONEMA, GONATOZYGON.
-
-Order 2. =Zygnemaceæ.= Cell-wall without markings. The cells are
-cylindrical, not constricted in the centre, and (generally) united into
-simple, unbranched filaments. The whole contents of the conjugating
-cells take part in the formation of the zygote, which on germination
-grows out directly into a new filament.
-
-_Spirogyra_ is easily recognised by its spiral chlorophyll band;
-_Zygnema_ has two star-like chromatophores in each cell (Fig. 40);
-both these genera are very common Algæ in ponds and ditches.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 39.--_Spirogyra longata. A_ At the
-  commencement of conjugation, the conjugation-canals begin
-  to protrude at _a_ and touch one another at _b_; the spiral
-  chlorophyll band and cell-nuclei (_k_) are shown. _B_ A more
-  advanced stage of conjugation; _a_, _a’_ the rounded female and
-  male aplanogametes: in _b’_ the male aplanogamete is going over
-  to and uniting with the female aplanogamete (_b_).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 40.--A cell of _Zygnema_. _S_ Pyrenoid.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 41.--_Zygnema insigne_, with zygote.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 42.--Germinating zygote of _Spirogyra
-  jugalis_: the young plant is still unicellular; the end which is
-  still in the wall of the zygote is elongated and root-like; the
-  chromatophore divides and forms the spiral band.]
-
-The conjugation among the Zygnemaceæ takes place in the following
-manner: the cells of two filaments, lying side by side, or two cells,
-the one being situated above the other in the same filament (Fig. 41),
-push out small protuberances opposite each other (Fig. 39 _A_, _a_,
-_b_); these finally meet, and the dividing wall is absorbed so that a
-tube is formed connecting one cell with the other; the protoplasmic
-contents round off, and the whole of these contents of one of the
-cells glides through the conjugation-tube and coalesces with that of
-the other (Fig. 39 _B_), the aggregate mass then rounds off, surrounds
-itself with a cell-wall, and becomes a zygote. A distinct difference
-may be found between the cells in the two filaments, those in the one
-whose protoplasmic contents pass over being cylindrical, while those
-of the recipient one are more barrel-shaped, and of a larger diameter.
-The former may be regarded as a male, the latter as a female plant.
-The zygote germinates after a period of rest, and grows out into a new
-filament (Fig. 42).
-
-Order 3. =Mesocarpaceæ.= The cell-walls are glabrous, unconstricted
-in the centre, and united into simple unbranched filaments. The
-chromatophore consists of an axial chlorophyll-plate, with several
-pyrenoids. The zygote is formed by the coalescence of two cells (Fig.
-43) (sometimes three or four), but the whole protoplasmic contents of
-the cells do not take part in this process, a portion always remaining
-behind; the aplanogametes coalesce in the conjugation-canal. The
-zygote thus formed appears incapable of germination until after 3–5
-divisions. Of the cells so formed, only one is fertile, the sterile
-cells, according to Pringsheim, constituting a rudimentary sporocarp.
-The germinating cells grow out into a new filament. In this order,
-conjugation has been observed between two cells of the same filament.
-The Mesocarpaceæ thrive best in water which contains lime.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 43.--Mougeotia calcarea. Cells showing
-  various modes of conjugation: at _m_ tripartition; _pg_
-  quadripartition; _s_ quinquipartilion of the zygote.]
-
-
-                 Class 6. =Chlorophyceæ (Green Algæ).=
-
-These Algæ are coloured green by chlorophyll, seldom in combination
-with other colouring matter, and then especially with red. The product
-of assimilation is frequently starch, which generally accumulates round
-certain specially formed portions of protoplasm termed pyrenoids.
-The thallus is uni- or multicellular; in the higher forms (certain
-Siphoneæ) the organs of vegetation attain differentiation into stem
-and leaf. The asexual reproduction takes place in various ways; the
-sexual reproduction is effected by conjugation of motile gametes, or
-by oogamous fertilisation. The swarm-cells (zoospores, gametes, and
-spermatozoids) are constructed symetrically, and have true protoplasmic
-cilia, these generally being attached to the front end of the
-swarm-cells. Most of these Algæ live in water (fresh or salt); some are
-found upon damp soil, stones, or tree-stems, and some live enclosed in
-other plants.
-
-The Class is divided into three families:--
-
-1. PROTOCOCCOIDEÆ: Volvocaceæ, Tetrasporaceæ, Chlorosphæraceæ,
-Pleurococcaceæ, Protococcaceæ, Hydrodictyaceæ.
-
-2. CONFERVOIDEÆ: Ulvaceæ, Ulothricaceæ, Chætophoraceæ, Mycoideaceæ,
-Cylindrocapsaceæ, Œdogoniaceæ, Coleochætaceæ, Cladophoraceæ,
-Gomontiaceæ, Sphæropleaceæ.
-
-3. SIPHONEÆ: Botrydiaceæ, Bryopsidaceæ, Derbesiaceæ, Vaucheriaceæ,
-Phyllosiphonaceæ, Caulerpaceæ, Codiaceæ, Valoniaceæ, Dasycladaceæ.
-
-
-                      Family 1. =Protococcoideæ.=
-
-The Algæ which belong to this group are uni- or multicellular with
-the cells more or less firmly connected, sometimes in a definite,
-sometimes in an indefinite form (Fig. 47). Colonies are formed either
-by division or by small unicellular individuals becoming united in a
-definite manner; the colonies formed in this latter way are termed
-_Cœnobia_. Apical cells and branching are absent. Multiplication
-by division; asexual reproduction by zoospores, rarely by akinetes.
-Sexual reproduction may be wanting, or it takes place by isogamous,
-rarely by oogamous fertilisation.
-
-Some are attached by means of a stalk to other objects (_Characium_,
-Fig. 49), others occur as “Endophytes” in the tissues of certain Mosses
-or Phanerogams, _e.g. Chlorochytrium lemnæ_, in _Lemna trisulca_;
-_Endosphæra_, in the leaves of _Potamogeton_, _Mentha aquatica_,
-and _Peplis portula_; _Phyllobium_, in the leaves of _Lysimachia
-nummularia_, _Ajuga_, _Chlora_, and species of Grasses; _Scotinosphæra_
-in the leaves of _Hypnum_ and _Lemna trisulca_; the majority, however,
-live free in water and in damp places. Many species which were formerly
-considered to belong to this family have been proved to be higher Algæ
-in stages of development.
-
-Order 1. =Volvocaceæ.= The individuals in this order are either
-uni- or multicellular, and during the essential part of their life are
-free-swimming organisms. They are generally encased in a mucilaginous
-envelope, through which 2–6 cilia project from every cell. The
-vegetative reproduction takes place by the division of all, or a few,
-of the cells of the individual; in some a palmella-stage is found in
-addition. The sexual reproduction takes place by isogamous or oogamous
-fertilisation.
-
-   The Volvocaceæ may be considered to include the original forms
-   of the Chlorophyceæ, because, among other reasons, the motile
-   stage is here the most prominent; they also form the connecting
-   link between the animal Flagellata, and forms intermediate to
-   the _Syngeneticæ_ may perhaps be found amongst them. Three
-   series of green Algæ may be supposed to have taken their origin
-   from the Volvocaceæ: CONJUGATEÆ (_Desmidiaceæ_) which have lost
-   the swarming stage, but whose conjugation is the nearest to the
-   fertilisation in _Chlamydomonas pulvisculus_: the PROTOCOCCACEÆ
-   in which the vegetative divisions have disappeared, while the
-   swarming stage continues to be present, though of shorter
-   duration; and TETRASPORACEÆ, in which the vegetative divisions
-   are more prominent, whilst the swarming stage is less so.
-
-A. UNICELLULAR INDIVIDUALS. The principle genera are: _Chlamydomonas_,
-_Sphærella_, _Phacotus_.--_Sphærella nivalis_ is the Alga which
-produces the phenomenon of “Red Snow,” well known on high mountains and
-on ice and snow fields in the polar regions. The red colouring matter
-which appears in this and other green Algæ, especially in the resting
-cells, is produced by the alteration of the chlorophyll.
-
-_Phacotus lenticularis_ has an outer covering incrusted with lime,
-which, at death, or after division, opens out into two halves.
-Species may be found among _Chlamydomonas_, in which conjugation
-takes place between gametes of similar size without cell-wall, but
-in _C. pulvisculus_ conjugation takes place between male and female
-aplanogametes which are surrounded by a mucilaginous envelope.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 44--_Gonium pectorale._]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 45.--_Pandorina morum._]
-
-B. MULTICELLULAR INDIVIDUALS. The most important genera are _Gonium_,
-_Stephanosphæra_, _Pandorina_, _Eudorina_, _Volvox_.--_Gonium_ has 4
-or 16 cells arranged in a definite pattern in a flat plate (Fig. 44).
-_Pandorina_ (Fig. 45), has 16 cells arranged in a sphere (Fig. 45 _A_).
-The vegetative reproduction takes place in this way: each cell, after
-having rounded off, and after the withdrawal of the cilia, divides
-itself into 16 new ones (Fig. 45 _B_), each forming a new individual,
-which soon grows to the size of the mother-individual. It was in this
-Alga that the conjugation of self-motile gametes was first discovered
-by Pringsheim, 1869. When conjugation is about to take place, each
-cell divides into sixteen, as in vegetative reproduction, but the 16
-× 16 cells all separate from one another (Fig. 45 _C_, female gametes,
-and _D_, male gametes), and swarm solitarily in the water. The male
-are, most frequently, smaller than the female, but otherwise they are
-exactly alike; they are more or less pear-shaped, with a colourless
-anterior end, 2 cilia, a red “eye-spot,” etc. After swarming for some
-time they approach each other, two and two, generally a large and a
-smaller one, and come into contact at their colourless end; in a few
-moments they coalesce and become one cell (Fig. 45 _E_, _F_), this has
-at first a large colourless anterior end, 4 cilia, and 2 “eye-spots”
-(Fig. 45 _G_), but these soon disappear and the cell becomes uniformly
-dark-green and spherical, and surrounds itself with a thick cell-wall,
-losing at the same time its power of motion: the zygote (Fig. 45 _H_)
-is formed, and becomes later on a deep red colour. On the germination
-of the zygote, the protoplasmic cell-contents burst open the wall (Fig.
-45 _J_), and emerge as a large swarmspore (Fig. 45 _K_) which divides
-into 16 cells, and the first small individual is formed (Fig. 45 _L_,
-_M_).
-
-_Eudorina_ is like _Pandorina_ in structure, but stands somewhat
-higher, since the contrast between the conjugating sexual cells is
-greater, the female one being a motionless oosphere.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 46.--_Volvox globator_, sexual individual:
-  _a_ antheridia which have formed spermatozoids; _b_ oogonia.]
-
-The highest stage of development is found in _Volvox_ (Fig. 46). The
-cells are here arranged on the circumference of a sphere, and enclose
-a cavity filled with mucilage. The number of these cells may vary from
-200–22,000, of which the majority are vegetative and not reproductive,
-but some become large, motionless oospheres (Fig. 46 _b_); others,
-which may appear as solitary individuals, divide and form disc-shaped
-masses of from 8–256 small spermatozoids (Fig. 46 _a_). After the
-oosphere has been fertilised by these, the oospore surrounds itself by
-a thick, sometimes thorny cell-wall, and on germination becomes a new
-individual of few cells. A few cells conspicuous by their larger size
-may be found (1–9, but generally 8) in certain individuals, and these
-provide the vegetative reproduction, each forming by division a new
-individual.
-
-Order 2. =Tetrasporaceæ= reproduce both by vegetative divisions and
-swarmspores, some have also gamete-conjugation. The principal genera
-are: _Tetraspora_, _Apiocystis_, _Dactylococcus_, _Dictyosphærium_,
-_Chlorangium_.
-
-Order 3. =Chlorosphæraceæ.= _Chlorosphæra._
-
-Order 4. =Pleurococcaceæ.= In this order the swarm-stages and sexual
-reproduction are entirely absent. Vegetative reproduction by division.
-The principal genera are: _Pleurococcus_ (Fig. 47), _Scenedesmus_
-(Fig. 48), _Raphidium_, _Oocystis_, _Schizochlamys_, _Crucigenia_,
-_Selenastrum_.--_Pleurococcus vulgaris_ (Fig. 47) is one of the
-most common Algæ throughout the world, occurring as green coverings
-on tree-stems, and damp walls, and it is one of the most common
-lichen-gonidia.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 47.--_Pleurococcus vulgaris._]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 48.--_Scenedesmus quadricauda._]
-
-Order 5. =Protococcaceæ.= The cells are motionless, free or affixed
-on a stalk (_e.g. Characium_, Fig. 49), either separate or loosely
-bound to one another; they never form multicellular individuals.
-Multiplication by division is nearly always wanting. Reproduction
-takes place by swarmspores, which have 1 or 2 cilia, and sexual
-reproduction in some by gamete-conjugation. The principal genera are:
-_Chlorococcum_, _Chlorochytrium_, _Chlorocystis_, _Scotinosphæra_,
-_Endosphæra_, _Phyllobium_, _Characium_, _Ophiocytium_, _Sciadium_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 49.--_Characium strictum._
-  _A_ The cell-contents have divided into many swarmspores.
-  _B_ Swarmspores escaping.]
-
-Order 6. =Hydrodictyaceæ.= The individuals are unicellular but
-several unite after the zoospore-stage into definitely formed families
-(cœnobia). Ordinary vegetative division is wanting, but asexual
-reproduction takes place by zoospores (or by motionless cells without
-cilia), which unite and form a family similar to the mother-family,
-inside the mother-cell, or in a mucilaginous envelope. Where sexual
-reproduction is found it takes place by gamete-conjugation. The
-principal genera are: _Pediastrum_ (Fig. 50), _Cœlastrum_,
-_Hydrodictyon_ (Fig. 51).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 5O.--_Pediastrum asperum._]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 51.--_Hydrodictyou reticulatum. A_ A cell
-  where the zoospores are on the point of arranging themselves to
-  form a net. _B_ A cell with gametes swarming out.]
-
-The cœnobium of _Hydrodictyon reticulatum_ (Water-net) is formed of
-a large number of cells which are cylindrical, and attached to one
-another by the ends (Fig. 51). The asexual reproduction takes place by
-zoospores, which are formed in large numbers (7,000–20,000) in each
-mother-cell, within which they move about for a time, and then come
-to rest and arrange themselves into a new net (Fig. 51 _A_) which is
-set free by the dissolution of the wall of the mother-cell, grows,
-and becomes a new cœnobium. The sexual reproduction takes place by
-gamete-conjugation. The gametes are formed in the same manner as the
-zoospores, but in larger numbers (30,000–100,000), and swarm out of the
-mother-cell (Fig. 51 _B_). The zygote forms, on germination, 2–5 large
-zoospores, each with one or two cilia, these generally swarm about
-for a time, and after a period of rest become irregular thorny bodies
-(polyhedra); their contents again divide into zoospores, the thorny
-external coating of the polyhedra is cast off, and the zoospores,
-surrounded by the dilated internal coating, unite to form a small
-family, which produces several others in the manner described.
-
-
-                       Family 2. =Confervoideæ.=
-
-The individuals are always multicellular, the cells firmly bound
-together and united into unbranched or branched filaments, expansions,
-or masses of cells which grow by intercallary divisions or have
-apical growth. In the first seven orders the cells are uninuclear,
-but the cells of the remaining three orders contain several nuclei.
-Asexual reproduction by zoospores, akinetes or aplanospores. Sexual
-reproduction by isogamous or oogamous fertilisation.
-
-   The Confervoideæ, through the Ulvaceæ, are connected with the
-   Tetrasporaceæ, and from the _Coleochætaceæ_, which is the most
-   highly developed order, there are the best reasons for supposing
-   that the Mosses have taken their origin. The _Cladophoraceæ_
-   show the nearest approach to the _Siphoneæ_.
-
-Order 1. =Ulvaceæ.= The thallus consists of one or two layers of
-parenchymatous cells, connected together to form either a flat membrane
-(_Monostroma_, _Ulva_) or a hollow tube (_Enteromorpha_), and may be
-either simple, lobed, or branched. Reproduction takes place by detached
-portions of the thallus; or asexually by zoospores or akinetes.
-Gamete-conjugation is known to take place in some members of this
-order, the zygote germinating without any resting-stage. The majority
-are found in salt or brackish water.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 52.--_Ulothrix zonata_: a portion of a
-  filament with zoospores, which are formed two in each cell
-  (zoosporangium); the dark spots are the red “eye-spots”; 1,
-  2, 3, 4, denote successive stages in the development of the
-  zoospores; _b_ a single zoospore, _v_ the pulsating vacuole;
-  _c_ portion of a filament with gametes, sixteen are produced in
-  each gametangium; _d_ free gametes, solitary or in the act of
-  conjugation; _e_ the conjugation is completed, and the formed
-  zygote has assumed the resting-stage.]
-
-Order 2. =Ulothricaceæ.= The thallus consists normally of a simple
-unbranched filament (sometimes a small expansion consisting of one
-layer of cells is formed, as in _Schizomeris_ and _Prasiola_ which
-were formerly described as separate genera). Asexual reproduction
-takes place by means of zoospores (with 1, 2, or 4 cilia), akinetes
-or aplanospores; the last named may germinate immediately, or only
-after a period of rest. Sexual reproduction takes place by the
-conjugation of gametes of about the same size, each having two cilia
-(Fig. 52 _d_). The zygote of _Ulothrix_, on germination, produces a
-brood of zoospores which swarm for a time and then elongate to become
-_Ulothrix_-filaments (alternation of generations). The gametes may also
-germinate without conjugation in the same manner as the zoospores.
-The principal genera are: _Ulothrix_, _Hormidium_, _Conferva_,
-_Microspora_.--_Ulothrix zonata_ is very common in running fresh water.
-Nearly all the species of _Hormidium_ occur on damp soil, tree-stems
-and stones.
-
-Order 3. =Chætophoraceæ.= The thallus consists of a single, branched,
-erect or creeping filament of cells, often surrounded by mucilage.
-The cells have only one nucleus. Asexual reproduction by zoospores
-with 2 or 4 cilia, by akinetes, or aplanospores. In many, conjugation
-between gametes with 2 cilia may be found. They approach on one side,
-Ulothricaceæ, and on the other, Mycoideaceæ. The principal genera
-are: _Stigeoclonium_, _Draparnaldia_, _Chætophora_, _Entoderma_,
-_Aphanochæte_, _Herposteiron_, _Phæothamnion_, _Chlorotylium_,
-_Trichophilus_, _Gongrosira_, _Trentepohlia_. Most of the species of
-_Trentepohlia_ are coloured red by the presence of a red colouring
-material, which occurs in addition to the chlorophyll. They are aerial
-Algæ which live on stones (_T. jolithus_, “violet stone,” so named
-on account of its violet-like odour in rainy weather), on bark and
-old wood (_T. umbrina_), or on damp rocks (_T. aurea_). _Trichophilus
-welckeri_ lives in the hair of Bradypus.
-
-Order 4. =Mycoideaceæ.= The thallus is discoid, consisting of one or
-more cell-layers, and is always attached. Asexual reproduction by
-zoospores with 2 or 4 cilia. Sexual reproduction in some species by the
-conjugation of gametes with 2 cilia. This order forms the connecting
-link between _Chætophoraceæ_ and _Coleochætaceæ_. The species occur in
-fresh water (_Chætopeltis_) as well as in salt (_Pringsheimia_), on the
-carapace of tortoises (_Dermatophyton_ = _Epiclemmydia_), or endophytic
-between the cuticle and the epidermal cells of the leaves of tropical
-plants, destroying the leaf-tissue (_Mycoidea_).
-
-Order 5. =Cylindrocapsaceæ.= The thallus consists of a simple (rarely,
-in parts, formed of many rows) unbranched filament, attached in the
-young condition, which has short cells with a single nucleus, and is
-enveloped in a thick envelope with a laminated structure. Asexual
-reproduction by zoospores with 2 cilia, which are formed 1, 2, or 4 in
-each vegetative cell. The antheridia are produced by a single cell,
-or a group of cells, in a filament, dividing several times without
-increasing in size. Two egg-shaped spermatozoids, each with 2 cilia
-(Fig. 53 _D_), are formed in each antheridium, and escape through
-an aperture in the side; in the first stages they are enclosed in a
-bladder-like membrane (Fig. 53 _B_, _C_). Other cells of the filament
-swell out and form oogonia (Fig. 53 _A_), which resemble those of
-_Œdogonium_. After fertilisation, the oospore surrounds itself with a
-thick wall, and assumes a reddish colour. The germination is unknown.
-The unfertilised oospheres remain green, divide often into 2–4
-daughter-cells, and grow into new filaments.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 53.--_Cylindrocopsa involuta. A_ Oogonium
-  with oosphere (_o_) surrounded by spermatozoids (_s_). _B_ Two
-  antheridia, each with two spermatozoids. _C_ Spermatozoids
-  surrounded by their bladder-like membrane. _D_ Free spermatozoid.]
-
-This order, which only includes one genus, _Cylindrocapsa_, forms the
-connecting link between _Ulothricaceæ_ and _Œdogoniaceæ_. The few
-species (4) occur only in fresh water.
-
-Order 6. =Œdogoniaceæ.= The thallus consists of branched (_Bulbochæte_)
-or unbranched (_Œdogonium_) filaments, attached in the early stages.
-The cells may be longer or shorter, and have one nucleus. Asexual
-reproduction by zoospores, which have a chaplet of cilia round the base
-of the colourless end (Fig. 6 _a_). Sexual reproduction takes place by
-oogamous fertilisation. On the germination of the oospore, 4 zoospores
-are formed (Fig. 54 _F_). They occur only in fresh or slightly brackish
-water. The division of the cells takes place in quite a peculiar and
-unusual manner. At the upper end of the cell which is about to divide,
-a ring-shaped thickening of soft cellulose is formed transversely round
-the wall; the cell-nucleus of the mother-cell and the protoplasm then
-divide by a transverse wall into two portions of similar size, and the
-cell-wall bursts transversely along the central line of the thickened
-ring. The cell-wall thus divides into two parts--the upper one short,
-the “cap,” and the lower one much longer, the “sheath.” The portions
-of the original cell-wall now separate from each other, the cellulose
-ring extending, and supplying an additional length of cell-wall between
-them. The cap and sheath will project a little in front of the piece
-thus inserted. The dividing wall between the two new cells is formed
-near to the uppermost edge of the sheath, and gradually becomes thicker
-and firmer. The inserted piece of wall forms the larger part of the
-wall of the upper cell: the remainder is formed by the cap. This mode
-of division is repeated exactly in the same way, and new caps are
-formed close below the first one, one for every division.
-
-   [Illustration: FIG. 54.--_A Œdogonium ciliatum. A_ Female
-  plant with three oogonia (_og_) and dwarf-males (_m_). _B_ An
-  oogonium with spermatozoid (_z_) seen entering the oosphere
-  (_o_) having passed through an aperture near the summit of the
-  oogonium; _m_ dwarf-male. _C_ Ripe oospore. _D Œdogonium
-  gemelliparum. F_ Portion of a male filament from which
-  spermatozoids (_z_) are emerging. _E_ Portion of filament of
-  _Bulbochæte_; the upper oogonium still encloses the oospore, in
-  the central one the oospore is escaping while the lower one is
-  empty. _F_ Four zoospores developed from an oospore. _G_ Zoospore
-  germinating.]
-
-Fertilisation takes place in the following way. The oogonium is a
-large ellipsoidal, swollen cell (_og_, in Fig. 54 _A_), whose contents
-are rounded off into an oosphere with a colourless receptive-spot
-(see _B_); an aperture is formed in the wall of the oogonium, through
-which the spermatozoids are enabled to enter (_B_). The spermatozoids
-are produced either directly, as in _D_ (in pairs), in basal cells
-of the filament, or indirectly. In the latter case a swarmspore
-(_androspore_) is formed which comes to rest, attaches itself to an
-oogonium, germinates, and gives rise to a filament of a very few
-cells--_dwarf-male_ (_A_, _B_, _m_). The spermatozoids are formed in
-the upper cell of the dwarf-male (_m_), and are set free by the summit
-of the antheridium lifting off like a lid. On the germination of the
-oospore (_C_), which takes place in the following spring, 4 zoospores
-are produced (_F_) (_i.e._ the sexual generation); these swarm about
-for a time, and ultimately grow into new filaments.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 55.--_Coleochæte pulvinata. A_ A portion
-  of a thallus with organs of reproduction; _a_ oogonium before,
-  _b_ after fertilisation; _c_ an antheridium, closed; _d_ open,
-  with emerging spermatozoid. _B_ Ripe oogonium, with envelope. _C_
-  Germination of the oospore. _D_ Zoospore. _E_ Spermatozoid.]
-
-Order 7. =Coleochætaceæ.= The thallus is always attached, and of a
-disc- or cushion-shape, formed by the dichotomous branching of filaments
-of cells united in a pseudo-parenchymatous manner. Each cell has only
-one nucleus. Asexual reproduction by zoospores with 2 cilia (Fig. 55
-_D_), which may arise in all the cells. Sexual reproduction by oogamous
-fertilisation. The spermatozoids resemble the swarmspores, but are
-smaller (_E_), and originate singly (in the species figured) in small
-conical cells (_c_, _d_ in _A_). The oogonia are developed at the
-extremities of certain branches: they are bottle-shaped cells with very
-long and thin necks (_trichogyne_), open at the end (_a_ in _A_); at
-the base of each oogonium is a spherical oosphere. The spermatozoids
-reach the oosphere through the trichogyne, or through an aperture in
-the wall when the trichogyne is absent, and fertilisation having taken
-place, the oogonium becomes surrounded by a cell-layer (envelope),
-which grows out from the cells near its base (_b_ in _A_), and in this
-way a kind of fruit is formed (_B_) (_spermocarp_, _cystocarp_).
-
-The oospore, next spring, divides and forms a parenchymatous tissue
-(homologous with the Moss-sporophyte); this bursts open the envelope
-(_C_), and a zoospore (homologous with the spores of the Moss-capsule)
-arises in each of the cells, and produces a new _Coleochæte_. We have
-then, in this case, a still more distinct alternation of generations
-than in _Œdogonium_. Only one genus, _Coleochæte_, is known, but it
-contains several species, all living in fresh water.
-
-Order 8. =Cladophoraceæ.= This order is probably derived from the
-Ulothricaceæ. The thallus consists of a single, unbranched or branched
-filament, generally with an apical cell. The cells have each 2 or more
-nuclei. Asexual reproduction by zoospores with 2 or 4 cilia, and by
-akinetes. Conjugation of gametes with 2 cilia is found in some genera.
-They occur in salt as well as in fresh water. The principal genera are:
-_Urospora_, _Chætomorpha_, _Rhizoclonium_, _Cladophora_; of the last
-named genus the species _C. lanosa_ and _C. rupestris_ are common in
-salt water; _C. fracta_ and _C. glomerata_ in fresh water.
-
-Order 9. =Gomontiaceæ.= _Gomontia polyrrhiza_, the only species
-hitherto known, is found on old calcareous shells of certain salt water
-Molluscs.
-
-Order 10. =Sphæropleaceæ.= The thallus consists of free, unbranched
-filaments, with very elongated multinuclear cells. The vegetative
-cells form no zoospores. Sexual reproduction by oogamous fertilisation
-(see page 13, Fig. 10 _B_). The oospore has a thick wall (Fig. 10
-_D_) studded with warts, and assumes a colour resembling red lead. It
-germinates only in the following spring, and produces 1–8 zoospores,
-each with 2 cilia (Fig. 10 _E_), which grow into new filaments. Only
-one species, _Sphæroplea annulina_, is known.
-
-
-                          Family 3. Siphoneæ.
-
-The thallus has apical growth, and in the vegetative condition consists
-generally of one single (in the Valoniaceæ most frequently of more)
-multinuclear cell, which may be much branched, and whose separate parts
-in the higher forms (_e.g. Bryopsis_, Fig. 57; _Caulerpa_, Fig.
-59, etc.) may be differentiated to perform the various physiological
-functions (as root, stem and leaf). Vegetative multiplication by
-detached portions of the thallus (gemmæ); asexual reproduction
-by zoospores, akinetes, or aplanospores. Sexual reproduction by
-gamete-conjugation, rarely by oogamous fertilisation. The zygote or
-oospore germinates as a rule without any resting-stage.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 56.--_Botrydium granulatum_: _a_ an entire
-  plant forming swarmspores; _b_ swamspores; _c_ an individual with
-  gametangia; _d_, gamete; _e_, _f_, _g_ conjugation; _h_ zygote
-  seen from above; _i_ the same in a lateral view.]
-
-Most of the Siphoneæ occur in salt water or on damp soil. Many (_e.g._
-_Dasycladaceæ_) are very much incrusted with lime, and occur, in the
-fossilized condition, in the deposits from the Cretaceous period to
-the present time. The Siphoneæ are connected by their lowest forms
-(_Botrydiaceæ_ or _Valonia_) with the Protococcaceæ, but show also,
-through the Valoniaceæ, points of relationship to the _Cladophoraceæ_.
-
-Order 1. =Botrydiaceæ.= The thallus in the vegetative condition
-is unicellular, club-shaped, with a small single (_Codiolum_) or
-repeatedly dichotomously branched system of colourless rhizoids
-(_Botrydium_, Fig. 56 _a_), by which it is attached to objects immersed
-in salt water (_Codiolum_) or to damp clay soil (_Botrydium_). Asexual
-reproduction by zoospores with one (_Botrydium_) or two cilia, and by
-aplanospores. The sexual reproduction is only known in _Botrydium_, and
-takes place in the following manner: in the part of the thallus which
-is above ground and in an active vegetative condition, several round
-cells (Fig. 56 _c_) are formed, which may be green or red according as
-they grow under water, or exposed to the strong light of the sun. These
-cells must be considered as “gametangia” as they produce many gametes
-(_d_) provided with two cilia. The zygote (_h_, _i_) formed by the
-conjugation (_e_, _f_, _g_) may either germinate immediately, or become
-a thick-walled resting-cell of an irregular, angular form.
-
-   Order 2. =Bryopsidaceæ.= The thallus in the vegetative condition
-   is unicellular, and consists at the lower extremity of branched
-   rhizoids, while the upper portion is prolonged into a stem-like
-   structure of unlimited growth, producing, acropetally, branches
-   and leaf-like structures. The latter have limited growth,
-   and are separated by a cross wall from the stem, and become
-   gametangia, or drop off. The gametes have two cilia, and are of
-   two kinds: the female, which are green and large and the male,
-   which are of brownish colour and smaller. Zoospores or any other
-   method of asexual reproduction are unknown. Only one genus,
-   _Bryopsis_, living in salt water.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 57.--_Bryopsis plumosa_. A the plant, natural
-  size. B A portion (enlarged) which shows the growing point (v),
-  and the leaves derived from it in acropetal succession.]
-
-   Order 3. =Derbesiaceæ.= Only one genus, _Derbesia_, living in
-   saltwater. The zoospores, which are formed in a few lateral,
-   swollen zoosporangia, possess one nucleus which has arisen
-   through the coalescence of several, and they resemble the
-   zoospores of _Œdogonium_ by having a circle of cilia attached at
-   the base of the colourless spot.
-
-Order 4. =Vaucheriaceæ.= The thallus consists, in the vegetative
-condition, of a single irregularly or dichotomously branched cell,
-without differentiation into stem or leaf; root-like organs of
-attachment may however occur. Asexual reproduction by zoospores, which
-are formed singly in the extremity of a branch cut off by a transverse
-wall. They contain many nuclei, and bear small cilia situated in
-pairs, which give the appearance of a fine “pile” covering the whole
-or a great part of the surface. Akinetes, aplanospores, and phytoamœbæ
-(naked masses of protoplasm, without cilia, which creep like an amœba
-on a substratum) may occur under certain conditions.
-
-The sexual reproductive organs are formed on short lateral branches,
-and are separated from the vegetative cell (Fig. 58 _A_) by cell-walls.
-Numerous spermatozoids, each with two cilia, are developed in the
-coiled antheridium (_A_, _b_). The oogonium is a thick, egg-shaped,
-often oblique cell, with its protoplasm rounded into an oosphere,
-which has a hyaline “receptive-spot” (_A_, _a_) immediately beneath
-the aperture formed in the wall of the oogonium. A slimy mass, which
-serves to receive the spermatozoids, is formed in some species in this
-aperture. The spermatozoids when liberated swim towards and enter
-the oosphere, which then immediately surrounds itself with a thick
-cell-wall. The mature oospore (_B_) contains a large quantity of oil.
-At germination the outer cell-wall bursts and a new plant is formed.
-There is only one genus, _Vaucheria_, with species living in salt as
-well as in fresh water and on damp soil.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 58.--_Vaucheria sessilis_. _A_ Fertilisation;
-  _b_ the antheridia; _a_ the oogonia; _a_ the receptive spot. _B_
-  Oospore.]
-
-Order 5. =Phyllosiphonaceæ= are parasites in the leaves and stalks of
-Flowering-plants.
-
-Order 6. =Caulerpaceæ.= The thallus has distinct differentiation into
-root, stem and leaf-like members (Fig. 59); it is unicellular. Within
-the cell, strong, branched threads of cellulose extend from one side
-to the other serving as stays to support the thallus. Reproduction
-takes place by detached portions of the thallus; no other modes of
-reproduction are known. This order may most approximately be classed
-with the _Bryopsidaceæ_. The genus _Caulerpa_ consists of more than
-seventy species which inhabit the tropical seas.
-
-Order 7. =Codiaceæ.= The thallus has various forms, but without
-distinct differentiation in stem- or leaf-structures, sometimes (_e.g._
-_Halimeda_) it is very much incrusted with lime. In the early stages
-it is unicellular (later, often multicellular), very much branched,
-with the branches, at any rate partly, so united or grown in amongst
-one another (Fig. 60) that an apparently parenchymatous cellular
-body is formed. Akinetes or aplanospores are wanting; zoospores (or
-gametes?) may be developed in some species, however, in special swollen
-sporangia. Fertilisation similar to that in _Bryopsis_ occurs perhaps
-in _Codium_. They are all salt water forms.
-
-Order 8. =Valoniaceæ.= The thallus is generally multicellular, without
-differentation into stem- or leaf-structures, but the cells are
-sometimes united together and form a leaf-like reticulate expansion
-(_e.g. Anadyomene_). Zoospores are known in some, and they are then
-formed directly in the vegetative cells. In others (_e.g. Valonia_),
-a mass of protoplasm, which maybe separated through the damaging of
-a cell, can surround itself with a cell-wall, and grow into a new
-plant. No other modes of reproduction are known. The most important
-genera are: _Valonia_, _Siphonocladus_, _Chamædoris_, _Struvea_,
-_Microdictyon_, _Anadyomene_. They are all salt water forms.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 59.--_Caulerpa prolifera_ (natural size).]
-
-   As already pointed out, the _Valoniaceæ_ occupy a somewhat
-   central position among the Siphoneæ, and present points
-   of similarity and contrast with the _Botrydiaceæ_ and the
-   _Bryopsidaceæ_ through _Valonia_, with the _Dasycladaceæ_
-   through _Chamædoris_, and also with the _Cladophoraceæ_ through
-   _Siphonocladus_, and _Struvea_.
-
-Order 9. =Dasycladaceæ.= The thallus consists of an axile longitudinal
-cell, destitute of transverse walls, attached at the base by root-like
-organs of attachment, and producing acropetally whorls of united,
-single or branched, leaf-like structures with limited growth. Asexual
-reproduction is wanting. Sexual reproduction by conjugation of gametes
-which arise in separate, fertile leaves, either directly or from
-aplanospores, which develope into gametangia. The principal genera are:
-_Acetabularia_, _Dasycladus_, _Neomeris_, _Cymopolia_. All marine.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 60.--_Halimeda opuntia._ Plant (natural
-  size). _B_ Part of a longitudinal section.]
-
-The curiously shaped _Acetabularia mediterranea_ grows gregariously
-on limestone rocks, and shells of mussels in the Mediterranean; it
-resembles a minute umbrella with a small stem, sometimes as much as
-nine centimetres in height, and a shade which may be more than one
-centimetre in diameter. The cell-membrane is thick, and incrusted
-with carbonate and oxalate of lime. Only the lower, root-like part of
-the thallus, which penetrates the calcareous substratum survives the
-winter, and may grow up into a new plant. The sterile leaves, which
-drop off early, are dichotomously branched and formed of cylindrical
-cells separated from each other by cross-walls, but they are not grown
-together. The shade is formed by a circle of 70–100 club-shaped rays
-(fertile leaves) grown together, in each ray 40–80 aplanospores are
-formed, which become liberated at the breaking of the shade, and later
-on are changed to gametangia (compare _Botrydium_) which open by a
-lid and allow a large number of egg-shaped gametes with two cilia to
-escape. Gametes from various gametangia conjugate with one another; the
-product of the conjugation swarms about for some time, rounds off, and
-then surrounds itself with a cell-wall. The zygote germinates after
-a period of rest and then produces a sexual plant. The aplanospores
-(gametangia) thus represent the sexual generation.
-
-
-                         Class 7. =Characeæ.=
-
-The thallus has a stem with nodes and internodes; and whorls of leaves,
-on which may be developed the antheridia and oogonia, are borne at
-the nodes. Vegetative reproduction by bulbils and accessory shoots.
-Zoospores are wanting. The antheridia are spherical, and contain a
-number of filaments in which the spirally coiled spermatozoids, each
-with two cilia, are formed. The oogonium is situated terminally, and
-is at first naked, but becomes later on surrounded by an investment,
-and forms after fertilisation the so-called “fruit.” The oospore, after
-a period of rest, germinates by producing a “proembryo,” from which
-the young sexual plant arises as a lateral branch. The Characeæ are
-distinguished by the structure of their vegetative system as well as by
-the spirally-coiled spermatozoids, and stand as an isolated group among
-the Thallophytes, of which, however, the Siphoneæ appear to be their
-nearest relations. They were formerly, but wrongly, placed near the
-Mosses. The class contains only one order, the Characeæ.
-
-Order 1. =Characeæ.= Algæ with a peculiar odour, often incrusted with
-lime, and of a brittle nature. They generally grow gregariously in
-large masses at the bottom of fresh and brackish water, and are from a
-few inches to more than a foot in height. The stem has long internodes
-which in _Nitella_ are formed of one cylindrical cell; in _Chara_ of
-a similar cell, but closely surrounded by a cortical layer of smaller
-ones. The protoplasm in contact with the cell-wall exhibits in a
-well-marked degree the movement of rotation (cyclosis), carrying the
-chlorophyll corpuscles along with it. The internodes are separated
-from each other by a layer of small cells (nodal cells) from which the
-leaves are produced. The leaves are borne in whorls of from 5–12 which
-regularly alternate with one another as in the higher verticillate
-plants; a branch is borne in the axil of the first formed leaf of each
-whorl (Fig. 61 _A_, _n_).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 61.--_Chara fragilis. A_ Portion of a
-  plant, natural size. _B_ Portion of a leaf _b_, with leaflets
-  β′-β′′; _a_ antheridium; _c_ oogonium. _C_ A shield.--_Nitella
-  flexilis. D_ Filament from antheridium with spermatozoids. _E_
-  Free spermatozoids.]
-
-The leaves are constructed in the same manner as the stem; they are
-divided into a series of joints, but have only a limited power of
-growth; their terminal cell, too, is not enclosed by a cortex. Leaflets
-are borne at their nodes. The growth of the stem is unlimited, and
-proceeds by means of an apical cell (Fig. 62 _s_). The apical cell
-divides into a segment-cell and a new apical cell. The segment-cell
-then divides by a transverse wall into two cells, one lying above the
-other; the lower one, without any further division, becomes one of the
-long, cylindrical, internodal cells (Fig. 62 _in_), and the upper one
-(Fig. 62 _n_) divides by vertical walls to form the nodal cells. The
-cortical cells (Fig. 62 _r_) which surround the long internodal cells
-of _Chara_, are derived from the divisions of the nodal cells; the
-cells covering the upper portion of an internodal cell being derived
-from the node immediately above it, and those in the lower part of the
-internode from the node below it.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 62.--_Chara fragilis_: _s_ apical cell; _n_,
-  _n_ nodal cells; _in_ internodal cells; _bl_, _bl_ leaves; _r_,
-  _r_ the cortical cells.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 63.--Oogonium of _Chara_: _k_ “crown”; _u_
-  receptive spot; _s_ spermatozoids.]
-
-The organs of reproduction are very conspicuous by their colour
-and form. They are always situated on the leaves, the plants being
-very frequently monœcious. The antheridia (Fig. 61 _B_, _a_) are
-modified leaflets or the terminal cell of a leaf; they are spherical
-and become red when mature. Their wall consists of 8 “shields,”
-_i.e._ of plate-like cells, 4 of which cover the upper half, and are
-triangular; the 4 round the lower half, to which the stalk of the
-antheridia is attached, being quadrilateral, with sides of unequal
-length. The shields (Fig. 61 _C_) have dentated edges, with the teeth
-fitting into one another, and their faces ornamented with ridges. From
-the centre of the internal face of each shield (_C_) a cylindrical
-cell, the _manubrium_, projects nearly as far as the centre of the
-antheridium; at the inner end of each of the manubria a spherical
-cell, the _capitulum_, is situated. Each capitulum bears six secondary
-capitula, from each of which four long coiled filaments (_C_, _D_)
-project into the cavity of the antheridium. These filaments are divided
-by transverse walls into from 100–200 discoid cells, in each of which
-a biciliated, coiled spermatozoid is developed (_D_, _E_) from the
-nucleus. The spermatozoids escape from their mother-cell and are set
-free by the shields separating from one other.
-
-The female organ of reproduction (Fig. 61 _B_, 63) is a small modified
-shoot, whose apical cell functions as an oogonium, its protoplasm
-forming the oosphere, which has a colourless receptive-spot at the
-summit (Fig. 63 _u_). The oogonium is situated on a nodal cell, from
-which 5 cells grow out in a circle and coil round the oogonium,
-covering it with a close investment. These cells divide once or twice
-at the top, so that 5 or 10 small cells are cut off, which project
-above the oogonium and form the so-called “crown” (Fig. 63 _k_). The
-crown either drops off at fertilisation, or its cells separate to form
-a central canal for the passage of the spermatozoids. The wall of the
-oosphere[9] above the receptive spot becomes mucilaginous, and allows
-the spermatozoid to fuse with the oosphere. The oospore, on germination
-(Fig. 64 _sp_), becomes a small filamentous plant of limited growth
-(Fig. 64 _i_, _d_, _q_, _pl_)--the proembryo--and from this, as a
-lateral outgrowth, the sexual generation is produced.
-
-The order is divided into two sub-orders:--
-
-A. NITELLEÆ. The crown consists of 10 cells; cortex absent: _Nitella_,
-_Tolypella_.
-
-B. CHAREÆ. The crown consists of 5 cells; cortex present:
-_Tolypellopsis_, _Lamprothamnus_, _Lychnothamnus_, _Chara_.
-
-_Chara crinita_ is parthenogenetic; in large districts of Europe
-only female plants are found, yet oospheres are formed capable of
-germination.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 64.--_Chara fragilis._ Germinating oospore
-  (_sp_); _i_, _d_, _g_, _pl_, form together the proembryo rhizoids
-  (_w′_) are formed at _d_; _w′_ the so-called tap-root; at _g_ are
-  the first leaves of the sexual plant, which appears as a lateral
-  bud.]
-
-About 40 species of fossilized _Chara_, determined by their carpogonia,
-are known in the geological formations from the Trias up to the present
-day.
-
-
-             Class 8. =Phæophyceæ (Olive-Brown Seaweeds).=
-
-The Phæophyceæ are Algæ, with chromatophores in which the chlorophyll
-is masked by a brown colour (phycophæin). The product of assimilation
-is a carbohydrate (fucosan), _never true starch_. In the highest
-forms (_Fucaceæ_), the thallus presents differentiation into stem,
-leaf, and root-like structures. The asexual reproduction takes place
-by means of zoospores. The sexual reproduction is effected by the
-coalescence of motile gametes, or by oogamous fertilisation. The
-swarm-cells are _monosymmetric_, each moved by two cilia which are true
-protoplasmic structures, and generally _attached laterally_ (Fig. 65).
-The Phæophyceæ are almost entirely saltwater forms; a few species of
-_Lithoderma_ live in fresh water.
-
-The class is divided into two families:--
-
-1. PHÆOSPOREÆ: 1 Sub-Family, Zoogonicæ; 2 Sub-Family, Acinetæ.
-
-2. CYCLOSPOREÆ: Fucaceæ.
-
-
-                        Family 1. =Phæosporeæ.=
-
-The family consists of multicellular plants, whose cells are firmly
-united together to form a thallus; this, in the simplest cases, may be
-a branched filament of cells (_Ectocarpus_), or, in the highest, may
-resemble a stem with leaves (_Laminariaceæ_), while all transitional
-forms may be found between these two. The thallus grows by intercalary
-divisions (_e.g. Ectocarpus_), or by an apical cell (_e.g._
-_Sphacelaria_); pseudo-parenchymatous tissue may sometimes be formed by
-cells, which were originally distinct, becoming united together. The
-size of the thallus varies; in some species it is quite small--almost
-microscopical,--while in the largest it is many metres in length.
-
-The vegetative cells in the lower forms are nearly uniform, but in
-those which are more highly developed (_Laminariaceæ_ and _Fucaceæ_),
-they are sometimes so highly differentiated that mechanical,
-assimilating, storing and conducting systems may be found; the last
-named systems are formed of long cells with perforated, transverse
-walls, which bear a strong resemblance to the sieve-tubes in the higher
-plants.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 65.--Swarmspore of _Cutleria multifida_.]
-
-The colouring matter in the living cells (“phæophyl”) contains
-chlorophyll; but this is concealed by a brown (“phycophæin”), and a
-yellow (“phycoxanthin”) colouring material, and hence all these Algæ
-are a lighter or darker _yellow-brown_. Starch is not formed. Asexual
-reproduction takes place, (1) by zoospores which arise in unilocular
-zoosporangia, and are monosymmetric, with two cilia attached laterally
-at the base of the colourless anterior end (Fig. 65), the longer
-one being directed forwards and the shorter backwards; or (2) by
-aplanospores (?).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 66.--_Ectocarpus siliculosus_. _I a-f_ A
-  female gamete in the various stages of coming to rest. _II_ A
-  motionless female gamete surrounded by male gametes. _III a-e_
-  Stages in the coalescence of male and female gametes.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 67.--_Zanardinia collaris_. _A_ Male
-  gametangia (the smaller celled) and female gametangia (the
-  larger celled). _C_ Female gamete. _D_ Male gamete. _B_, _E_
-  Fertilisation. _F_ Zygote. _G_ Germinating zygote.]
-
-Sexual reproduction has only been discovered in a few cases, and takes
-place by means of gametes (oogamous fertilisation perhaps occurs in the
-Tilopteridæ). The gametes have the same structure as the zoospores,
-and arise in multilocular gametangia; these, like the zoosporangia,
-are outgrowths from the external surface, or arise as modifications
-from it. The conjugating gametes may be similar (_e.g. Ectocarpus
-pusillus_), or there may be a more or less pronounced difference of
-sex, an indication of which is found in _Ectocarpus siliculosus_ (Fig.
-66). When the gametes in this species have swarmed for a time, some,
-which are generally larger, are seen to attach themselves by one of the
-cilia, which by degrees is shortened to form a kind of stalk (compare
-the upper gamete in Fig. 66 _II_); these are the female gametes, which
-now become surrounded by a number of males endeavouring to conjugate
-with them, but only one succeeds in effecting fertilisation. The
-protoplasm of the two gametes coalesces (Fig. 66 _III_), and a zygote
-(_e_) is formed. The male gametes which do not conjugate may germinate,
-but the plants derived from them are much weaker than those produced
-by the zygotes. Strongly pronounced sexual differences are found in
-the Cutleriaceæ, in which order the male and female gametes arise in
-separate gametangia (Fig. 67 _A_). The male gametes (Fig. 67 _D_) are
-much smaller than the female gamete (Fig. 67 _C_); the latter, after
-swarming for a short time, withdraws the cilia, and is then ready to
-become fertilised (Fig. 67 _B_, _E_), thus we have here a distinct
-transition to the oogamous fertilisation which is found in the Fucaceæ.
-Alternation of generations is rarely found.
-
-1. Sub-Family. =Zoogonicæ.=
-
-Reproduction by means of gametes and zoospores.
-
-Order 1. =Ectocarpaceæ.= The thallus consists of single or branched
-filaments with intercalary growth, extending vertically from a
-horizontal, branched filament or a disc, but sometimes it is reduced to
-this basal portion only. Zoosporangia and gametangia (for fertilisation
-see Fig. 66) are either outgrowths or arise by the transformation of
-one or several of the ordinary cells. The most common genera are:
-_Ectocarpus_ and _Pylaiella_.
-
-Order 2. =Choristocarpaceæ.= _Choristocarpus_, _Discosporangium_.
-
-Order 3. =Sphacelariaceæ.= The thallus consists of small,
-parenchymatous, more or less ramified shoots, presenting a feather-like
-appearance. In the shoots, which grow by means of an apical cell (Fig.
-68 _S_), a cortical layer, surrounding a row of central cells, is
-present. Sporangia and gametangia are outgrowths from the main stem or
-its branches. _Sphacelaria_, _Chætopteris_ are common forms.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 68.--Apex of the thallus of _Chætopteris
-  plumosa_. _S_ Apical cell.]
-
-Order 4. =Encoeliaceæ.= _Punctaria_, _Asperococcus_, _Phyllitis fascia_.
-
-Order 5. =Striariaceæ.= _Striaria_, _Phlœospora_.
-
-Order 6. =Dictyosiphonaceæ.= _Dictyosiphon._
-
-Order 7. =Desmarestiaceæ.= _Desmarestia aculeata_ is common.
-
-Order 8. =Myriotrichiaceæ.= _Myriotrichia._
-
-Order 9. =Elachistaceæ.= _Elachista fucicola_ is a common epiphyte on
-species of _Fucus_.
-
-Order 10. =Chordariaceæ.= The shoot-systems are often surrounded
-by mucilage. _Chordaria_; _Leathesia difformis_ occurs as rounded,
-brown-green masses of the size of a nut, generally attached to other
-Seaweeds.
-
-Order 11. =Stilophoraceæ.= _Stilophora rhizodes_ is common.
-
-Order 12. =Spermatochnaceæ.= _Spermatochnus paradoxus_ is common.
-
-Order 13. =Sporochnaceæ.= _Sporochnus._
-
-Order 14. =Ralfsiaceæ.= _Ralfsia verrucosa_ is common as a red-brown
-incrustation on stones and rocks at the water’s edge.
-
-Order 15. =Lithodermataceæ.= Some species of the genus _Lithoderma_
-occur in fresh water.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 69.--_Laminaria digitata_ (much reduced in
-  size).]
-
-Order 16. =Laminariaceæ.= The thallus is more or less leathery, and
-has generally a root-like lower part (Fig. 69) which serves to attach
-it, and a stalk or stem-like part, terminated by a large leaf-like
-expansion. Meristematic cells are situated at the base of the leaf,
-and from these the new leaves are derived. The older leaf thus pushed
-away by the intercalary formation of the younger ones, soon withers
-(Fig. 69). Gametes are wanting. Zoosporangia are developed from
-the lower part of a simple, few-celled sporangiophore, which is an
-outgrowth from a surface-cell and has a large club-formed apical cell.
-The sporangia are aggregated into closely packed sori, which cover
-the lower part of the terminal leaf, or occur on special, smaller,
-lateral, fertile fronds (_Alaria_). Most of the species belonging to
-this order live in seas of moderate or cold temperature and occur
-in the most northern regions that have yet been explored, forming
-their organs of reproduction during the cold and darkness of the
-arctic night. _Laminaria_ is destitute of a midrib and has only one
-terminal leaf. _L. digitata_ has a broad leaf, which, by the violence
-of the waves, is torn into a number of palmate strips (Fig. 69). _L.
-saccharina_ has a small, undivided leaf. _Alaria_ has a midrib and
-special fertile fronds. _A. esculenta_ occurs plentifully on the west
-coast of Norway and on the shores of Great Britain. _Chorda filum_, a
-common seaweed, is thick, unbranched, and attains a length of several
-metres, without any strong demarcation between stalk and leaf. Some
-attain quite a gigantic size, _e.g. Macrocystis pyrifera_, whose
-thallus is said sometimes to be more than 300 metres in length. The
-_Lessonia_-species, like the above, form submarine forests of seaweed
-on the south and south-west coasts of South America, the Cape, and
-other localities in the Southern Hemisphere.
-
-   USES. The large Laminarias, where they occur in great numbers,
-   are, like the Fuci, used for various purposes, for example, in
-   the production of iodine and soda, and as an article of food
-   (_Laminaria saccharina_, _Alaria esculenta_, etc.). _Laminaria
-   saccharina_ contains a large quantity of sugar (mannit) and is
-   in some districts used in the preparation of a kind of syrup;
-   in surgical operations it is employed for the distension of
-   apertures and passages, as for instance the ear-passage. It
-   is by reason of the anatomical peculiarities and structure of
-   the cell-walls, that they are employed for this purpose. The
-   cell-walls are divided into two layers, an inner one which
-   has very little power of swelling, and an outer one, well
-   developed and almost gelatinous--the so-called “intercellular
-   substance”--which shrivels up when dried, but can absorb water
-   and swell to about five times its size. The stalks of _Laminaria
-   clustoni_ are officinal.
-
-Order 17. =Cutleriaceæ.= The thallus is formed by the union of the
-originally free, band-shaped shoots. The growth is intercalary. Sexual
-reproduction by the conjugation of male and female gametes. An asexual
-generation of different appearance, which produces zoospores, arises
-from the germination of the zygote. _Cutleria_, _Zanardinia_.
-
-Sub-Family 2. =Acinetæ.=
-
-Branched, simple cell-rows with intercalary growth. The organs
-of reproduction are partly uni-and partly multicellular; in the
-unicellular ones a cell without cilia is formed, which may be destitute
-of a cell-wall, but has one nucleus (oosphere?), or which has a
-cell-wall and contains several (generally four) nuclei (aplanospores?);
-in the multicellular, monosymmetric swarm-cells with two cilia
-(spermatozoids?) are formed. The fertilisation has not been observed.
-
-Order 1. =Tilopteridaceæ.= _Haplospora_, _Tilopteris_.
-
-
-                       Family 2. =Cyclosporeæ.=
-
-The individuals are multicellular, with growth by an apical cell. The
-thallus--often bilateral--is differentiated into a root-like structure
-(attachment-disc), and stem, sometimes also into leaves (_Sargassum_).
-Sometimes a differentiation occurs into various tissue-systems, viz. an
-external assimilating tissue, a storing tissue, a mechanical tissue
-of thickened, longitudinal, parenchymatous, strengthening cells, and
-a conducting tissue of sieve-cells, or of short sieve-tubes with
-perforated walls. Colouring material, as in Phæosporeæ. Vegetative
-reproduction can only take place by means of detached portions of the
-thallus (_Sargassum_), which are kept floating by means of bladders
-(Fig. 70 _A_, _a_, Fig. 72). Zoospores are wanting.
-
-The sexual reproduction takes place by oogamous fertilisation. The
-oogonia and antheridia are formed inside special organs (conceptacles),
-and are surrounded by paraphyses. The conceptacles (Fig. 70 _B_,
-Fig. 71 _b_) are small, pear-shaped or spherical depressions,
-produced by a special ingrowth of the surface cells of the thallus,
-and their mouths (_ostioles_) project like small warts; they are
-either situated near the end of the ordinary branches of the thallus
-(_Fucus serratus_, Fig. 71 _a_) which may be swollen on this account
-(_Fucus vesiculosus_, Fig. 70 _A_, _b_), or on special short branches
-(_Ascophyllum_, _Sargassum_). The vertical section of a conceptacle is
-seen in Fig. 70 _B_ (see also Fig. 71 _b_) where, in addition to the
-paraphyses, oogonia only are seen (_F. vesiculosus_ is diœcious--male
-plant, yellow-brown; female plant, olive-brown); but in some
-species antheridia, together with oogonia, are produced in the same
-conceptacle. The oogonia are large, almost spherical cells, situated on
-a short stalk, in each of which are formed from 1–8 (in _Fucus_, 8; in
-_Ascophyllum_, 4; in _Halidrys_, 1; in _Pelvetia_, 2) rounded, immotile
-oospheres. The wall of the oogonium ruptures, and the oospheres,
-still enclosed in the inner membrane, are ejected through the mouth
-of the conceptacle, and float about in the water, being finally set
-free by the bursting of the inner membrane. The antheridia are oblong
-cells (Fig. 70 _C_, _a_), many of which are produced on the same
-branched antheridiophore (Fig. 70 _C_); the numerous spermatozoids are
-provided with 2 cilia and are very small (Fig. 70 _D_, two antheridia
-surrounded by spermatozoids, one being open). The spermatozoids, still
-enclosed by the inner membrane of the antheridium, are similarly
-set free, and fertilisation takes place in the water, numerous
-spermatozoids collecting round the oosphere (Fig. 70 _E_), which is
-many times larger, and by their own motion causing it to rotate. After
-fertilisation, the oospore surrounds itself with a cell-wall and
-germinates immediately, attaching itself (Fig. 70 _F_) to some object,
-and by cell-division grows into a new plant.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 70.--_Fucus vesiculosus. A_ Portion of
-  thallus with swimming bladders (_a_) and conceptacles (_b_). _B_
-  Section of a female conceptacle; _h_ the mouth; _p_ the inner
-  cavity; _s_ oogonia. _C_ Antheridiophore; _a_ antheridium; _p_
-  sterile cells. _D_ Antheridia out of which the spermatozoids are
-  escaping. _E_ Fertilisation. _F_ Germinating oospore.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 71.--_Fucus serratus_. _a_ Portion of a male
-  plant which has been exposed to the action of the open air for
-  some time; small orange-yellow masses, formed by the antheridia,
-  are seen outside the mouths of the male conceptacles (nat. size).
-  _b_ Cross section through the end of a branch of a female plant,
-  showing the female conceptacles (× 4).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 72.--_Sargassum bacciferum_. A portion of the
-  thallus, natural size.]
-
-Order 1. =Fucaceæ.= The following species are common on our coasts:
-_Fucus vesiculosus_ (Fig. 70) has a thallus with an entire margin,
-and with bladders arranged in pairs; _F. serratus_ (Fig. 71) without
-bladders, but with serrated margin; _Ascophyllum nodosum_ has
-strap-like shoots, which here and there are swollen to form bladders;
-_Halidrys siliquosa_ has its swimming bladders divided by transverse
-walls; _Himanthalia lorea_, which is found on the west coast of Norway,
-and the south coast of England, has a small perennial, button-shaped
-part, from the centre of which proceeds the long and sparsely branched,
-strap-like, annual shoot, which bears the conceptacles. The Gulf-weed
-(_Sargassum bacciferum_, Fig. 72) is well known historically from the
-voyage of Columbus; it is met with in large, floating, detached masses
-in all oceans, and is found most abundantly in the Atlantic, off the
-Canary Islands and the Azores, and towards the Bermudas. The stalked,
-spherical air-bladders are the characteristic feature of this genus.
-The thallus is more highly developed than in _Fucus_, and there is a
-contrast between the stem and leaf-like parts. The portions which are
-found floating are always barren, only those attached are fertile.
-
-   USES. The Fucaceæ, like the Laminariaceæ, are used as manure
-   (the best kinds being _Fucus vesiculosus_ and _Ascophyllum
-   nodosum_), for burning to produce kelp, and as food for domestic
-   animals (_Ascophyllum nodosum_ is especially used for this
-   purpose).
-
-
-                        Class 9. =Dictyotales.=
-
-The plants in this class are multicellular, and brown, with apical
-growth, new cells being derived either from a flat apical cell, or from
-a border of apical cells. The thallus is flat, leaf- or strap-shaped,
-attached by haptera, which are either found only at the base, or
-on the whole of the lower expansion of the thallus. The cells are
-differentiated into the following systems of tissues: an external,
-small-celled layer of assimilating cells, generally one cell in
-thickness, and an internal, large-celled layer of one or only a few
-cells in thickness, forming the mechanical and conducting tissues.
-All the reproductive cells are motionless. Asexual reproduction by
-naked, motionless spores (tetraspores) which are formed 1–4 in each
-tetrasporangium, the latter being outgrowths from the surface cells
-of special, sexless individuals. Zoospores are wanting. The sexual
-organs are of two kinds, oogonia and antheridia, which are formed from
-the surface cells, either on the same or different individuals. The
-oogonia are spherical or oval, and are generally placed close together;
-each contains one oosphere, which on maturity is ejected into the
-surrounding water, and is then naked and motionless. The antheridia
-are formed of longitudinal cells, united in groups, whose contents
-by repeated divisions--transverse and longitudinal--are divided into
-a large number of small, colourless, motionless spermatia--round or
-elongated--which are set free by the dissolution of the wall of the
-antheridium. The process of fertilisation has not yet been observed.
-
-The Dictyotales, in having tetraspores and spermatia, deviate
-considerably from the Phæophyceæ, but may be classed near to the
-Tilopteridæ, in which there are asexual spores with 4 cell-nuclei,
-which may be considered as an indication of the formation of
-tetraspores.
-
-   Order 1. =Dictyotaceæ.= _Dictyota dichotoma_ which has a thin,
-   regularly dichotomously divided thallus, occurs on the coasts of
-   the British Isles. _Padina_ is found on the south coast.
-
-
-                Class 10. =Rhodophyceæ (Red Seaweeds).=
-
-The plants comprised in this class are multicellular; they are
-simple or branched filaments, or expansions consisting of 1 to
-several layers of cells; the thallus may be differentiated (as
-in many _Florideæ_), to resemble stem, root, and leaf. The cells
-contain a distinctly differentiated nucleus (sometimes several),
-and distinct chromatophores, coloured by rhodophyll. The chlorophyll
-of the chromatophores is generally masked by a red colouring matter
-(phycoerythrin), which may be extracted in cold, fresh water; or rarely
-by phycocyan. Pyrenoids occur in some. Starch is never formed in the
-chromatophores themselves, but a modification--Florideæ starch--may
-be found in the colourless protoplasm. Asexual reproduction by motile
-or motionless spores (tetraspores) which are devoid of cilia and of
-cell-wall. Swarmspores are never found.
-
-Sexual reproduction is wanting, or takes place by the coalescence of
-a spermatium and a more or less developed female cell. The spermatia
-are naked masses of protoplasm, devoid of cilia and chromatophores.
-The female cell (carpogonium) is enclosed by a cell-wall, and after
-fertilisation forms a number of spores, either with or without
-cell-walls (carpospores), which grow into new individuals.
-
-The Rhodophyceæ may be divided into two families:
-
-    1. BANGIOIDEÆ.
-    2. FLORIDEÆ.
-
-
-                        Family 1. =Bangioideæ.=
-
-The thallus consists of a branched or unbranched cell-filament, formed
-of a single row or of many rows of cells, or of an expansion, one or
-two layers of cells in thickness, but without conspicuous pores for the
-intercommunication of the cells. The growth of the thallus is chiefly
-intercalary. The star-like chromatophores contain chlorophyll and are
-coloured blue-green with phycocyan, or reddish with phycoerythrin;
-all these colouring matters are occasionally found in the same cell
-(_Bangia_-species). Asexual reproduction by tetraspores, without cilia,
-but capable of amœboid movements.
-
-Sexual reproduction is wanting, or takes place by the coalescence of a
-spermatium with a carpogonium, which is only slightly differentiated
-from the vegetative cells, and is devoid of a trichogyne. The
-carpospores are destitute of cell-wall and arise directly by the
-division of the fertilised oosphere. The Bangioideæ occur chiefly in
-salt water.
-
-   Order 1. =Goniotrichaceæ.=--The thallus consists of a
-   branched cell-filament without rhizoids. Tetraspores are
-   formed directly from the entire contents of the mother-cell,
-   without any preceding division. Fertilisation unknown.
-   _Asterocystis_, _Goniotrichum_.
-
-   The _Goniotrichaceæ_, through the blue-green _Asterocystis_,
-   are allied to the Myxophyceæ, and through _Goniotrichum_ to the
-   _Porphyraceæ_.
-
-   Order 2. =Porphyraceæ.=--The thallus is formed of an expansion
-   consisting of a layer of 1–2 cells, which, at the base, are
-   attached to the substratum by means of a special form of haptera
-   (_Porphyra_, _Diploderma_); or of unbranched (very rarely
-   slightly branched) filaments, attached at the base by haptera
-   (_Bangia_): or it extends from a prostrate cell-disc (various
-   species of _Erythrotrichia_). Tetraspores are formed after one
-   or more divisions of the mother-cell, either from the whole or
-   only a part of its contents; they possess amœboid movements,
-   or have a jerky, sliding-forward motion. The antheridia have
-   the same appearance as the vegetative cells, but divide several
-   times, and several spermatia are formed, either simultaneously
-   from the whole contents (_Porphyra_, _Bangia_), or the spermatia
-   are successively formed from a part of the contents of the
-   antheridium (_Erythrotrichia_). The carpogonium is without a
-   trichogyne, but the oosphere has a colourless spot which may
-   sometimes rise a little above the surface of the thallus, and
-   may be considered as an early stage in the development of the
-   trichogyne. The spermatia form a canal through the membrane of
-   the carpogonium, and their contents coalesce with the oosphere
-   at its colourless spot. The fertilised oosphere divides on
-   germination into a number of carpospores, which are set free as
-   naked, motionless masses of protoplasm, which grow and give rise
-   to new individuals (alternation of generations).
-
-
-                         Family 2. =Florideæ.=
-
-The thallus has one or more apical cells, grows principally by apical
-growth, and may be differentiated into root, stem, and leaf. The
-chromatophores vary in form, but have a red or brownish colour, due
-to chlorophyll and phycoerythrin. Asexual reproduction by motionless
-tetraspores, which generally arise by the division into four of the
-contents of the tetrasporangium. The carpogonium has a trichogyne,
-and the carpospores, which are formed indirectly from the fertilised
-oosphere, possess a cell-wall.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 73.--_Callithamnion elegans_: _a_ a plant
-  with tetraspores (× 20); _b_ apex of a branch with tetraspores(×
-  250).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 74.--_Polysiphonia variegata_: _a_ a portion
-  of a male plant with antheridia; _b_ spermatia; _c_ transverse
-  section of thallus.]
-
-The thallus may assume very different forms. In the simplest species
-it is filamentous and formed of single, branched rows of cells
-(_Callithamnion_, etc., Fig. 73). _Ceramium_ has a filamentous thallus,
-generally dichotomously forked (Fig. 75), or sometimes pinnately
-branched, which, at the nodes, or throughout its entire length, is
-covered by a layer of small cortical cells. _Polysiphonia_ (Fig.
-74) has a filamentous, much branched thallus, made up of a central
-cylindrical cell, surrounded by a layer of other cells, cortical cells,
-which in length and position correspond to the central ones. In many of
-the Red Algæ the vegetative organs are differentiated into stems and
-leaves, the former having, as in _Chara_, unlimited growth in length,
-whilst the latter soon attain their full development. _Chondrus_
-has a fleshy, gelatinous thallus, without nodes; it is repeatedly
-forked into flat branches of varying thickness. _Furcellaria_ has a
-forked thallus with thick branches and without nodes. The thallus of
-_Delesseria_ (Fig. 76) consists of branches, often bearing leaf-like
-structures, with a midrib and lateral ribs springing from it. These
-ribs persist through the winter, and at the commencement of the
-succeeding period of vegetation the lateral ribs become the starting
-points for new leaves. In _Corallina_ the thallus is pinnately
-branched, and divided into nodes and internodes. The name has been
-given to this genus from the fact that the thallus is incrusted with
-carbonate of lime to such a degree that it becomes very hard, and the
-whole plant adopts a coral-like appearance. Other genera which are
-similarly incrusted, and have a leaf-like or even crustaceous thallus
-(such as _Melobesia_, _Lithothamnion_), are included in this family.
-
-In some instances the cells of the thallus may be found
-_differentiated_ into more or less well defined tissues, so that it
-is possible to find special assimilating, mechanical, and conducting
-tissues, the last named in some cases having the double function of
-conducting and of serving as a reservoir in which starch is found as
-a reserve material. The cells of the Florideæ, which are formed by the
-division of a mother-cell into two daughter-cells of unequal size, have
-always larger or smaller pits in the cell-walls, and the thin cell-wall
-separating two pits from each other is perforated by a number of small
-holes. These pits are particularly developed in the conducting tissues,
-but sieve-tubes are very rarely to be found.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 75.--_Ceramium diaphanum_ (nat. size).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 76.--_Delesseria sanguinea_ (about ⅓).]
-
-_Tetraspores_ may be wanting (_e.g. Lemanea_) or may often arise on
-special, non-sexual individuals. In some (_e.g. Batrachospermum_)
-only one tetraspore is formed in each tetrasporangium, but the number
-is generally four, which may be formed tetrahedrally (Fig. 73) or by
-divisional walls perpendicular to each other, or even in a single row.
-The tetrasporangia in some species are free (Fig. 73), but in the
-majority they are embedded in the thallus.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 77.--_A Lejolisia mediterranea_: _r_
-  haptera; _s_ longitudinal section through a cystocarp; _p_ the
-  empty space left by the liberated spore (_t_). _B-E Nemalion
-  multifidum_: _a_ antheridia; _b_ procarpium with trichogyne, to
-  which two spermatia are adhering.]
-
-The sexual reproduction (discovered by Thuret and Bornet, 1867)
-differs in the essential points from that of all other plants, and
-approaches most nearly to the sexual reproduction of the _Bangioideæ_.
-The sexual cells are developed from the terminal cells (never nodal
-cells) of the branched cell-filaments, which constitute the thallus.
-The mother-cells of the spermatia (_spermatangia_) are generally
-arranged in a group, in the so-called _antheridia_ (Figs. 74, 77 _A_,
-_a_). On becoming ripe the membrane of the spermatangium ruptures
-and the _spermatia_ emerge as spherical or ovoid, naked (a little
-later they may possess a cell-wall) masses of protoplasm which are
-not endowed with the power of motion, and hence are carried passively
-by the current of the water in which they may happen to be, to the
-female cell. This latter is analogous with the oogonium of the Green
-Algæ. The female reproductive organ is termed the _procarpium_, and
-consists of two parts, a lower swollen portion--the _carpogonium_
-(Fig. 77 _b_ in _A_ and _B_)--which contains the cell-nucleus, and an
-upper filamentous prolongation--the _trichogyne_ (Fig. 77 _B_)--which
-is homologous with the colourless receptive spot of the oosphere of
-the Green Algæ, and the _Porphyraceæ_. In the sexual reproduction
-of the majority of the Florideæ, a very important part is played by
-certain special cells, rich in cell-contents--the _auxiliary cells_.
-These are either dispersed in the interior of the thallus, or are
-arranged together in pairs with the cell-filament which bears the
-carpogonium, and are generally united with this to form an independent
-multicellular _procarpium_. The spermatia attach themselves firmly to
-the trichogyne and surround themselves with a cell-wall. The dividing
-wall at the point of contact is perforated, and the nucleus of the
-spermatium probably travels through the trichogyne to the swollen part
-of the procarpium--the _carpogonium_--and fuses with its nucleus. After
-fertilisation the trichogyne withers (Fig. 77 _C_), but the lower
-portion of the procarpium, constituting the _fertilised oosphere_,
-grows out and forms in various ways, first a tuft of spore-forming
-filaments known as _gonimoblasts_, and finally the _carpospores_. These
-latter form a new asexual generation (compare the germination of the
-oospore of _Œdogonium_ and _Coleochæte_).
-
-The gonimoblasts may arise in three ways:--
-
-   1. In the _Nemalionales_, branched filaments grow out from the
-   oosphere and form an upright, compressed or expanded tuft of
-   spore-forming filaments.
-
-   2. In the _Cryptonemiales_, several branched or unbranched
-   filaments (_ooblastema-filaments_) grow out from the oosphere,
-   and conjugate in various ways with the auxiliary cells. The
-   gonimoblasts are then formed from the single cells produced by
-   the conjugation.
-
-   3. In the _Gigartinales_ and _Rhodymeniales_ the oosphere
-   conjugates with an auxiliary cell by means of a short
-   ooblastema-filament, and from this auxiliary cell a gonimoblast
-   is produced.
-
-   The motionless _carpospores_, which sometimes in the early
-   stages are naked, and afterwards invested with a cell-wall, are
-   developed from the terminal cells (and perhaps also from some
-   of the other cells) of the branches of the gonimoblast. The
-   gonimoblasts constitute sharply defined parts of the plant in
-   which the carpospores arise. These parts are called _cystocarps_
-   and are either naked (Fig. 77 _E_), or surrounded by a covering
-   (pericarp or involucre, Fig. 77 _A_) formed in different
-   ways. On this account the Florideæ were formerly divided into
-   GYMNOSPOREÆ (_Batrachospermum_, _Nemalion_, _Ceramium_, etc.)
-   and ANGIOSPOREÆ (_Farcellaria_, _Lejolisia_, _Delesseria_,
-   _Melobesia_, etc.).
-
-The Florideæ are divided into four sub-families:--
-
-   Sub-Family 1. =Nemalionales.= The fertilised oosphere produces
-   directly the gonimoblast.
-
-   Order 1. =Lemaneaceæ.= Algæ of brownish colour and living in
-   fresh water. They lack tetraspores, and the very sparingly
-   branched fertile filaments, composed of many rows of cells, grow
-   out from a proembryo, which consists of a single row of cells
-   bearing branches. _Lemanea fluviatilis_, often found on rocks
-   and stones in quickly flowing streams.
-
-   Order 2. =Helminthocladiaceæ.= Tetraspores are generally wanting
-   (_e.g._ in _Nemalion_) or arise one in each tetrasporangium
-   (_e.g. Batrachospermum_) and it is only in _Liagora_
-   that four cruciate tetraspores are formed. _Chantransia
-   corymbifera_ consists of simple, branched cell-rows, and is
-   an independent species. Several other _Chantransia-forms_,
-   living in fresh water, are “proembryos” of species of the genus
-   _Batrachospermum_. The germinating carpospore grows out into
-   filaments and forms a so-called proembryo which, if not shaded,
-   attains only a small size, but when growing in shady situations
-   presents a much greater development. These highly developed
-   proembryos have been described as species of _Chantransia_.
-   The proembryo can reproduce by division, or by tetraspores
-   which are developed singly in the sporangia; in _B. vagum_ and
-   _B. sporulans_ which do not possess fully developed female
-   reproductive organs, the proembryos serve almost entirely to
-   reproduce the species. The young _Batrachospermum_-plant arises
-   from the end of an upright filament of the proembryo. The
-   proembryo is generally persistent, and continually produces new
-   _Batrachospermums_. These latter bear the sexual reproductive
-   organs and also whorls of branches: the central row of cells
-   is enclosed by cells growing from the base of the whorls of
-   branches, and from these cortical cells secondary proembryos
-   are developed. In this alternation of shoots there is really
-   no alternation of generations, since the proembryo and the
-   shoots with the sexual reproductive organs are parts of the same
-   thallus.
-
-   Several species of _Batrachospermum_ have a bluish green or
-   verdigris colour. _Nemalion multifidum_ has a brown-red thallus,
-   slightly branched, which is attached to rocks near the water’s
-   edge.
-
-   Order 3. =Chætangiaceæ.= _Galaxaura_ has a thallus thickly
-   incrusted with lime.
-
-   Order 4. =Gelidiaceæ.= _Naccaria, Gelidium._
-
-   Sub-Family 2. =Gigartinales.= The fertilised auxiliary cell
-   grows towards the thallus, to produce the gonimoblasts.
-   Procarpia generally present.
-
-   Order 5. =Acrotylaceæ.= _Acrotylus._
-
-   Order 6. =Gigartinaceæ.= _Gigartina_, _Phyllophora_,
-   _Ahnfeltia_; _Chondrus crispus_, with dark red, dichotomously
-   branched thallus, is common on the coasts of Scandinavia and
-   Great Britain.
-
-   Order 7. =Rhodophyllidaceæ.= _Rhodophyllis_, _Euthora_;
-   _Cystoclonium purpurascens_ is common, and sometimes the ends of
-   its branches may be modified into tendril-like haptera.
-
-   Sub-Family 3. =Rhodymeniales.= The fertilised auxiliary cell
-   forms the gonimoblast on the side away from the thallus.
-   Procarpia are abundantly produced.
-
-   Order 8. =Sphærococcaceæ.= _Gracilaria._
-
-   Order 9. =Rhodymeniaceæ.= _Rhodymenia palmata_ is a common
-   species. _Lomentaria_, _Chylocladia_, _Plocamium_.
-
-   Order 10. =Delesseriaceæ.= _Delesseria sanguinea_; _D. alata_
-   and _D. sinuosa_ are handsome forms which are not uncommon.
-
-   Order 11. =Bonnemaisoniaceæ.= _Bonnemaisonia._
-
-   Order 12. =Rhodomelaceæ.= _Rhodomela_, _Odonthalia_;
-   _Polysiphonia_, of which many species are to be found on the
-   coasts of Great Britain, has a filamentous, richly branched
-   thallus consisting of a central row of cells surrounded by a
-   varying number of cortical cells of similar size--the so-called
-   “siphons.”
-
-   Order 13. =Ceramiaceæ.= Pretty Algæ, often branched
-   dichotomously, or unilaterally pinnate. _Spermothamnion,
-   Griffithsia, Callithamnion, Ceramium, Ptilota._
-
-   Sub-Family 4. =Cryptonemiales.= The cells formed by the
-   coalescence of the auxiliary cells and the ooblastema-filaments,
-   produce the gonimoblasts. The _carpogonium-filaments_ and
-   the auxiliary cells are scattered singly in the thallus.
-
-   Order 14. =Gloiosiphoniaceæ.= _Gloiopeltis._
-
-   Order 15. =Grateloupiaceæ.= _Halymenia, Cryptonemia._
-
-   Order 16. =Dumontiaceæ.= _Dumontia, Dudresnaya._
-
-   Order 17. =Nemastomaceæ.= _Furcellaria_, which has
-   dichotomously branched, round shoots, is common on the coasts of
-   Great Britain.
-
-   Order 18. =Rhizophyllidaceæ.= _Polyides, Rhizophyllis._
-
-   Order 19. =Squamariaceæ.= The Algæ belonging to this order
-   form crust-like coverings on stones, mussel-shells, and on
-   other Algæ, but are not themselves incrustated: _Petrocelis_,
-   _Cruoria_, _Peyssonellia_.
-
-   Order 20. =Corallinaceæ.= Partly crustaceous, partly erect,
-   branched Algæ, thickly incrusted with lime, so that a few
-   species (_Lithothamnia_, also called _Nullipora_) occur in
-   fossilized condition from Jurassic to Tertiary periods.
-   _Melobesia, Lithophyllum, Lithothamnion, Corallina._
-
-USES. “Carragen” is the thallus of _Chondrus crispus_ (Irish Moss)
-and _Gigartina mamillosa_. It is a common article of food on the
-coasts of Ireland, and swells to a jelly when cooked. It is officinal.
-_Rhodymenia palmata_ is generally eaten as food in Ireland and in some
-places on the west coast of Norway; it is also used as food for sheep
-and hence is termed “Sheep-seaweed.” Agar-Agar is the jelly obtained
-from species of _Gelidium_ and _Gigartina_ growing in China and Japan.
-
-
-
-
-                      Sub-Division III. =FUNGI.=
-
-
-=Mode of Life.= The Fungi have no chlorophyll, and are thus unable in
-any stage of their existence to assimilate carbon; they must therefore
-live as _saprophytes_ or _parasites_. There is, however, no strong line
-of demarcation between these; many Fungi commence as true parasites,
-but only attain their full development upon or in dead plants or
-animals (_Rhytisma_, _Empusa_). Many saprophytes may occasionally
-appear as parasites, and are then designated “_facultative parasites_”
-(_Nectria cinnabarina_, _Lophodermium pinastri_), in contradistinction
-to those which only appear as parasites, “_obligate parasites_”
-(Mildew, Brand-and Rust-Fungi, _Cordyceps_).
-
-The parasites which live on the surface of the host-plant are termed
-_epiphytic_ (Mildew, _Fusicladium_); and those living in its tissues
-are termed _endophytic_ (_Ustilago_, _Peronospora_). _Epizoic_
-(_Oidium tonsurans_, _Laboulbenia_) and _endozoic_ Fungi (_Cordyceps_,
-_Entomophthora_), are distinguished, in the same manner, as those
-which live on the surface or in the interior of animals. The Fungi
-designated _pathogenic_ are especially those which produce disease in
-human beings and in animals.
-
-Most of the diseases of plants are attributed to the parasitic Fungi.
-These force their way into the host-plant by piercing the outer wall
-of the epidermis, as in the Potato-disease; or by growing in through
-the stomata, _e.g._ the summer generations of the Rust of Wheat; or
-they can only penetrate through a wound, _e.g. Nectria_. Some effect
-an entrance into the host-plant by the secretion of a poisonous matter
-or ferment, which softens and destroys the cell-walls (_Sclerotinia_).
-Some Yeast and Mould Fungi secrete ferments (enzymes), which, for
-example, convert cane-sugar into a sugar capable of fermentation.
-
-The relation of the parasitic Fungus to the host-plant is mainly of two
-kinds. In the one case, the cell-contents are destroyed, the protoplasm
-is killed, and the cellular tissue becomes discoloured and dies
-(_Peronospora_, _Armillaria mellea_, _Polyporus_); in the other case,
-the parasite has an irritating effect on the cellular tissue, whereby
-the affected organ grows more rapidly and becomes larger than normal,
-producing _hypertrophy_. Such malformations are termed _Fungi-galls_
-(Mycocecidia); in this manner “witches’ brooms” are produced by
-_Æcidium_, “pocket-plum” by _Taphrina_, and other deformities by
-_Exobasidium_ and _Cystopus candidus_. This hypertrophy may either be
-produced by a vigorous cell-multiplication, which is most frequently
-the case, or by the enlargement of the individual cells (_Synchytrium_,
-_Calyptospora_). The relation between host and Fungus among the Lichens
-is of a very peculiar nature, termed “_symbiosis_.”
-
-=Vegetative Organs.= The vegetative parts of a Fungus are termed its
-_mycelium_.[10] This is formed of a mass of long, cylindrical, branched
-cells resembling threads (and hence termed _hyphæ_), which have a
-continued apical growth. The mycelium, in its early development, shows
-a well-marked difference between the two main groups of true Fungi:
-in the _Phycomycetes_, or Algal Fungi, the mycelium has no transverse
-walls, and is therefore unicellular, while in the _Mesomycetes_ and
-_Mycomycetes_ it is provided with dividing walls, which gradually arise
-during growth, in the youngest hyphæ; intercalary transverse walls
-may also be formed at a later period. In the hyphæ of some of the
-Higher Fungi (_Hymenomycetes_), connections may be formed between two
-contiguous cells of the same hypha, by a protuberance growing out from
-an upper cell just above the transverse wall, and forming a junction
-with the cell below. These are known as _clamp-connections_; they
-appear to be of use in affording communication between the two cells.
-
-The hyphæ of Fungi, where they come in contact with one another,
-often grow together, so that =H=-formed combinations (fusions) are
-produced, which give rise to very compact felted tissue. When the
-hyphæ are not only closely interwoven, but also united and provided
-with many transverse walls, the mycelium assumes the appearance of a
-tissue with isodiametric cells, and is then termed _pseudo-parenchyma_.
-The hyphæ-walls are sometimes very much thickened, and composed of
-several layers, and the external layers, by the absorption of water,
-may often swell very much and become mucilaginous. In some instances
-the walls are colourless, in others coloured, the most frequent colour
-being brown. The cell-contents may also be coloured, and in that case
-are generally yellow; this colour is chiefly connected with the fat
-(oil) which may be found in abundance in the Fungi, whilst starch is
-invariably absent in all the true Fungi.
-
-The mycelium assumes many different forms; sometimes it appears as a
-thread-like, cobwebby, loose tissue, less frequently as firm strands,
-thin or thick membranes, horn-like plates or tuber-like bodies. The
-_thread-like_ mycelium may, in the parasitic Fungi, be intercellular
-or intracellular, according as it only extends into the interstices
-between the cells or enters into the cells proper. In the first case
-there are generally found haustoria, or organs of suction (_e.g._ among
-the _Peronosporaceæ_; _Taphrina_, on the contrary, has no haustoria);
-but haustoria are also found among the epiphytic Fungi (_e.g._
-Erysiphaceæ). Intracellular mycelia are found in the Rust-Fungi,
-in _Claviceps purpurea_, _Entomophthora_, etc. In spite of its
-delicate structure, this mycelium may live a long time, owing to the
-circumstance that it continues to grow peripherally, while the older
-parts gradually die off (“fairy rings”).
-
-_String-like_ mycelia may be found, for example, in _Phallus_,
-_Coprinus_, and are formed of hyphæ, which run more or less parallel
-to each other. _Membrane-like_ mycelia are chiefly to be found in
-Fungi growing on tree-stems (Polyporaceæ and Agaricaceæ); they may
-have a thickness varying from that of the finest tissue-paper to that
-of thick leather, and may extend for several feet. The peculiar horny
-or leather-like strands and plates which, for instance, appear in
-_Armillaria mellea_, are known as _Rhizomorpha_; they may attain a
-length of more than fifty feet. The _tuber-like_ mycelia or _sclerotia_
-play the part of resting mycelia, since a store of nourishment is
-accumulated in them, and after a period of rest they develope organs of
-reproduction. The sclerotia are hard, spherical, or irregular bodies,
-from the size of a cabbage seed to that of a hand, internally white
-or greyish, with a brown or black, pseudo-parenchymatous, external
-layer. Sclerotia only occur in the higher Fungi, and are found both in
-saprophytes, _e.g. Coprinus_, and in parasites, _e.g. Claviceps_
-(Ergot), _Sclerotinia_.
-
-=Reproduction.= SEXUAL REPRODUCTION is found only among the lower Fungi
-which stand near to the Algæ, the Algal-Fungi, and takes place by the
-same two methods as in the Algæ, namely by _conjugation_ and by the
-_fertilisation_ of the egg-cell in the oogonium.
-
-The majority of Fungi have only ASEXUAL reproduction. The
-most important methods of this kind of reproduction are the
-_sporangio-fructification_ and the _conidio-fructification_.
-
-In the SPORANGIO-FRUCTIFICATION the _spores_ (endospores) _arise
-inside_ a mother-cell, the sporangium (Fig. 80). Spores without a
-cell-wall, which move in water by means of cilia and hence are known
-as _swarmspores_ or _zoospores_, are found among the Oomycetes, the
-sporangia in which these are produced being called swarm-sporangia or
-zoosporangia (Figs. 86, 87, 91, 94).
-
-In the CONIDIO-FRUCTIFICATION the _conidia_ (exospores) arise on
-special hyphæ (conidiophores), or directly from the mycelium. When
-conidiophores are present, the conidia are developed upon them
-terminally or laterally, either in a basipetal succession (in
-many Fungi, for example in _Penicillium_, Fig. 111, _Erysiphe_,
-_Cystopus_), or acropetally (in which method the chains of conidia
-are often branched; examples, _Pleospora vulgaris_, _Hormodendron
-cladosporioides_). All conidia are at first unicellular, sometimes
-at a later stage they become two-celled or multicellular through the
-formation of partition-walls (_Piptocephalis_). The conidia with thick,
-brown cell-walls, and contents rich in fats (_resting conidia_), can
-withstand unfavourable external conditions for a much longer period
-than conidia with thin walls and poor in contents.
-
-The SPORANGIA arise either from the ordinary cells of the mycelium
-(_Protomyces_), or are borne on special hyphæ. They are generally
-spherical (_Mucor_, Fig. 80; Saprolegniaceæ), egg-, pear-, or
-club-shaped (Ascomycetes), more rarely they are cylindrical or
-spindle-shaped. While among the Phycomycetes the size, form, and
-number of spores are indefinite in each species, in the Ascomycetes the
-sporangia (_asci_) have a definite size, form, and number of spores.
-The spores of the Ascomycetes are known as ascospores.
-
-The sporangio-fructification is found under three main forms.
-
-1. FREE SPORANGIOPHORES which are either single (_Mucor_, Fig. 78), or
-branched (_Thamnidium_).
-
-2. SPORANGIAL-LAYERS. These are produced by a number of sessile or
-shortly-stalked sporangia, being formed close together like a palisade
-(_Taphrina_, Fig. 105).
-
-3. SPORANGIOCARPS. These consist usually of many sporangia enclosed in
-a covering, they are found only in the Carpoasci, and are also known as
-_ascocarps_. The parts of an ascocarp are the _covering_ (_peridium_),
-and the _hymenium_, which is in contact with the inner wall of the
-peridium, and is generally made up of asci, and sterile, slender
-hyphæ. The latter either penetrate between the asci and are branched
-and multicellular (_paraphyses_, Figs. 103 _d_, 123, 125, 129), or
-clothe those parts of the inner wall which bear no asci (_periphyses_;
-among many peronocarpic Ascomycetes, _e.g. Chætomium_, _Sordaria_,
-_Stictosphæra hoffmanni_). The ascocarps are produced directly from
-the mycelium, or from a _stroma_, that is a vegetative body of various
-forms, in which they may be embedded (Figs. 116 _B_, _C_).
-
-Among the conidio-fructifications there are, in the same way, three
-divisions.
-
-1. FREE CONIDIOPHORES (Fig. 109). The form of the conidiophores,
-the shape, and number of its spores are various. In the most highly
-developed Fungi, the Basidiomycetes, there are, however, special more
-highly developed conidiophores, the _basidia_, which have a definite
-form and spores of a definite shape and number. The conidia borne on
-basidia are called _basidiospores_.
-
-2. CONIDIAL-LAYERS. (_a_) The SIMPLEST case of this is found when
-the conidiophores arise directly from the mycelium, parallel to
-one another, and form a flat body (_e.g. Exobasidium vaccinii_,
-_Hypochnus_; among the Phycomycetes, _Empusa muscæ_ and _Cystopus_).
-(_b_) In a HIGHER form the conidial-layers are thick, felted threads
-(_stroma_) inserted between the mycelium and the _hymenium_ (_i.e._
-the region of the conidiophores). Examples are found in a section
-of the Pyrenomycetes (Fig. 122). (_c_) The HIGHEST form has the
-_basidial-layer_, that is a conidial-layer with more highly developed
-conidiophores (basidia). The basidial-layer, with stroma, and the
-hymenium (region of the basidia), forms the basidio-fructification,
-which is branched in the Clavariaceæ, and hat-shaped in other
-Hymenomycetes (in these groups the hymenium is confined to the lower
-side of the pileus).
-
-The hymenium of the conidial-layer and basidial-layer is composed
-entirely of conidiophores, or of conidiophores and sterile hyphæ
-(_paraphyses_) which are probably always unicellular. Paraphyses are
-found in _Entomophthora radicans_, and in certain Basidiomycetes
-(_e.g. Corticium_).
-
-3. CONIDIOCARPS (_pycnidia_). A special covering surrounds the
-conidia-forming elements. The inner side of this covering (_peridium_)
-bears the hymenium, _i.e._ those elements from which the conidia are
-abstricted. The conidiocarps arise either immediately from the hyphæ
-or from a _stroma_ in which they are generally embedded. Conidiocarps
-are entirely wanting in the Phycomycetes. On the other hand they are
-found among the Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes, and in the latter group
-the conidiocarps contain more highly differentiated conidiophores
-(basidia) and are known as _basidiocarps_. Conidiocarps with simple
-conidiophores, are found only among the Basidiomycetes, in the
-Uredinaceæ, and in _Craterocolla cerasi_. In the Ascomycetes (Figs.
-120 _d_, _e_; 117 _a_, _b_; 123 _a_; 124 _b_) the conidiocarps are
-visible, as points, to the naked eye, while the basidiocarps of the
-Basidiomycetes (Figs. 170, 171, 173–176, 178–180) vary from the size of
-a pea to that of a child’s head. The “spermogonia” of the Ascomycetes
-and Lichenes, are conidiocarps with small conidia (_microconidia_)
-which germinate sometimes more slowly than other conidia, and formerly
-were erroneously considered as male reproductive cells, and called
-spermatia.
-
-The conidia of the Fungi are not primitive structures. The comparison
-of the sporangia and conidia among the Zygomycetes, and among the
-species of the genus _Peronospora_ shows, that the conidia are aberrant
-formations, and that they have arisen through the degeneration of the
-sporangium, which, by the reduction of its spores to one, has itself
-become a spore.
-
-   In the genera _Thamnidium_ and _Chætocladium_ the gradual
-   diminution of the sporangia, and the reduction of the number
-   of spores can be distinctly followed. In _Thamnidium_ the
-   number of spores is often reduced to one, which is _free_ in
-   the sporangium. In _Chætocladium_ however the sporangia are
-   typically _one-spored_, the spore is always united with the
-   sporangium, and the two become a single body, the so-called
-   _conidium_, which is in reality a closed sporangium. How
-   close is the connection between the sporangia and conidia of
-   _Thamnidium_ and _Chætocladium_, is seen from the fact that,
-   in the conidial stage of _Chætocladium_ the same whorl-form of
-   branching appears as in the sporangial stages of _Thamnidium
-   chætocladioides_, and also, that the conidia of _Ch.
-   fresenianum_ throw off the former sporangium-wall (exosporium),
-   while _Ch. jonesii_ germinates without shedding its exosporium.
-   The Phycomycetes have doubtless sprung from Water-Algæ and
-   inherit the sporangia from them. On this supposition, as the
-   Phycomycetes assumed a terrestrial mode of life, the sporangia
-   would become adapted to the distribution of the spores by
-   means of the air, the sporangia would become small, contain
-   dust-like spores, and would eventually become closed-sporangia,
-   _i.e._ conidia. The conidia are a terrestrial method for the
-   multiplication of Fungi. In the Hemiasci and the Ascomycetes the
-   sporangia are still preserved, but in every instance they are
-   adapted to terrestrial spore-distribution, their spores being
-   set free on the destruction of the sporangium-wall (generally
-   shot out) and distributed through the air. For further examples
-   of spore-distribution see below, p. 91–93.
-
-The reproduction of Fungi is accomplished not only by spores
-and conidia, but also sometimes by _chlamydospores_. These are
-fundaments[11] of sporangiophores and conidiophores, which have
-taken on a resting condition in the form of a spore, and are able
-to germinate and produce carpophores. In the formation of the
-chlamydospores the hyphæ accumulate reserve materials at the expense
-of the neighbouring cells; in the undivided hyphæ of the Phycomycetes
-transverse walls are formed, and finally the chlamydospores are set
-free by the decay of the empty cells connecting them with the mycelium.
-One must distinguish between _oidia_ and _true chlamydospores_. The
-former are more simple, the latter are a somewhat more differentiated
-form of carpophore fundaments, which serve for propagation in the same
-manner as spores. In _Chlamydomucor racemosus_ the chlamydospores
-grow out into the air and form differentiated carpophores. In
-the Autobasidiomycetes they only germinate vegetatively, and
-not with the formation of fructifications. From _Chlamydomucor_
-up to the Autobasidiomycetes the successive development of the
-fructification, which is interrupted by the formation of the
-chlamydospores, degenerates more and more. Among certain Ustilagineæ
-the chlamydospores (brand-spores) no longer germinate with the
-production of fructifications. In the Uredinaceæ, only one of the three
-chlamydospore-forms has the property of producing fructifications
-on germination; the other forms only germinate vegetatively, like
-ordinary spores, and in the same manner as the chlamydospores of
-the Autobasidiomycetes. In the Hemibasidii, and the Uredinaceæ, in
-_Protomyces_, the chlamydospores are the chief means of reproduction.
-They are found also among the Ascomycetes.
-
-The sporangia and the conidia of the Fungi have their common origin
-in the sporangia of the Phycomycetes. The asci (and the Ascomycetes
-which are characterised by these bodies) are descended from the
-sporangia-forming, lower Fungi; the basidia (and the Basidiomycetes)
-from those which bear conidia. _The sporangia of the Phycomycetes are
-the primitive form and the starting point for all the reproductive
-forms of the Fungi._ The chlamydospores appear besides in all
-classes of Fungi as supplementary forms of reproduction, and are of
-no importance in determining relationships. Although the expression
-“fruit” must essentially be applied to true Phanerogams, yet, through
-usage, the term “_fruit-forms_,” is employed to designate the forms
-or means of reproduction of Fungi, and the organs of reproduction
-are known as _organs of fructification_, the sporangiophores
-and conidiophores as _fruit-bearers_ (_carpophores_), and the
-sporangiocarps, conidiocarps, and basidiocarps as “_fruit-bodies_.”
-
-   The majority of Fungi have more than one method of reproduction,
-   often on various hosts (Uredinaceæ). Species with one, two,
-   or more than two methods of reproduction are spoken of as
-   having monomorphic, dimorphic, or pleomorphic fructification.
-   Monomorphic, _e.g._ the Tuberaceæ; dimorphic, _Mucor_,
-   _Piptocephalis_, Saprolegniaceæ, _Penicillium crustaceum_;
-   pleomorphic, _Puccinia graminis_, _Capnodium salicinum_ (in the
-   last species there are five methods of reproduction: yeast-like
-   conidia, free conidiophores, conidiocarps with small and large
-   conidia, and ascocarps).
-
-=The liberation and distribution of the spores and conidia.= The spores
-and conidia, on account of their small size and lightness, are spread
-far and wide by currents in the air, but in addition to this method,
-insects and other animals frequently assist in disseminating them. The
-liberation of the conidia is occasionally effected by the complete
-shrinking away of the conidiophore, but more frequently by abstriction
-from the conidiophores, either by their gradually tapering to a point,
-or by the dissolution of a cross-wall (generally of a mucilaginous
-nature). The individual links of conidia-chains are detached from
-one another in the same way, or often by means of small, intercalary
-cells, which are formed at the base of the individual links, and
-becoming slimy, dissolve upon the maturity of the spores. Special
-contrivances for ejecting the spores and conidia may often be found.
-In _Peronospora_ the cylindrical fruit-hyphæ in the dry condition
-become strap-shaped and also twisted. These are very hygroscopic,
-and the changes of form take place so suddenly, that the spores are
-violently detached and shot away. In _Empusa_ a peculiar squirting
-mechanism may be found (Fig. 85). Each club-shaped hypha which projects
-from the body of the fly, bears a conidium at its apex; a vacuole,
-which grows gradually larger, is formed in the slimy contents of the
-hypha, and the pressure thereby eventually becomes so great that the
-hypha bursts at its apex, and the conidium is shot into the air. By
-a similar mechanism, the spores of many of the Agaricaceæ are cast
-away from the parent-plants. In the case of _Pilobolus_ (Fig. 84)
-the entire sporangium is thrown for some distance into the air by a
-similar contrivance, the basal region of the sporangium having, by
-the absorption of water, been transformed into a slimy layer which
-is readily detached. _Sphærobolus_, a Gasteromycete, has a small,
-spherical fruit-body (basidiocarp), the covering of which, when ripe,
-suddenly bursts, and the basidiospores contained in it are forcibly
-ejected.
-
-_The spores which are enclosed in asci_ are, in some instances, set
-free from the mother-cell (ascus) prior to their complete development
-(_Elaphomyces_, _Eurotium_). In the case of the majority of the
-Pyrenomycetes and Truffles, the asci swell by the absorption of water
-into a slimy mass, which gradually disappears, so that the spores lie
-free in the fruit-body; they either remain there till the fruit-body
-decays, as in those which have no aperture (Perisporiaceæ, Tuberaceæ),
-or the slimy mass, by its growth, is forced out through the aperture of
-the sporocarp, taking the spores with it (_Nectria_). The ejection of
-the spores by mechanical means takes place in a number of Ascomycetes,
-and should many spores be simultaneously ejected, a dust-cloud may be
-seen with the naked eye to arise in the air from the fruit-body. This
-is the case in the larger species of _Peziza_, _Helvella_, _Rhytisma_,
-when suddenly exposed to a damp current of air. A distinction is
-drawn between a simultaneous ejection of all the spores contained
-in the ascus, and an ejection at intervals (successive), when only
-one spore at a time is thrown out. The first of these methods is the
-most frequent, and is brought about by the ascus being lined with a
-layer of protoplasm, which absorbs water to such a degree that the
-elastic walls are extended at times to double their original size. The
-spores are forced up against the free end of the ascus, a circular
-rupture is made at this point, and the elastic walls contract, so
-that the fluid with the spores is ejected. Special means may in some
-instances be found to keep the spores together, and compel their
-simultaneous ejection. Thus, a tough slime may surround all the
-spores (_Saccobolus_), or a chain-apparatus, similarly formed of tough
-slime; or there may be a hooked appendage from each end of the spores
-which hooks into the appendage of the next spore (_Sordaria_). The
-paraphyses occurring between the asci in many Ascomycetes, also play a
-part in the distribution of the spores, by reason of the pressure they
-exercise. The asci in some of the Pyrenomycetes, which are provided
-with jar-shaped fruit-bodies, elongate to such an extent that, without
-becoming detached from their bases, they reach the mouth of the
-fruit-body one at a time, burst and disperse their spores, and so make
-room for those succeeding. An ejection of the spores at intervals from
-the ascus is rarer. It takes place, for instance, in _Pleospora_, whose
-asci have a double wall. The external wall, by absorption of water,
-at last becomes ruptured, and the internal and more elastic membrane
-forces itself out in the course of a few seconds to one of two or three
-times greater length and thickness, so that one spore after another is
-forcibly ejected from a narrow aperture at the end of the ascus.
-
-=Germination of spores= (conidia and chlamydospores). In many spores
-may be found one or more _germ-pores_, _i.e._ thinner places, either
-in the inner membrane (uredospores, _Sordaria_) or in the external
-membrane (teleutospores in Rust-Fungi), through which the germination
-takes place. Generally this does not occur till the spores have been
-set free: in some Ascomycetes germination commences inside the ascus
-(_Taphrina_, _Sclerotinia_). The different ways in which the spores
-germinate may be classified into three groups.
-
-I. THE ORDINARY GERMINATION occurs by the spore emitting a germ-tube,
-which immediately developes into a mycelium. In spores with a double
-wall it is only the inner membrane which forms the germ-tube. In
-swarmspores a single wall is formed after the withdrawal of the cilia,
-and this, by direct elongation, becomes the germ-tube. The protoplasm
-accumulated in the spore enters the hypha, which, in pure water, can
-only grow as long as the reserve nourishment lasts.
-
-=2.= GERMINATION WITH PROMYCELIUM differs only by the circumstance that
-the hypha developed from the germ-tube has a very limited growth, and
-hence it does not immediately develope into a mycelium, but produces
-conidia (Rust-and Brand-Fungi). This promycelium must only be regarded
-as an advanced development of a conidiophore or basidium.
-
-=3.= THE YEAST-FORMATION of conidia consists in the production of
-outgrowths, very much constricted at their bases, from one or more
-places. Each of the conidia formed in this manner may again germinate
-in the same way. When sufficient nourishment is present, a branched
-chain of such conidia is formed, and these are finally detached
-from one another. Yeast-like buddings from the conidia are produced
-in various Fungi, _e.g. Ascoidea_, _Protomyces_, Ustilagineæ,
-Ascomycetes, Tremellaceæ, etc. In the Ustilagineæ these conidia are
-an important element in the development. The budding conidia of
-_Exobasidium_ forms a “mould” on the nutritive solution. The yeast-like
-conidia are not to be confounded with the “Mucor-yeast” (comp.
-Mucoraceæ). For _Saccharomyces_ see Appendix to the Fungi, page 176.
-
-In a compound spore (_i.e._ when a mass of spores are associated
-together) each spore germinates on its own account. There are
-sometimes, however, certain among them which do not germinate, but
-yield their contents to those which do.
-
-The _length of time_ for which conidia can retain their power of
-germination is shortest (being only a few weeks) in those having
-thin walls and containing a large supply of water (Peronosporaceæ,
-Uredinaceæ). In many spores a resting period is absolutely necessary
-before they are able to germinate (resting spores). It has been
-observed in some spores and conidia, that the faculty of germinating
-may be preserved for several years if the conditions necessary for
-germination remain absent (Ustilagineæ, _Eurotium_, _Penicillium_).
-
-The optimum, minimum and maximum temperatures required for the
-germination of the spores has been decided in the case of a good many
-Fungi. A large portion of the most common Fungi have their optimum at
-20°C., minimum at 1–2°C, maximum at 40°C. In the case of pathogenic
-Fungi the optimum is adapted to the temperature of the blood. Fungi
-living in manure, whose spores are often adapted to germinate in
-the alimentary canals of warm-blooded animals, have an optimum
-corresponding to the temperature of these animals, but with a little
-margin.
-
-=Systematic Division.=--The lowest class of the Fungi is that of the
-PHYCOMYCETES, which have an unicellular mycelium, sexual and asexual
-reproduction, and have doubtless sprung from sporangia-bearing, lower
-Green Algæ. From the Phycomycetes (and certainly from the Zygomycetes)
-spring two well defined branches, each with numerous distinct species;
-to the one branch belong the HEMIASCI and the ASCOMYCETES, to the other
-the HEMIBASIDII and the BASIDIOMYCETES. Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes
-may be united under the title of MYCOMYCETES or HIGHER FUNGI. The
-Hemiasci and the Hemibasidii constitute the class of MESOMYCETES.
-The Hemiasci are an intermediate form between Zygomycetes and
-Ascomycetes; the Hemibasidii a similar group between the Zygomycetes
-and Basidiomycetes. Mesomycetes and Mycomycetes have only asexual
-reproduction; sexual reproduction is wanting. Their mycelium is
-multicellular.
-
-Up to the present time about 39,000 species have been described.
-
-Review of the divisions of the Fungi:--
-
-    Class I.--=Phycomycetes (Algal-Fungi).=
-
-        Sub-Class 1. =Zygomycetes.=
-        Sub-Class 2. =Oomycetes.=
-           Family 1. ENTOMOPHTHORALES.
-           Family 2. CHYTRIDIALES.
-           Family 3. MYCOSIPHONALES.
-
-    Class II. =Mesomycetes.=
-
-        Sub-Class 1. =Hemiasci.=
-        Sub-Class 2. =Hemibasidii (Brand-Fungi).=
-
-    Class III.--=Mycomycetes (Higher Fungi).=
-
-        Sub-Class 1. =Ascomycetes.=
-          Series 1. =Exoasci.=
-          Series 2. =Carpoasci.=
-            Family 1. GYMNOASCALES.  }
-            Family 2. PERISPORIALES. } Angiocarpic Exoasci.
-            Family 3. PYRENOMYCETES. }
-            Family 4. HYSTERIALES. }  Hemiangiocarpic Exoasci.
-            Family 5. DISCOMYCETES.}
-            Family 6. HELVELLALES. Gymnocarpic (?) Exoasci.
-
-    Additional: ASCOLICHENES. Lichen-forming Ascomycetes.
-
-        Sub-Class 2. =Basidiomycetes.=
-          Series 1.--Protobasidiomycetes. Partly gymnocarpic, partly
-                angiocarpic.
-          Series 2. Autobasidiomycetes.
-            Family 1. DACRYOMYCETES. Gymnocarpic.
-            Family 2. HYMENOMYCETES. Partly gymnocarpic, partly
-                        hemiangiocarpic.
-            Family 3. PHALLOIDEÆ. Hemiangiocarpic.
-            Family 4. GASTEROMYCETES. Angiocarpic.
-
-    Additional: BASIDIOLICHENES. Lichen-forming Basidiomycetes.
-
-    Additional to the Fungi: FUNGI IMPERFECTI. Incompletely known
-    (_Saccharomyces_, _Oidium_-forms, etc.).
-
-
-              Class 1. =Phycomycetes (Algal-Fungi).=[12]
-
-This group resembles _Vaucheria_ and the other Siphoneæ among the
-Algæ.
-
-ORGANS OF NUTRITION. The mycelium is formed of a single cell, often
-thread-like and abundantly branched (Fig. 78). Vegetative propagation
-by chlamydospores and oidia. Asexual reproduction by endospores
-(sometimes _swarmspores_) and conidia. Sexual reproduction by
-conjugation of two hyphæ as in the Conjugatæ, or by fertilisation of an
-egg-cell in an oogonium. On this account the class of the Phycomycetes
-is divided into two sub-classes: ZYGOMYCETES and OOMYCETES.
-
-
-                      Sub-Class I. =Zygomycetes.=
-
-Sexual reproduction takes place by zygospores, which function as
-resting-spores, and arise in consequence of _conjugation_ (Fig. 81); in
-the majority of species these are rarely found, and only under special
-conditions. The most common method of reproduction is by endospores, by
-acrogenous conidia, by chlamydospores, or by oidia. _Swarmspores are
-wanting._ Parasites and saprophytes (order 6 and 7). The zygospores are
-generally produced when the formation of sporangia has ceased; _e.g._
-by the suppression of the sporangial-hyphæ (_Mucor mucedo_), or by
-the diminution of oxygen; _Pilobolus crystallinus_ forms zygospores,
-when the sporangia are infected with saprophytic _Piptocephalis_ or
-_Pleotrachelus_.
-
-=A.= Asexual reproduction only by sporangia.
-
-Order 1. =Mucoraceæ.= The spherical sporangia contain many spores.
-The zygospore is formed between two unicellular branches (gametes).
-
-The unicellular mycelium (Fig. 78) of the Mucoraceæ branches
-abundantly, and lives, generally, as a saprophyte on all sorts of
-dead organic remains. Some of these Fungi are known to be capable of
-producing _alcoholic fermentation_, in common with the Saccharomyces.
-This applies especially to _Chlamydomucor racemosus_ (_Mucor
-racemosus_), when grown in a saccharine solution, and deprived of
-oxygen; the mycelium, under such conditions, becomes divided by
-transverse walls into a large number of small cells. Many of these
-swell out into spherical or club-shaped cells, and when detached from
-one another become chlamydospores, which abstrict new cells of similar
-nature (Fig. 79). These chlamydospores were formerly erroneously
-termed “mucor-yeast,” but they must not be confounded with the
-yeast-conidia (page 94). They are shortened hyphæ, and are not conidia
-of definite size, shape, and point of budding. Oidia are also found in
-_Chlamydomucor_.
-
-   [Illustration: FIG. 78.--_Mucor mucedo._ A mycelium which has
-  sprung from one spore, whose position is marked by the *: _a_,
-  _b_, _c_ are three sporangia in different stages of development;
-  _a_ is the youngest one, as yet only a short, thick, erect
-  branch; _b_ is commencing to form a sporangium which is larger in
-  _c_, but not yet separated from its stalk.]
-
-The Mucoraceæ, in addition to the chlamydospores and oidia, have a more
-normal and ordinary method of reproduction; viz., by _spores_ which
-are formed without any sexual act. _Mucor_ has round sporangia; from
-the mycelium one or more long branches, sometimes several centimetres
-in length, grow vertically into the air; the apex swells (Figs. 78,
-80) into a sphere which soon becomes separated from its stalk by a
-transverse wall; in the interior of this sphere (sporangium) a number
-of spores are formed which eventually are set free by the rupture of
-the wall. The transverse wall protrudes into the sporangium and forms
-the well-known columella (Fig. 80 _d_, _e_). The formation of spores
-takes place in various ways among the different genera.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 79.--Chlamydospores of _Chlamydomucor
-  racemosus_ (× 375 times.)]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 80.--_Mucor mucedo_: _a_ a spore commencing
-  to germinate (× 300 times); _b_ a germinating spore which has
-  formed a germ-tube from each end (× 300 times); _c_ the apex of
-  a young sporangium before the formation of spores has commenced;
-  the stalk is protruded in the sporangium in the form of a column:
-  on the wall of the sporangium is found a very fine incrustation
-  of lime in the form of thorn-like projections; _d_ a sporangium
-  in which the formation of spores has commenced; _e_ a sporangium,
-  the wall of which is ruptured, leaving a remnant attached to the
-  base of the columella as a small collar. A few spores are seen
-  still adhering to the columella.]
-
-SEXUAL REPRODUCTION by conjugation takes place in the following
-manner. The ends of two hyphæ meet (Fig. 81) and become more or less
-club-shaped; the ends of each of these are cut off by a cell-wall, and
-two new small cells (Fig. 81 _A_) are thus formed, these coalesce and
-give rise to a new cell which becomes the very thick-walled zygote
-(zygospore), and germinates after period of rest, producing a new
-hypha, which bears a sporangium (Fig. 81 _E_).
-
-_Mucor mucedo_, Pin-mould, resembles somewhat in appearance
-_Penicillium crustaceum_ and is found growing upon various organic
-materials (bread, jam, dung, etc.).
-
-_Pilobolus_ (Figs. 83, 84) grows on manure. Its sporangium (Fig. 84
-_a″_) is formed during the night and by a peculiar mechanism (page 92)
-is shot away from the plant in the course of the day. This generally
-takes place in the summer, between eight and ten a.m. The sporangium is
-shot away to a height which may be 300 times greater than that of the
-plant itself, and by its stickiness it becomes attached to portions of
-plants, etc., which are in the vicinity. If these are eaten by animals,
-the spores pass into the alimentary canal and are later on, sometimes
-even in a germinating condition, passed out with the excrement, in
-which they form new mycelia.
-
-_Phycomyces nitens_ (“Oil-mould”) is the largest of the Mould Fungi;
-its sporangiophores may attain the height of 10–30 c.m.
-
-Order 2. =Rhizopaceæ.= _Rhizopus nigricans_ (_Mucor stolonifer_) which
-lives on decaying fruits containing sugar, on bread, etc., has, at the
-base of the sporangiophores, tufts of rhizoids, _i.e._ hyphæ, which
-function as organs of attachment. From these, “runners” are produced
-which in a similar manner develope sporangiophores and rhizoids.
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 81, 82.--_Mucor mucedo_: _A-C_ stages in the
-  formation of the zygote; D zygote; E germination of zygote: the
-  exospore has burst, and the endospore grown into a hypha bearing
-  a sporangium.]
-
-Order 3. =Thamnidiaceæ.= On the same sporangiophore, in addition to
-a large, terminal, many-spored sporangium, many smaller, lateral
-sporangia are formed with a few spores. Thamnidium.
-
-=B.= Asexual reproduction by sporangia and conidia.
-
-Order 4. =Choanephoraceæ.= _Choanephora_ with creeping endophytic
-mycelium, and perpendicular sporangiophores.
-
-Order 5. =Mortierellaceæ.= _Mortierella polycephala_ produces on the
-same mycelium conidia and sporangiophores. _M. rostafinskii_ has a long
-stalked sporangiophore, which is surrounded at its base by a covering
-of numerous felted hyphæ.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 83.--_Pilobolus._ Mycelium (_a_, _a_), with a
-  sporangiophore (_A_) and the fundament of another (_B_).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 84.--_Pilobolus._ Sporangium (_a″_) with
-  stalk (_a-c_), which is covered by many small drops of water
-  pressed out by turgescence.]
-
-=C.= Asexual reproduction only by conidia.
-
-Order 6. =Chætocladiaceæ.= The conidia are abstricted singly and
-acrogenously. _Chætocladium_ is a parasite on the larger Mucoraceæ.
-
-Order 7. =Piptocephalidaceæ.= The conidia are formed acrogenously and
-in a series, by transverse divisions. The zygospore arises at the
-summit of the conjugating hyphæ, which are curved so as to resemble a
-pair of tongs. _Piptocephalis_ and _Syncephalis_ live parasitically on
-the larger Mucoraceæ.
-
-
-                       Sub-Class 2. =Oomycetes.=
-
-Sexual reproduction is oogamous with the formation of brown,
-thick-walled _oospores_ which germinate after a period of rest.
-Asexual reproduction by conidia and _swarmspores_. Parasites, seldom
-saprophytes.
-
-The oospores are large spores which are formed from the egg-cell
-(oosphere) of the _oogonium_ (oosporangium, Fig. 89, 95). A branch of
-the mycelium attaches itself to the oogonium and forms at its apex
-the so-called “_antheridium_” (pollinodium[13]): this sends one or
-more slender prolongations (fertilising tubes) through the wall of the
-oogonium to the egg-cell.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 85.--_Empusa muscæ_ (Fly-mould). I. A fly
-  killed by the fungus, surrounded by a white layer of conidia. II.
-  The conidiophores (_t_) projecting from the body of the fly. Some
-  of the conidia, a few of which have developed secondary conidia,
-  are attached to the hairs (mag. 80 times). III. A perfect hypha.
-  IV. A hypha in the act of ejecting a conidium (_c_), enveloped
-  in a sticky slime (_g_). V. A conidium which has developed a
-  secondary conidium (_sc_). VI. A branched hypha produced by
-  cultivation. VII. A secondary conidium which has produced a small
-  mycelium (_m_). VIII. A conidium germinating on the fly’s body.
-  IX. Mycelium. X. Conidia germinating like yeast in the fatty
-  tissue of the fly. (III.-VII. and IX. magnified 300 times; VIII.
-  and X. magnified 500 times.)]
-
-   A fertilisation, a passage of the contents of the antheridium
-   to the egg-cell, has as yet only been observed in _Pythium_;
-   in _Phytophthora_ only one small mass of protoplasm passes
-   through the fertilising tube to the egg-cell; in _Peronospora_
-   and the Saprolegniaceæ no protoplasm can be observed to pass
-   through the fertilising tube, so that in these instances
-   _parthenogenesis_ takes place; _Saprolegnia thuretii_, etc.,
-   have generally even no antheridia, but nevertheless form normal
-   oospores. Fertilisation of the egg-cell by means of self-motile
-   _spermatozoids_ is only found in _Monoblepharis sphærica_.
-
-=A.= Asexual reproduction by conidia only.
-
-
-                     Family 1. =Entomophthorales.=
-
-The mycelium is richly branched. The family is a transitional step to
-the conidia-bearing Zygomycetes, since the oospores of many members of
-this family arise, and are formed, like zygospores.
-
-Order 1. =Entomophthoraceæ.= Mycelium abundantly developed. This
-most frequently lives parasitically in living insects, causing their
-death. The conidiophores forming the conidial-layer project from the
-skin, and abstrict a proportionately large conidium which is ejected
-with considerable force, and by this means transferred to other
-insects. These become infected by the entrance of the germ-tube into
-their bodies. The spherical, brown resting-spores develope inside the
-bodies of insects and germinate by emitting a germ-tube.
-
-   GENERA: _Empusa_ has a good many species which are parasitic
-   on flies, moths, grasshoppers, plant-lice. The conidia emit a
-   germ-tube which pierces the skin of the insect; a number of
-   secondary conidia are then produced inside its body, by division
-   or by gemmation similar to that taking place in yeast, each
-   of which grows and becomes a long unbranched hypha, and these
-   eventually fill up the body of the animal, causing distension
-   and death. Each of these hyphæ projects through the skin,
-   and abstricts a conidium, which is ejected by a squirting
-   contrivance. The best known species is _E. muscæ_ (Fig. 85),
-   which makes its appearance epidemically towards autumn on the
-   common house-fly, and shows itself by the dead flies which are
-   found on the windows and walls attached by their probosces,
-   distended wings, and legs. They have swollen abdomen, broad
-   white belts of hyphæ between the abdominal rings, and are
-   surrounded by a circle of whitish dust formed by the ejected
-   conidia.--_Entomophthora_ sends out, at definite places, from
-   the mycelium hidden in the insect’s body, bundles of hyphæ,
-   which serve the purpose of holding fast the dead insects, the
-   ramifications attaching themselves to the substratum: the
-   conidiophores are branched, the conidia are ejected by the
-   divisional walls between the hyphæ and the conidia dividing into
-   two layers, those which terminate the hyphæ suddenly expanding
-   and throwing the conidia into the air. _E. radicans_ makes its
-   appearance epidemically on caterpillars.
-
-=B.= Asexual reproduction by zoospores or conidia.
-
-
-                       Family 2. =Chytridiales.=
-
-In this family the mycelium is very sparsely developed or is
-wanting. The entire plant consists principally or entirely of a
-single zoosporangium whose zoospores have generally one cilium. The
-resting-spores arise either directly from the zoosporangium, which,
-instead of forming zoospores, surrounds itself by a thick cell-wall; or
-they are formed by the conjugation of two cells (in which case they are
-spoken of as oospores). Microscopic Fungi, parasitic on water plants
-(especially Algæ) or small aquatic animals, seldom on land plants.
-
-Order 1. =Olpidiaceæ.= Without mycelium. Swarmspores and
-resting-spores.
-
-   In the _Olpidieæ_, the swarmspores, probably, most frequently
-   form themselves into a plasmodium (naked mass of protoplasm)
-   which may become a single zoosporangium or a resting sporangium.
-   _Olpidium trifolii_ occurs in _Trifolium repens_.--In the
-   _Synchytrieæ_ the plasmodium emerging from the swarmspores
-   breaks up either at once, or after a period of rest, into
-   smaller plasmodia, each of which will become a zoosporangium.
-   _Synchytrium anemones_ is found on _Anemone nemorosa_; _S.
-   mercurialis_ on _Mercurialis perennis_; _S. aureum_ on many
-   plants, particularly _Lysimachia nummularia_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 86.--_Chytridium lagenula._ Zoosporangium _a_
-  before, _b_ after the liberation of the swarmspores.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 87.--_Obelidium mucronatum_: _m_ mycelium;
-  _s_ swarmspores.]
-
-Order 2. =Rhizidiaceæ.= Mycelium present. Zoospores and
-resting-spores.
-
-   _Chytridium_ (Fig. 86). _Obelidium_ (Fig. 87) is bicellular; the
-   one cell is the mycelium, the other the zoosporangium; found
-   on insects. The species of _Cladochytrium_ are intercellular
-   parasites on marsh plants. _Physoderma._
-
-Order 3. =Zygochytriaceæ.= Mycelium present. Zoospores and oospores.
-The latter are the product of the conjugation of two cells (Fig. 88).
-
-   _Polyphagus euglenæ_ on _Euglena viridis_. _Urophlyctis pulposa_
-   on species of _Chenopodium_.
-
-
-                      Family 3. =Mycosiphonales.=
-
-The mycelium is bladder-like or branched. Zoospores. Sexual
-reproduction by oospores, which are produced in oogonia. The latter are
-fertilised, in some forms, by the antheridium.
-
-   Order 1. =Ancylistaceæ.= The entire bladder-like mycelium
-   is used for the construction of zoosporangia, oogonia, or
-   antheridia. _Lagenedium_ is parasitic on _Spirogyra_, etc.
-
-Order 2. =Peronosporaceæ.= Almost entirely _parasites_. The
-unicellular, often very long and abundantly branched mycelium lives
-in the intercellular spaces of living plants, especially in the
-green portions, and these are more or less destroyed and deformed in
-consequence. Special small branches (_suction-organs_, “_haustoria_”)
-are pushed into the cells in order to abstract nourishment from them.
-Both oospores and conidia germinate either immediately, or they
-develope into sporangia with swarmspores, having always two cilia. Only
-one oospore is formed in each oogonium; its contents (Fig. 89) divide
-into a centrally placed egg-cell and the “periplasm” surrounding it;
-this is of a paler colour and on the maturity of the oospore forms its
-thick, brown, external covering.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 88.--_Polyphagus euglenæ. A_ with smooth,
-  _B_ with thorny oospores; _m_ and _f_ the two conjugating cells.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 89.--_Peronospora alsinearum._ Mycelium with
-  egg-cell and antheridium.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 90.--_Phytophthora infestans_ (strongly
-  magnified). Cross section through a small portion of a
-  Potato-leaf (the under side turned upwards): _a_ the mycelium; _b
-  b_ two conidiophores projecting through a stoma; _c_ conidia; _e_
-  the spongy tissue of the leaf; _g_ the epidermis.]
-
-_The Potato-fungus_ (_Phytophthora infestans_) is of great interest.
-Its thallus winters in the Potato-tuber; other organs for passing the
-winter, such as oospores, are not known. When the tuber germinates, the
-Fungus-hyphæ penetrate the young shoot and keep pace with the aerial
-growth and development of the plant. The conidiophores emerge through
-the stomata, especially on the under side of the leaves; they branch
-like a tree (Fig. 90), and appear to the naked eye as a fine mould on
-the surface of the plant. The disease soon makes itself known by the
-brown colouring of those parts of the plant which are attacked, and by
-their withering. An ovoid conidium arises at first by the formation of
-a dividing wall at the apex of each branch of the conidiophore (Fig. 90
-_c c_), and immediately underneath it another is formed, which pushes
-the first to one side, and so on. These conidia sometimes germinate
-directly, and form a mycelium, but most frequently their protoplasm
-divides into many small masses, each of which becomes a pear-shaped
-zoospore provided with two cilia (Fig. 91). Water is required for
-their germination, and when the ripe conidia are placed in a drop of
-water the swarm-cells are formed in the course of about five hours.
-They swarm about in rain and dewdrops in the Potato-fields, and are
-carried with the water to the Potato-plants and to the tubers in
-the soil. The wind also very easily conveys the conidia to healthy
-Potato-fields and infects them. The enormous quantity of conidia and
-swarm-cells that may be formed in the course of a summer explains the
-rapid spreading of the disease; and the preceding makes it clear why
-wet summers are favourable to its existence. When the swarm-cells
-germinate, they round off, and then surround themselves with a
-cell-wall which grows out into the germ-tube, and _pierces through the
-epidermis_ of the host-plant (Fig. 92). Having entered the host, a new
-mycelium is formed. The potato disease, since 1845, has been rampant in
-Europe; it has, no doubt, been introduced from America, which, it must
-be remembered, is the home of the Potato-plant.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 91.--_Phytophthora infestans_: _a-c_ conidia
-  detached; in _c_ the swarm-cells are leaving the mother-cell; _d_
-  two free-swimming swarm-cells.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 92.--_Phytophthora infestans._ Cross section
-  through a portion of a Potato-stalk. Two germinating conidia
-  (_a_, _b_) piercing the epidermis, and the mycelium penetrating
-  the cells.]
-
-   The conidia exhibit various characters which are employed for
-   the separation of the genera. _Pythium_ is the most simple
-   form. The contents of the terminally-formed conidia emerge as
-   a spherical mass and divide into swarmspores. _P. de Baryanum_
-   lives in the seedlings of many different Flowering-plants,
-   which it completely destroys.--_Phytophthora_ is distinguished
-   by the circumstance that the sparsely-branched conidiophores
-   bear, sympodially, chains of conidia. Besides the Potato-fungus
-   (see above), _Ph. fagi_ belongs to this group; it developes
-   oospores very abundantly, and does great harm to seedlings of
-   the Beech, Sycamore, and Pine trees.--_Peronospora_ generally
-   has conidiophores which are repeatedly forked, and bear a
-   conidium on each of the most extreme ramifications. Many do
-   great harm to their host-plants. _P. viticola_, on Vines, and
-   _P. nivea_, on umbelliferous plants, have swarmspores, which are
-   absent in the following species of this genus: _P. sparsa_, on
-   Roses; _P. gangliformis_, on composites; _P. alsinearum_, on
-   Stitchwort; _P. parasitica_, on cruciferous plants; _P. viciæ_,
-   on Vetches and Peas; _P. schachtii_, on Beets; _P. violacea_,
-   on the flowers of _Scabiosa_; _P. radii_, on the ray-florets of
-   _Matricaria_.--_Cystopus_ (_Albugo_) has the conidia developed
-   in chains, which form a cohesive white layer underneath the
-   epidermis of the host-plant. _Cystopus candidus_, on cruciferous
-   plants, especially Shepherd’s Purse and _Brassica_; the
-   germination commences on the cotyledons, and from this point the
-   mycelium developes together with the host-plant; _C. cubicus_,
-   on the leaves of Compositæ.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 93.--A fly overgrown with _Saprolegnia_.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 94.--Formation of swarmspores in a
-  _Saprolegnia_: a germinating swarmspores.]
-
-Order 3. =Saprolegniaceæ=, _Water-Fungi_ which live as saprophytes on
-organic remains lying in water, for instance, on dead flies (Fig. 93),
-worms, remains of plants; but they may also make their appearance on
-living animals, being frequently found, for example, on the young trout
-in rearing establishments.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 95.--Oogonium with two antheridia, _Achlya
-  racemosa_.]
-
-The thallus is a single, long and branched cell. It has one portion
-which serves as root, and lives in the substratum, where it ramifies
-abundantly for the purpose of absorbing nourishment; and another
-portion projecting freely in the water, and sending out hyphæ on all
-sides (Fig. 93). The asexual reproduction takes place by swarmspores
-(Fig. 94), which are developed in large sporangia; these swarmspores
-generally possess two cilia, and on germination grow into new plants.
-The entire protoplasm in the oogonium is formed into one or more
-oospheres, without any surrounding “periplasm.” The oospheres may not
-be fertilised (p. 100), and then develope parthenogenetically.
-
-   Genera: _Saprolegnia_, whose swarmspores disperse immediately
-   after having left the sporangium. _S. ferax_ is the
-   cause of a disease in fish (“Salmon disease”) and in the
-   crayfish.--_Achlya_, whose swarmspores accumulate in a hollow
-   ball before the mouth of the sporangium.--_Leptomitus_ has
-   strongly indented hyphæ, causing a “linked” appearance.
-   _L. lacteus_ is frequent in the waste matter from sugar
-   factories.--_Monoblepharis_ deviates from the others by the
-   greater development of its fertilising process; the oosphere,
-   situated in an open oogonium, becoming fertilised by self-motile
-   spermatozoids, which are provided with a cilium at the posterior
-   end.
-
-
-                        Class 2. =Mesomycetes.=
-
-The Mesomycetes are intermediate forms between the Phycomycetes and
-the Higher Fungi. In the vegetative organs, and in the multicellular
-hyphæ, they resemble the Higher Fungi; the methods of reproduction,
-however, show the characters of the Phycomycetes, namely sporangia
-and conidiophores of varying size and with varying number of spores;
-definite and typically formed asci and basidia are not present. Sexual
-reproduction is wanting. The HEMIASCI are transitional between the
-Phycomycetes and the Ascomycetes, the HEMIBASIDII (Brand-Fungi) form
-the transition to the Basidiomycetes.
-
-
-                       Sub-Class 1. =Hemiasci.=
-
-The Hemiasci are Fungi with _sporangia_ which, _although resembling
-asci_, yet have _not_, however, _a definite form and a definite number
-of spores_. Besides endospores, conidia, chlamydospores and oidia are
-found.
-
-   Order 1. =Ascoideaceæ.= _Ascoidea rubescens_ forms irregular,
-   reddish-brown masses in the sap issuing from felled Beeches. It
-   has _free sporangia_, which resemble asci in their structure, in
-   the development and ejection, and in the definite shape and size
-   of the spores. The formation of the sporangia takes place when
-   the nutriment is nearly exhausted, and resembles that of the
-   conidia, since they are developed from the end of a hypha which
-   enlarges, and the swelling becomes separated by a transverse
-   wall. Within the sporangia numerous spores of a cap-like form
-   are developed, which are set free through an opening at the
-   apex. Sporangia are formed successively at the apex of the
-   same hypha, the second commencing to develope as the first is
-   dehiscing. Conidia and sporangia are not formed simultaneously;
-   the former may be considered as closed sporangia.
-
-   Order 2. =Protomycetaceæ.= _Protomyces pachydermus_ causes
-   hard swellings on the stems and leaf-stalks of the Cichorieæ
-   (_Taraxacum_, etc.). These swellings consist of _chlamydospores_
-   (resting-spores), which germinate and become free, ascus-like
-   sporangia, with numerous small spores. In nutritive solutions
-   the chlamydospores form conidia with yeast-like buddings. _P.
-   macrosporus_ on _Ægopodium_, and other Umbelliferæ.
-
-   Order 3. =Thelebolaceæ.= _Thelebolus stercoreus_, is found
-   on the dung of deer, hares, and rabbits, and has _closed
-   sporangia_, which resemble asci in their shape and regular
-   construction, and in the ejection of spores. The covering
-   encloses only one sporangium, even where the sporangia arise
-   close together.
-
-This order, by reason of the covering of the sporangia, forms the
-transition from the Hemiasci to the Carpoasci, while the two first
-supply an intermediate step to the Exoasci.
-
-
-               Sub-Class 2. =Hemibasidii, Brand-Fungi.=
-
-The Brand-Fungi (also known as USTILAGINEÆ) are Fungi with
-_basidia-like conidiophores_, which, however, have not yet advanced
-to a definite form or number of conidia. They are true parasites,
-whose mycelium spreads itself in the intercellular spaces of Flowering
-plants. The mycelium is colourless, quickly perishable, has transverse
-walls at some distance from each other (Fig. 96), and sends out
-haustoria into the cells of the host-plant.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 96.--_Entyloma ranunculi._ 1. Cross section
-  of a portion of a leaf of _Ficaria_ permeated by the mycelium; a
-  bundle of hyphæ with conidia emerging from a stoma; in one of the
-  cells are found four brand-spores. 2. A brand-spore developed in
-  the middle of a hypha.]
-
-It most frequently happens that the germ-tube enters the host-plant at
-its most tender age, that is, during the germination of the seed; the
-mycelium then wanders about in the tissues of the shoot during its
-growth, until it reaches that part of the plant where the spores are to
-be formed. The spore-formation takes place in the same way in all those
-species whose brand-spores are developed in the floral parts of the
-host-plant. Many Brand-Fungi have, however, a more local occurrence,
-and the mycelium is restricted to a smaller area of the leaf or stem.
-Those organs of the host-plant in which the brand-spores are developed
-often become strongly hypertrophied. In perennial plants the mycelium
-winters very often in the rhizome.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 97.--_Doassansia alismatis._ 1. A fruit-body,
-  formed by a covering of oblong hyphæ, which encloses a mass
-  of brand-spores, and is embedded in the leaf-tissue of the
-  host-plant; 20 times natural size. 2. A germinating brand-spore,
-  500 times natural size. 3. Three connected resting-spores, 400
-  times natural size. 4. Two conidia grown together, 600 times
-  natural size.]
-
-The brand-spores are the winter resting-spores of the Brand-Fungi.
-They arise in the tissues of the host-plant, which is often destroyed,
-and become free through the rupture of the epidermis; they are
-thick-walled, generally brown or violet, and very often possess warts,
-spines, or reticulate markings. Fruit-bodies, that is enclosed organs
-of reproduction, are found in few genera (_Sphacelotheca_, _Graphiola_;
-_Doassansia_, Fig. 97). In _Tolyposporium_, _Tuburcinia_, _Thecaphora_
-(Fig. 102), etc., the brand-spores are united into a _ball of spores_.
-On germination the brand-spores behave as _chlamydospores_, namely,
-as the fundament of conidiophores, by emitting a short germ-tube,
-_i.e._ a conidiophore (“promycelium”). The USTILAGINACEÆ (Fig. 99, 2)
-have a short _transversely divided_ conidiophore, with _laterally_
-developed conidia (comp. the basidia of the Protobasidiomycetes).
-The conidiophores of the TILLETIACEÆ are undivided (unicellular
-promycelia), and bear the conidia terminally, and so resemble the
-basidia of the Autobasidiomycetes.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 98.--_Tuburcinia._ 1. _T. trientalis._ Hyphæ,
-  some of which bear conidia at the apex, forcing themselves out
-  between the epidermal cells on the under side of the leaf; 320
-  times natural size. 2. _T. trientalis._ A ball of spores in which
-  some of the individual brand-spores are about to germinate; 520
-  times natural size. 3. _T. primulicola_: various forms of conidia
-  (500 times natural size).]
-
-   In _Tilletia_, _Entyloma_, _Neovossia_, _Tuburcinia_, the
-   brand-spores germinate and form basidia-like conidiophores with
-   spindle-shaped conidia; their mycelium, on the other hand,
-   produces later only single, sickle-shaped conidia, so that
-   two kinds of conidia are found, as in a few Basidiomycetes.
-   In some species, _e.g. Ustilago hordei_, the brand-spores
-   only germinate vegetatively and form a mycelium. In nutritive
-   solutions (solutions of dung, etc.) where they live as
-   _saprophytes_, the brand-spores of many species emit germ-tubes,
-   and on these, _yeast-like conidia_ are produced by repeated
-   budding, which grow into mycelia only when the nutritive
-   solution is exhausted. These conidia have not the power of
-   producing alcoholic fermentation. The very numerous conidia,
-   which are found in the dung of herbivorous animals, are probably
-   the yeast-conidia of Brand-Fungi. The brand-spores, which are
-   eaten by animals with the grain and hay, pass into the dung
-   and without doubt give rise to a very rich multiplication of
-   yeast-conidia.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 99.--_Ustilago._ 1. Formation of
-  brand-spores. 2. Germinating brand-spore of _U. perennans_.
-  3. Germinating brand-spore of _U. cardui_ (after Brefeld). 4.
-  _U. filiformis. a_ A brand-spore with developed basidium;
-  _b_ another, with a conidium; _c_ with two conidia; _d_ with
-  two conidia placed diametrically opposite to each other; _e_,
-  detached conidia which are growing into hyphæ.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 100.--_Tilletia tritici_: _a_ an ear of
-  Wheat in which all the grains are attacked by Stinkbrand;
-  _b_ a blighted corn surrounded by the chaff; _c_ a blighted
-  corn grown together with a stamen; _d_ the same cut across;
-  _e_ a brand-spore; _f_, _g_, _h_ germinating brand-spores;
-  _i_ germinating conidia; _j_ the mycelium; _k_-_k_
-  brand-spore-forming mycelium-threads. (_c-h_ magnified 400 times;
-  _i-k_ 300 times.)]
-
-   The conidia (also called “sporidia”) of many species unite
-   generally into an H-form (Figs. 97, 4; 100 h; 101, 4). This
-   union in pairs does not, however, take place with a view to
-   germination, there is no fusion of nuclei, and therefore in this
-   “fusion” there is no sexual act.
-
-   Order 1. =Ustilaginaceæ.= Conidiophores with transverse walls
-   and lateral conidia.--_Ustilago_ (Fig. 99) generally developes
-   its spores in the floral organs of its host-plant, the ovary or
-   anthers, where they arise from hyphæ, and form a slimy mass
-   which when mature becomes a black dust.
-
-   To this order belong _U. avenæ_, parasitic on Oats, _U. hordei_
-   and _U. nuda_ (_U. jenseni_), on Barley; these are the usual
-   cause of “Smut” on cereals. _U. hypodytes_ on straw of _Elymus_
-   and _Agropyrum_. _U. filiformis_ in the leaves of _Glyceria_.
-   _U. caricis_ transforms the fruits of various species of
-   _Carex_ into black, dusty balls. _U. violacea_ developes its
-   violet spore-powder in the anthers of the Caryophyllaceæ.
-   _U. tragopogonis_, transforms entire inflorescences of
-   _Tragopogon_ into a black-violet mass. Among the largest are _U.
-   grandis_, which causes the large swollen nodes in the stem of
-   _Phragmites_, and the Maize Blight, _U. maydis_, which produces
-   outgrowths about the size of a hand on the spadix of the Maize.
-
-   Order 2. =Tilletiaceæ.= Conidiophores undivided, generally
-   several conidia arise at their apices.--_Tilletia tritici_,
-   the _Stinkbrand on Wheat_ (Fig. 100). The mycelium lives in
-   Wheat-plants, producing its spores in the ovary after the whole
-   interior of this body has been destroyed by the mycelium, with
-   the exception of the external layer of the wall of the ovary,
-   which remains essentially unaltered and encloses the closely
-   packed, firm mass of spores (Fig. 100 _d_). The grains of Wheat
-   thus attacked are shorter and thicker than the sound ones,
-   and the ears show the presence of this Fungus by their erect
-   position, and the wide separation of the chaff (Fig. 100 _a_).
-   The unpleasant odour of the ovary prior to the ripening of the
-   spores, has given the name “Stinkbrand,” and, in like manner,
-   its hardness when it encloses the ripe spores, is the reason
-   of its being also called “Stonebrand.” On account of this
-   hardness, the diseased grains are readily harvested together
-   with the healthy ones, which become infected by the spores at
-   the threshing. _T. lævis_ (_T. fœtens_) also occurs on Wheat and
-   has smooth brand-spores.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 101.--_Urocystis._ 1, _U. covalloides_.
-  A spore-ball, magnified 450 times. 2–4, _U. anemones_: 2–3,
-  brand-spores which are about to germinate (magnified 450 times).
-  4, Conidia, the two in a state of fusion, a third with vacuoles
-  and division-wall, magnified 500 times.]
-
-   _Entyloma_ (Fig. 96), a genus with numerous species, which
-   appear in spots on the leaves of the host-plant, and
-   _Tuburcinia_ (Fig. 98), which makes its appearance on the
-   Primulaceæ, produce white conidia-spots on the surface of the
-   host-plant. The first-named has single spores, the latter has
-   its spores closely massed together.--_Urocystis_ (Fig. 101)
-   has its spores surrounded by a number of small and lighter
-   coloured barren spores. _U. occulta_, Rye-stem Blight, forms
-   its spores in long streaks in the stems and leaves of the Rye,
-   and does considerable damage. _U. cepulæ_ on Onions. _U. violæ_
-   forms large dark-violet swellings in the leaf-stalk and stems
-   of Violets.--_Thecaphora_ (Fig. 102) appears in seedlings of
-   _Convolvulus_ and _Astragalus_.
-
-   As a means of protection against the Smut-Fungi which make their
-   appearance on the different cereals, a submersion of the grains
-   in a solution of blue vitriol (½%) for twelve hours, or better
-   still, submerging for five minutes in water heated to 53–55° _C_
-   (Jensen’s method) is employed.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 102.--_Thecaphora._ 1, _T. convolvuli_, a
-  ball of spores, one of the brand-spores has emitted a septate
-  branched conidiophore (× 520). 2, _T. affinis_, a ball of spores
-  (× 520).]
-
-
-                 Class 3. =Mycomycetes, Higher Fungi.=
-
-The MYCOMYCETES are not entirely aquatic in habit; they have hyphæ with
-_transverse walls_, but _no sexual reproductive organs_. The asexual
-reproduction takes place in very different ways; by endospores (in
-asci), conidia, basidiospores, chlamydospores, and oidia. Swarmspores
-are never found.
-
-Two chief methods of reproduction may be distinguished, and hence the
-class may be divided into two large sub-classes:--the ASCOMYCETES (with
-asci), and the BASIDIOMYCETES (with basidia).
-
-
-                      Sub-Class 1. =Ascomycetes.=
-
-The main characteristic which distinguishes the Ascomycetes is the
-_ascus_; a name given to a sporangium of a definite shape and size,
-and containing a definite number of spores. The shape is generally
-club-like or spherical, the number of spores 8 (in some 2, 4, 16 or
-more), see Figs. 103, 105, 108, 110, 113, 116, 120, 121, 123, 129.
-
-In the lowest forms, the EXOASCI, the ascus springs directly from the
-mycelium without the formation of a fruit-body (_i.e._ ascocarp).
-In the higher forms, which contain many species, the CARPOASCI, the
-asci are united and form ascocarps which may be more or less enclosed
-(angiocarpic, hemiangiocarpic, and probably gymnocarpic).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 103.--Endogenous formation of spores in
-  _Peziza confluens_. In the youngest asci there is only one
-  nucleus (_b_, _e_); this divides into two (_f_); and the division
-  is repeated so that there are 4 nuclei in _c_ and 8 in _g_. These
-  surround themselves with protoplasm and a cell-wall (_h_, _i_).
-  The protoplasm of the mother-cell is not entirely used up.]
-
-The hyphæ of the _Mycelium_ in some remain free, in others they are
-felted together and form thick strands or flat, cushion-like bodies
-(compare in particular the stromata of the Pyrenomycetes). Some species
-form _sclerotia_ (Figs. 116, 128).
-
-Asexual reproduction by means of _conidia_ is known in many species
-as the principal means of reproduction, and the one which affords
-the most rapid means of distribution. The conidia may be produced on
-conidiophores (Fig. 109), in conidial-layers (Fig. 122), and often in
-conidiocarps (pycnidia, Figs. 120 _d_, _e_; 123 _a_; 124 _b._). These
-last occur partly as the so-called “spermogonia” (that is, pycnidia
-with microconidia). The conidiophores never approach the basidia.
-
-   In many species the ascospores germinate and form conidia
-   immediately (_Nectria cinnabarina_, _Sclerotinia_, _Taphrina_,
-   etc.), sometimes while they are still in the ascus and before
-   their ejection (_Taphrina_, Fig. 105 _a_). In many instances
-   the conidia by means of continued budding can, for a longer
-   or shorter time, produce yeast-conidia, _e.g. Taphrina_. In
-   many other cases the conidia arise from the germ-tubes of the
-   ascospores, or at any part of the mycelium. The unripe asci
-   of _Taphrina_, when placed in water, develop conidia at their
-   apices. The _Sclerotinia_-species produce numerous conidia
-   whose germination has never been observed. The formation of
-   conidia and asci sometimes takes place on the same fruit-body.
-   In _Heterosphæria patella_ the conidia and asci are developed
-   successively in the same fruit-body; in the ascocarps of
-   _Dermatea frangula_ and _Sclerotinia sclerotiorum_ the formation
-   of conidia may take place. The ascocarps frequently arise
-   from the conidial-layers (_Nectria cinnabarina_, etc.). This
-   relationship of the two forms of reproduction to each other
-   may be explained by considering that both have descended
-   phylogenetically from sporangia.
-
-Sometimes _chlamydospores_ and _oidia_ also appear in the Ascomycetes;
-on germination, however, they do not, as in _Protomyces_, form
-sporangia, and on this account cannot be distinctly distinguished from
-conidia.
-
-The asci are morphologically the highest form of reproduction and
-are always found at the close of the development of these Fungi; the
-accessory forms of reproduction are first developed, but a well-defined
-alternation of generations does not occur.
-
-   In the Ascomycetes there are more than 11,000 described species,
-   which can be classed as follows:--
-
-    Series 1. EXOASCI. Only one order.
-       „   2. CARPOASCI.
-                Family 1. _Gymnoascales_,  }
-                   „   2. _Perisporiales_, } Angiocarpic Carpoasci.
-                   „   3. _Pyrenomycetes_, }
-                   „   4. _Hysteriales_, } Hemiangiocarpic Carpoasci.
-                   „   5. _Discomycetes_,}
-                   „   6. _Helvellales_, Gymnocarpic (?) Carpoasci.
-    Additional _Ascolichenes_: Lichen-forming Ascomycetes.
-
-
-                         Series 1. =Exoasci.=
-
-Ascomycetes with FREE ASCI; sometimes also conidia, chlamydospores and
-oidia. One order.
-
-Order. =Taphrinaceæ.= Of the genera belonging to this order,
-_Taphrina_, _Endomyces_, and _Ascocorticium_, the first is most
-important.
-
-   _Endomyces decipiens_ is a parasite in the fruit-body of
-   _Armillaria mellea_; _E. magnusii_ lives in the gelatinous,
-   fermenting exudations of Oak-trees; _Ascocorticium albidum_
-   is found under the bark of the Fir-tree. _Endomyces_ has
-   chlamydospores and oidia.
-
-The species of _Taphrina_ are parasites, whose free asci may be found
-in great numbers, generally closely pressed together, on the parts of
-plants which they have attacked. The asci are developed directly from
-the ascogenous cells of a fertile, generally sub-cuticular, hypha,
-which arises from the sterile mycelium. The latter arises from the
-germinating ascospore, and may hibernate in the tissues of its host,
-particularly in the winter buds, and then with the commencement of
-the next period of vegetation it continues its growth side by side
-with that of its host. The hyphæ ramify in the intercellular spaces or
-beneath the cuticle, but have no haustoria. The ascospores (Fig. 105
-_A_) and unripe asci may produce conidia.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 104.--_Taphrina_ (_Exoascus_) _pruni_.
-  Yeast-like budding of a germinating spore (× 600).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 105.--_Taphrina betulina_: _a_ ascus filled
-  with conidia; _b_ germinating spores (× 600).]
-
-   Very remarkable appearances, and swellings of the attacked
-   tissues, are produced when the mycelium is perennial; for
-   example, the “Witches’-brooms” and “Pockets.” The hard, hollow,
-   stoneless plums, known as “Pocket” or “Bladder” Plums, are
-   produced by considerable changes in the tissues of the fruit;
-   these are caused particularly by _T. pruni_ on several species
-   of _Prunus_. The “Witches’-brooms,” on the contrary, are
-   deformations of entire twigs or branches, and often attain
-   a very large size. They occur on _Alnus incana_, caused by
-   _T. epiphylla_; on _Carpinus betulus_, by _T. carpini_; on
-   Cherry-trees, by _T. cerasi_; on Plum-trees, by _T. insititiæ_;
-   on Birches, by _T. turgida_ and _T. betulina_. _T. deformans_
-   attacks the leaves of the Peach, and causes them to curl.
-
-   When a perennial mycelium is wanting, the infection is confined
-   as a rule to white or yellow spots on the leaves, _e.g._ the
-   commonest, _T. sadebeckii_, on _Alnus glutinosa_, and _T. aurea_
-   on species of _Populus_. _T. alni incanæ_ (Fig. 106) causes
-   considerable hypertrophies on the pistillate catkins of the
-   Alder, which may be compared to the “pockets” of _Prunus_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 106.--_Taphrina alni incanæ_ on the Alder
-  (nat. size).]
-
-
-                        Series 2. =Carpoasci.=
-
-The Carpoasci are Ascomycetes, whose asci are enclosed in fruit-bodies,
-_i.e. ascocarps_. The accessory means of reproduction are free
-conidiophores (Fig. 109), conidial-layers (Fig. 122), conidiocarps
-(Fig. 120 _D_, _E_, etc.), chlamydospores and oidia.
-
-For the different methods of distributing the ascospores, see p. 92.
-
-Of the six families of the Carpoasci, the first three--_Gymnoascales_,
-_Perisporiales_, and _Pyrenomycetes_--are ANGIOCARPIC (that is,
-the ascocarp remains closed throughout its existence, and does not
-dehisce when ripe); the fourth and fifth families (_Hysteriales_ and
-_Discomycetes_), on the other hand, are HEMIANGIOCARPIC (the ascocarp,
-here also called an _apothecium_, is closed in the early stages,
-but opens at the commencement of ripening and exposes a hymenium of
-crowded asci); the family of _Helvellales_ has probably GYMNOCARPIC (or
-hemiangiocarpic) fruit-bodies.
-
-
-                       Family 1. =Gymnoascales.=
-
-The ascocarps are surrounded by a _spongy and incomplete envelope_. One
-order, poor in species.
-
-   Order =Gymnoascaceæ=.--The ascocarps are borne sometimes
-   solitarily, or sometimes coiled together. _Gymnoascus reessii_
-   forms small bodies about 1 mm. in diameter on old horse-dung,
-   which at first are white and afterwards orange-red.--_Ctenomyces
-   serratus_ lives on the old feathers in birds’ nests.
-
-
-                      Family 2. =Perisporiales.=
-
-The ascocarps are surrounded by a _complete envelope_ without any
-opening: the fruit-bodies are cleistocarpic; the spores are only
-liberated after the disintegration of the fruit-bodies. Paraphyses
-are wanting. The two first orders have in addition the means of
-reproduction by conidia.
-
-Order 1. =Erysiphaceæ, Mildews.= The Fungi belonging to this order are
-epiphytic parasites, whose mycelium, somewhat resembling a cobweb, may
-be seen on the leaves and other green portions of plants (see Figs.
-107, 108). The hyphæ ramify in all directions upon the surface of their
-host, and emit haustoria which penetrate the epidermal cells, and
-thus derive the necessary nutriment. The Mildew-Fungi thus belong to
-the obligate parasites, and during their growth dwarf and destroy the
-portions of their host on which they live. The reproduction takes place
-in the first instance by abstriction of conidio-chains from the end of
-special branches (Fig. 108 _c_, a hypha is seen in the act of detaching
-a conidium). The conidia may germinate immediately, and thus quickly
-reproduce their species. When present in large numbers they appear as
-a white meal covering the surface of the plant on which the fungus is
-found. Later on appear the dark brown, spheroid ascocarps (Fig. 108
-_a_) which, although small, are generally just visible to the naked eye
-as black specks.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 107.--_Erysiphe cichoracearum_: _a_
-  mycelium-threads; _b_ sterile hypha (“pollinodium”); _c_ fertile
-  hypha (ascogone or archicarp); _d_ and _e_ young ascocarps.]
-
-A characteristic feature of the Mildew-Fungi is the thin,
-pseudo-parenchymatous covering of the ascocarp, enclosing _one_
-(_Podosphæra_ and _Sphærotheca_; compare _Thelebolus_ among the
-Hemiasci) or _a few_ asci (Fig. 108 _c_), which do not form
-any hymenium, but are irregularly placed. The cells of the
-ascocarp-envelope are often prolonged into hair-like appendages.
-The ascocarps are developed from the mycelium at places where two
-hyphæ cross each other (Fig. 107). At these places two short and
-erect hyphæ are produced side by side. The one from the lower hypha
-(Fig. 107 _c_) assumes an ellipsoidal shape, and is known as the
-_archicarp_ or _ascogone_, while the other (“_pollinodium_”) arches
-over the ascogone. From the latter one ascus may be at once developed
-(_Sphærotheca_, etc.), or after its division several asci may be
-produced, each developed from one division. The sterile hypha (termed
-“pollinodium,” since it was formerly, but erroneously, supposed to
-fertilise the ascogone) produces a number of branches, and forms the
-pseudo-parenchymatous envelope of one cell in thickness, enclosing the
-asci.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 108.--_Erysiphe communis._ A small portion
-  of a leaf with this Fungus growing upon it (considerably
-  magnified). The hyphæ b and d do not belong to this Fungus, but
-  are reproductive organs of a pyrenomycetous Fungus parasitic upon
-  it (_Cicinnobolus_).]
-
-Many plants, both cultivated and wild, are attacked by various species
-of Mildew. A common means of prevention against their attacks is to
-dust the diseased parts with sulphur.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 109.--_Eurotium glaucum_: α portion of
-  mycelium lying horizontally; β vertically-placed conidiophore;
-  the mycelium gives rise to another branch near α; the conidia are
-  abstricted from short flask-shaped cells; _b_ a ripe conidium;
-  _c_, _d_ germinating conidia; _e_ spirally-twisted hypha,
-  commencement of an ascocarp; _f_ a stage later; _g_ still later,
-  the hypha at the base of the coil has given off branches which
-  are applied to it; _h_, _i_ sections of young ascocarps.]
-
-   _Sphærotheca pannosa_ occurs on the leaves of Roses, and on the
-   fruit of Peaches and Apricots. _S. castagnei_ on _Humulus_,
-   _Cucumis_, etc.--_Erysiphe tuckeri_ grows on the leaves and
-   fruit of the Vine; it spins its hyphæ over the bunches of
-   grapes, curtails their growth, and causes them to burst, and
-   to become decayed and rotten (Grape-disease). The Fungus was
-   first noticed in England in 1845, and later was found in
-   all countries where grapes are grown. It is only known in
-   the conidial form (“Oidium tuckeri”). Many other species of
-   _Erysiphe_ are found on herbaceous plants.--_Microsphæra_ has
-   appendages which are repeatedly forked at their extremities.
-   _M. grossulariæ_ on _Ribes grossularia_.--_Uncinula_ has
-   appendages with spirally-coiled extremities; on _Salix_ and
-   _Acer_.--_Phyllactinia_ has a circle of bristle-like appendages
-   with dilated bases. _P. guttata_ on _Corylus_, _Fraxinus_,
-   _Fagus_, etc.
-
-Order 2. =Perisporiaceæ=, Moulds and Mildews. A group of Fungi
-widely distributed and found in all situations. Usually they have a
-well-developed surface mycelium, and small, round, seldom conspicuous
-ascocarps, containing ovoid, pulley-like spores. They are partly
-saprophytic, partly parasitic, in the latter condition having a brown
-mycelium.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 110.--_Eurotium glaucum_: _a_ longitudinal
-  section of a half-ripe ascocarp, bounded externally by a
-  well-defined layer of cells, enclosing asci in various stages of
-  development; _b_ a semi-ripe, _c_ an almost ripe ascus; _d_ and
-  _e_ spores seen from the edge and side; _f_ germinating spore
-  twenty-two hours after been sown in plum juice.]
-
-_Eurotium glaucum_ (= _E. herbariorum_, Figs. 109, 110) and _E. repens_
-live on dead organic matter, preserved fruits, etc. The conidial forms
-of both species are known as “Moulds” (Fig. 109), and formerly were
-described under the name “_Aspergillus glaucus_.” The conidia for some
-time remain attached to each other in chains (Fig. 109 _a_); they are
-abstricted from sterigmata arranged radially on the spherical, swollen
-end of the conidiophore. The small yellow or brownish ascocarps are
-frequently found in herbaria, especially when the specimens have
-been insufficiently dried. _Aspergillus fumigatus_ and others are
-pathogenic, causing mycosis in warm-blooded animals.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 111.--_Penicillium crustaceum_: _a_ conidia
-  (× 300); _b_ germination of conidia; _c_ small portion of
-  mycelium, produced from a conidium at *, with five conidiophores;
-  _d_ young conidiophore (× 630), a flask-shaped cell is
-  abstricting a conidium; _e_ the same conidiophore after 9–10
-  hours.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 112.--_Penicillium crustaceum_: _a_ two
-  spirally-coiled hyphæ arise from the mycelium, from one of
-  which (archicarp) the asci are produced; _b_ a further step in
-  the development of the ascocarp; the branching archicarp is
-  surrounded by sterile hyphæ; _c_ section of young ascocarp;
-  the larger hyphæ in the centre are the ascogenous hyphæ; these
-  are enclosed by a pseudo-parenchyma of sterile hyphæ (× 300);
-  _d_ series of ripe asci with spores; _e_ four ascopores seen
-  laterally; _f_ germinating ascospores (× 800).]
-
-_Penicillium crustaceum_ (_P. glaucum_, Figs. 111, 112) is an
-exceedingly common “Mould.” Its mycelium appears very frequently on
-any organic matter which is permitted to remain untouched, and soon
-covers it with a dense mass of blue-green conidiophores. These branch
-at their summits and bear flask-shaped cells from which the conidia
-are abstricted. The ascocarps which, both in size and colour, resemble
-grains of sand, have only been obtained in luxuriant cultivation with a
-limited supply of oxygen.
-
-   _Capnodium salicinum_ (_Fumago salicina_, _Cladosporium
-   fumago_), a common Mildew, forms dark overgrowths on the leaves
-   and branches of various shrubs (Poplars, Elms, Willows) and on
-   Hops. The conidia appear in various forms, as on conidiophores,
-   in conidiocarps with large multicellular conidia, and in
-   conidiocarps with small unicellular conidia; in nutritive
-   solutions yeast-like conidia are also developed.--_Apiosporium
-   pinophilum_ produces mildew on the leaves of _Abies alba_ and
-   _Picea excelsa_. (The conidial-forms were formerly described as
-   “_Antennaria pinophila_”).
-
-Order 3. =Tuberaceæ, Truffles.= The Fungi belonging to this order
-are entirely subterranean. The mycelium is filamentous, and partly
-parasitic upon the roots of plants, especially trees, in its
-neighbourhood; it is then known as _Mycorhiza_. The fruit-body is
-relatively large, in some cases about the size of a hen’s egg.
-Internally it is traversed by a number of winding passages (Fig. 113
-_a_), the walls of which are coated with the asci. The asci (_b_)
-contain only a small number of spores, and these are set free by the
-putrefaction of the fruit-body. Conidia are unknown.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 113.--_Tuber melanosporum_: _a_ fruit-body
-  (nat. size), a portion having been removed to show the internal
-  structure; _b_ an ascus with ascospores.]
-
-   _Tuber melanosporum_, _T. brumale_, _T. æstivum_, and other
-   species are edible. _Terfezia leonis_ and _Choiromyces
-   mæandriformis_ are also edible. The Truffles are always found in
-   woods and under trees, and disappear when these are destroyed.
-   France and Italy produce the best and the largest number of
-   Truffles, which are hunted by specially trained dogs and pigs.
-
-   In _Elaphomyces_ (Stag-Truffle) the fruit-body has a corky
-   external layer, and is inedible. Some of the species are found
-   in this country. _E. granulatus_ is parasitic on the roots of
-   the Fir.
-
-
-                      Family 3. =Pyrenomycetes.=
-
-In this family the hymenium is enclosed in small fruit-bodies,
-_perithecia_ (Fig. 120 _b_), which appear to the naked eye as small
-dots. In shape they resemble a globe or a flask with a narrow mouth,
-through which the spores are ejected (peronocarpic ascocarps).
-Different kinds of reproduction--conidia, pycnidia (chiefly with
-microconidia), chlamydospores, and perithecia--are found in the same
-species. The various stages in the life-history of these Fungi are so
-dissimilar, that formally they were considered to be different genera.
-Ergot furnishes a very good example.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 114.--A small portion of an ovary attacked
-  with _Claviceps purpurea_ (_Sphacelia_).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 115.--An ovary with the conidial stage of
-  _Claviceps purpurea_ (_Sphacelia_).]
-
-This family may be subdivided into 3 sub-families.
-
-
-                     Sub-Family 1. =Hypocreales.=
-
-The perithecia are _pale, fleshy, brightly coloured_, and generally
-aggregated on a stroma. Conidia and chlamydospores occur very
-frequently. Only one order.
-
-Order. =Hypocreaceæ.= In this order the majority are parasites upon
-Flowering-plants (_Nectria_, _Polystigma_, _Epichloë_, _Claviceps_);
-but some are parasites upon Fungi (_Hypomyces_, _Melanospora_), or upon
-insects (_Cordyceps_).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 116.--_Claviceps purpurea. A_ Sclerotium
-  with stromata (_cl_) (× by 2). _B_ Stroma divided longitudinally
-  to show the perithecia (_cp_). _C_ A perithecium with the
-  surrounding hyphæ (_hy_). _D_ An ascus ruptured, with the eight
-  filamentous ascospores emerging.]
-
-The most important member of this order is the ERGOT (_Claviceps
-purpurea_, Figs. 114, 115, 116). This Fungus is found in the flowers of
-many species of Grasses, especially the Rye, attacking and destroying
-the ovaries. In the FIRST or CONIDIAL STAGE of the attack, the ovaries
-are found covered with a white, irregularly folded mycelium (Fig. 114
-_m_, Fig. 115), formed of numerous hyphæ woven together and penetrating
-the wall of the ovary. From these a number of hyphæ (Fig. 114 _a_)
-project into the air and abstrict from their apices the conidia (_b_)
-which serve as reproductive organs. The mycelium also secretes a
-sticky, stinking fluid (honey-dew) in which the conidia are embedded
-in great numbers. The honey-dew exudes from the bases of the glumes,
-and is greedily sought by flies, which thus carry the conidia to
-other ovaries. In this manner fresh ears are infected, which might
-escape were the conidia only distributed by the wind. This stage
-formerly was regarded as an independent Fungus, known as _Sphacelia
-segetum_ (Fig. 115). On germination, the conidia produce either a new
-mycelium (Fig. 114 _d_, _c_), or new conidia. The SECOND or SCLEROTIUM
-STAGE is the one in which the Fungus passes the winter. The mycelium
-penetrates deeper and deeper into the attacked ovaries, their tissues
-are destroyed and replaced by the hyphæ, which gradually become more
-and more felted together. A firm, pseudo-parenchymatous mass of hyphæ
-is thus formed at the base of the loosely-woven _Sphacelia_, which is
-in part transformed into the hard sclerotium, and the remainder thrown
-off. A dark, hard, poisonous body, longer than the natural grain,
-is thus formed; these bodies are known as Ergots, and were formerly
-considered to be a distinct species,--_Sclerotium clavus_ (“Secale
-cornutum,” Ergot, Fig. 116 _A_, _c_). The THIRD STAGE, described as
-_Claviceps purpurea_, is developed in the following spring from the
-germinating sclerotium, which produces dark-red stromata with short
-stalks. In the stroma numerous perithecia with asci and ascospores are
-produced. The latter may infect young flowers of the cereals, in which
-the disease is then developed as before.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 117.--_Nectria cinnabarina_: _a_ branch of
-  _Acer pseudoplatanus_, with conidial-layers and perithecia (nat.
-  size); _b_ a conidial-layer (_Tuberculoria vulgaris_); _c_, a
-  mass of perithecia. (_b_ and _c_ × 8.)]
-
-   Several species of the genus _Nectria_, with blood-red
-   perithecia, are found as dangerous parasites, especially _N.
-   ditissima_, which causes “Canker” in the Beech, Ash, and Apple,
-   etc.; _N. cucurbitula_, which appears on Pine-trees, and _N.
-   cinnabarina_ (Fig. 117), whose conidial form was formerly named
-   _Tubercularia vulgaris_.--_Polystigma rubrum_ forms shining
-   red spots on the green leaves of _Prunus_-species.--_Epichloë
-   typhina_ is parasitic on the sheaths of Grasses, on which it
-   first forms a white conidial-layer, later on a yellow layer of
-   perithecia.--_Cordyceps_ (Chrysalis Fungus, Figs. 118, 119)
-   lives in and destroys insects, and after compassing their death
-   produces the club-formed, generally yellow, stromata, one part
-   of which bears conidia (_Isaria_) and another perithecia. _C.
-   militaris_ (Fig. 118) on the chrysalides and caterpillars of
-   moths, is the most common.
-
-   The so-called _Botrytis bassiana_, which produces the disease
-   known by the name of “Muscardine,” in silkworms, is probably a
-   conidial form belonging to _Cordyceps_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 118.--_Cordyceps militaris._ I Stromata with
-  conidiophores (_Isaria farinosa_). II A larva, with stromata,
-  bearing perithecia. III A spore.]
-
-   [Illustration: FIG. 119.--_Cordyceps robertii_ on the larva of
-  _Hepialus virescens_: _a_ stalk of stroma; _b_ perithecia.]
-
-
-                      Sub-Family 2. =Sphæriales.=
-
-To this sub-family belong the majority of the Pyrenomycetes. The
-perithecia are of a _firm consistence_ (tough, leathery, woody or
-carbonaceous), and of a _dark_ colour. Their _covering_ is _quite
-distinct from the stroma_ when this structure is present. The
-stromata are sometimes very large, and may be either cushion-like,
-crustaceous, upright and club-like, or branched bodies. In general,
-small, inconspicuous Fungi, living on dead vegetable matter, sometimes
-parasites. Free conidiophores and conidiocarps are known in many
-species, and in several, chlamydospore-like forms of reproduction.
-Orders 3–18 constitute the Sphæriaceæ of older systematists.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 120.--_Strickeria obducens_: _a_ a portion
-  of an Ash-branch with the bark partly thrown off; on the wood
-  are numerous black perithecia (× 20); _b_ longitudinal section
-  through a perithecium; _c_ a spore; _d_ longitudinal section
-  through a pycnidium whose ascospores are being ejected; _e_
-  portion of the same, with hyphæ and spores.]
-
-Order 1. =Sordariaceæ.=--Fungi living on dung with fragile perithecia,
-either aerial or buried in the substratum. The dark brown or black
-spores have either a mucilaginous envelope (_Sordaria_, etc.) or
-mucilaginous appendages (_Podospora_), by means of which their
-expulsion and distribution are promoted.
-
-Order 2. =Chætomiaceæ.= Perithecia fragile, free, bearing on the summit
-a tuft of hairs. _Chætomium_, on decaying vegetable matter.
-
-Orders 3–7. _Perithecia scattered or aggregated, situated from the
-commencement on the surface of the substratum. Stroma wanting._
-
-Order 3. =Trichosphæriaceæ.= _Trichosphæria parasitica_ (Fig. 121),
-on _Abies alba_; _Herpotrichia nigra_ on _Picea excelsa_ and _Pinus
-montana_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 121.--_Trichosphæria parasitica_: _a_ a
-  twig of _Abies alba_, with epiphytic mycelium; _b_ a leaf with
-  mycelium and sporangia (magnified); _c_ a sporangium (× 60); _d_
-  an ascus with spores (× 550).]
-
-Order 4. =Melanommaceæ.= _Rosellinia quercina_ lives in the roots of
-1–3-year-old Oaks, and destroys the plants.
-
-Order 5. =Ceratostomaceæ.=
-
-Order 6. =Amphisphæriaceæ.= _Strickeria obducens_ (Fig. 120) has
-brick-like spores, and lives aggregated on the hard branches of
-_Fraxinus_.
-
-Order 7. =Lophiostomaceæ.=
-
-Order 8. =Cucurbitariaceæ.= Perithecia tufted, _at first embedded, then
-breaking through_, often situated upon an indistinct _stroma_.
-
-Orders 9–13. _The perithecia remain embedded, and are only liberated
-by the casting off of the covering layers of the substratum. Stroma
-wanting._
-
-Order 9. =Sphærellaceæ.= The species of _Sphærella_ have colourless,
-bicellular spores. They live upon the leaves of many plants, and
-develope spherical perithecia upon the fallen leaves.
-
-Order 10. =Pleosporaceæ.= The conidial-forms of _Pleospora herbarum_
-and _P. vulgaris_ form a black covering on various plants, known as
-“smuts.”--_Venturia ditricha_ occurs on the underside of dry Birch
-leaves, and perhaps to this belongs the conidial-form, _Fusicladium
-pirinum_, which causes the “Rust spots” on Apples and Pears.
-
-Order 11. =Massariaceæ.=
-
-Order 12. =Clypeosphæriaceæ.=
-
-Order 13. =Gnomoniaceæ.= Perithecia, with peak-like aperture. _Gnomonia
-erythrostoma_ in the leaves of _Prunus avium_, which turn brown and do
-not fall in autumn.
-
-Orders 14–18. _Stroma generally well developed. The perithecia
-are embedded in the stroma, but when this is rudimentary, in the
-substratum._
-
-Order 14. =Valsaceæ.= _Valsa._
-
-Order 15. =Diatrypaceæ.= _Diatrype._
-
-Order 16. =Melanconidaceæ.=
-
-Order 17. =Melogrammataceæ.=
-
-Order 18. =Xylariaceæ.= This order is the most highly developed of the
-Sphæriales. The _stroma_ arises on the _surface of the substratum_,
-which is generally dead or decorticated wood; it is well-developed,
-crustaceous, hemispherical or upright. In the younger conditions
-it is covered with a layer of conidia, and later on it bears the
-_perithecia_, arranged in a layer immediately _beneath its surface_.
-The ascospores are of a dark colour. Often also there are free
-conidiophores.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 122.--_Xylaria hypoxylon_ (nat. size) on a
-  tree stump: _a_ younger, _b_ an older stroma, both of which, with
-  the exception of the black lower portion, are covered with white
-  conidia; _n_, spot where the perithecia are developed; _c_ an
-  old stroma with upper part fallen off; _d_, _e_ large branched
-  stromata; _k_ conidia.]
-
-   _Hypoxylon_ and _Ustulina_ have a cushion-like
-   or crustaceous stroma.--_Xylaria_ has a club-shaped
-   or branched stroma, often several centimetres high. _X.
-   hypoxylon_ (Fig. 122) and _X. polymorpha_ occur on old
-   tree stumps.--_Poronia_ grows on old horse dung, and has a
-   conical stroma.
-
-
-                     Sub-Family 3. =Dothideales.=
-
-The _perithecia_ are always embedded in a _black stroma_, and are _not
-distinctly separated_ from it. The accessory forms of reproduction are:
-conidiophores, conidiocarps, and yeast-like conidia. The majority are
-parasites. One order.
-
-   Order =Dothideaceæ=. _Phyllachora graminis_ produces scab-like
-   patches on the leaves of the Grasses.--_Scirrhia rimosa_ grows
-   on the leaf-sheathes of _Phragmites_.--_Rhopographus pteridis_
-   on _Pteridium aquilinum_.
-
-
-                       Family 4. =Hysteriales.=
-
-This family, like the following, has hemiangiocarpic ascocarps
-(_apothecia_). These are closed in the early stages, but when ripe
-_open_ in a _valvular manner_ by a _longitudinal fissure_; they
-are black, oblong, and often twisted. Some species are parasites,
-especially upon the Coniferæ.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 123.--_Lophodermium (Hypoderma)
-  nervisequium_: _a_ two leaves of _Abies alba_ seen from above
-  with pycnidia; _b_ a leaf seen from the underside with apothecia;
-  _c_ an ascus with ascospores. (× 500.)]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 124.--Three leaves of the Red-pine with
-  _Lophodermium macrosporum_: _a_ under side of the leaves with
-  apothecia; _b_ a leaf from upper side with pycnidia. (× about 2.)]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 125.--_Lophodermium pinastri_: _a_ leaves of
-  _Pinus sylvestris_ with apothecia (nat. size); _b_ two paraphyses
-  and an ascus with filamentous spores.]
-
-Order 1. =Hysteriaceæ.= _Hysterium pulicare_ upon the ruptured bark of
-many trees.
-
-Order 2. =Hypodermaceæ.= The species of _Lophodermium_ live upon the
-leaves of Conifers, and are the cause of their falling off (_blight_).
-_L. pinastri_ (Fig. 125), on the leaves of _Pinus_ and _Picea_; the
-leaves become red-brown and fall off; at first conidiocarps are formed,
-and later apothecia; _L. nervisequium_ (Fig. 123), on _Abies alba_;
-_L. macrosporum_ (Fig. 124), on _Picea excelsa_; _L. brachysporum_, on
-_Pinus strobus_.
-
-Order 3. =Dichænaceæ.=
-
-Order 4. =Acrospermaceæ.=
-
-
-                       Family 5. =Discomycetes.=
-
-The ascocarps (_apothecia_) are at first closed, and _only open_ at
-the time of their ripening, not valvularly, but more or less like a
-_saucer_ or _cup_, so that the hymenium lies exposed on their upper
-surface. In the first three sub-families, and generally also in the
-fourth, the apothecia are formed inside the substratum. The apothecia
-are, in contrast to the Pyrenomycetes, light and brightly coloured,
-and their size varies very much, and may be several centimetres in
-diameter. Paraphyses are often present between the asci; they often
-contain colouring matter, and give to the disc its characteristic
-colour. The tissue on which the asci are borne is known as the
-_hypothecium_. The shape and colour of the spores is not so varied as
-in the Pyrenomycetes. The accessory forms of reproduction are conidia
-(sometimes of two forms), chlamydospores, and oidia. The family is
-divided into 5 sub-families.
-
-
-                     Sub-Family 1. =Phacidiales.=
-
-The apothecia are developed in the interior of the substratum, which
-they break through, and in general dehisce apically. The envelope is
-tough and black. Hypothecium inconspicuous; hymenium flat.
-
-   Order 1. =Euphacidiaceæ.= _Phacidium abietinum_, on the leaves
-   of _Abies alba_.--_Rhytisma_; the pycnidia are found in the
-   summer on the green leaves, while the apothecia are developed
-   on the fallen leaves and dehisce in the following spring. _R.
-   acerinum_ causes black spots on the leaves of the Sycamore, and
-   _R. salicinum_ on Willows.
-
-   Order 2. =Pseudophacidiaceæ.=
-
-
-                     Sub-Family 2. =Stictidales.=
-
-The apothecia when ripe break through the substratum which forms a
-border round them. Hymenium generally saucer-shaped.
-
-   Order 1. =Stictidaceæ.= _Stictis._
-
-   Order 2. =Ostropaceæ.= _Ostropa._
-
-
-                     Sub-Family 3. =Tryblidiales.=
-
-The apothecia are embedded in the substratum in the early stages, and
-then are raised high above it. Hypothecium thick. Hymenium cup-shaped.
-
-   Order 1. =Tryblidiaceæ.= _Tryblidium._
-
-   Order 2. =Heterosphæriaceæ.= _Heterosphæria patella_
-   on the dead stalks of Umbellifers.
-
-
-                     Sub-Family 4. =Dermateales.=
-
-The apothecia in the early stages are embedded in the substratum and
-then break through it, or are from the first situated on the surface of
-the substratum. Hypothecium thick.
-
-   Order 1. =Cenangiaceæ.= _Cenangium._
-
-   Order 2. =Dermateaceæ.= _Dermatea._
-
-   Order 3. =Patellariaceæ.= _Patellea_,
-   _Biatorella_, _Patellaria_.
-
-   Order 4. =Caliciaceæ.= _Calicium_, _Coniocybe_, etc., on the
-   bark of trees.
-
-   Order 5. =Arthoniaceæ.= _Arthonia_ on the bark of several trees.
-   _Celidium stictarum_ on the apothecia of _Sticta pulmonaria_.
-
-   Order 6. =Bulgariaceæ.= Apothecia gelatinous under moist
-   conditions, and horny when dried.--_Calloria fusarioides_; the
-   red apothecia break out in the spring on the dried stalks of
-   _Urtica dioica_; a gelatinous reproductive form of the Fungus is
-   found before the apothecia, which consists of oidia (formerly
-   described as “_Dacryomyces urticæ_”).--_Bulgaria inquinans_ on
-   the living or fallen trucks of Oaks and Beeches.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 126.--_Botrytis cinerea_: _a_ slightly
-  magnified; _b_ more highly magnified; _c_ germinating conidium.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 127.--_Sclerotinia fuckeliania_: _a_
-  sclerotium with conidiophores; _b_ with apothecia; _c_ section
-  through sclerotium and apothecium; _d_ ascus with eight
-  ascospores. (× 390.)]
-
-
-                      Sub-Family 5. =Pezizales.=
-
-_The apothecia are developed on the surface of the substratum and
-are waxy or fleshy_; at the commencement closed, and covered with a
-saucer- or cup-shaped, seldom flat, hymenium. The _hypothecium_ is
-generally well developed. This sub-family is the richest in species of
-the Discomycetes and contains forms of very different habit. They grow
-upon dead wood, upon the ground, and upon dung. A few are parasites.
-
-Order 1. =Helotiaceæ.= Apothecia with waxy envelope of colourless,
-or yellowish prosenchymatous cells.--~_Chlorosplenium æruginosum_
-is found on decaying wood (particularly Oak and Birch), to which it
-gives a green colour. _Sclerotinia_ has sclerotia which are developed
-upon the host-plant and from which, after a period of rest, the long,
-brown-stalked apothecia arise. _S. ciborioides_ (_S. trifoliorum_,
-Fig. 128) is parasitic on Clover; _S. sclerotiorum_, on _Daucus_-roots,
-_Phaseolus_, etc.; _S. baccarum_, on the berries of _Vaccinium
-myrtillus_; “_Botrytis cinerea_” is a common parasite and is probably
-the conidial form of _S. fuckeliania_ (Fig. 127).--_Helotium herbarum_
-lives on dry plant stems.--_Dasyscypha willkommii_ (Fig. 129) produces
-Larch-canker on the bark of the Larch.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 128.--_Sclerotinia ciborioides_: _a_
-  sclerotium with three apothecia slightly magnified; _b_ ascus
-  with eight ascospores; _c_ germinating ascospore.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 129.--_Dasyscypha willkommii_: _a_ portion of
-  bark of _Larix decidua_ with sessile, cup-shaped apothecia (nat.
-  size); _b_ two paraphyses on either side of an ascus with eight
-  ascospores.]
-
-  Order 2. =Mollisiaceæ.= _Mollisia cinerea_, principally on
-  decaying wood.
-
-Order 3. =Pezizaceæ.= This order contains the largest and
-morphologically the highest forms of the _Discomycetes_. Apothecia
-fleshy, and in the later conditions generally saucer-shaped.
-
-   _Peziza_, with sessile apothecia, growing on the ground;
-   _P. cochleata_ is brown, and coiled like a snail-shell; _P.
-   coccinea_ is scarlet; _P. aurantia_ occurs as an orange-coloured
-   expansion on the ground.
-
-   Order 4. =Ascobolaceæ.= Apothecia fleshy; in the later stages
-   flat or convex. The asci are, comparatively speaking, large,
-   and often contain a great number of spores which escape by the
-   casting off of a lid on the summit of the ascus. Generally
-   living on dung.--_Ascobolus furfuraceus_, etc.
-
-
-                       Family 6. =Helvellales.=
-
-These Fungi have the appearance of clubs, bells, or mushrooms,
-consisting of an upright _stalk_ bearing a _large and fleshy_ head, on
-the _exterior surface_ of which the _hymenium_ is spread. The ascocarps
-are probably gymnocarpic from the beginning, and on this account
-these plants are placed in a separate family. The development of the
-ascocarps is unknown. The _Morchella_ (Morell) grows on the ground;
-some species are edible. 1 order.
-
-   Order. =Helvellaceæ.= _Spathulea_ is yellow and club-shaped,
-   and forms “fairy rings” in woods.--_Geoglossum_ (Earth-tongue)
-   projects above the ground as a black tongue, or as a
-   club-shaped body. Several species are found in meadows and
-   on heaths.--_Helvella_ has a stalk, bearing an irregularly
-   folded head, on the external surface of which is the
-   hypothecium.--_Morchella_ (Morell, Fig. 130), the stalk bears on
-   its summit the conical or spherical head, the external surface
-   of which is reticulate and bears the asci.--_Mitrula. Verpa._
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 130.--_Morchella esculenta_: _a_ an entire
-  specimen, about one half natural size; _b_ longitudinal section
-  through the head.]
-
-
-                     APPENDIX TO THE ASCOMYCETES:
-
-
-        Family 7. =Ascolichenes (Lichen-forming Ascomycetes).=
-
-The Lichens were formerly classed among the Thallophyta as a group
-quite distinct from the Algæ and Fungi. Investigations during the last
-twenty-five years, however, have conclusively proved that the Lichens
-are Fungi which reproduce in the same manner as the Ascomycetes, or,
-more rarely, the Basidiomycetes, and have entered into a peculiar
-_symbiotic relation with Algæ_, especially the Cyanophyceæ and
-Protococcoideæ, with which they associate, and without which they
-would be unable to exist. The Fungus forms the largest portion of the
-Lichen, enclosing the Alga with which it may be said to be commensal.
-The Fungus especially produces reproductive bodies and absorbs the
-inorganic nourishment through the rhizoids, whilst the Alga supplies
-it with the organic materials. In consequence of this the Lichens, in
-contradistinction to other Fungi, need light for the development of
-their nutritive organs, and are therefore, in any case internally, of
-a more or less greenish colour. The form and condition of the thallus
-is unusual among the Fungi, and they can grow upon rocks and in other
-places where no dead organic matter, such as would be required by other
-Fungi, is obtainable.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 131.--Transverse section through the thallus
-  of _Sticta fuliginosa_ (× 500): _r-r_ rhizoid-strands, which
-  arise from the under side; _g-g_ gonidial layer; _m_ medullary
-  layer; _o_ upper, _u_ lower cortex.]
-
-Two cellular forms are therefore to be found in each Lichen:
-
-1. The cells which belong to the Fungus. These are generally septate,
-branched _hyphæ_ without any trace of chlorophyll. In the thallus of
-the majority of Lichens there may be found a medullary layer (Fig.
-131 _m_) of loosely-woven hyphæ, between which there are large air
-chambers; and an _external layer_ (cortex) (Fig. 131 _o_, _u_) formed
-of closely-woven hyphæ without any intercellular spaces. In some
-Lichens (Collemaceæ) the hyphæ wind about in the thallus, being equally
-distributed throughout, without forming any decided strata. These
-Lichens moreover become gelatinous when exposed to moisture (Fig. 132),
-on account of the swelling of the walls of the Algæ. The hyphæ contain
-protoplasm with drops of oil, but never starch; their walls easily
-swell when exposed to damp after having been dried, and in some (_e.g._
-_Cetraria islandica_) they become gelatinous when cooked. Certain
-strata of hyphæ become blue on treatment with iodine alone, from which
-it is inferred that the wall is allied, in its chemical nature, to
-starch.
-
-2. The enclosed Algæ, termed “gonidia.” Some belonging to the
-Cyanophyceæ, Protococcoideæ, (especially _Pleurococcus_) and
-Chroococcaceæ, are spherical and are found isolated, or in irregular
-_groups_ of cells (Fig. 131 _g_); some belonging to _Nostoc_ (Fig. 132
-_g_), Lyngbyaceæ, etc., are placed in cell-rows. Each Lichen, as a
-rule, has only one definite Algal-form for its gonidium.
-
-The gonidia either lie together in a certain stratum between the
-cortex and the medullary layer (Fig. 131 _g_), or are scattered
-irregularly throughout the entire thallus (Fig. 132). The thallus is
-in the first instance termed “heteromerous,” in the second instance,
-“homoiomerous.” The Fungal-hyphæ embrace the gonidia and apply
-themselves closely to, or even penetrate them, and hence it has been
-difficult to decide whether the one cellular form does or does not
-develop from the other (Figs. 134, 135).
-
-   This theory regarding the symbiosis of Fungi and Algæ to form
-   a Lichen is termed the Schwendenerian theory, after the first
-   scientist who advanced it with any weight. It had been already
-   indicated by De Bary, and further arguments in its support have
-   at a later time been adduced by Bornet, Stahl, Treub, Frank,
-   Bonnier, Alfr. Möller and others.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 132.--_Collema microphyllum._ Transverse
-  section through the thallus; _g Nostoc_-chains; _h_ hyphæ.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 133.--_Ephebe pubescens._ The apex of a
-  branch of the thallus with two lateral branches (_s_): _h_ its
-  hyphæ; _g_ the apical gonidium of the main branch.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 134.--_Nostoc lichenoides_, which is attached
-  by a germinating thread (_h_) of _Collema glaucescens_.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 135.--_A_ Germinating spore of _Physcia
-  parietina_ with _Protococcus viridis_. _B Synalissa symphorea_
-  with _Glæocapsa_. _C Cladonia furcata_ with _Protococcus_.]
-
-The thallus of the Lichen appears mainly under three forms:--
-
-1. The CRUSTACEOUS, which adheres firmly to the substratum (bark,
-stone) throughout its entire surface, without being raised into any
-free patches or lobes. It has, in many instances, no definite outline,
-and hyphal-branches from it often penetrate deeply into the substratum.
-It grows at the circumference and sometimes dies away in the centre
-(Figs. 138, 139, 140).
-
-2. The FOLIACEOUS. This also lies flat upon the substratum, but is not
-firmly attached to and has a definite outline. It grows at the margin,
-and raises itself a little by free outgrowths and lobes (Fig. 141). The
-rhizoid-strands spring out from its whitish under surface (Fig. 131,
-_r_).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 136.--Portion of a hymenium: _d_ a thin
-  stratum on which the asci (_s_) are situated.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 137.--Spores of, _a Cladonia_, _Lecanora_
-  and _Pertusaria_; _b Bæomyces_; _c Sphinctrina_; _d_, _e_,
-  _f_ various species of _Parmelia_; _g_, _h Verrucaria_ in its
-  younger and older condition; _i_, _k_ species of _Leptogium_.]
-
-3. The FRUTICOSE, which is attached to its substratum at a small point
-from which it projects freely, either erect or pendulous. It is more
-or less tufted, in the form of a bush (Figs. 142, 143). These three
-thallus-forms gradually pass over by many intermediate forms into one
-another.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 138.--_Lecanora subfusca_: _a_ the bark on
-  which it is situated; _l_ the thallus; _s_ the ascocarp; _s’_ an
-  ascocarp.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 139.--_Graphis_ (two species).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 140.--_Pertusaria communis._]
-
-The Lichens, like other Ascomycetes, have very variously constructed
-ascospores (Fig. 137), which are enclosed in asci (Fig. 136), usually
-surrounded by paraphyses attached together. Furthermore they possess
-pycnidia (Fig. 141) containing numerous microconidia. These were
-formerly considered as organs of fructification, and were termed
-“spermatia,” and the pycnidia, “spermogonia.” Alfr. Möller proved,
-in 1887, that the microconidia are able to germinate and produce a
-mycelium with new conidia, just as in other Ascomycetes.
-
-VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION takes place by _soredia_, which to the naked
-eye appear as whitish powder on the surface of the thallus. They are
-small round bodies, formed by one or a group of gonidia, which are
-surrounded by a mass of felted hyphæ. After the rupture of the cortex
-they are set free, and readily carried by the wind to other places,
-where under favourable circumstances they establish a new thallus.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 141.--_A_ A portion of the thallus of
-  _Parmelia parietina_ with ascocarps (_a_) and pycnidia (_b_). _B_
-  A portion of the thallus of _Cetraria islandica_ with pycnidia
-  at the end of small lobes. _C_ A lobe with pycnidia and ejected
-  microconidia. (Magnified).]
-
-GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. The Lichens are the most hardy plants, and
-are the first to appear on hitherto bare rocks which they gradually
-disintegrate, and hence prepare the way for the growth of other plants.
-They are to be found from the Polar regions to the Equator; from the
-highest snow-free mountain-peaks down to the level of the sea; on the
-stems of trees; on rocks, soil, some even on inundated places; on
-stones in woodland streams, and on beaches; but they are never found
-upon rotten organic remains. Some grow gregariously in enormous masses,
-and form wide-stretching carpets, _e.g._ Reindeer Moss (_Cladonia
-rangiferina_), species of _Cetraria_ and other fruticose Lichens.
-
-USES. On account of the cell-wall being composed of Lichenstarch
-(Lichenin), the Iceland-Lichen and Manna-Lichen (_Lecanora esculenta_)
-are used as food; the latter grows on stones, in the deserts of Asia
-and North Africa, and is often torn loose in large masses and carried
-away by the wind. The Reindeer-Lichen is not only the principal food of
-the reindeer, but it is also used in the manufacture of Danish brandy.
-_Cetraria islandica_ (Lichen islandicus) is OFFICINAL. Colouring
-materials (lacmus, orseille, persio) are made from several species,
-especially from _Roccella tinctoria_ (from the rocky coasts of the
-Mediterranean). _Parmelia saxatilis_ and particularly _Lecanora
-tartarea_ are used for colouring purposes in the Northern countries.
-
-About 2,000 species of Lichens have been described. If we disregard the
-Basidiolichenes, which will be considered on page 176, the remaining
-Lichens (Ascolichenes) may be divided into the two following orders
-according to the structure of the fruit-bodies:--
-
-Order 1. =Pyrenolichenes.= The ascocarps (apothecia) are spherical or
-flask-shaped, as in the Pyrenomycetes, more rarely linear (_Graphis_).
-
-   According to the nature of the thallus, these Lichens may be
-   divided into:--
-
-   _a._ Thallus homoiomerous, but not gelatinous, branching
-   according to the mode of growth of the Algæ: _Ephebe_ (Fig.
-   133), with Algæ of the genus _Stigonema_.
-
-   _b._ Thallus homoiomerous, gelatinous: _Lichina_.
-
-   _c._ Thallus heteromerous, crustaceous: _Verrucaria_,
-   _Pyrenula_; _Graphis_ (Fig. 139), which may be considered as
-   Hysteriaceæ with gonidia; several species of _Graphis_ are
-   common on bark.
-
-   _d._ Thallus heteromerous, foliaceous: _Endocarpon_.
-
-   _e._ Thallus heteromerous, fruticose: _Sphærophorus_.
-
-Order 2. =Discolichenes.= These, as in the Discomycetes, have open
-apothecia, which, as a rule, are cupular, more rarely hemispherical
-(_Cladonia_).
-
-   According to the nature of the thallus, these Lichens may be
-   divided into:--
-
-   _a._ Thallus homoiomerous, but not gelatinous, branching
-   according to the mode of growth of the Algæ: _Cœnogonium_.
-
-   _b._ Thallus homoiomerous, gelatinous: _Collema_ (Fig. 132),
-   with Algæ of the genus _Nostoc_; _Leptogium_.
-
-   _c._ Thallus heteromerous, crustaceous: _Pertusaria_ (Fig.
-   140), _Lecidea_, with apothecia open from the beginning;
-   _Lecanora_, with apothecia, which in the beginning are closed,
-   later on open, but with a rim formed by the thallus (Fig. 138);
-   _Bæomyces_, whose apothecia are borne on a stem formed by the
-   thallus.
-
-   _d._ Thallus heteromerous, foliaceous: _Parmelia_ (_P.
-   saxatilis_; _P. parietina_, Wall-Lichen, Fig. 141, is yellow,
-   very frequent on tree-stems, stone-walls, tiles); _Physcia_ (_P.
-   ciliaris_, frequent on tree-stems); _Sticta_ (_S. pulmonacea_,
-   Lung-Lichen, on tree-stems); _Peltigera_, especially on the Moss
-   among trees; _Umbilicaria_, on rocks.
-
-   _e._ Thallus heteromerous, fruticose: _Cetraria_ (_C.
-   islandica_), “Iceland Moss,” with an olive-brown, flat,
-   furrowed, fringed thallus, on heaths; _C. nivalis_, white, in
-   the Polar regions; _Evernia_, _Ramalina_, _Usnea_ (_U. barbata_,
-   Beard-Lichen, Fig. 143); _Roccella_, _Stereocaulon_, _Cladonia_,
-   of which the genus _C. rangiferina_, Reindeer-Moss (Fig. 142) is
-   important; _Cladonia_ has two kinds of thallus, one scaly and
-   leaf-like, the other erect, which bears the apothecia and may be
-   fruticose (Fig. 142), or cupular (Fig. 144); they grow in soil
-   in forests and on heaths.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 142.--_Cladonia rangiferina_: _s_ ascocarp.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 143.--_Usnea barbata_: _s_ ascocarp.
-  (Slightly magnified.)]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 144.--_Cladonia pyxidata._]
-
-
-                    Sub-Class 2. =Basidiomycetes.=
-
-This sub-class embraces the most highly developed Fungi, with large
-“fruit-bodies,” which in ordinary language we shortly term Funguses,
-Toadstools, or Mushrooms.
-
-They have no sporangia, but reproduce only by means of basidiospores,
-conidia, chlamydospores and oidia. The chief characteristic of this
-sub-class is the _basidium_ (Fig. 145), _i.e._ the conidiophore, which
-has a distinctive form, and bears a definite number (generally 4) of
-characteristically shaped conidia (basidiospores, Fig. 145 _c_, _d_,
-_e_).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 145.--Development of spores in _Corticium_.]
-
-The summit of each basidium is produced generally into four conical
-points (_sterigmata_, Fig. 145 _b_), from each of which a basidiospore
-is abstricted. The basidia may be classified into three principal
-groups, each of which accompanies a distinctive conidiophore: 1,
-the long, filamentous, _transversely divided_ basidia, with lateral
-sterigmata and spores, found in the Uredinaceæ (Figs. 146 _D_, 153),
-Auriculariaceæ (Fig. 160 _B_), and Pilacraceæ; 2, the spherical,
-_longitudinally divided_ basidia of the Tremellaceæ (Figs. 160 _C d_;
-161 iii. iv.); and 3, the ovoid, or cylindrical, _undivided_ basidia of
-the Autobasidiomycetes (Figs. 145, 163, etc.); the two last have apical
-sterigmata and spores.
-
-   The first two groups are the septate basidia (_protobasidia_),
-   of the _Protobasidiomycetes_; while the unseptate basidia
-   (autobasidia) of the _Autobasidiomycetes_ are the third group.
-   On the formation of the basidiospores, the nucleus of the
-   basidium divides into four nuclei, each of which is transferred
-   to a spore.
-
-In addition to the basidia, _simple conidiophores_ are also found.
-In the Protobasidiomycetes, the simple conidia are very generally
-found as accessory methods of reproduction in conjunction with the
-basidiospores; but less frequently in the Autobasidiomycetes, _e.g._
-among the Dacryomycetes, Tomentellaceæ, _Heterobasidion annosum_.
-
-   The simple conidiophores vary in size, and in the number and
-   shape of the conidia; they, however, resemble the basidia,
-   and are doubtless an early stage in the development of the
-   definitely formed basidia.
-
-Finally, well-defined _chlamydospores_, formed in various ways, appear
-in the Basidiomycetes as supplementary reproductive bodies (compare p.
-90). Among the Protobasidiomycetes, chlamydospores are at present only
-found among the Uredinaceæ, but in various forms; in the majority of
-families of the Autobasidiomycetes _oidia_ frequently occur (Fig. 162),
-but genuine chlamydospores seldom.
-
-In the same species several of the known forms of reproduction may be
-distinguished.
-
-The _mycelium_ is generally composed of white, branched strands,
-consisting of numerous felted hyphæ; in some, sclerotia are found.--The
-great majority are saprophytes; some (particularly all the Uredinaceæ),
-are parasites.
-
-
-   DIVISIONS OF THE BASIDIOMYCETES.
-
-    Series 1. PROTOBASIDIOMYCETES: partly gymnocarpic, partly
-                angiocarpic.
-      „    2. AUTOBASIDIOMYCETES.
-                Family 1. DACRYOMYCETES: gymnocarpic.
-                  „    2. HYMENOMYCETES: partly gymnocarpic, partly
-                            hemiangiocarpic.
-                  „    3. PHALLOIDEÆ: hemiangiocarpic.
-                  „    4. GASTEROMYCETES: angiocarpic.
-      Appended. BASIDIOLICHENES: Lichen-forming basidiomycetes.
-
-
-                   Series I. =Protobasidiomycetes.=
-
-To this series belong the lowest of the Basidiomycetes. The _basidia_
-appear in two principal forms (1 and 2 on page 144) and are _divided_
-into four cells, either transversely or longitudinally, each division
-forming a sterigma which abstricts a basidiospore. The first three
-orders, Uredinaceæ, Auriculariaceæ, and Tremellaceæ have _gymnocarpic_
-fruit-bodies, while those of the Pilacraceæ, on the contrary, are
-_angiocarpic_.
-
-Order 1. =Uredinaceæ (Rusts).= All the Rust-Fungi are parasites, their
-mycelium living in the interior of the stems and leaves of their
-hosts, causing red, brown, or black spots--hence their name--and
-malformations, sometimes of considerable size.
-
-The Rust-Fungi are gymnocarpic and destitute of a hymenium; for these
-reasons they are regarded as the simplest order of the Basidiomycetes.
-They are entirely parasitic, and their filamentous, branched mycelium
-ramifies in the intercellular spaces of its host, and often protrudes
-haustoria into the cells. The mycelium is perennial should it enter a
-woody tissue; it may also hibernate in the rhizomes of perennial herbs
-and permeate the shoots springing from them, but in the majority of
-the Rust-Fungi the mycelium has a very limited growth. The chief means
-of reproduction of the Rust-Fungi are the _chlamydospores_, which in
-the more highly developed species occur in three forms, namely, the
-teleuto-, æcidio-, and uredo-spores. The spores, in the host, are
-formed immediately beneath its epidermis, which is ruptured on the
-ripening of the spores, with the production of “rust,” brown, red, or
-black spots. Those chlamydospores which produce basidia are termed
-_teleutospores_. The spore on germination produces a _transversely
-divided basidium_, “promycelium,” on which basidiospores, “sporidia,”
-generally four in number, are produced on lateral sterigmata. This
-basidio-fructification is _gymnocarpic_; the basidia neither form a
-hymenium nor a fruit-body (only _Cronartium_ and _Gymnosporangium_ have
-a slight indication of a basidio-fructification).
-
-Many Rust-Fungi, in addition to basidiospores, have small, _unicellular
-conidia_, “spermatia,” which are borne in conidiocarps, “_spermogonia_.”
-
-The ~TELEUTOSPORES~ (_Winter-spores_) may be either unicellular or
-multicellular; in the majority of cases they are enclosed in a hard
-outer cell-wall, the exospore, which in some cases is very strongly
-developed; they have also a long or short stalk, the remains of the
-spore-bearing hypha. Each cell of the teleutospore has _one germ-pore_
-(a thin portion of the wall, for the protrusion of the germ-tube;
-in _Phragmidium_ and _Gymnosporangium_ there are, however, several
-germ-pores). The colour of the teleutospores is generally much darker
-than that of the uredospores, and it is by these that the majority of
-the Rust-Fungi _hibernate_.
-
-   In _Gymnosporangium_, two kinds of teleutospores are found
-   (distinguished by their size and thickness of exospore). In many
-   species of _Puccinia_, the form of the teleutospores varies
-   very much, so that in the same layer spores have been observed
-   with the characteristic form of other, allied genera.--The
-   teleutospores of _Endophyllum_ resemble æcidiospores, since they
-   are united in chains, whose cells are easily separated, and are
-   produced in the interior of a “peridium.” The multicellular
-   teleutospores of _Coleosporium_ function as basidia, and from
-   each cell immediately produce basidiospores.--The teleutospores
-   of _Coleosporium_ and _Chrysomyxa_, differ from other
-   teleutospores in the absence of exospore and germ-pore.
-
-The ÆCIDOSPORES (_Spring-spores_) are produced in chains which are
-generally enclosed in an _envelope_ of hyphæ, the _peridium_; the
-_peridium_ enclosing the spores being termed the _æcidium_. The
-æcidiospores are unicellular, and generally of an orange colour; they
-are often separated by intermediate cells which wither and so assist
-in the distribution of the spores. The exospore is made up of minute,
-radially arranged rods. _Generally germination_ proceeds _immediately_,
-the æcidiospore producing a germ-tube, which developes into a mycelium
-bearing either uredo- or teleutospores.
-
-   The æcidia of many Rust-Fungi were formerly considered as
-   distinct genera. The æcidia of _Phragmidium_, _Triphragmium_,
-   and _Melampsora_, in which the _peridium is wanting_, were in
-   part considered as _Cæoma_. The æcidia with fimbriate edge,
-   or those of _Gymnosporangium_ with longitudinal lattice-like
-   splits, were considered as “_Rœstelia_” (Lattice-Rust); large,
-   sac-shaped æcidia on the Coniferæ were known as _Peridermium_.
-
-The ~UREDOSPORES~ (_Summer-spores_) are unicellular and arise singly,
-seldom in chains (_Coleosporium_). Their colourless, warty exospore
-bears, _in the equatorial plane_, 2–8 _germ-pores_. In the majority,
-_germination_ proceeds _immediately_, and a mycelium is produced which
-at first gives rise to uredospores and afterwards to teleutospores.
-
-   The uredospore-formations of _Melampsorella_ and _Cronartium_
-   are enclosed in an _envelope_, and hence resemble
-   æcidia.--Between the uredospores sterile, unicellular hyphæ
-   (paraphyses) may be found.
-
-The _spermogonia_ are spherical or pear-shaped _conidiocarps_,
-generally embedded in the substratum, and are produced before the
-æcidia, before or simultaneously with the uredospores, or before the
-teleutospores. The conidia, as far as observations go, do not generally
-germinate under ordinary conditions.
-
-Among the Rust-Fungi some species are found which only form
-basidiospores and teleutospores (_Puccinia malvacearum_, _Chrysomyxa
-abietis_). Other species have in addition uredospores; others
-spermogonia and uredospores; others spermogonia and æcidia; others
-spermogonia, uredospores and æcidia. Those species in which all the
-methods of reproduction are not developed must not be considered as
-incomplete forms.
-
-As a rule the mycelium, which is produced from the basidiospores,
-developes æcidia; in the species, however, without æcidia, it
-developes the uredo-form, and when the uredospores are also absent,
-the teleutospore-form. It has been established in some species
-of _Puccinia_ and _Uromyces_ that the formation of æcidia can be
-suppressed, and it is not a necessary part of the cycle of development
-of the species.
-
-   The majority of Rust-Fungi hibernate in the teleutospore-form.
-   Many species are able to hibernate in the uredospore-form
-   (_Coleosporium senecionis_). Others pass the winter in the
-   æcidio-form, and develope æcidia on new hosts (_Uromyces pisi_,
-   on _Euphorbia cyparissias_; _Phragmidium subcorticium_, on
-   _Rosa_; _Æcidium elatinum_, on _Abies alba_). In _Chrysomyxa
-   abietis_, the mycelium, developed from the basidiospores,
-   survives the winter.
-
-Among the Rust-Fungi, with several forms of reproduction, there are
-about sixty whose development can only be completed by an _alternation
-of hosts_, that is, on one host only uredo-and teleutospores
-are produced, while the further development of the germinating
-basidiospores, and the formation of the æcidia and spermogonia from its
-mycelium, can only take place on a second quite distinct and definite
-host (_heterœcious_ or _metoxenous_ Fungi). Those Fungi which have all
-their forms of reproduction on the same host are termed _autœcious_ or
-_autoxenous_. It is not, however, always necessary that the heterœcious
-Rust-Fungi should regularly change their hosts; for example, _Puccinia
-graminis_ can hibernate in the uredo-form on the wild Grasses, and in
-the spring can distribute itself again in the same form.
-
-   As a consequence of the alternation of hosts the various forms
-   of development were considered as independent genera (_Uredo_,
-   _Æcidium_, _Rœstelia_, _Cæoma_, _Peridermium_), until De Bary
-   and Oersted established, about the same time (1865), the mutual
-   connection of some forms, and paved the way for the right
-   conception of these Fungi.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 146.--_Puccinia graminis_.]
-
-As an example of one of the most highly developed species, _Puccinia
-graminis_, the “Rust of Wheat,” holds a prominent position. Its
-uredospores and teleutospores are produced (Fig. 146) on Grasses
-(on cereals, especially Wheat, Rye, Oats, and many wild Grasses),
-while the æcidia and spermogonia are confined to the Berberidaceæ.
-The teleutospores, developed on the Grasses, hibernate on the dried
-portions of their host, and in the succeeding year each of the
-two cells of the teleutospore may develop a _basidium_ with four
-basidiospores (Fig. 146 _D_, _c_). The basidiospores are distributed by
-the wind, germinate quickly, and only proceed to further development on
-_Berberis_ or _Mahonia_. The germ-tube _bores through the epidermis_ of
-the Barberry-leaf, and forms a mycelium in its interior, its presence
-being indicated by reddish-yellow spots on the leaf. After 6–10 days
-the flask-shaped _spermogonia_ appear (Fig. 147 _B_; _C_, _a_; conidia
-in Fig. 147 _D_) and a few days later the cup-shaped _æcidia_ (Fig.
-147 _A_; _C_, _c_, _d_, _e_). The former are generally on the _upper_,
-and the latter on the _under side_ of the leaf. The orange-coloured
-æcidiospores scatter like dust, and germinate only on Grasses; the
-germination takes place in about two days when placed on any green
-part of a Grass. The germ-tube enters the Grass-leaf through a stoma;
-a mycelium is developed in the leaf, giving rise to a small, oval,
-rust-coloured spot (Fig. 146 _A_); in about 6–9 days the epidermis is
-ruptured over the red spot, and numerous reddish-yellow _uredospores_,
-formed on the mycelium, are set free. The uredospores (Fig. 146 _B_)
-are scattered by the wind, and can germinate should they fall on the
-green portions of other Grasses: they then emit 2–4 germ-tubes through
-the equatorially-placed germ-pores. The germ-tubes enter a leaf through
-a stoma, a new mycelium is then developed, and in about eight days
-a fresh production of uredospores takes place, which germinate as
-before. The uredospore-mycelium very soon produces, in addition, the
-brown _teleutospores_, which give a brown colour to the rust-coloured
-spots, the familiar uredospores on the cereals being quite suppressed
-towards the close of the summer (Fig. 146 _C, D_). The “Rust of Wheat”
-hibernates on some wild Grasses in the uredospore-form.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 147.--_Æcidium berberidis_. _A_ Portion of
-  lower surface of leaf of Barberry, with cluster-cups (æcidia).
-  _B_ A small portion of leaf, with spermogonia, from above. _C_
-  Transverse section of leaf on the upper side, in the palisade
-  parenchyma are three spermogonia (_a b_); on the lower side an
-  unripe æcidium (_c d_) and two ripe æcidia (_d, e, f_); _f_ chain
-  of æcidiospores. _D_ Hyphæ, forming conidia.]
-
-   GENERA. _Puccinia_ (Fig. 146, 147) has bicellular teleutospores,
-   each having a germ-pore, and the æcidia when present have an
-   indented peridium; some species, as exceptions, have 1–3-celled
-   teleutospores. Many species are HETERŒCIOUS, for example, _P.
-   graminis_, described above; _P. rubigo_, which also infests
-   various Grasses, but whose æcidia appear on _Anchusa_; the
-   masses of teleutospores are small; they contain paraphyses, and
-   are for a long time covered by the epidermis. _P. coronata_, on
-   Oats and Rye Grass; its æcidia on _Rhamnus_; the teleutospores
-   are surmounted by a crown--“coronate processes.” _P.
-   phragmitis_, on Reeds; æcidia on species of _Rumex_ and _Rheum_.
-   _P. moliniæ_, on _Molinia cœrulea_; the æcidia on Orchids.
-   _P. poarum_, on Meadow-Grass; æcidia on _Tussilago_. Various
-   Puccinias growing on species of _Carex_ have their æcidia on
-   _Urtica_, _Lysimachia_, _Cirsium_, _Pedicularis_, etc.--Of
-   those AUTŒCIOUS species, which have all their generations on the
-   same host, may be noted:--_P. galii_, _P. menthæ_, _P. violæ_,
-   _P. epilobii_, _P. asparagi_, which grow on the hosts from
-   which they have taken their specific names.--As representative
-   of a group which have spermogonia, uredo-and teleutospores on
-   the same host, but on different individuals, _P. suaveolens_,
-   on the Field-Thistle, may be mentioned. The spermogonia have
-   a strong odour.--A peculiar group (_Leptopuccinia_) has only
-   teleutospores, which germinate immediately, and whilst still
-   attached to their living host. To this group belong _P.
-   arenariæ_, on a number of Caryophyllaceæ; and _P. malvacearum_,
-   on various Malvaceæ, introduced in 1873 from South America to
-   Europe, where it soon proved very destructive to Hollyhocks.
-
-   _Uromyces_ (Fig. 149) differs only from _Puccinia_ in always
-   having unicellular teleutospores. Among this genus both
-   heterœcious and autœcious species are found. To the first
-   group belong _U. pisi_, whose æcidia are found on _Euphorbia
-   cyparissias_, and _U. dactylidis_, whose æcidia appear on
-   _Ranunculus_; to the second group belong _U. betæ_, _U.
-   phaseoli_, _U. trifolii_.
-
-   _Triphragmium_ has teleutospores with three cells (one below and
-   two above), on _Spiræa ulmaria_.
-
-   _Phragmidium_ (Fig. 150) has teleutospores consisting of a
-   row of cells (3–10) arranged in a straight line; the upper
-   cell has one germ-pore and the others four germ-pores placed
-   equatorially. Both this and the preceding genus have large,
-   irregular æcidia without peridia, but often with bent, club-like
-   paraphyses (150 _b_ and _c_); they are all autœcious, and are
-   only found on the Rosaceæ.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 148.--_Gymnosporangium sabinæ_. A small
-  portion of the epidermis of a Pear-leaf (_a_) pierced at _b_ by
-  the germinating basidiospore (_c_).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 149.--_Uromyces genisteæ_; _a_ uredospore;
-  _b_ teleutospore.]
-
-   _Endophyllum_ (see above, under teleutospores, p. 147) on
-   species of _Sempervivum_.
-
-   _Gymnosporangium_ (Figs. 152, 154) has bicellular teleutospores
-   collected in large, gelatinous masses formed by the swelling of
-   the long spore-stalks; in each cell 2–4 germ-pores are found.
-   Uredospores are wanting. All the species are heterœcious; the
-   teleutospores appear on _Juniperus_, the æcidia (_Rœstelia_)
-   on the Pomaceæ. _G. sabinæ_, on _Juniperus sabina_, _J.
-   virginiana_, etc., has the æcidia (“_Rœstelia cancellata_”)
-   on _Pyrus communis_ (Figs. 152, 148); _G. juniperinum_, on
-   _Juniperus communis_ with “_Rœstelia cornuta_” (Fig. 154 _a_)
-   on _Sorbus aucuparia_, _Aria nivea_ (_S. aria_) and _Malus
-   communis_; _G. clavariæforme_ on _Juniperus communis_, the
-   æcidium belonging to it (“_Rœstelia lacerata_”) on _Cratægus
-   oxyacantha_.
-
-   _Melampsora_ has prismatic teleutospores placed parallel to each
-   other and forming a crustaceous layer; in many species they
-   are divided longitudinally into several cells (Fig. 151). The
-   æcidia, without peridium, belonged to the old genus _Cæoma_.
-   _M. caprearum_, on Willows, has the æcidia (_Cæoma euonymi_) on
-   _Euonymus_. _M. hartigii_, on Osiers; the æcidium on _Ribes_.
-   _M. mixta_, on _Salix repens_ and Orchids. _M. pinitorqua_,
-   on leaves of the Aspen, æcidia on Pine branches (Pine shoot
-   fungus); _M. populina_ on _Populus monilifera_ and _nigra_; _M.
-   betulina_ (Fig. 153), on Birch leaves; _M. padi_ (Fig. 151),
-   on leaves of _Prunus padus_, developes teleutospores in the
-   epidermal cells; _M. lini_ is the cause of injury to the Flax;
-   _M. agrimoniæ_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 150.--_Phragmidium gracile_: _a_ an
-  uredospore; _b_ and _c_ two paraphyses; _d_ a young teleutospore;
-  _e_ a teleutospore with a basidium and two basidiospores (_s_);
-  _f_ two series of æcidiospores (_Ph. rosæ_).]
-
-   _Calyptospora gœppertiana_; teleutospores on _Vaccinium vitis
-   idæa_; spermogonia and æcidia on _Abies alba_ (Firneedle-Rust).
-
-   _Coleosporium_ (Fig. 155) forms its uredospores in
-   reddish-yellow chains; for the teleutospores, see page 147.
-   _C. senecionis_, on the Groundsel; its æcidium (_Peridermium
-   wolffii_) on Pine-leaves (Fig. 155 a). Other species on
-   _Sonchus_, _Petasites_, _Campanula_, _Rhinanthaceæ_.
-
-   _Chrysomyxa_ (Fig. 156) has bright red, branched
-   teleutospore-chains; each spore developes a 4-celled basidium.
-   _C. ledi_, on _Ledum palustre_; its æcidia on the leaves of the
-   Fir. _C. abietis_ (Fig. 156), without uredo-and æcidiospores;
-   teleutospores on the leaves of the Fir. In the first summer,
-   yellow bands are formed on the leaves, and in the following
-   spring the red cushions of spores.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 151.--_Melampsora padi_: _a_ and _b_
-  uredospores; _c-f_ teleutospores, seen from different sides.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 152.--Pear-leaf, seen from the under side,
-  with “_Rœstelia cancellata_”: in different ages (_a_ youngest,
-  _d_ oldest).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 153.--_Melampsora betulina_: _a_ uredospores;
-  _b_ three contiguous teleutospores, one of which has developed a
-  basidium with three basidiospores. (× 400.)]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 154.--_Gymnosporanginum juniperinum_: _a_
-  a small leaf with three clusters of æcidia (nat. size); _b_
-  three conidia; _c_ two æcidiospores on one of which are seen the
-  germ-pores; _d_ a portion of the wall of an æcidium; _e_, _f_ two
-  teleutospores.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 155.--_Coleosporium senecionis_: _a_
-  Pine-leaves with æcidia (_Peridermium wolffii_) nat. size; _b_
-  an æcidiospore; _c_ a germinating æcidiospore; _d_ a chain of
-  uredospores; _e_ a chain of teleutospores of which the terminal
-  one has germinated and produced a basidiospore (_s_).]
-
-   _Cronartium_ (Figs. 157, 159) has unicellular teleutospores
-   united in numbers to form erect threads or columns; the
-   uredospores are enclosed in a “peridium”; _C. ribicola_ (Fig.
-   157), on leaves of Ribes (especially Black Currants); its
-   æcidia (_Peridermium strobi_, or _P. klebahni_) on the stems
-   and branches of _Pinus strobus_ (Fig. 159), on which it causes
-   great damage; _C. asclepiadeum_, on _Vincetoxicum officinale_;
-   its æcidia (_Peridermium cornui_) on the stems and branches of
-   _Pinus silvestris_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 156.--_Chrysomyxa abietis_: _a_ leaf of the
-  Fir, with 5 clusters of basidiospores (× 4); _b_ branched rows of
-  teleutospores springing from the mycelium (_m_).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 157.--_Cronartium ribicola_: _a_ mass
-  of uredospores (× 50); _b_ an uredospore; _c_ a column of
-  teleutospores (× 60); _d_ a small portion of the same more highly
-  magnified, with a basidium and two basidiospores (_s_).]
-
-   To the Fungi of which the æcidium is known, whilst the remaining
-   forms are still undetermined, but which are without doubt
-   heterœcious, belong _Æcidium elatinum_, which produces the
-   enormous “witches’ brooms” and barrel-shaped swellings on stems
-   and branches of _Abies alba_; and _Æcidium strobilinum_ (Fig.
-   158), which attacks Fir-cones, causing all the scales to become
-   covered with clusters of æcidia opening by a lid. _Hemileia
-   vastatrix_ destroyed the coffee plantations in Asia.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 158.--_Æcidium strobilinum_: _a_ scale of
-  cone of _Picea excelsa_, with numerous æcidia; _b_ æcidiospores
-  arranged in a series; _c_ a cell of the peridium.]
-
-Order 2. =Auriculariaceæ.= The _long, transversely divided_ basidia
-bear laterally 4 _long sterigmata_ with basidiospores (Fig. 160 _B_)
-and are united to form an _hymenium_ on the surface of the fruit-body.
-Parasites or saprophytes.
-
-   _Auricularia sambucina_ (_Auricula judæ_), Judas’-ear, has large
-   fruit-bodies, which may attain the size of several inches,
-   resembling an ear or a mussel shell. In the moist condition they
-   are flesh-coloured, tough and gelatinous, but when dried, become
-   hard, grey and wrinkled; the exterior is covered with short
-   hairs; while the internal surface bears the hymenium. Habitat:
-   stems and branches of old Elder-trees (_Sambucus_).
-
-Order 3. =Tremellaceæ.= The _round, pear-shaped, longitudinally divided
-basidia_ bear 4 _elongated sterigmata_, situated apically, and 4
-basidiospores (Fig. 160 _C_, _D_), and are united into the _hymenium_
-on the surface of the fruit-body. The fruit-bodies are frequently
-gelatinous and quivering; similar fruit-bodies are also found in the
-Dacryomycetaceæ and Hydnaceæ. Simple conidiophores, which appear not
-infrequently in the basidiocarps, before the basidia, are known in many
-species. Saprophytes.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 159.--_Peridermium strobi_: æcidia of
-  _Cronartium ribicola_ (nat. size).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 160.--_B Auricularia sambucina_: _a-d_
-  basidia in various stages of development; _e_ a sterigma
-  bearing a spore.--_C Tremella lutescens_: _a-d_ basidia seen
-  from various sides (_b_ from above) and in various stages of
-  development; _e_ sterigma with basidiospore (× 400). _D Exidia
-  glandulosa_: _a-c_ various stages in the development of a
-  basidium; _d_ sterigma with basidiospore (× 350).]
-
-   _Exidia_ has kidney-shaped, oblong basidiospores, and small,
-   hook-like conidia; _E. glandulosa_, _E. albida_, etc., on
-   wood.--_Craterocolla_ has conidiocarps; _C. cerasi_ on
-   Cherry-wood.--_Sebacina incrustans_; the yellow, fleshy, or
-   cartilaginous fruit-bodies are found in autumn covering the
-   ground in moist woods.--_Tremella_ has round basidiospores;
-   _T. mesenterica_ has irregularly-folded, quivering, orange
-   fruit-bodies, about one inch in breadth; _T. lutescens_ (Fig.
-   161) has orange-yellow conidial-and yellow basidial-layers; _T.
-   frondosa_ has fruit-bodies upwards of a foot in breadth.
-
-Order 4. =Pilacraceæ.= The _transversely divided basidia_ have _no
-sterigmata_, but sessile basidiospores, and fill up the cavity of a
-_closed_ (_angiocarpic_) _fruit-body_ as a gleba without a regular
-arrangement (hymenium wanting).
-
-   _Pilacre fagi_ on the old stems of the Copper-Beech; _P.
-   petersii_, on dried branches of the Hornbeam, has stalked,
-   capitate fruit-bodies.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 161.--_Tremella lutescens_: I and II
-  fruit-bodies (nat. size); III vertical section through a
-  fruit-body; _b_ basidia; _c_ conidia; IV-VI basidia; VII
-  basidiospore with a second spore; VIII a basidiospore with
-  yeast-like budding (cultivated); IX a conidiophore. (III-IX about
-  400.)]
-
-
-                    Series 2. =Autobasidiomycetes.=
-
-This second and larger part of the Basidiomycetes is characterised
-by its more highly differentiated, _undivided_, club-shaped, or
-cylindrical basidia, which generally bear 4 (seldom 2, 6, 8)
-apically-placed sterigmata and basidiospores (Fig. 145). The
-fruit-bodies are partly _gymnocarpic_ (in the first 3 orders and in
-some Agaricaceæ), partly _hemiangiocarpic_ (in orders 3–6 of the
-Hymenomycetes and in the Phalloideæ, the fruit-bodies in these orders
-are in the young conditions more or less angiocarpic, but later on
-generally open below and bear the hymenium on the under surface of the
-fruit-body), partly also _angiocarpic_ (in the Gasteromycetes).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 162.--_Dacryomyces deliquescens_: I
-  fruit-body (nat. size); II vertical section through the hymenium;
-  III germinating basidiospore; IV a portion of mycelium with
-  conidia; V a germinating conidium; VI and VII chains of oidia
-  more or less strongly magnified; VIII basidiospore of _D.
-  longisporus_; IX germinating basidiospore of _D. ovisporus_;
-  X and XI _Calocera viscosa_; X fruit-body (nat. size); XI
-  basidia with basidiospores (highly magnified); XII _Dacryomitra
-  glossoides_ (nat. size).]
-
-
-                      Family 1. =Dacryomycetes.=
-
-The _long, club-shaped basidia_ bear _two tapering sterigmata_, which
-develope remarkably large basidiospores (Fig. 162 II, XI) and form
-_gymnocarpic_ fruit-bodies with hymenium. 1 order:
-
-Order 1. =Dacryomycetaceæ.= This order comprises 4 genera of which the
-first two develope the hymenium on the whole surface of the fruit-body,
-but the two last only on its apex.
-
-   _Dacryomyces_: the folded, gelatinous, _Tremella_-like
-   fruit-bodies break out in winter on dried wood (hedges) in
-   the form of red or yellow drops. _D. deliquescens_ is very
-   common (Fig. 121). The following genera have cartilaginous
-   fruit-bodies.--_Calocera_ (Fig. 162), with club-like, simple,
-   or branched, _Clavaria_-like, fruit-bodies; the orange coloured
-   fruit-bodies of _C. viscosa_ grow aggregated together on the
-   wood of Conifers.--_Guepinia_ resembles a _Peziza_, and has
-   the hymenium only on the hollow upper surface.--_Dacryomitra_
-   resembles a _Mitrula_ (Fig. 162).
-
-
-                      Family 2. =Hymenomycetes.=
-
-This family is very rich in species (more than 8000 have been
-described), and to it belong all the “Mushrooms” and “Toadstools.”
-The _fruit-bodies_ present very various forms; they are generally
-fleshy, very perishable, seldom leathery or corky, in the last case
-often perennial. The _basidia_ are more or less _cylindrical_ and bear
-_generally_ 4 (seldom 2, 6 or 8) _sterigmata and basidiospores_. The
-hymenium in the fully-formed fruit-bodies lies free on the surface: in
-orders 1 and 2 and a portion of order 6 it is from the commencement
-exposed, fruit-bodies _gymnocarpic_; orders 3–6 have _hemiangiocarpic_
-fruit-bodies (p. 157). In the first order the basidia (or the
-hymenium) are developed immediately from the mycelium (Fig. 163); the
-fruit-bodies of orders 2 and 3 present a higher grade of development,
-and have between the mycelium and hymenium a special hyphal-tissue,
-a _stroma_, which is crustaceous, club-like, or coralloid, etc.,
-and in general bears the hymenium on the largest part of the free,
-smooth surface. In the forms most highly developed (orders 4–6) a
-new tissue--the _hymenophore_--is introduced between the stroma and
-hymenium, which appears on the under side of the fruit-body in the
-form of warts, projections, tubes, folds or lamellæ (Figs. 166, 167,
-174 _bc_). _Paraphyses_ are frequently found in the hymenium, among
-the basidia. In the Hymenomycetes few examples of _conidia_ can be
-recognised at first. More frequently _chlamydospores_ are found,
-particularly _oidia_. The _mycelium_ is richly branched, generally
-colourless, often perennial; it lives in humus or decaying wood, and is
-seldom parasitic. The hyphæ generally have clamp-connections and unite,
-sometimes, to form a rhizomorpha (Fig. 177) or sclerotia with coloured,
-pseudo-parenchymatous covering.
-
-   [Illustration: FIG. 163.--_Exobasidium vaccinii._ I
-  Hypertrophied stem of _Vaccinium vitis idæa_; II leaf with
-  gall-like swelling; III section of II; IV transverse section: _m_
-  mycelium between the parenchymatous cells; _p_ hypodermal cells;
-  _e_ epidermis with basidia in various stages of development; V
-  epidermis with germinating spores; VI and VII spores germinating
-  in water (IV-VII × 620).]
-
-Order 1. =Tomentellaceæ.= To this order belong the simplest of the
-Hymenomycetes. The basidia (Fig. 145) arise free and irregularly
-from the mycelium; a _hymenium_ is _entirely absent_ or _very
-slightly formed_ (in _Corticium_ it attains its highest development);
-_fruit-bodies_ are _also wanting_.--In general they form flaky,
-membranous or leathery coverings on bark and wood. Some are parasites.
-
-   _Hypochnus_ without conidia.--_Tomentella_ with conidiophores;
-   growing on wood or earth.--_Exobasidium vaccinii_ (Fig. 163),
-   a parasite on _Vaccinium_, _Andromeda_, _Arctostaphylos_, and
-   _Rhododendron_, forms flaky-powdery, white or red coverings and
-   may cause hypertrophy of the parts attacked. _E. warmingii_ is
-   parasitic on _Saxifraga_; _E. lauri_ causes outgrowths on the
-   stem of _Laurus canariensis_ as long as a finger, which formerly
-   were regarded as aerial roots.--_Corticium_ forms membranous
-   to leathery layers or crusts; _C. quercinum_ on wood and bark,
-   particularly Oak, is flesh-coloured; _C. cæruleum_ has a blue
-   hymenium; _C. giganteum_ on the bark of fallen Pine-trees.
-
-Order 2. =Clavariaceæ.= The hymenium is situated on a stroma, and
-either completely _covers the smooth surface_ of the more or less
-fleshy _gymnocarpic fruit-body_, or is confined to a tolerably well
-defined _upper portion_ of it (_Typhula_). Paraphyses absent. The
-vertical, white, yellow, or red fruit-bodies are roundish or club-like,
-undivided or richly branched (Fig. 125). Generally on the ground in
-woods, seldom on tree-stems, etc.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 164.--_Clavaria coralloides_ (nat. size).]
-
-   GENERA: _Clavaria_, generally large Fungi with thick, round
-   branches. _C. botrytis_ has a very thick, tubercular stem with
-   numerous short, flesh-coloured branches: it has an agreeable
-   taste. _C. coralloides_ has a brittle, richly-branched
-   fruit-body (Fig. 164); basidia with two large spores. _C.
-   pistillaris_ consists of a single, undivided club of a
-   yellowish-white colour.--_Sparassis_ has compressed, leaf-like,
-   curled branches; _S. crispa_ has fruit-bodies as large as
-   a white cabbage-head, with an agreeable taste.--_Typhula_
-   and _Pistillaria_ are small Fungi with filamentous stalks,
-   terminating in a small club. The fruit-bodies of the former
-   often arise from a small, spheroid sclerotium; the latter is
-   distinguished by the basidia bearing only two spores.
-
-Order 3. =Thelephoraceæ.= The hymenium is placed on a stroma and
-_covers the smooth surface_ of the leathery _hemiangiocarpic
-fruit-body_, generally _on its under side_. The edge of the stroma,
-which bounds the hymenium, is sometimes especially developed
-(_Stereum_). Saprophytes.
-
-   GENERA: _Thelephora_. The fruit-bodies in this genus are brown,
-   very irregularly shaped, and often lobed. The spores too are
-   brown, but in the other genera colourless. The species are found
-   growing on barren soil. _T. laciniata_ (Fig. 165) has imbricate,
-   semicircular, dark-brown pileus, which is jagged at the edge
-   and upper surface. The fruit-bodies are very often raised above
-   the ground, and although this species is not a parasite, yet
-   it destroys young seedlings by growing above and smothering
-   them.--_Stereum_ has a stiffer fruit-body, with a distinct,
-   fibrous, intermediate layer. It grows on bark and wood,
-   projecting like a series of imbricate brackets. _S. hirsutum_
-   is yellow; its free edge is provided with a number of stiff
-   hairs, the upper surface being divided into a number of zones.
-   _S. purpureum_ has a red-violet hymenium which distinguishes
-   it from the previous species.--_Cyphella_ has a membranous
-   cup- or bell-shaped fruit-body, often borne on a stalk, the
-   concave surface being covered with the hymenium. They are small,
-   white Fungi, growing on Moss and dead stems.--_Solenia_ is
-   closely related to _Cyphella_; its fruit-bodies are smaller and
-   hairy; they are found clustered together forming a crust-like
-   covering on dead wood.--_Craterellus_ has a large, funnel-shaped
-   fruit-body, the hymenium covering the external surface.
-   _C. cornucopioides_ is shaped like a trumpet or a “horn of
-   plenty.” It is dark-grey, several inches in height, and grows
-   gregariously on the ground in forests. It is distinguished by
-   the basidia bearing only two sterigmata.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 165.--_Thelephora laciniata_ (nat. size).]
-
-Order 4. =Hydnaceæ.= The fruit-body is most frequently fleshy, and
-varies considerably in shape, the simplest forms being resupinate,[14]
-the higher ones umbrella-like. The _hymenophore_ is found on the
-free or downward-turned surface, and always takes the _form of soft
-emergences_ hanging vertically downwards. The emergencies may be
-thorn-, awl-, or wart-like. The species are found growing on the soil
-and on dead wood.
-
-   GENERA: _Hydnum_ has subulate, distinct emergences. _H.
-   repandum_ is yellow, the stalk being placed in the centre of the
-   pileus. It is an edible species, and often forms “fairy rings”
-   in woods. _H. auriscalpium_ (Fig. 166) is dark-brown, with stalk
-   placed at the edge of the pileus. It grows on old Fir-cones. _H.
-   erinaceus_ grows on old tree-trunks. The fruit-body is yellow
-   and very large--as big as a human head--with emergences as much
-   as an inch in length.--_Irpex_ has a leathery fruit-body, partly
-   resupinate, partly with free, projecting edge; the under side
-   bears tooth-like emergences which are arranged in rows, and
-   _Irpex_ thus forms a transition to the Agaricaceæ.--_Phlebia_
-   is entirely resupinate, with radially-arranged folds on the free
-   side, and pectinate border.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 166.--_Hydnum auriscalpium_, upon a Fir-cone,
-  in different stages of development.]
-
-Order 5. =Polyporaceæ (Pore-Fungi).= An order very rich in species
-(about 2000 species are described). The fruit-body is of very
-different forms--resupinate, projecting like a bracket, hoof-like, or
-umbrella-shaped. In some it is fleshy and edible, in others leathery or
-corky, persisting for several years. The hymenophore is situated on the
-under side of the fruit-body, and consists of wide or narrow _tubes_ or
-_pores_, whose inner surface is clothed with the hymenium (Fig. 167).
-In some fruit-bodies large cavities are to be found, which have arisen
-as interstices between the labyrinthine curved and reticulate folds.
-Chlamydospores are known in some species. Conidia occur very rarely.
-Many species work considerable damage: some as parasites on trees,
-others by destroying timber.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 167.--_Polyporus igniarius._ Section through
-  the under side of the Fungus: _h-h_ is hyphal-tissue between the
-  tubes, formed by irregularly felted hyphæ, many of which are seen
-  cut across; _s_ is the hymenium which covers the walls of the
-  tubes, and from which the basidia with the spores protrude.]
-
-   GENERA. _Polyporus_ (Pore-Fungus). The tubes are narrow,
-   accurately fitted together, and forming a thick layer on the
-   under side of the fruit-body, appearing as a number of fine
-   holes. The fruit-body most frequently resembles a bracket, or
-   is hoof-shaped, with one side growing from a tree-trunk; it
-   is very often perennial, and a new layer of tubes arises in
-   each succeeding period of vegetation. Strata, corresponding
-   to the periodically interrupted growth, are thus formed in
-   storeys one above the other, and are visible on the upper
-   surface of the fruit-body, as well as in the interior, as a
-   series of concentric belts, sometimes as many as half a score
-   or more in number. _P. fomentarius_ (Touchwood) attacks
-   trees, especially the Beech. The spores germinate on wounds
-   from broken branches, and the hyphæ, following the course of
-   the medullary rays, find their way into the interior of the
-   tree, from whence the mycelium spreads upwards, downwards, and
-   peripherally, so that the wood becomes rotten (“white-rot”) and
-   thick felts of mycelium are formed in radial and tangential
-   directions. A dark line, caused by the youngest parts of the
-   hyphæ containing a brown juice, marks the boundary between
-   the rotten and the unattacked parts of the stem (Fig. 168);
-   at places where the mycelium extends to the bark, the cambium
-   becomes destroyed and further growth is arrested, so that
-   longitudinal furrows arise on the stem. It is at these places,
-   too, that the hoof-shaped, ash-coloured fruit-bodies are
-   developed, which may attain a circumference of upwards of 7
-   feet. The interior of the fruit-body consists of a dried-up,
-   loosely felted, red-brown mass of hyphæ, which has been used for
-   tinder and as a styptic (“Fungus chirurgorum”). _P. igniarius_
-   has a harder, dark-brown, more rounded fruit-body; it grows in
-   a similar manner, but especially attacks Oaks, Poplars, and
-   Plum-trees, the wood of which becomes rotten, and is called
-   touchwood. _P. pini_ (_Trametes pini_), (Fig. 170), a parasite
-   on the stems of _Pinus_, causes a kind of “red-rot” in the
-   stem. _P. sulphureus_ has a soft, cheesy, yellow fruit-body;
-   it produces “rot” in Oaks and Apple-trees. _P. officinalis_,
-   Larch-fungus (“Fungus Laricis” in Pharmocopœia), grows on
-   Larch-trees in the south-east of Europe. _P. versicolor_ has
-   thin, semicircular fruit-bodies, with zones of various colours
-   on the upper side; it is one of the most frequent species on
-   tree-stems. _P. frondosus_ grows on soil in woods, and consists
-   of numerous aggregated fruit-bodies, which become very large
-   and fleshy. This species is edible. _P. perennis_ also grows on
-   the soil in woods; it is very leathery, with central stalk, and
-   has concentric zones on the upper surface of the fruit-body.
-   _P. vaporarius_ destroys the wood of living Pines (_Pinus
-   silvestris_) and Firs (_Picea excelsa_), causing it to become
-   red-brown; in timber this Fungus causes “red-strip” followed by
-   a “dry-rot.” _P. squamosus_ destroys many Walnut-trees, and is
-   also very destructive to Limes and Elms. _P. fulvus_ causes a
-   “white-rot” in _Abies alba_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 168.--Section of stem of a Beech attacked by
-  _P. fomentarius_: _a_ non-attacked parts of the stem; _b_ the
-  furrows where the mycelium has reached the bark, and where the
-  thick mycelium-strands reach the exterior (⅙th of the nat. size).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 169.--Base of a Fir-tree, with a number of
-  fruit-bodies of _Heterobasidion annosum_ just beneath the surface
-  of the soil, indicated by the dotted line (¼th nat. size).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 170.--A fully developed fruit-body of
-  _Polyporus pini_ (_Trametes pini_), lateral view (nat. size).]
-
-   _Heterobasidion annosum_ (_Polyporus annosus_, _Trametes
-   radiciperda_, Fig. 169) is characterized by its
-   _Aspergillus_-like conidiophores. It is a parasite on the
-   Pine, Fir, Birch, Beech, etc., and is the chief cause of a
-   root-disease (red-rot) in Pines and Firs; the fruit-bodies
-   develope a large number of basidiospores; they may be very large
-   and are found just beneath the surface of the soil (on living or
-   dead roots), and exposed to the air (on felled stems and roots,
-   in Scandinavia).
-
-   _Ptychogaster_ has cushion-like fruit-bodies, which consist
-   chiefly of chlamydospore-chains, formed of ellipsoidal spores,
-   which alternate with short hyphæ having transverse septa and
-   clamp-connections. The hymenial portion is limited to a small
-   group of tubes. _Pt. albus_ (_Oligorus ustilaginoides_) grows
-   on stumps of Conifers and forms irregular cushions, at first
-   white and later on brown, which consist almost entirely of
-   chlamydospores.
-
-   _Boletus_ (Fig. 171) has a fleshy fruit-body resembling a common
-   Mushroom, with central stalk. The layer of tubes is easily
-   detached from the pileus, and the tubes are easily separable
-   from one another. They grow on the ground in woods. Edible
-   species are: _B. edulis_, with thick, reticulate stalk; _B.
-   scaber_, with thin stalk and rough pileus; _B. luteus_, with a
-   ring on the stalk. _B. luridus_ is poisonous, its tubes have
-   red openings, and the flesh turns quickly blue when broken and
-   exposed to the air.
-
-   _Fistulina hepatica_ (Beef-steak Fungus), has a red, fleshy,
-   edible fruit-body, with red juice. The tubes are individually
-   distinct; conidia are also developed. Grows on old Oaks.
-
-   _Merulius lacrymans_ (“Dry-rot”) has a resupinate fruit-body
-   with white, cotton-like border, and the remaining portions
-   covered by reticulate, ramified veins of a rust-brown colour.
-   In favourable vegetative conditions it is fleshy and exudes
-   large drops of water--hence its specific name and also the name
-   “Tear Fungus.” The mycelium is at first colourless, and then
-   yellow-brown; when dry it is tough and leathery. It destroys
-   the timber in damp houses, extends far and wide over boards and
-   beams and even over the masonry, giving rise to a disagreeable
-   smell in the rooms in which it lodges. In woods the Fungus lives
-   on Pine-stems. It is brought from the forest on the logs of
-   timber, and is distributed from log to log by the mycelium and
-   the basidiospores. The living mycelium can be recognised by the
-   clamp-connections shooting out branches. The basidiospores are
-   often ejected a distance of a metre; they are elliptical (10–11µ
-   long and 5–6µ broad), and germinate easily on damp wood, or in
-   fruit-juice which has been neutralized with urine or alkaline
-   carbonates.
-
-   _Dædalea_ (Labyrinth Fungus), has bracket-like, corky
-   fruit-bodies with irregularly-folded plates or discs on the
-   under side. It forms a transition to the Agaricaceæ. _D.
-   quercina_ is frequent on Oak-stumps.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 171.--_Boletus edulis_ (about ¼th): _b_
-  longitudinal section of a portion of the pileus.]
-
-Order 6. =Agaricaceæ= (=Mushrooms=, =Toadstools=). _The hymenophore
-consists_ of knife-like plates (_lamellæ_, _gills_), which are situated
-on the under side of the umbrella-like pileus of the fruit-body, and
-radiate from the central stalk. Those which are first formed extend
-from the edge of the pileus to the stalk; those formed later reach only
-a longer or shorter portion of this distance, according to their age.
-In structure the lamellæ (Fig. 174) consist of a central mass of hyphæ,
-the _trama_, continuous with the hyphæ of the pileus; these terminate
-in a layer of shorter cells, the _subhymenial layer_, immediately
-beneath the hymenium which is composed of basidia and paraphyses. In a
-few species, but not in the majority, the lamellæ are branched, and in
-some they are decurrent. A few have the stalk placed excentrically, or
-it may be entirely absent.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 172.--Development of _Psalliota campestris_:
-  _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_ show the various stages of the development
-  of the fruit-bodies and the mycelium (_m_) (nat. size); _e_ the
-  fruit-body in a somewhat later stage, slightly magnified; _f_
-  longitudinal section of _e_; _n_ first formation of the hymenium;
-  _g_ longitudinal section of a more advanced fruit-body (nat.
-  size); _n_ the hymenium; _o_ velum partiale (see Fig. 133.)]
-
-In the early stages of its development the fruit-body is more or
-less enclosed in a hyphal tissue--the “veil” (_velum universale_, or
-_volva_). The veil at first completely encloses the young fruit-body,
-but is afterwards ruptured as the latter grows, part remaining at the
-base of the stalk as the “sheath” (_annulus inferus_), and part on the
-pileus as scales or warts. In the “Fly Mushroom” (_Amanita muscaria_)
-the remains of the veil are especially conspicuous as white patches
-on the bright red ground of the upper surface of the pileus, and as
-a sheath at the base of the stalk (Fig. 178 _v._). Another veil--the
-_velum partiale_--a hyphal tissue (Figs. 178 _a_; 173) stretches from
-the edge of the pileus to the stalk, and encloses the lamellæ. This
-veil is ruptured as the pileus expands, a portion attached to the stalk
-remaining as the “upper ring” (_annulus superus_) (Figs. 173, 178 _a_),
-or a part attached to the pileus hanging down as a fringe round its
-edge.--Some genera have no veil, the under side of the pileus being
-exposed from the first (_gymnocarpic_ Agaricaceæ). Those which have
-a veil (_hemiangiocarpic_ A.) afford a transition to the angiocarpic
-Gasteromycetes.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 173.--The cultivated Mushroom (_Psalliota
-  campestris_).]
-
-The mycelium mostly grows in soils rich in humus or dung, on decaying
-trees and similar objects. Many species, _e.g. Tricholoma personatum_
-and _Marasmius oreades_, form the so-called “fairy rings.” The
-fruit-bodies in these species are confined to a larger or smaller
-surface on which they are very regularly arranged in a ring. The reason
-for this is found in the radial growth of the mycelium, so that the
-oldest portion, or the starting point, is found at the centre of the
-ring, and the younger ones, on which the fruit-bodies are formed, at
-the circumference. The older hyphæ gradually die, and at the same time,
-the radial growth continuing, the ring of fruit-bodies becomes larger
-and larger. The “fairy-rings” are marked not only by the fruit-bodies,
-but also by the more vigorous growth and darker colour of the grass
-upon these spots.
-
-Some species are _parasites_. An example is presented by _Armillaria
-mellea_, a remarkable and very destructive Fungus in woods and forests
-(Figs. 176, 177). ~In addition to the filamentous, white mycelium,
-it has also black, or black-brown, horny, root-like mycelium-strands
-(rhizomorpha) which were formerly considered to belong to a special
-genus of Fungi described under the name “_Rhizomorpha_.” The mycelium
-lives parasitically on the Conifers and other trees, forcing its hyphæ
-into the bark and between the bark and wood, and thence penetrating
-into the wood so that the tree is very severely attacked. It may also
-live saprophytically, and clusters of fruit-bodies are often found on
-old stumps and stems, on old timber, and in the rich soil of woods. The
-rhizomorpha, living underground, can extend for considerable distances
-and infect the roots of neighbouring trees, and spreads in this way
-the diseases known as “Harzsticken” and “Bark-Canker,” which are very
-destructive to young trees.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 174.--_Psalliota campestris. A_ Tangential
-  section of pileus showing lamellæ (_l_). _B_ Portion of gill
-  more highly magnified; _t_ trama; _hy_ hymenium with basidia and
-  basidiospores; _sh_, subhymenial layer. _C_ A portion of the same
-  more highly magnified; _s′ s′′ s′′′ s′′′′_ various stages
-  in the development of basidiospores; _q_ paraphyses.]
-
-The chief characteristics by which the numerous genera are separated
-are the presence or the absence of the two kinds of veils, the nature
-of the fruit-body, the form, branching of the lamellæ, and their
-position and relation with respect to the stem, the shape of the
-pileus, the colour of the spores, etc., etc. A knowledge of the colour
-may be obtained by placing the pileus with the lamellæ turned downwards
-on a piece of white or coloured paper, so that the spores, as they fall
-off, are collected on the paper, and the arrangement of the lamellæ can
-then be clearly seen.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 175.--_Cantharellus cibarius_ (reduced).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 176.--_Armillaria mellea._ (½ nat. size): _a_
-  root of a Fir; _b_ rhizomorpha-strands; _c-f_ fruit-bodies in
-  four different stages of development.]
-
-   [Illustration: FIG. 177.--The mycelium of _Armillaria mellea_
-  (“_Rhizomorpha_”) (nat. size).]
-
-About 4,600 species belonging to this order have been described.
-
-   On account of the large number of species the order is divided
-   into several sections:
-
-   1. =Agaricinei=; fruit-body fleshy; lamellæ membranous,
-   knife-like, with sharp edge; basidia crowded together. The
-   FOLLOWING HAVE WHITE SPORES:--_Amanita_ (Fly Mushroom), with
-   volva, and generally also the upper ring on the stalk; many are
-   poisonous, such as _A. muscaria_ (Fig. 178) which has bright red
-   pileus with white spots, _A. pantherina_ and _A. phalloides_;
-   _A. cæsarea_ is edible.--_Lepiota procera_ (Parasol Fungus)
-   is one of the largest Mushrooms; it has a scaly pileus and
-   moveable ring (edible).--_Armillaria mellea_ has been mentioned
-   above (Figs. 176, 177).--_Tricholoma_, lamellæ indented near
-   the stalk; _T. gambosum_ (Pomona Fungus) belongs to the best
-   of edible Fungi; _T. personatum_ often forms fairy rings (see
-   above).--_Clitocybe_, lamella decurrent; _C. nebularis_ is
-   edible.--_Pleurotus_, stalk eccentric; _P. ostreatus_ (Oyster
-   Mushroom) grows in clusters on tree-stems (edible).--_Collybia_
-   and _Mycena_, species numerous, small.--SPORES ROSE-RED:
-   _Volvaria_ and _Hyporhodius_.--SPORES BROWN: _Cortinarius_,
-   with cobweb-like veil; _Pholiota_, membranous veil and ring;
-   _P. squarrosa_ in clusters on tree-stems; _P. mutabilis_, on
-   tree-stumps (edible).--SPORES VIOLET-PURPLE: _Hypholoma_,
-   _Psalliota_; to this section the common edible Mushroom (Fig.
-   172–174) belongs, with annulus and chocolate-coloured lamellæ;
-   it is cultivated for the sake of the fine flavour.--SPORES
-   BLACK: _Coprinarius_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 178.--Fly Mushroom (_Amanita muscaria_).]
-
-   2. =Marasmiei.= Fruit-body tough, almost leathery, and
-   persistent; spores white. _Marasmius oreades_ forms large,
-   regular fairy-rings on pastures and commons; it is used as
-   seasoning in food.--_Panus stipticus_ with eccentrically-placed
-   stalk, in clusters on tree-stumps.--_Schizophyllum_ has the edge
-   of the lamellæ divided longitudinally, and the split portions
-   revolute.--_Lentinus_ affords a transition to _Dædalea_ among
-   the Polyporaceæ.
-
-   3. =Russulei.= Fruit-body fleshy and fragile, in which two
-   different systems of hyphæ may be distinguished; spores thorny,
-   white, or pale-yellow. Many are poisonous.--_Russula_ has
-   generally fragile and thick lamellæ reaching from stalk to edge
-   of pileus; pileus frequently red.--_Lactarius_ has white or
-   yellow milky juice, which often is very acid. _L. deliciosus_
-   has red-yellow milky juice, and is of a pleasant flavour. _L.
-   torminosus_ is poisonous.
-
-   4. =Hygrophorei.= Lamellæ thick and waxy, widely separated;
-   spores white. Many species of _Hygrophorus_ have
-   brightly-coloured pileus and grow among the grass on moors and
-   commons.--_Nyctalis_ is parasitic on larger Toadstools. It is
-   remarkable for its abundant formation of chlamydospores, whilst
-   the basidiospores are little developed.
-
-   5. =Coprinei.= Fruit-bodies very soft, quickly perishable;
-   lamellæ membranous and deliquescent. The basidia are separated
-   from each other by paraphyses. _Coprinus_ has coal-black spores,
-   grows on manure, and sometimes developes sclerotia.
-
-   6. =Paxillei.= Fruit-body fleshy; lamellæ easily detached from
-   the pileus and reticulately-joined near the stalk. They form a
-   connecting link between the Agaricaceæ and _Boletus_.
-
-   7. =Cantharellei.= Lamellæ reduced to dichotomously-divided
-   folds, decurrent on the stalk. _Cantharellus cibarius_ (Fig.
-   175) is yolk-yellow, and grows on the ground in woods (edible).
-   It is allied to _Craterellus_.
-
-
-                        Family 3. =Phalloideæ.=
-
-The fruit-bodies before they are ripe are spherical or ovoid, and
-enclosed by a _fleshy covering_, the peridium, which is _perforated
-at maturity_ and remains as a sheath (Fig. 179); the fruit-bodies are
-_hemiangiocarpic_.
-
-Order 1. =Phallaceæ= (=Stink-horns=). The peridium has a complicated
-structure and is composed of three layers, the intermediate one being
-thick and gelatinous. The gleba (the tissue which bears the hymenium)
-is situated upon a peculiar receptacle which expands into a porous
-stalk and by its sudden distension, rupturing the peridium, elevates
-the gleba and hymenium above the peridium, which remains as a sheath.
-_The gleba becomes gelatinous and dissolves away as drops._ To this
-order belong many peculiar and often brightly coloured forms, which are
-natives of the Southern Hemisphere.
-
-   _Phallus impudicus_ (Stink-horn) (Fig. 179), has a fruit-body
-   which at first is white, heavy, and soft, and resembles a hen’s
-   egg in shape and size. The peridium is divided into three layers
-   (Fig. 179 _e_, _g_, _f_) of which the external and internal
-   are membranous, and the middle one very thick and gelatinous;
-   each of these has again a laminated structure. The peridium
-   when ruptured remains as a sheath (_k_) at the base of the
-   stalk. The receptacle at first is strongly compressed (_h_)
-   but afterwards expands into a long stalk (_l_) which bears the
-   conical gleba (_m_). Prior to the rupture of the peridium the
-   gleba consists of a greenish mass (_i_) which, when exposed,
-   emits a carrion-like stench serving to attract flies, by whose
-   agency the spores are distributed. It is found commonly in
-   hedgerows and in woods, growing on the ground. The much smaller
-   and less common _P. caninus_ is found on rotten tree-stumps.--In
-   _Clathrus cancellatus_ the receptacle expands into a bright red,
-   reticulate structure. A native of the South of Europe. _Colus_,
-   _Aseroë_, _Mitromyces_.
-
-   Order 2. =Sphærobolaceæ.= An intermediate layer of the
-   _peridium_ swells when ripe, becomes convex, and _ejects the
-   remaining_ spherical _portion of the fruit-body_ which contains
-   the spores. _Sphærobolus carpobolus_ has small, spherical
-   fruit-bodies which open in the form of a star.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 179.--_Phallus impudicus_ (Stink-horn),
-  somewhat diminished. Fruit-bodies in all stages of development
-  (_b_, _c_, _d_ and _k-m_) are seen arising from a root-like
-  mycelium (_a_); _d_ longitudinal sections through a fruit-body
-  before the covering has ruptured.]
-
-
-                      Family 4. =Gasteromycetes.=
-
-The fruit-body is _angiocarpic_, fleshy at first, and later generally
-more or less _hard_ and _continues closed after the_ spores _are
-ripe_. The tissue lying immediately inside the _peridium_ is termed
-the _gleba_; it is porous, containing a larger or smaller number of
-chambers lined with the hymenium, which is either a continuous layer of
-basidia or else it fills up the entire cavity. The basidia as a rule
-bear four spores, sometimes eight (_Geaster_), or two (_Hymenogaster_).
-The tissue of the walls (_trama_) consists often (_Lycoperdaceæ_)
-of two kinds of hyphæ, some thin and rich in protoplasm, divided
-by transverse septa and bearing the basidia; others thicker and
-thick-walled which do not dissolve like the former on the ripening of
-the spores, but continue to grow and form a woolly, elastic mass, the
-_capillitium_, which may be regarded as highly developed paraphyses.
-The peridium may be either single or double, and presents many
-variations in its structure and dehiscence. The mycelium is generally a
-number of string-like strands, living in soils rich in humus.
-
-   Order 1. =Tylostomaceæ.= Capillitium present. After the rupture
-   of the peridium the remaining part of the fruit-body is elevated
-   on a long _stalk_. _Tylostoma mammosum_, on heaths.
-
-Order 2. =Lycoperdaceæ.= The fruit-body has a double peridium; the
-external one at length breaks into fragments (_Lycoperdon_, _Bovista_),
-or it has a compound structure of several layers (_Geaster_) and
-detaches itself as a continuous envelope from the inner layer, which
-is membranous and opens at its apex. The interior of the fruit-body
-consists either solely of the fertile gleba (_Bovista_, _Geaster_),
-or, in addition, of a sterile tissue at the base (_Lycoperdon_). A
-capillitium is also present.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 180.--_Lycoperdon gemmatum_ (½ nat. size).]
-
-   _Lycoperdon_ (Puff-ball) has a sterile part at the base of the
-   fruit-body which often forms a thick stalk. The surface of the
-   peridium is generally covered with warts or projections. When
-   young this Fungus is edible, but when ripe it is dry, and used
-   for stopping the flow of blood. _L. giganteum_, which is often
-   found growing in meadows, attains a considerable size, its
-   diameter reaching as much as eighteen inches. _L. gemmatum_
-   (Fig. 180) is covered with pyramidal warts; in woods.--_Bovista_
-   has no sterile basal part; the external peridium is smooth, and
-   falls away in irregular patches. _B. plumbea_, on links near the
-   sea.--_Geaster_ (Earth-star) has an external peridium composed
-   of several layers, which when the fruit-body opens, split into
-   several stellate segments. These segments are very hygroscopic,
-   and in dry weather bend backwards and so raise the inner
-   peridium into the air. The inner peridium contains the spores
-   and capillitia. _G. coliformis_ has several apertures in the
-   inner peridium. The other species have only one regular aperture
-   at the apex. _G. striatus_ has a pedicellate inner peridium,
-   with conical, striped peristome. _G. fornicatus_ has an external
-   peridium split into four segments. This last and several other
-   species produce “mycorhiza” on the roots of Conifers.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 181.--I _Hymenogaster citrinus_ (nat. size);
-  II longitudinal section through _H. tener_ (× 5); III portion of
-  a section of _H. calosporus_; _g_ a chamber; _h_ hymenium; _sp._
-  spores; _t_ trama (× 178); IV _Rhizopogon luteolus_ (nat. size);
-  V _Scleroderma vulgare_, VI section of V; VII basidia with spores
-  belonging to the same Fungus.]
-
-Order 3. =Sclerodermataceæ.= _Capillitium_ wanting. The peridium is
-simple and thick, gleba with round, closed chambers, which are filled
-with basidia.
-
-   _Scleroderma_ has a corky peridium. The fruit-bodies commence
-   their development under ground. _S. vulgare_ (Fig. 181 V-VII),
-   has a hard, slaty-black gleba.
-
-Order 4. =Nidulariaceæ= (=Nest-Fungi=). Small Fungi of which the
-fruit-body at first is spherical or cylindrical but upon maturity
-it becomes cupular or vase-like, and contains several lenticular
-“peridiola” lying like eggs in a nest. The peridiola are the chambers
-which contain the hymenium, covered by a thin layer of the gleba, all
-the remaining portion of the gleba becoming dissolved. On decaying wood.
-
-   _Nidularia_ has spherical fruit-bodies containing a
-   large number of lenticular peridiola, embedded in a slimy
-   mass.--_Crucibulum_ has fruit-bodies resembling crucibles
-   with discoid peridiola, each with a spirally-twisted
-   stalk.--_Cyathus_ has a fruit-body, which when open is
-   campanulate, with stratified peridium, and long-stalked,
-   lense-shaped peridiola.
-
-Order 5. =Hymenogastraceæ.= Fruit-bodies tubercular, globose and
-subterranean, resembling very closely the Truffles, from which they
-can only be distinguished with certainty by microscopic means. The
-peridium is simple, capillitium wanting, and the gleba encloses a
-system of labyrinthine passages covered with a continuous hymenium.
-The fruit-bodies persist for some time, and form a fleshy mass, the
-spores being only set free by the decay of the fruit-body, or when it
-is eaten by animals. The majority are South European. _Hymenogaster_,
-_Melanogaster_, _Rhizopogon_ (Fig. 181 I-IV).
-
-
-                    APPENDIX TO THE BASIDIOMYCETES:
-
-           Basidiolichenes (Lichen-forming Basidiomycetes).
-
-Several Fungi belonging to the Basidiomycetes have a symbiotic
-relationship with Algæ exactly similar to that enjoyed by certain
-Ascomycetes, and these are therefore included under the term Lichens
-(p. 136). They are chiefly tropical.
-
-Order 1. =Hymenolichenes.= To this order belong some gymnocarpic
-forms: _Cora_, _Dictyonema_, _Laudatea_.[15]
-
-Order 2. =Gasterolichenes.= To this belong some angiocarpic forms:
-_Emericella_, _Trichocoma_.
-
-
-                        APPENDIX TO THE FUNGI.
-
-             Fungi imperfecti (Incompletely known Fungi).
-
-1. The =Saccharomyces-forms= are Fungi which are only known in their
-yeast-conidial form. They are _conidia of higher Fungi_ which can
-multiply to an unlimited extent by budding in nutritive solutions, and
-in this way maintain their _definite_ size and shape. The budding takes
-place _only at the ends_ of the conidia. The wall of the conidium forms
-at one or at both ends a small wart-like outgrowth, which gradually
-becomes larger, and is finally separated from its mother-cell as an
-independent cell, surrounded by a closed cell-wall (Fig. 182 _a_, _b_).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 182.--Beer-yeast (_Saccharomyces cerevisiæ_):
-  _a-b_ (× 400); _c-f_ (× 750); _c_ a cell in the process of
-  forming spores; _d_ a cell with four ripe spores; _e_ the
-  spores liberated by the dissolution of the cell-wall; _f_ three
-  germinating spores; _g_ mycelium-like cell-chains. (× 1000: after
-  Em. Chr. Hansen.)]
-
-Under very favourable conditions multiplication occurs so rapidly that
-the daughter-cells themselves commence to form buds, before they have
-separated from their mother-cell, with the result that pearl-like
-chains of cells are produced. When the yeast-cells have only limited
-nutriment, with an abundant supply of air, at a suitable temperature,
-an endogenous formation of _spores_ takes place. The protoplasm of the
-cells divides into 1–4 (rarely a greater number) masses (Fig. 182 _c_,
-_d_, _e_) which surround themselves with a thick cell-wall, and in this
-state can withstand adverse conditions and periods of dryness lasting
-for several months.
-
-The _sporangia are not asci_ since they have no definite form, and
-a definite number, form and size of spores is not found. The spores
-in the different species and kinds occupy varying periods for their
-development, although exposed to the same temperature, a fact of
-importance in determining one from another. On germination the wall of
-the mother-cell is destroyed, and each spore gives rise to a new cell,
-multiplication taking place by budding (Fig. 182 _f_). The majority of
-Yeast-Fungi are able to produce alcoholic fermentation in saccharine
-fluids.
-
-The most important of these Fungi is the Beer-yeast (_Saccharomyces
-cerevisiæ_) with ovate, ellipsoidal or spherical cells (Fig. 182). It
-is a plant which has been cultivated from time immemorial, on account
-of its property of producing alcoholic fermentation in sugar-containing
-extracts (wort), derived from germinating barley (malt). Carbonic
-acid is also set free during this process. The “surface-yeast” (Fig.
-182 _a_), which produces ordinary beer when the brewing takes place
-at higher temperatures, has cell-chains; “sedimentary yeast” (Fig.
-182 _b_), used in the brewing of Bavarian beer, has spherical cells,
-solitary, or united in pairs. Both these and the following Yeast-Fungi
-include, according to Hansen, several species and kinds.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 183.--_Saccharomyces mycoderma._]
-
-The “Ferment of Wine” (_Saccharomyces ellipsoideus_) produces wine in
-the juice of grapes. Uncultivated yeast-cells are always present on
-grapes; an addition of this species to the “must” is not necessary to
-secure fermentation. A large number of other “uncultivated” yeast-cells
-appear in breweries mixed with the cultivated ones, and cause different
-tastes to the beer (_S. pastorianus_, etc.). _S. ludwigii_, found,
-for instance, on the slimy discharge from Oaks, produces abundant
-cell-chains on cultivation. _S. apiculatus_ is very frequently met with
-on all kinds of sweet fruits, it has orange-like cells. _S. mycoderma_
-has cylindrical cells, often united together in chains (Fig. 183): it
-forms a whitish-gray mass (“fleur de vin”) on wine, beer, fruit-juice,
-etc., standing in bottles uncorked or not entirely filled. It is
-thought that this Fungus causes decomposition and oxydises the fluid
-in which it is found, but it cannot produce alcoholic fermentation
-in saccharine liquids, and it does not form endospores; hence it is
-uncertain whether it is true _Saccharomyces_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 184.--_Oidium lactis_: _a_ branched hypha
-  commonly met with; _b_ a hypha lying in milk and producing aerial
-  hyphæ which give rise to oidia; _c_ a branch giving rise to
-  oidia, the oldest (outermost) oidia are becoming detached from
-  one another; _d_ a chain of divided cells; _e_ germinating oidia
-  in different stages (slightly more magnified than the other
-  figures).]
-
-The “Dry-yeast” used in baking white bread is “surface-yeast.” In
-_leaven_, a kneaded mixture of meal, barm and water, which is used for
-the manufacture of black bread, _Saccharomyces minor_ is present, and
-a species allied to this produces alcoholic fermentation in dough with
-the evolution of carbonic acid, which causes the dough to “rise.”
-
-2. =Oidium-forms.= Of many Fungi only the Oidium-forms are known,
-which multiply in endless series without employing any higher form of
-reproduction. _Oidium lactis_ (Fig. 184) is an imperfectly developed
-form which frequently appears on sour milk and cheese. It can produce a
-feeble alcoholic fermentation in saccharine liquids. Thrush or aphthæ
-(_O. albicans_) appears as white spots in the mouths of children.
-Several similar _Oidium-forms_ are parasites on the skin and hair
-of human beings, and produce skin diseases, such as scurvy (_O.
-schoenleinii_) and ringworm (_O. tonsurans_).
-
-3. =Mycorhiza.= These Fungi, which have been found on the roots of many
-trees and heath-plants, particularly Cupuliferæ and Ericaceæ, consist
-of septate hyphæ, and belong partly to the Hymenomycetes, partly to
-the Gasteromycetes. It has been shown that the Mycorhiza enters into a
-symbiotic relationship with the roots of higher plants.
-
-
-
-
-                             DIVISION II.
-
-                          MUSCINEÆ (MOSSES).
-
-
-In this Division a well-marked alternation of generations is
-to be found. The development of the first or sexual generation
-(_gametophyte_),[16] which bears the sexual organs, antheridia
-and archegonia, commences with the germination of the spore, and
-consists, in the Liverworts, of a thallus, but in the true Mosses of a
-filamentous protonema, from which the Moss-plant arises as a lateral
-bud. The second or asexual generation (_sporophyte_), developed from
-the fertilised oosphere, consists of a sporangium and stalk.
-
-=The sexual generation, the gametophyte.= The protonema in the
-Liverworts is very insignificant, and not always very sharply
-demarcated from the more highly developed parts of the nutritive
-system. In the true Mosses the protonema is well-developed, and
-consists of a branched, alga-like filament of cells, the dividing
-cell-walls being always placed obliquely. In the parts exposed to the
-light it is green, but colourless or brownish in those parts which are
-underground (Fig. 186). The protonema is considered to be a lower form
-of the stem, and grows in the same manner by means of an apical cell;
-at its apex it may directly develope into a leaf-bearing stem, or these
-arise from it as lateral branches (Fig. 186 _k_).
-
-The more highly differentiated part of the vegetative system, the
-“Moss-plant,” which is thus developed from the protonema, is in the
-“thalloid” Liverworts generally a dichotomously-branched thallus
-without any trace of leaf-structures (Fig. 194); in _Marchantia_
-(Fig. 197) and others, scale-like leaves (_amphigastria_) are found
-on the under surface. The higher Liverworts and the Leafy-Mosses are
-differentiated into a filamentous, ramified stem with distinct leaves
-arranged in a definite manner, resembling the stem and leaves of the
-higher plants (Figs. 186, 195, 200).
-
-_True roots are wanting_, but are biologically replaced by _rhizoids_.
-These are developed on the stems or thallus: in the Liverworts they
-are unicellular, but in the Leafy-Mosses generally multicellular and
-branched. In the latter group they are considered identical with
-the protonema, and may become true protonema, and new plants may be
-developed from them (Fig. 186 _b_).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 186.--_A_ Lower portion of a Moss-plant with
-  rhizoids (_r_), one of which bears a reproductive bud (_b_). The
-  dotted line indicates the surface of the ground; the portions
-  projecting above this become green protonema (_p_); _k_ is a
-  young Moss-plant formed on one of these. _B_ Germinating spore of
-  _Funaria hygrometrica_, with exospore still attached. _C_, _D_
-  Older stages of the protonema.]
-
-The internal structure of the sexual generation is very simple. The
-leaves in nearly all cases are formed of a single-layered plate of
-cells; in the Leafy-Mosses, however, a midrib is very often formed, and
-sometimes, also, marginal veins; and along these lines the leaves are
-several layers of cells in thickness. The stem is constructed of cells
-longitudinally elongated, the external ones of which are narrower and
-sometimes have thicker walls than the more central ones. _Vessels are
-not found_, but in several Mosses there is in the centre of the stem
-a conducting strand of narrow, longitudinal cells, which represents
-the vascular bundle in its first stage of development. This strand
-contains elements for conveying water as well as sieve-tubes. Stomata
-are entirely wanting in the sexual generation of the Leafy-Mosses; they
-are found in a few Liverworts (_Marchantia_), but their structure is
-not the same as in the higher plants.
-
-VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION takes place by gemmæ or buds which arise on
-the protenema, the rhizoids, the thallus, or the shoots, and become
-detached from the mother-plant; or else the protonema and the older
-parts of the plant simply die off, and their branches thus become
-independent plants. This well-developed vegetative reproduction
-explains why so many Mosses grow gregariously. In certain Marchantiaceæ
-special cupules, in which gemmæ are developed, are found on the surface
-of the thallus (Fig. 197 _A_, _s-s_). Again, protonema may also arise
-from the leaves, and thus the leaves may act as reproductive bodies.
-Certain Mosses nearly always reproduce vegetatively, and in these
-species the oospheres are seldom fertilised.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 187.--_Marchantia polymorpha_: _a_ mature
-  antheridium.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 188.--Spermatozoids.]
-
-The first generation bears the SEXUAL ORGANS; both kinds are found
-either on the same plant (monœcious), or on separate plants (diœcious).
-In the thalloid Liverworts they are often situated on the apex of small
-stems (_gametophores_), springing from the surface of the thallus.
-In the Leafy-Liverworts and true Mosses the leaves which enclose the
-sexual organs often assume a peculiar shape, and are arranged more
-closely than the other leaves to form the so-called “Moss-flower.” The
-male sexual organs are called _antheridia_. They are stalked, spheroid,
-club- or egg-shaped bodies whose walls are formed of one layer of cells
-(Fig. 187), enclosing a mass of minute cubical cells, each one of which
-is a mother-cell of a spermatozoid. The spermatozoids are self-motile;
-they are slightly twisted, with two cilia placed anteriorly (Fig. 188),
-while posteriorly they are generally a trifle club-shaped, and often
-bear at that part the remains of the cytoplasm, the spermatozoid itself
-being _formed from the nucleus_. In the presence of water the ripe
-antheridium bursts, and its contents are ejected; the spermatozoids,
-being liberated from their mother-cells, swarm about in the water in
-order to effect fertilisation.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 189.--_Marchantia polymorpha. A_ A young,
-  and _B_ a ripe archegonium with open neck. _C_ An unripe
-  sporangium enclosed by the archegonium _a_: _st_ the stalk; _f_
-  the wall of the sporangium. Elaters are seen between the rows of
-  spores.]
-
-The female sexual organs are termed _archegonia_. They are flask-shaped
-bodies (Fig. 189), the lower, swollen portion (_venter_) having a wall,
-in most cases from 1–2 cells thick, enclosing the oosphere (Fig. 189
-_B_, _k_): the long neck is formed of tiers of 4–6 cells, enclosing
-a central row of cells--_the neck-canal-cells_ (Fig. 189 _A_). When
-the archegonium is fully developed, the walls of the neck-canal-cells
-become mucilaginous and force open the neck of the archegonium. The
-mucilage thus escapes, and, remaining at the mouth of the archegonium,
-acts in a somewhat similar manner to the stigma and conducting tissue
-of a carpel, by catching and conducting the spermatozoids to the
-oosphere (Fig. 189 _B_, _m_), with whose cell-nucleus they coalesce.
-With regard to the formation of the oosphere, it may further be
-remarked that the lower part of the archegonium originally encloses the
-so-called “central cell”; but shortly before the archegonium is ripe,
-this cuts off a small portion, _the ventral-canal-cell_, which lies
-immediately beneath the neck, and the larger, lower portion becomes the
-oosphere.
-
-   The organs mentioned here, antheridia and archegonia, are
-   present in the Cryptogams (Pteridophyta) and the Gymnosperms.
-   They have always the same fundamental structure, but with slight
-   modifications of detail. These plants are therefore known as the
-   ARCHEGONIATA.
-
-The fertilisation of the Mosses cannot be effected without water. Rain
-and dew therefore play a very important part in this process, and for
-this end various modifications of structure are found.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 190.--_Andreæa rupestris._ Longitudinal
-  section through a sporangium at the time when the mother-cells
-  of the spores are dividing: _p_ pseudopodium; _f_ foot; _v_
-  vaginula; _h_ neck; _c_ columella; _w_ wall of the sporangium;
-  _e_ external row of cells; _s_ the spore-sac; _t_ the
-  spore-mother-cells; _r_ the calyptra with the neck of archegonium
-  (_z_).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 191.--_Andreæa rupestris._ Transverse
-  section through a ripe sporangium. In the middle is seen the
-  four-sided columella, surrounded by the numerous spores,
-  drawn diagrammatically. Surrounding them is seen the wall of
-  the sporangium, whose outer layer of cells is thickened and
-  coloured. The layer of cells is unthickened in four places (_x_),
-  indicating the position of the clefts (see Fig. 193).]
-
-Among the sexual organs, paraphyses--filamentous or club-shaped
-bodies--are to be found.
-
-=The asexual generation, the sporophyte= (Moss-fruit or sporogonium).
-As the result of fertilisation the oosphere surrounds itself with a
-cell-wall, and then commences to divide in accordance with definite
-laws.[17] The embryo (Fig. 189 _C_) produced by these divisions
-remains inside the wall _a-a_ of the archegonium (Figs. 190, 199 _D_,
-_E_), and developes into the _sporogonium_, which remains attached
-to the mother-plant, often nourished by it, as if the two were one
-organism. The lower extremity of the sporogonium, _the foot_ (Figs.
-190 _f_; 199 _D_), very often forces its way deep down into the
-tissue of the mother-plant, but without an actual union taking place.
-The central portion of the sporogonium becomes a shorter or longer
-_stalk_ (_seta_), while the sporangium itself is developed at the
-summit. At a later stage, during the formation of the spores, the
-sporangium very often assumes the form of a _capsule_, and dehisces
-in several ways characteristic of the various genera (Figs. 192, 193,
-194, 195, 200). The basal portion of the archegonium grows for a
-longer or shorter period, forming a sheath, the _calyptra_, in which
-the capsule is developed, but eventually it ceases to enlarge, and
-is then ruptured in different ways, but quite characteristically, in
-each group. Anatomically, the asexual generation is often more highly
-differentiated than the sexual; thus, for instance, stomata are present
-on the sporangia of the true Mosses, but are absent in the sexual
-generation.
-
-As the capsule developes, an external layer of cells--the
-_amphithecium_--and an internal mass--the _endothecium_--are
-differentiated. As a rule the former becomes the wall of the capsule
-while the latter gives rise to the spores. In this Division, as in
-the Pteridophyta, the name _archesporium_ (Fig. 190 _t_) is given
-to the group of cells inside the sporangium which gives rise to
-the mother-cells of the spores. The archesporium is in general a
-unicellular layer; in _Sphagnum_ and _Anthoceros_ it is derived from
-the most internal layer of the amphithecium, but with these exceptions
-it arises from the endothecium, usually from its most external layer.
-In the true Mosses and in _Riccia_ only spore-mother-cells are produced
-from the archesporium, but in the majority of the Liverworts some
-of these cells are sterile and become elaters (cells with spirally
-thickened walls, Figs. 196, 189), or serve as “nurse-cells” for the
-spore-mother-cells, which gradually absorb the nutriment which has been
-accumulated in them. In _Anthoceros_, and almost all the Leafy-Mosses,
-a certain mass of cells in the centre of the sporangium (derived
-from the endothecium) does not take part in the formation of the
-archesporium, but forms the so called “column” or “columella” (Figs.
-190, 191).
-
-The _spores_ arise in _tetrads_, _i.e._ four in each mother-cell, and
-are arranged at the corners of a tetrahedron, each tetrahedron assuming
-the form of a sphere or a triangular pyramid. The mature spore is a
-nucleated mass of protoplasm, with starch or oil as reserve material.
-The wall is divided into two layers: the external coat (exospore) which
-is cuticularized and in most cases coloured (brown, yellowish), and the
-internal coat (endospore), which is colourless and not cuticularized.
-On germination the exospore is thrown off, the endospore protrudes, and
-cell-division commences and continues with the growth of the protonema
-(Fig. 186, _B-D_).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 192.--_Andreæa petrophila._ A ripe
-  sporogonium: _a_ an archegonium which has been raised with the
-  pseudopodium; _p_ the foot; _b_ the neck; _d-e_ the dark-coloured
-  portion of the sporangium, whose outer cell-walls are
-  considerably thickened; _c_-_c_ the thin-walled portions where
-  the dehiscence occurs; _o_ the lower extremity of the spore-sac;
-  _f_ calyptra; _g_ the apex of the sporangium. (Mag. 25 times.)]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 193.--_Andreæa petrophila._ An empty capsule;
-  the calyptra has fallen off. (Mag. 25 times.)]
-
-   The morphological explanation which Celakovsky has given of
-   the sporogonium, and which is not at all improbable, is, that
-   it is homologous with an embryo consisting of a very small
-   stem-portion and a terminal spore-producing leaf. This will be
-   further explained in the introduction to the Flowering-plants
-   (p. 236).
-
-In the Liverworts the young sporogonium lives like a parasite, being
-nourished by the sexual generation (only in _Anthoceros_ has it a
-slight power of assimilation). In the Leafy-Mosses, on the other
-hand, with regard to the power of assimilation, all transitions are
-found from abundant assimilation (_Funaria_, _Physcomitrium_) to
-almost complete “parasitism” (_Sphagnum_, _Andreæa_). In the majority
-of the operculate Mosses the sporogonium has a more or less perfect
-system of assimilation, and is able itself to form a large portion of
-the material necessary for the development of the spores, so that it
-chiefly receives from the sexual generation the inorganic substances
-which must be obtained from the soil. The more highly developed the
-assimilative system of the sporogonium, the more stomata are present.
-
-   APOSPORY. In some operculate Mosses it has been possible to
-   obtain a protonema with small Moss-plants from the seta, when
-   severed from its Moss-plant, and grown on damp sand.
-
-The Mosses are the lowest plants which are provided with stem and
-leaf. They are assigned a lower place when compared with the higher
-Cryptogams, partly because there are still found within the Division
-so many forms with a mere thallus, partly because typical roots are
-wanting and the anatomical structure is so extremely simple, and partly
-also because of the relation between the two generations. The highest
-Mosses terminate the Division, the Muscineæ and Pteridophyta having had
-a common origin in the Algæ-like Thallophyta.
-
-They are divided into two classes:--
-
-HEPATICÆ, or Liverworts.
-
-MUSCI FRONDOSI. True Mosses or Leafy-Mosses.
-
-
-                  Class 1. =Hepaticæ= (=Liverworts=).
-
-The protonema is only slightly developed. The remaining part of the
-vegetative body is either a prostrate, often dichotomously-branched
-thallus, pressed to the substratum (thalloid Liverworts), with
-or without scales on the under side (Figs. 194, 197); or a thin,
-prostrate, creeping stem, with distinctly-developed leaves, which are
-borne in two or three rows (Figs. 195, 198), viz., two on the upper
-and, in most cases, one on the under side. The leaves situated on the
-ventral side (amphigastria) are differently shaped from the others
-(Fig. 198 _a_), and are sometimes entirely absent. In contradistinction
-to the Leafy-Mosses, stress must be laid on the _well-marked
-dorsiventrality_ of the vegetative organs; _i.e._ the very distinct
-contrast between the dorsal side exposed to the light and the ventral
-side turned to the ground. Veins are never found in the leaves.
-
-The _ventral part of the archegonium_ (calyptra) continues to grow for
-some time, and encloses the growing embryo, but when the spores are
-ripe it is finally ruptured by the sporangium, and remains situated
-like a sheath (_vaginula_) around its base. The sporangium opens,
-longitudinally, by _valves_ or _teeth_ (Fig. 194, 195, 197 _b_), very
-rarely by a lid, or sometimes not at all. _A columella is wanting_
-(except in _Anthoceros_, Fig. 194); but on the other hand, a few of the
-cells lying between the spores are developed into _elaters_ (Fig. 196),
-_i.e._ spindle-shaped cells with spirally-twisted thickenings, which
-are hygroscopic, and thus serve to distribute the spores. (They are
-seen in Fig. 189 _C_, not yet fully developed, as long cells radiating
-from the base of the sporangium. They are wanting in _Riccia_).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 194.--_Anthoceros lævis_ (nat. size): _K_-_K_
-  capsules.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 195.--_Plagiochila asplenioides_: _a_ unripe,
-  and _b_ an open capsule; _p_ involucre. The ventral edge of each
-  leaf is higher than its dorsal edge, and covered by the dorsal
-  edge of the next one.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 196.--An elater with two spores.]
-
-   Round the entire archegonium, (or group of archegonia, when
-   several are developed on the same receptacle) a sheath--the
-   _involucre_--is often formed, which persists, and encloses the
-   base of the stalk of the sporangium, together with the sheath
-   of the archegonium (Fig. 195 _p_). In the Marchantiaceæ each
-   archegonium is enclosed in a loose investment, the perigynium,
-   which is developed as an outgrowth from the cells of its stalk.
-
-The majority of the Liverworts are found in damp and shady places,
-pressed to the substratum; a few are found floating in fresh water.
-
-
-                       Family 1. =Marchantieæ.=
-
-This embraces only forms with a thallus, which is more or less
-distinctly dichotomously branched, in some, one or two rows of thin
-leaves are situated on its under surface. On the upper surface of the
-thallus are found large air-chambers.
-
-Order 1. =Ricciaceæ.= The sporogonia are, with the exception of a few
-genera, situated singly on the surface of the thallus, and consist only
-of a capsule without foot or stalk. They always remain enclosed by the
-wall of the archegonium (calyptra), and open only by its dissolution.
-Elaters are not developed. Some genera are found floating like
-Duckweed.--_Riccia glauca_ grows on damp clay soil. _R. fluitans_ and
-_R. natans_ float in stagnant waters.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 197.--_Marchantia polymorpha. A_ Female
-  plant (nat. size): _a_ and _b_ are archegoniophores in various
-  stages of development; _s_ cupules with gemmæ (see page 183). _B_
-  An archegoniophore seen from below, the short-stalked sporangia
-  are seen placed in 8–10 double rows. _C_ Male plant, with a
-  young and an older antheridiophore. _D_ Antheridiophore halved
-  vertically to show the antheridia (_h_); _m_ the aperture of the
-  pits in which they are sunk--the older ones to the left, the
-  younger to the right.]
-
-Order 2. =Corsiniaceæ.= (Not native). Intermediate forms between the
-preceding and the following order. In internal and external structure
-mainly resembling the Marchantiaceæ. _Corsinia_; _Boschia_.
-
-Order 3. =Marchantiaceæ=, are large, fleshy forms. The surface of the
-thallus is divided into small rhombic areas, in the centre of each of
-which is found a large, peculiarly constructed stoma (Fig. 197 _A_);
-beneath each of these a large air-cavity is to be found. From the floor
-of the air-cavity a number of alga-like cells project into it; these
-contain chlorophyll and are therefore the assimilating cells. The
-antheridia and archegonia are each found aggregated on specially formed
-branches (somewhat resembling Mushrooms) projecting from the surface of
-the thallus. The antheridia are developed on the upper surface (Fig.
-197 _C_, _D_) and the archegonia on the lower (Fig. 197 _A_, _B_),
-near the centrally-placed stalk.
-
-_Marchantia polymorpha_ is diœcious (Fig. 197), and very common on damp
-places. _Lunularia_ (South Europe), frequently found on flower-pots in
-conservatories; _Preissia_, _Fegatella_, _Reboulia_, _Targionia_.
-
-
-                       Family 2. =Anthoceroteæ.=
-
-   These have an entirely leafless, fleshy, flat, and
-   irregularly-shaped thallus. In its intercellular chambers
-   Nostoc-colonies are often found, which have forced their way
-   through the stomata situated on the under side. The antheridia
-   and archegonia arise from the cells lying inside the thallus.
-   The capsule resembles a long, thin pod; it has two valves and a
-   columella. _Anthoceros_ (_A. lævis_, Fig. 194, and _punctatus_).
-
-
-                      Family 3. =Jungermannieæ.=
-
-Some forms in this family have a thallus in which leaf-like structures
-are found (_Blasia_), while in others (_e.g. Metzgeria_, _Pellia_,
-_Aneura_) they are entirely absent. The majority, however, have
-round, thick stems, bearing dorsally two rows of leaves, and one row
-ventrally. Some of these have the leaves “underlying” (Fig. 195), while
-in others (Fig. 198) they are “overlying.” (See Figs. 195, 198, with
-explanation).
-
-The sporangia are spherical, stalked, and situated singly on the apex
-of the branches, and open by four valves (in _Sphærocarpus_ they
-are indehiscent).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 198.--_Frullania dilatata._ Portion of a
-  branch seen from the under side: _r_ and _b_ are the anterior
-  and posterior edges of the same dorsal leaf; _a_ ventral leaves
-  (amphigastria). The dorsal leaves are “overlying,” _i.e._ the
-  anterior edge of the leaf overlaps the posterior edge of the
-  preceding one.]
-
-All the species in this family were formerly reckoned as belonging to
-one genus, _Jungermannia_, but now they are divided into several,
-arranged as follows:--
-
-I. ANACROGYNÆ. The archegonia are situated on the upper side of the
-thallus or stem, _placed laterally_, and covered by an “involucre,”
-formed by the calyptra together with the tissue of the stem or thallus.
-
-a. ANELATEREÆ. Without any elaters: _Sphærocarpus_, _Riella_.
-
-b. ELATEREÆ. α. Thalloid: _Aneura pinguis_, in damp situations;
-_Metzgeria furcata_, on trees; _Pellia epiphylla_, in damp situations;
-_Blasia pusilla_, on damp clay soil, in the shade (scales are present
-on the thallus). β. Foliose and not dorsiventral: _Haplomitrium
-hookeri_.
-
-II. ACROGYNÆ. The apex of the stem or of certain branches is adapted
-for the formation of female shoots. The archegonia are most frequently
-aggregated on the apex of the shoots, and are encircled by their leaves
-(perichætium). Between these and the archegonia, enclosing the latter,
-a peculiar cup-shaped organ (the involucre) is formed. This group only
-includes leaf-bearing genera: _Frullania_, _Radula_, _Madotheca_,
-_Ptilidium_, _Calypogeia_, _Lepidozia_, _Mastigobryum_, _Lophocolea_,
-_Jungermannia_, _Scapania_, _Plagiochila_.
-
-
-           Class 2. =Musci frondosi or veri (True Mosses).=
-
-In this class the protonema is well developed, and resembles a
-branched filamentous Alga, from which it can be easily distinguished
-by its oblique septa (in _Sphagnum_ it is a cellular expansion). The
-Moss-plant, which is developed directly from the protonema, generally
-has an erect, thick, cylindrical stem similarly constructed on all
-sides. The leaves are arranged spirally, the most frequent divergence
-being 2/5 or 3/8 (Fig. 200 _A_). A midrib is often present and also
-marginal veins formed by longitudinally elongated cells; at these veins
-the leaf is more than one layer in thickness. In _Leucobryum_ the
-leaves are generally constructed of more than one layer.
-
-The stem grows by means of a three-sided, pyramidal, apical cell which
-gives rise to three rows of segments, each segment forming a leaf. The
-lateral branches arise from the lower portions of the segments, the
-upper portion of which does not take any part in the construction of
-the leaf. From their mode of origin the branches are not axillary, and
-differ in this respect from the Flowering-plants.
-
-The ventral portion of the archegonium is very early ruptured _at its
-base_ by the growing sporogonium, upon which it remains, and it is thus
-raised into the air, forming a “hood,” the calyptra (Figs. 192; 200
-_B_). In the Sphagnaceæ the hood is not present; in this order, as in
-the Liverworts, the archegonium remains at the base of the sporogonium.
-The sporangium opens by circumsessile dehiscence, the upper portion
-(_operculum_) being separated along a specially constructed ring of
-cells, and falls off like a “lid” (Fig. 200). Only in a few forms
-(families 2 and 3) does any variation of this take place. Elaters are
-never found, but (with the exception of _Archidium_) there is always
-present in the sporangium a central mass of cells, the _columella_,
-which take no part in the formation of the spores. The columella, in
-some, does not reach quite to the operculum and in these cases the
-spore-sac is bell-shaped and covers the columella (_Andreæa_, Fig. 190;
-_Sphagnum_, Fig. 199 _D_); but in the majority of Mosses the columella
-extends to the lid, so that the space containing the spores becomes a
-hollow cylinder.
-
-The _sporangium_ is generally raised on a long stalk; in the great
-majority this stalk is formed from the lower half of the oospore and
-belongs to the asexual generation--it is then known as the _seta_. In
-_Andreæa_ and _Sphagnum_ the seta is very short, and the sporangia are
-raised upon a long stalk (_pseudopodium_) developed from the summit
-of the sexual generation (Figs. 190, 192). In the latter figure an
-archegonium (_a_) is seen attached to the pseudopodium, having been
-carried up with this during the course of its development. The summit
-of the pseudopodium is enlarged to embrace the foot of the sporogonium
-(Figs. 192, 199 _D_).
-
-   A. The sporangium is supported on a pseudopodium; the columella
-   does not extend to the operculum.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 199.--_Sphagnum acutifolium._--_A_ The
-  upper portion of a plant: _a_ branches with antheridia; _ch_
-  branches with terminal archegonia and perichætia; _b_ the
-  upper stemleaves. _B_ A male branch whose leaves are partly
-  taken off in order to show the antheridia. _C_ Group of three
-  archegonia: the central one (_a_) is formed from the apical
-  cell. _D_ Sporogonium in longitudinal section: the broad foot
-  (_sg’_) is sunk in the vaginula, _v_; _c_ calyptra; _ar_ neck
-  of the archegonium; _ps_ pseudopodium. _E_ ripe sporangium with
-  operculum, and the remains of the archegonium situated on the
-  pseudopodium which is still surrounded by the perichætium; to the
-  left is a barren branch. _F_ Portion of a foliage-leaf seen from
-  above: _l_ perforations; _b_ chlorophyll-containing cells; _s_
-  spiral thickenings.]
-
-
-                  Family 1. =Sphagneæ (Bog-Mosses).=
-
-The protonema has been already described. The stem is regularly
-branched owing to the fact that a branch, or collection of branches,
-arises at every fourth leaf. These branches are closely covered with
-leaves, some are erect, while others hang down and surround the stem.
-No rhizoids are developed. These Mosses are of a whitish-green colour,
-and when water is present are always saturated with it like a sponge,
-the reason for this being found in the construction of the stem and
-leaves. The stems are covered by an external layer of large clear
-cells, without chlorophyll, but with annular or spiral thickenings
-on the walls, which are also perforated by large holes. By means of
-capillary attraction, water is thus raised to the summit of the stem.
-Similarly constructed cells are also found in the leaves, but they
-are surrounded by a net of very narrow, chlorophyll-containing cells
-(Fig. 199 _F_), whose colour is thus to a great extent lost amongst
-those which are colourless. This anatomical structure is an essential
-condition for the formation of peat. The Bog-Mosses grow by preference
-on moors, which they cover with a thick carpet saturated with water.
-The lower extremities of the plants perish very rapidly, and gradually
-become converted into peat, and the branches thus separated from each
-other become independent plants. The sporangia (Fig. 199 _D_, _E_) are
-spherical, but with a very short stalk. They open by a _lid_, but have
-no _annulus_. The _archegonium_ (Fig. 199 _C_) persists at the _base of
-the sporogonium_ as in the Liverworts. Only one genus, _Sphagnum_.
-
-
-                       Family 2. =Schizocarpeæ.=
-
-   The Mosses which constitute this family are of a brownish-black
-   colour and are found living on rocks. The sporangium resembles
-   that of the Liverworts inasmuch as it opens by four valves, but
-   these continue attached to each other at the apex as well as at
-   the base (Fig. 193).--There is only one genus: _Andreæa_.
-
-   =B.= The stalk is formed from the lower portion of the
-   sporogonium. The columella is continued to the summit of the
-   sporangium and united with it (_Archidium_ has no columella.)
-
-
-                      Family 3. =Cleistocarpeæ.=
-
-   The fruit does not dehisce in the regular way, but the spores
-   are liberated by decay. They are small Mosses which remain
-   in connection with their protonema until the sporangium is
-   mature. The archegonium remains sessile at the base of the
-   short capsule-stalk, and is not raised into the air (compare
-   Hepaticæ).--_Phascum, Ephemerum, Archidium, Pleuridium._
-
-
-                       Family 4. =Stegocarpeæ.=
-
-To this belong the majority of the Mosses, about 3,000 species.
-
-The capsule opens as in _Sphagnum_ by means of a _lid_ (_operculum_),
-which is often prolonged into a beak. Round the mouth of the opened
-capsule, a number of peculiar yellow or red teeth are to be found.
-These constitute the _peristome_; their number is four, or a multiple
-of four (8, 16, 32 or 64). The form and thickenings of these teeth are
-widely different, and on this account are used by Systematists for
-the purposes of classification. In some Mosses (Fig. 200 _C_, _D_)
-there is a double row of teeth. Except in _Tetraphis_ they are not
-formed from entire cells, but from the strongly thickened portions of
-the wall of certain layers of cells belonging to the lid, and persist
-when this falls off. They are strongly hygroscopic, and assist greatly
-in the ejection of the lid, in which operation they are considerably
-aided by a ring of elastic cells with thickened walls, situated in the
-wall of the lid near the base of the teeth. This ring is known as the
-_annulus_. The archegonium is raised into the air like a hood, the
-calyptra, which either covers the sporangium on all sides (having the
-shape of a bell), or is split on one side (Fig. 200 _B_, _h_).
-
-   Among peculiar forms may be mentioned: _Splachnum_, which is
-   especially remarkable for the collar-like expansion at the base
-   of the capsule. _Fissidens_ deviates in having a flat stem and
-   leaves arranged in two rows. The leaves are boat-shaped and
-   half embrace the stem.--_Schistostega_ has two kinds of stems.
-   The barren ones resemble Fern-leaves; they have two rows of
-   leaves, which are attached together vertically, are decurrent
-   and coalesce at their bases. The fertile ones have an ordinary
-   appearance.--_Tetraphis_: the peristome is composed of four
-   teeth, which are formed from entire cells. _T. pellucida_ has
-   peculiar gemmæ.
-
-The family is divided into two groups: the Musci acrocarpi, the growth
-of whose main axis is limited and terminated by the formation of the
-sexual organs; and the Musci pleurocarpi, whose sporogonia are situated
-on special lateral shoots, while the growth of the main axis is
-unlimited.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 200.--_A Hypnum populeum_. _B_ and _C_
-  Sporangia, with hood (_h_), and operculum (_l’_), and without
-  these (_C_), showing the peristome (_p_). _D_ The mouth of the
-  capsule of _Fontinalis antipyretica_.]
-
-
-                            A. =Acrocarpi.=
-
-   Order 1. =Weisiaceæ.= Peristome, with 16 teeth arranged in
-   one series, rarely wanting. Leaf with midrib. _Campylopus_,
-   _Dicranum_ (_D. scoparium_, common in forests), _Dicranella_,
-   _Cynodontium_.--_Weisia_, _Gymnostomum_ (no peristome),
-   _Systegium_.
-
-   Order 2. =Leucobryaceæ.= Peristome with 16 teeth. Leaves with
-   three or more layers of cells, of which the external ones are
-   air-conducting and perforated (as in the Sphagneæ), the middle
-   one containing chlorophyll. _Leucobryum._
-
-   Order 3. =Fissidentaceæ.= Peristome as in the preceding ones.
-   The leaves are arranged in two rows on the plagiotropic shoots;
-   in _Fissidens_ the midrib of the leaf bears wing-shaped
-   outgrowths. _Conomitrium, Fissidens._
-
-   Order 4. =Seligeriaceæ.= Peristome with 16 undivided teeth. Very
-   small Rock-mosses. _Seligeria.--Blindia._
-
-   Order 5. =Pottiaceæ.= Peristome with 16 teeth, which are
-   divided almost to the base, or with 32 teeth. Calyptra
-   hood-like.--_Barbula (B. muralis, B. ruralis), Trichostomum,
-   Leptotrichum.--Ceratodon purpureus.--Distichium.--Pottia._
-
-   Order 6. =Grimmiaceæ.= The leaf-cells are often papillose;
-   in the upper portion of the leaf, small, and of roundish
-   shape. The calyptra is most frequently hood-like or conical.
-   _Eucalypta._--_Orthotrichum_, often with short-stalked capsule,
-   is found on trees.--_Coscinodon._--_Hedwigia._--_Grimmia_,
-   _Racomitrium_.--_Cinclidotus._
-
-   Order 7. =Schistostegaceæ.= The stems are of two kinds (see
-   above); _Schistostega osmundacea_, in caves, has a bright
-   emerald protonema.
-
-   Order 8. =Splachnaceæ.= The capsule has a large, collar-like
-   neck (see above). _Splachnum_ (especially on manure).
-
-   Order 9. =Funariaceæ.= Capsule pear-shaped. _Funaria_ (_F.
-   hygrometrica_ has a very hygroscopic seta, becoming twisted
-   when dry, and straightening with moisture); _Physcomitrium_;
-   _Discelium_.
-
-   Order 10. =Bryaceæ.= The capsule is thicker towards
-   the apex; most frequently pendulous. _Philonotis_,
-   _Bartramia_.--_Aulacomnium._--_Paludella
-   Meesea._--_Mnium._--_Bryum_, _Webera_, _Leptobryum_.
-
-   Order 11. =Polytrichaceæ.= Single peristome, formed by 16,
-   32, or 64 teeth. Leaves with longitudinal lamellæ on upper
-   surface.--_Polytrichum_ has long, hairy calyptra. _Catharinea_
-   (_C. undulata_, in forests).
-
-   Order 12. =Georgiaceæ.= Peristome with 4 teeth (see above).
-   _Tetraphis_ (_T. pellucida_ has gemmæ).
-
-   Order 13. =Buxbaumiaceæ.= Capsule asymmetrical; double
-   peristome: the interior one conical, with 16 or 32 longitudinal
-   folds.--_Buxbaumia_ (_B. aphylla_); _Diphyscium_.
-
-
-                           B. =Pleurocarpi.=
-
-   Order 14. =Fontinalaceæ.= Long, floating Water-Mosses.
-   _Fontinalis_ (_F. antipyretica_ is found in streams).
-   _Dichelyma._
-
-   Order 15. =Hookeriaceæ.= _Pterygophyllum._
-
-   Order 16. =Leskeaceæ.= Dull-looking Mosses, with papillose or
-   warted leaves.--_Thuidium_, _Thuja_-like with regularly arranged
-   1–3 doubly pinnate stems; _Anomodon_, _Leskea_.
-
-   Order 17. =Pterogoniaceæ.= _Pterigynandrum filiforme_, etc.
-
-   Order 18. =Fabroniaceæ.= _Anacamptodon._
-
-   Order 19. =Neckeraceæ.= Stems most frequently with flat, leafy
-   branches. The leaves are smooth, never with longitudinal
-   folds.--_Neckera._
-
-   Order 20. =Hypnaceæ.= The leaves are smooth with square,
-   often bladder-like, cells at the edge. _Hylocomium_ (_H.
-   splendens_, _H. triquetrum_); _Hypnum_; _Brachythecium_;
-   _Plagiothecium_.--_Eurhynchium._--_Homalothecium_, _Isothecium_,
-   _Orthothiecium_, _Homalia_.--_Climacium_, _Lescuræa_, _Leucodon_.
-
-   The Mosses occur all over the globe. Many are found in great
-   numbers, and growing thickly massed together, they form an
-   important feature in landscapes (for example _Sphagnum_ and
-   _Polytrichum_ in the Arctic Tundra). In the Northern and
-   Arctic regions the Mosses are very plentiful, and often form a
-   considerable part of the vegetation, while in the Tropics they
-   are insignificant.
-
-   Species of _Hypnum_ and _Polytrichum_, like _Sphagnum_, play an
-   important part in the formation of peat.
-
-
-
-
-                             DIVISION III.
-
-                  PTERIDOPHYTA (VASCULAR CRYPTOGAMS).
-
-
-The alternation of generations is as distinct in this Division as in
-the Mosses, but the sexual generation consists of only a small thallus,
-the prothallium, which bears directly the sexual organs, _antheridia_
-and _archegonia_; and the asexual generation, which arises from the
-fertilisation of the oosphere, is no longer a single short-lived
-sporangium, but a highly developed, generally perennial, plant provided
-with stem, leaves and _true roots_ (Ferns, Horsetails, etc.), the
-sporangia being borne on the leaves. In this latter generation the
-tissues are differentiated into epidermis, ground tissue and vascular
-tissue; in the last named the bundles are closed, and in the majority
-of cases concentric.
-
-The =sexual generation=, =gametophyte=, or =prothallium=, is _always
-a thallus_, although not always green and leaf-like (Figs. 205, 215,
-222, 229, 235, etc.) It is very small, even in cases where it attains
-the greatest development, and consists only of parenchymatous cells.
-The prothallium is nourished by hair-like roots (rhizoids) and has
-only a transitory existence, dying soon after the fertilisation of its
-oosphere.
-
-The ANTHERIDIA exhibit great variations in structure which, however,
-must be considered as modifications of the fundamental type which is
-found in the Mosses. These modifications will be mentioned under the
-various families. The _spermatozoids_ are always spirally-coiled,
-self-motile, protoplasmic bodies, with most frequently a large number
-of fine cilia on the anterior end (Figs. 206, 223, 234). They are
-formed principally from the nucleus of the mother-cell, and portions of
-the cytoplasm often remain for a time attached to their posterior end.
-
-The ARCHEGONIA are more uniform throughout the entire Division,
-and more closely resemble those of the Mosses. They are, as in the
-previous Division, principally flask-shaped; but the central portion,
-which encloses the oosphere, is always embedded in the tissue of the
-prothallium, so that the neck, which is formed of 4 rows of cells,
-projects above the surface (Figs. 201 ^3, 222 _h_). The development
-of the archegonium in a Fern is seen in the accompanying figure (Fig.
-201). The archegonium is developed from a surface cell, which divides
-into three cells by two walls in a direction parallel to the surface
-of the prothallium (Fig. 201). The most internal cell becomes the
-ventral portion of the archegonium. The external one (_b_) divides
-perpendicularly to the surface of the prothallium into four cells,
-which again divide parallel to the surface and form the neck (_b_,
-in 2 and 3). The intermediate cell projects upwards into the neck
-and divides into two, the lower one, after the separation of the
-ventral canal-cell, becoming the _oosphere_, and the upper one the
-_neck-canal-cell_ (_c_, in 2 and 3).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 201.--_Pteris serrulata._ Development of
-  archegonia.]
-
-As in the Mosses, the divisional walls of the neck-canal-cells become
-mucilaginous, causing the rupture of the neck of the archegonium.
-Fertilisation takes place as in the Mosses, and the passage of the
-spermatozoids, along the neck, to the oosphere, has been observed.
-Water (rain or dew) is similarly necessary for the movements of the
-spermatozoids, and hence for fertilisation. The other classes of the
-Division chiefly deviate from the Ferns in having the archegonium sunk
-deeper into the prothallium, and the neck reduced in length (compare
-Fig. 201 with Figs. 216, 222, 235, 236).
-
-According to the nature of the spores, the three classes of the
-Vascular Cryptogams are each divided into isosporous and heterosporous
-groups.
-
-I. The =isosporous= Vascular Cryptogams have _only one kind of spore_.
-The prothallium developed from this is in some cases monœcious, bearing
-both antheridia and archegonia; but in others there is a distinct
-tendency for each prothallium to bear only antheridia or archegonia
-(diœcious)--true Ferns and _Lycopodium_.
-
-In _Equisetum_ there is only one kind of spore, but two kinds of
-prothallia are developed, one of which bears only antheridia (male),
-the other only archegonia (female); but the one that bears antheridia
-may be transformed into the one that bears archegonia and vice versa.
-
-II. In the higher group, =heterosporous= Vascular Cryptogams
-(_Selaginella_ and _Isoëtes_, etc.), there are two distinct kinds
-of spores, the _small_, microspores, and the _large_, macrospores.
-The _microspores_ are male, and produce prothallia which bear only
-antheridia. The _macrospores_ are female, and produce prothallia which
-bear only archegonia.
-
-Corresponding to this difference in the spores, there is also found
-a difference in the development of the prothallium. In the Isosporeæ
-the prothallium is large, and either green, leaf-like, and provided
-with rhizoids (most of the Ferns, Horsetails, etc.), or subterranean,
-pale-coloured, and globular (_Ophioglossum_, _Lycopodium_). It lives
-vegetatively for a fairly long time, and generally produces a large
-and varying number of archegonia and antheridia. The prothallium in
-the Heterosporeæ is gradually more and more reduced, its independent
-and vegetative life becomes of less and less importance, it becomes
-more dependent on the mother-plant, and projects from the spore very
-slightly, or not at all. The antheridia and archegonia become reduced
-in number to one, and also degenerate in point of development.
-
-It may here be remarked that the gradual development of the asexual
-generation, the development of the two kinds of spores, and the
-progressive reduction of the prothallium and sexual organs which
-is found in this Division, is continued to the Gymnosperms and
-Angiosperms. The microspores are in these called pollen-grains, and
-the male prothallium is very rudimentary. The macrospores are termed
-embryo-sacs, and the female prothallium, the endosperm.
-
-The =asexual generation=, =sporophyte=. When the oosphere, which in
-this case as in all others is a primordial cell, is fertilised, it
-surrounds itself with a cell-wall and commences to divide into a number
-of cells, to form the embryo.
-
-   The first dividing wall (basal wall) is nearly horizontal, and
-   in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the archegonium.
-   The next wall is vertical, and the next perpendicular to the
-   other two. The oosphere, therefore, is now divided into eight
-   octants by these three walls. The basal wall divides the
-   embryo into a hypobasal and an epibasal half. From the first
-   one, by continued divisions, the first root is developed; from
-   the latter, the stem and leaves. After the formation of the
-   octants the development proceeds in somewhat different ways in
-   the various classes. In addition to the stem, leaf, and root,
-   a “foot” is developed from the hypobasal half which remains
-   enclosed in the prothallium, and conveys nourishment from the
-   prothallium to the young plant until it is able to sustain
-   itself (Fig. 202). The formation of these members in the embryo
-   depends on the position of the oosphere in the archegonium and
-   prothallium, and is independent of gravity.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 202.--_Adiantum capillus veneris._ Vertical
-  section through a prothallium (_f f_), with a young plant
-  attached on its under side (mag. about 10 times); _r_ the first
-  root, and _b_ the first leaf of the young Fern-plant; _m_ the
-  foot. In the angle between _m_ and _b_ lies the apex of the
-  stem: _h_ the rhizoids of the prothallium; _æ æ_ unfertilised
-  archegonia.]
-
-In the Mosses the asexual generation is the sporogonium, which is
-limited in its development and in a great measure dependent upon the
-sexual generation, upon which it is situated; but in the Pteridophyta
-this generation is an independent and highly developed plant,
-provided with stem, leaf, and true roots, and has in many instances
-an unlimited development. The Pteridophyta are the lowest Division
-with _true roots_. The root which is first formed is very similar in
-nature to the primary root of the Monocotyledons; it very soon dies
-and is replaced by others which are more permanent, and developed
-upon the stem (adventitious roots); roots are wanting in _Salvinia_,
-_Psilotum_, and some Hymenophyllaceæ. The differentiation is, however,
-not so complete as in the Flowering-plants, and so many leafy forms are
-not found. The various members of these plants are anatomically much
-higher than in the Mosses, having an epidermis, a ground tissue with
-variously differentiated cells, and a highly developed vascular system.
-The vascular bundles, like those in the Monocotyledons, are without
-cambium, and closed; they are therefore incapable of any increase in
-thickness. In general the bundles are concentric, with the bast round
-the wood (Fig. 203). The wood is almost entirely made up of scalariform
-tracheides.
-
-   In _Isoëtes_ a secondary thickening takes place by a cambium,
-   which is formed inside the cortex, constructing secondary
-   cortex to the exterior, and secondary wood towards the
-   interior.--_Botrychium_ has also a thickening growth. Collateral
-   vascular bundles occur in _Osmundaceæ_, _Equisetaceæ_, and the
-   leaves of many _Polypodiaceæ_, etc.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 203.--Portion of the stem of a Fern. Above is
-  seen the transverse section, with vascular bundles of different
-  form and size. The rhombic figures on the side of the stem are
-  leaf-scars.]
-
-It is a point of special interest, that the gigantic forms of Ferns,
-Equisetums, and Club-Mosses (which flourished in earlier geological
-periods, when these classes attained their highest development)
-possessed some means of increasing in thickness.
-
-The _sporangia_ are in all cases _capsule-like_, and burst open when
-ripe to eject the spores. They are nearly always situated on the leaves
-(in _Lycopodiaceæ_, in the axils of the leaves, or above these, on the
-stems themselves). In some forms (LEPTOSPORANGIATÆ), the sporangia are
-developed from a single epidermal cell; in others (EUSPORANGIATÆ),
-from a group of epidermal cells, or from cells which lie beneath the
-epidermis. In the first group a primitive mother-cell (archesporium)
-is formed, which divides commonly into sixteen special mother-cells.
-In the latter group, on the other hand, a number of primitive
-spore-mother-cells are developed. In each sporangium three different
-tissues are generally developed; an innermost _sporogenous_ one (_s_ in
-Fig. 204 _A_), which arises from the archesporangium; an outermost one,
-which forms the _wall_ (_a_), and may be one or, more rarely, several
-layers in thickness; and an intermediate one, the _tapetum_ (Fig. 204
-_A_, _B_, _b t_), which is rich in protoplasm, and whose cells are
-dissolved so that the spores float freely in the fluid thus provided.
-The spores arise as in the Mosses (in tetrads), by the cross-division
-of the special mother-cells, and according to the manner in which they
-are arranged in the mother-cell have either a tetrahedral form, with
-a large base resembling a segment of a ball, or are oblong (bilateral
-spores). Their construction is the same as in the Mosses (p. 187).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 204.--_Selaginella inæqualifolia. A_ A
-  young sporangium, which may develope either into a macro-, or a
-  microsporangium. _B_ A microsporangium.]
-
-The spore-formation in its earliest commencement takes place in the
-same way in the Isosporous and the Heterosporous Vascular Cryptogams;
-but from a certain point, after the tetrahedral division, a difference
-occurs with regard to the macrosporangia. All the spores formed in the
-microsporangium may complete their development; but those which are
-formed in the macrosporangium are generally aborted, with the exception
-of one or four, and these consequently attain a much larger size (see
-Fig. 239.--The series to the left are microsporangia; those to the
-right, macrosporangia).
-
-   APOGAMY. In some Ferns (_Pteris cretica_; _Aspidium filix mas_,
-   var. _cristatum_; _A. falcatum_; _Todea africana_) the young
-   plant is not developed as a consequence of fertilisation, but as
-   a bud from the prothallium. This is known as apogamy, or loss of
-   the power of sexual reproduction. The antheridia are generally
-   more or less developed; archegonia are entirely wanting in _Asp.
-   filix mas_, var. _cristatum_. This variety has probably only
-   become apogamous through cultivation. Many specimens of _Isoëtes
-   lacustris_, in a lake in the Vosges mountains, produce in the
-   place where the sporangia are usually found, a vegetative shoot
-   which grows into a new plant, so that the sexual generation is
-   wanting in this case. Some specimens have sporangia on some
-   leaves, and shoots on others.
-
-   Apospory, or the formation of prothallia instead of sporangia
-   and spores on the leaves, is found in _Athyrium filix
-   femina_, var. _clarissimum_. In this case the development
-   of the sporangia proceeds only to a certain point, and from
-   these arrested sporangia the prothallia are produced. Normal
-   sporangia are entirely wanting in this variety, and in _Aspidium
-   angulare_, var. _pulcherrimum_, sporangia are completely
-   wanting. Compare the Mosses (page 188).
-
-The Vascular Cryptogams are divided into _three large classes_,
-in each of which a progressive development can be traced from the
-isosporous to the heterosporous forms, but some of these are now only
-known as fossils.
-
-Class 1. =Filicinæ= (=Ferns=).--The stem is small in comparison with
-the leaves, and branches only seldom, and then by lateral shoots. The
-leaves are scattered, large, often deeply divided, and of various
-highly developed forms. The undeveloped leaves are rolled up in the
-bud, having what is termed circinate venation. The sporangia are
-situated on the edge or on the lower side of the leaves, those on
-which the sporangia are borne (_sporophylls_) being often the ordinary
-foliage-leaves; but in a few cases the fertile differ from the barren
-ones (a higher stage in development). The fertile leaves are not
-confined to definite parts of the shoot, and do not limit its growth.
-The archesporium is most frequently unicellular.
-
-_A_. =Isosporous=: Sub-Class 1. Filices (True Ferns).
-
-_B_. =Heterosporous=: Sub-Class 2. Hydropterideæ (Water Ferns).
-
-Class 2. =Equisetinæ= (=Horsetails=), in its widest meaning.--The
-leaves in this class are small in comparison with the stem. They are
-arranged in whorls, and unite to form a sheath. The sporangia are
-situated on specially modified, shield-like leaves, which are closely
-packed together and form a “cone.” The cone is borne terminally, and
-limits the growth of the shoot. The sporangia are developed from a
-large group of epidermal cells, the archesporium being unicellular. The
-branches are arranged in whorls, and develope acropetally.
-
-_A_. =Isosporous=: Sub-Class 1. Equisetaceæ. Existing forms.
-
-_B_. =Heterosporous=: Sub-Class 2. Extinct forms.
-
-Class 3. =Lycopodinæ= (=Club-Mosses=).--Roots generally branching
-dichotomously. The leaves are scattered or opposite, and in proportion
-to the stem very small, undivided, and simple. They are scale-like and
-triangular, tapering from a broad base to a point. The sporangia are
-situated singly (except in _Psilotaceæ_), and almost in every case on
-the upper side of the leaf or in the axil of a leaf; but in some cases
-they are borne on the stem, just above the leaf-axil. The sporangia
-arise from groups of epidermal cells. The sporophylls are often
-modified, and differ from the foliage-leaves; they are then arranged in
-cones placed terminally on branches, thus limiting their growth.
-
-_A_. =Isosporous=: Sub-Class 1. Lycopodieæ.
-
-_B._ =Heterosporous=: Sub-Class 2. Selaginelleæ.
-
-
-                    Class 1. =Filicinæ= (=Ferns=).
-
-The characteristics of this class have already been given on page 204.
-
-The class is divided into two sub-classes:--
-
-1. The TRUE FERNS, FILICES, have one kind of spore which generally
-developes monœcious prothallia, relatively large and green. The
-sporangia are most frequently situated in groups (_sori_), which are
-often covered but not enclosed by an _indusium_.
-
-2. WATER FERNS, HYDROPTERIDÆ, have microsporangia with many (4 × 16)
-microspores, and _macrosporangia, each with one macrospore_. The
-prothallium is small, and projects but slightly from the germinating
-spore. The sporangia are situated in groups (_sori_), which are either
-enclosed by an indusium, or enveloped in a portion of a leaf, to form
-“fruits” termed _sporocarps_.
-
-   The old name for the Hydropterideæ, “Rhizocarpeæ,” _i.e._ the
-   “root-fruited,” originated from the erroneous supposition that
-   the sporocarps were borne on the roots.
-
-
-              Sub-Class 1. =Filices= (=the True Ferns=).
-
-Of the eight orders (with about 4,000 species) comprised in this
-sub-class, the Polypodiaceæ is the largest (having about 2,800 species)
-and the most familiar; for this reason it will be taken as typical.
-
-=The sexual generation.= When the spore germinates, the external
-covering (exospore) is ruptured, as in the Mosses. The internal
-cell-wall (endospore) grows out as a filament, which soon divides and
-gives rise to the prothallium, a flat, cellular expansion resembling
-the thallus of a Liverwort. In its fully developed state the
-prothallium is generally heart-shaped, dark green, and provided with
-root-hairs, and it attains a diameter of about one centimetre (Fig.
-205). It is formed of one layer of cells, except along the central
-line near the anterior depression, where it becomes several layers
-of cells in thickness, forming the “cushion,” on the lower side of
-which the archegonia are developed. The antheridia are first formed;
-they are thus found on the oldest parts of the prothallium, on its
-edge, or among the root-hairs. The archegonia are developed later,
-and are therefore found near the apex. Several tropical Ferns have
-prothallia[18] deviating from this typical form; _Trichomanes_
-(Order _Hymenophyllaceæ_) has filamentous, branched prothallia,
-which resemble the protonema of a Moss. Others, again, have
-strap-shaped prothallia, which resemble the thallus of certain
-Liverworts.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 205.--Prothallium (_p p_) of Maiden hair
-  (_Adiantum capillus veneris_) with a young plant attached: _b_
-  first leaf; _w′_ primary root; _w″_ adventitious roots; _h h_
-  root-hairs of the prothallium (× abt. 30).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 206.--Antheridia of Maiden-hair (× 550).
-  _A_ Unripe; _B_ ripe, but unopened; _C_ open and ejecting the
-  spermatozoids (_s_). Those which have been last ejected are still
-  lying enclosed in their mother-cells, the others are coiled up
-  and drag with them the cytoplasmic remains (_b_); _f_ cells of
-  the prothallium.]
-
-The ARCHEGONIA have been already mentioned (p. 199, Fig. 201). The
-ANTHERIDIA are hemispherical or slightly conical bodies (Fig. 206).
-They consist, as in the Mosses, of a wall formed by one layer of
-cells, which encloses a number of spermatozoid-mother-cells (_A_
-and _B_). The antheridia when ripe absorb water, and are ruptured,
-and the spirally-coiled spermatozoids liberated (Fig. 206 _S_).
-The spermatozoids have been observed to pass down the neck of the
-archegonium, and to fuse with the oosphere.
-
-=The asexual generation.= The first leaf, the “cotyledon,” of the
-embryo developed from the oospore (Figs. 202, 205) is always small,
-and has a very simple shape. The leaves which occur later become more
-perfect, stage by stage, until the permanent form of leaf has been
-attained.--The STEM is most frequently a subterranean or a semi-aerial
-rhizome; it is only in the tropical, palm-like Tree-Ferns, that the
-stem raises itself high in the air and resembles that of a tree,
-with leaf-scars or with the remains of leaves attached (Figs. 207,
-203); in certain species the stem is encased in a thick mat of aerial
-roots (_Dicksonia antarctica_). When the rhizome is horizontal the
-internodes are frequently elongated, and the leaves are arranged in two
-rows, as in _Polypodium vulgare_ and in the Bracken-Fern (_Pteridium
-aquilinum_), etc.; it is also generally _dorsiventral_, having a dorsal
-side on which the leaves are situated, and a ventral side, different
-from the former, on which the roots are borne. When the stem ascends
-in an oblique direction, or is nearly vertical, its internodes are
-extremely short, and the leaves are arranged in a spiral line with a
-complicated phyllotaxis, _e.g._ in _Athyrium filix-fœmina_, _Aspidium
-filix-mas_, etc. The BRANCHING upon the whole is extremely slight, and
-is generally confined to the petiole (_e.g. Aspid. filix-mas_), or
-to the stem near the insertion of the leaves. Several species normally
-form buds on different parts of the lamina. The buds which are formed
-on the stem are not confined to the leaf-axil as in the higher plants.
-The Tree-Ferns, generally, do not branch at all.
-
-The VASCULAR BUNDLES are _concentric_, with the wood surrounded by
-the soft bast. In transverse section they are seen as circles or
-irregularly-shaped figures (Fig. 203), the name of “King Charles and
-the Oak” (Bracken-Fern) having originated from the appearance which the
-bundles present in oblique section. In _Osmunda_ they are collateral
-and resemble those of the Flowering-plants. Round each individual
-bundle is often a sheath of thick-walled, hard, brown, sclerenchymatous
-cells, which act as a mechanical tissue; similar strands are also found
-in other parts of the stem.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 207.--Various Ferns (1, 2, 3, 4).]
-
-The LEAVES in nearly all species are only foliage-leaves, borne in a
-spiral. They have an apical growth which continues for a long time,
-and some require several years for their complete development. In the
-buds they are rolled up (_circinate_); not only the midrib, but also
-all the lateral veins, and even the terminal portions of a leaf are
-sometimes rolled up together, the tissues of the leaf being already
-fully developed and only waiting to expand. The leaves are often
-excessively divided and compound, with pinnate branches, and have
-an epidermis with stomata and a well-developed system of venation.
-Stipules are only found in _Marattiaceæ_ and _Ophioglossaceæ_.
-
-Very often peculiar hairs or scales (_paleæ_, _ramenta_), dry, brown,
-flat and broad, are found on stem and leaf.
-
-The SPORANGIA are small, round capsules, which, in a very large number
-of Ferns, are formed on the back, but more rarely on the edge of the
-ordinary foliage-leaves. It is very seldom that there is any difference
-in form between the barren foliage-leaves and the fertile leaves, as is
-found for example in _Blechnum spicant_ or _Struthiopteris_; or that
-the fertile part of the leaf is differently constructed from the barren
-portion of the same leaf, as in the Royal-Fern (_Osmunda_). In such
-instances the mesophyll of the fertile parts is poorly developed.
-
-The sporangia in the _Polypodiaceæ_ are lens-shaped, with long stalk
-(Fig. 211 _D_): their wall consists of one cell-layer on which a single
-row of cells, passing vertically over the top (that is along the edge
-of the sporangium), is developed into the “ring” (annulus). The cells
-of the annulus are very much thickened on the inner and side walls,
-and are yellowish-brown. The thickened cells, however, do not entirely
-encircle the sporangium, and on one side, near the stalk, they pass
-over into large, flat, thin-walled cells. These form a weak point in
-the wall, and it is here that the sporangium is opened diagonally by
-the elongation of the annulus. The sporangium of the Polypodiaceæ
-opens as it dries. The cells of the annulus are very hygroscopic, and
-in straightening, the annulus bends back with a jerk, thus ejecting
-the spores to considerable distances. The cells of the annulus absorb
-water with great readiness. [The sporangium arises as a single
-epidermal cell, from which a basal stalk-cell is cut off. Three oblique
-cell-walls, intersecting near the base, are next formed in the upper
-cell, and a fourth between these and parallel to the free surface; an
-inner tetrahedral cell enclosed by four others is thus formed, the
-outer cells become the wall of the sporangium, while the inner cell,
-by a series of walls, parallel to its sides, cuts off a layer of
-cells which eventually form the tapetum, the remaining central cell
-constituting the archesporium.]
-
-The SPORES are either oblong and bilateral, or they are tetrahedric
-with curved sides, depending upon the way in which the tetrad division
-has taken place.
-
-The sporangia are almost always situated on the nerves and gathered
-into groups, _sori_, which differ in form in the various genera. The
-sori, in many genera, may be covered by a scale-like structure, the
-_indusium_ (Figs. 211 _B_, 212).
-
-In the majority of cases, each sorus is situated on a small papilla
-(_placenta_, or _receptacle_), which is supplied by a small vascular
-bundle. Between the sporangia, hairs (_paraphyses_) are often situated,
-which spring either from the placenta or from the stalks of the
-sporangia.
-
-=Systematic Division.= The Ferns may be divided into two groups,
-characterized by the structure and development of the sporangia.
-The sporangia in the EUSPORANGIATÆ take their origin from a group
-of epidermal cells, and their walls are formed by several layers of
-cells. The archesporium is the (not tetrahedric) hypodermal terminal
-cell of the axial row of cells which give rise to the sporangium.
-In the LEPTOSPORANGIATÆ the sporangia are developed from single
-epidermal cells, and their walls are uni-layered. The archesporium is a
-central, often tetrahedric cell, from which sixteen spore-mother-cells
-are developed.[19] It is difficult to say which form is the oldest
-(according to Prantl, those which have the sori on the nerve-endings);
-however, the Eusporangiatæ would seem to have made their appearance
-long before the others, and also well defined Marattiaceæ and
-Ophioglossaceæ occur in the Kulm and Coal period, before the true
-Polypodiaceæ.
-
-About 4,000 species of Ferns are now existing, and they are found
-especially in tropical and sub-tropical forests.
-
-
-                      Family 1. =Eusporangiatæ.=
-
-Order 1. =Ophioglossaceæ.= The prothallium differs from that of all
-other Ferns in being _subterranean_, _free from chlorophyll_, _pale_
-and _tuberous_. The stem is extremely short, with short internodes,
-most frequently unbranched, vertical, and entirely buried in the ground
-(Fig. 208 _st_). In several species (among which are the native ones)
-one leaf is produced every year, which has taken three to four years
-for its development. In _Botrychium_ a closed, sheath-like basal part
-of each leaf covers the subsequent leaves during their development. In
-_Ophioglossum_ and others each leaf has at its base an intrapetiolar,
-cap-like sheath, which protects the succeeding leaf. The leaves are
-of two kinds: (_a_) foliage, which in _Ophioglossum vulgatum_ are
-lanceolate and entire, but in _Botrychium_ however, are pinnate (_b_
-in Fig. 208 _A_, _B_); and (_b_) fertile, which are found facing the
-upper side of the foliage-leaves. These latter in _Ophioglossum_ are
-undivided and spike-like (Fig. 209 _A_), but pinnate in _Botrychium_
-(Fig. 208 _B_). Each foliage and fertile leaf are branches from the
-same petiole. The large sporangia are placed laterally, and open by
-two valves. No annulus is formed (Fig. 209).--_Ophioglossum_ reproduces
-vegetatively by adventitious buds on the roots.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 208.--_A Ophioglossum vulgatum_
-  (Adder’s-tongue); _B Botrychium lunaria_ (Moonwort), both
-  natural size; _r-r_ roots; _bs_ leaf-stalk; _st_ stem; _b_
-  foliage-leaf; _f_ fertile leaf.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 209.--Fertile leaf of _Ophioglossum_.]
-
-Three genera with about twelve species.
-
-Order 2. =Marattiaceæ= are tropical Ferns, whose gigantic leaves
-resemble those of the Polypodiaceæ, but have stipules in addition.
-The sporangia are grouped in sori, situated on the lower side of the
-leaves, the sporangia in each sorus being arranged either in two rows
-or in a ring. In _Angiopteris_ they are isolated (Fig. 210 _A_),
-but in the other species (_Kaulfussia_, _Danæa_, _Marattia_), they
-are united, and form “synangia” divided into a number of chambers
-corresponding to the sporangia. These open by clefts or pores.
-_Marattia_ presents the highest development, as its sporangia are
-completely united in a capsule-like synangium, which is closed until
-maturity, and then opens by two valves. In each valve there is a row
-of three to eleven sporangia, each opening by a slit towards the
-inside (Fig. 210 _B_, _C_). An indusium encloses the sorus, except in
-_Kaulfussia_; it is formed of flat and lobed hairs, which resemble
-the hairs of the other portions of the leaves. In _Angiopteris_ and
-_Marattia_ the indusium is very rudimentary; in _Danæa_ it forms a kind
-of cupule.
-
-   The numerous fossil Marattiaceæ (15 genera, with 98 species)
-   present similar differences to those now living, but more
-   various forms are found, for example, with solitary free
-   sporangia. Those now living are the last small remnant (4 genera
-   with only 23 species) of a once dominant family, which existed
-   from very early times, and whose culminating point was reached
-   in the Kulm and Coal periods.
-
-   The Ophioglossaceæ appear also in the Kulm and Coal periods,
-   and were about as numerous as at the present time (presumably 2
-   genera, with 19 species). Leptosporangiate Ferns appear however
-   to have occurred first of all in the Trias-formation.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 210.--Sporangia of the Marattiaceæ: _A_
-  _Angiopteris_; _B_ and _C Marattia_; _C_ is a half sorus with
-  nine sporangia, each of which has opened by a longitudinal cleft.]
-
-
-                     Family 2. =Leptosporangiatæ.=
-
-Order 1. =Polypodiaceæ.= Sporangia on the lower side of the leaves,
-_stalked_ and provided with a _vertical_, incomplete annulus; dehiscing
-by a transverse cleft (Fig. 211 _D_).--The genera are distinguished by
-the form of the indusium and the position of the sori, etc.
-
-1. The sporangia cover the entire lower surface of the leaf (Tropical
-America and Asia). _Acrostichum_, _Platycerium._
-
-2. Sori without indusia, circular or oval. _Polypodium_ (Fig. 211 _A_).
-The leaves are most frequently situated in two rows on the dorsal
-side of the creeping rhizome, and fall off leaving a smooth scar
-behind.--_P. vulgare_, common in woods, on stones. (_Phegopteris_ also
-has no indusium; see page 214).
-
-3. The sporangia are situated in continuous lines just inside the
-margin of the leaf.--_Pteris_[20]: the sporangia form a continuous
-line along the entire margin of the leaf (Fig. 211 _C_), which bends
-over and covers the sporangia, forming a “false-indusium.” _Pteridium_
-has linear sori situated on a marginal vascular bundle, covered by two
-linear basal indusia, of which the outer is bent over like the edge of
-a leaf.--_P. aquilinum_ (Bracken) has a wide-spreading rhizome with
-large alternate leaves, placed on opposite sides, at some distance
-apart. Only one leaf is developed from each branch every year.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 211.--Portions of leaves with sori. _A_
-  _Polypodium_. _B Aspidium_. _C Pteridium_. _D_ A sporangium
-  of one of the Polypodiaceæ: _r_ the annulus; _s_ spores.]
-
-   _Adiantum_ (Maiden-hair): sori on the underside of small
-   portions of the edge of the leaf, which are bent over (false
-   indusium). _Cryptogramme_ (_Allosorus_), _Cheilanthes_.
-
-4. The sori are oval or linear, situated on one side of the vascular
-bundle.--_Asplenium_ (Fig. 212 _A_): sori linear; indusium with one of
-its edges attached at the external side. _A. ruta muraria_ (Wall-Rue);
-_A. septentrionale_; _A. trichomanes_.--_Athyrium_: sori linear or
-curved; _A. filix-fœmina_ (Lady-Fern).--_Scolopendrium_ (Fig. 212 _B_):
-sori as in _Asplenium_, but situated in pairs across the lanceolate,
-entire leaves. Each sorus is covered on the external side by an
-indusium, whose free edges are parallel and approach each other. _S.
-vulgare_ (Hart’s-tongue).--~_Blechnum_ (_B. spicant_, Hard Fern; the
-fertile leaves differ from the barren, the pinnæ being narrower, while
-the underside is almost entirely covered with sori, and hence they
-are of a much darker brownish hue than the barren ones).--_Ceterach_:
-indusium rudimentary or absent.~
-
-5. Sori circular and covered by a shield-like, or reniform
-indusium.--_Aspidium_ (Fig. 211 _B_); the leaves wither away and
-leave no scar upon the root-stock. _A. filix-mas_ (Male-Fern); _A.
-spinulosum_.--_Phegopteris_ has no indusium, the withered bases of the
-leaf-stalks are persistent; _P. dryopteris_ and _P. polypodioides_.
-
-6. The indusium is situated below the sori, and has the shape of a
-one-sided scale (_Cystopteris_, _Struthiopteris_), or of a cup or
-cupule, which in _Woodsia_ is sometimes fimbriate (Fig. 212 _C_, _D_).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 212.--_A Asplenium_.
-  _B Scolopendrium_. _C Woodsia_; _D_
-  single sorus of the same. _E Cyathea_: the sporangia
-  have fallen off in the upper sori. (All magnified.)]
-
-7. The sori are situated on the margin of the leaf, and at the end of a
-vascular bundle. Indusium, semi-cupular. _Davallia._ Principally
-tropical species. 1 in S. Europe.
-
-This order is the greatest, comprising about 2,800 species, the
-majority being perennial plants. A few are large, and known as
-Tree-Ferns.
-
-   As plants in conservatories and rooms the following are
-   cultivated: species of _Gymnogramme_ (tropical America),
-   _Lomaria_, _Nephrolepis_, _Pteris_ (_P. serrulata_, _cretica_).
-
-   Officinal. _Aspidium filix-mas_, rhizome and the withered
-   petioles.--Species of _Alsophila_ and _Cibotium_ give Penghawar
-   Djambi. The rhizome of _Pteridium aquilinum_, var. _esculentum_,
-   contains so much starch that it is used as food.
-
-   The other orders of true Ferns deviate from the Polypodiaceæ,
-   especially in the formation of the annulus, the bursting of the
-   sporangium and its mode of attachment and development, and in
-   the differences in the formation of the prothallium, etc. The
-   principal are:--
-
-Order 2. =Hymenophyllaceæ.= To this order belong the lowest and most
-Moss-like Ferns; the leaves, with the exception of the veins, are
-most frequently formed of _only one layer of cells_, and consequently
-stomata are wanting; the formation of the prothallium also somewhat
-resembles the Mosses. Sori marginal, on the _extremities of the
-vascular bundles_, and surrounded by a _cupular indusium_. The
-sporangia are sessile, with equatorial annulus. _Hymenophyllum_ (_H.
-tunbridgense_, European). _Trichomanes_ (_T. speciosum_, European).
-Species about 200, which live especially on rocks and trees in damp and
-shady tropical forests. Some have no roots.
-
-Order 3. =Cyatheaceæ.= Annulus _complete_ and oblique. To this order
-belong, principally, the tree-like Ferns with palm-like habit. The
-number of species is about 200, they are all tropical and form forests
-in some regions of Australia. _Cibotium_ and _Dicksonia_ have marginal
-sori, with cupular, basal indusium. (The stem of _D. antarctica_ is
-covered with aerial roots.) _Alsophila_ (without indusium); _Cyathea_
-with cupular, inferior indusium (Fig. 212 _E_).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 213.--_Gleichenia_: _A_ part of a leaf with
-  sori; _B_ a single sorus.]
-
-Order 4. =Gleicheniaceæ.= Sporangia with equatorial annulus, and
-longitudinal dehiscence, most frequently groups of 3–4 in sori without
-indusium (Fig. 213). _Gleichenia_: the apical growth of the leaves
-continues for a long time.
-
-Order 5. =Schizæaceæ.= Annulus apical. To this order belongs _Aneimia_,
-which is so commonly cultivated in conservatories. The two lowest pinnæ
-are metamorphosed, having no leaf parenchyma and being covered with
-sporangia. _Schizæa. Mohria. Lygodium_, a climber, whose leaves
-have unlimited growth and attain a length of several metres. About 70
-species. Tropical.
-
-Order 6. =Osmundaceæ.= The sporangia have at the apex a lateral group
-of strongly thickened cells, which gradually pass over into the
-ordinary cells. The sporangia open by a longitudinal cleft. Indusium
-wanting. _Osmunda_ bears the sporangia upon peculiar, branched
-pinnæ, without parenchyma (the uppermost in the leaf). _O. regalis_
-(Royal-Fern): European.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 214.--_Salvinia natans_: _A_ microsporangium
-  with germinating microspores and protruding prothallia (_s_);
-  _B_ a prothallium with the bicellular antheridium (_s_) growing
-  out of the microsporangium; _C_ the two cells of the antheridium
-  have opened by transverse clefts; beneath is seen the microspores
-  enclosed by the hardened mucilage; _D_ spermatozoids still
-  enclosed in the mother-cells.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 215.--_Salvinia natans. A_, _B_ Female
-  prothallia, _f-f_, protruding from the macrospore which is still
-  enclosed in the macrosporangium; _œ_ archegonia. _C_ An embryo (×
-  16) still in connection with the spore (_s_): _a_ the scutiform
-  leaf; _b-e_ the subsequent foliage-leaves, of which _b_ and _c_
-  stand singly, _d-e-v_ in a whorl; _v_ the submerged-leaf; _f-f_
-  wing-like lobes of the prothallium: _m_ the foot.]
-
-
-  Sub-Class 2. =Hydropterideæ= (formerly Rhizocarpeæ), =Water Ferns=.
-
-The following further characteristics must be added to those given on
-page 205:--
-
-=Sexual generation.= The MICROSPORES produce an extremely rudimentary
-prothallium, formed of only a single cell, and having also a very much
-reduced bicellular antheridium with a small number of spermatozoid
-mother-cells in each cell (in _Salvinia_ 4, in _Marsilia_ and
-_Pilularia_ 16). In _Salvinia_ the microspores remain embedded in a
-hard mucilaginous mass (at first frothy) which fills up the cavity of
-the sporangium. The prothallium must therefore grow out through this
-slime and also through the wall of the sporangium (Fig. 214), and it
-thus terminates in a relatively long cell.
-
-In _Marsilia_ the microspores are set free from the microsporangium,
-and the prothallia, with the antheridia, remain in them until the
-spermatozoids are liberated. The latter are spirally-twisted threads.
-
-The MACROSPORES, on germination, give rise to a very reduced
-prothallium, which in _Salvinia_ bears 3 archegonia; but, if these
-are not fertilised, the prothallium may continue to grow and become a
-fairly large, green body with several archegonia (Fig. 215 _A_, _B_).
-In _Marsilia_ the prothallium is still more reduced, it is enclosed
-in the macrospore, and only bears one archegonium. The archegonia are
-similar in structure to those of the Ferns, but are smaller, and sunk
-more deeply in the tissue of the prothallium.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 216.--_Salvinia natans. A_ An archegonium,
-  unripe, seen in longitudinal section: _h_ the neck-cells; _k_ the
-  neck-canal-cells; _c_ the central cell. _B_ An open archegonium
-  of which the neck-cells have separated off. _C_ An open, old
-  archegonium seen from the top.]
-
-=The asexual generation= is developed from the fertilised egg-cell.
-It is a dorsiventral, horizontal shoot. In _Salvinia_ it bears at
-first a shield-like leaf, the scutiform leaf (Fig. 215 _C_, _a_),
-which is succeeded by the ordinary foliage-leaves. The young plants of
-_Marsilia_, likewise, have less perfect leaves in the very early stage.
-
-The formation of the sporangium is the same as in the Leptosporangiate
-Ferns. (The 16 spore-mother-cells originate from one central,
-tetrahedric archesporium.)
-
-The Hydropterideæ are divided into 2 orders, the chief differences
-between them being found in the asexual generation.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 217.--_Salvinia natans_ (natural size): _A_
-  seen from above, floating on the water; _B_ a portion seen from
-  the side in its natural position in the water.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 218.--Sori of _Salvinia_ in longitudinal
-  section: _h_ microsporangia; _m_ macrosporangia. (× 10.)]
-
-Order 1. =Salviniaceæ.= This order more nearly approaches the true
-Ferns, especially so on account of the form of the indusium. Only one
-species is found in Europe, _Salvinia natans_ (Fig. 217). This is a
-small, floating, annual, aquatic plant, entirely _destitute of roots_.
-The dorsiventral, horizontal stem bears two kinds of leaves, which
-are arranged in whorls of three. Two of these which turn upwards are
-oval, entire, “_aerial foliage-leaves_” (Fig. 217 B, _b^2_-_b^3_);
-the third, the “_water-leaf_” (_b^1_) is submerged and divided into a
-number of hair-like segments, similar to the submerged leaves in many
-aquatic plants, for instance, Water-buttercup (see also Fig. 215 _C_).
-The whorls of leaves alternate with each other; there are thus 4 rows
-of dorsally-placed aerial leaves, and two rows of ventrally-placed
-submerged leaves. The sporangia are situated in sori, each sorus
-being borne on a small column (receptacle or placenta) and enveloped
-by a _cupular_, but _entirely closed indusium_ (Fig. 218). _The sori
-are situated on the submerged leaves_ (Fig. 217 _B_, _s-s_) _and
-are unisexual_, _i.e._ each sorus contains microsporangia only, or
-macrosporangia.
-
-   _Azolla_ belongs to this order. It is a very small, floating,
-   tropical water-plant (America and East India), with horizontal,
-   root-bearing stem. The stem branches profusely by lateral buds,
-   and bears the two rows of leaves on its dorsal side, the roots
-   on the ventral side. Each leaf is bifid, and  divided into an
-   upper dorsal, and a lower ventral portion. The upper segments
-   float on the surface of the water and are arranged like tiles
-   on a roof, each one overlapping its neighbour. In each floating
-   segment a large cavity is found, in which _Anabæna_ is always
-   present. The lower segments are submerged.
-
-Order 2. =Marsiliaceæ.= The characteristic feature of this order,
-and one not possessed by other Fern-like plants, is that the sori
-(2–many) are enveloped _in leaf-segments_ which _close round them_
-and form a “sporocarp,” just in the same manner as the carpels, in
-the Angiospermous Flowering-plants, close round the ovules and form
-ovaries. The sori contain both micro-and macrosporangia. When the
-spores are ripe, the sporocarp opens in order to disperse the spores
-(Fig. 220).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 219.--_Marsilia salvatrix_ (natural size):
-  _K_ terminal bud; _b_ leaves; _f_ sporocarps; _x_ point of
-  branching of petiole.]
-
-The two genera (with 57 species, Temperate, Tropics) are land-and
-marsh-plants, whose dorsiventral, creeping stem bears roots on the
-under surface, and the leaves in two rows on the upper side (Figs.
-219, 221). The leaves of _Marsilia_ are compound, and divided into
-four small leaflets springing from the apex of the petiole (Fig.
-219), and resemble the leaves of _Oxalis_. In the bud the leaves are
-circinate (Fig. 219 _b_), and at night they exhibit the well-known
-sleep-movements. The sporocarps are borne on the petioles of the
-fertile leaves, near their bases (Fig. 219 _f_); they are oblong and
-resemble small beans, the outer cells being hard and sclerenchymatous,
-while the inner ones are divided into a number of loculi arranged in
-two rows. On germination, water is absorbed, the two sides separate
-slightly, as valves (Fig. 220 _A_), and a long vermiform mass of
-gelatinous, parenchymatous cells (Fig. 220), swollen by the water,
-emerges, bearing a large number of sori arranged pinnately. Each
-sorus (_sr_) is covered by a thin indusium. (The thin covering may be
-considered an indusium physiologically, though not morphologically).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 220.--_Marsilia salvatrix_: _A_ the
-  sporocarp commencing to germinate; _B_ a more advanced stage of
-  germination.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 221.--_Pilularia globulifera_ (natural size):
-  _s_ sporocarps; _b_ leaves; _k_ the growing point; _r_ roots.]
-
-   _Marsilia quadrifolia_, in Europe. Many species are found in
-   Australia. The nutritious sporocarps of _M. salvatrix_ were
-   the means of saving the Burke expedition in the interior of
-   Australia, and hence this species has earned its specific name.
-
-_Pilularia_ has linear leaves, without lamina. The sporocarps are
-spheroid (Fig. 221), brown and hard, and situated near the base of the
-leaves. They are 2–4 chambered and open by a corresponding number of
-valves.
-
-
-                  Class 2. =Equisetinæ (Horsetails.)=
-
-The characteristics of this class have been described on page 204.
-
-It is divided into two sub-classes:--
-
-1. THE ISOSPOROUS EQUISETINÆ. To this sub-class belong, with
-certainty, only the EQUISETACEÆ now existent, which are
-represented by only one genus, _Equisetum_.
-
-2. THE HETEROSPOROUS EQUISETINÆ. Forms which are now extinct.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 222.--_Equisetum arvense._ The prothallium
-  highly magnified. _A_ Male; _s, s_ antheridia. _B_ Portion of a
-  female, cut through vertically; _œ œ_ archegonia, the central one
-  is fertilised; _h h_ root-hairs.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 223.--_Equisetum maximum._ Spermatozoids: _a_
-  shows them still enveloped by the mother-cell.]
-
-
-                 Sub-Class 1. =Isosporous Equisetinæ.=
-
-Order. =Equisetaceæ (Horsetails).=
-
-=The sexual generation.= The prothallium is green and leaf-like, as in
-the majority of Ferns, but irregularly branched and curled. It is often
-unisexual. The male prothallia bear antheridia only, and are smaller
-and less branched (Fig. 222 _A_) than the female; the latter may attain
-a diameter of ½ an inch, and bear archegonia only (Fig. 222 _B_). The
-antheridia and the archegonia resemble those of the Ferns, but the
-spermatozoids (Fig. 223) are larger and less twisted. On the last curve
-is situated a more or less elongated appendage of cytoplasm (Fig. 223
-_c_).
-
-=The asexual generation.= The embryo is similar to that of the Ferns.
-The fully developed _Equisetum_ is a perennial herb, with widely
-creeping (in some species tuberous) rhizome, from which extend erect,
-aerial, most frequently annual shoots.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 224.--_Equisetum arvense_: _a_ fertile branch
-  with cone; _b_ vegetative shoot; _c_ cone; _d_ sporophylls.]
-
-The vegetative aerial STEMS are divided into a number of
-internodes by the whorls of leaves (Fig. 224). The internodes are
-hollow, the cavities being separated from each other by the transverse
-partitions of the solid nodes. The lower portion of the internode,
-which is encased by the leaves, has much thinner and softer cell-walls,
-so that the stem is easily separated into segments just above the
-nodes. Each internode has a large number of ridges and furrows,
-and bears at its apex a whorl of leaves whose number and position
-correspond to the ridges of the internode. As in the case of other
-verticillate plants, the whorls are placed alternately, one above
-the other; the same arrangement is also found in the ridges on two
-successive internodes. In addition to the large air-cavity in the
-centre of each internode (the central cavity), a whorl of tubular
-air-passages is found in the cortex of the stems, opposite the furrows
-(vallecular canals). There is also a similar air-passage (carinal
-canals) in each of the vascular bundles, which are placed in a ring,
-one opposite each ridge, and therefore alternating with the vallecular
-canals. The vascular bundles are _collateral_ as in the majority
-of Flowering-plants, but poorly developed. The xylem of each bundle
-consists of two groups of annular or spiral vessels, close to the outer
-border of the carinal canal, and two groups of scalariform tracheides,
-each placed on a radius passing through a group of spiral vessels.
-The phloëm is placed between these four groups, each of which has
-only a few vessels. The stiffness of the stems is mainly due to the
-large amount of silica in the cell-walls of the epidermis, and to the
-sclerenchymatous cells of the ridges.
-
-All LEAVES are situated in _whorls_. The VEGETATIVE are simple,
-undivided, 1-nerved, and are united into toothed sheaths (Fig. 224 _a_,
-_b_). The branching of the stems in some species (_E. arvense_) is very
-abundant. The branches break through the base of the leaf-sheaths (Fig.
-224 _b_), and generally _alternate with the teeth_ (leaves).
-
-The FERTILE LEAVES (_sporophylls_) are different from the barren ones.
-They are _free, shield-like_, each one having a short stalk bearing
-usually an hexagonal plate (Fig. 224 _d_), and closely compressed into
-an ear or cone (Fig. 224 _a_, _c_). The _Equisetums_ thus present an
-advance in development distinctly beyond that of the Ferns, which is
-further emphasized by the circumstance that a transition from the
-sheath-leaves to the fertile-leaves is found in the involucre or
-annulus, a “collar” of specially modified leaves situated at the base
-of the cone (Fig. 224 _a_ and _c_). The cone may be considered as a
-very rudimentary flower, and the annulus may be regarded as a very
-early stage in the formation of a flower (perianth). See page 235.
-
-The SPORANGIA are situated on the underside of the sporophylls, one
-at each angle; they are sac-like, and open inwardly by a longitudinal
-cleft (Fig. 224 _d_). An annulus is wanting; but in the wall of the
-sporangium, as in the pollen-sacs of the Flowering-plants, a layer of
-cells, with annular or spiral thickenings, is developed, which assists
-in the dehiscence of the sporangium.
-
-The SPORES are green; the walls composed of four distinct layers,
-of which the outer is gradually separated, except at one point, and
-becomes split into four long bands (_elaters_) (Fig. 225). The elaters
-are extremely hygroscopic, coiling round the spore when moistened, and
-expanding as soon as dry, presenting a most lively object under the
-microscope when breathed upon and allowed to dry. The second layer,
-when germination commences, becomes detached from the inner wall, which
-is formed of the exospore and endospore.
-
-The order has become much reduced, and at the present time includes
-only one genus, _Equisetum_, with about twenty-five species, which are
-distributed over the entire globe, particularly in damp situations. In
-SOME SPECIES the barren shoots are green and very much branched, but
-the fertile ones are unbranched, pale brown, and possess no chlorophyll
-(_E. arvense_, Field-Horsetail, Fig. 224, and _E. maximum_). IN
-OTHERS the fertile and barren shoots are alike green, and either both
-unbranched (_E. hiemale_), or branched (_E. palustre_, _E. limosum_,
-etc). The fertile shoots of _E. silvaticum_, up to maturity, resemble
-those without chylorophyll of _E. arvense_, but after that period they
-produce green branches, and thus resemble the barren ones.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 225.--Spores of _Equisetum_: _A_ damp, with
-  elaters (_e_) coiled round the spore; _B_ dry, with elaters
-  expanded.]
-
-   EXTINCT ISOSPOROUS EQUISETINÆ. In addition to several true
-   species of fossilized _Equisetums_, the order of the CALAMITES,
-   which no doubt is closely allied to the Equisetinæ, is also
-   found in the fossil state. These were gigantic forms, attaining
-   about twenty times the size of those of the present day, and
-   stems of nearly 10–12 metres in height are known. They reached
-   the culminating point of their development in the Carboniferous
-   period, and died out towards the close of the Palæozoic. The
-   stems had hollow internodes and alternating grooves, similar
-   to their relatives of the present day. The leaves must either
-   have been absent or very perishable, since they have not been
-   identified with certainty. If the determinations of certain
-   remains of cones which of late have been discovered are correct,
-   they were heterosporous and had two kinds of sporangia as in
-   the following sub-class. A cambium formation and an increase in
-   thickness has been found in the stems.
-
-   Their USES are very limited. A few species, such as _E. hiemale_
-   are used for polishing on account of the hard siliceous
-   cell-walls of the epidermis, found in all species of _Equisetum_.
-
-
-               Sub-Class 2. =Heterosporous Equisetinæ.=
-
-   The two orders which come under this head are united by the
-   characteristics, that the verticillate leaves are not united
-   into sheaths (Fig. 226), and that between each whorl of fertile
-   leaves there is also a whorl of barren ones. The fertile whorls
-   in ANNULARIÆ are situated about midway between the barren ones
-   (Fig. 227), but in ASTEROPHYLLITEÆ they occur immediately above
-   a barren whorl (Fig. 228) and contain only half as many members
-   as the latter. The lower whorls bear macrosporangia with one
-   macrospore, the upper, microsporangia with many microspores.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 226.--A. fragment of _Annularia_.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 227.--Fragment of _Annularia longifolia_,
-  with sporangia; the leaves have partly fallen off: a barren
-  whorls; _s_ fertile whorls.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 228.--Fragment of cone of _Asterophyllites_
-  (_Volkmannia elongata_): _a_ and _s_ as in Fig. 227.]
-
-   The ANNULARIÆ were distichous (Fig. 226), and presumably
-   floating plants. The ASTEROPHYLLITEÆ had verticellate branches.
-   These also died out after the Carboniferous period, at the close
-   of the Palæozoic.
-
-
-                Class 3. =Lycopodinæ= (=Club-Mosses=).
-
-The characteristics of this class have been given on page 205. It
-consists of two sub-classes, one embracing isosporous, the other
-heterosporous forms.
-
-
-          Sub-Class 1. =Lycopodieæ= (ISOSPOROUS Lycopodinæ).
-
-One kind of spore. Prothallium large, partly green. Leaves without
-ligule.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 229.--_Lycopodium annotinum_: _A_ embryo
-  (nat. size), with prothallium (_pr_), one embryo is broken off;
-  _B_ the prothallium (slightly magnified); _C_ section through
-  the prothallium and embryo in the direction _a-b_ of _A_, and
-  vertically in the plane of the paper.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 230.--_Lycopodium clavatum_: portion of a
-  stem, bearing cones (_a_); _s_ a spore; _h_ sporangium in the
-  axil of a leaf, _s_.]
-
-Order 1. =Lycopodiaceæ.= The PROTHALLIUM is only known in a few species
-at present, but in these it is more or less tubercular, and bears both
-antheridia and archegonia.
-
-   In _L. annotinum_ the prothallium is a relatively large mass
-   of cells, without chlorophyll, and subterranean, in which
-   the antheridia and archegonia are embedded (Fig. 229). In
-   the widely distributed tropical species, _L. cernuum_, and
-   in _L. inundatum_, it is a small tubercular body which has a
-   subterranean portion, with either little or no chlorophyll;
-   and an aerial green portion. The prothallia of _L. phlegmaria_
-   and others live saprophytically in the crevices of the bark of
-   trees; they are partly filamentous, branched, and possess no
-   chlorophyll.
-
-The =asexual generation=. PERENNIAL PLANTS. The stem branches
-monopodially (often apparently dichotomously), and is thickly covered
-by small, simple, triangular or scale-like leaves. The leaves are
-spirally arranged in some species (Figs. 229, 230), and in others,
-whose stem is compressed with unequal sides, opposite (Fig. 231). The
-roots of _Lycopodium_ are dichotomously branched.
-
-The SPORANGIA in _Lycopodium_ are situated singly at the base of the
-leaves, almost in their axils; they are reniform, unilocular and open
-like a mussel-shell by two valves (Fig. 230 _h_). The sporangia are
-developed from a group of surface cells. The archesporium is formed
-from one hypodermal cell (or perhaps a cell-row).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 231.--_Lycopodium complanatum_: _a_ leaves on
-  the edges of the stem; _d_ leaves on the sides.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 232.--_Lycopodium clavatum._ A tetrahedral
-  spore seen from above, where the three borders join; and a tetrad
-  of bilateral spores, still lying in the mother-cell.]
-
-The fertile leaves are collected upon definite regions of the stem.
-They are either similar to the barren ones, and then the fertile
-portions of the stem pass gradually, without any break, into the barren
-portion (_L. selago_); or they differ from the barren leaves, and are
-then collected into special apical cones (Fig. 230 _a_). The SPORES are
-tetrahedral or bilateral (Fig. 232).
-
-About 100 species, chiefly tropical.
-
-   Five species of _Lycopodium_ are found in Great Britain. _L.
-   clavatum_ and _L. selago_ are common in mountainous districts.
-   _L. annotinum_ is common in the Highlands of Scotland. The other
-   genus of the order is _Phylloglossum_, with one species, _P.
-   drummondi_ (Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand), a small plant
-   only a few centimetres high, with two tubers, and about eleven
-   linear leaves at the base of the stem which is terminated by a
-   cone of sporophylls.--FOSSIL Lycopodiaceæ in the Carboniferous
-   period.
-
-   OFFICINAL: “Lycopodium,” the spores of _L. clavatum_.
-
-   Family 2. =Psilotaceæ=. The sporangia are placed on the apex of
-   short, two-leaved stems, as 2–3, seldom four, small capsules.
-   Small herbs, with angular stems; leaves small, simple, and one
-   nerved. Only four species.--_Psilotum_ (Madagascar, Moluccas,
-   Sandwich Islands, etc.) is destitute of roots, their place being
-   supplied by special underground stems which bear a few modified
-   leaves, very much reduced, especially when buried deeply in the
-   soil. Three species.--_Tmesipteris_ (Australia), one species.
-
-
-        Sub-Class 2. =Selaginelleæ= (HETEROSPOROUS Lycopodinæ).
-
-Micro-and macrospores. The prothallia are very much reduced, especially
-the male; the female does not leave the spore. The leaves are ligulate.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 233.--Germination of the microspores of
-  _Selaginella_: _A_ the spore rendered transparent, seen from
-  above. In the interior is seen the prothallium (_f_), and the
-  first divisions of the antheridium (_a_, _b_, _c_, _d_); in _B_
-  the spore-wall is removed and all the spermatozoid-mother-cells
-  formed; in _C_, the microspore has opened and the spermatozoids
-  and the mother-cells are escaping together.]
-
-=The sexual generation.= In the ~MICROSPORES~ are formed: (1) a very
-small “vegetative” cell, representing the vegetative part of the
-prothallium (_f_ in Fig. 233 _A, B_), and (2) a cell many times larger
-and which divides into a number (4–8) of primordial cells, each of
-which divides into four spermatozoid-mother-cells, though all of these
-may not develope spermatozoids. On germination, when the spore-wall is
-ruptured, the spermatozoids and spermatozoid-mother-cells are ejected
-into the water.
-
-The ~SPERMATOZOIDS~ in _Selaginella_ are elongated and club-shaped,
-with two cilia (Fig. 234); but in _Isoëtes lacustris_ they are
-spirally-twisted threads which differ from all other spermatozoids by
-having a bunch of cilia _at each end_; the other species of _Isoëtes_
-have cilia only at the anterior end.
-
-The MACROSPORES. Shortly after the macrospores have been set free,
-or in _Selaginella_, while still enclosed in the sporangium of the
-mother-plant, they germinate and soon become filled with the cellular
-tissue of the prothallium, and even in _Selaginella_ the archegonium
-begins to be formed before the rupture of the spore-cell-wall has
-commenced (Fig. 235 _A_).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 234.--Spermatozoids of _Selaginella_: _b_
-  with a remnant of cytoplasm.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 235.--Macrospore of _Selaginella_: _A_
-  longitudinal section, before the rupture of the wall, six
-  weeks after being sown. The endosperm (_e_) has not yet filled
-  the entire chamber. Cell-formation is still proceeding in the
-  lower part of the spore. The endosperm and prothallium (_f f_)
-  are separated by a distinct line (diaphragm). _B_ Germinating
-  macrospore seen from outside: _s_ wall of the spore; _æ_
-  archegonia.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 236.--Archegonia of _Selaginella_: _A_
-  unripe, in longitudinal section; _c_ the central cell; _k_
-  neck-canal-cell, which is wedged in between the two-storied
-  neck-cells; _B_ ripe; _u_ ventral canal-cell; _C_ seen from
-  above, open. It will be noticed that the neck is formed of two
-  tiers of four cells each.]
-
-The ARCHEGONIA are constructed on the same plan as those of the other
-Archegoniatæ, but are quite embedded in the prothallium (Figs. 235 _æ_,
-236).
-
-=The asexual generation= varies very much in the different orders.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 237.--_Isoëtes lacustris_ (slightly
-  diminished): _st_ the stem; _r_ roots; _b_ leaves.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 238.--_Isoëtes lacustris_. Longitudinal
-  section through the base of the leaf with a microsporangium. The
-  edge of the groove, in which the microspangium is placed, is
-  continued as a thin covering which envelopes the sporangium. The
-  inferior edge of the ligular groove (_L_) forms a lip (_J_); _t_
-  sterile cell-rows (trabeculæ) which divide the sporangium into
-  compartments; _l_ vascular bundle.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 239.--_Selaginella inæqualifolia_. Cone in
-  longitudinal section; microsporangia are seen on the left side,
-  macrosporangia on the right (most frequently each with four
-  macrospores).]
-
-Order 1. =Isoëtaceæ (Quill-worts).= The only known genus, _Isoëtes_
-(Quill-wort), has an extremely short, tuberous, _unbranched_ stem
-with very short internodes (Fig. 237). The STEM is remarkable as
-being the only one among the Vascular Cryptogams which increases in
-thickness (see page 202). The meristematic cells are situated round
-the axial cylinder, and form, especially, parenchymatous tissue in
-two or three directions, giving rise to 2–3 grooves in which the
-dichotomously-branched ROOTS are produced. The LEAVES are arranged
-spirally in a close rosette. They are awl-shaped and have at the
-base a semi-amplexicaul sheath, with a groove (_fovea_), in which a
-sporangium is situated (Fig. 238). The ligule is a foliar outgrowth
-from the upper edge of the groove.--The MACROSPORANGIA (each with
-a number of macrospores), are situated on the outer leaves, the
-MICROSPORANGIA (Fig. 238), on the inner ones. Between each cycle of
-fertile leaves there are a number of imperfect or barren ones as in
-the case of the female plant of _Cycas_. The spores are liberated by
-the decay of the sporangium. The two kinds of sporangia develope at
-the commencement in the same way. The archesporium is, at first, a
-hypodermal layer of cells which grow out in the direction perpendicular
-to the surface of the leaf, and divide by a number of walls parallel
-to this direction, forming a sporogenous mass of cells. Some of the
-cell-rows of this sporogenous mass lose their rich protoplasmic
-contents, and are arrested in their growth; thus incomplete divisional
-walls of sterile cells, “_trabeculæ_” arise in the sporangium,
-dividing it into a number of compartments one above the other (Fig.
-238 _t_). (The trabeculæ, according to Goebel, play the same part as
-the nutritive cells of the sporangium of _Riella_; the tapetal cells,
-as in the Ferns, are in a great measure dissolved at a later period.)
-The sporogenous cell-rows, in the microsporangia, give rise to a
-large number of spore-mother-cells, but in the macrosporangia only
-one spore-mother-cell, with tapetum, is developed from each fertile
-archesporial cell.
-
-The two native species, and several others, are aquatic plants, the
-remaining species are land plants, or are amphibious. About 50 species.
-In temperate and tropical regions.--FOSSIL species in the Tertiary
-period.
-
-Order 2. =Selaginellaceæ.= This order contains only one genus,
-_Selaginella_. The STEM, in the majority of species, is dorsiventral,
-long and slender, and apparently branches dichotomously, but in reality
-_monopodially_, with well developed lateral shoots. The LEAVES are
-small, round, or ovate, in the majority of species arranged in whorls
-of two leaves each; these whorls, however, are not decussate, but are
-considerably inclined towards each other, an arrangement by which four
-rows of leaves are produced, each whorl having one large and one small
-leaf. The two leaves in each whorl are of unequal size, the smaller one
-being placed on the upper surface and the larger on the lower surface
-of the stem (Fig. 240). Some species have spirally-arranged leaves,
-more resembling the arrangement in the _Lycopodiums_.
-
-The ~FERTILE LEAVES~ most frequently differ from the barren ones,
-and are collected into spike-like cones (a kind of flower; Fig.
-239). Micro-and macrosporangia are found in the same cone (Fig.
-239). Each sporangium arises from a group of superficial cells of
-the stem, directly over the leaf on which it will be situated later
-on. Each sporangium has a hypodermal, unicellular archesporium, and
-contains a layer of tapetal cells; these are dissolved later, when
-the spores are ripe, and not before as in the Ferns. In the very
-early stages of their development, the micro-and macrosporangia are
-precisely similar, and the differences between them arise later on.
-In the microsporangium all the spore-mother-cells divide, and each
-forms four tetrahedrically-arranged microspores (Fig. 204); but in
-the macrosporangium only four macrospores are formed, by the division
-of a _single mother-cell_, while the remaining spore-mother-cells
-are aborted. It is rarely that the macrosporangia contain 2 or 8
-macrospores.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 240.--_Selaginella martensii_: _s_ lower
-  leaves; _r_ upper leaves.]
-
-   For the ~GERMINATION OF THE SPORES~, see pages 228, 229. The
-   prothallium arises in the macrospore (_f-f_, in Fig. 235 _A_),
-   probably by division of the meniscus-shaped protoplasmic mass,
-   which is marked off at the apex of the spore; primordial cells
-   are thus formed which later on are surrounded by a cell-wall. In
-   six to seven weeks after sowing, the spore-wall is ruptured by
-   the growing prothallium, which already has developed archegonia
-   (Fig. 235 _œ-œ_). The prothallium so formed does not occupy
-   the entire cavity of the spore, but four to five weeks after
-   sowing, the large-celled parenchyma is developed in the lower
-   portion of the spore by free cell-formation; this has been
-   termed by Pfeffer, “endosperm,” since it is similar to the
-   endosperm of Flowering-plants. Goebel, however, has termed it
-   “secondary prothallium,” as the homology with the endosperm of
-   the Angiosperms is very doubtful.
-
-The ~FERTILISED OOSPHERE~ divides into an upper (hypobasal) and a lower
-(epibasal) cell; from the latter alone the embryo is developed with
-its root, stem, foot, and two _cotyledons_, and the former gives rise
-to an organ which appears in this instance for the first time, but
-which occurs in all Flowering-plants, viz. the _suspensor_. This forces
-the embryo down into the “endosperm,” which is entirely or partially
-absorbed by the embryo. In the case of the Flowering-plants the embryo
-is developed with its longitudinal axis in the elongation of the
-suspensor, but in _Selaginella_ the embryo is situated _transversely_
-to it.
-
-_Selaginella_ (300–400 species), is essentially tropical, only one
-species living in the North (_S. spinulosa_), but others grow in
-Central and South Europe.
-
-   Order 3. =Lepidodendraceæ= are extinct, tree-like Lycopods,
-   which are found especially in the Lower and Middle
-   Carboniferous. Vegetatively they are most nearly related to
-   _Lycopodium_, but the stem attained much larger proportions
-   (about eleven metres in height and one metre in thickness),
-   and had a cambium by which it increased in thickness. It was
-   regularly dichotomous, and closely studded with spirally-placed
-   leaves, which left behind them peculiar rhombic scars. The large
-   cones resemble Pine-cones, and bore sporangia much larger than
-   any which are now produced (the male ones as much as 2 cm.’s in
-   length). The macrosporangia were situated at the base, and the
-   microsporangia at the apex.
-
-   Order 4. =Sigillariaceæ.= These are, presumably, another
-   group of extinct tree-like Lycopods (especially in the Middle
-   Carboniferous). The name has been derived from the seal-like
-   scars, which the fallen leaves have left behind in longitudinal
-   rows on the grooved stem. The rhizomes of these plants were
-   formerly termed _Stigmaria_, and placed in a separate genus.
-
-   Order 5. =Sphenophyllaceæ= form an entirely extinct group.
-   They do not definitely belong to any of the three large
-   classes of Vascular Cryptogams, but it is perhaps best to
-   place them in juxtaposition to these. They were herbaceous
-   plants with verticillate, wedge-shaped leaves, with nerves
-   branching dichotomously into equally strong branches. Micro-and
-   macrosporangia were formed in the same cone; and were situated
-   in the axils of the leaves, as in the Lycopods.
-
-
-
-
-The Transition from the Cryptogams to the Phanerogams.
-
-
-All the plants considered in the preceding chapters are included
-in the term CRYPTOGAMS; all in the following chapters under the
-head of PHANEROGAMS (see page 3). Hofmeister’s pioneer works
-(1851, _Vergleichende Untersuchungen der höheren Kryptogamen_,
-etc.) and the numerous researches published later by other
-investigators, have closed the gap which was formerly thought
-to exist between these plants; so that we now, in the series:
-Bryophyta--Pteridophyta--Gymnospermæ--Angiospermæ see the expression of
-a single line of development in accordance with a definite plan. The
-forms through which this gradual development has taken place have in
-course of time, however, to a great extent died out, and only single
-links of the chain connecting the lowest to the highest still remain.
-
-THE ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS, which we found indicated in certain
-Thallophytes, can be proved with the greatest clearness in all the
-higher Cryptogams, from the Mosses upwards; it is also found in the
-Phanerogams, but not in such a pronounced degree, because one of
-the generations is so far reduced that it has almost given up its
-independence. For the sake of greater clearness, we will begin with the
-comparison of the sporophyte, asexual (second) generation.
-
-
-           =The asexual (2nd) generation of the Cormophytes.=
-
-The asexual generation which follows from the further development of
-the fertilised oosphere, is, in the _Mosses_, only the sporogonium
-(according to one theory it is perhaps homologous with a spore-bearing
-leaf, situated upon a short stem, see p. 187); in _Filicinæ_,
-_Equisetinæ_, and _Lycopodinæ_, on the other hand, it is a highly
-developed plant differentiated into stem, leaf, and true root, and
-bearing the sporangia on its leaves. The ~MODIFICATION OF THE SHOOT~
-is very slight in _Filicinæ_. The first leaves of the embryo are very
-simple in form (Fig. 205), but after a certain age all the leaves
-which arise are essentially alike. The fertile leaves do not differ
-from the barren ones, and are found associated with them, and their
-formation does not limit the growth in length of the stem. It is only
-in a few of the true Ferns, and in the Hydropterideæ, that the fertile
-leaves differ considerably from the barren ones. A division of labour
-in which certain leaves are set apart for nutrition, and others for
-reproduction, is found more pronouncedly in the _Equisetinæ_ and
-_Lycopodinæ_, for in these groups, with a few exceptions, the fertile
-and barren leaves are very dissimilar; the former are collected in
-special ear-like _cones_, which _terminate the further growth_ of
-the short stems on which they are borne. In connection with the cone,
-leaves are sometimes developed which form a transition from the barren
-to the fertile ones (the “annulus” in Equisetaceæ), and in these cases
-the first indication of a flower with perianth or floral-leaves is to
-be traced. Among the Cryptogams the highest division of labour is found
-in _Selaginella_ and _Isoëtes_, which have the two kinds of sporangia
-borne on _different_ leaves. The division of labour (modification) is,
-however, still more pronounced in the _Phanerogams_: the leaves which
-bear the microsporangia (“pollen-sacs”) have quite different forms
-from those which bear macrosporangia (the “nucellus” in the ovule),
-the former are termed _stamens_, the latter _carpels_; in certain
-instances, too, there is even a contrast between the “male plants” and
-the “female plants.” Moreover, a division of labour, in a much greater
-degree, takes place in the leaves which do not directly take part in
-reproduction, and it is thus possible in many plants to draw a sharp
-line not only between stamens and carpels, but also between four or
-five distinct kinds of leaves, which differ in _form_, _structure_, and
-corresponding _functions_, and which appear in regular sequence on the
-shoot: namely, between “scale-leaves” and “foliage-leaves,”[21] both
-of which occur in the Cryptogams, and the “floral-leaves,” including
-the bracts and leaves of the “perianth,” which latter often differ from
-each other in form and colour, and are then separated into _sepals_ and
-_petals_. The _leaves_--stamens and carpels--_which bear the sporangia_
-are termed sporophylls, and the shoot, or extremity of a shoot, whose
-leaves are modified into sporophylls, is _terminated in its further
-growth by their production, and is known as a flower_. The flower
-which is most completely furnished has calyx, corolla, stamens, and
-carpels arranged in this order. If the only sporophylls present are
-stamens, then it is said to be a _male_ (_staminate_) flower, and if
-only carpels, then a _female_ (_pistillate_) flower, and in both these
-cases the flowers are _unisexual_, or diclinous. If stamens and carpels
-are both present in the same flower, it is termed _hermaphrodite_.
-Diclinous plants in which the female flowers are situated on one plant,
-and the male flowers on another, are termed _diœcious_; and those
-in which the same plant bears the two kinds of flowers are termed
-_monœcious_. When the male, female, and hermaphrodite flowers are found
-in the same species, the plant is said to be _polygamous_.
-
-=The sporangia-bearing leaves--Sporophylls.= In the Mosses the
-asexual generation is only represented by the sporogonium, and if the
-theory is correct which considers the sporogonium to be an embryo
-consisting of a rudimentary stem and terminal leaf, then the spores are
-produced on the leaves in these plants. The sporangia in the Filicinæ
-are situated in groups (sori) on the back or on the edge of the leaves.
-The number of sporangia in the sorus diminishes very greatly in the
-Marattiaceæ and Gleicheniaceæ (three to four in the latter, Fig. 213).
-In the Equisetinæ the sporangia are situated in a small number on the
-underside of shield-like leaves, and in Lycopodinæ, singly, in the
-axils of the fertile leaves, which are alike and bear either micro- or
-macrosporangia. In the Phanerogams there is a great difference between
-the stamens and carpels.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 241.--_Cycas_: _a_ stamen (nat. size) seen
-  from the under side; _b_ four pollen-sacs, not yet open, forming
-  a “sorus”; _c_ three open pollen-sacs; _d_ a pollen-grain.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 242.--Stamens of _Araucaria_ (pollen-sacs
-  long and pendulous).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 243.--Male flower of _Taxus_.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 244.--_A_ Cross section through a
-  quadrilocular anther in different stages of development: _s_ the
-  seam where it bursts open; _vf_ vascular bundle; _k_ connective.
-  _B_ A stamen. _C_ Another stamen seen from the front (_f_) and
-  from the back (_b_).]
-
-=Stamens.= In the lowest Phanerogams (_Cycadeæ_) there are many
-indications of relationship to the Ferns. The stamens are flat and
-broad, and have _on the back many pollen-sacs_ (_microsporangia_)
-arranged in small groups (true _sori_), which even have a small
-“placenta,” similar to the one possessed by the Ferns, and open towards
-the inside by a longitudinal cleft (Fig. 241, compare Fig. 213). A
-section of the _Coniferæ_ agree more closely with the Equisetaceæ, in
-having a few (three to eight) pollen-sacs arranged on the underside of
-more or less shield-like leaves (Figs. 242, 243, compare with Fig. 224
-_a_, _c_, _d_). In the Abietaceæ the number of sporangia is diminished
-to two, which are placed also on the lower side (Fig. 267) of a stamen.
-The number of _pollen-sacs_ (microsporangia) in the _Angiosperms_ is
-nearly always four to each stamen; they are longitudinal projections
-which are placed in pairs on each side of the central line of the
-stamen, two on the edge, and the other two generally on the side which
-is turned inwards; the pollen-sacs generally dehisce longitudinally
-(quadrilocular anthers, Fig. 244). A few, for instance Orchidaceæ and
-Asclepiadaceæ, have only two pollen-sacs (bilocular anthers); and in
-others, such as _Solanum_ and the Ericaceæ, they open by pores; in
-Lauraceæ and Berberidaceæ, by valves. The part of the stamen which
-bears the pollen-sacs is termed the _anther_. Most frequently this is
-supported by a stalk known as the _filament_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 245.--A carpel of _Cycas revoluta_ with 5
-  ovules (_s_), at half to one-third nat. size.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 246.--Carpel with 2 ovules of _Ceratozamia
-  robusta_ (1/1).]
-
-=Carpels.= The simplest forms of carpels are found in _Cycas_. In
-this genus both the foliage and fertile leaves are pinnate, and hence
-present great similarity; the ovules (macrosporangia) are situated on
-the margin of the central portion, just as the sporangia are placed
-on the edge of the fertile leaf of _Ophioglossum_ (Fig. 245, compare
-with Fig. 209). The carpels of the other Cycadeæ present greater
-divergence from the foliage-leaves, being peltate, for instance, in
-_Zamia_ and _Ceratozamia_ (Fig. 246). The ovules in the Coniferæ are
-situated on the upper side and near the base of the ovuliferous scales,
-almost in the same position as the sporangia in the Lycopodinæ (Figs.
-269, 272, 273 _H_, compare Figs. 230, 239). In _Taxus_ the uninclosed
-ovule is placed on the apex of a shoot (Fig. 264). In all these plants
-the ovules are _not enclosed_ by the carpels, that is, they are not
-enclosed in chambers formed by the turning in of the walls of the
-carpel, and hence the name _Gymnospermæ_ is given to them. In the
-higher Flowering-plants, the _Angiospermæ_, the ovules are distinctly
-situated on the edge, the upper surface, or base of the carpel; but
-the carpel closes round the ovules which are therefore enclosed in a
-chamber--the _ovary_. In a few cases, for example in the Polygonaceæ,
-an ovule is situated apparently on the apex of the stem itself, as
-in the Yew; in other cases, as in the Primulaceæ, many ovules are
-apparently developed on the apex of the stem, which seems to have been
-specially adapted as a placenta, but it is also possible and correct
-in these cases to suppose that the ovules are in reality developed
-on the carpels.[22] A single fully-developed carpel or a collection
-of carpels joined together is termed the _pistil_. The extremity of
-the carpel, which is specially developed to catch the pollen-grains
-and form a suitable nidus on which they may germinate, is called the
-_stigma_. The united edges of a carpel which bear the ovules are termed
-the _ventral suture_. The back of the carpel forms the _dorsal suture_.
-The Marsiliaceæ take a position among the Hydropterideæ analogous to
-that occupied by the Angiosperms; the sporangia are in a corresponding
-manner enveloped in a closed leaf.
-
-The collection of stamens in a flower is termed the _andrœcium_,
-and all the carpels, whether individually free or united into one
-pistil, the _gynœceum_.
-
-The =Sporangia=. The asexual generation of the _Mosses_ is the
-sporogonium, in which the spores arise in tetrads from the
-mother-cells. The sporangia in the _Filicinæ_ take their origin either
-from a single cell (Leptosporangiatæ) or, what probably may be regarded
-as an older stand-point, from a group of cells (Eusporangiatæ). In both
-cases there may be distinguished in a mature sporangium three tissues,
-which have different significance (Fig. 204): (1) an external layer,
-the _sporangium-wall_, most frequently composed of one layer of cells
-made up of cells of dissimilar structure, so that on desiccation the
-wall is ruptured and the sporangium opens in a definite manner; (2)
-an internal group of cells, consisting of the _spore-mother-cells_,
-developed from an archesporium, and which by division into four gives
-rise to the _spores_; (3) a layer of cells lying between the two
-already mentioned, which is dissolved before maturity. The intermediate
-cellular layer, which directly surrounds the spore-forming cells, is in
-form and contents more worthy of note than the others, and is termed
-the _tapetum_. The construction of the sporangium in the _Equisetinæ_
-and _Lycopodinæ_ is in the main the same.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 247.--Development of an anther. _A_
-  Transverse section of a young anther of _Doronicum macrophyllum_.
-  The formation of the 4 pollen-sacs commences by divisions of
-  the hypodermal cells (at _m_, for instance). These cells divide
-  by periclinal walls into external cells which only take part in
-  forming the anther-wall; and internal cells, which correspond to
-  the Archesporium, and from which the spores are derived. These
-  spore-forming cells are drawn with thicker walls in _B-E_. The
-  commencement of the vascular bundle is seen in the centre. _B_ An
-  older stage; the pollen-sacs already project considerably. It is
-  the cells in the hypodermal layer which are active and in which
-  tangential divisions particularly occur; _fv_ vascular bundle.
-  _C_ A corresponding longitudinal section. _D_ Transverse section
-  through an older anther, the thickness of the wall outside the
-  mother-cells of the pollen-grains is already increased, and it
-  becomes still thicker by the division of the hypodermal cells:
-  its most external layer of cells but one, becomes transformed
-  into the “fibrous cells.” _E_ Transverse section of a still
-  older pollen-sac of _Menyanthes_; _sm_ are the mother-cells of
-  the pollen-grains surrounded by the tapetum (_t_), external to
-  the tapetum is the anther-wall, which is still far from being
-  fully developed. The sub-epidermal layer becomes “fibrous,” and
-  the cells lying inside it become dissolved, together with the
-  tapetum.]
-
-In the PHANEROGAMS the =Microsporangia= are termed =Pollen-sacs=.
-They take their origin from a large group of cells, which, in the
-Angiosperms, lie immediately beneath the epidermal cells of the anther.
-In the developed, but not yet mature, sporangium (pollen-sac) there are
-to be found: (as in the Vascular Cryptogams) (1) an internal group of
-mother-cells which give rise to the _pollen-grains_ (_microspores_),
-in this case also formed in tetrads; (2) a group of cells surrounding
-these, of which the internal ones form a _tapetal layer_, similar to
-that in the Vascular Cryptogams; the tapetum and some of the cells
-surrounding it in this group, become dissolved before maturity; the
-more external ones, on the other hand, are provided with peculiar
-thickenings, and form the “fibrous” layer by the aid of which the
-dehiscence of the anther takes place; (3) an external layer, the
-epidermis, enclosing all the other layers (Fig. 247).
-
-   In some Coniferæ (_Cupressus_, _Thuja_, and several species
-   of _Juniperus_) the microsporangia (pollen-sacs), which are
-   situated on the under side of the stamen, are covered by a
-   thin structure which seems to be a continuation of the lamina
-   and which is supposed to be homologous with the indusium of the
-   Ferns.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 248.--Development of the ovule in the Red
-  Currant, _Ribes rubrum_, arranged alphabetically in the order
-  of development. _A_ Is the youngest stage, _E_ the oldest. _ii_
-  Inner integument; _ie_ outer integument; _nc_ nucellus; _m_
-  archespore (mother-cell of the embryo-sac).]
-
-=The Ovule= in the Phanerogams arises most frequently on a projecting
-portion of the carpel, termed the _placenta_. The ovules (compare the
-sporangium of the Eusporangiatæ and especially the pollen-sac) take
-their origin from a _group of cells which lies beneath the epidermis_
-(Fig. 248 _A_, _B_). First of all a small papilla is formed, which is
-later on provided with a _vascular bundle_ and becomes the _funicle_;
-this probably has the same value as the projections (“placenta”) on
-which the sori in the Ferns are attached. Only _one_ =macrosporangium=
-(_nucellus_; Fig. 248 _nc_) is developed at the apex of the funicle.
-This arises by a process of cell-division exactly corresponding to
-that by which the pollen-sacs are formed (Fig. 248 _C-E_), with this
-difference only, that while a great _many_ cells may be distinguished
-in each pollen-sac, which forms pollen-grains by tetrad-division, only
-a few are found in the ovule, and all these moreover are _suppressed,
-with one single exception_ which developes into the =macrospore=
-(=embryo-sac=) without undergoing a division into tetrads. The wall of
-the embryo-sac, in the Gymnosperms, may be thick and divided into two
-layers and partly cuticularized, as in the spores of the Cryptogams
-which are to be set free. In the Angiosperms, on the other hand, the
-wall is extremely thin.
-
-The pollen-sac thus stands in the same relation to the nucellus as the
-microsporangium does to the macrosporangium: in the pollen-sacs and
-microsporangia a _number_ of spores arise by the tetrad-division of
-several mother-cells; in the nucellus and macrosporangium, a reduction
-of the cells already formed takes place to such an extent that the
-number of macrospores becomes one (_Salvinia_, _Marsilia_, Phanerogams)
-or four (_Selaginella_), or rarely a large number as in _Isoëtes_.
-
-In the Ferns, as stated on page 210, etc., _indusia_ covering the
-sori very often occur. Horsetails and Club-Mosses have no indusium;
-but in all Phanerogams cupular or sac-like structures (_integuments_)
-are found which envelop the nucellus. These develope from the upper
-end of the funicle (_ii_ and _ie_, in Fig. 248; _y_ and _i_, in Fig.
-249) and enclose the nucellus on all sides as a sac, leaving only a
-small channel at the apex of the nucellus--the _micropyle_--(Fig. 249)
-through which the pollen-tube proceeds to the embryo-sac. The ovules
-of the Gymnosperms have only one integument (Figs. 251, 264, 269, 274)
-and the same is the case with the majority of the Sympetalæ and a few
-Choripetalæ; but the Monocotyledons and most of the Choripetalæ have
-two integuments (Fig. 249).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 249.--Various forms of ovules: _A_ an erect
-  ovule (_orthotropous_); _B_ reversed (_anatropous_); _C_ curved
-  (_campylotropous_): _k_ the nucellus (shaded in all the figures);
-  _s_ the embryo-sac; _ch_ the base of the ovule (chalaza); _y_
-  and _i_ the external and internal integuments, the dotted line
-  denotes the place where the scar (_hilum_) will form when the
-  seed is detached from the funicle.]
-
-In shape the integuments resemble very closely the cupular indusium of
-the Hymenophyllaceæ, certain Cyatheaceæ (Fig. 212 _E_), and _Salvinia_
-(Fig. 218); that they are really homologous with these is probable, but
-is not proven. Some authorities regard them as structures found only in
-the Phanerogams.
-
-The ovule is thus a “_monangic_” (_i.e._ reduced to 1 sporangium, the
-_nucellus_) _sorus_, situated on a funicle, and enclosed by one or two
-cupular _indusia_, the integuments. Some of the ovules are _erect_
-(_orthotropous_), others _curved_ (_campylotropous_), the majority
-_reversed_ (_anatropous_) (Fig. 249).
-
-   [Goebel (1884 and earlier) with Strasburger considered the
-   entire ovule of the Phanerogams as homologous with the
-   macrosporangium, the integuments however as new structures in
-   contradistinction to the Ferns: the funicle then corresponds
-   to the stalk of the sporangium. The integuments of the ovule
-   (according to Goebel, 1882) differ from the indusium of the
-   Fern-like plants in being developed from the basal portion of
-   the nucellus and are not, as in the Ferns and _Isoëtes_,
-   a portion (outgrowth) of the leaf which bears the sporangia
-   (_K_).]
-
-The nucellus is the only macrosporangium which never opens; _the
-macrospore remains enclosed in it_, and _the macrosporangium remains
-attached to the mother-plant_. It is therefore essential that the
-_method of fertilisation_ which is employed should be very different
-from that of the Cryptogams. _The pollen-grains must be transferred
-to the ovule_, and retained either by a drop of mucilage at the
-micropyle (Gymnosperms) or by the stigma on the carpels (Angiosperms).
-Fertilisation by spermatozoids, which are freely motile in water, is
-abandoned in the Phanerogams.
-
-Many other modifications, unknown in plants of more simple structure,
-take place, for instance, in the shoots which bear the fertile
-leaves; especially in the form of the stem or _thalamus_ (hypogynous,
-perigynous, epigynous); in the development of the perianth which stands
-in intimate connection with the special means employed to effect
-fertilisation; with respect to the different grades of union found
-in the leaves; in the union of the flowers into aggregations of a
-higher order (inflorescences), and at the same time the production of
-“floral-leaves” (page 235).
-
-
-               =The sexual generation. The Fertilisation.=
-
-The sexual generation in the _Mosses_ is relatively well developed,
-because not only the protonema, but all the other vegetative parts
-of the Moss-plant, in addition to the archegonia and antheridia,
-belong to it. In the groups which follow, a gradual but increasing
-reduction of the sexual generation takes place, and at the same
-time an indication of sex is found in the prothallia, which finds
-expression in the forms of the spores themselves. In the majority
-of cases among the _isosporous_ Vascular Cryptogams, the sexual
-generation--prothallium--is a green, leafy expansion which can sustain
-itself by the assimilation of carbonic acid, and by the absorption
-of nutriment from the soil by means of root-hairs. In some plants
-(_Ophioglossaceæ_, _Lycopodium annotinum_) the prothallium is a
-subterranean, pale, tubercular body, but in these instances it is
-relatively large. In the _heterosporous_ Vascular Cryptogams and
-in the _Phanerogams_, the prothallium is much more reduced, both as
-regards its size, and also with respect to the number and structure of
-the antheridia and archegonia.
-
-1. =The Microspores.= The PROTHALLIUM in all Vascular Cryptogams which
-have unequal spores, consists of a single, vegetative (barren) cell,
-which plays a very unimportant part in the life of the prothallium
-(Fig. 233 _A_). In _Salvinia_ it is somewhat elongated and tubular,
-because it must break through the sporangium (Fig. 214); but in other
-cases it is very small and lenticular. In all these plants only one
-antheridium is formed. In _Salvinia_ it consists of 2 cells whose walls
-are ruptured in order that the spermatozoids may be liberated (Fig. 214
-_B_, _C_). In _Marsilia_, _Isoëtes_, and _Selaginella_ the prothallium
-does not leave the spore, and consists for the most part of primordial
-spermatozoid-mother-cells _without cell-wall_, which on germination are
-ejected so that the spermatozoids are set free.
-
-In the Phanerogams, the microspores have from olden times been termed
-_pollen-grains_.
-
-In the GYMNOSPERMS the prothallium is reduced to 1, 2 or 3 small cells,
-placed on one side of the mature pollen-grain (at the top in Fig. 250
-_I_, _II_, and in Fig. 267 _N_) and which do not play any part in
-the germination of the pollen-grain. The antheridium is represented
-by the remaining portions of the interior of the pollen-grain, that
-is, it consists of a large cell with a nucleus which does not even go
-so far as the antheridium of _Selaginella_ and become divided into
-spermatozoid-mother-cells without cell-wall, for even these cells are
-not formed. The unicellular antheridium grows, on the germination of
-the pollen-grain, into a tubular body known as the _pollen-tube_,
-formed from the inner wall of the pollen-grain (Fig. 250), which works
-its way down the micropyle to the oosphere. The fertilisation takes
-place by diosmosis through the cell-wall, and consists here also of the
-coalescence of the nucleus of the pollen-tube (the sperm-nucleus, male
-pronucleus) with that of the oosphere.
-
-In the ANGIOSPERMS the reductions proceed still further. The barren
-cell, which represents the prothallium, was in the last group separated
-from the antheridium by a true cell-wall, but in the Angiosperms a
-membrane at most, but no firm cell-wall, is formed. The pollen-grain
-contains two cells, a vegetative and a free generative cell. Both these
-pass into the pollen-tube, but the vegetative cell disappears about
-the time the pollen-tube reaches the ovule; while the generative cell
-divides into two: one, the sperm-nucleus coalescing with the nucleus of
-the oosphere, the other being absorbed (_Lilium_, after Guinard).
-
-The Gymnosperms prove in yet another point that they are more
-closely related to the Cryptogams than are the Angiosperms. When the
-pollen-grain begins to germinate the external wall ruptures as in the
-Cryptogams (Fig. 250), but in the Angiosperms special germ-pores are
-formed in the cell-wall for the emergence of the pollen-tube.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 250.--_I_ Pollen-grains of _Cupressus_; at
-  the top is seen one prothallium-cell. _II_ Germinating; _c_
-  pollen-tube; _a_ the extine; _b_ the intine.]
-
-2. =The Macrospores.= The prothallium in _Salvinia_ and _Marsilia_ is
-still rather large, green, and capable of the independent assimilation
-of carbon. It projects more or less from the macrospore and bears
-(in _Marsilia_ only one, in _Salvinia_ several) archegonia, which
-however are embedded to a greater degree in the prothallium, and are
-more reduced than the archegonia of the true Ferns and Horsetails
-(Figs. 215, 216). The prothallium is still more reduced in _Isoëtes_
-and _Selaginella_; _partly_ because it is smaller and is in a higher
-degree enclosed in the spore, it also contains less chlorophyll, or
-is entirely without chlorophyll, and in consequence incapable of
-independent existence, whilst the number of archegonia is less; and
-_partly_ because the archegonia are themselves reduced, the cells of
-the neck are fewer and embedded to the level of the surface of the
-prothallium without any, or with only a very slight projection (Figs.
-235, 236).--Finally, the prothallium with its archegonia begins to
-develope in _Selaginella_ while the macrospore is still within its
-sporangium, and before it is set free from the mother-plant. After
-the spores are set free and germination has commenced, the spore-wall
-ruptures and the prothallium is exposed.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 251.--Longitudinal section of ovule of _Abies
-  canadensis_. Inside the integument (_i_) is seen the nucellus,
-  _n_; _m_ the micropyle. In the interior of the nucellus is
-  seen an oval mass of cells, the endosperm, and at its top two
-  archegonia, _c_. The ovule is turned in such a way that the
-  micropyle points upwards, but usually it turns downward in the
-  _Abietineæ_.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 252.--The apex of the nucellus (_n_) of
-  an ovule of _Abies_: _l_ long-shaped cells which guide the
-  pollen-tube; _s_ the wall of the macrospore (embryo-sac); _h_ the
-  neck-cells of the archegonium; _k_ the ventral canal-cell; and
-  _c_ the central cell (oosphere). The archegonia of the Cryptogams
-  should be compared with this (see pages 181, 208, 216).]
-
-The GYMNOSPERMS go still further. The macrospore (embryo-sac)
-germinates and forms internally a cellular tissue, designated in former
-times by the name of _albumen_ (endosperm), which is _homologous with
-the prothallium_. It always _remains enclosed in the embryo-sac_, and
-is a parenchymatous mass containing a large supply of nourishment. In
-the upper part of the endosperm a number of archegonia are developed
-which are in the main constructed in the same manner as those in the
-Cryptogams, but are still more reduced, the neck consisting only of 4,
-2, or 1 cell (Figs. 251, 252). The ventral canal-cell is also formed,
-in the majority, as a small portion cut off from the large central
-cell just beneath the neck; the larger remaining portion becomes the
-oosphere. When the pollen-tube has passed down to the oosphere (Fig.
-253) and fertilisation has been effected, the oospore commences a
-cell-formation, the final result of which is the formation of _an
-embryo_ (_the asexual generation_) which is provided with a thinner,
-lower end, termed the suspensor. The embryo is forced more or less
-into the endosperm in which it may rest for a longer or shorter
-time, and generally is developed to such an extent that it has a
-distinct primary-root (radicle) and stem (plumule) with one or more
-embryo-leaves (cotyledons).
-
-   When the oosphere has been fertilised its nucleus sinks down
-   to its lower end, and by repeated division into two, forms
-   four cells lying in one plane (Fig. 253, see base of the left
-   archegonium). Three tiers of cells are now formed by transverse
-   division of these four. It is the intermediate one of these
-   which elongates and forms the suspensor, or four suspensors, if
-   they separate from each other, which push the lowermost four
-   cells deep down into the endosperm. It is from these four lower
-   cells that the embryo (or four embryos when the suspensors
-   separate) is developed, but never more than one embryo attains
-   full development. As several archegonia are contained in one and
-   the same ovule, all of which are capable of forming embryos,
-   there is the possibility that several embryos may be developed
-   in a seed (polyembryony), but usually only one embryo attains
-   perfect development.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 253.--The apex of the nucellus (_n_) of
-  _Abies_ in longitudinal section: _c_, _c_ the oospheres of
-  the two archegonia; the embryo-formation has commenced at the
-  bottom of the left archegonium; _s_ wall of the macrospore; _p_
-  pollen-grains; _r_ pollen-tubes.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 254.--Embryo-sac of _Carex præcox_: _syn_
-  synergidæ; _kb_ the oosphere; _c_ the central nucleus; _ant_ the
-  antipodal cells.]
-
-At the same time that the embryo is being developed, other changes
-are taking place in the ovule, especially in the integument which
-becomes the shell of the seed (_testa_). The endosperm grows, and the
-embryo-sac supplants the cells of the nucellus. The _seed_ is now
-formed, and it consists in its most complete development, as in this
-instance, of three parts:
-
-(1) The _testa of the seed_, formed by the enveloping integuments,
-with the remainder of the tissue of the nucellus lying outside the
-embryo-sac (the macrosporangium).
-
-(2) The _endosperm_ or prothallium.
-
-(3) The _embryo_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 255.--Diagrammatic longitudinal section
-  through an anatropous ovule shortly after fertilisation; _a_
-  and _i_ are the two integuments; _f_ the funicle; _k_ the
-  nucellus; _S_ the embryo-sac, with the incipient formation of
-  nutritive-tissue; _E_ the embryo; _P_ the pollen-tube passing
-  through the micropyle (_n_) to the oosphere.]
-
-The reduction in the ANGIOSPERMS is carried to the extreme limit. In
-the embryo-sac (the macrospore) the nucleus by continued division
-produces a prothallium consisting of primordial cells (Fig. 254).
-In the upper end of the embryo-sac (which is nearest the micropyle)
-are three cells, two of which are termed the “co-operating cells”
-(_synergidæ_) and the third is the _oosphere_. Three others are
-placed at the opposite end of the embryo-sac and are therefore termed
-the “antipodal cells.” Finally, a large cell is also formed, which
-occupies the space between the two groups and whose cell-nucleus, the
-central definitive nucleus, lies in the centre of the embryo-sac.
-These primordial cells are the slight remnant of the prothallium. The
-entire structure of the archegonium, with its neck and canal-cells,
-has disappeared, and nothing is left but the indispensable _oosphere_.
-When the oosphere has been fertilised, and has commenced the cellular
-divisions which lead to the formation of the embryo (Fig. 255), the
-synergidæ and antipodal cells are absorbed, and a cell-formation
-begins by a new process which emanates from the definitive nucleus and
-by which a parenchymatous cell-tissue, the nutritive-tissue, arises
-which may perhaps be considered as homologous with the endosperm of
-the Gymnosperms. The difference is that the nutritive-tissue of the
-Angiosperms is formed in two parts with an intervening interruption;
-the primary nutritive-tissue is first formed, and after fertilisation
-is absorbed, with the exception of one cell, which continues the
-development and gives rise to the nutritive-tissue proper, which is
-formed in the first instance of primordial cells, and later on of a
-cellular tissue; this nutritive-tissue formed in the embryo-sac is
-termed “endosperm”; in a few instances[23] a tissue which is derived
-from the nucellus functions as nutritive-tissue, and is termed
-“perisperm.” In many plants the seeds, when ripe, contain a very
-rich nutritive-tissue, in addition to the embryo, for the purpose
-of its nourishment during germination. These are termed albuminous
-(endospermous) seeds, in distinction to the ex-albuminous, or those in
-which the nutritive-tissue is stored in the embryo itself, before it is
-completely developed, and used for its sustenance.
-
-In addition to the changes which fertilisation produces in the ovule
-itself, it also gives the impetus to a series of changes in the
-entire shoot which bears the ovule. The perianth, stamens, and style,
-generally wither, because the part they play is at an end; the wall
-of the ovary grows and becomes the wall of the fruit (pericarp).
-The entire gynœcium of a flower, transformed as a consequence of
-fertilisation, is termed a _fruit_. It consists of two parts, the
-_pericarp_ and the _seeds_, and according to the nature of the
-pericarp, the fruit is termed a capsule, nut, berry, or drupe.
-
-The chief characteristic of the Phanerogams does not lie in the
-formation of the flower (although they may quite properly be termed
-“Flowering-plants”), because Equisetums and Lycopods have reproductive
-shoots as highly differentiated as those of certain Gymnosperms and
-other Phanerogams. As regards the SEXUAL GENERATION the characteristics
-are found:--(1) in its great reduction; (2) in the transmission of the
-microspore (pollen-grain) to the macrosporangium, and its germination,
-with the formation of a _pollen-tube_ (antheridium), the protoplasm of
-which is not differentiated into spermatozoids; (3) in the fact that
-the macrospore (embryo-sac) never leaves its sporangium (nucellus);
-and further in the Angiosperms, (4) in the peculiar development of the
-nutritive-tissue in two parts; and (5) in the great reduction of the
-archegonium.
-
-As regards the ASEXUAL GENERATION the characteristic feature is that
-this generation is formed whilst the sporangium is still attached to
-the mother-plant, and for a long time is nourished by it; and that
-after the sporangium has become detached from the mother-plant, it
-spends a longer or shorter resting period as the embryo in the seed
-(enveloped by the testa), and does not make its appearance until
-the “germination” of the seed. In addition the shoot which bears
-sporangia undergoes greater modification than in the case of the
-Flowerless-plants.
-
-The Phanerogams are separated into two Divisions as follows:--
-
-Division 4. =Gymnospermæ.= The ovules, as well as the seeds, are borne
-_naked_ on the surface of _open carpels_, or on the apex of a stem
-(ovary wanting). The pollen-grains are conveyed by the wind to the
-ovules, and caught by drops of mucilage, secreted by the micropyle.
-A “stigma” is _wanting_. The entire _female prothallium_ (_the
-endosperm_), which serves for the nourishment of the embryo, is _formed
-before fertilisation_. The archegonia are _embedded in the upper part
-of the prothallium. The pollen-grains are “multicellular,” i.e._ there
-is always in their interior a distinct prothallium, formed by 1–3
-cells, and a larger cell which gives rise to the pollen-tube.
-
-Division 5. =Angiospermæ.= The carpels surround the ovules and form
-an entirely closed chamber (_ovary_), in which the ovules mature and
-ripen into seeds. The surface of a portion of the apex of the carpel
-is transformed into the “stigma,” which, by a sticky fluid and also by
-hair-structures, is capable of retaining the pollen-grains conveyed to
-it by the wind, or more frequently by insects. The pollen-tube grows
-from the stigma, through the “conducting cellular tissue” (_style_),
-to the ovules. The pollen-grains contain two cells, a vegetative and
-a free generative cell. The latter passes into the pollen-tube and
-there divides into two, one of which is the sperm-nucleus. The female
-prothallium, which is intended to serve as nutritive-tissue, is formed
-_after fertilisation_. Archegonia are wanting.
-
-
-
-
-                             DIVISION IV.
-
-                             GYMNOSPERMÆ.
-
-
-The following characters should be added to those already given on page
-2:--
-
-The Gymnosperms comprise only trees or shrubs. The flowers are always
-_unisexual_ and destitute of perianth (except _Gnetaceæ_); the female
-plant of _Cycas_ is the only one which has no flower. The MALE FLOWERS
-are constructed on the same type as the cones of the Horsetails and
-Club-Mosses, and are _most frequently long shoots_ (Figs. 243, 258, 260
-_A_, 267 _J_) bearing a number of spiral or verticillate stamens. The
-FEMALE FLOWERS are of a more varied structure (see the orders). The
-OVULE _is orthotropous_ (except _Podocarpus_ which is anatropous) and
-projects from the carpel uprightly, inverted, or horizontally; it has
-usually _only one integument_ (compare however Taxaceæ) which proceeds
-from the upper part of the nucellus, so that the embryo-sac in part is
-placed below the integuments (Figs. 251, 264). The drop of mucilage
-which catches the pollen-grains dries up and draws the pollen-grain
-through the micropyle to a space just above the nucellus--_the
-pollen-chamber_--in which the germination of the pollen-grain commences.
-
-In each seed, only one of the many embryos which are formed proceeds to
-its full development. The seed is always _endospermous_, and the embryo
-has one, two, or a whorl of several cotyledons. A vigorous primary
-root is developed on germination. THE VASCULAR BUNDLES in the stem are
-arranged in a ring, and _increase in thickness_ takes place by a closed
-cambium-ring which forms bast (_phlœem_) externally, and wood (_xylem_)
-internally with distinct annual rings, _as in the Dicotyledons_. Only
-certain of the Cycadeæ deviate from this arrangement. The _secondary
-wood_ is very uniform, as it is almost exclusively _formed of
-tracheides_ with bordered pits, but _true vessels are wanting_; this
-also indicates a relationship with the Pteridophyta (see page 202).
-
-The Gymnosperms are biologically lower than the Angiosperms; they are
-wind-fertilised, and without extra floral-nectaries.
-
-This Division embraces three classes: CYCADEÆ, CONIFERÆ, And GNETEÆ. It
-is no doubt monophyletic, and has taken its origin from heterosporous
-Ferns, now extinct, most nearly related to the Ophioglossaceæ and
-Marattiaceæ. The Cycadeæ appear to be the oldest class. The Coniferæ
-are related to these through Ginkgo. The Gnetaceæ are more isolated.
-The Division is not continued into the higher Flowering-plants; it has
-evidently attained its highest development, and is now in a retrograde
-condition. The similarity which has often been pointed out between
-certain Coniferæ and Lycopodinæ is only in analogous resemblances, and
-does not entitle one to suppose that there is a nearer relationship, or
-that the former take their origin from the latter.
-
-
-                          Class 1. =Cycadeæ.=
-
-The stem is very _rarely ramified_. The leaves are _large_, _pinnate_,
-and arranged spirally. The flowers are _diœcious, without perianth_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 256.--_Cycas circinalis_ (female plant). The
-  carpels are seen hanging from the top of the stem. Three leaves
-  with the leaflets still rolled up project almost vertically into
-  the air, from the centre of the crown.]
-
-There is only one order, the =Cycadaceæ=.--In habit they resemble the
-Ferns, especially the Tree-Ferns (compare Figs. 207 and 256). The stem
-is tubercular (Fig. 258), or cylindrical (Fig. 256), but not very tall
-(as much as about 12 metres), and very rarely ramified. [In Ceylon,
-unbranched specimens of _Cycas_ are rarely met with in the wild state.
-The stems of _C. circinalis_ occasionally branch in greenhouses.]
-
-The LEAVES are arranged spirally, and so closely together that no
-free stem-surface is left between them, and have only a slight sheath
-(which is not amplexicaul, as in the Palms). They are compound (most
-frequently pinnate; in _Bowenia_, bipinnate); in some genera the leaves
-are rolled up in various ways, resembling the vernation in Ferns (Fig.
-257); they are leathery and perennial. In some, stipules are present,
-as in the Marattiaceæ. Groups of scale-leaves alternate in the majority
-with groups of foliage-leaves.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 257.--_Cycas circinalis._ Part of a young
-  leaf with circinate leaflets.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 258.--A male plant of _Stangeria paradoxa_
-  (about 1/15 nat. size).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 259.--Female cone of _Zamia integrifolia_
-  (½-⅓ nat. size). The male cone is very similar externally.]
-
-The FLOWERS are without perianth. The MALE FLOWER is sometimes an
-enormous collection of stamens (Fig. 258), which are flat in some
-(_Cycas_, Fig. 241), shield-like in others (_Zamia_, _Ceratozamia_)
-like the sporophylls in Horsetail (Fig. 259); but in all, the
-pollen-sacs are situated in large and varying numbers on the back of
-the stamens, and arranged in groups of 2–5, like the sporangia in the
-sori of the Ferns (Fig. 241 _b_, _c_). FEMALE FLOWERS _are wanting_ in
-_Cycas_, because the carpels do not terminate the apical growth of the
-stem. After a group of foliage-and of scale-leaves, a group of carpels
-is developed, which are pinnate and resemble the foliage-leaves,
-bearing on their edges a number of ovules (most frequently 5–6)
-(Figs. 245, 256); the same stem produces successively scale-leaves,
-foliage-leaves, and carpels. The differentiation is not much more
-advanced than in certain Ferns (_Struthiopteris_, _Blechnum_), where
-barren and fertile leaves of different form regularly alternate. _The
-other genera have female flowers_; the carpels are shield-like in
-_Zamia_ and _Ceratozamia_ (Fig. 246), and collected into cone-like
-flowers, which terminate the growth of the stem (Fig. 259). The number
-of ovules in these instances is two to each carpel.
-
-The SEEDS are large (most frequently 2–6 centimetres long) and
-plum-like; the external layer of the testa is fleshy, while the
-internal one is hard and horny. There are two systems of vascular
-bundles in the testa, one outside, the other inside the stone. The
-embryo is straight, attached to the end of the suspensor, which is
-often long, filamentous, and rolled up; it has one or two cotyledons.
-
-   The embryo in _Ceratozamia_ and others is very slightly
-   developed, at the time when the ripe seed is detached from
-   the carpel; and it is not until after sowing that its further
-   development and germination proceed. This calls to mind the
-   Cryptogams, especially _Selaginella_, whose macrospores are
-   thrown off filled with endosperm; but the oosphere is not
-   fertilised till after the separation of the macrospore from the
-   parent-plant, while in the Cycadeæ fertilisation is effected
-   before the separation. In _Cycas_ the testa may rupture, and
-   the endosperm grow and become green in the light, even though
-   no embryo has been formed. This also is an indication of its
-   prothalloid nature.
-
-   Gum-passages are present in all organs. Collateral vascular
-   bundles, with spiral and scalariform tracheides, are found;
-   and normal thickening takes place by means of a cambium.
-   An exceptional mode of growth is found in _Cycas_ and
-   _Encephalartos_, the cambium ceases to divide after a time
-   and is replaced by a new cambium which arises in the cortical
-   parenchyma just outside the bast, and which forms a new ring
-   of xylem and phlœem. This may be repeated so that a number of
-   concentric rings are produced. In _Ceratozamia_, structures
-   resembling corals extend from the roots in a vertical direction
-   and appear on the surface of the soil; these are peculiar roots,
-   in which a symbiotic Alga (_Anabæna_) is found.
-
-   The Cycadeæ were formerly (from the Coal period to the Later
-   Cretaceous) far more numerous than at the present day. They
-   appear to have been most numerous in the Trias and Jurassic.
-   The remnant (75 species) which have persisted to the present
-   time are found in all tropical countries. _Cycas_ (Trop. and
-   Sub-trop., Eastern Hemisphere); _Dioon_ (Mexico); _Macrozamia_
-   (Australia); _Encephalartos_ (Trop. and S. Africa); _Stangeria_
-   (Fig. 258, Sub-trop. South and East Africa); _Bowenia_ (Trop.
-   Australia); _Ceratozamia_ (Mexico, New Granada, Western Brazil);
-   _Microcycas_ (Cuba); _Zamia_ (Trop. and Sub-trop. N. America.)
-
-   USES. Sago is made from the starch-containing pith of _Cycas
-   revoluta_ and _circinalis_. The leaves are often used at
-   funerals and church festivals, under the name of “palm-branches.”
-
-
-                  Class 2. =Coniferæ= (=Pine-trees=).
-
-The stem _branches freely_. The leaves are _entire_, relatively small,
-linear or reduced to scales. The flowers are without perianth. The
-ovules naked. It is seldom that the female flower is reduced to only
-one carpel.
-
-Whilst the Cycadeæ principally resemble the Ferns, the Conifers partly
-resemble the Lycopods, and partly the Equisetums--the former especially
-in the _needle- or scale-like_, leathery, simple, and often perennial
-leaves (“evergreen plants”), which _never possess stipules_ (Figs. 263,
-270, 272). _Ginkgo_ deviates from this, being no doubt the oldest,
-and the Conifer which stands nearest to the Cycadeæ (Fig. 260). The
-resemblance to the Equisetums is especially owing to the fact that
-the stem ramifies abundantly, and often very regularly, forming a
-pyramid with verticillate branches. In addition to the foliage-leaves,
-scale-leaves (bud-scales) are present in the majority of species.
-
-The FLOWERS are monœcious or more rarely diœcious. _Perianth is
-wanting._ The stamens of the _catkin-like male flowers_ (Fig. 267,
-_J_) are of different forms, but as a rule more or less shield-like.
-As in the Cycadeæ, the pollen-sacs are in all cases situated _on the
-underside_. There are, as a rule, two pollen-sacs (the Abietaceæ, Fig.
-267), or 3–5, (the Cupressaceæ and Taxaceæ, Fig. 243); a few have more,
-_e.g. Araucaria_ (Fig. 242); they dehisce by clefts.
-
-If, in commencing our consideration of the _female flower_, we begin
-with that of _Ginkgo_, we shall observe in the corner of a scale-
-or foliage-leaf a small flower, which consists of two carpels, each
-bearing one ovule, and reduced almost to the ovule itself (Fig. 260
-_C_, _D_). The flower in _Podocarpus_ is still further reduced, viz.
-to a single carpel with one ovule, which is anatropous and has two
-integuments. This ovule is situated in the axil of a cover-scale (_c_,
-in Fig. 262 _D_), and several female flowers of this description are
-collected in a small cone, the stalk and bracts of which become fleshy
-(Fig. 262 _C_). The external integument also becomes fleshy (an aril).
-_Dacrydium_, which is clearly related to _Podocarpus_, has an external
-integument which developes more independently as a fleshy aril (Fig.
-262 _B_, _B’_). _Microcachrys_ also is clearly allied to these: the
-bracts are more fleshy, and the ovule (_i.e._ the female flower) is
-protruded beyond the bract (Fig. 262 _A_, _A’_). _Taxus_ stands in a
-more isolated position: a flower which has been reduced to an ovule is
-situated, in this instance, on the apex of a secondary branch which is
-studded with floral-leaves (Figs. 263, 264); an external integument
-is developed on all sides and surrounds the seed as a scarlet aril.
-According to this conception _the aril corresponds to an external
-integument_, and the Taxoideæ thus possess a partly dichlamydeous
-ovule. Only _Ginkgo_ and _Cephalotaxus_ appear to deviate from this,
-as in these there is only one integument (unless the small outgrowth
-indicated by _ar_, in Fig. 260 _D_, really is a rudimentary, external
-integument); in CYCADEÆ, to which _Ginkgo_ is most closely related,
-there is likewise only one integument. But in these genera the testa
-is differentiated into two layers, and the seed resembles a drupe; like
-the Cycadeæ there is an external fleshy covering and an internal hard
-one, and these two layers may probably be considered homologous with
-the two integuments. This theory is also borne out by the arrangement
-of the vascular bundles in _Cephalotaxus_ and _Podocarpus_, which
-present the xylem in the fleshy external layer to the _outside_ of the
-testa, which is therefore the upper side of the integument (Celakovsky).
-
-The coalescence of the integuments into one is only slight in
-_Torreya_, more pronounced in _Podocarpus_ and strongest in
-_Cephalotaxus_ and _Ginkgo_. Celakovsky terms these ovules
-“holochlamydeous.”
-
-If we pass from these to the order PINOIDEÆ, we find the female flowers
-collected into catkin-like cones, which have been considered from
-various points of view to be sometimes single flowers, at other times
-compound inflorescences. The structure in ABIETACEÆ is as follows: a
-number of spirally arranged, scale-like leaves, _cover-scales_ (Figs.
-267, 268), are situated on a long axis. In the axil of each cover-scale
-a larger leaf-like projection, _the ovuliferous scale_, is borne,
-which turns the upper side towards its cover-scale (which is shown by
-the fact that the wood of its vascular bundles is turned downwards
-and towards the wood in the bundles of the cover-scale: Fig. 269).
-Two ovules, with micropyles turned towards the central axis, and with
-apparently only one integument (Fig. 268), are situated on the dorsal
-side of each ovuliferous scale, _i.e._ the side turned away from the
-cover-scale. The ovuliferous scales grow after fertilisation, into the
-woody or leathery “cone-scales,” which are usually much larger than the
-cover-scales. This ovuliferous scale with its axis may, according to
-Celakovsky, be considered as a dwarf-branch which is situated in the
-axil of the cover-scale, and bears two ovules (in the same way as in
-_Ginkgo_, one long-stalked flower, reduced to two ovules, is situated
-in the axil of a leaf), and _in this case the external integument of
-the ovules_ is expanded into leaf-like bodies, which have united to
-form one “_symphyllodium_” (_ovuliferous scale_) which is inverted
-so that its dorsal side is turned upwards and bears the nucellus and
-the other integument (“hemichlamydeous” ovules). The carpel itself
-is therefore in this instance extremely reduced. The keel, or (in
-_Pinus_) “mucro” (Fig. 268 _B_), which is found in several genera,
-represents then a third carpel, which is sterile. In the other orders
-of the Pinoideæ the cover-scales and ovuliferous scales grow more and
-more together and finally form one structure, which also is termed a
-“cone-scale,” although from its development it cannot be homologous
-with the cone-scales of the Abietaceæ. This connation is least in the
-TAXODIACEÆ and ARAUCARIACEÆ and may be traced on the upper surface
-of the “cone-scale” by the presence of a stronger or slighter ridge
-or pad, the free portion of the ovuliferous scale (Figs. 256, 266,
-269). It is most strongly pronounced in the CUPRESSACEÆ, in which the
-two scales form one single structure, the cone-scale (Fig. 274). The
-vascular bundles in the under portion corresponding to the cover-scale,
-have the xylem towards the upper side as usual in leaves, whilst
-the bundles present in the upper side of the cone-scale, which thus
-represents the ovuliferous scale, turn their xylem downwards. The
-hemichlamydeous ovules are then situated on the upper side of this
-cone-scale. According to this theory the CUPRESSACEÆ appear to be
-the youngest type, a view which corresponds with their vegetative
-structure. If there is only one ovule in these orders as in _Agathis_
-(Fig. 265) and _Araucaria_, then the flower is reduced to a single
-carpel and one ovule, as in the case of _Dacrydium_ and _Microcachrys_.
-If two or more ovules are present, then the same number of carpels may
-be supposed to exist, the external integuments of their ovules being
-developed into leaf-like structures which collaterally coalesce to form
-a “symphyllodium,” or are suppressed.
-
-According to this theory, which is based on the researches of
-Celakovsky, the female flowers of the Coniferæ may be classed thus:--
-
-1. In all cases situated in the axil of a bract and collected into
-cones, with numerous flowers or with few or one flower. In _Ginkgo_
-only, are they situated in the axil of foliage- or scale-leaves.
-
-2. It is only in _Taxus_ that bracteoles are present.
-
-3. They are formed only from rudimentary carpels, in which the stem
-takes no part.
-
-4. The number of carpels in each flower varies from one to many, most
-frequently three, of which the central one remains sterile.
-
-5. Each carpel bears only one ovule. The flower which is formed of only
-one carpel appears to consist of only one ovule.
-
-6. The ovule has in Taxaceæ either a double integument (Podocarpeæ,
-Taxeæ), of which the external is the “aril,” or, as in the Cycadeæ, a
-single one, which is homologous with the two united together.
-
-7. The external integument in the Pinoideæ is expanded to form a
-leaf-like structure--the ovuliferous scale--and bears on its dorsal
-side the ovules, which are thus only provided with one, and that the
-inner, integument.
-
-   This later interpretation of the female cones in the Coniferæ is
-   more probably correct than the older ones; that, however, which
-   appeared in the former issues of this book, may also be stated.
-   It was to the effect that each catkin-like female cone is in
-   reality a single flower; the cone-scales in the Cupressaceæ
-   were single leaves, namely carpels, which bore the ovules on
-   the side which is turned upwards; the division into two parts
-   which makes its appearance in the other orders, and becomes
-   most prominent in the Abietaceæ, was compared with the division
-   of a leaf into a barren and a fertile portion, which is found
-   especially in Ophioglossaceæ and Marsiliaceæ, or with the ligule
-   in _Isoëtes_.
-
-POLLINATION is accomplished by means of the wind. At the period
-of pollination the leaves are always so widely separated from one
-another, that the ovules can catch the pollen-grains carried to
-them by the wind; this is often effected by the mucilaginous drops
-which appear at the micropyle, and by the evaporation of which the
-pollen-grains are brought in contact with the nucellus. The entire cone
-grows considerably as soon as fertilisation has taken place, and the
-cone-scales in Pinoideæ close together so that the seeds while maturing
-are enclosed, and it is not until the seeds are ready for distribution
-that the cone-scales again become separated. In the Pinoideæ, the fully
-developed ovuliferous scales are hard and woody; and in this condition
-the collection of female flowers is termed a _cone_. In the Taxoideæ,
-true cones are the exception. 2–15 cotyledons are present, arranged in
-a whorl.
-
-The characteristic feature of this class is the abundance of _resin_,
-which is to be found in isolated cells (especially in the cortex),
-partly in intercellular glands or passages (both in the cortex and
-wood). _Taxus_ is the only genus which has no resin.
-
-   There are about 350 species, mostly from the Northern Temperate
-   zone (especially North America and Siberia), where they grow
-   gregariously and form the most northern forests. The Juniper,
-   Scotch Fir, and Yew are natives of Great Britain.
-
-This class may be divided into two families:--
-
-1. =Taxoideæ.= The ovules have either one integument, the external
-part of which is fleshy, and the internal hard and stone-like; or two
-integuments, of which the external is the fleshy and coloured “aril.”
-“Ovuliferous scales” are wanting. The cones are never woody, but are
-generally succulent, the bracts become fleshy, or cones usually are not
-developed. The seeds project more or less freely beyond the bracts.
-
-2. =Pinoideæ.= The ovules have two integuments, the external one of
-which is leaf-like and becomes developed as the “ovuliferous scale”;
-if there are several of these in each flower they unite and form a
-“symphyllodium.” This may remain free or unite with the bract. The
-cones are most frequently woody, rarely succulent. The seeds are hidden
-among the cone-scales.
-
-
-                         Family 1. =Taxoideæ.=
-
-This family, considered to be most nearly related to the Cycadeæ, also
-made its appearance at a very early period. There is only one order.
-
-Order. =Taxaceæ.= The characters have been given above.
-
-_A._ CEPHALOTAXEÆ is the oldest group, presumably the connecting
-link between the Cycadeæ and the other Coniferæ. The flower consists
-normally of two ovules. Aril wanting. One integument. Seeds
-drupaceous.--The flowers in _Ginkgo biloba_ (_Salisburia_) are situated
-in the axil of foliage- or scale-leaves. The stamens bear only two
-pollen-sacs (Fig. 260 _A_). The female flower has two ovules, placed
-together at the end of a long, bare axis (Fig. 260 _C_). Round the base
-of the ovule a small collar (_ar_, in Fig. 260 _D_) is found, which
-may probably be considered homologous with the collar-like outgrowth
-which surrounds the base of the _Cycas_-ovule. The seed resembles a
-Plum, and has a fleshy external coat, surrounding a hard internal
-layer. The embryo is developed after the seed has fallen off. The
-Ginkgo-tree has long-stalked, fan-shaped leaves, more or less indented,
-with dichotomous veins resembling certain Ferns--the Adiantums. It is a
-native of East Asia, and the only surviving species of a genus which in
-earlier times was very rich in species, and distributed over the entire
-Northern Hemisphere. _Cephalotaxus_ (Eastern Asia) is related to it.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 260.--_Ginkgo_ (nat. size): _A_ a branch with
-  a small flowering dwarf-branch (male flower); _B_ a leaf; _C_ a
-  flower with two ovules; _D_ a ripe seed; _ar_ collar.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 261.--_Phyllocladus glaucus_: a branch with
-  female flowers (nat. size).]
-
-_B._ PODOCARPEÆ. The female flower is reduced to one ovule, placed in
-the axil of a bract, or a little forward upon it. The ovule has an
-aril (2 integuments).--_Phyllocladus_ (Fig. 261), from New Zealand and
-Tasmania, has obtained its name from its flat, _leaf-like branches_,
-the leaves proper being scale-like (_f_). The ovules stand _erect_ in
-the axil of the scale-like leaves (_c_), and several are collected at
-the end of short branches.--_Microcachrys tetragona_ (Tasmania) has
-a small female catkin with several spirally-placed, fleshy bracts,
-at the end of which the inward and downward turned ovule is attached
-(Fig. 262 _A_, _A’_). The ripe cones are red, succulent, and resemble
-Strawberries.--In _Dacrydium_ (Tasmania, New Zealand, Malaysia) the
-female cone has most frequently only 1–2 (–6) bracts, which resemble
-the vegetative leaves; they have also a fleshy aril (Fig. 262 _B_,
-_B’_).--_Podocarpus_ (40 species, East Asia, S. Temp.); the bracts of
-the female flowers become fleshy, and unite together; only 1 or 2 are
-of use in supporting the flowers. The ovules project high above the
-apex of the bract, and are _anatropous_, the micropyle being turned
-downwards (Fig. 262 _C_, _D_). An aril commences to develope in the
-flowering period as an external coating, and later on it becomes fleshy
-and coloured.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 262.--_A Microcachrys_: female cone (2/1).
-  _A’_ A single carpel with its ovule. _B Dacrydium_: branch with
-  female flower (3/1). _B’_ The flower; _cp_ the bract; _ar_ the
-  aril; _ov_ ovule. _C Podocarpus_: female flower with 2 ovules.
-  _D_ Another female flower with 1 ovule, in longitudinal section.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 263.--_Taxus baccata_: branch with two ripe
-  seeds (nat. size).]
-
-_C._ TAXEÆ. The female flower is reduced to one ovule, which is
-situated _terminally_ on an axis which bears 2–3 pairs of opposite,
-scale-like bracteoles; on this account the Taxeæ form a very isolated
-group among the Coniferæ.--_Taxus_ (_T. baccata_, the Yew-tree).
-_Diœcious_. _The female flower consists of only one ovule_, placed _at
-the end_ of a short secondary branch (Fig. 264), which is studded with
-scale-like leaves. The aril when ripe is thick, fleshy, and scarlet
-(sometimes yellow), and only loosely envelopes the seed (Fig. 263).
-The leaves are scattered, flat, linear, and pointed (Fig. 263, 264).
-The short male flowers have 5–8 pollen-sacs, pendent from the stamens,
-and are surrounded at their bases by scale-like bracteoles (Fig. 243).
-_Torreya_ (4 species, N. America and Japan) is closely allied to
-_Taxus_. The aril ultimately fuses with the woody inner integument, and
-hence the ovule becomes drupaceous, as in Cephalotaxaceæ.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 264.--_Taxus baccata_: _A_ shoot of _Taxus_
-  with female flowers at the time when the ovules are ready for
-  pollination. _B_ Leaf with flower in its axil (nat. size). _C_
-  Longitudinal median section through a female shoot; _v_ growing
-  point of primary shoot; _a_ commencement of aril; _i_ integument;
-  _n_ nucellus; _m_ micropyle.]
-
-   USES. _Taxus baccata_ is usually planted in gardens, especially
-   in hedges. Its wood is very hard and is used for wood-carving.
-   The shoots are poisonous, but not the aril, which is often eaten
-   by children and by birds.
-
-
-                         Family 2. =Pinoideæ.=
-
-The four orders differ from one another partly in the arrangement of
-the leaves (_Cupressaceæ_ have opposite or verticillately placed
-leaves, flowers, and inflorescences; in the others they are placed
-spirally), but chiefly in the greater or less degree of union which
-takes place between the female flower (the leaf-like “symphyllodium”)
-and its supporting cover-scale, and in the position of the ovules (the
-micropyle being turned upwards or downwards). The “cone-scales” in
-_Abietaceæ_ are formed by “symphyllodia” alone, in the others by
-their union with the cover-scale.
-
-Order 1. =Araucariaceæ.= This order most frequently has _solitary_
-ovules, _turned downwards_ and attached _to the centre_ of the
-cone-scales. In _Agathis_ (_Dammara_) the arrangement is the most
-simple, a winged seed (Fig. 265), which hangs _freely_ downwards, being
-borne in the centre of the undivided cone-scale. In _Araucaria_, the
-stamens with the _free, pendulous_ pollen-sacs have been represented
-in Fig. 242; the ovuliferous scale is united for nearly its whole
-length with the bract, and projects from its apex in the shape of a
-sheath-like, dentate scale, resembling the ligule in _Isoëtes_, and may
-therefore be termed a “ligule.” _Araucaria_ (S. America, Australia) has
-often rather broad leaves (_A. brasiliensis_). The ovuliferous scale in
-_Cunninghamia_ is more distinct, and stretches transversely over the
-entire cover-scale; it bears three inverted ovules (Fig. 266) (Eastern
-Asia).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 265.--_Agathis (Dammara) australis._
-  Cone-scale with the seed. _A_ Longitudinal section; _A’_ from
-  within; _fv_, _fv’_ vascular bundles; _v_ wing.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 266.--_Cunninghamia sinensis._ Cone-scale
-  with three ovules, interior view: _d_ cover-scale; _f_
-  ovuliferous scale.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 267.--_A-G Pseudotsuga douglasii_: _A_
-  cone, _B_ cone-scale, with the inner side turned forward; the
-  points of the cover-scale are seen behind it; _C-G_ transitions
-  from the acicular leaf to the cover scale, from the base of a
-  ♀ cone. _H Pinus montana._ Young ovuliferous scale, with the
-  inner side turned forward; the ovules are now in the stage for
-  pollination. _J-M Abies alba_: _J_ male cone; _b_ bud-scale;
-  _a_ anthers; _K L M_ individual anthers.--_Pinus montana_: _N_
-  pollen-grain; the two lateral expansions are the air-bladders; in
-  the upper part of the interior of the grain a vegetative cell may
-  be seen, and in the centre the large cell-nucleus.]
-
-   Dammara-resin, which is used for varnish, is obtained from
-   _Agathis_ (_Dammara_) species (New Zealand, Philippine
-   Islands).
-
-Order 2. =Abietaceæ (Pine and Fir Trees).= The leaves are spirally
-arranged and needle-like. The flowers are _monœcious_. The male flowers
-are long, and catkin-like, with numerous stamens, each bearing two
-_oblong pollen-sacs_. The pollen-grains are most frequently tri-lobed,
-having two bladder-like appendages, formed as outgrowths of the
-exospore, to assist in their distribution by the wind (Fig. 267 _N_).
-The bracts are arranged spirally. The union between the bract and the
-ovuliferous scale, which is found in the preceding order, is not in
-this instance so complete; these scales make their appearance as two
-free parts, and are attached only at their bases (Fig. 268); the lower
-portion, that is the cover-scale, in most instances remains quite
-small (Fir, Red Pine, and others), it is only in the “Noble Pine”
-(_Abies_) and _Pseudotsuga douglasii_, that it attains a greater length
-than the ovuliferous scale (Fig. 267, _B-G_). On the other hand the
-upper part, _the ovuliferous scale_ (the vascular bundles of which have
-the bast turned upwards), grows strongly and elongates, especially
-after fertilisation, becoming woody or leathery; it is commonly termed
-the “_cone-scale_,” but is in reality only homologous with a part of
-the “cone-scale” in the other order of Pinoideæ. On the side of the
-ovuliferous scale, turned towards the axis, are situated _two ovules_
-with micropyles _directed inwards_. The seeds are most frequently
-provided with _a false wing_ (a tissue-like part of the surface of
-the ovuliferous scale). Cotyledons, _more than_ 2, _verticillate_.
-_Fertilisation does not take place until some time after pollination._
-In _Pinus_, for instance, the pollen-tube only penetrates the nucellus
-for a short distance during the year of pollination, and then ceases
-its further growth, fertilisation not taking place until after the
-middle of the next year; whilst the seeds ripen about a year and a half
-after pollination. In the Larch and others, the seeds are mature in the
-autumn succeeding pollination.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 268.--_A Abies_: _c_ the cover-scale;
-  _s_ ovuliferous scale, or “cone-scale”; _sk_ ovules in a young
-  condition. _B Pinus_: ovuliferous scale with two ovules (_s_);
-  _m_ the two-lobed micropyle; _c_ “mucro”; _b_ the cover-scale
-  behind. _C Abies_: ripe “cone-scale” with two seeds (_sa_); _f_
-  wing of seed.]
-
-_Abies_ (Fir). The leaves are often (_e.g. Ab. pectinata_) displaced
-into 2 rows, flat and indented at the apex, with 2 white (wax-covered)
-lines on the under surface, in which the stomata are situated. The
-leaf-scars are nearly circular and do not project. The cones are erect.
-_The cover-scales and the ovuliferous scales separate from the axis_,
-to which they remain attached in other genera.--~_Tsuga_ has leaves
-like _Abies_, but by the slightly projecting leaf-scars, and cones with
-persistent scales, it forms the transition to _Picea_.--_Pseudotsuga_
-has leaves similar to those of _Abies_ and persistent carpels as in
-_Picea_, but the cover-scales grow as in _Abies_ and project beyond
-the ovuliferous scales (_P. douglasii_, Fig. 267). These two genera
-are considered as sub-genera of _Abies_.~--_Picea_. The leaves project
-on all sides, square and pointed; the leaf-scars are rhombic, on
-projecting leaf-cushions. The cones are pendulous. The cover-scales are
-much shorter than the leathery, persisting ovuliferous scales.--The
-genus _Larix_ (Larch) differs from all the others in having deciduous
-leaves (the three preceding have leaves which persist for eleven to
-twelve years). It has _long-branches_ with linear foliage-leaves and
-short, thick, _perennial dwarf-branches_, which each year form a new
-rosette of foliage-leaves, similar to those on the long-branches. The
-male flowers and the erect cones resemble those of _Picea_, and are
-borne on dwarf-branches.--_Cedrus_ (Cedar) resembles _Larix_ to some
-extent, but has persistent leaves (_C. libani_, _C. deodara_).--_Pinus_
-(Pine) has long-branches and dwarf-branches. The leaves of the
-long-branches are scale-like and not green; the dwarf-branches have
-very limited growth, and persist for three years; they arise in the
-axils of the scales borne on the long-branches of the self-same year,
-and each bears 2–5 foliage-leaves, they are also surrounded at the base
-by a number of membranous bud-scales. The cone-scales have a _thick,
-rhomboid extremity_ (the “shield”).
-
-   The buds which develope into long-branches arise at the apex of
-   other long-branches, and being very close together, form false
-   whorls. The female cones occupy the position of long-branches,
-   and take about two years for their development. The male flowers
-   arise close together, and form a spike-like inflorescence at
-   the base of a long-branch of the same year. The male flowers
-   occupy the position of dwarf-branches, so that a female cone
-   may be considered to be a modified long-branch, and a male cone
-   a modified dwarf-branch. The main axis of the seedling has
-   needle-like leaves, similar to those found on the older parts,
-   and on dwarf-branches; it is not until some time later that
-   the dwarf-branches are developed and the permanent arrangement
-   attained.
-
-   USES. Several species are commonly cultivated in this country,
-   partly on heaths and moors, and partly in plantations and as
-   ornamental trees, such as Mountain Pine (_Pinus montana_, Cen.
-   Eur.); Austrian Pine (_P. laricio_, Eur.); Scotch Fir (_P.
-   silvestris_, Eur.); Weymouth Pine (_P. strobus_, N. Am.); common
-   Red Pine (_Picea excelsa_, Cen. and N. Eur.); White Pine (_P.
-   alba_, N. Am.); _Abies pectinata_ (Common Fir, S. and Cen. Eur);
-   _A. nordmanniana_ (Crimea, Caucasus); _A. balsamea_ (N. Am.);
-   _Tsuga canadensis_ (N. Am.); _Pseudotsuga douglasii_ (N.W. Am.);
-   Larch (_Larix europæa_, Alps, Carpathians); _L. sibirica_ (N.E.
-   Russia, Siberia).--The wood of many species, especially Pine,
-   on account of its lightness and because it is so easily worked,
-   is very well adapted for many useful purposes. The wood of the
-   Yew-tree is very hard and is used for ornamental turning. Resin
-   and Turpentine (_i.e._ Resin with essential oils, the name being
-   derived from the Terebinth-tree, from which formerly a similar
-   material was obtained) are extracted from _Pinus laricio_ and
-   _P. pinaster_. Oil of Turpentine is obtained by distillation of
-   turpentine with water; Tar by dry distillation of Pine-wood.
-   Canada-balsam is from North American _Abies_-species (_A.
-   balsamea_ and _Fraseri_). The officinal Turpentine is mainly
-   obtained from _Pinus pinaster_ (South of France), _P. tæda_,
-   _australis_, _strobus_ (Weymouth Pine) and other North American
-   species; more recently also from _P. silvestris_ (Scotch Fir),
-   _maritima_, _laricio_, _Picea excelsa_, and others; Venetian
-   Turpentine, from Larch (S. Eur.) Amber is resin from a Tertiary
-   plant (_Pityoxylon succiniferum_), closely related to the Pine,
-   which grew especially in the countries round the South-East
-   coast of the Baltic. _Pinus pinea_ (the Pine, S. Eur.) has
-   edible seeds and also _P. cembra_ (in Cen. Eur. and Siberia).
-
-Order 3. =Taxodiaceæ.= The vegetative leaves and cone-scales are
-arranged spirally. The ovules (2–9) are situated either at the base
-of the ovuliferous scales, in which case they are erect; or at their
-centre, when they are generally more or less inverted. The ovuliferous
-scale is more or less united with the cover-scale, and projects
-beyond the surface of the cone-scale, like a comb (Fig. 269). The
-vascular bundles, which extend into the cover-scale, have the usual
-leaf-arrangement, viz. the wood placed above the bast; while those
-bundles which enter the ovuliferous scale have this arrangement of the
-bundles reversed.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 269.--_Cryptomeria japonica._ Portion of
-  longitudinal section through female flower. _d_ cover-scale;
-  _f_ ovuliferous scale; _ov_ ovules; _fv_ and _fv’_ vascular
-  bundles; the xylem is indicated by a wavy line, and the phlœm by
-  a straight line.]
-
-   _Taxodium distichum_ (the North American “Swamp Cypress”) has
-   annual dwarf-branches, with distichous leaves, and cone-like
-   “pneumathodia.” In the Tertiary period it was very common in
-   the Polar regions. _Sequoia (Wellingtonia) gigantea_ is the
-   famous Californian Giant-Fir, or Mammoth-Tree, which attains
-   a height of 300 feet, a diameter of 36 feet, and is said to
-   live for 1,500 years. _Cryptomeria japonica_ (Japan, China) has
-   the least adnate ovuliferous scales; _Glyptostrobus_ (China);
-   _Arthrotaxis_ (Tasmania); _Sciadopitys verticillata_ (the only
-   species in Japan) has, like _Pinus_, scale-like leaves on
-   the long-branches, of which those which are situated at the
-   apex of the annual shoots support “double needles,” _i.e._
-   _dwarf-branches_ similar to the two-leaved dwarf-branches in
-   _Pinus_, but without bud-scales, and with the two leaves fused
-   together at the edges into one needle, which turns its upper
-   surface away from the long-branch.
-
-Order 4. =Cupressaceæ= (=Cypresses=). _The leaves are opposite or
-verticillate_, sometimes acicular, but most frequently scale-like
-(Fig. 270). In the species with scale-like leaves, the seedlings
-often commence with acicular leaves (Fig. 272), and branches are
-sometimes found on the older plants which revert to this form, seeming
-to indicate that the acicular leaf was the original form (atavism).
-The so-called “_Retinospora_” species are seedling-forms of _Biota_,
-_Thuja_, _Chamæcyparis_, which have been propagated by cuttings, and
-retain the seedling-form. The flowers are monœcious or diœcious. The
-male flowers are short, and have shield-like stamens, bearing most
-frequently several pollen-sacs. The cover-scales and ovuliferous scales
-are entirely fused together and form _undivided_ cone-scales, _opposite
-or whorled_; _the ovuliferous scales_ have slight projections near _the
-base_ on which 1–2–several _erect ovules_ are developed (Fig. 274).
-Most frequently 2 cotyledons.--_Evergreen_ trees and shrubs.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 270.--_Cupressus goveniana._]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 271.--Portion of a branch of _Thuja
-  orientalis_ (magnified). The leaf at the base on the right has a
-  branch in its axil.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 272.--Seedling of _Thuja occidentalis_. The
-  branch (_g_) is borne in the axil of the leaf _s_.]
-
-_Juniperus_ (Juniper). _Diœcious._ The cone-scales become fleshy and
-fuse together to form most frequently a 1–3 seeded “berry-cone.”
-~_J. communis_ (Common Juniper) has acicular leaves, borne in whorls
-of three, and the “berry-cone” is formed by a trimerous whorl
-of cone-scales (Fig. 273). _J. sabina_ and _J. virginiana_ have
-“berry-cones” formed from several dimerous whorls of cone-scales; the
-leaves are connate and opposite, needle-and scale-like leaves are found
-on the same plant.~
-
-_Cupressus_ (Cypress). _Monœcious._ The cones are spherical; the
-cone-scales shield-like, generally five-cornered and woody (Fig. 270),
-each having many seeds. The leaves are scale-like.--_Thuja. Monœcious._
-Cones oblong. The cone-scales are dry, as in the Cypress, but leathery
-and imbricate, and not shield-like; each cone-scale bears 2–3 seeds.
-The leaves are most frequently dimorphic; those leaves which are
-situated on the edges of the flat branches are compressed, and only
-these bear buds, which are developed with great regularity, generally
-alternately, on both sides of the branch; those which are situated
-on the flattened surfaces are pressed flat and broad, and never bear
-branches (Fig. 271). Along the central line of each leaf there is a
-resin-canal (Fig. 271).--~_Chamæcyparis_, _Callitris_, _Libocedrus_,
-_Thujopsis_ (1 species: _T. dolabrata_; in Japan).~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 273.--Branch of Juniper with “berry-cones.”]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 274.--_Cupressus lawsoniana._ Longitudinal
-  section through female cone. Two ovules (_ov_) are bisected; _f_
-  ovuliferous scales.]
-
-   OFFICINAL. _Juniperus sabina_ from Central and South of Europe
-   (the young branches yield an essential oil). The wood of _J.
-   communis_ is used in the production of an essential oil, and
-   _J. oxycedrus_ in the production of empyreumatic oil. The
-   “berry-cone” of _J. communis_ is officinal, and is also used
-   for gin.--The wood of _J. virginiana_ (N. Am.) is known as red
-   cedar, and is used for lead-pencils. Sandarack resin is obtained
-   from _Callitris quadrivalvis_ (N.W. Africa).
-
-   THE FOLLOWING ARE CULTIVATED IN GARDENS:--_Thuja occidentalis_
-   (Arbor vitæ) (N. Am.), and _orientalis_ (China, Japan);
-   _Juniperus sabina_ and _virginiana_; _Thujopsis dolabrata_
-   (Japan); _Cupressus lawsoniana_ (California), _C. sempervirens_
-   (S. Eur., W. Asia), and other species, are grown especially
-   in conservatories, and in Southern Europe particularly in
-   cemeteries.--The _Retinospora_ species which are so often
-   planted, do not belong to an independent genus, but are obtained
-   from cuttings, taken from seedling-plants with acicular leaves
-   (see page 267).
-
-
-                         Class III. =Gneteæ.=
-
-This class, independent of extinct forms, comprises the most highly
-developed of the Gymnosperms, partly from the circumstance that a
-perianth of 2–4 members encloses the _terminally placed ovule_, which
-is provided with one, or (in _Gnetum_) two, integuments, and partly
-owing to the fact that the wood has true vessels. There is only one
-order.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 275.--_Welwitschia mirabilis_ (considerably
-  reduced). The horizontal lines indicate the surface of the soil.]
-
-   Order. =Gnetaceæ.= The three known genera differ very much in
-   appearance. _Welwitschia mirabilis_ (from the deserts of South
-   Western Africa) is the oldest (?) genus now living. It resembles
-   a giant radish, in that the hypocotyl is the only part of the
-   main axis of the stem which becomes developed. It attains a
-   circumference of upwards of four metres with a length of 1/2½-⅔
-   of a metre. It bears _only_ two oblong, leathery leaves (Fig.
-   275) which are torn into segments at the apex and lie on the
-   surface of the soil; these are the two first foliage-leaves
-   which succeed the cotyledons, and they are remarkable for
-   their enormous length (upwards of two metres) as well as for
-   their long duration, living as long as the plant itself. In
-   their axils are situated the 4-rowed, spike-like male and
-   scarlet-coloured female cones, upon dichotomous branches. The
-   perianth consists in the ♂ of 2 alternating pairs of leaves,
-   the inner ones of which are slightly united. The andrœcium
-   likewise consists of 2 whorls: the external (transverse) with
-   2, the internal with 4 stamens; the lower halves of the 6
-   filaments uniting to form a cup. Each of the terminal anthers
-   corresponds to a sorus of 3 sporangia, the sporangia being fused
-   together, and opening at the top by _one_ three-rayed cleft.
-   In the centre of the ♂-flower there is a sterile ovule. In the
-   ♀-flower a perianth of two connate leaves is present.--_Ephedra_
-   (desert plants, especially in the Mediterranean and W. Asia)
-   at first sight resembles an _Equisetum_; the stems are thin,
-   long-jointed, and the leaves opposite, small, and united into
-   a bidentate sheath; ♂-perianth of two connate leaves (median
-   leaves); 2–8 stamens united into a column. Each anther is formed
-   of 2 sporangia (is bilocular). ♀ mainly, as in _Welwitschia_.
-   The seeds are surrounded by the perianth which finally becomes
-   red and fleshy. There are 30 species.--_Gnetum_ has opposite,
-   lanceolate, pinnately-veined, leathery leaves. They are mostly
-   climbers (Lianas) from Tropical Asia and America. The ♂-flowers
-   have a tubular perianth, (formed from two median leaves) which
-   surrounds a centrally-placed filament, bearing 2 anthers. In
-   the ♀-flower there is a similar perianth, surrounding an ovule
-   provided with 2 integuments. The perianth becomes fleshy and
-   envelops the hard seed. 20 species.
-
-   From the circumstance of _Welwitschia_ having ♂ flowers
-   which, besides stamens, possess also a rudiment of an ovule,
-   Celakovsky draws the inference that the earliest Gymnosperms
-   had hermaphrodite flowers which from this structure became
-   differentiated entirely into ♂-and ♀-flowers, with the exception
-   of _Welwitschia_ only, in which this differentiation was only
-   carried out in the ♀-flower. This theory has so far been
-   scarcely proved.
-
-
-                          =Fossil Gymnosperms.=
-
-   The earliest continental plants which are known belong to the
-   CORDAITACEÆ, a group of plants which existed as early as the
-   Silurian period; they were Gymnosperms, but it has not yet been
-   determined whether they were Cycads or Conifers. The CYCADS,
-   even in the Coal period, were scarce; they attained their
-   fullest development in Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, during
-   which they were rich in species and genera, and extended as far
-   as the Polar regions. In addition to these, Taxaceæ, Abietaceæ,
-   and Taxodiaceæ appeared in the Carboniferous period. The TAXACEÆ
-   appear to have attained their culmination in the Jurassic and
-   Cretaceous periods; _Ginkgo_ appears in the Rhætic; _Torreya_,
-   in the Cretaceous; _Taxus_ and _Podocarpus_ in the Tertiary
-   periods. The ABIETACEÆ also appear in the Carboniferous;
-   _Pinus_ was first known with certainty in the English Weald
-   and in the Cretaceous; almost all other contemporary genera
-   are represented in this latter period. The ARAUCARIACEÆ first
-   appear, with certainty, in the Jurassic. The TAXODIACEÆ may
-   be traced back as far as the Carboniferous (?); _Sequoia_ is
-   first found in the lowest Cretaceous, at that period it spread
-   throughout the entire Arctic zone, and being represented by a
-   large number of species, formed an essential part of the forest
-   vegetation. _Sequoia_ played a similar part in the Tertiary
-   period. The CUPRESSACEÆ are first known with certainty in the
-   Jurassic, but they appeared more frequently and numerously in
-   the Tertiary period, in which most of the present living genera
-   were to be found. The GNETACEÆ, according to a theory advanced
-   by Renault were represented in the Coal period by the genus
-   _Stephanospermum_, which had four ovules enclosed by an envelope.
-
-
-
-
-                              DIVISION V.
-
-                             ANGIOSPERMÆ.
-
-
-See pages 3 and 224. To this Division belong the majority of the
-Flowering-plants. They are divided into two parallel classes, the
-Monocotyledons and the Dicotyledons, which differ from each other not
-only in the number of cotyledons, which, with a few exceptions, is one
-in the former, two in the latter, but also in the internal structure
-of the stem, the venation of the leaves, the number of the parts of
-the flower, etc. ~Assuming that these two classes have sprang from a
-common origin, it is amongst the Helobieæ in the first, and amongst the
-Polycarpicæ in the second class that we might expect to find closely
-allied forms, which might reasonably be supposed to have varied less
-from this original type. As for the rest, they seem to stand quite
-parallel, without exhibiting any close relationship. It is scarcely
-proved that the Monocotyledons are the older class.~
-
-[Our knowledge of the forms included under the Angiosperms has
-recently been considerably increased by Treub (_Ann. d. Jar. Bot. d.
-Buitenzorg_, 1891), who has shown that the Casuarinas differ in many
-important points from the typical Angiosperms. Among other characters
-the pollen-tube is found to enter the ovule near the chalaza and
-therefore at the opposite end to the micropyle, and Treub therefore
-suggests that these plants should be placed in a subdivision termed
-Chalazogams.
-
-According to this view the principal divisions of the Angiosperms would
-be represented thus:--
-
-                =Angiospermæ.=
-
-    Sub-division.             Sub-division.
-    CHALAZOGAMES.             POROGAMES.
-
-      Class.                    Classes.
-    Chalazogames.       Monocotyledones, Dicotyledones.
-
-More recently Nawaschin (_Bull. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersb._, ser.
-iii., xxxv.) has shown that _Betula_, and Miss Benson (_Trans. Linn.
-Soc._, 1894) that _Alnus_, _Corylus_, and _Carpinus_ also belong to the
-Chalazogams.
-
-Our knowledge, however, is still so incomplete that one would hesitate
-to accord the full systematic value which Dr. Treub attaches to his
-discovery until the limits of the Chalazogamic group are better
-defined; and it would hardly be justifiable to include the Casuarinas
-and the above-noted genera in one family.]
-
-
-                      Class 1. =Monocotyledones.=
-
-_The embryo has only one cotyledon; the leaves are as a rule scattered,
-with parallel venation; the vascular bundles of the stem are closed,
-there is no increase of thickness. The flower is typically constructed
-of five 3-merous whorls, placed alternately._
-
-THE EMBRYO is generally small in proportion to the abundant endosperm
-(exceptions, see _Helobieæ_), and its single cotyledon is often
-sheath-like, and very large. On the germination of the seed either the
-entire cotyledon, or its apex only, most generally remains in the seed
-and absorbs the nutritive-tissue, while the lower portion elongates
-and pushes out the plumule and radicle, which then proceed with their
-further growth. The primary root in most cases soon ceases to grow,
-but at the same time, however, numerous lateral roots break out from
-the stem, and become as vigorous as the primary root, or even more so.
-Increase in thickness does not take place in these roots; they branch
-very little or not at all, and generally die after a longer or shorter
-time.
-
-THE STEM is frequently a corm, bulb, or other variety of underground
-stem, as the majority of the Monocotyledons are perennial, herbaceous
-plants; it has scattered, closed vascular bundles (Fig. 276), and no
-cambium by which a continuous thickening may take place. The stem of
-the Palms, however, attains a very considerable thickness, which is due
-to the meristem of its growing-point continually increasing in diameter
-for a lengthened period (often for many years), until it has reached a
-certain size. In this condition the growing-point has the form of an
-inverted cone, and it is only when this cone has attained its requisite
-size that the formation of a vertical cylindrical stem commences.
-Certain tree-like Liliaceæ, as _Dracæna_, _Aloe_, etc., have a
-continuous increase in thickness; this is due to a meristematic layer,
-which arises in the cortex, outside the original vascular bundles,
-which were formed at the growing-point of the stem. This meristem
-continues to form thick-walled parenchyma and new, scattered vascular
-bundles. The primary vascular bundles, in the Palms and others, run
-in a curved line from their entrance into the stem at the base of
-the leaf, towards the centre of the stem, and then bend outwards and
-proceed downwards in a direction more parallel to the sides of the stem
-(Fig. 277). The bundles formed later, in those stems which increase in
-thickness, are not continued into the leaves.
-
-THE BRANCHING as a rule is very slight, the axillary buds of the
-majority of the leaves never attaining development, _e.g._ in the
-Palms, bulbous plants and others. As the cotyledon arises singly,
-the succeeding leaves also must be scattered, but they are frequently
-arranged in two rows (Grasses, Iris, etc). _The first leaf borne on a
-branch_ (the “Fore-leaf,”[24]--the bracteole, if on a floral shoot)
-has generally, in the Monocotyledons, a characteristic form and
-position, being situated on the posterior side of its own shoot, and
-hence turned towards the main axis; it is sometimes provided with two
-laterally-placed keels (Figs. 279 _f_, 290 _øi_), but the midrib is
-often absent. It arises in some cases from two primordia, which at the
-beginning are quite distinct, and thus has been regarded as formed by
-two leaves. It is, however, only one leaf, a fact which is evident from
-several circumstances, one being that it never supports more than one
-shoot, and this stands in the median plane (Fig. 279).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 276.--Transverse section of the stem of a
-  Palm: _v v_ is the wood portion, _b b_ the bast portion of
-  the vascular bundled.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 277.--Diagrammatic representation of the
-  course of the vascular bundles, from the stem into the leaves in
-  a Monocotyledon.]
-
-THE LEAVES are _amplexicaul_, and have a large sheath but no stipules;
-the blade is most frequently long, ligulate, or linear, entire, with
-parallel venation, the veins being straight or curved (Figs. 300, 309).
-Connecting the large number of veins which run longitudinally, there
-are as a rule only weak transverse ones. It is very rarely that other
-forms of leaves are found, such as cordate (Figs. 302, 312), or that
-the blade is branched, or the venation is, for example, pinnate or
-palmate (Figs. 225, 298); these deviations are especially found in the
-Araceæ, the Palms, the Scitamineæ (Fig. 308), the Dioscoreaceæ, and in
-several aquatic plants. The incisions in the Palm-leaf are derived by
-the splitting of an originally entire leaf.
-
-THE STRUCTURE OF THE FLOWER is generally as follows: Pr3 + 3, A3 + 3,
-G3, rarely S3 + P3 with the other members unchanged.[25] Instead of 3,
-the numbers 2 and 4 may occur; rarely others. In all these instances
-there are 5 whorls, which regularly alternate with one another, most
-frequently in the 3-merous flower, as in the diagram (Fig. 278). This
-diagram is found in the following orders: Liliaceæ, Convallariaceæ,
-Juncaceæ, Bromeliaceæ, Amaryllidaceæ, Dioscoreaceæ, Palmæ, some
-Araceæ, and in some small orders, and may be considered as the typical
-structure and also the starting point for the exceptional orders. The
-ovary in many Monocotyledons has many ovules, and the fruit becomes
-a many-seeded berry or capsule; this form is no doubt the oldest. In
-others the number of seeds becomes reduced to 1, and the fruit then
-becomes a cypsela, or a drupe (_e.g. Gramineæ_, _Cyperaceæ_, _Palmæ_,
-etc).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 278.--Diagram of the ordinary, regular flower
-  in the Monocotyledons: _s_ is the bract.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 279.--Diagram of _Iris_: _f_ the bracteole;
-  in its axil is a shoot with its bracteole.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 280.--Diagram of _Orchis_: _l_ the lip; σ σ
-  the two staminodes.]
-
-Deviations from this typical floral structure in some instances may
-be traced to _suppression_, very rarely to a _splitting_ of certain
-members, the typical relative positions not being changed. Thus,
-the Iridaceæ, the Cyperaceæ, most of the Gramineæ and some Juncaceæ
-deviate in having only 3 stamens (Fig. 279), the inner whorl (indicated
-by *) not becoming developed. The Musaceæ differ in the posterior
-stamen not being developed; _Zingiberaceæ_ (Fig. 314), _Marantaceæ_,
-and _Cannaceæ_, in the fact that only 1 of all the stamens bears an
-anther, and the others are either suppressed or developed into petaloid
-staminodes, with some perhaps cleft in addition. The Orchideæ deviate
-in having, generally, only the anterior stamen of all the 6 developed
-(Fig. 280). In this, as in other instances, the suppression of certain
-parts of the flower is often connected with _zygomorphy_ (_i.e._
-symmetry in _one_ plane), chiefly in the inner perianth-whorl, but also
-in the other whorls. In the Orchids, the perianth-leaf (the labellum,
-Fig. 280 _l_) which is directly opposite the fertile stamen, is larger
-and altogether different from the others. The perianth-leaves may also
-be suppressed; see, for example, the two diagrams of the Cyperaceæ
-(Fig. 284). In some orders the suppression of these leaves, which form
-the basis of the diagram, is so complete that it is hard to reduce the
-actual structure of the flower to the theoretical type, _e.g._ the
-Grasses (Fig. 290) and _Lemna_ (Fig. 303). In the first family, which
-especially comprises water-plants, a somewhat different structure is
-found; thus Fig. 282 differs somewhat from the ordinary type, and other
-flowers much more so; but the floral diagrams which occur in this
-family may perhaps be considered as the most probable representatives
-of an older type, from which the ordinary pentacyclic forms have taken
-their origin. In favour of this theory we have the larger number of
-whorls, the spiral arrangement of some of these in the flower, with
-a large and indefinite number of stamens and carpels, the perfectly
-apocarpous gynœceum which sometimes occurs, etc., etc.
-
-   The Monocotyledons are divided into 7 Families:--
-
-   1. HELOBIEÆ. This family forms a group complete in itself. It
-   commences with hypogynous, perfect flowers, whose gynœcium is
-   apocarpous and terminates in epigynous and more or less reduced
-   forms.
-
-   2. GLUMIFLORÆ. These have as a starting point the same diagram
-   as the following families, but otherwise develope independently.
-
-   3. SPADICIFLORÆ. Also an independent branch, or perhaps two
-   different ones which terminate in much reduced forms.
-
-   4. ENANTIOBLASTÆ. These ought perhaps to be amalgamated with the
-   following family.
-
-   5. LILIIFLORÆ. These advance from forms with the typical diagram
-   and hypogynous flower, to epigynous and reduced forms.
-
-   6. SCITAMINEÆ and
-
-   7. GYNANDRÆ. Two isolated families, which probably have taken
-   their origin from Liliifloræ, and have epigynous, mostly
-   zygomorphic, and much reduced forms.
-
-
-                         Family 1. =Helobieæ.=
-
-To this family belong _only water- or marsh-plants_; _the endosperm is
-wanting_, and they possess an embryo with a very _large hypocotyl_
-prolonged downwards and often club-like. The perianth is often
-differentiated into calyx and corolla; the flower is regular, and in
-the first orders to be considered, may be reduced to the ordinary
-Monocotyledonous type; there are, however, _usually found two_
-3-_merous whorls of carpels_ (Fig. 282), and thus in all 6 whorls, or
-again, the _number of carpels may be indefinite_; the number of stamens
-also may be increased, either by the division of the members of a
-whorl, or by the development of additional whorls. _Syncarps_,[26] with
-nut or follicular fruitlets, are _very common_, for example, in the
-first orders; in the last (Hydrocharitaceæ) the carpels are not only
-united, but the ovary is even inferior.
-
-   The primitive type appears to be a hypogynous flower, similar
-   to that of the Juncaginaceæ or Alismaceæ, with several 3-merous
-   whorls, and free carpels, each with many ovules; the green
-   perianth in this instance being no doubt older than the coloured
-   ones. If we take a flower with this structure as the starting
-   point, then the family developes partly into epigynous forms,
-   partly into others which are so strongly reduced and exceptional
-   that it is scarcely possible to refer them to the ordinary
-   type. The family, through the peculiar _Zostereæ_, appears to
-   approach the Araceæ, in which _Potamogetonaceæ_ and _Najadaceæ_
-   are included by some authorities. However, the inclusion of
-   _Potamogeton_, and with it _Ruppia_ and _Zannichellia_, in the
-   Juncaginaceæ appears quite correct. It would scarcely be right
-   to separate _Zostereæ_ from these. Great stress has often been
-   laid upon the similarity with the Ranunculaceæ which is found
-   in the Alismaceæ, but it is scarcely more than an analogous
-   resemblance.
-
-Order 1. =Juncaginaceæ.= The ☿, regular, _hypogynous_ flowers have
-the _perianth_ 3 + 3, _sepaloid_, stamens 3 + 3 (with extrorse
-anthers), and carpels 3 + 3 (free or united), of which last, however,
-one whorl may be suppressed (in _Triglochin maritima_ all 6 carpels
-are developed, in _T. palustris_ the inner whorl is unfertile).
-Inflorescence long spikes. Embryo _straight_.--Marsh-plants with
-radical, rush-like leaves, arranged in two rows, and often sheathing
-and ligulate (“squamulæ intravaginales”); the inflorescence is a spike
-or raceme.--_Scheuchzeria._ Carpels almost free; in each at least two
-ovules. Follicles.--_Triglochin_ has long, fine racemes without bracts
-or bracteoles; one ovule in each carpel. The carpels in the two native
-species are united, but separate when ripe as a schizocarp, loosening
-from below; they open along the ventral suture or remain closed; a
-linear central column remains. ~The most reduced is Lilæa (1–2 sp.
-Am.)--Protogynous. About 10 species. Temp. Fossils in Tertiary.~
-
-Order 2. =Potamogetonaceæ.= The aquatic plants belonging to this order
-are perennial, living entirely submerged, or with floating leaves, and
-preferring still water. The leaves are alternate, in some linear and
-grass-like, in others there is an elliptical floating blade, supported
-by a linear submerged petiole. Axillary scales. The fruit is generally
-a syncarp with _nuts_ or _drupes_; the _embryo is curved_, of very
-various forms.
-
-_Potamogeton_ (Pond-weed). The rhizome is creeping, sympodial (with two
-internodes in each shoot-generation); the inflorescence is a terminal,
-many-flowered spike, without floral-leaves; below it are found 2
-foliage-leaves placed nearly at the same height, from whose axils
-the branching is continued cymosely. The flowers are ☿, 4-_merous_,
-naked, and consist only of 4 _stamens_, with the _connectives, broadly
-developed_ at the back of the anthers, _resembling a perianth_,
-and of 4 _free, sessile carpels_. They are common plants in fresh
-water. ~The spike, during the flowering, is raised above the water.
-Wind-pollinated and protogynous.--Closely allied is _Ruppia_ (Tassel
-Pond-weed), in salt or brackish water. The spike has only two naked
-flowers, each consisting of 2 stamens and 4 carpels. The stalks of the
-individual carpels are considerably prolonged.--_Zannichellia_ (Horned
-Pond-weed) is monœcious; the ♀-flower consists of 4 (2–9) carpels, with
-membranous, bell-shaped perianth; long styles; the ♂-flower has 1 (-2)
-stamens. _Althenia._~
-
-_Zostera_ (Grass-wrack) is an entirely submerged, marine plant
-with creeping rhizome (with displacement of buds) and strap-shaped
-leaves. The flowering shoots are sympodia with displacement of the
-axes (Fig. 281). The inflorescence is a peculiar, flatly-compressed
-spike, on _one_ side of which the flowers are borne (Fig. 281). ~This
-inflorescence may be considered, no doubt correctly, to be derived
-from the symmetrical spike of _Potamogeton_ by strongly dorsiventral
-development, and by a strong suppression of the floral parts taking
-place simultaneously. Two rows of flowers are developed, but of these
-one is so pressed into the other that apparently only one is present.~
-Each flower consists of only 1 stamen and 1 carpel situated at the same
-height (Fig. 281); the unilocular ovary encloses 1 pendulous ovule
-and bears a bifid style. As regards the perianth (?) one leaf may be
-present (_Z. nana_, Fig. 281 _D_). The pollen-grains are filamentous.
-Pollination takes place under water. ~_Posidonia_ and _Cymodocea_ are
-allied to these. About 70 species.~
-
-   [Illustration: FIG. 281.--_Zostera._ A Diagram of the
-  branching of the floral shoots: _I_, _II_ ... are the successive
-  shoot-generations, every other one being shaded; _g_{1}_
-  _g_{2}_ ... fore-leaves; _sp_{1} sp_{2}_ ... spathes for the
-  successive spikes. Each shoot is united for some distance with
-  the parent axis (indicated by the half-shaded internodes). Each
-  shoot commences with a fore-leaf turning towards the parent
-  axis, _g_; succeeding this is the spathe, _sp_; and then the
-  inflorescence. The fore-leaf supports a new lateral shoot.
-  _B_ Diagram of a shoot, _II_, which is borne laterally in the
-  axil of the fore-leaf _g_{1}_, on the shoot _I_, _g_{2}_ its
-  fore-leaf; _sp_{2}_ its spathe; _sti_ squamulæ intravaginales.
-  _II_ Is the spadix with stamens and carpels; _b_ a perianth-leaf
-  (or connective expansion, similar to those which occur in
-  _Potamogeton_). _C_ The upper portion of a young spadix with
-  development of flowers. _D_ Part of a spadix with 2 flowers; the
-  parts which theoretically belong to one another are connected by
-  a dotted line.]
-
-Order 3. =Aponogetonaceæ.= Aquatic plants with tuberous stem. They
-have a single, petaloid perianth (3–2–1–leaved), most frequently 6
-stamens and 3(-6) carpels. Straight embryo.--About 15 species (Africa,
-Madagascar, Tropical Asia and Australia).--_Aponogeton distachyos_ and
-_A._ (_Ouvirandra_) _fenestralis_ are grown in conservatories; the
-latter has lattice-like, perforated leaves.
-
-Order 4. =Najadaceæ.= Only one genus _Najas_ (about 10 species);
-annual fresh water plants with leaves in pairs and solitary, unisexual
-flowers. The ♂ flower is remarkable in having a terminal stamen, which
-has either 4 longitudinal loculi or 1 central one; on this account the
-stamen of _Najas_ is considered by some authorities to be a stem and
-not a leaf-structure. The unilocular gynœceum and the single, erect,
-anatropous ovule are also terminal. Pollination takes place under the
-water.
-
-Order 5. =Alismaceæ.= The regular, _hypogynous_ flowers are in some
-species unisexual by the suppression of either andrœcium or gynœceum;
-they have a 6-merous perianth, _generally_ differentiated into 3
-sepals and 3 petals; generally 6 _stamens in the outer whorl_ (by the
-division of the 3; Fig. 282) and often several 3-merous whorls inside
-these, and 6–∞ _free_ carpels arranged cyclically or spirally. Fruit a
-syncarp.--Marsh- or water-plants with radical leaves and long-stalked
-inflorescences.
-
-=A.= _Butomeæ. Follicles with many seeds, which are borne on
-nearly the whole of the inner surface of the cyclic carpels_ (as in
-Nymphæaceæ). Embryo _straight_.--_Butomus_ (Flowering Rush, Fig.
-282), has an umbel (generally composed of 3 helicoid cymes). _S_
-3, _P_ 3, stamens 9 (6 + 3, _i.e._ the outer whorl doubled), _G_ 3
-+ 3. ~_B. umbellatus_; creeping rhizome with triangular Iris-like
-leaves.--_Hydrocleis. Limnocharis._~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 282.--Diagram of _Butomus_: _f_ bracteole.]
-
-=B.= _Alismeæ._ Fruit achenes. Latex common (in the intercellular
-spaces). The flowers are arranged most frequently in single or
-compound whorls. Embryo _curved_, horse-shoe shaped.--_Alisma_ has
-_S_ 3, _P_ 3, _A_ 6 (in 1 whorl, grouped in pairs, _i.e._ doubled in
-front of the sepals), and 1 _whorl_ of 1-seeded achenes on a flat
-receptacle. The leaves are most frequently radicle, long-stalked;
-the lamina have curved longitudinal veins, and a richly branched
-venation. _A. plantago._--_Elisma_ (_E. natans_) has epitropous
-(turned inwards) ovules, whilst the ovules of _Alisma_, _Sagittaria_
-and others are apotropous (turned outwards).--_Echinodorus_ (_E.
-ranunculoides_) has a convex receptacle, carpels many, united and
-capitate. _Damasonium_.--_Sagittaria_ (Arrow-head) has _monœcious_
-flowers, several whorls of stamens and _spirally-arranged achenes_ on
-a very convex receptacle. ~_S. sagittifolia_ reproduces by tuberous
-buds formed at the end of long, submerged branches. The leaves, in deep
-and rapidly running water, are long and strap-shaped, but in the air
-arrow-shaped.~
-
-   Honey is secreted in the flower and pollination effected
-   by insects. _Alisma plantago_ has 12 nectaries. The
-   submerged flowers of _Elisma natans_ remain closed and are
-   self-pollinated. _Butomus_ has protandrous flowers. There are
-   about 50 species, which mostly grow outside the Tropics.--Uses
-   insignificant. The rhizome of some is farinaceous.
-
-Order 6. =Hydrocharitaceæ.= This order differs chiefly from the
-preceding in its _epigynous_ flowers. These are in general unisexual
-(_diœcious_), and surrounded by a 2-leaved or bipartite _spathe_; they
-are 3-merous in all whorls, but the number of whorls is generally
-greater than 5, sometimes even indefinite. The perianth is divided
-into _calyx_ and _corolla_. The ovary is _unilocular_ with parietal
-placentation, or more or less incompletely plurilocular. The fruit
-is berry-like, but usually ruptures irregularly when ripe. Embryo
-straight.--Most often submerged water-plants, leaves seldom floating on
-the surface. Axillary scales (_squamulæ intravaginales_).
-
-_Hydrocharis._ Floating water-plants with round cordate leaves; S3, P3
-(folded in the bud); ♂-flowers: 3 (-more) flowers inside each spathe;
-stamens 9–15, the most internal sterile. ♀-flowers solitary; three
-staminodes; ovary 6-locular, with many ovules attached to the septa;
-styles 6, short, bifid. [The petals of the ♀-flowers bear nectaries at
-the base. In this and the following genus the pollination is without
-doubt effected by insects.] ~_H. morsus ranæ_ (Frog-bit) has runners;
-it hibernates by means of special winter-buds.~--_Stratiotes_; floating
-plants with a rosette of linear, thick, stiff leaves with spiny margin,
-springing from a short stem, from which numerous roots descend into
-the mud. Inflorescence, perianth, and ovary nearly the same as in
-_Hydrocharis_, but the ♂-flower has 12 stamens in 3 whorls, of which
-the outer 6 are in 1 whorl (dédoublement), and inside the perianth in
-both flowers there are numerous (15–30) nectaries (staminodes?). _S.
-aloides_ (Water-soldier); in N. Eur. only ♀-plants.--~_Vallisneria
-spiralis_ is a tropical or sub-tropical plant, growing gregariously
-on the mud in fresh water. The leaves are grass-like, and the plants
-diœcious; the ♂-flowers are detached from the plant, and rise to
-the surface of the water, where they pollinate the ♀-flowers. These
-are borne on long, spirally-twisted peduncles which contract after
-pollination, so that the ♀-flower is again drawn under the water,
-and the fruits ripen deeply submerged.--_Elodea canadensis_ is also
-an entirely submerged plant. The leaves are arranged in whorls on a
-well-developed stem. Only ♀-plants in Europe (introduced about 1836
-from N. Am). This plant spreads with great rapidity throughout the
-country, the reproduction being entirely vegetative. _Hydrilla_,
-_Halophila_, _Thalassia_, _Enhalus_.--In many of these genera the
-number of whorls in the flower is remarkably reduced; for example, in
-_Vallisneria_, in the ♂-flowers to 2: Pr 3, A (1-) 3, in the ♀ to 3: Pr
-3, Staminodes 3, G 3.--About 40 species; Temp. and Trop.~
-
-
-                        Family 2. =Glumifloræ.=
-
-The _hypogynous_ flowers in the Juncaceæ are completely developed on
-the _pentacyclic, trimerous_ type, with _dry, scarious perianth_.
-Even in these the interior whorl of stamens becomes suppressed, and
-the ovary, which in _Juncus_ is trilocular with many ovules, becomes
-in _Luzula_ almost unilocular, but still with 3 ovules. The perianth
-in the Cyperaceæ and Gramineæ is reduced from hairs, in the first of
-these, to nothing, the flowers at the same time collecting more closely
-on the inflorescence (spike) supported by _dry_ bracts (_chaff_); the
-number of stamens is almost constantly 3; stigmas linear; the ovary
-has only 1 loculus with 1 ovule, and the fruit, which is a capsule in
-the Juncaceæ, becomes a nut or caryopsis.--The endosperm is large and
-floury, the embryo being placed at its lower extremity (Figs. 286 _B_,
-291).--The plants belonging to this order, with the exception of a few
-tropical species, are annual or perennial herbs. The stems above ground
-are thin, and for the most part have long internodes, with linear,
-parallel-veined leaves which have long _sheaths_, and often a _ligule_,
-_i.e._ a membranous projection, arising transversely from the leaf at
-the junction of the sheath and blade. The underground stems are short
-or creeping rhizomes. The flowers are small and insignificant. Wind- or
-self-pollination.
-
-Order 1. =Juncaceæ= (=Rushes=). The regular, hermaphrodite, hypogynous
-flowers have 3 + 3 brown, dry, free perianth-leaves projecting like
-a star during the opening of the flower; stamens 3 + 3 (seldom 3 +
-0) and 3 carpels united into one gynœceum (Fig. 283); the ovary is
-3- or 1-locular; there is as a rule 1 style, which becomes divided
-at the summit into 3 stigmas, often bearing branches twisted to the
-right (Fig. 283). _Fruit a capsule_ with loculicidal dehiscence. The
-embryo is an extremely small, ellipsoidal, cellular mass, without
-differentiation into the external organs.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 283.--Flower of _Luzula_.]
-
-_Juncus_ (Rush) has glabrous foliage-leaves, generally cylindrical,
-rarely flat; the edges of the leaf-sheath are free (“_open_”
-leaf-sheaths) and cover one another. The capsule, 1- or 3-locular, with
-_many_ seeds--_Luzula_ (Wood-Rush) has flat, grass-like leaves with
-ciliated edges; the edges of the leaf-sheath are united (“_closed_”
-leaf-sheath). The capsule unilocular and _3-seeded_.--_Prionium_: S.
-Africa; resembling a _Tacona_.
-
-   The _interior_ whorl of stamens, in some species, disappears
-   partially or entirely (_J. supinus_, _capitatus_,
-   _conglomerates_, etc.)
-
-   Some of the numerous _Juncus_-species (_e.g. J. effusus_,
-   _glaucus_, _conglomeratus_, etc.), have false, lateral
-   inflorescences, the axis of the inflorescence being pushed
-   to one side by its subtending leaf, which apparently forms
-   a direct continuation of the stem, and resembles it both
-   in external and internal structure. The foliage-leaves of
-   this genus were formerly described as “unfertile stems,”
-   because they are cylindrical, erect, and resemble stems, and
-   consequently the stem was said to be “leafless”: _J. effusus_,
-   _glaucus_, _conglomeratus_. Stellate parenchynatous cells are
-   found in the pith of these stems and in the leaves. Other
-   species have distinct terminal inflorescences and grooved
-   leaves; _J. bufonius_ (Toad-rush), _compressus_, and others.
-   The _inflorescences_ most often present the peculiarity of
-   having the lateral axes protruding above the main axis.
-   Their composition is as follows:--The flowers have either no
-   bracteoles, and the inflorescences are then capitulate; or
-   they have 1–several bracteoles. Each branch has then, first,
-   a 2-keeled fore-leaf placed posteriorly (“basal-leaf”), and
-   succeeding this are generally several leaves borne alternately
-   and in the same plane as the basal-leaf, the two uppermost
-   (the “spathe-leaves”) being always barren; those which lie
-   between the basal-leaves and the spathe-leaves are termed
-   “intermediate-leaves.” If only branches occur in the axils
-   of the basal-leaves, then the succeeding branches are always
-   borne on the posterior side of the axis, and form a fan[27];
-   if the basal-leaf is barren, and if there is only one fertile
-   intermediate-leaf, then the lateral axes are always on the upper
-   side, and a sickle[27]-like inflorescence occurs; if there are 2
-   fertile intermediate-leaves, then a dichasium is formed, and in
-   the case of there being several, then a raceme, or spike.
-
-   _Juncaceæ_ are, by several authors, classed among the
-   Liliifloræ, but there are so many morphological and partly
-   anatomical features agreeing with the two following orders, that
-   they may, no doubt, most properly be regarded as the starting
-   point of these, especially of the _Cyperaceæ_, which they
-   resemble in the type of flowers, the inflorescence, the type of
-   mechanical system, and the stomata.
-
-   POLLINATION by means of the wind. Cross-pollination is
-   often established by protogyny. _J. bufonius_ has partly
-   triandrous and cleistogamic, partly hexandrous, open
-   flowers.--DISTRIBUTION. The 200 species are spread over the
-   entire globe, but especially in cold and temperate countries;
-   they are seldom found in the Tropics.--USES. Very slight;
-   plaiting, for instance.
-
-Order 2. =Cyperaceæ.= The majority are _perennial_ (seldom annual)
-_herbs_ living in damp situations, with a sympodial rhizome and
-grass-like appearance. The stems are seldom hollow, or have swollen
-nodes, but generally _triangular_, with the upper internode just below
-the inflorescence generally very long. The leaves are often arranged
-in 3 _rows_, the leaf-sheath is _closed_ (very seldom split), and the
-ligule is absent or insignificant. The flowers are arranged in _spikes_
-(_spikelets_) which may be united into other forms of inflorescences
-(chiefly spikes or racemes). The flowers are supported by a bract,
-but have _no bracteoles_. In some genera the perianth is distinctly
-represented by six bristles corresponding to six leaves (Figs. 284
-_A_, 286 _A_); in others it is represented by an indefinite number of
-hairs (Fig. 284 _B_), and very frequently it is altogether wanting.
-_The inner whorl of stamens is absent_, and the flower has therefore
-3 stamens (rarely more or less than 3), the anthers _are attached by
-their bases to the filament_ (innate) and are not bifid (Figs. 286).
-Gynœceum simple, formed of 3 or 2 carpels; 1 style, which is divided
-at the extremity, as in the Juncaceæ, into 3 or 2 arms; the single
-loculus of the ovary contains one basal, erect, anatropous ovule; the
-stigmas are not feather-like. _Fruit a nut_, whose seed is generally
-not united with the pericarp. The embryo is small, and lies at the
-_base of the seed in the central line_, surrounded on the inner side by
-the endosperm (Fig. 286 _B_). On germination the cotyledon _does not
-remain_ in the seed.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 284.--Diagram of structure of: _A Scirpus
-  silvaticus_; _B Eriophorum angustifolium_.]
-
-   A regular perianth, with 6 scale-like perianth-leaves in 2
-   whorls, is found in _Oreobolus_. In _Scirpus littoralis_ the
-   perianth-leaves are spreading at the apex, and divided pinnately.
-
-   The branching of the inflorescence is often the same as in the
-   Juncaceæ, and supports the theory that these two orders are
-   related. In _Rhynchospora_ and others, the “spikelets” are
-   really only “spike-like” and to some extent compound.
-
-=A.= SCIRPEÆ. HERMAPHRODITE FLOWERS.
-
-1. Spikelets cylindrical, the bracts arranged spirally (in many
-rows). The lower ones are often barren, each of the others supports
-a flower.--_Scirpus_ (Club-rush). The spikelets are many-flowered;
-the perianth is bristle-like or absent, and does not continue to grow
-during the ripening of the fruit (Fig. 286 _A_). Closely allied to this
-is _Heleocharis_, with terminal spikes.--_Eriophorum_ (Cotton-grass)
-differs chiefly in having the perianth-hairs prolonged, and forming a
-bunch of white, woolly hairs (Fig. 284 _B_).
-
-   _Cladium_ and _Rhynchospora_ (Beak-rush) differs especially in
-   the _few_-flowered, compound spikelets which are collected into
-   small bunches; the latter has received its name from the fact
-   that the lowermost portion of the style remains attached to the
-   fruit as a beak.
-
-2. Spikelets compressed, the bracts arranged only in _two rows_; the
-other characters as in the first-mentioned. _Cyperus_ (spikelets
-many-flowered); _Schœnus_ (Bog-rush); spikelets few-flowered; _S.
-nigricans_ has an open sheath.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 285.--_Carex_: _A_ diagram of a male flower;
-  _B_ of a female flower with 3 stigmas; _C_ of a female flower
-  with 2 stigmas; _D_ diagrammatic figure of a female flower; _E_
-  similar one of the androgynous (false) spikelet of _Elyna_. The ♂
-  is here represented placed laterally; it is terminal, according
-  to Pax.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 286.--_A_ Flower of _Scirpus lacustris_. _B_
-  Seed of _Carex_ in longitudinal section.]
-
-=B.= CARICEÆ. UNISEXUAL FLOWERS.
-
-In the ♂-flowers there is no trace of a carpel, and in the ♀ no trace
-of a stamen. Floral-leaves in many rows. In some (_Scleria_, certain
-_Carex_-species), ♂-and ♀-flowers are borne in the same spikelet, the
-latter at the base or the reverse; in the majority each spikelet is
-unisexual.
-
-_Carex_ (Fig. 285) has _naked_, most frequently monœcious flowers.
-The ♂-_spikes_, which are generally placed at the summit of the whole
-compound inflorescence, are _not compound_; in the axil of each
-floral-leaf (bract) _a flower is borne, consisting only_ of a short
-axis with three stamens (Fig. 285 _A_). The ♀-_spikes are compound_;
-in the axil of each floral-leaf is borne a very small branch (Fig. 285
-_D_, _a_) which _bears only one leaf_, namely, a _2-keeled fore-leaf_
-(_utriculus_, _utr._ in the figures) which is turned posteriorly (as
-the fore-leaves of the other Monocotyledons), and being obliquely
-sheath-like, envelopes the branch (in the same manner as the sheath
-of the vegetative leaves), and forms a pitcher-like body. In the axil
-of _this_ leaf the ♀-flower is situated as a branch of the 3rd order,
-bearing only the 2–3 carpels, which are united into one gynœceum.
-The style protrudes through the mouth of the utriculus. ~The axis
-of the 2nd order (_a_ in Fig. 285 _D_) may sometimes elongate as a
-bristle-like projection (normally in _Uncinia_, in which it ends as a
-hook, hence the name); this projection is in most cases barren, but it
-sometimes bears 1–several bracts which support male-flowers; this is
-normal in _Elyna_ (or _Kobresia_) and _Schœnoxiphium_; the axis (_a_ in
-285 _E_) bears at its base a female-flower supported by the utriculus,
-and above it a male-flower supported by its bract.~
-
-   POLLINATION by means of the wind. Protogynous. Sometimes
-   self-pollinated. The order embraces nearly 3,000 species, found
-   all over the world. _Carex_ and _Scirpus_ are most numerous in
-   cold and temperate climates, and become less numerous towards
-   the equator. The reverse is the case with _Cyperus_ and other
-   tropical genera. They generally confine themselves to sour,
-   swampy districts; some, on the other hand, are characteristic
-   of sand-dunes, such as Sand-star (_Carex arenaria_). There are
-   about 70 native species of _Carex_.
-
-   USES. In spite of their large number, the Cyperaceæ are of
-   no importance as fodder-grasses, as they are dry and contain
-   a large amount of silica; hence the edges of many of the
-   triangular stems or leaves are exceedingly sharp and cutting.
-   _Cyperus esculentus_ has tuberous rhizomes, which contain a
-   large amount of fatty oil and are edible (earth-almonds); it
-   has its home in the countries of the Mediterranean, where it is
-   cultivated.
-
-   _Cyperus papyrus_ (W. Asia, Egypt, Sicily) attains a height of
-   several metres, and has stems of the thickness of an arm which
-   were used by the ancient Egyptians for making paper (papyrus).
-   Some serve for plaiting, mats, etc. (_Scirpus lacustris_, etc.).
-   _Isolepis_ is an ornamental plant.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 287.--_Triticum_: _A_ axis (rachis) of ear
-  showing the notches where the spikelets were inserted; _B_ an
-  entire spikelet; _C_ a flower with the pales; _D_ a flower
-  without the pales, showing the lodicules at the base; _E_ glume;
-  _F_ outer pale; _G_ inner pale; _H_ fruit; _I_ longitudinal
-  section of fruit.]
-
-Order 3. =Gramineæ= (=Grasses=). The stems are cylindrical, generally
-_hollow_ with _swollen nodes_, that is, a swelling is found at the base
-of each leaf which apparently belongs to the stem, but in reality it
-is the swollen base of the leaf. The leaves are _exactly alternate_;
-the sheath is _split_ (excep. _Bromus_-species, _Poa pratensis_, _P.
-trivialis_, _Melica_, _Dactylis_, etc., in which the sheath is not
-split), and the edges overlap alternately, the right over the left,
-and _vice versâ_; the _ligule_ is nearly always well developed. In
-general, the flowers are hermaphrodite; they are borne in _spikelets_
-with _alternate floral-leaves_, and the spikelets themselves are
-borne in either _spikes_ or _panicles_. The two (seldom more) _lowest
-floral-leaves_ in each spikelet (Fig. 289 _øY_, _nY_) are _barren_ (as
-the covering-leaves in many umbels and capitula); these are termed
-the _glumes_. The succeeding floral-leaves, each of which supports
-one flower as its bract, are called the _outer pales_ (_nI_); these
-sometimes each bear an “awn” (a bristle-like body which projects in
-the median line either from the apex or the back); sometimes the
-upper ones are barren. Each flower has a _bracteole_, which is placed
-on the inside opposite the main axis; it is thin, _binerved_ or
-_two-keeled_, and never has an awn; it is known as the _inner pale_
-(_øI_). Immediately succeeding the bracteole are: (_a_) some _small,
-delicate scales_ (_lodicules_, Figs. 287 _D_, 288 _C_, 290 _L_); (_b_)
-_three stamens_ with anthers _versatile_, so as to be easily moved,
-and usually notched at each end (Fig. 287 _C_); and (_c_) a simple
-gynœceum formed of _one carpel_ with _two styles_ having generally
-_spirally-branched stigmas_ (Figs. 287 _D_, 288 _C_). The ovary is
-_unilocular_, and contains one ascending or pendulous, anatropous
-ovule. _Fruit a nut_, whose seed is always _firmly united with the thin
-pericarp_ (“caryopsis”). The embryo is larger than in the Cyperaceæ and
-is placed at the base of the seed, but on the _outer convex surface_
-of the pericarp (Figs. 287 _I_, 288 288 _D_, 291), _outside the
-endosperm_; plumule large with several leaf-primordia. On germination
-the cotyledon remains in the seed.
-
-The majority of Grasses are annual or perennial herbs; tree-like forms
-being only found in the Tropics, for example, the Bamboos; they branch
-(in tufts), especially from the axils of the basal-leaves, while those
-which are borne higher on the stem are separated by longer internodes
-and have no vegetative branches in their axils, though a few forms,
-like _Bambusa_ and _Calamagrostis lanceolata_, produce branches in
-these axils.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 288.--_Bromus mollis_: _A_ inflorescence; _B_
-  the uppermost flower of a spikelet, with its axis turned forward;
-  in front is seen the two-keeled inner pale (bracteole) and the
-  stamens protrude between this and the outer pale (bract); _C_ an
-  ovary with the 2 stigmas on its anterior side, the 2 lodicules,
-  and the 3 stamens; _D_ the fruit seen from the dorsal side; _E_
-  the same from the ventral side.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 289.--Diagrammatic outline of a spikelet: _n
-  Y_ lower glume; _ø Y_ upper glume; _n I_ upper pale; _ø I_ the
-  inner pale; _l_-_l_ lodicules; _st_ stamens; _I_-_I_ main axes;
-  _II_ lateral axes.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 290.--Diagram of the Grass-flower: _ni_ outer
-  pale; _øi_ inner pale; _l_-_l_ lodicules.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 291.--Longitudinal section of an Oat-grain:
-  _a_ the skin (pericarp and testa); _b_ the endosperm; _c_ the
-  cotyledon; _d_ the plumule.]
-
-   Only a few Grasses have a _solid stem_, such as Maize,
-   Sugar-cane, and _Andropogon_. The _blade_ is flat in the
-   meadow-grasses, but the Grasses which live on dry places
-   (“prairie-grass”) exposed to the sun, often have the blade
-   tightly rolled up and almost filiform or bristle-like, with
-   anomalous anatomical structure. A _closed_ tubular _sheath_ is
-   found in _Melica uniflora_, _Bromus_-species, _Poa pratensis_
-   and _trivialis_, _Briza_ and some _Glyceria_-species. The
-   sheath is developed for the purpose of supporting the young
-   internodes while their growth is proceeding at the base. The
-   “nodes” (the swollen joints which are seen on stems of Grasses)
-   are not really part of the stem but are formed by the base of
-   the leaf-sheath. They play a part in assisting the haulms
-   to regain a vertical position when laid prostrate by wind
-   or rain. The _awn_ on the pale is homologous with the blade
-   of the Grass-leaf, and the pale itself is the sheath. The
-   arrangement of the leaves in the _spikelet_ is similar to that
-   in _Cyperus_ and other Cyperaceæ, their floral-leaves being
-   borne in several rows in _Streptochæta_. More than two barren
-   “glumes” are found in _Streptochæta_, several Phalarideæ and
-   others. The spikelets, too, are again arranged in two rows in
-   the axils of suppressed floral-leaves. The inflorescence becomes
-   a “compound spike” (ear) when the spikelets are sessile. In the
-   majority of instances the spikelets are borne on long stalks;
-   when these branch, then the secondary branches, and similarly
-   all branches of higher order, are placed so far down upon the
-   mother-axis that they all appear to be of equal value and to
-   arise in a semicircle from the mother-axis itself, though in
-   reality they arise from each other (_Panicle_, Fig. 288 _A_).
-   Sometimes the main axis and branches of different orders unite
-   together as in _Alopecurus_, _Phleum_, and some other Grasses,
-   and hence the single (short-stalked) spikelets appear to arise
-   singly and spirally, or without any definite order, directly
-   from the main axis, with the production of a _cylindrical_
-   inflorescence bearing “spikes” _on all sides_, that is, a
-   “_spike-like panicle_.”--Many inflorescences are somewhat
-   dorsiventral. The _flower_ is rarely unisexual (_Zea mais_) or
-   barren. Considerable difficulty is experienced in reducing the
-   Grass-flower to the ordinary 3-merous Monocotyledonous type.
-   Some authorities consider the _lodicules_, which are present
-   in all Grasses but absent in the Cyperaceæ, to be homologous
-   with a perianth. According to a more recent theory they are
-   bracteoles, and hence the Gramineæ, like many of the Juncaceæ,
-   have 2–3 bracteoles placed in two rows in the median plane. If
-   this theory be correct, the _flower is naked_. The lodicules
-   expand quickly and cause the opening of the flower (_i.e._ the
-   two pales become separated from each other). Generally only 3
-   _stamens_ belonging to the outer whorl are present (Fig. 290),
-   as in _Iris_ (Fig. 279), certain Juncaceæ and Cyperaceæ (Fig.
-   284), but in some, such as the Rice and certain species of
-   Bamboos, all 6 are found. _Pariana_ has more than 6. Only 1 of
-   the _carpels_ is present, namely, the anterior (of those in Fig.
-   284), so that the ventral suture and the place of attachment
-   of the ovule are situated at the back of the ovary. The number
-   of styles does not correspond with the number of carpels, and
-   the styles may therefore be supposed to arise from the edges
-   of the leaf to the right and left--a position which is not
-   without analogy. In addition, a stylar projection is sometimes
-   found on the anterior side and in the median line (_e.g._ in
-   _Phragmites_), and the solitary style in _Nardus_ has exactly
-   this position; a similar arrangement is found in some species of
-   _Bambusa_ which have only one style; other species of _Bambusa_
-   have three styles. A tripartite style is found in _Pharus_.
-
-   [The Grass-flower may be reduced to the ordinary
-   Monocotyledonous type thus:--The outer pale is the bract of the
-   flower since it bears in its axil the floral shoot; the inner
-   pale occupies the customary position of the bracteole. The fact
-   that it is binerved can be explained by its having been pressed
-   against the main-axis during development. Similar binerved
-   bracteoles are found in _Iris_ (Fig. 279). These bracteoles in
-   both Grass and Iris arise from single primordia, and are not
-   produced by the coalescence of two leaves. The lodicules are the
-   only parts of the perianth remaining, the outer whorl having
-   been suppressed, and also the posterior leaf of the inner whorl;
-   a posterior lodicule, however, is found in the Rice and some
-   species of Bamboo. The outer whorl of stamens is usually absent,
-   though this again is present in the Rice and Bamboo. The three
-   carpels are reduced to one with two or sometimes three stigmas.]
-
-   THE FLOWERING. In the panicles the flowers open in basipetal
-   order; the flowers in the spikes situated somewhat above the
-   middle, commence to open first, and the flowering proceeds
-   upwards and downwards. A few Grass-flowers never open
-   (cleistogamic); _Leersia oryzoides_, _Stipa_-species, and _e.g._
-   Wheat and Rye in cold damp weather; some open their pales so
-   wide that the anthers and stigmas may protrude at the top; most
-   frequently the lodicules expand and force the pales suddenly
-   and widely apart. The filaments elongate considerably, so that
-   the anthers are pendulous and the stigmas unfold. In some
-   Grasses _e.g._ Wheat, the blooming of each flower only lasts
-   a short time. POLLINATION is generally effected by the wind.
-   The _Rye_ separates the pales very widely in the morning, and
-   allows the anthers and stigmas to appear; it is almost entirely
-   sterile when self-pollinated. The _Wheat_ flowers at any time
-   of the day, each flower lasting only a quarter of an hour. The
-   pales open suddenly, but only half way, and the anthers scatter
-   one-third of the pollen in their own flower and two-thirds
-   outside. Self-pollination is effectual, but crossing gives
-   better results. In _Hordeum vulgare_ (all flowers ☿) the flowers
-   of the 4 outer rows behave as in the Wheat, but those in the
-   two central rows always remain closed. The ☿-flowers in the
-   two central rows of _H. distichum_ remain closed and fertilise
-   themselves; they open exceptionally, and may be pollinated
-   by the ♂-flowers in the 4 lateral rows. _H. hexastichum_ is
-   cleistogamic. _Oats_ pollinate themselves.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 292.--Barley grain: _A_ section through the
-  skin (_a-d_) and the most external part of the endosperm; _Gl_
-  the “aleurone layer”; _st_ starch-containing cells; _B_ starch
-  grains.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 293.--Wheat-grain germinating: _g_ the
-  plumule; _b_ the first leaf succeeding the cotyledon; _r^1_ the
-  primary root; _r^2_ lateral root.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 294.--Older seedling of the Wheat: _s_ the
-  second sheathing-leaf; _l_ first foliage-leaf.]
-
-   _The ripe Grass-fruit_, in some species of Bamboo, is a berry;
-   in some other Grasses a nut with _loosely_ lying seed, in some
-   even a capsule, but otherwise a “caryopsis.” In some instances
-   it is loosely enveloped by the pales (Oat), in others firmly
-   attached to these (Barley), and finally, in others, “naked,”
-   _i.e._ it is entirely free from the pales (Wheat and Rye).
-   On the ventral side there is a groove (Fig. 288 _E_); on the
-   anterior side (dorsal suture), which is turned towards the
-   inner pale, it is convex, and at the base on this side, inside
-   the testa, lies the embryo (Fig. 288 _D_). The apex of the
-   fruit is often hairy (Fig. 293). The _skin_ (Fig. 291, _a_) is
-   formed by the pericarp and testa, and in some cases (Barley)
-   the pales also form the outer portion. The endosperm (_b_) is
-   large, and formed of parenchymatous, starch-containing cells:
-   aleurone (proteid) grains may also be found among them. When
-   the starch-grains and the aleurone-grains adhere together
-   the endosperm becomes “horny,” but is “floury” when the
-   starch-grains lie loosely with air between them. In the most
-   external region, just beneath the skin, 1–several layers of
-   nearly cubical cells (filled principally with aleurone-grains
-   and fat) are found, the _aleurone_-layer (Fig. 292). The embryo
-   (Fig. 291 _c-d_) contains large quantities of fatty oil;
-   the large shield-like structure, attached to the embryo and
-   turned inwards towards the endosperm (_c_), is the cotyledon
-   (scutellum); it remains enclosed in the seed during germination,
-   and dissolves the endosperm by means of the peculiar epithelial
-   cells developed on the dorsal surface. The radicle, on
-   germination, is obliged to perforate a mass of cells derived
-   from the suspensor and which form the “root-sheath” (coleorhiza,
-   Fig. 293) round its base. In addition to the tap-root, lateral
-   roots are frequently developed before germination; these quickly
-   break through, and later on are followed by others which appear
-   at the base of the leaf (Figs. 293, 294).
-
-   The DISTRIBUTION OF THE FRUIT is most frequently effected by the
-   wind. The spirally-twisted and hygroscopic awn which persists on
-   the fruits of some species (_Avena_, _Stipa_, etc.) assists in
-   their dissemination, and even helps to bury them in the ground.
-
-   The two preceding orders are more closely related to each other
-   than they are to the Gramineæ.
-
-   The generic differences are chiefly founded on the form of
-   the inflorescence, the number and sex of the flowers in the
-   spikelets, the shape and relative length of the pales, awns,
-   etc. In addition to these the structure of the fruit and
-   seed presents a great many differences; some have compound
-   starch-grains, while in others they are single; some have 1
-   layer of aleurone-cells, others have several (Fig. 292), etc.
-
-=1.= BAMBUSEÆ. Tall Grasses with woody, very siliceous stems which bear
-many branches in the axils of the leaves. 6 stamens. _Bambusa_ (Bamboo).
-
-=2.= ORYZEÆ. _Oryza sativa_ (Rice) is a herbaceous marsh-plant, with
-panicle and small, 1-flowered spikelets, with two small glumes and two
-large, boat-shaped, strongly siliceous pales. 6 stamens.--_Leersia._
-_Lygeum. Pharus. Zizania aquatica._
-
-=3.= MAYDEÆ. _Zea mais_ (Indian-corn, Maize); the spikelets are
-unisexual; the ♂-spikelets in a terminal panicle; the ♀-spikelets
-closely crowded and arranged in many rows in a thick, axillary spike,
-enclosed by large sheathing-leaves. The ♀-spikelets are 1-(2-)
-flowered; the ovary bears one, long, filamentous style, with bifid
-stigma.--_Euchlæna_; _Coix_.
-
-=4.= ANDROPOGONEÆ. _Saccharum_ (Sugar-cane); the spikelets
-are exceptionally small, 1-flowered, and borne in pairs in
-many-flowered, long-haired panicles. Tall grasses with solid, sappy
-stem.--_Andropogon._
-
-=5.= FESTUCEÆ. Grasses with panicle (or spike-like panicle) and
-2–several-flowered spikelets. Glumes small, in each case shorter than
-the spikelet.--_Festuca_ (Fescue) and _Bromus_ (Brome, Fig. 288)
-have the awn placed at the _apex_ of the pale, or slightly below
-it. _Festuca_ has perennial species, with only a sparsely-branched
-panicle with branches solitary or in pairs, and round spikelets; the
-leaf-sheath is widely open. _Bromus_ has the branches borne in half
-whorls, and the leaf-sheath scarcely half open. _Brachypodium_ has very
-short-stalked spikelets in a raceme.--_Poa_ (Meadow-grass), _Briza_
-(Quaking-grass) and _Glyceria_ have awnless spikelets; these in _Poa_
-are ovoid, compressed, and with sharply-keeled glumes; in _Briza_ they
-are broad, cordate and drooping, with boat-shaped glumes; in _Glyceria_
-round, long, many-flowered, linear or lanceolate; some species of
-_Glyceria_ have closed leaf-sheaths.--_Dactylis_ (Cock’s-foot) differs
-from all others in the somewhat crowded and unilateral (subsecund)
-spikelets, which are compressed and oblique (_i.e._ one side more
-convex than the other).--_Phragmites_ (_P. communis_, Reed); the
-lowermost flowers of the spikelet are ♂; its axis is covered with
-long, silky hairs; pales without awns, but acuminate. Perennial
-marsh-plants.--_Melica_; panicle small, sparsely-branched with
-round, awnless, few-flowered, usually drooping spikelets. The upper
-pales, with arrested flowers, are generally united into a club-like
-mass.--_Molinia_, _Eragrostis_, _Koeleria_, _Catabrosa_.--_Cynosurus_
-(Dog’s-tail) has a small, spicate panicle with unilateral spikelets,
-some of which are fertile, some barren, each supported by a pectinate
-scale. _Arundo. Sesleria. Gynerium. Triodia._
-
-=6.= AVENEÆ. Panicles with 2–many-flowered spikelets; at least one
-of the glumes is quite as long as the entire spikelet.--_Avena_
-(Oat). The pale is boat-shaped, often bifid, and at about the middle
-of the back has a twisted, bent awn.--_Aira_ (Hair-grass) has a
-long-branched panicle with small, 2-flowered spikelets; the pale has
-a dentate apex and bears an awn on the posterior side close to the
-base.--_Weingærtneria._--_Holcus_ (Yorkshire-fog); a soft, hairy Grass
-with an open panicle, keeled glumes; 2 flowers in the spikelet, of
-which the lower one is ☿, the upper ♂; the pale which supports the
-☿-flower has no awn, but that which supports the ♂-flower, on the
-contrary, is awned.
-
-=7.= AGROSTIDEÆ. Panicles or spike-like panicles with 1-flowered
-spikelets. Generally 2 glumes and only 1 pale.--The following have
-PANICLES: _Milium_ with square panicle-branches and round spikelets;
-_Agrostis_ (Fiorin), with compressed, glabrous spikelets, whose glumes
-are longer than the pales. _Calamagrostis_ differs in having a chaplet
-of long hairs at the base of the pale.--_Stipa_ (Feather-grass) has a
-long, twisted awn.--The following have SPIKELIKE PANICLES: _Phleum_
-(Cat’s-tail, Timothy-grass) has sharply pointed, entirely free glumes,
-which are much longer than the awnless pales. _Alopecurus_ (Fox-tail);
-glumes united below; pale with awn. _Ammophila_ (_Psamma_). _A.
-arundinacea_; pales hairy at base; perennial, stiff-leaved, glaucous
-sand-grass with creeping rhizome. _Aristida. Sporobolus._
-
-=8.= PHALARIDEÆ. Panicles and spike-like panicles. The spikelet has
-in the upper part a single fertile flower; below it are placed 4
-pales, of which the upper 1–2 sometimes support ♂-flowers. On the
-whole, 6 floral-leaves of the first order are present.--_Phalaris_
-(_P. canariensis_, Canary-grass) has an ovate, spike-like panicle,
-the spikelets are compressed, convex on the outer side, concave on
-the inner. The large glumes are winged on the back.--_Digraphis_ (_D.
-arundinacea_) is closely allied to _Phalaris_, but the keel of the
-glumes is not winged.--_Anthoxanthum_ (_A. odoratum_, Sweet-vernal) has
-a small, lanceolate, open, spike-like panicle; the spikelets have below
-2 barren flowers, and above these an ☿-flower with 2 stamens. The upper
-glume is longer than the flower.--_Hierochloa._
-
-   =9.= CHLORIDEÆ. The spikelets are arranged in the form of a
-   spike in two rows on one side of an often flatly-compressed
-   axis; they are mostly 1-flowered.--_Chloris_; _Ctenium_;
-   _Cynodon_; _Eleusine_; _Microchloa_.
-
-   =10.= PANICEÆ. The spikelets are borne in panicles or spikes,
-   which may be arranged like fingers or in a raceme. There
-   is a centrally-placed ☿-flower; below it is sometimes a
-   ♂-flower.--_Panicum_; _Paspalum_; _Oplismenus_; _Setaria_ has
-   an almost cylindrical spike-like panicle with several barren
-   branchlets, which project as stiff, rough bristles.--_Cenchrus_;
-   _Pennisetum_.
-
-=11.= HORDEÆ. Spikes compound; spikelets sessile in the
-notches of a toothed axis.
-
-=A.= Spikelets solitary.--_Triticum_ (Wheat, Fig. 287) has in each
-tooth of the main axis, a several-flowered spikelet which turns its
-_flat side_ towards the central axis. The cultivated species (true
-Wheat) are 1-2-annual, the wild ones (_T. repens_, Couch, also as an
-independent genus, _Agropyrum_) are perennial, with creeping rhizome
-and lanceolate glumes.--_Lolium_ (Rye-grass) has in each tooth of
-the main axis a many-flowered, compressed spikelet, which is placed
-_edgewise_ towards it and (with the exception of _L. perenne_) has
-only one outwardly-turned glume (_L. temulentum_ has a rudiment of
-the inwardly-turned lower glume); the terminal spikelet has two
-glumes.--_Secale_ (Rye). A two-flowered spikelet in each tooth; small,
-lanceolate, acuminate glumes. _Nardus_ and _Lepturus_ have very narrow
-spikes, the former with unilateral spikelets.
-
-=B.= In each notch of the axis 2 or more spikelets are placed close
-together.--_Hordeum_ (Barley). In each tooth three 1-flowered
-spikelets. _H. hexastichum_ (6-rowed Barley), has 6 rows of fruits,
-since all the spikelets are fertile, and _H. distichum_ (2-rowed
-Barley) 2 rows, since the lateral spikelets are (♂, and barren (p.
-292).--_Elymus_ has 2–6 many-flowered spikelets in each joint of the
-main axis. _Ægilops_ has awns upon the glumes.
-
-   DISTRIBUTION. 315 genera with 3,500 species. The order is
-   distributed over the whole world, and as regards number of
-   individuals is perhaps the richest. In the Tropics, large,
-   broad-leaved, tree-like forms are found (_Bambuseæ_, _Olyreæ_,
-   _Andropogoneæ_, etc.; in S. Europe, _Arundo donax_); in England,
-   next to the Compositæ, it is the order most rich in species
-   (about 134).--The origin of some of the cultivated Grasses
-   is lost in obscurity. The Maize, no doubt, was indigenous to
-   America, where its nearest relatives are found, and where it
-   has also been discovered in ancient Indian graves; Durra or
-   Guinea-corn, Millet and Sugar-cane are South Asiatic plants, and
-   our own cereals no doubt have sprung primarily from Western Asia
-   and South-Eastern Europe (Barley from Armenia and Persia, where
-   a very closely related wild species is found; Wheat from the
-   same districts; Rye from the perennial species _S. montanum_).
-   _Panicum altissimum_ and Rice have come from Africa.
-
-   USES. The Grasses play a very important part as cereals and
-   fodder plants. The following are the most important of the
-   cultivated ones: _Triticum vulgare_ (common Wheat), _turgidum_,
-   _amyleum_, _polonicum_, _spelta_, _durum_, etc.; _Secale
-   cereale_ (Rye); Barley (_Hordeum_-species, see under the genus);
-   Maize; Oats (_Avena sativa_, _orientalis_, _nuda_); Millet
-   (_Panicum miliaceum_); Durra (Turkish Millet, or Guinea-corn,
-   _Sorghum vulgare_, _cernuum_ and _saccharatum_); Manna-grass
-   (_Glyceria fluitans_). As fodder-plants especially: Rye-grass
-   (_Lolium perenne_); Oat-grass (_Avena elatior_); Timothy
-   (_Phleum pratense_); Fox-tail (_Alopecurus pratensis_);
-   Cock’s foot (_Dactylis glomerata_); Dog’s tail (_Cynosurus
-   cristatus_); Sweet-vernal (_Anthoxanthum odoratum_); Soft grass,
-   or Yorkshire-fog (_Holcus lanatus_ and _mollis_); Quaking-grass
-   (_Briza media_); species of Meadow-grass (_Poa_); Fescue
-   (_Festuca_) and Brome (_Bromus_).--Several cultivated species of
-   Grass are also used in the preparation of _fermented liquors_,
-   the starch in the seeds being transformed to _sugar_ (beer
-   from “Malt,” _i.e._ the germinated Barley; arrack from Rice);
-   or the stem becomes specially saccharine before flowering: the
-   Sugar-cane, _Sorghum saccharatum_.
-
-   OFFICINAL. The rhizome of _Triticum repens_, Oat-grain, flour of
-   Barley, and the starch of Wheat, also sugar.
-
-   The seeds of _Lolium temulentum_ are considered
-   _poisonous_.--The stems of many species (including our common
-   grains) are used in the manufacture of paper, especially
-   “Esparto grass” (_Stipa tenacissima_) from Spain and N.
-   Africa, and the sheathing-leaves of the ♀-spike of _Maize_.
-   Sand Lyme-grass (_Elymus arenarius_), and especially _Psamma
-   arenaria_, are important.--But few Grass-species are
-   _sweet-scented_: _Anthoxanthum odoratum_ and _Hierochloa
-   odorata_ contain coumarin; _Andropogon_-species have essential
-   oils (“Citronella oil”).--ORNAMENTAL PLANTS are: the
-   “Ribbon-grass” (a variety of _Digraphis arundinacea_), _Stipa
-   pennata_ (whose awn is exceedingly long and feathery), _Gynerium
-   argenteum_ (Pampas-grass), _Lagurus ovatus_, _Hordeum jubatum_,
-   _Bromus briziformis_.
-
-
-                       Family 3. =Spadicifloræ.=
-
-The primitive form resembles that of the preceding family. In it
-we find the typical, perfectly developed, Monocotyledonous flower,
-sometimes even with free carpels and with a dry or somewhat fleshy, but
-never petaloid perianth; and this passes over into very different forms
-by the suppression of the floral-leaves, perianth and sporophylls
-(unisexual flowers are common), and by the close aggregation of the
-flowers in the inflorescence. The flower is _hypogynous_ in every case.
-The inflorescence is a _spike_ which may be either single or branched,
-and has often a thick and fleshy axis (a _spadix_). In Palms and Araceæ
-it is enveloped, at any rate prior to the opening of the flowers, by a
-very large floral-leaf, _the spathe_, which may be petaloid (Figs. 297,
-301).
-
-The fruit is most frequently fleshy (_berry_, _drupe_) or a _nut_,
-never a capsule. The embryo is small, with large, fleshy endosperm
-(Fig. 299 _C_); very rarely the endosperm is wanting.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 295.--Piassava (_Attalea funifera_).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 296.--A portion of the stem of _Attalea
-  funifera_ with persistent leaf-bases.]
-
-The numerous plants belonging to this family are large, herbaceous or
-tree-like, and the leaves seldom have the usual Monocotyledonous form,
-_i.e._ linear with parallel venation, but most frequently have pinnate
-or palmate venation.
-
-Order 1. =Palmæ (Palms).= The majority are trees with an _unbranched_,
-cylindrical _stem_, having short internodes and covered with leaf-scars
-or the bases of the leaf-stalks (Fig. 296), and at the summit a rosette
-of large leaves closely packed together (Fig. 295). An exception to
-this is found in _Calamus_ (Cane, “Rotang”), whose thin, creeping or
-climbing stems have long internodes; sparsely[28] branched is, _e.g._
-the African Doum-palm (_Hyphæne_). Notwithstanding their often enormous
-stems the Palms have fibrous roots, like the bulbous Monocotyledons.
-The leaves are pinnate (Feather-palms, Fig. 298) or palmate (Fan-palms,
-Fig. 295) and often very large; they have a well-developed petiole
-with an _amplexicaul sheath_, which is often more or less separated
-into a large number of fibres. _In the bud the blade is entire but
-folded_, as the leaf expands the lines of folding are torn, either
-those which are turned upwards (thus ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨, _e.g. Pritchardia_,
-_Livistona_, _Phœnix_, _Chamærops_) or those turned downwards (thus
-∧ ∧ ∧ ∧, _e.g. Cocos_, _Chamædorea_, _Calamus_). The inflorescence
-is usually lateral; when, as in Sago-palm (_Metroxylon rumphii_)
-or Talipot (_Corypha umbraculifera_) it is terminal, the plant is
-monocarpic, and dies after flowering; it is often a very _large_
-and _branched spadix_ with numerous flowers either borne externally
-or embedded in it, and enclosed either in one woody, boat-shaped
-_spathe_ (Fig. 297) or several spathes, in the latter case one for each
-branch. The flowers are sessile or even embedded, regular, generally
-_unisexual_ (monœcious or diœcious) with the usual diagram (Fig.
-278); the perianth is inconspicuous, green or yellow, persistent, and
-more or less leathery or fleshy. 6, rarely 3 or many stamens. The 3
-carpels remain either _distinct_ or form one, generally 3-locular,
-ovary. The style is short. There is _one ovule in each carpel_. Often
-during ripening 2 carpels with their ovules are aborted. The fruit is
-a _berry_, _drupe_ or _nut_, generally one-seeded, with a large horny
-or bony endosperm with hard thick-walled cells (_e.g._ Date-palm). In
-some (_e.g._ Cocoanut) it is thin-walled, soft, and oily; in several
-“ruminate.”
-
-   When _germination_ commences in the Cocoanut, Date, etc., the
-   apex of the cotyledon remains in the seed and developes into
-   a spongy mass to withdraw the endosperm; in the Cocoanut it
-   attains a considerable size (Fig. 299 _C_) and assumes the
-   form of the fruit. The endosperm in the Cocoanut is hollow and
-   the interior is filled with “milk.” In the Date-palm and the
-   Vegetable-ivory (_Phytelephas_) the cell-walls of the hard
-   endosperm serve as reserve material.
-
-=1.= PHŒNICEÆ. _Phœnix_ (Date-palm) has pinnate leaves with channeled
-leaflets and diœcious flowers with 8 free carpels, of which usually
-only one developes into a berry with membranous endocarp; the large
-seed has a deep furrow on the inner side, and horny endosperm.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 297.--Inflorescence of a Palm with spathe. At
-  the top ♂-, at the base ♀-flowers.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 298.--_Livistona australis._]
-
-=2.= SABALEÆ. These have fan-like leaves with channeled segments;
-flowers ☿ or polygamous, rarely diœcious, with 3 separate or only
-slightly united carpels, all of which are sometimes developed
-into fruits (berry or drupe, with thin stone).--_Chamærops_, the
-Dwarf-palm. The pericarp is externally fleshy, internally more
-fibrous, and provided with a membranous inner layer. The endosperm is
-ruminate (that is, the testa is several times deeply folded into the
-endosperm).--_Sabal_, _Copernicia_, _Livistona_ (Fig. 298), _Thrinax_,
-_Corypha_, _Brahea_, and others.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 299.--_A_ Longitudinal section of a Cocoanut
-  (diminished), the inner layer only (the stone) not being divided
-  _B_ End view of the stone, showing the sutures for the 3 carpels
-  (_a_), and the 3 germ-pores; the embryo emerges from the lowest
-  one when germination begins. _C_ Germinating; inside the stone is
-  seen the hollow endosperm and the enlarging cotyledon.]
-
-=3.= COCOINEÆ. With pinnate leaves. Monœcious inflorescence. The
-carpels are united into a 3-locular ovary. The fruit is most frequently
-1-locular, only 1 of the loculi becoming developed, rarely 3-locular;
-it is a drupe with a large, fibrous, external layer (_mesocarp_) and
-most frequently a very hard inner layer (_endocarp_, stone) which
-has 3 germ-pores, the 2 of these, however, which correspond to the
-suppressed loculi are closed; internal to the third lies the small
-embryo (Fig. 299). Endosperm containing abundance of oil. _Cocos_ (the
-Cocoanut-palm), _Attalea_, _Elæis_, _Acrocomia_, _Bactris_.
-
-=4.= LEPIDOCARYINÆ. The floral-leaves and flowers are borne in 2
-rows on the spadix. The carpels are united into one 3-locular ovary;
-the fruit is coated by a layer of hard, shining, imbricate scales.
-The majority of the species are thorny, and climb by means of the
-thorny leaves. Some have fan-like (_Mauritia_), others pinnate leaves
-(_Raphia_, _Calamus_, _Eugeissonia_, _Metroxylon_; the stems of the
-latter die after the first flowering).
-
-   =5.= BORASSINÆ. Large Fan-palms without thorns, with 3-locular
-   ovary. Drupe with separate stones. _Latania_ and _Lodoicea_ have
-   many stamens; _Hyphæne_; _Borassus_ (Palmyra-palm).
-
-   =6.= ARECINEÆ. The most numerous group. Feather-palms. Berry.
-   _Areca_, _Euterpe_, _Oreodoxa_, _Ceroxylon_, _Chamædorea_,
-   _Geonoma_, _Caryota_ with bipinnate leaves.
-
-   =7.= PHYTELEPHANTINÆ. Flowers with rudimentary perianth united
-   in close capitula. _Phytelephas_ (Vegetable-ivory). _Nipa._
-
-   DISTRIBUTION. About 1,100 species are known. In Europe
-   only the Dwarf-palm (_Chamærops humilis_) is wild (Western
-   Mediterranean). The Date palm (_Phœnix dactylifera_) belongs
-   to North Africa and West Asia. Other African genera are
-   _Hyphæne_ (Doum-palm) and _Elæis_ (_E. guineensis_, Oil-palm).
-   A large majority of the genera are found in South America and
-   in the East Indies. The following are AMERICAN:--_Mauritia_,
-   _Acrocomia_, _Bactris_, _Chamædorea_, _Oreodoxa_, _Euterpe_,
-   _Attalea_, etc. ASIATIC:--_Metroxylon_, _Calamus_, _Areca_,
-   _Borassus_, _Lodoicea_ (“Double-cocoanuts,” Seychelles) and
-   others. The Cocoanut-palm has perhaps an American origin; all
-   the other species of the same genus being endemic in America;
-   it is the only Palm found on the coral islands of the Pacific
-   Ocean, and is also the only one which is common to both
-   hemispheres.
-
-   USES. Palms belong to the most useful plants; they contain no
-   poison, and are of little medicinal interest, but are largely
-   employed in the arts and manufactures, the hard timber being
-   adapted for many purposes on account of the hard tissue in
-   which the vascular bundles are embedded. “Cane” is the stem
-   of _Calamus_-species (from India). SAGO is obtained from the
-   pith of _Metroxylon rumphii_ (Sago-palm, Sunda-Is., Moluccas),
-   _Mauritia flexuosa_, etc. Sugar-containing sap (“palm wine”) is
-   obtained from the American _Mauritia vinifera_ and _flexuosa_,
-   _Borassus flabelliformis_ (Asiatic Palmyra-palm), _Arenga
-   saccharifera_, etc., by cutting off the young inflorescences,
-   or by perforating the stem before the flowering (_arrack_ is
-   distilled from this). _Vascular strands_ for the manufacture of
-   mats and brushes, etc., are obtained from the outer covering
-   (mesocarp) of the Cocoanut, and from the detached leaf-sheaths
-   of _Attalea funifera_ (Brazil) (Fig. 296). WAX is yielded by the
-   leaves of _Copernicia cerifera_ (carnaueba-wax, Amazon region),
-   and by the stem of _Ceroxylon andicola_ (palm-wax, Andes);
-   East Indian _Dragon’s blood_ is from the fruit of _Calamus
-   draco_; the young buds of many species, especially _Euterpe_,
-   _Cocos_, _Attalea_, etc., are used as “cabbage.” Palm-oil is
-   obtained from the oily mesocarp of the plum-like fruits of
-   _Elæis guineensis_ (W. Africa), and from the seeds, when it is
-   largely used in the manufacture of soap. EDIBLE FRUITS from the
-   Date-palm (_Phœnix dactylifera_, Arabia, Egypt, W. Africa), and
-   the endosperm of the Cocoanut (_Cocos nucifera_). The seeds
-   and the unripe fruits of the Areca-palm (_Areca catechu_)
-   are chewed with the leaves of the Betelpeper, principally in
-   Asia. VEGETABLE IVORY from the hard endosperm of _Phytelephas
-   macrocarpa_ (S. America.)--Many species are cultivated in
-   the tropics as ornamental plants, but in this country only
-   _Chamærops humilis_, _Livistona australis_ and _chinensis_ are
-   generally grown. In addition to the few just mentioned, many
-   others are of importance, but these are much the most useful.
-
-   Order 2. =Cyclanthaceæ.= This is a small order related to the
-   Palms (44 species from Tropical America), with fan-like, folded
-   leaves. The flowers are unisexual and arranged in whorls or
-   close spirals on an unbranched spadix. Ovary unilocular, ovules
-   numerous. To this belongs _Carludovica palmata_, whose leaves
-   are used for Panama hats.
-
-   Order 3. =Pandanaceæ= (Screw-pines) is another small order,
-   forming a transition to the Araceæ. The woody, (apparently)
-   dichotomous stem is supported by a large number of aerial roots,
-   which sometimes entirely support it when the lower portion of
-   the stem has decayed. The leaves are closely crowded together,
-   and arranged on the branches in three rows, which are often
-   obliquely displaced, with the formation of three spiral lines;
-   they are, as in the Bromeliaceæ, amplexicaul, long, linear,
-   the edge and lower midrib often provided with thorns. The
-   ♂-flowers are borne in branched, the ♀ in unbranched spadices
-   or capitula, which resemble those of _Sparganium_, but have no
-   floral-leaves. Perianth absent. The drupes or berries unite into
-   multiple fruits.--About 80 species in the islands of the Indian
-   Ocean.--_Pandanus_, _Freycinetia_.--Fossils perhaps in the chalk
-   of the Harz.
-
-Order 4. =Typhaceæ.= The flowers are unisexual, monœcious, and borne
-on a cylindrical spike or globose capitulum; ♂ inflorescences above,
-the ♀ below. The perianth consists of a definite number of scales
-(_Sparganium_), or in its place numerous irregularly-arranged hairs are
-found (_Typha_); in the ♂-flower there are generally three stamens; the
-gynœceum is formed of 1–2 carpels with 1 prolonged style; 1 pendulous
-ovule. The seeds are furnished with a seed-cover, which is cast off on
-germination.--The few species (about 20) which belong to this order are
-marsh plants with creeping rhizome (and hence grow in clusters); the
-leaves on the aerial shoots are borne in two rows, entire, very long
-and linear.
-
-_Sparganium_ (Bur-reed). The flowers are borne in globose capitula;
-the perianth distinct, generally consisting of 3 small scales; pistil
-bicarpellate. Drupe, dry and woody. ~The stalk of the lower ♀ capitula
-is sometimes united with the main axis, and consequently the capitula
-are situated high above their subtending-leaf.~
-
-_Typha_ (Bulrush, Reed-mace) has a long, cylindrical, brown spike,
-the lower portion bearing ♀-flowers, and the upper ♂-flowers, which
-is divided into joints by alternate leaves. The ♀-flowers have 1
-carpel. The perianth is wanting, represented by a number of fine,
-irregularly-placed hairs; pistil unicarpellate. Fruit a nut.
-
-   The two genera, according to some, are related to the 2nd order.
-   In both genera native species are found. The pollination is
-   effected by the wind, and consequently the anthers project
-   considerably, and the stigma is large and hairy. _Typha_ is
-   protandrous, _Sparganium_ protogynous. The small, fine hairs
-   surrounding the nut of _Typha_ assist in its distribution by the
-   wind.--Fossil _Typhas_ in the Tertiary.
-
-Order 5. =Araceæ= (=Arums=). The flowers are small, and always borne
-_without bracts or bracteoles_ on _an unbranched_, often very fleshy
-spike, which is enclosed by a spathe, often petaloid and coloured (Fig.
-301). The fruit is a _berry_. Outer integument of the seed fleshy.--The
-leaves have generally sheath, stalk, and blade with distinctly
-_reticulate_ venation; they are chiefly cordate or sagittate (Fig.
-302), seldom long with parallel venation as in the other Monocotyledons
-(_Acorus_, Fig. 300). The Araceæ are quite _glabrous_, generally
-_perennial herbs_ with tubers or rhizomes. Many have latex.--For the
-rest the structure of these plants varies; for example, while some
-have a perianth, in others it is wanting; in some the perianth-leaves
-are free, in others united; some have hermaphrodite flowers, but the
-majority unisexual (monœcious); some have free, others united stamens;
-the ovules are orthotropous, anatropous, or campylotropous, erect or
-pendulous; the ovary is 1–many-locular; some have seeds with endosperm,
-others without. ~_In habit_ there are great differences. While some,
-_e.g. Colocasia_ (Fig. 302), have a thick, more or less upright stem,
-with leaf-scars, but not woody, others are climbers, epiphytic, and
-maintain themselves firmly by means of adventitious roots, on the stems
-and branches of trees, or even on steep rocks, _e.g. Philodendron_;
-the cordate, penninerved leaf is the most common (Fig. 302), but
-various branched forms appear; the pedate leaves of _Helicophyllum_,
-_Dracunculus_, etc., are cymosely branched; the leaves of _Monstera
-deliciosa_, perforated by tearing, should be noticed (the vascular
-bundles while in the bud grow faster than the tissue between them,
-causing the latter to be torn, and the leaf perforated). With regard to
-the anatomical structure, the presence or absence of latex, raphides,
-resin-passages, groups of mucilage-cells should be noted. Engler makes
-use of these anatomical peculiarities for a scientific arrangement of
-the order.~
-
-=A.= ORONTIEÆ, CALAMUS-GROUP. ☿, hypogynous flowers of a completely
-formed monocotyledonous type (number in the whorls 2, 3, or
-4).--_Acorus_ (_A. calamus_, Sweet-flag) has a regular, 3-merous,
-pentacyclic flower (Fig. 300 _C_, _D_). They are marsh-plants, with
-creeping rhizome, triangular stem, and long, sword-like leaves (Fig.
-300 _A_); the inflorescence is terminal, apparently lateral, being
-pushed to one side by the upright, sword-like spathe (Fig. 300
-_B_).--~_Anthurium_ (Pr2+2, A2+2, G2); _Pothos_; _Orontium_ (unilocular
-ovary with one ovule), etc.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 300.--_Acorus calamus_: _A_ habit (much
-  reduced); _B_ inflorescence; _C_ a flower; _D_ diagram; _E_
-  longitudinal section of an ovary; _F_ an ovule.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 301.--_Arum maculatum._ The spathe (_h_) in
-  _B_ is longitudinally divided.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 302.--_Colocasia Boryi._]
-
-=B.= CALLEÆ. Flowers hypogynous, naked, ☿.--_Calla_ (_C. palustris_).
-All flowers in the spike are fertile, or the upper ones are ♂; 6–9
-stamens; ovary unilocular with many basal ovules. Marsh-plants with
-creeping rhizome and cordate leaves.--_Monstera_, _Rhaphidophora_, etc.
-
-=C.= ARINEÆ. Flowers monœcious, naked, ♂-flowers on the upper, ♀ on the
-lower part of the spadix.--_Arum_ (Fig. 301). The spadix terminates in
-a naked, club-like portion (_k_); below this is a number of sessile
-bodies (rudimentary flowers), with broad bases and prolonged, pointed
-tips (_b_); underneath these are the ♂-flowers (_m_), each consisting
-only of 3–4 short stamens, which eject vermiform pollen-masses through
-the terminal pores; then follow, last of all, ♀-flowers (_f_), each of
-which consists of one unilocular ovary, with several ovules. Perennial
-herbs, tuberous, with cordate leaves.--~_Dracunculus_; _Biarum_;
-_Arisarum_; _Pinellia (Atherurus) ternata_ with leaves bearing 1–2
-buds. _Zantedeschia æthiopica_ (_Richardia_, Nile-lily); ♂, 2–3
-stamens; ♀ with 3 staminodes, 1–5-locular ovary (S. Africa.)--In some
-genera sterile flowers are present between the ♂ and ♀ portions of
-the spadix (_e.g._ in _Philodendron_); in _Ambrosinia_ a lateral,
-wing-like broadening of the axis of the spadix divides the cavity
-of the spathe into two chambers, the anterior containing one ♀, and
-the posterior 8–10 ♂-flowers in two series; in some the stamens in
-the single ♂-flowers unite and form a columnar “synandrium” (_e.g._
-in _Dieffenbachia_, _Colocasia_, _Alocasia_, _Caladium_, _Taccarum_,
-_Syngonium_). A remarkable spadix is found in _Spathicarpa_; it is
-united for its entire length, on one side, with the spathe, and the
-flowers are arranged upon it in rows, the ♀ to the outside, and the
-♂ in the middle (_Zostera_ has a similar one).--_Pistia_ similarly
-deviates considerably, it is a floating water-plant, with hairy, round
-rosettes of leaves; in it also the spathe and spadix are united; at the
-base a ♀-flower is borne, which consists of one unilocular ovary, and
-above several ♂-flowers, each composed of two united stamens.~
-
-   BIOLOGY. The inflorescences are adapted for
-   _insect-pollination_; they are protogynous, since the viscous,
-   almost sessile stigmas come to maturity and wither before the
-   pollen, which is generally dehisced by apical pores, is shed;
-   some pollinate themselves freely by the pollen from the higher
-   ♂-flowers falling upon the ♀-flowers below them, and in some
-   it is conjectured that the pollination is effected by snails.
-   The coloured spathe, and the naked end of the spadix (often
-   coloured) of certain genera function as the coloured perianth in
-   other orders; during flowering a very powerful smell is often
-   emitted. _Arum maculatum_ is worthy of notice; small flies
-   and midges creep down into the spathe, between the sterile
-   flowers (Fig. 301 _b_), which are situated where the spathe is
-   constricted, and pointing obliquely downwards prevent the escape
-   of the insects; in the meantime, the stigmas are in a condition
-   to receive any pollen they may have brought with them; after
-   pollination the stigmas wither, and exude small drops of honey
-   as a compensation to the flies for their imprisonment; after
-   this the anthers (_m_) open and shed their pollen, the sterile
-   flowers wither, and the insects are then able to escape, and
-   enter and pollinate other inflorescences.--In many, a _rise
-   of temperature_ and evolution of carbonic acid takes place
-   during flowering; a spadix may be raised as much as 30°C. above
-   the temperature of the surrounding air.--Again, under certain
-   conditions, many species absorb such large quantities of water
-   by their roots that water is forced out in drops from the tip of
-   the leaf; this may often be observed in _Zantedeschia_.
-
-   About 900 species in 100 genera. Home, the Tropics, especially
-   S. America, India, and the Indian Islands, preferably in shady,
-   damp forests growing as epiphytes upon trees, and on the banks
-   of streams. Outside the Tropics few are found. _Acorus calamus_
-   was introduced into Europe from Asia about 300 years ago; it,
-   however, never sets any fruit, as the pollen is unfertile. In
-   England _Arum maculatum_ is a very common plant; this and _A.
-   italicum_ are the only native species. _Colocasia antiquorum_
-   comes from Polynesia and the Indian Islands, and also _Alocasia
-   macrorrhiza_. Fossils in Cretaceous and Tertiary.
-
-   USES. Many species have pungent, and even _poisonous properties_
-   (_e.g. Dieffenbachia_, _Lagenandra_, _Arum_), which are easily
-   removed by boiling or roasting; the _rhizomes_ of many species
-   of _Caladium_, _Colocasia_ (_C. antiquorum_, _esculenta_, etc.),
-   are very rich in starch, and in the Tropics form an important
-   source of food. An uncommon occurrence in the order is the
-   highly aromatic rhizome of _Acorus calamus_; this contains
-   calamus-oil and acorin which are used in perfumery. Many are
-   ornamental plants, _e.g. Zantedeschia æthiopica_ (South Africa),
-   generally known as “Calla,” and _Monstera deliciosa_; many other
-   species are grown in greenhouses.
-
-Order 6. =Lemnaceæ (Duck-weeds).= These are the most reduced form of
-the Spadicifloræ. They are very small, free-swimming water-plants.
-The vegetative system resembles a small, leaf-like body (Fig. 303
-_f-f_), from which roots hang downwards; this branches by producing a
-new, similar leaf-like body, which springs from a pocket-like hollow
-(indicated by a dotted line in the figure) on each side of the
-older one, at its base (or only on one side). ~The branching is thus
-dichasial or helicoid (Fig. 303 _A_, where _f, f′, f″, f″′_ indicate
-shoots of 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th generations respectively). The leaf-like
-bodies are, according to Hegelmaier, leaf-like stems, and thus _Lemna_
-has no other leaves than the spathe and the sporophylls; according
-to the investigations of Engler they are stems whose upper portion
-(above the “pocket”) is a leaf, which is not sharply separated from
-the underlying stem-portion. The inflorescence is a very much reduced
-Araceous-spadix, consisting in _Lemna_ of 1 or 2 stamens of unequal
-length (1-stamened ♂-flowers), 1 unilocular carpel (♀-flower), and
-1 thin spathe (_B_). [The same is found in _Spirodela polyrrhiza_,
-etc., whose daughter-shoots begin in addition with 1 basal-leaf.
-_Wolffia arrhiza_, etc., have no roots, no spathe, and only 1 ♂-flower
-in the inflorescence (Engler).]--On the germination of the seed a
-portion of the testa is thrown off as a lid, so that an exit is opened
-for the radicle.--19 species. In stagnant fresh water, both Temp.
-and Tropical.--In Europe the species are _Lemna minor, trisulca,
-gibba; Spirodela polyrrhiza_, and _Wolffia arrhiza_, the smallest
-Flowering-plant.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 303.--_Lemna_: _A_ vegetative system; _B_
-  portion of a plant with flowers; one stamen and tip of the carpel
-  project; the remaining portions being indicated by the dotted
-  line.]
-
-
-                      Family 4. =Enantioblastæ.=
-
-The flowers in this family are _hypogynous_ and have in part the
-general monocotyledonous type with 5 trimerous whorls completely
-developed in a regular hermaphrodite flower, and in part the flowers
-so much reduced that the type is very difficult to trace. On the one
-hand the family is well developed and has capitate inflorescences
-(_Eriocaulaceæ_) and on the other hand it is distinctly reduced
-(_Centrolepidaceceæ_). This family has taken its name from the fact
-that the ovule is not, as in the Liliifloræ and nearly all other
-Monocotyledons, anatropous, but _orthotropous_, so that the embryo
-(βλάστη) becomes placed _at the end of the seed opposite_ (ἐναντίος)
-_to the hilum_. Large, mealy endosperm.--The orders belonging to this
-family are by certain authors grouped with the _Bromeliaceæ_ and
-_Pontederiaceæ_, etc., into one family, FARINOSEÆ, so named on account
-of the mealy endosperm, the distinguishing character of the Liliifloræ
-then being that the endosperm is fleshy and horny.
-
-   Order 1. =Commelinaceæ.= The complete Liliaceous structure
-   without great reductions in the number of whorls, but with
-   generally few ovules in each loculus of the ovary, is found in
-   the Commelinaceæ, an almost exclusively tropical order with
-   about 317 species; herbs, some of which are introduced into
-   our gardens and greenhouses. The stems are nodose; the leaves
-   often _clasping_; the flowers are arranged in unipared scorpioid
-   cymes, often so that they form a zig-zag series falling in
-   the median line of the bracts, and after flowering they bend
-   regularly to the right or left, outwards or inwards. They
-   are more or less _zygomorphic_, particularly in the stamens,
-   which in the same flower are of different forms or partially
-   suppressed. The outer series of the _perianth_ is sepaloid,
-   the inner petaloid, generally violet or blue; the filaments
-   are sometimes clothed with hairs formed of rows of bead-like
-   cells (well known for showing protoplasmic movements). Fruit
-   a trilocular _capsule_ with loculicidal dehiscence (generally
-   few-seeded); in some a nut. The radicle is covered by an
-   external, warty, projecting covering which is cast off on
-   germination.--The abundant raphides lie in elongated cells whose
-   transverse walls they perforate.--_Commelina, Tradescantia,
-   Tinantia, Cyanotis, Dichorisandra_.
-
-   Order 2. =Mayacaceæ.= This order is closely allied to the
-   Commelinaceæ. 7 species. American marsh- or water-plants.
-
-   In many of the following orders of this family the flowers are
-   united into compound inflorescences, with which is accompanied a
-   reduction in the flower.
-
-   Order 3. =Xyridaceæ= (50 species). Marsh-plants with radical,
-   often equitant leaves arranged in 2 rows, and short spikes on
-   long (twisted) stalks. The flowers, as in the Commelinaceæ, have
-   sepals (which however are more chaffy) and petals, but the outer
-   series of stamens is wanting. Capsule (generally many-seeded).
-
-   Order 4. =Rapateaceæ.= Marsh-plants with radical leaves, usually
-   in two rows, and several spikelets on the summit of the main
-   axis, clustered into a capitulum or unilateral spike. Each
-   spikelet has numerous imbricate floral-leaves and one flower. 24
-   species. South America.
-
-   Order 5. =Eriocaulaceæ.= The “Compositæ among Monocotyledons,”
-   a tropical order. The flowers are borne in a _capitulum_
-   surrounded by an _involucre_, very similar to that of the
-   Compositæ. The flowers are very small, unisexual, ♂ and ♀
-   often mixed indiscriminately in the same capitulum; they have
-   the usual pentacyclic structure; the leaves of the inner
-   perianth are often connate and more membranous than the outer;
-   in some the outer series of stamens are suppressed; in each of
-   the 3 loculi is one pendulous ovule. Capsule. The leaves are
-   generally radical and grass-like.--335 species; _Eriocaulon_,
-   _Paepalanthus_, etc., _E. septangulare_ on the west coast of
-   Scotland, and Ireland, and in North America.
-
-   Order 6. =Restiaceæ.= A small, especially S. African and S.
-   Australian, xerophilous order (about 235 species), which is
-   quite similar in habit to the Juncaceæ and Cyperaceæ. The
-   leaves are often reduced to sheaths. The flowers are diœcious,
-   the perianth as in _Juncus_, but the outer series of stamens
-   suppressed. The ovary and fruit as in Eriocaulaceæ; the ovary,
-   however, may be unilocular, and the fruit a nut. _Restio_, etc.
-
-   Order 7. =Centrolepidaceæ.= These are the most reduced plants
-   in the family; small grass- or rush-like herbs. The flowers
-   are very small, naked. Stamens 1–2, carpels 1–∞. 32 species.
-   Australia.--_Centrolepis_ (flowers generally ☿ with 1 stamen and
-   2–∞ carpels).
-
-
-                        Family 5. =Liliifloræ.=
-
-The flower is constructed on the general monocotyledonous type, with 5
-alternating, 3-merous whorls (Fig. 278), but exceptions are found as
-in the Iridaceæ (Fig. 279) by the suppression of the _inner_ whorl of
-stamens; in a few the position in relation to the bract differs from
-that represented in Fig. 278, and in some instead of the trimerous,
-di- or tetramerous flowers are found (_e.g. Majanthemum_, _Paris_).
-Flowers generally _regular, hermaphrodite_, with simple, _petaloid_,
-coloured perianth (except, for example, Bromeliaceæ); ovary trilocular,
-generally with 2 ovules or 2 rows of ovules in the inner angle of
-each loculus (Fig. 304 _C_, _D_). _Endosperm_ always present.--A very
-natural family, of which some divisions in part overlap each other.
-The habit varies; the leaves are however long, entire, with parallel
-venation, except in Dioscoreaceæ (Fig. 313).
-
-   In the first orders of this family the flowers are hypogynous,
-   and in the first of all the styles are free, and the capsule
-   dehisces septicidally; in the following the flowers are
-   epigynous and in some reduced in number or unisexual; capsule
-   with loculicidal dehiscence, or a berry.
-
-   HYPOGYNOUS flowers: Colchicaceæ, Liliaceæ, Convallariaceæ,
-   Bromeliaceæ (in part).
-
-   EPIGYNOUS flowers: Amaryllidaceæ, Iridaceæ, Bromeliaceæ (in
-   part), Dioscoreaceæ.
-
-Order 1. =Colchicaceæ.= The flower (Fig. 304 _A_) is ☿, regular,
-_hypogynous_, trimerous in all five whorls (6 _stamens_); anthers
-usually _extrorse_. Gynœceum with 3 _free styles_ (_A, D_); fruit a
-_capsule with septicidal dehiscence_ (_E_); embryo very small (_F_).
-The underground stem is generally a corm or rhizome, seldom a bulb.
-
-=A.= VERATREÆ.--_Veratrum_; perennial herbs, stem tall with long
-internodes and broad, folded leaves; the flowers andromonœcious,
-with free, widely opening perianth-leaves (Fig. 304 _A_), and
-globular anthers; inflorescence a panicle.--_Zygadenus, Melanthium,
-Schœnocaulon, Uvularia, Tricyrtis_.
-
-=B.= TOFIELDIEÆ.--_Narthecium_ and _Tofieldia_ have leaves alternate
-(arranged in two rows), sword-like and borne in rosettes; racemes
-or spikes. _Narthecium_ forms an exception to the order by having
-a simple style and fruit with loculicidal dehiscence; _Tofieldia_
-by the introrse anthers. In this they are related to the Liliaceæ.
-_Narthecium_ has poisonous properties, like many other Colchicaceæ.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 304.--_Veratrum_: _A_ flower; _B_ stamen;
-  _C_ transverse section of ovary; _D_ gynœceum, with one carpel
-  bisected longitudinally, and the third removed; _E_ fruit after
-  dehiscence; _F_ longitudinal section of a seed.]
-
-=C.= COLCHICEÆ.--_Colchicum_ (Autumn Crocus); perennial herbs, with a
-long, _funnel-shaped, gamophyllous perianth_, and introrse anthers. The
-flowers of _C. autumnale_ spring up immediately from the underground
-stem, which is in reality a _corm_ formed of one internode. ~_Colchicum
-autumnale_ flowers in autumn without leaves; in spring the radical
-foliage-leaves appear simultaneously with the fruit. The flower is
-protogynous, and is pollinated by insects (humble-bees, etc.) which
-seek the honey secreted by the free part of the stamen a little way
-down the tube. The length of the tube protects the fruit, and not,
-as in other cases, the nectary.--_Bulbocodium_ and _Merendera_ have
-unguiculate perianth-leaves, free, but closing together like a tube.~
-
-   175 species; chiefly in North America and South Africa.
-   _Tofieldia_ is an Arctic plant. The order is rich in pungent,
-   poisonous alkaloids (veratrin, colchicin, etc.). OFFICINAL;
-   the seeds of _Colchicum autumnale_ (Europe) and _Schœnocaulon
-   officinale_ (Mexico), and the rhizome of _Veratrum album_
-   (mountains of Central Europe).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 305.--_Colchicum autumnale. A_ Corm
-  seen from the front: _k_ corm; _s′ s″_ scale-leaves embracing
-  the flower-stalk; _wh_ base of flower-stalk with roots (_w_).
-  _B_ Longitudinal section of corm and flower-stalk: _hh_ brown
-  membrane surrounding the underground portion of the plant;
-  _st_ flower-and leaf-stalk of previous year, the swollen basal
-  portion forming the reservoir of reserve material. The new plant
-  is a lateral shoot from the base of the corm (_k_) and has the
-  following parts: the base bearing the roots (_w_), the central
-  part (_k’_) which becomes the corm in the next year, the axis
-  bearing the scale-leaves (_s’, s″_), the foliage-leaves (_l,
-  l′″_), and the flowers (_b, b’_) which are borne in the axils of
-  the uppermost foliage-leaves.]
-
-Order 2. =Liliaceæ (Lilies).= Flowers as in the Colchicaceæ but with
-_introrse_ anthers; _ovary free, 3-locular, with single style; capsule_
-3-locular with _loculicidal_ dehiscence.--The majority are herbs with
-_bulbs_; the inflorescence is _terminal_. In many species reproduction
-takes place by means of bulbils (small bulbs) formed in the axils of
-the foliage-leaves (_e.g. Lilium bulbiferum_, _lancifolium_, etc.,
-_Gagea lancifolia_, etc.), or in the bracts of the inflorescence (many
-species of _Allium_); in many species several buds are developed as
-bulbs in the axils of the bulb-scales themselves (accessory buds
-arising close together), and in some the formation of buds is common on
-the leaves.
-
-=A.= TULIPEÆ, TULIP GROUP. Bulbs. The aerial, elongated stem bears
-the foliage-leaves. Flowers few but generally large, with free
-perianth-leaves. _Tulipa_; style absent, no honey; flowers generally
-solitary, erect.--_Fritillaria_ perianth campanulate with a round or
-oblong nectary at the base of each perianth-leaf.--_Lilium_; perianth
-widely open, generally turned back with a covered nectary-groove in the
-centre of each segment. Anthers versatile.--_Lloydia; Erythronium._
-
-=B.= HYACINTHEÆ, HYACINTH GROUP. Bulbs. Leaves radical; aerial stem
-leafless with raceme or spike. In some the perianth-segments are free,
-in others united. Honey is produced often in glands or in the septa of
-the ovary (septal glands).--_Ornithogalum_ has a leafy stem; _Scilla_;
-_Eucomis_ has a tuft of floral-leaves above the raceme; _Agraphis_;
-_Hyacinthus_; _Puschkinia_; _Chionodoxa_; _Muscari_; _Veltheimia_;
-_Urginea_.
-
-=C.= ALLIEÆ, ONION GROUP. Generally bulbs. Leaves radical. Stem
-leafless with a compound umbellate or capitate inflorescence of
-unipared helicoid cymes, which before flowering are surrounded
-by two broad involucral leaves.--~_Allium._ Filaments often
-petaloid and bidentate; in many species bulbils are found in the
-inflorescence.--Some species have flat leaves: _A. sativum_, Garlic;
-_A. porrum_, Leek; _A. ursinum_; others have round, hollow leaves:
-_A. cepa_, Onion; _A. fistulosum_, Winter Onion; _A. ascalonicum_,
-Eschalot; _A. schænoprasum_, Chive.~--_Gagea_; honey is secreted
-at the base of the perianth, no special nectary; inflorescence
-few-flowered.--_Agapanthus; Triteleia._
-
-   =D.= ANTHERICEÆ. Rhizome; raceme; the leaves not fleshy and
-   thick.--_Anthericum_; _Asphodelus_; _Bulbine_; _Chlorophytum_;
-   _Bowiea_ has an almost leafless stem with curved, climbing
-   branches.
-
-   =E.= ALOINEÆ, ALOES. Stem generally aerial and tree-like,
-   bearing on its summit thick, fleshy leaves, often with a thorny
-   edge (Fig. 306). Raceme branched or unbranched.--_Aloë_;
-   _Gasteria_; _Yucca_ (has secondary thickening, p. 274).
-
-   =F.= HEMEROCALLIDEÆ. _Phormium_, (_Ph. tenax._ New Zealand
-   Flax); _Funckia_ (_Hosta_); _Hemerocallis_.
-
-   At this point the following are best placed: _Aphyllanthes_
-   (_A. monspeliensis_); _Xanthorrhæa_ (Black-boy); _Xerotes_;
-   _Lomandra_; _Kingia_; the very membranous, dry perianth of the
-   last resembles that of the Juncaceæ, and also there are only
-   1–few ovules in the loculi.
-
-   POLLINATION by insects. Honey in some is produced on the
-   perianth (see Tulipeæ), in others by glands on the carpels (in
-   the septa and parietal placentæ, septal glands): _Hyacinthus_,
-   _Allium_, _Anthericum_, _Asphodelus_, _Yucca_, _Funckia_,
-   _Hemerocallis_, etc. Some _Allium_-species are protandrous.
-   _Fritillaria_ is visited by bees, _Lilium martagon_ by moths,
-   _L. bulbiferum_ by butterflies, _Phormium_ (New Zealand) by
-   honey-birds.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 306.--Aloë.]
-
-   About 1,580 species; rare in cold climates; their home is in
-   sunny plains with firm, hard soil, and warm or mild climate,
-   particularly in the Old World (S. Africa; As. Steppes;
-   Mediterranean); at the commencement of spring the flowers
-   appear in great profusion, and after the course of a few weeks
-   disappear; during the hot season their life lies dormant in the
-   bulb, hidden underground. The woody species are tropical.--The
-   majority of the _introduced_ Liliaceæ (_Fritillaria imperialis_,
-   Crown-imperial; _Lilium candidum_; _Tulipa gesneriana_;
-   Hyacinth; _Muscari_-species; _Scilla_-species; _Ornithogalum
-   nutans_; _Hemerocallis fulva_ and _flava_; _Asphodelus luteus_
-   and _albus_) come from the Mediterranean and W. Asia; _Funckia_
-   from China and Japan; several Lilies from Japan and the
-   Himalayas; _Agapanthus_ from the Cape; _Allium sativum_ is a
-   native of the Kerghis-Steppes; _A. cepa_ from Persia (?); _A.
-   ascalonicum_ is not known wild (according to others a native of
-   Asia Minor), perhaps a form of _A. cepa_; _A. schænoprasum_ from
-   the N. temp. region.
-
-   Many bulbs have pungent properties; many Onions are used as
-   culinary plants. The bast fibres of _Phormium tenax_ (New
-   Zealand Flax) are used technically. Dyes are obtained from the
-   _Aloe_; gum for varnish from the stem of _Xanthorrhæa hostile_
-   and _australe_. OFFICINAL; “Aloes,” the dried sap of S. African
-   species of _Aloe_ (_A. Africana_, _A. ferox_, etc.); the
-   bulb known as “Squills” from _Urginea_ (_Scilla_) _maritima_
-   (Mediterranean).
-
-Order 3. =Convallariaceæ.= This order differs from the Liliaceæ in
-having the _fruit a berry_ (Fig. 308) and _in never being bulbous_; the
-seeds are less numerous.
-
-=A.= CONVALLARIEÆ, LILY OF THE VALLEY GROUP. Rhizome (Fig. 307) and
-normal foliage-leaves.--_Polygonatum_: rhizome creeping; aerial
-shoot leafy, bearing the flowers in racemes in the axils of the
-foliage-leaves; perianth tubular. _P. multiflorum_ (Solomon’s seal),
-_P. officinale_, etc.--_Majanthemum_: flower 2-merous; perianth
-almost polyphyllous, spreading. _Smilacina. Streptopus_ (_S.
-amplexifolius_; the flowers or inflorescence unite with the entire
-succeeding internode).--_Convallaria_ (1 species _C. majalis_, Lily
-of the valley); flowers in terminal racemes; 2 basal foliage-leaves;
-perianth globose, bell-shaped. _Reineckea carnea_ (Japan, China) in
-gardens.--_Paris_ (_P. quadrifolia_, Herb-Paris); flowers solitary,
-terminal, 4-merous, polyphyllous; styles 4, free (approaching the
-Colchicaceæ; it is also poisonous); a whorl of 4 (-more) 3-nerved,
-reticulate leaves on each shoot.--Ornamental plants: species of
-_Trillium_, _Aspidistra elatior_ (Japan).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 307.--Rhizome of _Polygonatum multiflorum_:
-  _a_ bud; _b_ shoot; _c d_ scars left by shoots of previous
-  years.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 308.--_Smilax pseudosyphilitica_: _A_ shoot
-  of male plant; _C_ ♂-flower; _D_ berry, almost ripe; _E_ the same
-  in longitudinal section. _B Smilax syphilitica_: portion of
-  branch with base of leaf and tendrils.]
-
-=B.= ASPARAGEÆ, ASPARAGUS GROUP. Scale-like leaves and green
-assimilating branches.--_Asparagus_: horizontal rhizome. The aerial
-shoots are very richly branched; the numerous needle-like bodies upon
-the plant are _leafless shoots_, which are crowded together in double
-scorpioid cymes in the axils of the scale-leaves; the two first lateral
-axes, placed outside to the left and right, generally bear flowers.
-Polygamous.--~_Ruscus_ (Butcher’s broom) is a S. European _shrub_ with
-_leaf-like_, ovoid or elliptical shoots (phylloclades) which are borne
-in the axils of scale-like leaves, and bear flowers on the central
-line. Diœcious. Stamens 3, united, anthers extrorse. _Semele androgyna_
-bears its flowers on the edge of the flat shoot.~
-
-=C.= SMILACEÆ. _Smilax_ (Sarsaparilla) (Fig. 308); _climbing_
-shrubs with the leaf-sheath produced into tendrils. The leaves have
-3–5 strong nerves proceeding from the base, and are reticulate.
-Orthotropous or semi-anatropous ovules. Diœcious (Fig. 308 _C_, _E_).
-
-   =D.= DRACÆNEÆ. Fruit in some a berry, in others a capsule.
-   The stem of DRACÆNA, when old, has the appearance of being
-   dichotomously branched; it has the power of increase in
-   thickness, and may become enormously thick. The Dragon-tree of
-   Teneriffe, measured by Humboldt, attained a circumference of
-   14 m. and a height of 22 m.; the leaves are large, linear or
-   linear-lanceolate.--_Cordyline_ (East Asia), various species in
-   gardens and greenhouses (_Yucca_ is closely allied). _Astelia._
-
-   POLLINATION. _Paris quadrifolia_ and _Convallaria majalis_
-   have no honey, and are chiefly visited by pollen-collecting
-   bees (in the absence of insect visits self-pollination takes
-   place); _Polygonatum multiflorum_ has honey secreted by septal
-   glands and protected by the base of the tubular perianth; it
-   is pollinated by humble-bees, etc. _Asparagus officinalis_ has
-   small, polygamous, greenish, honey-bearing flowers; the ♂-flower
-   is almost twice as large as the ♀; both have rudiments of the
-   opposite sex.
-
-   About 555 species; especially from N. America, Europe, and
-   Central Asia.
-
-   OFFICINAL: “Dragons’-blood,” a red resinous juice from the stem
-   of _Dracæna_ and the roots of some Central American species of
-   _Smilax_. The tuberous stems of the Eastern Asiatic _Smilax
-   glabra_ are officinal. The flowers of _Convallaria majalis_
-   have been lately used as a substitute for _Digitalis_. Pungent,
-   poisonous properties are possessed by _Paris_. None of the
-   species are used as food, except the young annual shoots of
-   _Asparagus officinalis_, a shore-plant which is used as a
-   vegetable.
-
-   Order 4. =Pontederiaceæ.= Flowers generally zygomorphic,
-   hypogynous, ☿, with handsome, white or violet, petaloid perianth
-   which forms a tube at its base. The stamens are inserted at
-   different heights in the perianth-tube, and are reduced to
-   three (in _Heteranthera_ seldom to one). In some the ovary is
-   trilocular with ∞ ovules (_Eichhornia_), in others reduced to
-   one loculus with one ovule (_Pontederia_). Fruit a capsule or
-   nut. Embryo as long as the abundant, mealy endosperm.--Tropical
-   water-plants (22 species) with peculiar sympodial branching,
-   nearly the same as in _Zostera_. Spikes without floral-leaves.
-   Many intercellular spaces in the stem and leaf.--In greenhouses:
-   _Eichhornia azurea_, _E. crassipes_ (both from tropical and
-   sub-tropical S. America); the latter has swollen petioles which
-   serve as floats and enable it to float freely on the water,
-   sending down its roots into the mud. _Heteranthera reniformis,
-   H. zosterifolia. Pontederia cordata._
-
-Order 5. =Amaryllidaceæ (Narcissi).= The flower is _epigynous_,
-otherwise exactly the same as in the Liliaceæ (6 stamens). The
-majority, like these, are also _perennial_ herbs with bulbs and scapes.
-The fruit and the other characters as in the Liliaceæ. The external
-appearance is, however, very different.
-
-=A.= AMARYLLEÆ have bulbs and the leaves generally arranged in two
-rows; the flowers are borne singly or in umbel-like inflorescences
-on lateral scapes, while the main axis of the bulb is unlimited.
-Beneath the inflorescence is an _involucre_ (Fig. 309).--_Galanthus_,
-Snowdrop, has a polyphyllous perianth without corona; the three inner
-perianth-leaves are emarginate and shorter than the outer; the anthers
-dehisce apically. ~_Leucojum_ differs in having the perianth-leaves
-equal in length.--_Amaryllis_ has a funnel-shaped perianth, entirely
-or nearly polyphyllous, but somewhat zygomorphic. _Crinum; Hæmanthus;
-Clivia._~--_Narcissus_ has a tubular _corona_, a ligular structure
-arising from the perianth-tube exterior to the outer stamens. ~In
-_Pancratium_ (Fig. 309) the corona is united with the filaments which
-appear to spring from its edge. _Eucharis amazonica._~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 309.--_Pancratium caribæum._]
-
-   =B.= HYPOXIDEÆ. The leaves, which are grass-like, dry, folded,
-   and in some hairy, spring from a rhizome, generally with a
-   divergence of 1/3. Flowers small, perianth polyphyllous,
-   persistent, on which account perhaps the Hypoxideæ may be
-   considered as the least altered type. The chief characteristic
-   is that the embryo is separated from the hilum. _Hypoxis_;
-   _Curculigo_ (_C. recurvata_, a favourite ornamental plant; S.E.
-   Asia).
-
-   =C.= ALSTRŒMERIEÆ. (_Alstrœmeria_, _Bomarea_); stems long,
-   leafy, often climbing.
-
-   =D.= VELLOSIEÆ (_Vellosia_, _Barbacenia_); stem woody, usually
-   dichotomously branched, with terminal, single flowers; it bears
-   numerous aerial roots which pierce the leaves and surround the
-   stem. Stamens often (by splitting) 6–18. High table-lands of S.
-   America and S. Africa.
-
-   =E.= AGAVEÆ. Very similar to the Bromeliaceæ both in their
-   distribution (nearly all American) and in external appearance.
-   They appear as gigantic bulbous plants with perennial, aerial,
-   generally short stem, and perennial, large, lanceolate or
-   linear, stiff, thick, and often thorny leaves, which form a
-   large rosette; after the course of several (8–20) years the
-   terminal inflorescence is developed, which is 10–12 m. high,
-   paniculate, and freely branched. Before the inflorescence
-   expands, a large quantity of sugar-containing sap is collected
-   from _A. americana_ by removing the terminal bud; this on
-   distillation yields “pulque,” the national drink of Mexico.
-   After flowering the entire shoot dies, but the subterranean
-   lateral shoots survive and reproduce the plant.--_Agave
-   americana_, etc.; _Fourcroya_; _Polianthes tuberosa_ (Tuberose;
-   Central America).
-
-   DISTRIBUTION. The 650 species are chiefly natives of S. Africa
-   and S. America. _Clivia_, _Hæmanthus_, _Amaryllis_ are from the
-   Cape; _Narcissus_ from S. Europe, whence many species have been
-   introduced; _Galanthus_ and _Leucojum_ are especially from S.
-   and Central Europe, and from the Caucasus.
-
-   USES, few, except as ornamental plants: _Galanthus nivalis_;
-   _Leucojum_; _Narcissus pseudonarcissus_, _N. poeticus_, _N.
-   jonquilla_, _N. tazetta_, etc.; _Amaryllis_, _Alstrœmeria_,
-   _Eucharis_, _Crinum_, _Vallota_, etc. The vascular bundles of
-   the various species of _Agave_ (_Agave rigida_, var. _sisalana_,
-   sisal hemp,) are used for cordage, etc.
-
-Order 6. =Bromeliaceæ.= The flowers are hypogynous, epigynous or
-semi-epigynous; the perianth is divided into _calyx_ and _corolla_;
-stamens 6. The fruit is a capsule or berry with many seeds. Endosperm
-_mealy_, embryo small, at the edge of the endosperm, but not enclosed
-by it.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 310.--_Aechmea miniata._]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 311.--Multiple-fruit of _Ananassa sativa_.]
-
-Perennial herbs with a very _characteristic appearance_ (Fig. 310);
-the stem is most often short, thick, and crowned by a _rosette_ of
-many leaves, which are long, often very narrow, _leathery_, stiff, and
-with a _spiny_ edge; they are usually channeled, completely closing
-round each other, with their edges forming a tightly closed hollow, in
-which generally water is collected (this among other things insulates
-the inflorescence and thus prevents the access of creeping insects,
-such as ants). The presence of numerous stellate, water-containing
-hairs often gives the leaves a grey appearance, and the layers of
-cells beneath the upper epidermis of the lamina form an “aqueous
-tissue,” which serves as a protection against the rays of the sun and
-regulates the evaporation. The stomata are often situated in furrows
-on the underside of the leaf, and hence cause a striped appearance.
-They _are all American_ (525 species), especially from S. America,
-where they live partly as epiphytes _on trees_, partly in the _clefts
-of rocks_, often on the steepest slopes, to which they firmly attach
-themselves by aerial roots; some are terrestrial. The stem is seldom
-tree-like or many metres in height (_Puya_, in Chili; _Hechtia_, in
-Mexico). _The inflorescence_ is a terminal spike, raceme, or panicle,
-often with large and brightly-coloured floral-leaves. The flowers are
-without scent. The seeds, in the species whose fruit is a capsule,
-are often provided with wings (hairs, expansions, etc).--_Ananassa
-sativa_, Pine-apple (W. Indies, Central America) is cultivated for the
-sake of its juicy, aromatic fruits, which coalesce with their fleshy
-bracts and form a large spike-like fruit-cluster (multiple-fruits,[29]
-Fig. 311) bearing on its apex a leafy shoot, which may be used as a
-cutting. Seeds very rarely developed.--_Tillandsia_ (_T. usneoides_ is
-a filamentous, richly branched, rootless epiphyte hanging in masses
-from trees; Trop. Am.), _Aechmea_, _Billbergia_, _Pitcairnia_, etc.
-
-   USES. The leaves of the Pine-apple, in its native country, are
-   used for the manufacture of cloth.
-
-   Order 7. =Hæmodoraceæ.= 120 species; in all parts of the world
-   except Europe; perennial, often tomentose and resembling
-   the Bromeliaceæ, Iridaceæ and Amaryllidaceæ. _Hæmodorum_
-   (Australia).--To this order belong _Ophiopogon_, _Peliosanthes_,
-   _Sanseviera_, and others.
-
-Order 8. The =Iridaceæ= have _epigynous_, hermaphrodite flowers with
-petaloid perianth as in the Amaryllidaceæ, but the _interior whorl of
-stamens is entirely suppressed_, and the 3 developed _outer_ stamens
-have _extrorse_ anthers (Fig. 279); there is 1 style with 3 large,
-generally _more or less leaf-like branches bearing the stigmas_.
-Ovary and capsule as in the Amaryllidaceæ and Liliaceæ.--Perennial
-herbs; _bulbs are rarely found_, but horizontal rhizomes, corms, etc.,
-take their place. The leaves are (except _Crocus_) as in the _Iris_,
-_two-rowed_, _equitant_ and _sword-like_. Flowers or inflorescences
-terminal.
-
-The _Iris_ (Flag) has a horizontal rhizome. The flowers are borne in
-the leaf-axils in fan-like inflorescences (rhipidium). The branches of
-the style are large and _petaloid_; on their under surface may be seen
-a small projecting shelf (Fig. 312 _a_) having on its upper surface the
-stigmatic hairs. Beneath the branches of the style are 3 well protected
-stamens, and immediately outside these the external perianth-leaves.
-~The honey is secreted in the perianth-tube, and the insects,
-endeavouring to obtain it through the narrow passages at the base of
-the stamens, settle upon the outer perianth-leaves, which are bent
-backwards and often very hairy along their central line. The insects
-then rub their backs on the anthers just above them, beneath the
-branches of the style; they readily deposit the pollen on the stigma
-of another flower as they enter it, but cannot do so in withdrawing,
-since the stigma is pushed back, and self-fertilisation is thus
-avoided. The stylar branches lie close to the outer perianth-leaves,
-which are just beneath them, or separated by a distance of only 6–10
-mm.; the first form of flower is adapted for _Rhingia rostrata_, the
-latter for bees~.--_Crocus_ has vertical, _tuberous_, underground stems
-surrounded by the leaf-sheaths (corms), and terminal flowers; the
-linear leaves _are not equitant_, but have two longitudinal furrows
-on the under side. The perianth is gamophyllous and funnel-shaped.
-The stylar branches (stigmas) are fleshy, _rolled together in the
-shape of a horn_, and split along the edge.--_Gladiolus_ has corms
-like the _Crocus_; spikes with slightly zygomorphic, almost bilabiate
-flowers, most frequently turning to one side. Position of the leaves
-as in the Iris.--~_Diplarrhena_ has 2 fertile and 1 barren stamen;
-_Hermodactylus_ has a unilocular ovary with 3 parietal placentæ.
-_Cypella_ and _Tigridia_ have bulbs.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 312.--_Iris pseudacorus._ One external and
-  two internal perianth-leaves, and one of the stylar-branches
-  have been removed, _y_ The outer, _i_ the inner perianth-leaves;
-  _g_ stylar-branch; _a_ stigma; _s_ anther. The ovary is seen in
-  longitudinal section.]
-
-   770 species; chiefly in the countries round the Mediterranean,
-   and in Africa, especially the Cape (_Gladiolus_, _Ferraria_,
-   _Moræa_, _Galaxia_, _Sparaxis_, _Antholyza_, _Tritonia_,
-   _Ixia_, etc.), Australia and Tropical America (_Sisyrinchium_,
-   _Tigridia_, _Cipura_, _Cypella_, etc). A great number are
-   ornamental plants: the cultivated _Crocus_-species are from the
-   South of Europe and Asia; _Gladiolus communis_ from S. Europe;
-   the other species principally from S. Africa. The native species
-   of _Iris_ are _I. pseudacorus_ (yellow) and _I. fœtidissima_.
-
-   OFFICINAL: the stigmas of _Crocus sativus_ (Oriental, cultivated
-   in France, Spain, Italy, and Austria), used as a colouring
-   matter, saffron; the rhizomes of the S. European _Iris
-   florentina_, _pallida_, and _germanica_ (“Orris-root”).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 313.--_Dioscorea batatas_: _A_ ♂-plant; _B_
-  ♂-flower; _C_ ♀-plant (nat. size); _D_, _E_ ♀-flowers (mag.); _F_
-  seed; _G_ embryo.]
-
-Order 9. =Dioscoreaceæ.= Perennial herbs with fleshy, often very large
-_tuberous rhizomes_ (or roots); _twining_ stems; leaves stalked, often
-arrow- or heart-shaped, lobed, _palminerved_ and _finely reticulate_
-as in the Dicotyledons (Fig. 313). The flower is _diclinous_ (most
-frequently _diœcious_), regular, _epigynous_, _small_, and of a
-_greenish colour_, but otherwise typical (Pr3 + 3, and A3 + 3, or G3);
-in most instances 2 ovules are placed one above the other in each
-loculus. The inflorescence is a _spike_ or _raceme_, sometimes richly
-branched and paniculate.--The order approaches most nearly to the
-Amaryllidaceæ.
-
-_Tamus_ (Bryony) has a berry, _Dioscorea_ (Yam) a thin-walled, 3-edged
-or 3-winged capsule (Fig. 313). Both have subterranean or aerial
-tubers; the Yam very often also developes tubers in the axils of the
-foliage-leaves; tuberous roots are said to occur in _D. batatas_.
-The tubers of many species of Yams (_D. batatas_ from China and
-Japan, _D. alata_, South Sea Islands and India, _D. bulbifera_) are
-a very important source of food in the Tropics, especially the
-first-named.--_Testudinaria_; _Rajania_.--~The tuberous stem of
-_Tamus communis_ and _Testudinaria elephantipes_, and some species
-of _Dioscorea_ is formed from one single internode (epicotyl), and
-the aerial shoots are developed from adventitious buds; in _T.
-elephantipes_ the stem is aerial, and covered with thick scales of
-cork, regularly arranged, and separated by grooves.~
-
-   Tropical order (167 species); 2 species (_Tamus communis_ and
-   _Borderea pyrenaica_) in Europe.
-
-
-                        Family 6. =Scitamineæ.=
-
-The flowers belong to the ordinary monocotyledonous type. They are
-hermaphrodite, _epigynous_, and have either a petaloid perianth, or
-calyx and corolla; they are, however, _zygomorphic_ or _unsymmetrical_,
-and of the stamens most frequently only one is _completely developed_,
-the others being generally represented by petaloid staminodes. The
-ovary has 3 loculi, more rarely it is unilocular with the suppression
-of 2 loculi. Endosperm is absent (except _Zingiberaceæ_); but, on the
-other hand, there is a _large perisperm_. To this family belong large,
-glabrous, especially _perennial herbs_ with rhizomes; leaves large,
-distinctly divided into sheath, stalk, and blade, the latter being more
-or less elliptical or lanceolate, entire, with pinnate venation, and
-always with a very _well-pronounced midrib_, gradually tapering towards
-the apex, and giving off numerous branches, which run outwards, towards
-the margin, at a larger or smaller angle; these _lateral veins_ are
-closely packed, and parallel, but with only weak, connecting branches
-between them; the leaves, therefore, are easily torn pinnately (Figs.
-314, 317). The leaf-sheaths close tightly round each other and form a
-false stem.
-
-This very natural family comprises orders closely connected with each
-other, but is not itself nearly allied to any other family. First in
-the series stands:--
-
-Order 1. =Musaceæ.= The _petaloid_ perianth is strongly zygomorphic,
-the anterior leaf being very large (a kind of “labellum”), the
-posterior one small; only the posterior stamen is wanting, or is
-rudimentary, the other five are developed, and have quadrilocular
-anthers; ovary, 3-locular. Seed with straight embryo in mealy perisperm.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 314.--Two _Musa_-species.]
-
-The best-known genus is _Musa_, the Banana (Fig. 314). From the
-short rhizome arise enormously large, spirally-placed leaves, whose
-sheaths envelope one another, and form an apparently aerial stem,
-several metres in height. The inflorescence is a terminal _spike_
-with floral-leaves placed spirally, and sometimes magnificently
-coloured; in the axils of each of these several flowers are situated
-in two transverse rows (accessory buds); the lowest flowers in the
-inflorescence are ♀, the central ones ☿, the upper ones ♂, so that
-fruits are only found in the lower region of the inflorescence, the
-remaining portion persisting as a naked axis after the floral-leaves
-and flowers have fallen off; the inflorescence terminates in an ovoid
-bud formed by the flowers which have not yet opened (Fig. 314, the
-left-hand figure). The perianth-leaves are united (except the posterior
-one). The fruit (known as a “Banana”) is a _berry_, having the form of
-a smooth, short, three-cornered Cucumber (as much as 30 cm. in length);
-inside the tough skin is found a farinaceous, aromatic pulp. No seed
-is developed in the cultivated species.--~Several _Musa_-species are
-cultivated in the Tropics for the sake of the fruit (_M. paradisiaca_,
-_M. sapientum_); for the fibrovascular bundles, _M. textilis_ (Manilla
-Hemp).--Their home is, no doubt, the Tropics of the Old World; they
-were introduced into America before the arrival of Europeans. _Musa
-ensete_ has dry, leathery fruits; an ornamental plant.~
-
-   In _Musa_ the barren, posterior stamen belongs to the inner
-   whorl; and also in _Strelitzia_ and _Ravenala_; the latter
-   may have all 6 stamens developed. In _Heliconia_, on the
-   contrary, it belongs to the outer whorl; in _Heliconia_ the
-   perianth-leaves are differently arranged, and there is only
-   one ovule in each loculus. The three latter genera have dry
-   fruits and leaves arranged in two rows. In the “Travellers’
-   Palm” (_Ravenala madagascariensis_) the foliage-leaves form an
-   enormous fan.--Tropical; about 50 species.
-
-The order may be divided as follows:--1. Museæ: _Musa_, _Ravenala_,
-_Strelitzia_ in the Old World. 2. Heliconiæ: _Heliconia_ in the New
-World.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 315.--Diagram of a _Zingiberaceous_ flower
-  (_Kæmpferia ovalifolia_): _b_ bract; _v_ bracteole; _k_ calyx;
-  _p^1_, _p^2_, _p^3_ the petals; _sst_, lateral staminodes
-  (“wings”); _lab_ labellum (formed of two staminodes); _st_ the
-  fertile stamen; * position of suppressed stamen. The ovary is in
-  the centre of the diagram.]
-
-Order 2. =Zingiberaceæ.= Perianth most frequently divided into _calyx_
-and _corolla_. Calyx gamosepalous. Only 1 _fertile stamen_ (the
-posterior, Fig. 315, belonging to the inner whorl) with quadrilocular
-anther, which encloses the style in a furrow; the 2 stamens in the
-outer whorl are staminodes, the median one (the anterior) is wanting.
-The 2 lateral staminodes of the inner whorl form the “labellum” (Fig.
-315 _lab_), which usually is the largest segment of the flower, and
-is often bilobed. Ovules many. The fruit in some is a leathery,
-3-valved capsule, with loculicidal dehiscence; in others it is more or
-less berry-like and indehiscent, or irregularly dehiscent. Straight
-embryo.--The aerial stem is seldom developed to any extent, and the
-inflorescences, which are (compound) spikes or racemes, often with
-coloured floral-leaves, spring in some (_e.g. Zingiber officinale_)
-directly from the rhizome. The leaves are arranged in two rows.--The
-ovary in a few instances (_Globba_ and others) is unilocular, with 3
-parietal placentæ.
-
-   They are perennial herbs with fleshy and tuberous rhizomes,
-   which are used as condiments and in medicine on account of their
-   pungent and aromatic properties and also for starch, dyes, etc.
-   OFFICINAL: _rhizomes_ of _Zingiber officinale_ (Ginger, unknown
-   wild, but cultivated generally in the Tropics), of _Curcuma
-   longa_ (Turmeric, a dye, E. India) and _C. zedoaria_, of _C.
-   angustifolia_ and others (as E. India Arrowroot), of _Alpinia
-   officinarum_, China (galangal). “Preserved Ginger” from _Alpinia
-   galanga_. Similar aromatic materials (volatile oils) are present
-   also, for example, in _the fruits_; Cardamom fruits and seeds
-   (from _Elettaria cardamomum_, China, seldom from _E. major_).
-
-   315 species; Tropics, preponderating in the Eastern Hemisphere,
-   India, and especially S. Asia, whence all the aromatic
-   species originate; they are now commonly cultivated in the
-   Tropics. Some are ornamental plants in greenhouses, _e.g._
-   _Hedychium_, _Costus_, etc. _Globba_ (with axillary buds in the
-   inflorescence, as in _Ficaria_), _Renealmia_, _Kæmpferia_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 316.--Flower of _Canna_: _f_ ovary; _pa_
-  calyx; _pi_ corolla; _l_ labellum; _st_ stamens; _an_ anther; _g_
-  stigma; α and β staminodes.]
-
-Order 3. =Cannaceæ.= American herbs without aromatic properties.
-Flowers asymmetric (Fig. 316). Calyx polysepalous. The stamens are
-_petaloid_ (Fig. 316 _st_) and barren with the exception of one (the
-posterior), which bears on one of its _edges_ a bilocular anther;
-another, which is especially large and coloured, is termed the
-_labellum_. The style is compressed and leaf-like, with a small stigma
-at the apex. Ovules numerous in the 3 loculi. The capsule is furnished
-with warts or soft prickles. _Embryo straight._
-
-_Canna_ (30 species; Trop. Am.). The inflorescence is a terminal
-spike with 2-flowered unipared scorpioid cymes in the axils of the
-floral-leaves. Ornamental plants: _Canna indica_, etc.
-
-The diagram of the andrœcium of the Cannaceæ and Marantaceæ may be
-represented in the following manner (calyx, corolla and gynœceum being
-omitted):--
-
-        CANNACEÆ.                 MARANTACEÆ.
-
-    _w_            _w_        _w_             _w_
-           _st_                       _st_
-      _w_       _lab_           _wi_        _c_
-            *                          *
-
-   _w_ The lateral staminodes, “wings;” _st_ fertile stamen; * the
-   suppressed stamen; _lab_ labellum; _c_ hood; _wi_ inner-wing.
-
-   The labellum of the Cannaceæ corresponds with the hood of the
-   Marantaceæ and not with the labellum of the Zingiberaceæ.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 317.--_Calathea zebrina._]
-
-Order 4. =Marantaceæ.= The flower is asymmetrical. Only 1 or 2 of the
-3 stamens in the outer whorl are present as staminodes; in the inner
-whorl 2 are petaloid and of the sixth stamen one-half is developed as a
-staminode and the other half bears a bilocular anther. One ovule only
-in each loculus. The style is strongly curved and at first enclosed
-in one of the staminodes (hood) of the inner whorl; later on it
-springs elastically forward towards the other staminode (inner-wing)
-of the same whorl. The stigma is very oblique or 2-lipped. Two of the
-three loculi of the ovary, in some (_Maranta_, _Thalia_) become small
-and empty. Embryo _curved_. Leaves in two rows, with sheath, stalk,
-and blade (Fig. 317); at the base of the last is a _characteristic
-swelling_ (_articulus_).--~_Phrynium_, _Calathea_, _Stromanthe_,
-_Ctenanthe_, _Saranthe_, etc. About 150 species; tropical, especially
-America. The starch of the rhizome of _Maranta arundinacea_ is
-OFFICINAL, “West Indian Arrowroot.”~
-
-
-                         Family 7. =Gynandræ.=
-
-The flowers are hermaphrodite and constructed on the ordinary 3-merous,
-pentacyclic type with petaloid, _epigynous, strongly zygomorphic_
-perianth, and generally _one-stamened_ by the suppression of the
-other 5 stamens. The family has derived its name from the fact that
-the stamen is united with the style into a “_stylar column_” (except
-_Burmanniaceæ_). All are herbs; many grow as epiphytes on other plants.
-
-   This family and the Scitamineæ occupy correspondingly high
-   positions among the Monocotyledons; these two families may
-   therefore be placed close together, although one cannot be
-   derived from the other. The first of the two orders is very
-   small, but the second is very rich in species. The Apostasieæ
-   are best classed with the Orchidaceæ and have no independent
-   place.
-
-Order 1. =Burmanniaceæ.= This order forms a transitional link between
-the Gynandræ and the epigynous Liliifloræ (_Amaryllidaceæ_), in having
-a 6-leaved perianth, and 6–8 stamens; but some have a labiate perianth
-(the median perianth-leaf of the _outer_ whorl being very large). The
-ovary is most frequently unilocular with three parietal placentæ; but
-in some it is 3-locular with axile placentation. Capsule. Seeds ∞,
-small, with _endosperm_. The relationship to the Orchidaceæ is shown
-especially in the very imperfectly developed embryo and in the ovary.
-Small, tropical herbs (59 species); some are saprophytes.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 318.--_A_ Diagram of an Orchid-flower. _B_,
-  _Cephalanthera_. Stylar-column: _a_ anther; _s_ stigma; at the
-  foot are seen scars indicating the position of the parts which
-  have been removed.]
-
-Order 2. =Orchidaceæ.= The epigynous, petaloid perianth is strongly
-zygomorphic in having the _posterior_ leaf of the interior whorl, the
-_lip_ (labellum), differing from all the other leaves in form, size,
-and colour (except _Apostasieæ_); the position of the labellum is very
-frequently reversed, being turned _forwards and downwards_ by the
-twisting of the ovary (Fig. 318 _A_). _Only_ 1 of the stamens--the
-anterior of the external whorl--is developed and bears an anther (by
-the twisting of the ovary it is turned posteriorly and upwards);
-the others are entirely wanting (indicated by * in Fig. 318 _A_)
-or present as staminodes (Fig. 318 _A_, δ δ) (except _Apostasieæ_,
-_Cypripedileæ_); the filaments are united with the style to form a
-column (Fig. 318 _B_), the _stylar-column_[30] (_gynostemium_), and
-the anther (_a_) is thus placed on its apex and exactly behind or over
-the stigma (_s_). The anther is 4-locular; the pollen-grains do not
-separate (except _Apostasieæ_, _Cypripedileæ_) but remain united either
-in tetrads or in masses, which correspond to a pollen-mother-cell
-(Fig. 320 _C_, _D_, _E_); or the pollen-grains, formed in each of
-the two anther-halves, remain united and form one or a few wax-like
-masses (pollen-masses, pollinia). The 3 carpels form a _unilocular
-ovary_ with 3 parietal, deeply bifid placentæ (except _Apostasieæ_,
-_Selenipedilum_). Only the two lateral carpels are prolonged and
-developed into the stigma (Fig. 318 _B_, _s_), while the one lying in
-the median line, which is situated just within the anther (Fig. 318
-_A_), becomes either rudimentary or developed into the “_rostellum_”
-(“a small beak”), on which the sticky bodies (_glandulæ_) arise; by
-aid of these the heavy, connected pollen-masses may be glued to the
-insects which visit the flower, and pollination is thus secured (in
-_Apostasieæ_ and _Cypripedileæ_ the 3 carpels each contribute to the
-formation of the stigma). The fruit is a _capsule_ which most often
-dehisces _by 6 valves_, 3 of which are broader and bear the placentæ,
-and 3 alternating with them are narrower and barren (except _Vanilla_).
-The very numerous and exceedingly small seeds have _no endosperm_,
-and have a somewhat _spherical embryo without any trace of external
-organs_. The testa is membranous and loose.
-
-The Orchids are _all perennial herbs_ with diverse habits and varying
-morphological structure (see the genera); the leaves are scattered,
-of the usual Liliaceous form, and the inflorescences in all cases are
-_racemes or spikes_ (sometimes branched), with subtending bracts, but
-without bracteoles.
-
-The forms which are the least modified are described first.
-
-=1.= APOSTASIEÆ. The perianth-leaves are almost alike and free. The
-column is straight, with 3 equally-developed stigmas. _Neuwiedia_ has
-3 perfect stamens (1 median of the outer whorl, and 2 lateral of the
-inner whorl); _Apostasia_ has only 2 perfect (inner lateral) and one
-barren (the median of the outer whorl), which however may be entirely
-wanting. The 3 _posterior_ stamens are entirely suppressed. The pollen
-is powdery. The ovary is 3-locular with axile placenta. 7 species
-(Tropical East India, Australia).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 319.--_Cypripedilum calceolus_: 1 front view
-  of the flower; 2 lateral view, after the removal of all the
-  perianth-leaves with the exception of the labellum, which has
-  been divided longitudinally; 3 the stylar-column; _ov_ ovary;
-  _s_-_s_ exterior, _p_ interior perianth; _p’_ the labellum; _a_
-  the two fertile stamens; _a’_ the staminode; _st_ the stigma; _i_
-  entrance for the insects; _ex_ exit.]
-
-=2.= CYPRIPEDILEÆ.[31] The flower is strongly zygomorphic with a large
-boat-shaped labellum. There are two perfect stamens belonging to the
-_inner_ whorl, and the median anterior (later on the posterior) stamen
-of the outer whorl is transformed into a large, barren, shield-shaped
-body (Fig. 319). _Selenipedilum_ has a 3-locular ovary, but
-_Cypripedilum_ (Ladies’-slipper) has a unilocular ovary with 3 parietal
-placentæ--the typical structure for the Orchids. The pollen-grains
-are _separate_ (not in tetrads) and all the 3 lobes of the stigma are
-constructed to receive them. This group is therefore, next to the
-Apostasieæ, the least modified among the Orchids; in all the following
-groups, one of the lobes of the stigma is differently developed from
-the others, and there is only one stamen.--Terrestial Orchids.--~The
-pollination of _C. calceolus_ is effected by the forcible entrance of
-insects into the boat-shaped labellum (Fig. 319 _p’_) at _i_, and their
-escape at _ex_ (in 2) where the anthers are situated; in this way the
-stigmas will first be touched and then the anthers. The pollen-grains
-are surrounded by a sticky mass in order that they may adhere to the
-insects.~
-
-=3.= NEOTTIEÆ. The majority are terrestrial Orchids with creeping,
-sympodial rhizomes; the blades of the leaves are not detached from the
-stem at joints, and have convolute vernation. The anthers do not drop
-off, but persist in the withered condition; their _apex_ is brought
-in contact with the rostellum (acrotonous Orchids). The pollen-grains
-are united in _tetrads_, which, however, often hang loosely together
-in pollinia, attached to a sticky part of the rostellum (“adhesive
-disc”), so that they adhere to the insects, and are by them transferred
-to the stigmas. _Spiranthes. Listera_; _Neottia_. ~_N. nidus-avis_
-(Bird’s-nest) is brown (it has little chlorophyll) in colour, has
-no foliage-leaves, and lives mainly as a saprophyte; the rhizome
-is studded with unbranched, fleshy roots which may form buds at
-their extremities.~--_Vanilla_ climbs by aerial roots. The fruit
-is fleshy and hardly opens, or does so irregularly.--_Epipactis_,
-_Cephalanthera_.--_Epipogon_ and _Limodorum_ are saprophytes without
-chlorophyll.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 320.--A Flower of _Orchis maculata_ (front
-  view): a stamen; _b_ the cup; _n_ the stigmas; _x_ staminodes;
-  _sp_ the spur; _spe_ the entrance to it; _sm_-_sl_-_sl_ exterior
-  perianth-leaves; _pm_ the labellum, and _pl_-_pl_ the other 2
-  interior perianth-leaves. _B-E Orchis mascula_: _B_ lateral
-  view of the column; _C_ a pollinium with massulæ (_p_), caudicle
-  (_c_) and adhesive disc (_d_); _D_ caudicles with the cup (_r_),
-  front view; the latter is depressed so that the adhesive disc is
-  seen lying inside it; _E_ a pollinium, more highly magnified;
-  some massulæ are removed. _F Ophrys aranifera_: rostellum and
-  the base of the anther-loculus; an adhesive disc is seen on the
-  right.]
-
-=4.= OPHRYDEÆ. Anthers 2-locular, not falling off, on a very short
-column. The anther is united at _its base_ with the rostellum
-(_basitonous_ Orchids, Fig. 320 _A_, _B_), while in all other Orchids
-it is connected at the apex (acrotonous Orchids). The pollen-grains
-in each loculus are united into small “masses” (massulæ), each of
-which corresponds to a pollen-mother-cell in the anther, and which
-hang together by elastic threads (Fig. 320 _C_, _E_). Each pollinium
-is attached at the base by a stalk (caudicle) to an adhesive disc,
-formed by the modified stigma (rostellum), and is easily liberated
-from it (Fig. 320 _C_, _D_, _F_). The pollinium, which is formed in
-an anther-loculus, together with its caudicle and adhesive disc, is
-termed “pollinarium” (Fig. 320 _C_).--All Ophrydeæ are terrestrial with
-_tuberous roots_, two of which are present in the flowering period, an
-older one (from the preceding year) containing the nourishment for
-the flowering-shoot of the year, and a young one which is intended to
-contain the reserve material for the following year. Inflorescence
-terminal.
-
-_Orchis._ The lip has a spur; each of the club-like pollinia is
-attached to its own adhesive disc, the discs being enclosed in a common
-pouch formed by the rostellum (Fig. 320 _C_, _D_). ~Tubers ovate,
-undivided: _O. morio_, _mascula_; tubers palmate: _O. incarnata_,
-_maculata_, _majalis_.~--_Ophrys_; no spur, the two adhesive discs
-are each enclosed in a separate pouch (Fig. 320 _F_).--_Anacamptis_
-and _Serapias_ have one adhesive disc.--_Habenaria_, _Gymnadenia_,
-_Platanthera_, _Herminium_, _Nigritella_, _Cœloglossum_, etc., have
-naked adhesive discs (no rostellum).
-
-   =5.= EPIDENDREÆ. Acrotonous Orchids with deciduous anthers
-   (except _Malaxis_); 2-8 wax-like pollinia, with or without
-   caudicles; generally no adhesive discs. _Malaxis_ (the flower is
-   twisted through a complete circle, causing the labellum to be
-   turned upwards), _Sturmia_ and _Corallorhiza_[32] (Coral-root);
-   the latter has a creeping, coral-like rhizome _without roots,
-   and is destitute of chlorophyll_ except in the ovary. The
-   other two somewhat resemble the tropical Orchids in having the
-   lower internodes of the axis of the inflorescence tuberous.
-   _Liparis_; _Calypso_. Most of the genera are tropical epiphytes
-   and many have aerial, green tubers formed from one or more
-   stem-internodes; _Dendrobium_, _Eria_, _Phaius_, _Bletia_,
-   _Epidendrum_, _Cattleya_, _Lælia_, _Pleurothallis_, _Restrepia_,
-   _Masdevallia_, _Bulbophyllum_, etc.
-
-   =6.= VANDEÆ. These resemble the preceding but have only 2
-   wax-like pollinia in each anther, which are attached by a
-   caudicle to the adhesive disc of the rostellum. Nearly all are
-   tropical epiphytes. _Stanhopea_, _Catasetum_, _Maxillaria_,
-   _Oncidium_, _Vanda_, _Polystachya_, etc.
-
-   6,000 (10,000?) species. The majority live in the Tropics and
-   occur, especially, as epiphytes on trees or in the crevices of
-   rocks, to which they are attached by aerial roots. These _aerial
-   roots_, like those of Araceæ, are covered by several layers of
-   spirally-thickened cells (tracheides) which contain air and form
-   the velamen--an apparatus to absorb moisture from the air. The
-   roots have a white appearance when the cells are filled with
-   air, which changes to a greenish hue when they are filled with
-   water, the chlorophyll then shining through. They generally
-   have horizontal rhizomes; the ascending shoots, which bear the
-   foliage-leaves, may vary, but they very often swell and assume
-   the form of a tuber, which persists for several years fresh and
-   green after the leaves have fallen off (Fig. 321). _Vanilla_
-   is an exception (see above). Our Orchids are all terrestrial
-   (or marsh-plants); the largest number of species is found in
-   calcareous soils.
-
-   POLLINATION takes place principally by means of insects,
-   but self-pollination occurs in some. The lip serves as a
-   landing-stage for the insect visitors, which, on sucking the
-   honey, cause the adhesive discs, with the pollinia attached to
-   them, to adhere to their bodies (generally to the probosces)
-   and so carry them away to other flowers. In some species parts
-   of the flower are sensitive or irritable, which has some
-   connection with the pollination. Without doubt there are a great
-   many biological differences which are closely connected with
-   the infinite multiplicity of forms; Darwin (1862) has already
-   shown an enormous variety, never even dreamt of before, in the
-   European species. The genus _Catasetum_ has ♂-♀-and ☿-plants
-   with flowers of such different appearances that they have
-   been classed in various genera (_Myanthus_, _Monacanthus_).
-   _Platanthera_ is pollinated by hawk-moths; _Ophrys_, by flies;
-   _Epipactis latifolia_, by wasps; _Orchis_, by bees, especially
-   humble-bees, etc.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 321.--_Chysis bractescens._]
-
-   The DISTRIBUTION OF SEEDS is effected by the wind, the seeds
-   being so exceedingly small and light. Many species moreover have
-   peculiar, elater-like, fine, hygroscopic hairs in the ovary,
-   which eject the seeds in a manner similar to the elaters of the
-   Liverworts.
-
-   The USES are few, mostly as ornamental plants in conservatories.
-   The tubers of several _Orchis_-species are OFFICINAL; they
-   contain starch and mucilage and are used us “salep.” The fruits
-   of _Vanilla planifolia_ are used as condiments and differ from
-   other _Orchid_-fruits in being rather fleshy and in dehiscing
-   irregularly; the seeds are very small, shining and black.
-
-
-                      Class II. =Dicotyledones.=
-
-In this class THE EMBRYO has 2 seed-leaves, a rule from which there are
-few exceptions (_e.g. Ficaria_, _Cyclamen_, _Pinguicula_, certain
-species of _Corydalis_, with only 1; and a few, mostly parasitic
-forms, _e.g. Monotropa_, _Orobanche_, _Pyrola_, entirely without
-cotyledons). On germination the cotyledons nearly always raise
-themselves above the ground as green, assimilating leaves and are then
-termed aerial or epigean, in contradistinction to the underground or
-hypogean which are always buried. The structure of the seed varies
-(endospermous or exendospermous); the embryo may be straight or curved.
-In many instances the primary root grows as a vigorous tap-root,
-with weaker branches arising acropetally (in annuals, biennials,
-many perennials, especially woody plants); but in a large number of
-herbaceous perennials, which have rhizomes, the root behaves very much
-as in the Monocotyledons. The roots generally increase in thickness by
-means of a cambium.
-
-THE STEM, when seen in transverse section, has its vascular bundles
-arranged in a ring; in reality, however, they form a kind of
-cylindrical network in the stem; the bundles are open, and thickening
-takes place by means of a cambium; annual rings are formed in the
-perennial stems. There is a rich and very varied form of _branching_.
-The two first leaves of a shoot (fore-leaves) are placed nearly always
-to the right and to the left; the same arrangement is found in the two
-first leaves developed on the flower-stalk, and these are, as a rule,
-the only two; they are found below the calyx and are usually termed the
-“_bracteoles_.” It has become customary to indicate the bracteoles by
-the letters α and β, according to their sequence of growth, and in that
-sense these letters will be employed in the following diagrams.
-
-THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE LEAVES varies very much; there is also a great
-variety of shapes in the leaves and their venation, but the linear
-leaves, with parallel venation, so frequent in the Monocotyledons,
-are seldom met with, as also the large sheaths (though the sheath is
-well developed in the Umbelliferous plants); stipules occur much more
-frequently.
-
-THE FLOWER is most commonly cyclic, but acyclic or hemicyclic forms
-also occur. The type which may be taken as a basis consists in the
-majority of instances, as in the Monocotyledons, of 5 whorls, of which
-the 4 outer ones (calyx, corolla, and the 2 whorls of stamens) are
-most frequently 4 or 5 in number and placed in regular alternation,
-whilst the innermost one (the carpels) has generally fewer members,
-probably on account of space (Figs. 360, 361, 421, 429, 487, etc.).
-Trimerous (Figs. 384, 387, etc.) flowers, or those in which the members
-of the flower are in threes or a multiple of three, also occur, as well
-as dimerous flowers; other numbers are rare. It is of the greatest
-importance in connection with the relative position of the members of
-the flower to the axis and bract (orientation), whether the bracteoles
-are typically present (even though they may not be developed), or
-are typically absent. If there are 2 bracteoles present, then their
-position in a pentamerous flower is often as follows: the first sepal
-turns obliquely forward, the second is posterior and median, the
-third obliquely forward, the fourth and fifth obliquely backward;
-quincuncial æstivation is often found in these buds (Figs. 360, 429,
-471, 475, 584). The first and third leaves, in the following chapters,
-are most frequently alluded to as the “anterior,” the fourth and
-fifth as the “lateral” leaves. The _reversed_ arrangement, with the
-median sepal in the front, occurs for instance in _Papilionaceæ_ (Fig.
-511), _Lobeliaceæ_ (Fig. 594), _Rhodoracecæ_. If any bracteoles are
-present below a tetramerous flower, the relation is generally that
-2 sepals (the first ones) stand in the median plane, the two next
-ones transversely (Fig. 393), and the corolla then adopts a diagonal
-position (Fig. 397); but a diagonal position of the calyx generally
-shows that the flower is not, strictly speaking, tetramerous, as in
-_Plantago_ (Fig. 567), _Veronica_ (Fig. 559 _C_) and others.
-
-If the bracteoles are _not_ typically present, then the position of the
-sepals is changed accordingly, and the two outer sepals endeavour to
-assume the position which the bracteoles would otherwise have occupied,
-_e.g._ in _Primula_ (Fig. 547). Other positions are also found when the
-number of bracteoles is more or less than two.
-
-The leaves which follow the sepals occupy definite positions with
-regard to them, which we may consider later. An arrangement must,
-however, be mentioned here; when the flower is “_diplostemonous_” that
-is, has two whorls of stamens (thus, Sn, Pn, An + n), these may be
-arranged in two ways. _Either_ the first-formed whorl of stamens, which
-are termed the “calyx-stamens,” stands directly in front of the sepals
-(that is “episepalous”), and is the _outermost_ whorl, and in this case
-a regular alternation takes place between sepals, petals and the two
-whorls of stamens, which is also continued into the carpels if their
-number is the same as that of the other whorls: the carpels are then
-placed opposite the sepals (Fig. 278) and the flower is _isomerous_
-and Gn should be added to the formula above. _Or_, the calyx-stamens
-form the _innermost_ whorl, and the corolla-stamens, which are
-subsequently formed (“epipetalous” stamens), stand _outside_ these
-(Figs. 360, 429); if the number of carpels is the same as that of the
-preceding whorls, they are often placed _right in front_ of the petals
-and the corolla-stamens. The first-mentioned arrangement is termed
-_Diplostemonous_, and the second _Obdiplostemonous_. ~Both arrangements
-may be found in one and the same order, _e.g._ Caryophyllaceæ. The
-size and relation of the members of the flowers, and also the contact
-with other members in the early stages of their development, play an
-important part in determining the arrangement.~
-
-The great number of structural arrangements found in this enormously
-large class, may, as is the case in the Monocotyledons, be further
-varied by _suppression and division_ of certain leaves (especially the
-stamens). Instances of this will occur in the following (Figs. 559,
-568.--426, 441, 445, etc.).
-
-The Dicotyledons were formerly divided into 3 sub-classes: Apetalæ
-(those without corolla), Sympetalæ or Gamopetalæ (those with the petals
-united), and Choripetalæ or Polypetalæ (the petals not united). This
-division has now been abandoned because it has been proved that the
-Apetalæ were merely reduced or incomplete forms of the Choripetalæ, and
-they have therefore been distributed among the various families of the
-latter sub-class.
-
-With regard to the Sympetalæ (or Gamopetalæ) it may be stated that
-they form to a very great extent a closely connected and natural
-group, having in common not only the character that the corolla is
-gamopetalous and the stamens united with it (this being also found in
-the Choripetalæ), but also a great many others (such as persistent
-calyx, cyclic flowers with the formula S5, P5, A5 and as a rule G2,
-the two carpels being united to form the ovary; seeds with a thick
-integument and a very small nucellus). They are therefore considered
-as an independent sub-class, and must be placed at the close of the
-system of classification as the forms which presumably have arisen the
-latest. In the future systems of classification this arrangement will
-very probably be changed, and the first families of the Sympetalæ, the
-Bicornes and others will for instance be to a certain extent united
-with the families or orders of the Choripetalæ. The Sympetalæ may
-certainly be considered as the youngest types, the strongly pronounced
-metamorphosis supporting this theory, as also the formation of the
-integument of the ovule, the one thick integument being undoubtedly
-derived from the coalescence of two--a holochlamydeous ovule, etc.
-
-The Apetalæ and Choripetalæ are united into one sub-class. The leaves
-of the perianth in this case are, as a rule, free from each other, the
-structure of the flowers presents many differences, and the ovules have
-as a rule 2 integuments and a large nucellus. Considerable uncertainty
-still prevails regarding the arrangement and the relationship of the
-individual families of the Choripetalæ, and some of the following
-families are hardly quite natural; but the best arrangement arrived at
-so far has been adopted here.
-
-At the beginning of the book a review of the orders of the Dicotyledons
-will be found.
-
-
-               Sub-Class 1. =Choripetalæ. Petals free.=
-
-
-                       Family 1. =Salicifloræ.=
-
-Trees and shrubs, which, in the structure of the vegetative shoot and
-the catkin-like inflorescences, resemble the Quercifloræ, but the
-structure of the flower differs so much from them, that the only order
-brought under this heading--_Salicaceæ_--well deserves to be separated
-and to form a family of its own, the nearest relatives of which are
-still doubtful. ~As Juglandaceæ and Myricaceæ also deserve to be placed
-in a special family, the name _Amentaceæ_ (_Catkin-bearers_), hitherto
-applied to all of these plants, cannot be retained as the name of a
-family.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 322.--Male and female catkins of _Salix
-  caprea_.]
-
-There is only one order.
-
-Order. =Salicaceæ= (=Willows=). Trees with simple, scattered,
-_stipulate leaves_. _Diœcious_. The flowers are arranged in _simple
-inflorescences_ (spikes or racemes) which are termed catkins, and which
-fall off as a whole after flowering (♂) or after the ripening of the
-fruit (♀) (Fig. 322). The perianth is very imperfect[33] or wanting,
-particularly in _Salix_ (Fig. 323 _o_); the ♂-flower with 2–several
-stamens and without any trace of a carpel (_a_, _b_, _c_): the
-♀-flower has a free bicarpellate ovary, _unilocular_, and formed from 2
-lateral carpels with 2 _parietal_ (_median_) _placentæ_ and generally ∞
-ovules; the style divides into two stigmas (_d_, _e_, _f_). The fruit
-is a two-valved _capsule_ and the very small seeds bear a _tuft of
-hairs_ at the base. _Endosperm absent._--~The catkins are situated on
-dwarf-branches, which in some species often develop before the leaves
-and bear at their base only scale-leaves; in others foliage-leaves
-are borne beneath the catkins. The vegetative bud commences with 2
-bud-scales which are united on the anterior side into a scale. The
-capsule opens by the dorsal suture. The seed-hairs spring from the
-funicle.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 323.--_Salix_: male flowers of _S. pentandra_
-  (_a_), _S. aurita_ (_b_), _S. rubra_ (_c_), female flowers of _S.
-  aurita_ (_d_), _S. nigricans_ (_e_), _S. mollissima_ (_f_).]
-
-_Salix_ (Willow) has short-stalked, most frequently lanceolate leaves
-and erect catkins with undivided bracts (Fig. 322). The flowers are
-naked; 1 (_o_ in _a-f_) or 2 yellowish glands situated in the median
-line. In the ♂-flower generally two stamens, situated laterally like
-the carpels in the ♀-flower. ~Various forms are seen in Fig. 323.--The
-terminal bud of the branches often aborts regularly, the uppermost
-lateral bud taking its place.~
-
-_Populus_ (Aspen, Poplar) has long-stalked, more or less round or
-cordate leaves with drawn-out apex; catkin pendulous; lobed bracts;
-perianth cup-like with oblique edge; stamens usually numerous; stigmas
-often divided.--~_P. tremula_ (Aspen) has received its name from the
-tremor of the leaves: _cf._ “to shake like an aspen leaf.”~
-
-   POLLINATION. The Poplars are wind-pollinated. The Willows have
-   sticky pollen and are pollinated by insects. The catkins of
-   the Willows, especially the ♂, are more conspicuous, from the
-   numerous, closely-packed, yellow flowers, rich in honey and
-   pollen. The catkins often appear before the foliage and so
-   are much more easily seen, whilst at this time of the year the
-   number of competing honey-flowers is smaller, and the insect
-   visits consequently more numerous. On many catkins of the Willow
-   the flowers open earliest on the side which is turned towards
-   the sun and in descending order, _i.e._ the upper flowers
-   develop before the lower ones. Hybrids frequently appear.
-
-   There are about 180 species existing in the northern, cold and
-   temperate latitudes. Some in the Polar regions are scarcely more
-   than an inch in height, and have a creeping rhizome (_Salix
-   herbacea_, _polaris_, _reticulata_). Fossil forms are found in
-   the Tertiary and perhaps also in the Upper Cretaceous.
-
-   USES. Principally for ornamental trees, as they grow very
-   quickly and are easily propagated by cuttings, _S. babylonica_,
-   Weeping Willow; _S. purpurea_; _Populus alba_, Silver Poplar;
-   _P. pyramidalis_, Pyramid Poplar--a form of _P. nigra_; _P.
-   monilifera_, Canadian Poplar. The wood is very poor and
-   little used; the branches of many Willows are cultivated for
-   basket-making, etc. The wood of the Aspen is used for matches.
-   The bark contains tannin and, in many Willows, a very bitter
-   extract, _Salicin_ (_S. pentandra_, _fragilis_). Salicylic
-   acid (officinal) is obtained from _Salix_. Balsam is extracted
-   from the buds of many Poplars, especially when the leaves are
-   shooting.
-
-
-                      Family 2. =Casuarinifloræ.=
-
-Trees with verticillate, scale-like leaves forming sheaths at the
-nodes. Monœcious. Flowers unisexual. ♂-flowers in catkins; ♀ in short
-spikes. _Pollen-tube entering the ovule at the chalaza_, and not
-through the micropyle. Ovary 1-seeded, unilocular. Carpels uniting into
-a multiple fruit. Only one order.
-
-Order. =Casuarinaceæ.= Trees (30 species), from Australia and certain
-parts of S.E. Asia, with peculiar, equisetum-like appearance. The
-leaves are verticillate, scale-like and united into sheaths. The
-internodes are furrowed. Branching verticillate. The unisexual flowers
-are situated in catkins or short spikes. The ♂-flower has a central
-stamen, surrounded by 2 median, scale-like perianth-leaves and 2
-lateral bracteoles. The ♀-flower has a 1-chambered ovary (2 ascending,
-orthotropous ovules), no perianth, but 2 large, lateral bracteoles
-which finally become woody and form two valves, between which the
-nut-like fruit is situated. The multiple-fruits therefore resemble
-small cones.--_Casuarina equisetifolia_, cultivated, gives “iron-wood.”
-
-   [The Casuarinas differ from the ordinary Dicotyledons in many
-   important respects which may be briefly summarised thus:--The
-   bicarpellate ♀-flower has a well-pronounced stylar-cylinder
-   terminated by two stigmas, but the cavity of the ovary closes
-   very soon after its formation, and in it are developed two
-   parietal ovules; these are united by a bridge of cellulose to
-   the stylar-cylinder or summit of the ovary, and hence the ovules
-   are connected with the walls of the ovary by the bridge (above),
-   as well as by the funicle (below). The archespore is developed
-   from the hypodermal cells at the summit of the nucellus,
-   two primordial mother-cells are first formed and from these
-   by tangential divisions a central cylindrical mass of cells
-   (sporogenous-tissue) is produced which is surrounded by tapetal
-   cells. The cells of the sporogenous tissue correspond to the
-   mother-cells of the embryo-sac of other Angiosperms; they divide
-   transversely and from 16–20 macrospores are formed together with
-   inactive cells which are not crushed together as in the case
-   of other Phanerogams. The sexual apparatus is developed from a
-   single cell, but the number of cells composing this apparatus
-   is subject to variation, the oosphere being accompanied by one
-   or two neighbouring cells which resemble canal-cells rather
-   than synergidæ. The sexual apparatus is found in the majority
-   of the macrospores, but in most of these it remains as a number
-   of naked cells; while in the fertile macrospores the cells
-   are invested by walls of cellulose (usually only one fertile
-   macrospore is found in each ovule). Antipodal cells are never
-   developed. The macrospores elongate considerably towards the
-   chalaza, into which some penetrate. The pollen-tube traverses
-   the stylar-cylinder and enters the ovules at the chalaza, its
-   passage through the tissue of the nucellus being assisted by
-   the prolongation of the macrospores. About the centre of the
-   nucellus the pollen-tube is ruptured; the apical portion which
-   alone takes part in the fertilisation being firmly attached to
-   the macrospore. Although the actual impregnation has not been
-   observed, Treub considers that the endosperm begins to be formed
-   before fertilisation.]
-
-
-                       Family 3. =Quercifloræ.=
-
-_Trees_ and _shrubs_ with small, unisexual, _monœcious_ flowers, having
-no perianth or a simple inconspicuous one. The ♂ and ♀ flowers are
-very different and generally placed in separate inflorescences. The
-♂-flowers are most often adnate to the bracts. The stamens are placed
-_opposite the perianth-leaves_, when they are present in equal numbers.
-The ♀-flower is _naked_, or has a _superior_ perianth. The ovary at
-the base is 2- or 3-(-6) locular with 1 or 2 pendulous ovules in each
-loculus, only one of which is developed; the fruit is a one-seeded
-_nut_; _endosperm absent_; embryo straight. The inflorescences, which
-are either compound and mixed (small dichasia in spikes) or simple,
-are here also termed _catkins_; but, strictly speaking, this term is
-applied to the ♂-inflorescences only. In all Quercifloræ the leaves are
-_scattered_ (usually in 2 rows) _simple_, and _penninerved_, and with
-_deciduous stipules_.
-
-   It is worthy of remark that in _Betulaceæ_, _Corylaceæ_ and
-   _Quercus_ the ovules, and to some extent the loculi of the
-   ovary are not developed till after pollination, so that the
-   development of the pollen-tube proceeds very slowly. The
-   smallness of the flowers, the absence of honey, the dryness
-   and lightness of the pollen, the size of the stigma and the
-   abundance of hairs found on many stigmas are all adaptations for
-   wind-pollination. It is also an advantage that the flowers are
-   generally pollinated before the foliage-leaves are developed,
-   thus preventing the pollen being entangled by the leaves.
-
-   The two orders _Betulaceæ_ and _Corylaceæ_ mentioned here are
-   by other authors united into one order. [It is doubtful whether
-   these two should be retained in the family Quercifloræ, as
-   recent researches (p. 273) have shown that they differ from
-   the Cupuliferæ in many important points, and agree with the
-   Casuarinas in the fact that the pollen-tube enters the ovule
-   through the chalaza.]
-
-Order 1. =Betulaceæ= (=Birches=). Monœcious, with thick, cylindrical,
-_compound_ ♂ and ♀ inflorescences (2- or 3-flowered dichasia in a spike
-with spirally-placed floral-leaves) (Figs. 324, 326, 328). When the
-perianth in the ♂-flower is completely developed, it is composed of 4
-somewhat united leaves, which are placed opposite the 4 stamens (Figs.
-325, 326 _A_). The female flowers are _naked_; the ovary is bilocular,
-with two styles and one _pendulous_ ovule in each loculus. The
-subtending floral-leaves unite with the bracteoles and form a 3–5-lobed
-cover-scale, which is not attached to the fruit (Figs. 325 _D_, 326
-_B_). Fruit a _nut without cupule_ (see _Corylaceæ_ and _Cupuliferæ_).
-~In the bud the leaves are flat. The stipules are deciduous. On
-germination the cotyledons are raised above the ground. Terminal buds
-are only found on old Alder trees; the Birch has sympodial branches.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 324.--_Alnus glutinosus._ Branch of Alder
-  with ♂-(_n_) and ♀-(_m_) catkins: _k_ bud; _b_ fruit-bearing
-  catkin (“cone.”)]
-
-_Alnus_ (Alder) (Figs. 324–326). In the majority of species the ♂-and
-♀-catkins are both developed in the year previous to their flowering,
-and pass the winter naked and bloom before the leaves expand. ♂-flower:
-4 stamens. ♀-flower: the 5-lobed cover-scales of the ♀-catkin are woody
-and remain attached to the axis, so that the entire catkin when ripe
-resembles a small cone (Fig. 324 _b_). Each cover-scale supports two
-winged or wingless nuts. ~In the native species of Alder the buds are
-stalked (Fig. 324 _k_). The bud-scales are formed by the stipules of
-the lowest leaves.~
-
-_Betula_ (Birch). The ♂-catkins, in the native species, appear
-in autumn, the ♀-catkins in the flowering year on leaf-bearing,
-short-lived shoots. ♂-flowers: 2 stamens, divided (Fig. 328 _A_). The
-3-lobed cover-scales (Fig. 327 _a_) of the ♀-catkin are detached from
-the axis; each cover-scale supports 3 broadly winged nuts (_b_).
-~The stem has cork with annual rings. The young twigs and leaves have
-aromatic resin glands.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 325.--_Alnus glutinosa_: _A_ dichasium
-  of ♂-flowers seen from the front; _B_ the same from inside;
-  _C_ the same from the back; _D_ dichasium of ♀-flowers with
-  subtending-leaf and four bracteoles. The letters _b_, α, β, β′, β
-  are the same as in Fig. 326 _A_.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 326.--_Alnus glutinosa_: diagram of dichasia
-  of ♂ (_A_) and ♀ (_C_) catkins; _B_ a cone-scale. All the
-  bracteoles in _A_ and _C_ are slightly pressed from their normal
-  position.]
-
-   THE INFLORESCENCES OF THE ALDER.--In the axil of each
-   cover-scale [_b_ in the Figs] is situated, in the ♂-catkins
-   (Figs. 326 _A_, 325 _A-C_) a 3-flowered dichasium, the
-   flowers of which have a 4-partite perianth, the posterior
-   perianth-segments being sometimes almost suppressed, and 4
-   stamens with undivided filaments. In the ♀-catkin (Figs. 325
-   _D_, 326 _C_) a 2-flowered dichasium is found, the middle
-   flower being suppressed (indicated by a star in _C_). In both
-   instances the inflorescences have two bracteoles (α-β) and the
-   flowers borne in their axils have each one bracteole (β′), the
-   other one (α′) being suppressed and therefore in 326 _A_ and _C_
-   only represented by a dotted line; these four bracteoles unite
-   with the cover-scale (_b_) which supports the entire dichasium,
-   to form the 5-lobed “cone-scale” (Fig. 326 _B_) which in the
-   ♀-catkin eventually becomes woody.
-
-   THE INFLORESCENCES OF THE BIRCH.--A 3-flowered dichasium is
-   situated in the axil of the cover-scale in both ♂-and ♀-catkins
-   (Fig. 328 _A_, _B_); only the central flower has bracteoles
-   (α-β) (the lateral flowers having no bracteoles), and these
-   bracteoles unite, as in the Alder, with the supporting
-   cover-scale (_b_), and form a three-lobed cone-scale (Fig. 327
-   _a_).
-
-   While the ♀-flower exactly resembles that of the Alder, the
-   reduction of the ♂-flower, already described in the Alder, is
-   carried further, so that often only the 2 median perianth-leaves
-   are developed (Fig. 328 _A_); there are also _only_ 2 stamens,
-   these being deeply cleft, while the other 2 are suppressed.
-
-   About 50 species; N. Temp.--Fossil-forms certainly occur in
-   the Oligocene. During the Glacial period the Dwarf-birch (_B.
-   nana_) extended over Europe; at the present time it is confined
-   to the moors and mountains of N. Europe and N. America and Asia.
-   Wind-pollinated.
-
-   USES.--Important forest trees. The bark contains tannic acid.
-   The tar of the Birch is used in the preparation of Russia
-   leather; whilst its spring sap is very saccharine, and is used
-   in some places for making a fermented drink. Its external bark
-   is used for roofing, for baskets, etc.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 327.--_Betula verrucosa_: _a_ cone-scale; _b_
-  fruit.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 328.--Diagrams of dichasia in the ♂-(_A_) and
-  ♀-(_B_) catkins of Birch.]
-
-Order 2. =Corylaceæ= (=Hazel-nuts=). Monœcious. The ♂-catkins are long
-and cylindrical; the ♂-flowers are placed singly in the axil of the
-subtending-leaf (cover-scale); they are _naked_ and formed of a number
-of _divided_ stamens, which are partly united with the cover-scale,
-4 in the Hazel, apparently 8 (Figs. 330 _A_, 329 _B_, _C_), more on
-the Hornbeam. The ♀-flowers have a very small, _superior_ perianth;
-in the axil of each cover-scale a 2-flowered dichasium (Fig. 329
-_D_) is present, of which the central flower (* in Fig. 330 _B_)
-is suppressed. The gynœceum is bicarpellary as in the Birches; the
-ovary is bilocular, with two long styles (Fig. 329 _D-F_); the loculi
-have 1 (-2) ovules (Fig. 330 _B_). Each single ♀-flower and fruit is
-surrounded by a _leaf-like covering_, the _cupule_ (husk), which is
-_formed of three floral-leaves_ (namely, the bract of a lateral flower,
-and its own bracteoles; thus in Fig. 330 _B_, α, α′, β’ form the cupule
-for the left-hand flower, and β, α_[1}, β_[1}, the cupule for the
-right-hand).
-
-_Corylus_ (Hazel-nut, Fig. 329). The long, cylindrical ♂-catkins pass
-the winter naked, 2–3 together, on short branches. The very small
-♀-catkins are enclosed in buds, in which they pass the winter; these
-buds are situated in the axils of the fallen foliage-leaves, and it
-is only by their larger size that they may be distinguished from the
-ordinary foliage-buds. In spring the ♀-catkins are easily recognised
-by their red, projecting stigmas (Fig. 329 _A_). The cupule--the
-“husk”--is tubular, fringed, and envelopes the nut. ~The leaves are
-alternate and unsymmetrical, the external side being larger than
-the internal; this is connected with the vernation, the blade being
-conduplicate in the bud; the stipules are deciduous. The bud-scales
-are formed of stipules, the most internal having a leaf-blade attached
-to them which is suppressed in the external ones. The cotyledons remain
-underground on germination.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 329.--_Corylus avellana_: _A_ branch at
-  the time of flowering with ♂-and ♀-catkins; _B_ ♂-flower with
-  subtending-leaf (bract) and two bracteoles; _C_ the same without
-  the anthers; _D_ view of interior of ♀-dichasium shortly after
-  fertilisation; _E_ young fruit with cupule; _F_ similar one with
-  the cupule opened; _G_ mature ♀-fruits; _H_ nut.]
-
-_Carpinus_ (_C. betulus_, Hornbeam). The ♂-and ♀-catkins do not appear
-till the leaves are shooting. The ♀-catkin in this instance is also
-long and cylindrical. The cupule in _C. betulus_ is 3-lobed, and
-to a slight extent only embraces the base of the ribbed nut (Fig.
-331); each lobe corresponds to a floral-leaf. ~Whilst the carpels
-are placed medianly in _Corylus_, in _Carpinus_, on the other hand,
-they are situated transversely, as in the case of the _Betulaceæ_.
-The lamina of the leaf is not conduplicate in the bud, but flat,
-and folded only along the lateral veins, which are also indicated
-in the form of the fully-developed leaf; otherwise the vegetative
-characters are essentially the same as in the Hazel. The cotyledons
-are aerial.--_Ostrya_ resembles the Hornbeam, but the cupule completely
-envelopes the nut, as a sac open at the apex (Eur., N. Am., Japan).~
-
-   N. Am., Asia, and Europe; 25 species.--Fossil forms in the
-   Oligocene. Wind-pollinated. USES. As timber (_Carpinus betulus_)
-   and firewood. The fruits of _C. avellana_ (ordinary Hazel-nut),
-   _C. tubulosa_ (Lambert’s nut) and _C. colurna_ (Turkish Filbert)
-   are edible.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 330.--Diagrams of the ♂-flower (_A_) of
-  _Corylus_ and the dichasium of the ♀-flowers (_B_).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 331.--Nut of the Hornbeam with cupule.]
-
-Order 3. =Cupuliferæ.= Monœcious. The inflorescences make their
-appearance with the leaves, arising in the axils of the leaves of
-the same year. _A woody cupule_ furnished externally with scales or
-spines is _common_, and surrounds 1-several flowers (the cupule in
-the Corylaceæ never encloses more than a _single_ flower or fruit).
-The ♂-flower has a united perianth, which is, however, 4–6 partite,
-and encloses an indefinite number of undivided stamens. The ♀-flower
-has a _superior, 6-merous_ perianth (3 + 3, compare Figs. 332 _D_,
-334); the gynœceum is formed of 3 (or in _Castanea_ 4–6) carpels with
-a corresponding number of stigmas (Figs. 332 _D_, _H_; 334, 335); and
-the ovary has at the base 3 (-6) loculi (Fig. 333), each of which has 2
-pendulous anatropous ovules; the fruit is a one-seeded nut (Figs. 332
-_H_, 336).
-
-The cupule of the Cupuliferæ, according to the opinion of Eichler, is
-formed by united bracteoles, (compare Fig. 333, where the four valves
-in the cupule of Castanea are considered as bracteoles of the lateral
-flowers of the dichasium); according to another view (see Prantl, in
-Engler’s _Bot. Jahrb._, viii., 1889), it is a ring-like axial outgrowth
-independent of the bracteoles of the flower, whose scales and spines
-are floral-leaves. The cupule in the Oak only encloses the base of the
-fruit, but in the Eating-chestnut and Beech the fruit is completely
-enclosed, and consequently the cupule must divide into a number of
-valves (generally 4) to allow the fruit to escape. In the 3-flowered
-dichasia of _Pasania_, Sect. Eupasania (Trop. Ind.), each individual
-flower has its own cupule of the same structure and development as in
-_Quercus_; and, moreover, each group of flowers has externally the
-typical six bracteoles.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 332.--_Castanea vesca_: _A_ branch with
-  inflorescences; _B_ ♂-flower; _C_ young cupule with three
-  ♀-flowers; _D_ ♀-flower; _E_ the same in longitudinal section;
-  _F_ cupule with 3 nuts (diminished); _G_, _H_ nuts (_G_ in
-  longitudinal section to show embryo).]
-
-_Castanea_ (Eating-chestnut, Fig. 332). The catkins are erect (_A_),
-cylindrical, with the ♀ at the base and the ♂ at the top, or some
-are entirely ♂ and _composed of small dichasia_. The _cupule_ (_C_,
-_F_) is 4-_valved_, provided with spines, and entirely envelops the 3
-_nuts_; it is already developed at the time of flowering.--~♂-flowers
-are most frequently borne in 7-flowered dichasia, and have a well
-developed perianth, most frequently consisting of 6 leaves in two
-whorls (Fig. 332 _B_), and a large number of stamens. ♀-flowers are
-most frequently borne in 3-flowered dichasia (Figs. 332 _C_, 333); the
-letters in Fig. 333 indicate the older theory, according to which the
-4 bracteoles (α′-β′) of the two lateral flowers are thick and united
-into a single 4-valved, _woody cupule_, which surrounds the 3 nuts,
-and is furnished externally with spines; the spines are well developed
-hair-structures.--6 carpels in two whorls.--The leaves in the vertical
-shoots have a divergence of 2/5, 3/8, 5/13; on the horizontal shoots
-they are alternate. The cotyledons remain underground on germination.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 333.--Diagram of the cupule of _Castanea_.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 334.--Female flower of _Fagus_ (mag.)]
-
-_Fagus_ (Beech). The ♂-catkins are pendulous, capitate; the ♂-flowers
-have an obliquely bell-shaped, fringed perianth, with 6–20 stamens.
-♀-catkins erect, 2-flowered, borne singly in the axil of foliage-leaves
-of the same year; the ♀-flower has a gynœceum formed of 3 carpels,
-bearing an epigynous, 6-leaved perianth (Fig. 334). In this genus
-_the dichasium has only 2 flowers_, the central one being suppressed.
-_The cupule contains_, therefore, only 2 triangular nuts (“mast”).
-~All the shoots have the leaves arranged in two rows; the rows are
-on the underside, being only about 90° distant from each other; the
-buds on the other hand approach each other towards the upper side. The
-bud-scales are stipules without laminæ; in vernation the laminæ are
-folded along the lateral ribs, the upper lateral portion being the
-largest (as in Hornbeam and Chestnut). The cotyledons are folded, and
-at germination are aerial, large, and reniform. 4 species (Europe,
-Japan, N. Am.)--_Nothofagus_ (S. Am., New Zealand, S. Austr.)~
-
-_Quercus_ (Oak, Fig. 335). Catkins simple. ♂-catkins long,
-thin, _pendulous_, few-flowered. ♀-catkins erect; the cupule is
-_cup-like_, _entire_, and encloses only the base of the solitary nut
-(“acorn”).--~The ♂-flower has a similar construction to that of the
-Chestnut. The ♀-catkin has not more than 5 flowers (single-flowered
-dichasia, in which _only the central flower is developed_). The
-scales on the cupules are no doubt leaf-structures in this case also.
-According to another theory, the scales are hair-structures; they arise
-on the internal face of the young cupule apparently in descending, but
-really in ascending order. The rim of the cupule gradually expands.
-In the ♀-flower (Fig. 335) the loculi of the gynœceum, together with
-the ovules, are not developed until _after_ pollination.--The leaves
-in all cases have a divergence of 2/5; the lowermost leaves on the
-shoots are reduced to stipules which serve as the bud-scales (5 rows).
-The laminæ are conduplicate, as in _Corylus_, and the external side is
-the broadest. The cotyledons are fleshy and remain underground. 200
-species.--_Pasania_ (100 species).~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 335.--_Quercus_: _A_ ♀-flower in its cupule
-  (mag.); _B_ longitudinal section through _A_, showing cupule,
-  perianth, and inferior ovary.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 336.--Fruit of _Quercus_.]
-
-   368 species, in temperate climates, especially in Europe and
-   N. America. Authenticated forests have been found in the
-   Oligocene. The Beech has one species, _Fagus sylvatica_, in
-   Europe; it is a most important forest tree (in Denmark the most
-   important) and reaches its most northern limit near Alvesund
-   in Norway (60° N.L.), its northern boundary line passing
-   from Alvesund in a zig-zag line through Ludwigsort, south
-   of Königsberg, in Prussia, towards the Crimea. According to
-   Steenstrup and Vaupell, the Beech did not make its appearance
-   in Denmark until a comparatively recent time, the Oak then
-   being partially supplanted. Other species of Beech are found
-   in N. America and Japan. Several species of _Nothofagus_
-   occur in the South West of S. America, and in the colder
-   regions of the southern hemisphere. The Oaks grow especially
-   in temperate regions, _e.g._ in Western Asia, N. America,
-   and the mountains of Mexico. Evergreen species are found in
-   Tropical Asia, Himalaya, Japan and the Mediterranean region.
-   In this country there is one species of Oak (_Q. robur_), of
-   which there are three varieties (_Q. pedunculata, intermedia,
-   sessiliflora_). The Eating-chestnut is found in the South of
-   Europe, but is cultivated in the midland and southern counties
-   of England.--USES. The wood of these trees is very useful as
-   timber. The wood of _Q. tinctoria_ has a yellow colouring
-   matter (Quercitron-wood). The bark of the Oak contains a large
-   quantity of tannic acid, and is used for tanning; for this
-   purpose also the cupules of _Q. vallonea_, _ægilops_, _græca_,
-   and others from the Eastern Mediterranean, are used under the
-   name of “Valloons.” The Cork-oak (_Q. suber_; S.W. Europe) is
-   the most important tree from which cork is obtained, its bark
-   being very largely developed and stripped for cork. Gall-nuts
-   are found on many species; those of _Q. lusitanica_, var.
-   _infectoria_ (Eastern Mediterranean) are officinal, and likewise
-   the fruits (acorns) and the bark of _Quercus pedunculata_ and
-   _sessiliflora_. Oil is obtained from the Beech “mast.” The nuts
-   of the Chestnut tree are edible.
-
-
-                      Family 4. =Juglandifloræ.=
-
-This family resembles the Quercifloræ in the catkin-like
-inflorescences, the imperfect, _unisexual_ flowers, the epigynous
-perianth and the woody shoots with scattered leaves, etc., though it
-is in other respects very dissimilar; one point of difference is the
-presence of _aromatic_ compounds, but a more important divergence is
-found in the structure of the gynœceum, which is formed of two carpels
-with _one loculus_ and has one _basal_, _orthotropous and erect_
-ovule, which, as in the Quercifloræ, does not become developed until
-after pollination; the fruit too is very different, being generally a
-_drupe_. _Endosperm absent._
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 337.--_Juglans regia_: _A_ ♂-flower seen
-  from below with bract (cover-scale) (_b_), bracteoles (α and β),
-  perianth-leaves (_p_); _B_ the same from the front; _C_ lateral
-  view of the same; _D_ diagram of _A_; _E_ ♀-flower with bract,
-  the bracteoles are united with the ovary, their edge being
-  visible as an indented line below the perianth; _F_ 2 ♀-flowers
-  at the end of a foliage-shoot; _G_ fruit (without the fleshy
-  covering) in longitudinal section; _H_ transverse section of the
-  same.]
-
-Order 1. =Juglandaceæ (Walnuts).= Leaves _scattered_, _imparipinnate_,
-rich in _aromatic_ compounds. _Stipules absent._ Flowers unisexual.
-_Monœcious._ The ♂-catkins are lateral, generally on naked branches
-of the previous year, cylindrical, pendulous, many-flowered; the two
-bracteoles and the 2–4-leaved perianth of the ♂-flower unite with
-the subtending bract; the ♂-flower has indefinite stamens (6–20 in
-_Juglans_, Fig. 337 _A-D_). The ♀-catkins are terminal, generally on
-branches of the same year, few-flowered (Fig. 337 _F_); the ♀-flowers
-have a _superior_, 4-leaved perianth, a bicarpellate gynœceum, two
-styles with stigmas on the internal surface. The ovary, bracteoles
-and bract all unite together (Fig. 337 _E_). The fruit is generally a
-green or black _drupe_,[34] whose flesh (outer soft portion) in _Carya_
-and _Juglans_ ruptures more or less irregularly, and frees the stone
-(“Walnut”).--~The stone in _Juglans_ is divided internally by one true
-(Fig. 337 _H_) and by several false, low partition walls into several
-_incomplete_ compartments, so that the two large _cotyledons_ become
-lobed and incised to fit like a cast into the irregularities of the
-inner surface of the stone; the embryo is exendospermous and covered
-with a thin testa.--THE LEAF SCARS are large and cordate with 3 groups
-of vascular bundles. The PITH in _Juglans_ and _Pterocarya_ is divided
-into chambers. The stone ruptures, on germination, along the dorsal
-suture into 2 valves; the cotyledons remain underground. In _Juglans
-regia_ a long row of accessory buds is found on the lowest internode
-(epicotyl) above the axils of the cotyledons. _Pollination by the
-wind._ Both protogynous and protandrous examples of _Juglans regia_
-occur.--33 species, mostly in temperate North America.--USES. Walnuts
-are obtained from _J. nigra_ and _regia_; Hickory from North American
-species of _Carya_. The oil-containing seeds of several species are
-edible. _Pterocarya_ and others are cultivated as ornamental plants.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 338.--_Myrica gale_: _a_ young fruit; × the
-  bracteoles with numerous glands; _b_ longitudinal section of
-  fruit.]
-
-Order 2. =Myricaceæ=. To this order belong shrubs or trees which
-have penninerved, simple, at most lobed or pinnatifid leaves, with
-or without stipules, and with yellow, aromatic, resin glands (Fig.
-338 _a_). The flowers, situated in catkin-like spikes, are unisexual
-and _naked_, and supported by scale-like floral-leaves. ♂-flower: 4–6
-(–16) stamens with short filaments; ♀: generally situated singly. The
-gynœceum has a short style with 2 long stigmas, and unites with the
-bracteoles, which form wing-like outgrowths on the ripe drupe as in
-_Pterocarya_ in the Juglandaceæ (Fig. 338). Cotyledons fleshy (Fig. 338
-_b_).--_Myrica_; _Comptonia_.
-
-   40 species; Temperate.--_Myrica gale_ (Sweet-gale, Bog-myrtle)
-   has been used in the preparation of beer (Sweet-willow beer)
-   on account of its resinous essential oil. _M. cerifera_ (N.
-   America) and species from the Cape, _M. quercifolia_ and others,
-   form wax on the fruit which is used in the preparation of
-   candles.
-
-
-                       Family 5. =Urticifloræ.=
-
-The flowers are regular, _hypogynous_, nearly always unisexual, _small_
-and insignificant, with _single_, green perianth of 4–5 leaves. Stamens
-4–5, _placed opposite_ the leaves of the perianth. Ovary formed of 1
-or 2 carpels, most frequently _unilocular_, with one ovule (Fig. 340).
-The fruit is a _nut_, more rarely a drupe, with one seed, _generally
-endospermous_. ~The Nettles are the sole order in the family which has
-only one carpel (1 stigma); this turns the posterior side to the front
-(Fig. 340). The others have two carpels (2 stigmas) but the anterior
-only is fertile (Fig. 346) except in a few Ulmaceæ and Moraceæ.~
-
-The majority are trees or shrubs with petiolated leaves, _stipulate_;
-_rough hairs_ are very frequently developed upon the leaves. The
-flowers are very often crowded together in the inflorescence, which is
-rarely catkin-like. Peculiar aggregations of fruits are found in some
-orders. _Latex_ and tough _bast_, which is used technically, are also
-frequently found. Cystoliths are found in the epidermis of many species
-of _Ficus_, _Urtica_, and others. ~_Wind-_ or _self-pollination_
-is most common, as in the Quercifloræ and Juglandifloræ.~ In ~the
-Urticaceæ, _Morus_ and some others, the stamens lie incurved in the
-bud, and when ripe straighten themselves suddenly and elastically,
-and thus small clouds of pollen-grains are ejected with considerable
-violence on to the stigmas, which are often provided with brush-like
-hairs (Fig. 341). The formation of honey does not take place.~
-
-Order 1. =Ulmaceæ= (=Elms=).--Trees or shrubs without latex. Leaves
-simple, arranged in two rows (divergence 1/2), oblique (the inner side,
-nearer the axis, being the larger), strongly penninerved, dentate,
-hispid; stipules deciduous. In opposition to the other Nettle-like
-plants the flowers are often ☿ with a united cup- or saucer-like,
-generally 4–(5)–6-divided perianth, and a corresponding or larger
-number of opposite _erect_ stamens. The gynœceum has two carpels
-(2 stigmas), generally one loculus with one pendulous, anatropous
-or amphitropous ovule,[35] seldom two loculi and 2 ovules. Fruit
-one-seeded (nut or drupe). Embryo without endosperm.
-
-=A.= ULMEÆ. The fruit is a _winged nut_ (Fig. 339), the embryo
-straight, without endosperm. Anthers extrorse.--_Ulmus_ (Elm). The
-flowers are situated in inflorescences which develop from the lower
-buds of the shoot of the preceding year. ~The lowermost bud-scales
-are empty, the uppermost support either solitary flowers, or small,
-dichasial or unipared scorpioid inflorescences. The terminal bud on the
-vegetative shoot quickly falls off, and the upper lateral bud continues
-the growth sympodially. Flowering takes place before the leaf-buds
-open. The flowers are wind-pollinated and have no honey. Fossil species
-have been found in the Oligocene.~
-
-   20 species; North Temp. (2 species in this country). Important
-   as timber. The Cork-elm (_U. suberosa_) has a rather thick cork,
-   which, however, is of no technical use. The bast is used as
-   Lime-bast.
-
-   =B.= CELTIDEÆ. The fruit is a drupe, the embryo curved, with
-   folded or rolled up cotyledons, with or without endosperm.
-   The anthers are introrse. The flowers are borne on a shoot of
-   the same year. _Planera_ (N. America); _Zelkova_.--About 114
-   species; especially N. Temp., Trop.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 339.--_A Ulmus campestris_, flower with
-  exceptionally aborted gynœceum; _B_, _U. effusa_, flower with
-  8 stamens; _C_, _U. campestris_, fruit opened in front to show
-  the seed pendulous from the apex of the loculus; one loculus is
-  aborted.]
-
-Order 2. =Urticaceæ= (=Nettles=).--The majority of species are herbs
-with simple, stipulate leaves; they have _no latex_; _stinging
-hairs_ abundant. The flowers (Fig. 340) are _unisexual_, generally
-2-merous and arranged _in clusters_, which are united into catkin-like
-inflorescences. The perianth is composed very often of 4 (2 + 2)
-free, or in the ♀-flowers generally united, green leaves; the 4 (2
-+ 2) stamens are opposite the perianth-leaves, the filaments are
-_bent inwards_ in the bud and throw themselves elastically towards
-the outside. The gynœceum has _one style_ and _one stigma_ (capitate
-or brush-like, Fig. 341); the ovary is unilocular, with _one
-orthotropous_, _erect_ ovule (all other orders of this family have
-inverted or curved ovules). Fruit, a nut or drupe. _Endosperm present_
-(in _Urtica_ very little), oily. Embryo straight. ~The STINGING HAIRS
-are club-shaped, very turgid, and provided with a siliceous, brittle
-apex, which breaks off in an oblique direction and allows the poisonous
-cell-sap to be forced out. In many tropical Nettles this is so strong
-that it may produce partial paralysis. There is no rudiment of an ovary
-in the ♂-flowers (Fig. 340 A). The PERIANTH in the ♀-flower differs
-from that of the ♂ in having the two internal leaves generally much
-larger and enveloping the fruit (Fig. 340 _B_); it often happens that
-all the perianth-leaves are united to form a gamophyllous envelope.
-☿-flowers may occur among the others.--THE INFLORESCENCES among our
-native species are dichasia, which become transformed into unilateral
-scorpioid cymes by the development of the bud of the 2nd bracteole. In
-_Parietaria_ they are more pressed together, and the floral-leaves at
-the same time are also raised on their axillary shoots to just beneath
-the flower. As a rule, not only in this order but also in those related
-to it, a small vegetative branch is situated in the axil of the
-foliage-leaf, and this bears an inflorescence on each side at its base.~
-
-_Urtica_ (Nettle) has opposite leaves with distinct stipules and
-stinging hairs. The perianth-leaves of the ♀-flower are free (Fig.
-340).--_Parietaria_ (Pellitory) has scattered leaves without large
-stipules, and stinging hairs are absent. The ♀-perianth is 4-toothed,
-flask- or bell-shaped.--~_Pilea_ is a tropical genus with trimerous,
-zygomorphic ♀-flowers, the posterior perianth-leaf being much larger
-than the two others, and more or less hood shaped.--The flower of
-_Forskohlea_ is the most reduced; the ♂-flower has only one stamen, and
-the ♀-as well as the ♂-flowers have a one-sided, tongue like perianth
-(?). _Pouzolzia._~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 340.--Diagram of ♂-and ♀-flowers of _Urtica
-  dioica_.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 341.--_Parietaria diffusa_; hermaphrodite
-  flower: _a_ in the female, _b_ at the commencement of the male
-  stage; the stigma has fallen off, but the anthers have not yet
-  dehisced.]
-
-   WIND-POLLINATED. The pollen is shot out of the anthers, when
-   they spring forward, and is caught by long stigmatic hairs.
-   _Parietaria diffusa_ is protogynous (Fig. 341).
-
-   500 species; chiefly in the Tropics, although the few species
-   which occur in Europe are represented by a much larger number
-   of individuals.--USES. The bast of the native species _Urtica
-   dioica_ and _urens_, of _U. cannabina_ (Siberia), etc.; of
-   _Boehmeria nivea_ “Ramié” and “China-grass” (from Sunda Is.,
-   China), and others, is used in the manufacture of muslin.
-
-Order 3. =Moraceæ= (=Mulberries=). Nearly all trees or shrubs, seldom
-herbs, generally with latex. The leaves are scattered, and not
-infrequently lobed. The flowers are _unisexual_ (monœcious or diœcious)
-and arranged in catkin- or capitulum-like, compound inflorescences.
-Perianth-leaves 2–6, generally 4, with an equal number of stamens
-opposite to them, as in the Nettles. The ovary is 1–seldom 2-locular,
-and has 2 stigmas (it is thus formed from 2 carpels) seldom only one
-style with one stigma. One ovule in each loculus, more or less curved,
-and _pendulous_; micropyle directed upwards. Fruit usually a drupe.
-The embryo is generally curved inside the _fleshy endosperm_, or it is
-exendospermous.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 342.--_Morus alba_ ♂ flower (6/1).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 343.-_Morus alba_ ♀ inflorescence.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 344.--_Morus nigra_ fruits.]
-
-=A.= MOREÆ. The filaments are incurved in the bud. Leaves folded in the
-bud--_Morus_ (Mulberry) (Figs. 342–344). Monœcious. The inflorescences
-are catkin-like in appearance, but in reality composed of many small
-dichasia. The flowers are similar to those of the Nettle, but with 2
-carpels: in the ♂ with perianth 2 + 2, and stamens 2 + 2 (Fig. 342),
-in the ♀, perianth 2 + 2, and 2 carpels in regular alternation. The
-small drupes are enveloped by _the perianth, which eventually becomes
-fleshy_, and as all the flowers on the axis very accurately fit
-together, the collection of fruits is formed, which we call a Mulberry
-(Fig. 344). The leaves are folded in the buds, and have small stipules.
-~The following are allied to _Morus_:--_Maclura_, _Broussonetia_ (the
-Paper-mulberry tree) which has spheroid ♀ inflorescences (made up of
-dichasia), etc.~
-
-   _Dorstenia_ presents an interesting transitional form to the Fig
-   in its flat, open, and, in some instances, lobed inflorescence
-   on which the ♂ and ♀ flowers are sunk in grooves. Indications
-   of a somewhat similar structure are found in certain Nettles,
-   the sympodial axes of the dichasia becoming flatly expanded. The
-   fruits are 1-seeded, but, nevertheless, spring open and eject
-   their seeds.
-
-=B.= ARTOCARPEÆ. Filaments straight in the bud; foliage-leaves with
-convolute vernation. An interpetiolar leaf-sheath (ocrea) formed in the
-axil of each leaf by the connate stipules, covers the younger leaves
-as a hood. It falls off as the leaf expands, and leaves a ring-like
-scar on the stem.--_Ficus_ (the Fig). The inflorescence (the so-called
-syconus) has a pear-shaped, fleshy, but hollow axis, on the interior
-surface of which the flowers are situated (Fig. 345). It is a kind
-of capitulum, with a hollow receptacle, whose “involucral” leaves
-close over the entrance to the interior; it is not, however, a simple
-capitulum, but a coalescence of cymose inflorescences. The edible parts
-are the fleshy stem-portion and perianth-leaves. The ♂-flower has a
-2–6 divided perianth, 1–2 (–6) stamens; the ♀-flower has an oblique
-ovary. The fruits are drupes, with thin flesh.--~Many species have
-aerial roots, and some live as epiphytes on trees. POLLINATION, in the
-edible Fig, is effected by a small Gall-wasp (_Cynips psenes_ L.),
-which lays its eggs in the Fig, and hence carries the pollen away. Even
-in very ancient times it was customary to hang infected wild Figs on
-the branches of cultivated ones, so that the young Gall-wasps, as they
-emerged, could immediately effect the pollination (caprification).
-_Ficus carica_, and other species, have two kinds of ♀-flowers, besides
-the ♂-flowers. One kind has a short style and no stigmatic hairs,
-and it is only in the ovaries of these that the wasps lay their eggs
-(gall-flowers); the other kind has a long style and well-developed
-stigmatic-hairs, but the wasps cannot reach their ovaries--these are
-“seed-flowers.” There are, moreover, two kinds of plants of _Ficus
-carica_; ♀-plants, which have only seed-flowers, and bear the edible
-Figs, and ♂-plants (called “Caprificus”), which bear inedible fruits,
-and have ♂-flowers at the upper part of the Fig, but gall-flowers at
-the base. [The Caprificus, at Naples, bears three crops of inedible
-Figs each year, viz. _Mamme_ (April), _Profichi_ (June), _Mamnoni_
-(August). The ♂-flowers are produced especially in June, the first
-Figs being almost entirely ♀, and the last having but few ♂-flowers.
-Each crop produces a new generation of Fig-wasps. The female wasp
-enters the Figs on the Caprificus, and lays one egg in each flower,
-with the result that the flower developes into a kind of gall. The
-mother-wasp dies within the Fig. The male wasp is wingless; it bites
-a small passage into the ovaries containing the female wasps, and
-impregnates them; the female wasps then escape from the Fig, those in
-the _Profichi_ carrying pollen away with them as they pass out. They
-then enter another Fig, lay their eggs, and die. The edible Fig-tree
-similarly has three crops in the year, _Fiori di fico_, _Pedagnuoli_,
-_Cimaruoli_. The wasps, entering these Figs, are unable to lay their
-eggs in the ovary, but, nevertheless, they effect cross-pollination on
-entering the _Pedagnuoli_, which bear fertile seeds.]~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 345.--A Fig in longitudinal section.]
-
-   The flowers of _Brosimum_ are the most reduced. The perianth
-   is wanting, and the ♂-flower has only 1 stamen. _Cecropia_
-   (Trumpet-tree), in S. Am., has its pith divided into chambers;
-   these are inhabited by ants, which feed upon small food-bodies
-   formed on the swollen base of the petioles. The leaves are
-   petiolated, often shield-like, fringed or lobed, and sometimes
-   with white felted hairs. They serve as food for  _Bradypus_
-   (the Sloth). _Sorocea_; _Castilloa_.
-
-   About 300 species exclusively in the warmer climates. The white
-   Mulberry (_M. alba_, from China, India, Mongolia) is cultivated
-   for the sake of its leaves, which are the indispensable food
-   for silkworms. The black Mulberry (_M. nigra_, W. Asia) is
-   cultivated for its fruits, which are used for the officinal
-   Mulberry juice. The ordinary Fig-tree (_Ficus carica_) is from
-   the Mediterranean. The fruit of the well-known Oriental Sycamore
-   (_F. sycomorus_) is edible. The Bread-fruit tree (_Artocarpus
-   incisa_) and the Jack (_A. integrifolia_) have their home in the
-   South Sea Islands, and are cultivated in tropical countries.
-   The Bread-fruit is morphologically the same as the Mulberry. It
-   has a very large, spheroid inflorescence, whose floral-leaves
-   and perianth become fleshy and united into one nutritious mass,
-   together with the axis, which is also fleshy. The milky juice
-   of the India-rubber tree (_Ficus elastica_, East Indies, a
-   common house-plant), and of _Castilloa elastica_ (Am.) is the
-   raw material of India-rubber. The milky juice of _Galactodendron
-   utile_ (Cow-tree, S. Am.) is saccharine and nutritious, but in
-   _Antiaris toxicaria_ (the Upas-tree, of Java) it is a strong
-   poison. The bast of the Paper-Mulberry tree (_Br. papyrifera_,
-   Eastern Asia); is used in Japan for paper. Shellac is obtained
-   from a small, hemipterous insect (_Coccus lacca_), which lives
-   upon _Ficus laccifera_ and _F. religiosa_ (the Bo-tree, sacred
-   to Buddha), E. India. The wood of _Maclura aurantica_ (Am.) has
-   a yellow colour, and is known as yellow Brazilian wood.
-
-Order 4. =Cannabaceæ.= The plants which belong to this order are
-_aromatic herbs_, either annuals or perennials, _without latex_.
-Leaves _palminerved_, and more or less divided, hispid, and with free,
-persistent stipules. Flowers always _diœcious_; ♂-flowers in panicles,
-formed of dichasia, passing over into uniparous scorpioid cymes. They
-differ from the Nettles, particularly in the 5-leaved perianth of the
-♂-flower, the 5 stamens (Fig. 346–351) with filaments _erect_ in the
-bud, and in the ♀-flower by the small, entire, cup-like perianth, which
-surrounds the base of the ovary (Fig. 346, p. 352). The ovary has two
-styles, or one divided into two, with two stigmas and a pendulous,
-curved ovule (Fig. 346 _B_, 352 _B_); the fruit is a nut; the _embryo_
-is _curved_ (Hemp, Fig. 353), or rolled (Hop, Fig. 349), _without
-endosperm_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 346.--Diagram of male and female flowers of
-  the Hop and Hemp: _b_ the bract, _p_ the perianth. The position
-  of the embryo is indicated.]
-
-Only 2 genera with 3 species (Asiatic), of which two are
-cultivated.--_Humulus lupulus_ (Hop, Figs. 347–349) is a twining,
-perennial plant, twisting to the right, with opposite, palmilobed,
-rough leaves, and large, interpetiolar stipules. The ♀-flowers are
-situated in closely-flowered, cone-like, compound inflorescences, with
-ultimately large, thin, imbricate floral-leaves (Fig. 348) which bear
-the yellow, glandular hairs, containing lupulin. ~This inflorescence is
-made up as follows:--The most external floral-leaves are situated in
-pairs, and are the persistent stipules of a leaf, the blade of which
-has become suppressed, or in any case is rudimentary. Such a pair of
-stipules supports 4 (2–6) flowers in a double uniparous cyme, whose
-central axis does not develope into a flower. The bracts of these
-flowers (bracteoles of the partial inflorescence) become, at maturity,
-very large, spathe-like, and, together with the stipules, produce a
-cone-like appearance.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 347–348.--_Humulus lupulus_: 347, twining
-  stem; 348, branch with strobiles.]
-
-_Cannabis sativa_ (Hemp, Figs. 350–353) is an East Indian herb, with
-palmilobed leaves, and differs from the Hop in being annual, erect,
-and in having its leaves opposite at the base and scattered above.
-The ♀-inflorescence is not cone-like as in the Hop, but the flowers
-are similar in construction. ~The main difference is to be found in
-the axillary shoot, which was suppressed in the Hop, and is in the
-Hemp developed into a leaf-bearing shoot which on each side bears only
-one ♀-flower, and in the fact that the bracts are not so strongly
-developed.~
-
-   The “Hops” (the female inflorescences) are used in brewing,
-   and medicinally on account of the yellow glands which contain
-   lupulin. The Indian variety of _Cannabis sativa_ contains
-   an abundance of glandular hairs and resin. The withered
-   inflorescences are used in medicine and are officinal. The bast
-   of the stems of the Hemp is also used and the fat oil of the
-   seeds. In Oriental countries the entire plant is used in the
-   preparation of an intoxicating drink (haschisch), the narcotic
-   material being found in the glandular hairs.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 349.--_Humulus lupulus_: fruit in
-  longitudinal section.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 350–353.--_Cannabis sativa_:
-
-  Fig. 350, ♂-plant;
-
-  Fig. 351, ♂-flower;
-
-  Fig. 352, ♀-flower, entire and in longitudinal section;
-
-  Fig. 353, fruit in longitudinal section.]
-
-
-                      Family 6. =Polygonifloræ.=
-
-This family is on one side closely allied to the _Urticaceæ_ by its
-solitary, _basal_, _vertical_, and _straight_ ovule, and by the conical
-ocrea which envelopes the younger leaves in the bud, similar characters
-being present in the Urticaceæ. On the other side it is related to
-the Curvembryæ. The flowers are small, often _trimerous_, regular and
-slightly perigynous (~in _Chloranthaceæ_, if they properly belong to
-this family, and _Houttuynia_, more or less epigynous~). Syncarps are
-present in some Piperaceæ, but the fruit is generally a single fruit,
-one-seeded berry, nut or drupe. The leaves are generally scattered.
-
-Order 1. =Polygonaceæ.= The majority are herbaceous plants with
-round, often jointed stems, scattered leaves and _ocrea_, that is a
-membranous, tubular, ligular or stipular structure _inside_ the base
-of the leaf, which clasps the stem and axillary bud; the edges of the
-lamina are rolled backwards in the bud. The flowers are regular, small,
-generally ☿, slightly perigynous, with inconspicuous, simple, green or
-white perianth of 5–6 free segments; stamens 5–9 (Fig. 354) sometimes
-arranged in two series; gynœceum 2–3 carpels, ovary _unilocular_ with
-_one basal_, _straight_ (orthotropous) _ovule_, 2–3 _free styles_.
-The fruit is a 2–3-angular nut; the embryo, with mealy endosperm,
-is straight or curved (Fig. 355 _H_), often unsymmetrical.--~The
-inflorescences are compound, and generally branch from the axils of
-the bracteoles, so that the last partial-inflorescences become coiled,
-uniparous scorpioid cymes; in _Polygonum_ the two bracteoles unite into
-a membranous tube; in _Rheum_ and _Rumex_ there is only one bracteole.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 354.--_A_ Diagram of _Rheum_; _B_ of _Rumex_;
-  _C_ of _Polygonum fagopyrum_; _D_ of _P. lapathifolium_. The
-  ovules are indicated inside the ovaries; bracts and bracteoles
-  are not shown.]
-
-_Rheum_ (Rhubarb, Fig. 354 _A_) has a 6-leaved, _petaloid_ perianth (Pn
-3 + 3) and 9 stamens (A 3^2 + 3). The _3-winged_ nut is _not_ enclosed
-by the perianth.
-
-_Rumex_ (Dock, Fig. 354 _B_) has 6 stamens (A 3^2 + 0); the perianth is
-6-leaved (Pr 3 + 3), green or red, and the triangular nut is enveloped
-by the 3 interior perianth-leaves, which point upwards and continue to
-grow after flowering. These perianth-leaves often have warts on their
-outer surface. ~The following are monœcious: _R. acetosa_ and _R.
-acetosella_.~
-
-_Polygonum_ (Knot-grass, Figs. 354 _C_, _D_; 355). The _petaloid_
-perianth is most frequently 5-merous (2/5 spiral); 5–8 stamens. The nut
-is triangular (Fig. 354 _C_, 355), or lenticular (Fig. 354 _D_). ~There
-are two whorls of stamens, the external with introrse, and the internal
-with extrorse anthers. The gynœceum is often bicarpellate (Fig. 354
-_D_).~
-
-   The flowers may be considered as constructed upon the
-   monocotyledonous type. _Pterostegia_ has a perfectly
-   monocotyledonous flower with 5 trimerous whorls. _Rheum_
-   likewise, but here the external staminal whorl is doubled (Fig.
-   254 _A_). _Oxyria_ has a dimerous _Rheum_-flower (4-leaved
-   perianth, 6 stamens, 2 stigmas). _Rumex_ has a _Rheum_-flower
-   with the suppression of the internal whorl of stamens (Fig.
-   354 _B_); _Emex_ is a dimerous _Rumex_. _Polygonum_, to which
-   _Coccoloba_, _Muehlenbeckia_ and others are related, differs
-   from _Rheum_ chiefly in having one of the leaves, which in the
-   latter takes part in the formation of the perianth, developed
-   in this case into a bracteole (so that the perianth is reduced
-   to five members), and several or all the stamens in the inner
-   whorl become suppressed.--The perianth in _Coccoloba_ and
-   _Muehlenbeckia_ is more or less perigynous and becomes fleshy,
-   enclosing the fruit. _Muehlenbeckia platyclada_ has flat branches
-   with rudimentary leaves; sometimes branches with normal,
-   arrow-shaped leaves are found. _Atraphaxis._
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 355.--_Polygonum fagopyrum_: _A_ branch
-  with flower and fruits (nat. size); _B_ flower; _C_ the same
-  in longitudinal section; _D_ anterior and posterior view of
-  stamen; _E_ gynœceum; _F_ fruit (mag.); _G_ fruit in longitudinal
-  section; _H_ transverse section, showing the curved cotyledons
-  embedded in the endosperm; _I_ the embryo.]
-
-   POLLINATION. _Rumex_ is wind-pollinated, the stigmas are
-   therefore large and brush-like (indicated in  Fig. 354 _B_).
-   _Rheum_ and _Polygonum_ are insect-pollinated and have therefore
-   capitate stigmas, etc.; honey-glands are situated at the base
-   of the stamens (_d_, in Fig. 354 _C_, and _n_ in Fig. 356); a
-   few small-flowered _Polygonum_ species are self-pollinated;
-   Buckwheat (_P. fagopyrum_) is dimorphic and has long-styled and
-   short-styled flowers (Fig. 356). _Pol. bistorta_ is protandrous
-   and homostyled.
-
-   About 750 species, most of which are found in the temperate
-   regions of the Northern Hemisphere, some reaching as far as the
-   snow line or into the Arctic regions (_Oxyria_, _Kœnigia_).
-   Trees and shrubs are found in the Tropics: _Coccoloba_,
-   _Triplaris_. _Rheum_ is Central Asiatic.--The thick rhizomes of
-   _R. officinale_ (_Rhubarb_) are _officinal_. The rhizomes of the
-   ordinarily cultivated species, _R. undulatum_ and _rhaponticum_,
-   are used in veterinary medicine. The following are cultivated as
-   culinary plants for the sake of their leaves:--_Rumex acetosa_
-   (Sorrel), _R. patientia_, _R. scutatus_, and _Rheum undulatum_
-   (petioles). Several species of _Polygonum_ (_P. hydropiper_ and
-   others) have a sharp, pungent taste. “Buckwheat” is the mealy
-   fruit of _Polygonum fagopyrum_ (Central Asia) and is of value as
-   a farinaceous food. _P. cuspidatum_ (_P. sieboldi_, Japan) is an
-   ornamental plant.--_Calligonum_ in sandy and stony deserts.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 356.--Flower of _Polygonum fagopyrum_ in
-  longitudinal section: 1, long-styled; 2, short-styled; _a_ the
-  anthers; _st_ the stigmas; _n_ nectary.]
-
-Order 2. =Piperaceæ (Peppers).= Shrubs or herbs, often with nodose,
-jointed stem; leaves simple, entire, often with curved veins; stipules
-wanting (_Peperomia_) or intrapetiolar and cap-like, often enclosing
-the terminal buds (_Piper_). The flowers in the group _Pipereæ_
-(_Piper_, Fig. 357, and _Peperomia_) are borne in spikes with fleshy
-axes (_club-like_), seldom in racemes, the outer ones are crowded and
-are ☿ or unisexual, always small, _naked_ and without bracteoles;
-~generally stamens 3 + 3, and gynœceum 3, but the number of the
-stamens may be reduced by suppression to 2, and the carpels to 1~. The
-flowers are situated in the axils of the small, generally shield-like
-floral-leaves. The ovary is always _unilocular_ and has _one upright,
-orthotropous_ ovule. Fruit a berry or drupe. Both endosperm and
-_perisperm_ are present, the latter being especially well developed
-(Fig. 359).
-
-_Piper_; generally shrubs with scattered leaves, and terminal
-inflorescences which are crowded to one side by the development of the
-highest lateral bud, so that they are situated opposite the leaves
-(Fig. 357). Many species have stems with an abnormal anatomical
-structure.--_Peperomia_; chiefly succulent herbs, often epiphytes, with
-opposite or verticillate leaves having aqueous tissue on the upper side.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 357.--_Piper nigrum_: branch with fruit (½)]
-
-   The group _Saurureæ_ (considered by some as an order, and
-   perhaps representing a more original type) has 3–4 carpels
-   with many ovules. _Lactoris_ stands the highest with regular
-   3-merous perianth, 3 + 3 stamens and 3 carpels, which are
-   united at the base. Fruit a capsule with several seeds. (It
-   has one species from the island of Juan Fernandez, and is also
-   placed in an order of its own, Lactoridaceæ, allied to the
-   Magnoliaceæ, through _Drimys_).--_Saururus_ has naked flowers;
-   most frequently 6 stamens, and 4 carpels, free or united at
-   the base, each with 2-4 orthotropous ovules. Fruit, small
-   berries.--_Houttuynia_; stamens situated a little upward on the
-   ovaries; placentation parietal; capsule many-seeded.
-
-   About 1,000 species; entirely tropical, especially from
-   South America and East India. They are found chiefly among
-   the underwood in damp, shady places; some, which are fleshy
-   (_Peperomia_), live as epiphytes on trees; a few climb by
-   roots.--USES. Several Piperaceæ are used medicinally and
-   for spices on account of their pungent properties and the
-   essential oils found in nearly all parts of the plant. The
-   following are _officinal_: “Black-pepper” (the unripe, dried
-   fruits) and “White-pepper” (the seeds of the ripe fruits) of
-   _Piper nigrum_ (climbing shrub, East Indian); “Cubeb” berries
-   of _P. cubeba_ (climbing shrub, Java). “Long-pepper” is the
-   unripe inflorescence of _P. longum_, East India. The leaves of
-   _P. angustifolia_ (Matico) are officinal. The leaves of the
-   Betelpepper (East India) are used together with the nuts of
-   the Areca-palm to form the well-known East Indian intoxicating
-   compound “Betel.” A good many others are also used.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 358.--_Piper nigrum_ (Diagram). In addition
-  to the bract there are two structures resembling bracteoles.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 359.--_Piper nigrum_: Fruit in longitudinal
-  section, showing the endosperm, perisperm, and pericarp.]
-
-   Order 3. =Chloranthaceæ.= (_Chloranthus_, _Hedyosmum_) have
-   opposite leaves, with stipules more or less united at the base,
-   and inferior “drupes.” Ovules pendulous. Only endosperm. About
-   33 species, Tropical.
-
-
-                        Family 7. =Curvembryæ.=
-
-The plants in this family have a _curved ovule_, and most frequently
-a _kidney-shaped seed_ (generally provided with fine, cuticular,
-projecting warts, Fig. 362 _B_), with a _curved, peripheral embryo
-enclosing the endosperm which is most frequently floury_ (Figs. 362
-_C_, 365 _H_; for exceptions, see Fig. 366); the seeds in all cases
-are borne on a _centrally-placed_, and in most cases _free_, placenta
-(they are “basal” when there is only 1 ovule in the ovary, Fig. 364).
-The flower is regular, hypogynous or perigynous (Fig. 364) (only
-rarely epigynous) and usually 5-_merous_. The flower which is most
-complete has 5 whorls (S5, P5, A5+5, G2-3–5), as in some genera of
-the Caryophyllaceæ (Figs. 360, 361); but from this type it becomes
-reduced, the petals and stamens being suppressed, so that finally
-5 perianth-leaves, 5 stamens (opposite the perianth-leaves), and 2
-carpels (Fig. 361 _F_) only are present; for example, in certain genera
-of the _Caryophyllaceæ_, in the _Chenopodiaceæ_, _Amarantaceæ_, and
-others. When the number of stamens is increased to more than 5 in the
-whorl, it is always possible to show that some of the stamens have been
-divided. The number of the carpels and ovules also becomes reduced; in
-the highest there is a central placenta, not free in its early stages,
-with a large number of ovules; in those which are most reduced there is
-only a single ovule, which is placed centrally at the base of the ovary
-[Fig. 364]. Somewhat corresponding changes are found in the fruit,
-which is a many-seeded _capsule_ in those which have many ovules, but
-a one-seeded _nut_ where there is one ovule. In the most reduced forms
-the flowers are generally unisexual.--Similar features are also present
-in the vegetative parts. Almost all the species are herbaceous, the
-leaves are simple and most frequently without stipules. ~The structure
-of the stem, especially in Chenopodiaceæ, Amarantaceæ, Nyctaginiaceæ
-and others, often differs from that of the ordinary Dicotyledon. In the
-woody portion of the stem and root several rings are sometimes formed
-which resemble annual rings but which are formed by new cambium-rings
-arising outside the old ones which then cease to divide.~
-
-Order 1. =Caryophyllaceæ.= Herbaceous plants, with round, nodose
-stem; leaves _opposite_, slightly amplexicaul, simple, with sessile,
-undivided, entire lamina; stipules nearly always absent; the
-inflorescences are _dichasia_ passing over into unipared scorpioid
-cymes. The flowers are regular, ☿ or unisexual, hypogynous or
-perigynous, 5-(or 4-) merous with 2–3–4–5 carpels; calyx persistent;
-corolla polypetalous. The ovary is unilocular (or originally, and
-sometimes also in the later stages, plurilocular below, _e.g._
-_Viscaria_), with _free styles_ and 1–several curved ovules on a
-_central_, free placenta. The fruit is a nut or a capsule opening
-apically with long or short valves (teeth, Fig. 362), equal to or
-double the carpels. For the seeds refer to the family. ~In _Dianthus_
-the embryo is straight.~
-
-   The flowers which are most complete have _Sn_, _Pn_, _An_ + _n_
-   (obdiplostemonous), _Gn_ where _n_ = 5 (Figs. 360, 361 _A_) or
-   4 (Fig. 361 _B_); the carpels may be placed opposite to the
-   sepals (Fig. 360) or opposite to the petals (Fig. 361 _A_, _B_).
-   Without any change taking place in the position of the other
-   whorls, the carpels are next found reduced to 2–3–4 (see the
-   genera); their number may easily be recognised by that of the
-   styles. This is the construction in the majority of the genera
-   in the two first groups. _Stellaria media_ differs considerably.
-   It may have (_a_) the flower as described above, with _G3_;
-   (_b_), the corolla only absent, or (_c_) only the petal-stamens
-   (A5 + 0, Fig. 361 _C_), or (_d_) all these as well as some of
-   the sepal-stamens. The same applies to _Sagina_, _Alsine_,
-   _Cerastium_, and others, and, finally, a series of genera are
-   formed, with certain conditions of reduction which have become
-   constant, and by a gradual series of steps lead to the most
-   reduced form, which has only 5 sepals and 5 (or even as far as
-   only 1) sepal-stamens (Fig. 361 _D_, _E_, _F_).--The PETALS in
-   the _Alsineæ_ are often deeply bifid. The sepal-stamens are most
-   frequently the longest, and bear nectaries at the base (Fig. 363
-   _st_). In the most complete forms the ovary has partition-walls
-   in the lower portion (Fig. 360); these do not, however, reach
-   to the top, and generally soon disappear. The ovules, when
-   numerous, are situated on the placenta in as many double rows as
-   there are carpels. In the number of ovules a reduction from many
-   to 1 takes place (Fig. 361). A comparison proves that the “free,
-   centrally placed” placenta is formed by the ventral portion of
-   the carpels. The single basal ovule in _Herniaria_ (Fig. 364),
-   _Scleranthus_, and others, is also borne on the carpels.
-
-   The vegetative _branching_ is characteristic. One of the leaves
-   in a pair is formed before the other, and has a more vigorous
-   axillary bud; these stronger leaves stand in a ¼-spiral, the
-   fifth above the first one, and the branches are consequently
-   arranged in the same manner. In the inflorescence, however, it
-   is the upper or second bracteole (β) whose axillary bud (_w_ in
-   Fig. 361) is most advanced. The bud of the first bracteole (α)
-   becomes sometimes entirely suppressed, or in some this bracteole
-   itself is suppressed.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 360.--Diagram of _Lychnis_: α, β bracteoles.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 361.--_A-F_ Diagrams of flowers of the
-  Caryophyllaceæ: _A Agrostemma_; _B Sagina_; _C Stellaria_;
-  _D Corrigiola_; _E Paronychia_; _F Herniaria_.]
-
-   The most original type appears to be represented by the Alsineæ.
-   From this form on one side the Sileneæ, adapted in a higher
-   degree for insect-pollination, are developed, and on the other
-   side the Paronychieæ, with various reductions.
-
-=1.= ALSINEÆ, STITCHWORT GROUP. Sepals free, and connected with them
-stellately expanded, slightly unguiculate (white or inodorous) petals;
-these, however, often become suppressed (Fig. 363). The fruit is a
-capsule.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 362.--_Cerastium arvense_: _A_ fruit; _B_
-  seed; _C_ section of seed.]
-
-=a.= As many carpels as sepals (4 or 5). _Cerastium_ (Chickweed). The
-petals are bifid. Capsule cylindrical, frequently _curved_ at the top,
-and opening by 10 teeth (Fig. 362).--~_Malachium_ differs only in the
-5-toothed capsule with bifid teeth.~--_Spergula_ (Spurry). The petals
-are not bifid, capsule 5-valved; seeds winged. The leaves are linear,
-and appear as if placed in large numbers in a whorl, a branch being
-situated in the axil of each with leaves placed very close together at
-its base; _stipules membranous_.--~Sagina has Sn, Pn, An + n, or An,
-Gn, where n = 4 or 5. The corolla is often wanting.~
-
-=b.= 3 (rarely 2) carpels (Fig. 361 _C_). _Stellaria_ (Stitchwort)
-has deeply cleft petals. The number of stamens varies (see
-above).--_Arenaria_ has entire petals. ~(To this group belong _Alsine_,
-_Moehringia_, _Halianthus_, or _Honckenya_ (Fig. 363), which differ
-from each other, especially in the form of the seed and number of
-the capsular valves.) _Spergularia_ has membranous stipules, as in
-_Spergula_.--_Holosteum._~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 363.--_Arenaria_ (_Halianthus_) _peploides_:
-  ♀-(_A_) and ♂-flower (_B_, _C_).]
-
-=2.= PARONYCHIEÆ (Figs. 361 _D_, _E_, _F_; 364). Small, greenish
-plants. The leaves, in the majority, are opposite, with _membranous
-stipules_. The flowers are most frequently arranged in small
-_dichasia_; they are small and insignificant, perigynous (Fig. 364)
-or hypogynous. The corolla is in most cases wanting, and when present
-is very small; in general the calyx-stamens are developed, but the
-corolla-stamens may be represented by small scales (Fig. 364). Ovary
-most frequently with 1 ovule. Fruit, a _nut_, rarely a capsule; it is
-enclosed by the strongly perigynous floral axis (torus).
-
-_Scleranthus_ (Knapwell) is perigynous with bell-shaped torus; no
-corolla; corolla-stamens are wanting or rudimentary; some calyx-stamens
-may also be absent.--_Corrigiola_ (Fig. 361 _D_); _Illecebrum_;
-_Paronychia_ (Fig. 361 _E_); _Herniaria_ (Figs. 361 _F_, 364).
-
-=3.= SILENEÆ, PINK OR CARNATION GROUP. This has a _gamosepalous_ calyx
-and unguiculate, white or red, petals, with _outgrowths_ (_ligule_,
-_corona_, _paracorolla_) at the throat of the corolla. These structures
-are not found in the other groups, and are merely outgrowths at
-the junction of the limb and claw. The corolla, stamens and ovary
-are frequently raised above the calyx, upon a lengthened internode
-(_gynophore_). The flower has S5, P5, A5 + 5; fruit a capsule with many
-seeds.
-
-=a.= 5-(rarely 3–4) carpellate ovary.--_Lychnis_ (Campion, Fig. 360).
-The corolla is longer than the calyx; corona present. The capsule
-is 10- or 5-toothed, completely 1-chambered or 5-chambered at the
-base,--the genus has been divided accordingly into several genera:
-_Melandrium_, _Lychnis_, _Viscaria_. ~Some species are unisexual by
-the abortion of stamens or carpels (_L. vespertina_, _diurna_).~
-_Agrostemma_ (_A. githago_, Corn-cockle, Fig. 361 _A_) has a
-long-toothed calyx, the teeth exceeding the corolla; corona absent;
-5-toothed capsule.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 364.--_Herniaria glabra_: _a^1_ flower; _b^1_
-  longitudinal section through the flower; _c^1_ stigma with two
-  pollen-grains.]
-
-=b.= Tricarpellate.--_Silene_ (Catch-fly). Six-toothed capsule; corona
-present in the majority.--~_Cucubalus_ has berry-like fruits which
-finally become dry but do not dehisce.~
-
-=c.= Bicarpellate (2 styles, 4-toothed capsule).--_Dianthus_
-(Pink); at the base of the calyx 1–several pairs of floral-leaves
-are situated; corona absent. The _straight embryo_ is a peculiar
-exception.--_Gypsophila_ has a campanulate, open calyx, 5-nerved,
-membranous between the nerves; corona absent; the flowers are generally
-small and numerous, in a large, paniculate dichasia.--_Saponaria_
-(Soapwort) has corona.
-
-   POLLINATION. _Alsineæ_ has ordinary nectaries at the base of
-   the calyx-stamens (Fig. 336): they are frequently protandrous
-   but may often, in the absence of cross-pollination (in the
-   less conspicuous species) pollinate themselves. Their open
-   flowers are accessible to many kinds of insects (particularly
-   flies and bees). _Gynodiœcious_ flowers are found in several
-   species, and the ☿-flowers are then generally more conspicuous
-   than the ♀-flowers. That the ♀-flowers have descended from
-   ☿-flowers is seen by the large staminodes found in them (Fig.
-   363). _Arenaria peploides_ is diœcious (Fig. 363). The _Sileneæ_
-   are as a rule adapted for pollination by insects with long
-   probosces--especially butterflies,--and they are frequently
-   protandrous, so that at first the calyx-stamens open, later
-   on the corolla-stamens, then the stigmas expand. The honey is
-   secreted by a ring-like nectary round the base of the ovary or
-   by nectaries at the base of the stamens. Some only blossom and
-   emit scent at night or in the evening (_Lychnis vespertina_,
-   _Silene nutans_, _Saponaria officinalis_) and, like other
-   night-flowers, are of a white or pale colour.
-
-   DISTRIBUTION. 1,100 species, especially in temperate climates,
-   fewer in the colder zone, less still in the Tropics. The
-   Paronychieæ are especially found in dry, sandy fields.
-
-   USES. “Soap-root” (with _Saponin_, forming a lather in water)
-   from _Saponaria officinalis_ was formerly officinal, and
-   _Gypsophila struthium_. The seeds of _Agrostemma githago_ are
-   said to be poisonous.--The following are ornamental plants:
-   species of Pinks (_D. caryophyllus_, garden Pink, often
-   with double flowers; _D. barbatus_, _plumarius_, _etc._).
-   _Lychnis_, _Gypsophila_, _Silene_, _Cerastium_ (_C. tomentosum_
-   as edging for borders), _Saponaria officinalis_ (often
-   coronate).--_Spergula arvensis_ is sometimes cultivated.
-
-   Order 2. =Amarantaceæ.= The flowers are essentially the same as
-   in the _Chenopodiaceæ_ and the extremely reduced Caryophyllaceæ
-   (Fig. 361 _F_); they are regular, hypogynous, generally ☿,
-   have 5 free (rarely slightly united) perianth-leaves; in front
-   of these 5 stamens, which _are often united_ at their base
-   into a shorter or longer tube and have stipule-like teeth
-   between them (the division _Gomphreneæ_ has 2-locular anthers,
-   each of which opens longitudinally); and a 2–3 carpellate
-   gynœceum with one loculus and most frequently one, more rarely
-   several ovules; the fruit is a nut, more rarely (in _Celosia_,
-   _Amarantus_, _Gomphrena_) a capsule, dehiscing irregularly,
-   or like a pyxidium. The characters which especially separate
-   them from the allied orders are found in the perianth. The
-   perianth-leaves are not green and herbaceous, but _membranous,
-   dry, and often coloured_; they are frequently produced into a
-   bristle or awn; they have also both subtending floral-leaves
-   and _2 large bracteoles similar to the perianth_; all these dry
-   leaves persist without alteration after the withering of the
-   flower.--The flowers are without scent. They are arranged in
-   spike- or capitulum-like inflorescences; sometimes placed singly,
-   sometimes aggregated in the panicle-like inflorescences; in
-   others, on the contrary, in dichasia. The majority are herbs,
-   some are shrubs. The leaves are scattered, or opposite, but
-   always simple and without stipules; some are smooth, others
-   hairy.
-
-   450 species; especially in the Tropics, principally S. Am. and
-   E. Ind.: few are found outside these countries.--Only a few
-   are used; some, chiefly E. Indian species, are cultivated as
-   ornamental plants: _Amaranthus_ (Fox-tail); _Gomphrena globosa_;
-   _Celosia cristata_ (Cock’s-comb) remarkable for its fasciated
-   inflorescence; _Alternanthera_. Some are employed as culinary
-   plants in the Tropics, and in a few of the E. Indian species the
-   seeds are farinaceous, and used for food.
-
-Order 3. =Chenopodiaceæ.= Generally herbaceous plants like the
-Caryophyllaceæ, but the leaves are arranged spirally (except
-_Salicornia_), and are simple, exstipulate; they are generally fleshy
-and like the stem “mealy,” that is, covered with small hairs, whose
-large spherical terminal cell readily falls away; otherwise they are
-seldom hairy. The inflorescences are generally flower-clusters borne in
-panicles. Bracteoles generally absent. Flowers generally _unisexual_:
-with the single exception of _Beta_ the flowers are hypogynous; they
-are regular, small and inconspicuous, with _single, green_, 5-leaved,
-but _more or less united_ perianth; 5 stamens opposite the perianth,
-and a _2–5-carpellate, unilocular_ ovary with 1 basal, curved ovule;
-but in some genera the number of the perianth-leaves and stamens is
-reduced to 3–2–1–0. The fruit is generally a _nut_,--thus this flower
-and fruit are the same as in the reduced Caryophyllaceæ (Fig. 361
-_F_). The seed is similar to that generally found in the family (for
-exceptions see the genera).
-
-   The floral diagram most frequently present is the same as
-   in Fig. 361 _F_. There is no indication of corolla or of
-   corolla-stamens, which may be supposed to have belonged
-   to the plant, but which are now entirely and completely
-   suppressed. This order appears to have been an offshoot from
-   the Caryophyllaceæ.--The perianth persists after the withering
-   of the flower, and envelopes the nut; it is very variable, and,
-   together with the position of the seed, the form of the embryo,
-   the sex of the flowers, etc., gives the characters of the genera.
-
-=1.= CHENOPODIEÆ, GOOSEFOOT GROUP (Fig. 365), has ☿ (or polygamous)
-flowers, with regular 5-parted perianth (_C_); the embryo is ring-like
-(_H_). The leaves have the ordinary flat forms.--_Chenopodium_
-(Goosefoot). The flower is hypogynous, and the fruit (which is
-compressed) perfectly free; Mulberry-like collections of fruits are
-formed in some species (sub-genus _Blitum_) by the perianth becoming
-finally fleshy and coloured.--_Beta_ (Beet, Mangold, Fig. 365) differs
-from all genera in the perianth, which finally becomes cartilaginous,
-being epigynous (_D_). Small, most frequently 2–3-flowered clusters
-without bracteoles, situated in a long, interrupted axis (_A_, _B_);
-the flowers and fruits in each cluster are more or less united
-individually, and fall off together--they are commonly known as seeds
-(_E_, _F_). The seed lies horizontally.--_Hablitzia_ (_H. tamnoides_).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 365.--_Beta vulgaris._]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 366.--_Salsola soda_: embryo.]
-
-=2.= SALSOLEÆ, SALTWORT GROUP, has cylindrical or semi-cylindrical
-leaves. Perianth as in the preceding group; the fruit is most
-frequently compressed. The two first mentioned genera differ from
-most of the others in the order in having a spirally-coiled, and not
-a ring-like embryo, so that the endosperm is slight or wanting (Fig.
-366). These plants are sometimes placed as a group by themselves,
-SPIROLOBEÆ--in contradistinction to which the others are termed
-CYCLOLOBEÆ.--_Salsola_ (Saltwort); leaves subulate, with spiny tips;
-the flowers have 2 spinous bracteoles: during the ripening of the
-fruit a tough leathery wing is developed transversely to the back of
-the perianth.--~_Chenopodina_ deviates from _Chenopodium_ chiefly in
-the embryo and want of endosperm.--_Kochia_ has a somewhat similar
-perianth to _Salsola_, but a ring-like embryo; it differs from the
-others in being hairy.~
-
-=3.= SALICORNIEÆ, GLASSWORT GROUP. _Salicornia_ (Glasswort) has a very
-different appearance. The stems are succulent, jointed, and almost
-leafless; the leaves opposite, very small, sheath-like and connate;
-there is a depression in the axil of each leaf, in which a small
-3-flowered dichasium without bracteoles is sunk; the flowers have
-a trimerous perianth, 1–2 stamens and 1 carpel. No endosperm. _S.
-herbacea_ on clayey beaches.
-
-=4.= ATRIPLICEÆ. This group has most frequently unisexual flowers;
-the ♂-flower has a 4–5 partite perianth, but the ♀-flower differs
-from it. _Atriplex_ is monœcious or polygamous, the ♀-flower is
-naked, but has 2 large, herbaceous bracteoles which expand during the
-ripening of the fruit, and often become warted and fringed, enveloping
-the _compressed nut_. ~The section _Dichospermum_ has two kinds of
-♀-flowers, one like those just described, the other similar to the
-_Chenopodium_-flowers, which have been deprived of their stamens, and
-the fruits of which are _depressed_, not pressed together from the
-sides; some (_e.g. A. hortensis_) have even three kinds of nuts.
-All the flowers of _Atriplex_, which present vertical fruits, are
-accessory shoots, which stand beneath the ordinary flower-clusters, a
-rather singular relation.~--_Spinacia_ (Spinach) is diœcious; ♂-flower:
-perianth, 4 (-5); stamens, 4 (-5); ♀-flower: tubular, 2–4-partite
-perianth, hardening during the ripening of the fruit, and uniting with
-the compressed nut; in _S. oleracea_, it also forms _thorns_; 4 long
-stigmas.--_Halimus_ has the 2 long bracteoles almost entirely united
-and ultimately adhering firmly to the fruit.
-
-   =5.= BASELLEÆ. A somewhat exceptional group with more
-   or less perigynous flowers and 2 bracteoles. _Basella_,
-   _Boussingaultia_, _Ullucus_. The perianth is sepaloid; ovary
-   1-ovuled. In _Basella_ the perianth is fleshy, enveloping the
-   nut, and the cotyledons are so rolled together that a tranverse
-   cut divides them in two places (as in Spirolobeæ). Herbaceous
-   climbing plants.
-
-   POLLINATION. Wind-and self-pollination, as far as is known;
-   the insignificant flowers, devoid of honey, appear to exclude
-   insect-pollination.--520 species. Most of them are annual
-   (out of 26 native species only 5 are perennial); inhabiting
-   salt-marshes and salt-steppes, and growing as weeds (most
-   frequently on garden or field soil containing manure) in this
-   country, especially species of _Chenopodium_ and _Atriplex_.
-   The majority are found outside the Tropics, and play a very
-   important part, for example, in the Asiatic salt-steppes. They
-   grow gregariously in large masses.
-
-   USES. Comparatively few. The only important one is _Beta
-   vulgaris_ (from the Mediterranean basin), with its different
-   varieties, viz. Beet-root, Cattle-beet or Red-beet, Sugar-beet,
-   and others. These are biennial, making in the first year a root
-   which acts as a reservoir of reserve material, with a rosette
-   of leaves, and in the second year using this material in the
-   production of a long stem, leaves and flowers. The primary
-   root has been developed by cultivation into a very thick and
-   fleshy tap-root; its mode of increase in thickness deviates
-   from that of other roots, concentric rings of vascular bundles
-   being formed from a cambial ring developed outside the previous
-   ring. In this way several rings of vascular bundles separated
-   by medullary rays, alternating with rings of parenchyma, may
-   be found in the root of a Beet. Besides _Beta vulgaris_, var.
-   _hortensis_ (Beet-root), the following are also cultivated: var.
-   _cicla_ (Leaf-beet, “Mangold,” or “Roman Spinach ”), _Spinacia
-   oleracea_ and _Atriplex hortensis_ as Spinach; a form of the
-   latter and of Spinach are grown as ornamental plants. The tubers
-   of _Ullucus tuberosus_ are used as potatoes; _Chenopodium
-   quinoa_, in Chili and Peru, is an important farinaceous plant.
-   Soda is made from some (_Salsola kali_, _Chenopodina maritima_
-   and others). Aromatic properties are rare: _Chenopodium
-   ambrosioides_ and _botrys_.
-
-   Order 4. =Batidaceæ.= _Batis maritima_, a bushy West Indian
-   maritime plant.
-
-   Order 5. =Phytolaccaceæ.= The ☿ (sometimes unisexual), regular,
-   sometimes slightly perigynous flowers are inconspicuous
-   and have a single sepaloid or coloured 4–5-leaved perianth
-   (generally united at the base); stamens either in 1 whorl in the
-   spaces between the perianth-leaves or in 1 whorl opposite the
-   perianth-leaves, or in 2, one of which alternates with these;
-   but the number may be increased by the splitting of one or of
-   both the whorls to as many as 10–15–20–25. _Carpels_ sometimes
-   only one, sometimes _many_ (4–10) placed in a whorl, either free
-   or united into a gynœceum with a corresponding number of loculi
-   in the ovary; but in all cases _each carpel bears only its own
-   style and 1 ovule_. The fruit is a _berry_ (or nut, capsule, or
-   schizocarp).--Mostly herbs or herbaceous shrubs, with scattered,
-   simple leaves without stipules (_Petiverieæ_; have stipules).
-   Inflorescences, most frequently _racemes_ or spikes, which in
-   some instances are apparently placed opposite to a leaf, being
-   displaced by a more vigorous growth of the axillary bud. Embryo
-   always bent.--_Petiveria_ has a straight embryo with rolled
-   cotyledons.--_Phytolacca_, _Pircunia_, _Microtea_, _Seguieria_,
-   _Rivina_ (Pr4, A4, G1; berry), and others.
-
-   The following plant is, with some doubt, placed near this
-   order: _Thelygonum cynocrambe_; monœcious. ♂-flowers: perianth,
-   2-leaved; stamens indefinite. ♀-flowers: perianth-leaves united,
-   3-toothed; G1, style gynobasic. Fruit a drupe. An annual plant;
-   Mediterranean. Branching anomalous.
-
-   About 90 species; in tropical and temperate countries,
-   principally America and Africa.--The red juice in the fruits,
-   especially of _Phytol. decandra_, is used for colouring wine.
-
-Order 6. =Portulacaceæ= (=Portulacas=). The flowers are regular
-(except _Montia_), hypogynous (except _Portulaca_) and ☿. The diagram
-which applies to the majority of genera is that in Fig. 367, but with
-all the 5 stamens completely developed: it may be considered as the
-Chenopodiaceous diagram with the addition of 2 _bracteoles_ in the
-median line (_m-n_, these by some are considered as sepals), and with
-a petaloid perianth (usually designated “corolla”). The “petals” fall
-off very quickly, and are sometimes wanting. Most frequently 5 stamens,
-situated opposite the “petals,” but in other genera the number varies;
-_Montia_ has only 3 stamens (by suppression of the two anterior and
-lateral, Fig. 367), others again have more than 5, some a large and
-indefinite number. This may be explained partly by the appearance of
-a second whorl of stamens alternating with the first, and partly by
-the splitting (dédoublement) of the stamens. Gynœceum most frequently
-tricarpellate, ovary unilocular with 1–several basal ovules (sometimes
-on a branched placenta, as in certain _Caryophyllaceæ_). The fruit is
-a _capsule_, more rarely a nut.--The majority are annual herbaceous
-plants with scattered, entire leaves, often fleshy and smooth, with or
-without rudimentary stipules (dry, membranous, modified into hairs).
-Inflorescence cymose.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 367.--_Montia._
-
-  Diagram of flower.]
-
-_Portulaca_ (Portulaca): flower, epigynous or semi-epigynous; fruit, a
-pyxidium. The stamens vary in number, and are most frequently placed in
-groups (in consequence of splitting) opposite the petals.--_Montia_:
-the corolla is slightly gamopetalous, but cleft on the posterior side
-(Fig. 367), and as a consequence of the larger size of the lateral
-petals, slightly zygomorphic; 3 stamens.--_Calandrinia_; _Talinum_;
-_Anacampseros_; _Claytonia_.
-
-   125 species; mostly in warm and temperate countries, especially
-   the arid parts of S. Am. and the Cape. _Montia fontana_ (Blinks)
-   is a native plant. _Portulaca oleracea_ is cultivated as a
-   pot-herb in the south of Europe. A few species of _Portulaca_
-   and _Calandrinia_ are ornamental plants.
-
-Order 7. =Nyctaginiaceæ.= The characteristic feature of this order
-is the _single_, regular, _united_, and often petaloid perianth, the
-lower part of which generally persists after flowering and embraces
-the fruit as a false pericarp. The upper portion is most frequently
-_valvate and folded_, or simply valvate in æstivation. The number of
-stamens varies. The free gynœceum is _unicarpellate_ and has 1 ovule.
-The fruit is a _nut_, but becomes a _false drupe_, since the lower
-persistent portion of the perianth becomes fleshy (as in _Neea_, where
-this fleshy part is almost always crowned by the upper persistent
-part of the perianth. In the majority of the Mirabileæ the lower part
-becomes the dry _anthocarp_, while the upper petaloid part falls away
-after flowering). Finally, a peculiar involucre is formed around the
-flowers by free or united floral-leaves.--The majority are herbs, some
-are trees (_Pisonia_, etc.); _Bougainvillea_ is a liane. The stems
-are often nodose and swollen at the nodes; the leaves are simple,
-penninerved, scattered, or opposite, without stipules. ~In some, the
-vascular bundles are scattered; stem anomalous.~
-
-_Mirabilis_; the structure of the stem is abnormal. Dichasial branching
-with continuation from the second bracteole, thus forming unipared
-scorpioid cymes. The perianth is petaloid, funnel-shaped, and has
-a folded and twisted æstivation resembling that of the corolla of
-the _Convolvulaceæ_; the upper coloured portion falls off after
-the flowering. Outside, and alternating with it, is a 5-partite,
-sepaloid involucre of 5 spirally-placed floral-leaves.--_Oxybaphus_;
-the involucre envelops 1–3 dichasial flowers.--_Bougainvillea_; the
-involucre is rose-coloured, 3-leaved, and envelops 3 flowers (placed
-laterally; the terminal flower wanting). The leaves of the involucre
-in _Boerhaavia_, _Pisonia_, _Neea_, and others are reduced to teeth or
-scales.
-
-   157 species; mostly in tropical countries, and especially S. Am.
-   Species of _Mirabilis_ (Am.) are ornamental plants. Theïn is
-   found in _Neea theïfera_ Oersted (discovered by Lund in Lagoa
-   Santa, Brazil), which may be used as a tea-plant.
-
-   Order 8. =Aizoaceæ.= Only 3 _whorls_ are found in the flower,
-   which _alternate_ with one another when their leaves are equal
-   in number. The first is sepaloid, the third one the carpels,
-   and the intervening one is either uncleft, in which case it is
-   developed as stamens, or it is divided into a large number of
-   members which then all become stamens (arranged in groups), or
-   the outermost ones become developed as petals. The fruit is most
-   frequently a capsule with several loculi. Most of the species
-   are herbs with thick, fleshy stems, and exstipulate leaves. The
-   structure of the stem is usually anomalous.
-
-   =1.= AIZOIDEÆ have hypogynous or perigynous flowers with (4–)
-   5 perianth-leaves; stamens single, or (by splitting) in groups
-   of 2–3, alternating with the perianth-leaves. The gynœceum
-   (with 3–5 carpels) has 3–5 loculi in the ovary, and most
-   frequently numerous ovules in each loculus, borne on the central
-   placenta formed by the edges of the carpels. The fruit is a
-   capsule. The inflorescences are dichasia and unipared scorpioid
-   cymes.--_Aizoon_, _Mollugo_, _Sesuvium_, and others are herbs or
-   bushes, most frequently hairy.
-
-   =2.= MESEMBRIANTHEMEÆ have semi- or wholly-epigynous
-   flowers.--_Tetragonia._ The perianth is 4 (more rarely
-   3–5–6)-merous. Stamens single, or (by splitting) in groups
-   alternating with the perianth-leaves. There is an indefinite
-   number of carpels, and each loculus of the ovary contains
-   _only_ 1 pendulous ovule. Fruit a nut or drupe. The flowers
-   arise singly in the leaf-axils, with an accessory foliage-bud
-   below them; in some instances there is also an accessory
-   flower between this bud and the flower. Southern hemisphere,
-   especially at the Cape; _T. expansa_, New Zealand Spinach, is a
-   fleshy plant which is cultivated as a pot-herb (Japan, Austr.,
-   S. Am.).--_Mesembrianthemum_: the flowers are 5-merous; the
-   numerous linear petals and the still more numerous stamens all
-   arise by the splitting of 5 or 4 protuberances (primordia)
-   alternating with the sepals. The ovary presents another
-   characteristic peculiarity: the carpels alternating with the
-   5–4 stamens form an ovary (with several loculi) with the ovules
-   at first borne, as in other cases, on the _inner_ corner of the
-   inwardly-turned carpels; but during the subsequent development
-   the whole ovary is so turned round that the placentæ become
-   parietal and the ovules assume, apparently, a position very
-   rarely met with in the vegetable kingdom: on the dorsal suture
-   of the carpels. Shrubs or under-shrubs, more rarely herbs
-   with fleshy stems and simple, entire, more frequently thick
-   or triangular leaves, containing a quantity of water. The
-   flowers open about noon, and are brightly coloured, generally
-   red or red-violet, but odourless. The capsules dehisce in
-   rainy weather. 300 species, mostly found at the Cape. Some are
-   ornamental plants. _M. crystallinum_ (the Ice-plant) and others
-   are covered with peculiar, bladder-like, sparkling hairs, the
-   cell-sap of which contains salt--these serve as reservoirs of
-   water.
-
-
-                        Family 8. =Cactifloræ.=
-
-The position of this family is very doubtful; but it seems in many
-respects to approach _Mesembrianthemum_. Some botanists place it near
-to the Ribesiaceæ; others, again, to the Passifloraceæ. Only 1 order.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 368.--_A Echinocactus_: _a_ position of a
-  leaf-lamina; _b_ a lateral shoot on the displaced axillary bud.
-  _B_ Pereskia: _b_ a foliage-leaf on a small thorny branch which
-  is subtended by a foliage-leaf which has fallen off and left a
-  scar(_a_).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 369.--_Echinopsis._]
-
-Order =Cactaceæ= (=The Cacti=). The flower is epigynous, ☿, regular,
-and remarkable for its _acyclic_ structure; there are, for instance, a
-large number of spirally-placed sepals and petals, which gradually pass
-over into one another, and which in some species, to a certain extent,
-arise from the walls of the ovary as in _Nymphæa_ (Fig. 383 _A_, _B_).
-The petals are free; rotate, opening widely in _Opuntia_, _Pereskia_,
-and _Rhipsalis_; erect and united at their base into a shorter or
-longer tube in _Cereus_, _Epiphyllum_, _Mammillaria_, _Echinocactus_,
-_Melocactus_, and others (Fig. 369). _Stamens numerous_, attached to
-the base of the corolla; gynœceum formed of _many carpels_, with one
-style, dividing into a number of branches corresponding to the number
-of carpels; the ovary has _one loculus_ with _many parietal_ placentæ;
-the ovules are anatropous, on long and curved funicles. Fruit a berry
-with exendospermous seeds. The fruit-pulp is mainly derived from the
-funicles.--The external appearance of the Cactaceæ is very peculiar;
-_Pereskia_, which has thick and fleshy leaves (Fig. 368), deviates
-the least; foliage-leaves of the usual form are wanting in the other
-genera, or are usually very small, and quickly fall off and disappear
-(_Opuntia_), or are modified into thorns; the stem, without normal
-foliage-leaves,--so characteristic a feature in this order,--makes its
-appearance after the two normally developed cotyledons. The stems
-are fleshy, perennial, and may finally become woody. In some they are
-elongated, globose, pointed, and more or less dichotomously branched,
-_e.g._ in several of the _Rhipsalis_ species, which live mostly as
-epiphytes on trees; in others, elongated, branched, globose, or, most
-frequently, more or less angular (prismatic) or grooved and provided
-with wings, and either columnar and erect (as much as about 20 metres
-in height and 1 metre in circumference, as in _C. giganteus_ in New
-Mexico) or climbing by roots (_Cereus_ and _Rhipsalis_-species);
-in others again, compressed, more or less leaf-like, often with a
-ridge in the centre (winged), branched and jointed: _Epiphyllum_,
-_Phyllocactus_, _Opuntia_, some species of _Rhipsalis_; others are
-thick, short, spherical or ovoid, unbranched or only slightly branched,
-and either studded with prominent warts (_mammillæ_) each of which
-supports a tuft of thorns (Fig. 368 _A_; _Mammillaria_ and others) or
-with vertical ridges, separated by furrows (rows of mammillæ which
-have coalesced) in _Melocactus_, _Echinocactus_, _Echinopsis_ (Fig.
-369); at the same time the ovary in some is embedded in the stem so
-that leaves or leaf-scars, with tufts of thorns in their axils, may be
-observed on the ovary just as on the stem.--The flattened shoots of
-the Cactaceæ are formed in various ways, either by the compression of
-cylindrical axes (_Opuntia_) or, as in _Melocactus_, etc., from winged
-stems in which all the wings are suppressed except two.
-
-   The thorns are produced directly from the growing points of
-   the axillary buds, and are modified leaves. The axillary bud
-   is united at its base with its subtending leaf, which as a
-   rule is extremely rudimentary; and these together form a kind
-   of leaf-cushion, larger in some genera than in others. This
-   leaf-cushion attains its highest development in _Mammillaria_,
-   in which it is a large, conical wart (see Fig. 368 _A_), bearing
-   on its apex the tuft of thorns and rudimentary lamina.--The
-   _seedlings_ have normal cotyledons and a fleshy hypocotyl.
-
-   All the species (1,000?) are American (one epiphytic species of
-   _Rhipsalis_ is indigenous in S. Africa, Mauritius and Ceylon),
-   especially from the tropical table-lands (Mexico, etc.). Some
-   species, especially those without thorns, as _Rhipsalis_, are
-   epiphytes. _Opuntia vulgaris_, the fruits of which are edible,
-   is naturalized in the Mediterranean. The cochineal insect
-   (_Coccus cacti_) lives on this and some closely allied species
-   (_O. coccinellifera_, etc.), particularly in Mexico and the
-   Canary Islands. Several are ornamental plants.
-
-
-                       Family 9. =Polycarpicæ.=
-
-The flowers _as a rule are_ ☿, _regular_ and _hypogynous_; however
-in some orders they are unisexual, _e.g._ in the Myristicaceæ, or
-zygomorphic (in Monkshood and Larkspur in the Ranunculaceæ); in the
-Lauraceæ, (Fig. 386) for example, perigynous, and in _Nymphæa_ (Fig.
-383) even partially epigynous flowers are typical.--The flowers are
-acyclic in very many of the genera of the two first orders, if not
-completely so, at any rate in the numerous stamens and carpels, thus
-denoting an old type. It is a remarkable characteristic that in the
-majority of the orders the number 3 prevails in the calyx and corolla;
-the number 5 also occurs, but the number 2 is seldom met with. Most
-orders have a double perianth; chorisis does not occur, suppression
-is rare, and the parts of the flower are developed in acropetal
-succession. The most characteristic feature in the order is the _free,
-one-leaved_, as a rule _numerous carpels_ (apocarpous gynœceum). The
-number of carpels in some of the last mentioned orders dwindles down
-to 1 (_e.g._ the _Berberideæ_ and _Myristicaceæ_). The carpels in
-_Nymphæaceæ_ become united into _one pistil_ (syncarpous), a condition
-which we also find distributed among the other orders.
-
-_Endosperm occurs in almost all_ the orders (except _e.g. Lauraceæ_).
-The nutritive tissue in _Cabombeæ_ and _Nymphæeæ_ is chiefly
-_perisperm_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 370.--Diagram of _Aquilegia vulgaris_: _sp_
-  spur. A cyclic flower.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 371.--Diagram of a dichasium of _Ranunculus
-  acer_: α_{1}, α^1, and β_{1}, β^1, bracteoles (the buds
-  in the axils of the bracteoles, α and α^1, are continued
-  antidromously). The flower has cyclic calyx and corolla, bub
-  acyclic (8/21) stamens.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 372.--Diagram of an acyclic Ranunculaceous
-  flower (only 3 stamens are indicated). The spiral of the sepals
-  has a divergence of 3/5; that of the corolla and subsequent
-  leaves 3/8.]
-
-Order 1. =Ranunculaceæ.= Nearly all are _herbs_ (except _Clematis_).
-The leaves are scattered (except _Clematideæ_), they have a large
-sheath with broad base (no stipules), and are most frequently
-palminerved with palmate lobes. The flowers are hypogynous, with most
-frequently a well pronounced convex receptacle (Figs. 374 _B_, 380), ☿,
-regular (except _Delphinium_ and _Aconitum_); their structure varies
-very much; in some the leaves are verticillate, in others arranged
-spirally; in others, again, both modes of arrangement are found. It is
-a characteristic feature that the various series of leaves (especially
-calyx and corolla) are not so distinct or so sharply divided as
-is usual. The leaves of the perianth are free, imbricate (except
-_Clematideæ_); stamens _numerous_, with most frequently extrorse
-anthers; gynœceum _free_, _apocarpous_ (except _Nigella_ and partly
-_Helleborus_), with 1 or several ovules (Figs. 373, 378, 379) borne on
-the ventral suture. The fruit is either a nut or a follicle (_Actæa_
-has berries). The seed has a _large, oil-containing_ endosperm and a
-small embryo (Fig. 374).
-
-   The main axis generally terminates in a flower, and the
-   lateral axes branch in a cymose manner (Fig. 371). The flowers
-   show the following differences in construction: VERTICILLATE
-   (EUCYCLIC), _i.e._ constructed all through of alternating
-   whorls: _Aquilegia_ (Fig. 370), _Xanthorhiza_, and sometimes
-   _Eranthis_. SEMIVERTICILLATE (HEMICYCLIC) _i.e._ with sepals and
-   petals in alternate whorls, and the others arranged spirally:
-   _Ranunculus_ (Fig. 371), _Myosurus_, _Pæonia_ and several other
-   genera entirely, or in certain species only. SPIRAL-FLOWERED
-   (ACYCLIC) _i.e._ all the leaves are arranged spirally, so
-   that sepals and petals do not alternate the one with the
-   other, even though they are the same in number: _Adonis_ (Fig.
-   372), _Aconitum_, _Delphinium_-species, _Nigella_-species,
-   _Helleborus_. The leaves of the calyx are in this instance
-   arranged on a spiral of 2/5; those of the corolla on 2/5,
-   3/8, 5/13 or 8/21, and stamens and carpels likewise on higher
-   fractions of the same series.
-
-   The genera _Caltha_, _Anemone_, _Thalictrum_ and _Clematis_
-   have a _single perianth_, which is most frequently petaloid;
-   it is thus apparent that the sepals are petaloid, and the
-   leaves, which in other genera have developed as petals, are in
-   these instances stamens. The calyx is similarly petaloid in
-   the genera _Helleborus_, _Eranthis_, _Nigella_, _Delphinium_
-   and _Aconitum_; but the petals are present in these instances
-   in unusual (horn-like) forms, and almost entirely given
-   up to the function of nectaries, a function they already
-   possess in _Ranunculus_. According to a more recent theory
-   the “honey-leaves” are transformed stamens, which have lost
-   the function of reproduction; the perianth is then single,
-   and most frequently petaloid. [Those leaves in the flowers of
-   many Ranunculaceæ which bear nectaries are termed by Prantl
-   honey-leaves, and comprise those leaf-structures of the flower
-   whose essential function lies in the production of nectar,
-   and which, independent of the differentiation of the perianth
-   into calyx and corolla, are derived from the stamens by the
-   loss of their reproductive functions. Clear transitional
-   forms are found between the two series of the perianth
-   (_e.g._ between the sepaloid and petaloid perianth-leaves
-   of _Anemone japonica_, _A. decapetala_, _Trollius_-species)
-   while transitional forms are never found between perianth-and
-   honey-leaves (with the exception of _Aquilegia vulgaris_, var.
-   _stellata_). In _Anemone_ and _Clematis_ the honey-leaves
-   pass gradually into the stamens, and agree with the stamens
-   in the other Ranunculaceæ in their arrangement, development,
-   and scant system of veins (except _Nigella_). In _Delphinium_,
-   sect. _Consolida_, the two honey-leaves placed in front of
-   the unpaired perianth-leaf are united into one, as shown by
-   the veins (twice three veins arranged symmetrically). The
-   honey-leaves of _Aquilegia_, _Callianthemum_, and the majority
-   of the _Ranunculus_-species serve by reason of their large
-   circumference, as organs of attraction, and on this account
-   are considered as petals by other authors.--The same position
-   in the flower which the honey-leaves assume is found occupied
-   by staminodes, without nectar, in some _Coptis_-species, in
-   _Anemonopsis_, _Actæa_ sect. _Euactæa_, (_e.g. A. racemosa_),
-   _Clematis_ sect. _Atragene_; in the last-named they closely
-   surround the stamens, in _Actæa_ they are petaloid.--A perianth,
-   sharply differentiated into calyx and corolla, and destitute of
-   honey-leaves, is found in _Anemone_, sect. _Knowltonia_ (Cape),
-
-   _Adonis_, _Pæonia_.--The perianth of the Ranunculaceæ is
-   considered by Prantl to be usually petaloid.--The nectaries
-   arise in the Ranunculaceæ (1) on normal stamens (_Clematis_
-   sect. _Viorna_), (2) on the honey-leaves (this is generally the
-   case), and (3) on the carpels (_Caltha_ and the majority of
-   _Trollius_-species).--As the result of his researches upon the
-   Ranunculaceæ, Prantl does not agree with the view advanced by
-   Drude (Schenk, _Hand. d. Bot._ iii.) that the petals in general
-   have proceeded from the metamorphosis of the stamens (_K_)].
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 373.--Ovaries in longitudinal section: _v_
-  the ventral suture; _d_ the dorsal suture: _A_, _B Clematis_;
-  _C Ranunculus_; _D Myosurus_.]
-
-   The most primitive form of fruit is undoubtedly the pod formed
-   by one carpel, on the edges of which (along the ventral suture)
-   two rows of ovules are situated: Pæonieæ, Helleboreæ, Delphinieæ
-   (Fig. 379). In a great many genera the number of ovules has been
-   limited to _one_ perfect one, which is placed in the central
-   plane under the united leaf-edges, and sometimes also some
-   barren ovules above it (Fig. 373). The fruitlets in this case
-   become achenes, and are present in much larger numbers than when
-   there are follicles.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 374.--_Helleborus niger_: _A_ flower; _B_
-  receptacle; _pet_ petals (honey-leaves); _pi_ stamens and
-  carpels; _C_ seed; _D_ anther (cross section); _alb_ endosperm.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 375.--_Caltha palustris_: fruit.]
-
-The following have FOLLICLES: _Pæonieæ_, _Helleboreæ_ (except _Actæa_)
-and _Delphinieæ_; ACHENES: _Ranunculeæ_, _Anemoneæ_ and _Clematideæ_.
-
-=A. Follicles= (Figs. 375, 379), with many ovules, situated in two rows
-along the ventral suture. ~_Actæa_ has berries, _Nigella_ has capsules
-of several loculi.~
-
-=1.= PÆONIEÆ, PEONY GROUP. This has regular, acyclic flowers with a
-normal, most frequently 5-leaved, imbricate calyx; large, coloured
-petals, and introrse anthers. Slightly perigynous. Surrounding the
-base of the carpels a ring-like swelling of the receptacle (“disc”) is
-present, which is largest in _P. moutan_. The follicles are more or
-less fleshy or leathery. Mostly herbs, with pinnatisect or decompound
-leaves and large, solitary flowers; a gradual transition may be traced
-from the foliage-leaves to the petals. _Pæonia; Hydrastis._
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 376.--_Aquilegia vulgaris._]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 377.--_Caltha palustris_ (nat. size).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 378.--_Nigella_: _A_, _B_ fruit of _N.
-  damascena_, entire, and cut transversely. _C_ Petal (honey-leaf)
-  of _N. arvensis_. _D_ Petal of _N. damascena_.]
-
-=2.= HELLEBOREÆ, HELLEBORE GROUP. This has regular flowers with most
-frequently a coloured calyx. The petals (honey-leaves) are modified
-into nectaries; they may be horn-like, provided with a spur, or of a
-similarly unusual form, or they may be entirely absent. Anthers often
-extrorse.--_Trollius_ (Globe-flower[36]). The flower is acyclic: many
-petaloid sepals, succeeding these, most frequently, several _linear_,
-dark yellow petals, which bear a naked nectary at the base; finally,
-many stamens and carpels arranged in a spiral (3/8, 8/21).--_Caltha_
-(Marsh-marigold, Figs. 375, 377); 5 (-7) yellow sepals, no petals.
-The foliage-leaves have a large amplexicaul sheath.--_Helleborous_
-(Hellebore) has pedate leaves. The flower is acyclic, with 5 large,
-regular, _persistent_, often petaloid sepals (2/5); small, _horn-like_
-petals (honey-leaves; most frequently 13, divergence 8/13) and
-generally few carpels (Fig. 374).--_Coptis._--_Isopyrum._--_Eranthis_
-(Winter Aconite), like _Anemone_, has a 3-leaved involucre and most
-frequently trimerous flowers, ~6 large petaloid sepals, 6 petals
-(tubular honey-leaves), 6 oblique rows of stamens, 3–6 carpels~.
-_Aquilegia_ (Columbine, Fig. 376); the flower is entirely cyclic and
-has large spurs on all the 5 petals (funnel-shaped honey-leaves); S5
-coloured, P5, A5 × (8–12), G5 in regular alternation (Figs. 376, 370);
-the innermost stamens are often staminodes (Fig. 370).--_Nigella_
-(Love-in-the-mist, Fig. 378) has 5 sepals and 8 small, _two-lipped_
-petals cleft at the apex (the nectary is covered by the under-lip;
-Fig. 378 _C_, _D_). The 5 carpels are more or less completely united;
-and a many-carpellate ovary with free styles is formed in some. Large
-air-chambers in the external wall of the ovary are formed in _N.
-damascena_ (Fig. 378).--_Actæa_ (Baneberry) has coloured sepals, either
-no petals or an indefinite number, and only 1 carpel. The fruit is a
-berry (or follicle).--~_Cimicifuga_, _Garidella_, _Xanthorhiza_ (S5,
-P5, A5 + 5, G5).~
-
-
-=3.= DELPHINIEÆ, LARKSPUR GROUP. Zygomorphic flowers with coloured
-calyx; the 2 posterior petals (honey-leaves) are transformed into
-nectaries, the others are small or absent altogether.--_Aconitum_
-(Monkshood); 5 sepals, of which the _posterior one_ (Fig. 379 _A_)
-_is helmet-shaped_; most frequently 8 petals (as in Fig. 372), of
-which the two posterior ones (honey-leaves) are developed into
-long-clawed nectaries (Fig. 379 _A_, _k_) enveloped by the helmet-like
-sepal; the others are small, or are to some extent suppressed.
-~Stamens on a spiral of 3/8–5/13; generally 3 carpels.~ Perennial
-herbs.--_Delphinium_ (Larkspur); very closely allied to _Aconitum_, but
-the anterior 4 petals are most frequently wanting, and the 2 posterior
-ones have each a spur, which is enclosed by the _posterior sepal_,
-the latter being also provided with _a membranous spur_. ~Stamens and
-carpels arranged on a spiral of 3/8, 5/13, 8/21. In _D. ajacis_ and
-_consolida_ there is apparently only 1 petal (by the fusion of 4) and 1
-carpel.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 379.--_Aconitum napellus. A_ Flower in
-  longitudinal section, below are the 2 bracteoles; _a_ half
-  of helmet-like sepal; _b_ and _c_ other sepals; _k_ nectary;
-  _f_ carpels. _B_ Ovary in longitudinal section; _C_ the same
-  transversely; _d_ dorsal suture; _v_ ventral suture.]
-
-=B. Fruit achenes.= Many carpels, each with only 1 ascending (Fig.
-373 _C_), or pendulous (Fig. 373 _D_), perfect ovule; often also
-rudimentary ovules above it (Fig. 373 _A_, _B_). Fruit achenes.
-
-=4.= RANUNCULEÆ, BUTTERCUP GROUP, has double perianth. _Myosurus_
-and _Adonis_ have pendulous ovules as in Anemoneæ (Fig. 373 _D_);
-~_Ranunculus_, with _Batrachium_ and _Ficaria_, erect ovules (Fig. 373
-_C_) and downwardly-turned radicle.~--_Ranunculus._ Most frequently
-S5, P5, many spirally-placed stamens and carpels (Figs. 371, 380). The
-petals (honey-leaves) have a nectary at the base, covered by a small
-scale. ~_Batrachium_, Water Ranunculus, deviates by the achenes being
-transversely wrinkled; dimorphic leaves. _Ficaria_ has 3 sepals and 7–8
-petals arranged in 2/5–3/8. _F. ranunculoides_ (the only species) has
-tuberous roots, which spring from the base of the axillary buds, and
-together with these, serve as organs of reproduction. The embryo has
-only 1 cotyledon.~--_Myosurus_ (Mouse-tail) has small prolongations
-from the 5 sepals; 5 narrow petals which bear the nectaries near the
-apex; sometimes only 5 stamens, and an ultimately very long receptacle,
-with numerous spirally-arranged achenes (Fig. 381).--_Adonis_ is
-acyclic (Fig. 372); most frequently 5 sepals with a divergence of 2/5,
-8 petals of 3/8, indefinite stamens and carpels of 3/8 or 5/13. The
-corolla has no nectary.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 380.--Flower of _Ranunculus sceleratus_ in
-  longitudinal section.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 381.--_Myosurus minimus_: _c_ cotyledons; _m_
-  the foliage-leaves; _f_ the floral axis with the carpels, and _g_
-  the same without; _y_ insertion of perianth.]
-
-=5.= ANEMONEÆ, ANEMONE GROUP, has a single perianth. ~(Pendulous ovules
-(Fig. 373 _D_), radicle turned upward).~--_Anemone_ has a single,
-petaloid, most frequently 5–6-leaved perianth, and beneath the flower
-most frequently _an involucre of 3 leaves_, placed close together in
-the form of a whorl. In _A. nemorosa_, _ranunculoides_, etc., the
-involucral leaves resemble foliage-leaves; in _A. hepatica_ they are
-situated close under the perianth, and resemble sepals, and in the
-sub-genus _Pulsatilla_ they stand between the foliage-leaves and
-floral-leaves. The style of _Pulsatilla_ finally grows out in the form
-of a feather. ~The main axis of _A. hepatica_ has unlimited growth (it
-is biaxial), and the flowers are borne laterally in the axils of the
-scale-leaves; in the others (uniaxial) the flower is terminal, and the
-rhizome becomes a sympodium after the first flowering.~--_Thalictrum_
-(Meadow Rue) has no involucre; 4–5-leaved, greenish perianth. The
-receptacle is flat. ~The stamens are brightly-coloured and have long
-filaments; 1–5 accessory flowers may occur in the leaf-axils of the
-panicle-like inflorescence.~
-
-=6.= CLEMATIDEÆ, CLEMATIS GROUP. This differs from all the others
-in the _valvate æstivation_ of the calyx and its opposite leaves.
-There are 4 (-several) petaloid sepals; petals are absent, or linear
-(_Atragene_). Ovule 1, pendulous. Achenes, often with prolonged,
-feathery style. The majority of the genera are shrubs, and climb by
-their sensitive, twining leaf-stalks.--_Clematis; Atragene._
-
-   POLLINATION. The flowers are conspicuous either by coloured
-   petals (honey-leaves) (_Ranunculus_, _Pæonia_) or coloured
-   sepals (_Helleborus_, _Anemone_, _Caltha_, etc.), or by both
-   (_Aquilegia_, _Delphinium_), or by the coloured stamens
-   (_Thalictrum_). Some have no honey (_Clematis_, _Anemone_,
-   _Thalictrum_), and are generally visited by insects for
-   the sake of their pollen. Others have nectaries on the
-   corolla (_Ranunculus_, _Trollius_, _Helleborus_, _Nigella_,
-   _Aconitum_, etc.), more rarely on the stamens (_Pulsatilla_,
-   _Clematis_-species), or the carpels (_Caltha_), or the calyx
-   (certain species of _Pæonia_). The honey is readily accessible
-   in the flat, open flowers, and these flowers also may easily
-   pollinate themselves. There is marked protandry where the
-   honey lies deeply hidden, as in _Aquilegia_, _Delphinium_, and
-   _Aconitum_. _Helleborus_ and some _Ranunculus_-species are
-   protogynous.
-
-   About 680 species; especially in northern temperate climates,
-   and extending to the Polar and Alpine regions. Only the
-   _Clematideæ_ are tropical.
-
-   The order has an abundance of _acrid_, vesicant properties
-   (_R. acer_, _sceleratus_, etc.), and _poisonous_ alkaloids
-   (_Helleborus niger_ is poisonous). OFFICINAL: _Aconitum
-   napellus_ (aconitine; leaves and tuberous roots); the rhizome of
-   _Hydrastis canadensis_ from N. Am. (the alkaloid hydrastine).
-   The order, however, is best known for its ornamental plants;
-   almost all the genera have species which are cultivated for
-   their beauty. Sweet-scented flowers are absent.
-
-Order 2. =Nymphæaceæ (Water Lilies).= WATER PLANTS; generally with
-large, floating leaves, and large solitary flowers; sepals 3–5, petals
-3–∞, stamens 6–∞, carpels 3–∞. The flower is hypogynous, but in the
-_Nymphæeæ_ different degrees of epigyny are found, and from this fact,
-as well as from the carpels being united into one pistil, the family
-forms a lateral offshoot from the Ranunculaceæ, with much greater
-modification. The seed often has an aril, and, in the majority, a
-farinaceous nutritive tissue, partly endosperm, partly perisperm (Fig.
-383 _C_). The embryo has 2 thick cotyledons and a small hypocotyl; the
-plumule is well developed, with 2–4 leaves.
-
-   1. CABOMBEÆ. 3–4 species (Tropical S. Am.), resembling the
-   Water Ranunculus, with two kinds of leaves, the submerged being
-   dissected and the aerial peltate. The flowers are eucyclic,
-   trimerous, with 2–3 free, epigynous carpels. The ovules are
-   situated _on the central line_ of the carpel--an almost unique
-   circumstance. Endosperm and perisperm. _Cabomba; Brasenia._
-
-2. NELUMBONEÆ. The leaves are _peltate_, raised on long stalks high
-above the water. Large, _hypogynous_ flowers (Fig. 382); sepals 4–5;
-petals numerous; stamens numerous; _carpels several_, _distinct_. The
-receptacle is very remarkable, being raised above the stamens, and
-developed into an _inverted conical_ body on the apex of which the
-nut-like fruits are _embedded in pits_. _Endosperm is wanting_, but
-the embryo is large and has well developed cotyledons.--~_Nelumbo_,
-2 species. _N. lutea_ (N. Am.); _N. speciosa_ (E. Ind.) was sacred
-amongst the ancient Hindoos and Egyptians, (the Lotus flower); its
-seeds are used as food.~
-
-3. NYMPHÆEÆ, WATER LILY GROUP. The carpels are united into _one_,
-_many-locular ovary_, _whose numerous ovules are situated on the
-surface of the partition walls_ (as in the Poppies); the stigma is
-sessile and radiating, the number of rays corresponding to the number
-of carpels (Fig. 383). The fruit is a spongy _berry_ with many seeds,
-which have a large perisperm in addition to the endosperm (Fig. 383
-_C_).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 382.--_Nelumbo nucifera_: vertical section
-  through the receptacle.]
-
-Sepals, petals, and stamens often pass gradually over the one into the
-other, the petals becoming narrower by degrees, and bearing anthers
-on each side of the apex, which gradually become larger anthers in
-proportion to the filament, until the perfect stamen is developed.
-The long-stalked leaves are floating, and most frequently cordate,
-elliptical, leathery, with a shiny surface, sometimes (as in _Victoria
-regia_ and _Euryale ferox_) with strongly projecting thorny ribs on the
-lower surface. In the intercellular passages of the leaves are some
-peculiar, stellate cells.
-
-_Nuphar_ has 5 sepals, and an _hypogynous_ flower. ~The petals, which
-are small, have a nectary on the back; the coloured inner side of the
-sepals functions as petals; the ovate gynœceum is quite free.--_N.
-luteum_ is a native plant (Yellow Water-Lily), with, most frequently,
-13 petals and 10–16 loculi in the ovary. The rhizome is horizontal, as
-much as 5–6 cm. in thickness, and bears on its under surface a number
-of roots, which on dying-off leave deep scars; the leaves are borne in
-spiral lines, and the flowers are solitary in certain leaf-axils. The
-construction of the rhizome is very peculiar; the vascular bundles are
-scattered and closed as in a monocotyledonous stem.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 383.--_Nymphæa_: _A_ flower in longitudinal
-  section, the most external leaves being removed; _B_ fruit; _C_
-  seed of _Nuphar_ (longitudinal section); the perisperm at the
-  base, the endosperm at the top surrounding the embryo.]
-
-_Nymphæa_ has 4 sepals, and the flower is more or less _epigynous_.
-Petals and stamens are inserted at different heights on the ovary to
-just beneath the stigma (Fig. 383). _Nymphæa alba_ (White Water-Lily).
-_Victoria regia_ from the Amazon, and _Euryale ferox_ from Asia, have
-entirely epigynous flowers. ~The shield-like leaves of _Victoria_ are
-as much as 2 metres in diameter, and the edge is bent up to a height
-of 5–14 cm.; the flowers are 20–40 cm. in diameter, and change in
-twenty-four hours from white to rose-red. A development of heat, as
-much as 14°C. above the temperature of the air, together with a strong
-formation of carbonic acid, has been observed during flowering.~
-
-   POLLINATION. _Nymphæa alba_ and other species of the
-   sub-genus _Symphytopleura_ are self-pollinated; the sub-genus
-   _Leptopleura_ is insect-pollinated. _Nuphar_ and _Victoria_ can
-   effect self-fertilisation; _Euryale_ is self-fertilised, often
-   in entirely closed and submerged flowers.--The dissemination
-   of the seeds in _Nuphar luteum_ is effected by the fruit,
-   which rests on the water, becoming detached from its stalk,
-   and dehiscing from the base upwards so that the seeds are
-   set free; while in _Nymphæa alba_ the spirally-twisted stalk
-   draws the fruit under water, and it dehisces by its upper part
-   being thrown off as a hood, and the seeds which are enclosed
-   in air-tight sacs rise to the surface of the water. In this
-   condition they are able to float and can only sink to the bottom
-   when the air has disappeared.
-
-   53 species; in fresh water in all parts of the world, but
-   especially in the Tropics.--The rhizomes and seeds of some may
-   be used as food; _Euryale ferox_ is even cultivated. _Nymphæa
-   cœrulea_ and _Lotus_ were sacred among the Egyptians.
-
-Order 3. =Ceratophyllaceæ.= About 3 species. Aquatic plants, submerged,
-rootless; leaves cartilaginous, verticillate, dissected into repeatedly
-dichotomous branches which are finely toothed; only one of the leaves
-in a whorl supports a vegetative branch. The flowers are _monœcious_,
-axillary. Inside the 6–12 perianth-leaves are situated in the ♂-flower
-10–20 stamens with thick connective, and in the ♀-flower a gynœceum
-formed by one carpel, with one orthotropous and pendulous ovule, which
-has only one integument. Fruit a nut, which, in some species, bears on
-each side a pointed horn, and at the apex a similar one, formed by the
-persistent style.--The embryo has an unusually well developed plumule
-with several whorls of leaves. The plant is rootless throughout its
-whole life.--_Ceratophyllum_ (Horn-wort).
-
-   Order 4. =Annonaceæ.= Sepals 3; petals 3+3 (most frequently
-   _valvate_); succeeding these (as in the _Ranunculaceæ_) are
-   _numerous acyclic_ stamens and an _apocarpous gynœceum_; the
-   flowers are hypogynous, regular and ☿, generally very large
-   (2–3 cm. in diameter), and the leaves of the perianth are
-   more or less fleshy or leathery. The majority have syncarps
-   with berry-like fruitlets, but in _Annona_ and some others
-   the carpels fuse together into a large, head-like fruit--a
-   kind of composite berry. The seeds have _ruminate_ endosperm
-   as in _Myristica_.--Trees or shrubs with _alternate_, simple,
-   entire, penninerved leaves without stipules. 450 (700?) species;
-   especially tropical. The best known are _Anona cherimolia_,
-   _squamosa_ and _reticulata_ (all from America) cultivated on
-   account of their large, delicious fruits. Some have acrid and
-   aromatic properties (_Xylopia_, _Cananga_--the flowers of the
-   latter yield Ylang-ylang); _Artabotrys odoratissimus_; _Asimina_
-   (N. Am.).
-
-   Order 5. =Magnoliaceæ.= Trees or shrubs with scattered, often
-   leathery, entire leaves, generally with _stipules_, which (as in
-   _Ficus_) are rolled together and form a hood round the younger
-   internodes above them, and are cast off by the unfolding of
-   the next leaf, leaving a ring-like scar. The endosperm is _not
-   ruminate_. Corolla imbricate. Fruit a syncarp.
-
-   =A.= MAGNOLIEÆ. The flowers are borne singly, and before opening
-   are enveloped in an ochrea-like spathe which corresponds to
-   the stipules of the foliage-leaves. The perianth generally
-   consists of 3 trimerous whorls, the external one of which
-   is sometimes sepaloid (_Liriodendron_, and the majority of
-   _Magnolia_species), sometimes coloured like the others; the
-   perianth is sometimes many-seriate. _Numerous spirally-placed_
-   stamens and carpels. The latter are situated on the _elongated_,
-   cylindrical receptacle, and are individually more or less
-   united, except in _Liriodendron_, where they are free. This last
-   genus has winged achenes; the fruitlets in _Magnolia_ open along
-   the dorsal and ventral sutures, and the seeds then hang out,
-   suspended by elastic threads formed from the vascular bundles
-   of the funicle and raphe; they are red and drupaceous, the
-   external layer of the shell being fleshy--a very rare occurrence.
-
-   =B.= ILLICIEÆ has no stipules. The carpels are situated in a
-   whorl on a short receptacle. Follicles, one-seeded. The leaves
-   are dotted by glands containing essential oil. _Illicium;
-   Drimys._
-
-   70 species; in tropical or temperate climates; none in Europe
-   or Africa. They are chiefly used as ornamental plants, _e.g._
-   the Tulip-tree (_Liriodendron tulipifera_, N. Am.), _Magnolia
-   grandiflora_ (N. Am.), _M. yulan_ and _fuscata_ (China), and
-   others. The remains of _Liriodendron_ occur as fossils in the
-   Cretaceous and Tertiary periods.--The fruits of _Illicium
-   anisatum_ (Star-aniseed from Eastern Asia) are OFFICINAL. The
-   bark of _Drimys winteri_ (S. Am.) is also strongly aromatic.
-
-   Order 6. =Calycanthaceæ.= These are very closely related to
-   the Magnoliaceæ, but differ in having _perigynous_ flowers
-   with many perianth-leaves, stamens and (about 20) carpels in a
-   continuous _spiral_, seeds _almost devoid of endosperm_ with
-   rolled up, leaf-like cotyledons, and leaves opposite on a square
-   stem.--There are some species in N. America (_Calycanthus
-   florida_, _occidentalis_, etc.) and 1 in Japan (_Chimonanthus
-   præcox_), all strongly aromatic.
-
-   Order 7. =Monimiaceæ.= Aromatic shrubs with opposite leaves.
-   Perigynous flowers. The anthers dehisce by valves like those of
-   the _Lauraceæ_, and the Monimiaceæ may thus be considered as an
-   apocarpous form of this order. They are also closely related to
-   _Calycanthaceæ_. 150 species, tropical.--_Hedycarya, Mollinedia,
-   Monimia._
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 384.--Diagram of _Berberis_.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 385.--_Berberis_: carpel with 2 stamens.]
-
-Order 8. =Berberidaceæ (Barberries).=--The regular, ☿, hypogynous
-flowers are dimerous or trimerous and have regularly alternating
-whorls of free sepals, petals, and stamens and 1 unilocular carpel;
-the corolla and stamens have each 2 whorls, the calyx at least 2. The
-anthers open, as in Lauraceæ, by (2) _valves_, but are always introrse
-(Fig. 384). The pistil has a large, disc-like, almost _sessile_ stigma
-(Fig. 385), and in the ovary _several_ erect ovules are placed close to
-the base of the ventral suture. The fruit is most frequently a _berry_.
-Seeds endospermous.--Shrubs or herbs with scattered, most frequently
-compound leaves (without stipules), and racemose inflorescences.--~They
-show a relationship to the Lauraceæ in the number of the parts of the
-flower and the dehiscence of the anthers.~
-
-_Berberis_ is a shrub; it has sepals 3 + 3, petals 3 + 3, stamens 3
-+ 3 (Fig. 384). The petals (honey-leaves) bear internally at the base
-2 darkish-yellow nectaries. The filaments are sensitive at the base,
-and suddenly bend inwards if touched at that spot (Fig. 385). ~The
-racemes often have a terminal, 5-merous flower; they are borne on
-dwarf-branches. The leaves on the long-branches develope into thorns,
-but the buds in their axils, in the same year as themselves, develope
-as the short-branches with simple foliage-leaves, _articulated_ at
-the base, from which fact some authorities have considered that the
-leaf is compound with a single, terminal leaflet.~--_Mahonia_ has
-imparipinnate leaves. The flower has 3 whorls of sepals. Otherwise as
-in _Berberis_.--~_Epimedium_; herbs with spurred petals; the flowers
-dimerous; 4–5 whorls of sepals, 2 of petals and stamens. Fruit a
-capsule. _Leontice_, fruit dry. The anthers of _Podophyllum_ dehisce
-longitudinally.--_Nandina. Aceranthus._~
-
-   100 species; North temp., especially Asia: fossils in Tertiary.
-   _Berberis vulgaris_ is a native of Europe. This and other
-   species, together with _Mahonia aquifolium_ (N. Am.), _Epimedium
-   alpinum_, etc., are cultivated as ornamental plants. Several
-   have a yellow colouring matter in the root and stem. OFFICINAL:
-   the rhizome of _Podophyllum peltatum_ (from N. Am.) yields
-   podophyllin.
-
-   Order 9. =Menispermaceæ.= This order has derived its name from
-   the more or less crescent-like fruits and seeds. Diœcious.
-   The flowers are 2–3-merous, most frequently as in _Berberis_
-   (S3 + 3, P3 + 3, A3 + 3), with the difference that there are
-   3 _free carpels_, each with 1 ovule; in some genera, however,
-   the number is different. Stamens often united into a bundle
-   (as in _Myristica_); anthers dehiscing longitudinally; fruit a
-   drupe.--The plants (with herbaceous or woody stems) belonging
-   to this order are nearly all _twining_ or _climbing_ plants,
-   and have scattered, palmate or peltate, sometimes lobed leaves
-   without stipules. Structure of stem anomalous. _Cocculus,
-   Menispermum, Cissampelos, Anamirta._
-
-   150 species; Tropical; very rich in bitter and poisonous
-   properties. OFFICINAL: Calumba-root from _Jateorhiza columba_
-   (E. Africa). The following are cultivated as ornamental
-   plants:--_Menispermum canadense_ (N. Am.) and _M. dahuricum_
-   (Asia). The fruits of _Anamirta cocculus_ (E. Ind.) are very
-   poisonous (“Grains-of-Paradise”; the poisonous matter is
-   picrotoxine).
-
-   Order 10. =Lardizabalaceæ.= This order, by the free, apocarpous
-   carpels, belongs to a more primitive type, and by the united
-   stamens to a more developed one. _Akebia_; _Holbœllia_;
-   principally climbing or twining shrubs. About 7 species in S.E.
-   Asia and S. Am.
-
-Order 11. =Lauraceæ= (=True Laurels=). Trees or shrubs; the leaves,
-always without stipules, are simple, most frequently scattered,
-lanceolate or elliptical, entire, penninerved, finely reticulate
-(except _Cinnamomum_ with 3–5-veined leaf), leathery and evergreen
-(except, _e.g. Cinnamomum_); they are frequently studded with clear
-glands containing _volatile oil_. The flowers are borne in panicles
-and are small and of a greenish or whitish colour. They are _regular,
-perigynous_, with most frequently a bowl or cup-shaped receptacle
-(Fig. 386), usually ☿, and _trimerous_ (rarely dimerous) through all
-(most frequently 6–7) whorls; viz. most frequently, perianth 2 whorls,
-stamens 3–4 and carpels 1 (P3 + 3, A3 + 3 + 3 + 3, G3) in regular
-alternation (Fig. 387). Each of the 2 or 4 loculi of the anthers _open
-by an upwardly directed valve_ (Fig. 386); of the stamens, the 2
-outermost whorls are generally introrse, the others extrorse, or 1–3
-whorls are developed as staminodes (Fig. 387 _g_). The gynœceum has
-1 loculus with 1 style and 1 pendulous ovule (Fig. 386), and may be
-considered as formed of 3 carpels. The fruit is a _berry_ (Fig. 388)
-or _drupe_, which often is surrounded at its base by the persistent
-receptacle (as an acorn by its cupule), which becomes fleshy and
-sometimes coloured during the ripening of the fruit. The embryo has 2
-thick cotyledons, but _no endosperm_ (Fig. 388).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 386.--Flower of the Cinnamon-tree
-  (_Cinnamomum zeylanicum_) (longitudinal section).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 387.--Typical diagram of the Lauraceæ: _g_
-  staminodes.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 388.--_Laurus nobilis_: longitudinal section
-  of fruit.]
-
-   The Lauraceæ present affinities with the Polygonaceæ, in
-   which there is found perigyny, as well as a similar number of
-   parts in the flower and a similar gynœceum, but with erect
-   and orthotropous ovule. From their general characters they
-   should be classed among the Polycarpicæ, but stand, however,
-   isolated by the _syncarpous_ gynœceum, if it is in reality
-   formed by 3 carpels and not by 1 only. _Hernandia_, which has
-   epigynous monœcious flowers, deviates most.--_Cassytha_ is
-   a _Cuscuta_-like, herbaceous, slightly green parasite with
-   twining, almost leafless stems. The flower however agrees with
-   the diagram in Fig. 387. Some Lauraceæ have curved veins or
-   palminerved and lobed leaves (often together with entire ones)
-   _e.g. Sassafras_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 389.--_Myristica_: fruit.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 390.--Seed with aril entire and in
-  longitudinal section.]
-
-   There are 1000 species; especially in the forests of tropical
-   S. America and Asia, of which they form the principal part.
-   Only _Laurus nobilis_ is found in Europe, and there is little
-   doubt that its proper home is in Western Asia. They are
-   rare in Africa.--On account of _the volatile oil_ found in
-   all parts of the plant, they are used as _spices_, _e.g._
-   the false Cinnamon-tree (_Dicypellium caryophyllatum_, in
-   the Brazils). The OFFICINAL ones are--the Cinnamon-tree
-   (_Cinnamomum zeylanicum_ from Ceylon, E. India, Eastern Asia),
-   which is also cultivated; the Camphor-tree (_Cinnamomum
-   camphora_, Eastern Asia). The Laurel-tree (_Laurus nobilis_,
-   Mediterranean), the berries and leaves of which give laurel oil,
-   is medicinal.--Scented wood for furniture, etc., is obtained
-   from _Sassafras officinalis_ (from N. Am.). The wood from its
-   roots is officinal. Pichurim “beans” are the large cotyledons
-   of _Nectandra pichury_, whilst the famous “Greenheart” wood
-   of Demarara is the wood of _Nectandra rodiæi_. The pulp and
-   seeds contain a _fatty oil_. The pear-like fruit of _Persea
-   gratissima_ (Mexico, also cultivated) is very delicious.
-   _Lindera benzoin_ is a garden shrub; _Laurus nobilis_ likewise.
-
-   Order 12. =Myristicaceæ= (=Nutmegs=). In this order there is
-   only 1 genus, _Myristica_. Trees or shrubs. The leaves agree
-   closely with those of the Lauraceæ, with which this order has
-   many points in common. The majority of the species are aromatic,
-   having in their vegetative parts pellucid glands with volatile
-   oils. The flowers are regular, diœcious, trimerous, and have a
-   single gamophyllous (cupular or campanulate) 3-toothed, fleshy
-   perianth. In the ♂-flowers the anthers vary in number (3–15),
-   and they are extrorse and borne on a centrally-placed column;
-   in the ♀-flower the gynœceum is unilocular, unicarpellary, with
-   1 ovule. The FRUIT (Fig. 389) has the form of a pear; it is a
-   fleshy, yellow capsule, which opens along the ventral and dorsal
-   sutures, exposing the large seed. This seed has a large, red,
-   irregularly branched aril--the so-called “mace”; the “nutmeg,”
-   on the other hand, is the seed itself with the inner thin
-   portion of the testa, which has pushed its way irregularly into
-   the endosperm, and causes the marbled appearance of the cut seed
-   (Fig. 390); the external, dark brown, hard, and brittle part
-   of the seed-shell is however removed. Mace and nutmeg contain
-   volatile and fatty oils in abundance.--80 species. Tropical. The
-   majority are used on account of their aromatic seeds and aril,
-   the most important being _M. fragrans_ (_moschata_), from the
-   Moluccas. This is cultivated in special plantations, not only in
-   its native home, but in other tropical countries also. Nutmegs
-   were known as commodities in Europe in very ancient times
-   (_e.g._ by the Romans), but it was not until the year 1500 that
-   the tree itself was known. The seed is OFFICINAL.
-
-
-                        Family 10. =Rhœadinæ.=
-
-The plants belonging to this family are almost exclusively herbaceous,
-with scattered, exstipulate leaves. The flowers are eucyclic di- or
-tetramerous, with the calyx and corolla deciduous, _hypogynous_,
-☿, _regular_, the gynœceum with 2–several carpels (generally 2,
-transversely placed) (Figs. 391, 392, 393, 397). The ovary is
-_unilocular with parietal placentæ_, but in _Cruciferæ_ and a few
-others it becomes bilocular by the development of a _false_, membranous
-wall between the placentæ. The stigmas in the majority of cases
-are _commissural_, _i.e._ they stand above the placentæ, and not
-above the dorsal line of the carpels. The fruit is nearly always a
-_capsule_, which opens by the middle portions of the carpels detaching
-themselves as valves, bearing no seed, whilst the placentæ persist
-as the seed-bearing frame. Endosperm is found in _Papaveraceæ_ and
-_Fumariaceæ_, but is absent in _Cruciferæ_ and _Capparidaceæ_.--~This
-family through the Papaveraceæ is related to the Polycarpicæ (the
-Nymphæaceæ), through the Capparidaceæ to the Resedaceæ in the next
-family.~
-
-   Exceptions to the above are: _Eschscholtzia_, _Subularia_ (Fig.
-   403) and a few Capparidaceæ, in which perigynous flowers are
-   found. A few Papaveraceæ and Fumariaceæ have trimerous flowers.
-   In _Fumaria_ and certain Cruciferæ, the fruit is a nut. The
-   Fumariaceæ have zygomorphic flowers. Trees and shrubs are almost
-   entirely confined to the Capparidaceæ, in which order stipules
-   also are found.
-
-Order 1. =Papaveraceæ= (=Poppies=). Herbaceous plants with stiff hairs
-and _latex_; flowers _regular_ (Fig. 391) with generally 2 (-3) sepals
-(which _fall off_ as the flower opens), 2 + 2 petals (imbricate
-and crumpled in the bud) _without spur, numerous stamens in several
-alternating whorls_ (generally a multiple of 2); carpels 2–several,
-united into a unilocular gynœceum. Trimerous flowers also occur.
-Capsule with very numerous seeds on the parietal placentæ; embryo
-small, with large, oleaginous _endosperm_ (Fig. 392).--The leaves have
-no stipules and are generally pinnately lobed.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 391.--A Diagram of the flower of _Glaucium_
-  and the dichasium (which becomes transformed into a scorpioid
-  cyme). _B Papaver argemone_, transverse section of the ovary
-  with indication of the position of the stigmas.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 392.--_Papaver somniferum_: _A_ capsule;
-  _st_ the stigma; _v_ valves; _h_ pores; _B_ seed in longitudinal
-  section; _alb_ endosperm; _emb_ embryo.]
-
-_Papaver_ (Poppy) has large, solitary, terminal flowers; petals firmly
-and irregularly folded in æstivation; gynœceum formed by many (4–15)
-carpels; stigmas velvety, _sessile_ and _stellate_ (the rays stand
-above the placentæ) (Fig. 391 _B_). The edges of the carpels project
-deeply into the ovary, but do not meet in the centre, so that it
-remains unilocular. The capsule opens by pores placed close beneath
-the stigma, and formed of small valves alternating with the placentæ
-and the rays of the stigma (Fig. 391). _P. dubium_, _P. argemone_, _P.
-rhœas_.--_Chelidonium_ (Greater Celandine) has _yellow_ latex, flowers
-in umbellate cymes (the terminal, central flower opening first) and
-only 2 carpels; the fruit resembles the siliqua of the Cruciferæ in
-having two _barren valves_, which are detached from the base upwards,
-and a _seed-bearing frame_, but there is no partition wall formed
-between the placentæ. _Ch. majus._--~The majority of the other genera
-have, like _Chelidonium_, 2 carpels (lateral and alternating with the
-sepals: Fig. 391 _A_) and siliqua-like fruit, thus: _Eschscholtzia_
-(perigynous) with a linear, stigma-bearing prolongation extending as
-far above the placentæ as above the dorsal suture of the carpels;
-_Glaucium_ (Horn-Poppy); _G. luteum_, whose extremely long, thin
-capsule differs from that of _Chelidonium_ by the formation, during
-ripening, of a thick, spongy (_false_) replum, which persists when
-the valves are detached; _Sanguinaria_ with red latex, the 2 petals
-divided into 8–12 small petals (perhaps by dédoublement); _Macleya_ and
-_Bocconia_ (1-seeded capsule) with 2 sepals and no petals.--Trimerous
-flowers are found in _Argemone_ and _Platystemon_ (with a curious
-fruit, carpels free, and transversely divided and constricted into
-joints which separate as nut-like portions).--_Meconopsis._--_Hypecoum_
-(Fig. 393 _C_) has tri-lobed and three cleft petals, 4 free stamens
-with 4-locular anthers and a jointed siliqua; it presents a
-transitional form to the Fumariaceæ, with which order it is sometimes
-included.~
-
-   POLLINATION. _Papaver_ and _Chelidonium_ have no honey, and
-   are without doubt only visited by insects for the sake of
-   the pollen. The anthers and stigmas mature about the same
-   time.--There are 80 species; especially from warm climates.
-   OFFICINAL: _Papaver somniferum_ (Opium-Poppy); the latex
-   of its unripe capsules is obtained by incisions, and dried
-   (_opium_); it contains many alkaloids: morphine, papaverine,
-   narcotine, thebaine, etc. The oleaginous seeds are also used
-   in the manufacture of oil. Its home is in the East, where it
-   is extensively cultivated. The petals of the Corn-poppy (_P.
-   rhœas_) are also officinal. Several species are cultivated as
-   ornamental plants.
-
-Order 2. =Fumariacæ= (=Fumitories=). This order differs from the
-closely allied Papaveraceæ in the absence of latex, a poorer flower,
-generally _transversely zygomorphic_ (Fig. 393 _B_), in which case one
-or both of the outer lateral petals are gibbous, or prolonged into
-a spur; the stamens are especially anomalous. Sepals =2=, caducous;
-petals 2 + 2; stamens 2, _tripartite_; each lateral anther is
-_bilocular_ (Figs. 393 _A_, _B_; 395); gynœceum bicarpellate. The fruit
-is a nut or siliqua-like capsule. _Endosperm._--_Herbs_ with scattered,
-repeatedly pinnately-divided leaves without stipules, generally quite
-glabrous and glaucous; the flowers are arranged in racemes with
-subtending bracts, but the bracteoles are sometimes suppressed.
-
-_Dicentra_ (syn. _Dielytra_) and _Adlumia_ have a doubly symmetrical
-flower, with a spur or gibbous swelling at the base of _each_ of
-the laterally-placed petals (Figs. 393 _A_, 394). _Corydalis_ has a
-zygomorphic flower, _only one of_ the lateral petals _having a spur_,
-and consequently there is only one nectary at the base of the bundle of
-stamens, which stands right in front of the spur (Fig. 393 _B_, 395,
-396). The fruit is a many-seeded siliqua-like capsule. ~A peculiarity
-of the flower is that the plane of symmetry passes _transversely_
-through the flowers, whilst in nearly all other zygomorphic flowers
-it lies in the median line. Moreover, the flower is turned, so that
-the plane of symmetry ultimately becomes nearly vertical, and the spur
-is directed backwards.--Many species have subterranean tubers; in
-these the embryo germinates with _one cotyledon_, which is lanceolate
-and resembles a foliage-leaf. The tuber is in some the swollen
-hypocotyl (_C. cava_), in others a swollen root (_C. fabacea_, etc.),
-which grows down through the precisely similar swollen root of the
-mother-plant. The sub-genus _Ceratocapnos_ has dimorphic fruits (nuts
-and capsules) in the same raceme.~ _Fumaria_ differs from _Corydalis_
-only by its almost drupaceous, one-seeded nut (Fig. 395).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 393.--Diagram of _Dicentra_ (_A_),
-  _Corydalis_ (_B_), and _Hypecoum_ (_C_).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 394.--_Dicentra spectabilis_: _A_ flower
-  (2/5); _B_ the same, after removal of half of one outer petal;
-  the cap, formed by the inner petals, is moved away from the
-  anthers and stigma; the insect does this with the lower side of
-  its abdomen, and thus rubs the stigma on the hairs of its ventral
-  surface; the dotted line at _e_ indicates the direction of the
-  proboscis; _C_ andrœcium and gynœceum; _D_ stigma.]
-
-   THE STRUCTURE OF THE FLOWER. _Hypecoum_ among the Papaveraceæ
-   is the connecting link with the Fumariaceæ. The diagram (Fig.
-   393 _C_) corresponds both in number and in the relative position
-   of its members with that of most of the other Papaveraceæ (Fig.
-   391), except that there are only four stamens (with extrorse
-   anthers). In _Dicentra_ (Fig. 393 _A_), the two central
-   (uppermost) stamens are absent, but each of the two lateral ones
-   are divided into three filaments, of which the central one bears
-   a four-locular anther, and each of the others a two-locular
-   (half) anther. _Corydalis_ and _Fumaria_ stand alone in the
-   symmetry of the flower, differing from _Dicentra_ in having only
-   one of the lateral petals (Fig. 393 _B_, _sp_) prolonged into
-   a spur, while in _Dicentra_ both the petals are spurred. This
-   structure has been interpreted in various ways. According to Asa
-   Gray the median stamens are absent in the last-named genera, and
-   the lateral ones are split in a similar manner to the petals of
-   _Hypecoum_. Another, and no doubt the most reasonable theory
-   (adduced by De Candolle), is: that two median stamens are split,
-   the two parts move laterally, each to their respective sides
-   and become united with the two lateral stamens; this affords a
-   natural explanation of the two half-anthers, and establishes a
-   close relationship to the Cruciferæ. A third interpretation,
-   held by Eichler and others, is as follows: the median stamens
-   are _always_ wanting; when they appear to be present, as in
-   _Hypecoum_, it is due to the fact that the side portions of
-   the lateral stamens _approach each other_ (as interpetiolar
-   stipules) and coalesce into an apparently single stamen.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 395.--_Fumaria officinalis_: _A_ the flower
-  in longitudinal section; _B_ the andrœcium and gynœceum; nectary
-  to the right.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 396.--_Corydalis cava_: _a_ a flower (lateral
-  view); _b_ the anthers lying round the stigma; _c_ the anthers
-  shortly before the opening of the flower; _d_ the head of the
-  stigma; _e_ relative position of the parts of the flower during
-  the visit of an insect.]
-
-   130 species; mostly from the northern temperatures.
-
-   POLLINATION. _Fumaria_, with its inconspicuous flowers, has to
-   a great extent to resort to self-pollination. _Corydalis_, on
-   the other hand, is dependent on cross-pollination; _C. cava_
-   is even absolutely sterile with its own pollen. _Corydalis_
-   is pollinated by insects with long probosces (humble-bees,
-   bees), which are able to reach the honey secreted in the spur;
-   as they alight on the flowers they press the exterior petals
-   on one side (Fig. 396 _e_), so that the stigma, surrounded by
-   the anthers, projects forward; the proboscis is introduced in
-   the direction of the arrow in the figure, and during this act
-   the under-surface of the insect is covered with pollen, which
-   is transferred by similar movements to the stigma of another
-   (older) flower.--Ornamental plants; _Dicentra_ (_spectabilis_
-   and _eximia_), _Adlumia_, _Corydalis_.
-
-Order 3. =Cruciferæ (Crucifers).= The flowers are _regular_, ☿; sepals
-4, free (2 + 2), deciduous; petals 4, free, deciduous, unguiculate,
-placed _diagonally_ in one whorl, and alternating with the sepals;
-stamens 6; the 2 _outer_ are _short_, the 4 _inner_ (in reality the two
-median split to the base) _longer_, placed in pairs (tetradynamia of
-Linnæus); gynœceum syncarpous formed by 2 (as in the previous order,
-lateral) carpels, with 2 parietal placentæ, but divided into two
-loculi by a _spurious_ membranous dissepiment (_replum_) (Fig. 397).
-Style single, with a capitate, usually two-lobed stigma, generally
-commisural, that is, placed above the parietal placentæ (Fig. 397), but
-it may also be placed above the dorsal suture, or remain undivided.
-Ovules _curved_. The fruit is generally a bivalvular _siliqua_ (Fig.
-398 _B_, _C_), the valves separating from below upwards, and leaving
-the placentæ attached to the replum; other forms of fruits are
-described below. The oily seeds _have no endosperm_ (endosperm is
-present in the two previous orders); the _embryo is curved_ (Figs.
-398 _E_, _F_; 399, 400).--In general they are _herbaceous_ plants,
-without latex, with scattered, penninerved leaves, without stipules;
-the inflorescence is very characteristic, namely, a raceme with the
-flowers aggregated together at the time of flowering into a corymb, and
-_destitute of both bracts and bracteoles_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 397.--Diagram of a Cruciferous flower.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 398.--_Brassica oleracea_: _A_ raceme; _B_,
-  _C_ siliqua; _D_ seed; _E_ embryo; _F_ transverse section of
-  seed.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 399.--Transverse section of seed and embryo
-  of _Cheiranthus cheiri_.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 400.--Transverse section of seed of
-  _Sisymbrium alliaria_.]
-
-   Many are biennial, forming in the first year a close
-   leaf-rosette. By cultivation the tap-root can readily be induced
-   to swell out into the form of a tuber (Turnips, Swedes, etc.).
-   _Stipules_ are found indicated by small glands on the very
-   young leaves; in _Cochlearia armoracia_ they are fairly large
-   triangular scales. _Stellate hairs_ often occur. _Floral-leaves_
-   are occasionally developed. Terminal flowers are never found in
-   the inflorescences. _Iberis_ and _Teesdalia_ have _zygomorphic_
-   flowers. _Subularia_ (Fig. 403) is perigynous. The 2 external
-   sepals (Fig. 397) stand in the median plane; it may therefore
-   be supposed that there are two bracteoles outside these which,
-   however, are suppressed, and can only in a few instances be
-   traced in the young flower; the two lateral sepals are often
-   gibbous at the base, and serve as reservoirs for the nectar
-   secreted by the glands placed above them; they correspond in
-   position to the external petals of the Fumariaceæ. The 4 petals
-   which follow next arise simultaneously, and alternate with the
-   4 sepals; if it could be shown that these are merely 2 median
-   petals, which have been deeply cleft and the two parts separated
-   from each other and displaced to the diagonal position, there
-   would be a perfect correspondence with the Fumariaceous flower;
-   then the petals would be followed in regular alternation by the
-   2 lateral small stamens, the 2 median long stamens, which it
-   has been proved are split into 4 and placed in couples, and the
-   2 laterally-placed carpels,--in all 6 dimerous whorls. But the
-   formation of the corolla by the splitting of 2 petals does not
-   agree with the development of the flower or bear comparison, and
-   hence the only fact in favour of this theory is the otherwise
-   prevailing correspondence with the Fumariaceæ. Yet it may
-   be observed that in special cases each pair of long stamens
-   clearly enough arises from one protuberance and even later
-   on may be considerably united or entirely undivided (_e.g._
-   _Vella_); in other instances they are quite distinct from the
-   beginning, and it is possible that this latter condition has
-   become constant in the corolla. _Lepidium ruderale_ and others
-   have no corolla. _Senebiera didyma_ has only 2 median stamens.
-   _Megacarpæa_ has several stamens, no doubt by dédoublement, as
-   in Capparidaceæ.--The _number of carpels_ may also be abnormally
-   increased; _Tetrapoma barbareifolium_ has normally 4 carpels
-   with an equal number of placentæ and repla. It is supposed to
-   be a variety of _Nasturtium palustre_.--The 2–4–8–10 greenish
-   _glands_, which are found at the base of the stamens, are
-   nectaries, morphologically emergences, and not rudimentary
-   stamens. The forms of _fruits_ are of great systematic
-   significance, see the genera. In some species dimorphic fruits
-   are present, _e.g. Cardamine chenopodiifolia_ which has both
-   ordinary _Cardamine_-siliquas and 1-seeded siliculas.
-
-   The _curved embryo_ appears in five forms, which have
-   systematic importance: 1. To the PLEURORHIZÆ belong those
-   genera whose radicle (with the hypocotyl) lies bent upwards
-   along the _edge_ of the _flat_ cotyledons (Fig. 399); to
-   this group belong _Cardamine_, _Nasturtium_, _Cheiranthus_,
-   _Matthiola_, _Cochlearia_, _Draba_, _Iberis_, _Thlaspi_, etc.;
-   diagrammatic transverse section: ◯=.--2. To NOTORHIZÆ belong
-   those whose radicle lies in an upward direction along the
-   _back_ of one of the _flat_ cotyledons (Figs. 400, 413); _e.g._
-   _Hesperis_, _Sisymbrium_, _Lepidium_, _Capsella_, _Camelina_:
-   ◯‖.--3. ORTHOPLOCEÆ differ from the Notorhizeæ in having the
-   cotyledons folded (not flat) (Fig. 398 _E_, _F_); to this belong
-   _Brassica_, _Sinapis_, _Raphanus_, _Crambe_, etc.: ◯>>.--4.
-   SPIROLOBEÆ: the radicle lies as in the Notorhizæ, but the
-   cotyledons are so rolled together that a transverse section of
-   the seed cuts them twice; _Bunias_: ◯‖‖.--5. DIPLECOLOBEÆ: the
-   cotyledons are folded forward and backward so that a transverse
-   section cuts them several times; _Subularia_, _Senebiera_: ◯‖‖‖.
-
-On _germination_ the cotyledons appear above the ground as green
-leaves; in the Orthoploceæ they are bilobed, in the _Lepidium_-species
-divided.
-
-1. =Silicula, broad replum= (Siliculosæ latiseptæ), valves flat or
-slightly vaulted, and the replum extends through the greatest width of
-the silicula (Fig. 404). The seeds are situated in two rows.
-
-◯=: _Cochlearia_ (Horse-radish): the siliqua is nearly spheroid;
-glabrous herbs, generally with fleshy, stalked leaves, and white
-flowers.--_Draba_ has an oblong, lanceolate, somewhat compressed
-silicula; herbs with small rosettes of leaves, most frequently with
-stellate and long-stalked racemes.--_Alyssum_ and _Berteroa_ are
-whitish, on account of the stellate hairs; they have a more compressed
-and round or elliptical silicula. _Vesicaria_; _Aubrietia_. _Lunaria_
-(Honesty, Fig. 401): very broad and flat silicula with long stalk (the
-receptacle as in Capparidaceæ).
-
-◯‖: _Camelina_ (Gold-of-pleasure) has a spheroid, pear-shaped siliqua
-with a small rim passing right round (Fig. 402). _Subularia_ (Awlwort),
-an aquatic plant with _perigynous_ flower (Fig. 403) and folded
-cotyledons.
-
-2. =Silicula, narrow replum= (Siliculosæ angustiseptæ), _i.e._ the
-replum is much shorter than the arched, more or less boat-shaped valves
-(Figs. 405, 406, 407).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 401.--_Lunaria biennis._ Fruit, the valves of
-  which have fallen off.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 402.--_Camelina sativa._ Fruit.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 403.--_Subularia aquatica._ Longitudinal
-  section through the flower.]
-
-◯=: _Thlaspi_ (Penny-Cress) has a flat, almost circular silicula,
-emarginate or cordate, with a well-developed wing round the edge (Fig.
-406). _Iberis_ and _Teesdalia_: the racemes during flowering are
-especially corymbose, and the most external petals of the outer flowers
-project radially and are much larger than the other two (the flower is
-_zygomorphic_).--_Biscutella_, _Megacarpæa_.
-
-◯‖: _Capsella_ (Shepherd’s-Purse) has a wingless, obcordate or
-triangular silicula (Fig. 407). _Lepidium_ (Pepperwort) has a few–(2–4)
-seeded, slightly winged, oval silicula. _Senebiera_ has a silicula
-splitting longitudinally into two nut-like portions; its cotyledons are
-folded.--~_Anastatica hierochuntica_ (“Rose of Jericho”) is an annual,
-silicula-fruited, desert plant (Arabia, Syria, N. Africa). After the
-flowering all its then leafless branches bend together upwards, forming
-a kind of ball; this spreads out again on coming in contact with water,
-and the fruits then disseminate their seeds, which germinate very
-quickly, often in the fruit.~
-
-3. =Siliqua= (Siliquosæ). The fruit is a true siliqua, several times
-longer than broad. The seeds in most are borne apparently in one row.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 404.--Transverse section of a silicula with
-  broad replum: _s_ replum; _k_ the valves.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 405.--Transverse section of a silicula with
-  narrow replum.]
-
-◯>>: _Brassica_ (Cabbage). The seeds are placed apparently in one
-row in each loculus (Fig. 398 _C_); the style is long and round; the
-valves have only 1 strong, longitudinal rib.--_Melanosinapis_ (_M.
-nigra_, Black-mustard); the style is compressed, two-edged; the valves
-of the siliqua are one ribbed.--_Sinapis_ (Mustard); quadrangular or
-flat style (in which in most cases there is a seed) and 3–5 strong,
-longitudinal ribs on the valves.--_Eruca_ differs from _Brassica_ by
-the shorter siliqua, broad, sword-like “beak” and seeds in two rows.
-
-◯= (Fig. 399): _Cardamine_ (Bitter Cress) has a long, linear siliqua,
-with flat, unribbed, _elastic_ valves. The leaves are most frequently
-pinnatifid or pinnate. ~_C. pratensis_ reproduces by buds formed
-in the axils of the leaves.~--_Arabis_ (Rock Cress); _Matthiola_
-(Stock); _Cheiranthus cheiri_ (Wallflower); _Barbarea_ (Winter Cress)
-(double-edged, quadrangular siliqua); _Nasturtium_ (_N. officinale_,
-Water-cress); the siliqua of the latter genus is in some species short,
-in others long.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 406.--_Thlaspi arvense._]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 407.--Silicula of _Capsella bursa-pastoris_.]
-
-◯‖ (Fig.400): _Sisymbrium_ (Hedge Mustard) the valves of the siliqua
-are 3-ribbed.--_Erysimum_; _Hesperis_; _Schizopetalum_ (with fimbriate
-petals).
-
-4. =Fruit jointed= (Lomentaceæ). The fruit is divided by transverse
-walls into as many spaces as there are seeds, and dehisces at maturity,
-generally _transversely_, into a corresponding number of nut-like
-joints (“articulate-siliqua.”)
-
-◯=: _Crambe_ (Kale, Fig. 408). The fruit has only 2 joints. The lower
-one resembles a short, thick stalk, and is barren, the upper one is
-spherical, and has 1 seed.--_Cakile_ (_C. maritima_, Sea-kale); the
-lower node is triangular, 1-locular, the upper one more ensiform,
-1-locular (Fig. 409).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 408.--Fruit of _Crambe maritima_.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 409.--_Cakile maritima._ Fruit (2/1).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 410.--_Raphanus raphanistrum._]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 411.--_Raphanus sativus._]
-
-◯>>: _Raphanus_ has a long siliqua, which, in the garden Radish (_R.
-sativus_), is spongy and slightly abstricted (Fig. 411), but neither
-opens nor divides transversely (a kind of dry berry), and which in the
-Wild Radish (_R. raphanistrum_) (Fig. 410) is abstricted in the form
-of a string of pearls, and separates into many joints. ~_R. sativus_;
-the “Radish” is formed by the hypocotyl, after the bursting of its
-external, cortical portions (of which there are generally two patches
-at the top of the Radish).~
-
-5. =Siliqua indehiscent= (Nucumentaceæ). The fruit is a short,
-_unjointed_, unilocular and 1-seeded nut, and the fruit-stalks are
-often long, slender, and drooping. (Sometimes a thin endosperm is
-present).--_Isatis_ (Woad) has most frequently an oblong, small-winged
-nut; ◯‖ (Figs. 412, 413).--_Bunias_; _Neslia_.
-
-   [The systematic division of this order given above is founded
-   upon that of A. P. de Candolle. Prantl (_Engler and Prantl, Nat.
-   Fam._), 1891, adopts a somewhat different system, which may
-   briefly be summarised as follows:--
-
-   _A._ Hairs unbranched or absent; no glandular hairs.
-
-      1. THELYPODIEÆ. Stigma equally developed on all sides; style
-           undivided or prolonged above the middle of the carpels,
-           or turned back.--_Stanleyinæ_; _Heliophilinæ_.
-
-      2. SINAPEÆ. Stigma strongly developed above the placenta;
-           style beaked or two-lobed.
-
-           _a._ Cotyledons arising behind the bend of the
-                  embryo.--_Lepidiinæ._
-
-           _b._ Cotyledons arising at the bend of the embryo.
-
-                α. Only lateral nectaries. Generally a silicula or
-                   indehiscent fruit.--_Cochleariinæ._
-
-                β. Generally a siliqua, more rarely a silicula or
-                     transversely-divided or indehiscent fruit.
-                     Nectaries generally lateral and
-                     median.--_Alliariinæ_; _Sisymbriinæ_; _Vellinæ_;
-                    _Brassicinæ_; _Cardamininæ_.
-
-   _B._ Hairs collectively or partially branched, very rarely
-   entirely absent; glandular hairs are sometimes also present.
-
-      1. SCHIZOPETALEÆ.
-
-      2. HESPERIDEÆ. Stigma strongly developed above the placenta;
-           style undivided or prolonged above the placentæ into
-           shorter or longer lobes.
-
-             _a._ Surface cells of the replum, not divided
-                  diagonally.--_Capsellinæ_; _Turritinæ_;
-                  _Erysiminæ_; _Alyssinæ_.
-
-             _b._ Surface cells of the replum divided
-                  diagonally.--_Malcolmiinæ_; _Hesperidinæ_;
-                  _Moricandiinæ_.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 412.--_Isatis tinctoria._ Fruit (Fig. 412);
-  and in longitudinal section (Fig. 413). (Mag.)]
-
-   POLLINATION. Honey is secreted by the nectaries mentioned
-   above; but the position of the stamens is not always the most
-   favourable for pollination by insects (in these flowers the
-   honey-seeking insect must touch the anthers with one of its
-   sides and the stigma with the other), and self-fertilisation
-   is common. In some species (_Cardamine pratensis_) the long
-   stamens turn their anthers outwards towards the small stamens,
-   so that 3 anthers surround each of the two large entrances to
-   the nectaries.
-
-   1200 species (180 genera), especially in the cold and
-   temperate parts of the Old World (Europe, W. Asia). Many
-   are _weeds_ in this country, _e.g._ Wild Cabbage (_Brassica
-   campestris_), Charlock (_Sinapis arvensis_), Wild Radish
-   (_Raphanus raphanistrum_) and others.--The order is acrid and
-   oleaginous. Oil is obtained from many of the oil-containing
-   seeds, especially of the Rape (_Brassica napus_), Summer-Rape
-   (the oil-yielding cultivated form of the Field-Cabbage) and
-   _Camelina_. Several are pot-herbs or fodder plants, _e.g._
-   Cabbage
-
-   (_Brassica oleracea_) with its numerous varieties: Cauliflower
-   (var. _botrytis_; the entire inflorescence is abnormally
-   branched and fleshy), Kohlrabi (var. _gongylodes_, with
-   swollen, tuberous stem), Kale, Red-Cabbage, White-Cabbage,
-   etc.; _B. campestris_, var. _rapifera_ (Turnip); _B. napus_,
-   var. _rapifera_ (Swede); _Raphanus sativus_ (Radish from W.
-   Asia), _R. caudatus_ (long Radish); _Nasturtium officinale_
-   (Water Cress), _Lepidium sativum_ (Garden Cress), and _Barbarea
-   præcox_ (Early Cress); _Crambe maritima_ (Sea-Kkale). The
-   seeds of the following are especially used as spices: (the
-   flour of) _Melanosinapis_ (Black-mustard), and _Sinapis
-   alba_ (White-mustard), which are _officinal_ like the root
-   of _Cochlearia armoracia_ (Horse-radish, E. Eur.). The
-   herbaceous parts of _Cochlearia officinalis_ and _danica_
-   are medicinal.--A blue dye (woad) is extracted from
-   _Isatis_.--Ornamental plants: _Cheiranthus cheiri_ (Wallflower),
-   _Matthiola_ (Stock), _Iberis_, _Hesperis_, _Lunaria_, and others
-   (especially from S. Eur.). Sweet-scented flowers are rare.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 414.--_Gynandropsis pentaphylla._]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 415.--_Capparis spinosa._]
-
-   Order 4. =Capparidaceæ= (=Capers=). The relationship with the
-   Cruciferæ is so close that certain forms are with difficulty
-   distinguished from them. The diagram of the flower is the same
-   in the number and position of its parts, but it differs in the
-   modifications which occur in the development of the stamens. In
-   some genera all 4 stamens are undivided; in others both the 2
-   median ones are divided as in the Cruciferæ (6 stamens, but _not
-   tetradynamous_) (Fig. 414); in other genera only 1 of these; in
-   other instances again they are divided into more than 2; and
-   finally the 2 lateral ones also may be found divided, so that
-   _indefinite stamens_ occur (Fig. 415). The bicarpellate gynœceum
-   is _unilocular_ (without replum), but more than 2 carpels may
-   occur. The ovary is elevated on a _stalk_ (sometimes as much
-   as 1 foot in length); also between the stamens and corolla a
-   similar stalk may be found (Fig. 414). The fruit is long and
-   siliquose (_Cleome_, _Polanisia_, _Gynandropsis_), or a berry
-   (_Capparis_). Endosperm absent. Some have zygomorphic flowers.
-   Gamosepalous calyx and perigynous flowers also occur.--350
-   species; especially in the Tropics. The majority are trees
-   and shrubs, and they differ also from the Cruciferæ in having
-   distinct stipules present in some species.
-
-   “Capers” are the flower buds of the climbing, thorny shrub,
-   _Capparis spinosa_ (Fig. 415), which grows in the Mediterranean.
-
-
-                       Family 11. =Cistifloræ.=
-
-The flowers in this family are perfect, regular (except _Resedaceæ,
-Violaceæ_), hypogynous, the perianth-leaves free (a few have them
-slightly united), æstivation most frequently imbricate; they are
-eucyclic in the andrœcium, and most frequently in the other parts,
-and generally 5-merous with S5, P5, A5 + 5, G3, but other numbers
-also occur; several have _indefinite stamens_, but the stamens arise
-(where the development is known) in _centrifugal order_ and are
-arranged, often very distinctly, _in bundles_; in other words, the
-large number of stamens is formed by the splitting of a small number
-(most frequently 5); a true spiral arrangement is never found. Gynœceum
-syncarpous, multicarpellary (_Dilleniaceæ_ and a few _Resedaceæ_ are
-apocarpous), most frequently the number of carpels is 3, forming a
-_unilocular ovary_ with _parietal placentæ_, but parallel with this,
-multilocular ovaries, with the ovules placed in the inner angle of the
-loculi, are also found, and a few genera have a free, centrally-placed
-placenta. The fruit is most frequently a capsule. The dehiscence is
-never with a “replum,” _i.e._ the persistent frame of the placenta,
-as in the family Rhœadinæ. One half of the orders has endosperm
-(_Violaceæ_, _Cistaceæ_, _Droseraceæ_, _Bixaceæ_, _Ternstrœmiaceæ_,
-etc.), the other has no endosperm (_Resedaceæ_, _Hypericaceæ_,
-_Elatinaceæ_, _Tamaricaceæ_, etc.); some have a curved, the majority a
-straight embryo. ~The family is scarcely quite natural; in the future
-the orders will probably be arranged differently.~
-
-Order 1. =Resedaceæ (Mignonettes).=--Herbs or small shrubs with
-spirally-placed leaves and very small, gland-like stipules (as in
-Cruciferæ); the ☿, hypogynous flowers are _zygomorphic_, and arranged
-in racemes or spikes typically without bracteoles. The zygomorphic
-structure is produced by the _greater development of the posterior side
-of the flower_, especially the petals and the nectary (“disc,” in Fig.
-416 _d_) which is situated between the petals and stamens; in general
-there are 5–8 free sepals and petals, the latter consisting of a large
-scale-like _sheath_ with a fimbriated blade (see Fig. 416); stamens
-numerous; carpels 6–2 united together; ovary unilocular with parietal
-placentæ, but _the cavity of the ovary is not closed_ at the top. In
-_Astrocarpus_ the gynœceum is apocarpous. The fruit is most frequently
-a capsule; the seeds are reniform, without endosperm, and the embryo is
-_curved_.
-
-   This order connects the Rhœadinæ with the Cistifloræ. It is
-   closely allied to the Rhœadinæ by its external appearance, even
-   by the smell and taste, the parietal placentation, structure of
-   the seeds, the inflorescences, etc., whilst by the irregular
-   flowers and the disc placed at the posterior side of the
-   flower, _it is allied to Capparidaceæ_, but differs from this
-   order in not having its characteristic number (2–4) and by
-   the very different mode of dehiscence of the fruit, etc. It
-   differs from the other orders of this family chiefly in the
-   fact that the number of the perianth-leaves is not constantly
-   5. In _Reseda luteola_ both the calyx and corolla appear to
-   be 4-leaved, because the posterior sepal is suppressed, and
-   the 2 posterior petals are united. Where there are 10 stamens,
-   they stand in 2 whorls, _i.e._ in front of the sepals and
-   petals; if there are several, their position depends upon the
-   splitting.--_Astrocarpus_ is remarkable for its apocarpous fruit
-   and the position of the ovules on the _dorsal_ suture of the
-   carpel.
-
-   The yellow, flat disc at the back of the flower serves as a
-   nectary, the honey being protected by the lobes of the petals.
-   If pollination by insects is not effected, then self-pollination
-   may take place, at all events in _R. odorata_.
-
-   45 species; the majority in the Mediterranean and in Persia.
-   _Reseda odorata_ (from Egypt) is cultivated on account of its
-   sweet scent; _R. luteola_ (“Dyer’s Weed”) yields a yellow dye.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 416.--Diagram of _Reseda odorata_.]
-
-Order 2. =Droseraceæ (Sundews).= Herbs, chiefly living on moors or in
-water, and whose leaves are adapted to catch and digest small animals.
-With regard to the flower, they are closely allied to the Violaceæ,
-especially to those with regular flowers. _Drosera_ (Sundew) has a
-long-stalked scorpioid cyme with regular, ☿, hypogynous flowers,
-5-merous as in _Viola_. S5, P5, A5, G3 (in a syncarpous gynœceum,
-with free, bifid styles and basal or parietally-placed ovules in the
-unilocular ovaries). The capsule opens also as in _Viola_, but, among
-other differences, the styles are free, the seeds very small, and
-surrounded by a loosely lying, thin shell. ~_Drosera_ has radical,
-long-stalked leaves with the blade (Fig. 417) covered by numerous
-strong glandular hairs, placed on the edge and in the middle; when
-small animals are caught by these hairs, the latter and the entire
-blade close slowly over them dissolving and absorbing all the
-digestible matter as nourishment.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 417.--Leaf-rosette of _Drosera rotundifolia_
-  (nat. size), and a leaf (magnified).]
-
-   _Dionæa muscipula_ (Fly-trap; N. Am.) has the same appearance
-   as _Drosera_, but the leaves are constructed as in Fig. 418.
-   The stalk is flat and winged, the blade small, circular, with
-   powerful, pointed teeth along the edge, and on its surface are 6
-   small bristles (_A_), which are very sensitive. When these are
-   touched the blade quickly closes, folding along the midrib (_B_,
-   _C_) and imprisoning the irritating object, the teeth round the
-   edges fitting like the teeth of a trap. If it happens to be an
-   insect or similar body, a digestive fluid is secreted which,
-   like the gastric juice, dissolves the digestible portions.
-   _Aldrovandia vesiculosa_ (Central and S. Europe) captures small
-   aquatic animals in a similar manner; it is a floating, aquatic
-   plant, the two halves of its leaves also close together when
-   irritated (Fig. 419).--_Drosophyllum._
-
-   About 110 species; most of them in the temperate regions.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 418.--_Dionæa muscipula._ Leaves (nat. size).]
-
-   Orders 3 and 4. =Sarraceniaceæ and Nepenthaceæ.= These two
-   orders are perhaps most closely allied to the Droseraceæ and
-   agree with these, among other things, in the manner of taking
-   nourishment. Like the Droseraceæ they absorb nitrogenous food
-   from dissolved animal matter by means of their leaves, which are
-   specially constructed both to catch, to retain, and to digest
-   any small animals which may be caught. The SARRACENIACEÆ are
-   North American marsh-plants (10 species) which have pitcher-like
-   leaf-stalks, in the cavity of which a fluid (with properties
-   approaching those of gastric juice) is secreted, and which bear
-   at the apex a small, lid-like blade; these leaf-stalks are the
-   catching and digestive organs.--_Sarracenia, Darlingtonia._
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 419.--_Aldrovandia vesiculosa_: _A_ a plant
-  (nat. size). _B_ Leaf (mag.); the blade is closed; the winged
-  stalk is prolonged into 4–6 irritable bristles.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 420.--_Nepenthes_ (reduced).]
-
-   NEPENTHACEÆ has only 1 genus, _Nepenthes_ (the Pitcher-plant;
-   about 35 species), especially found in tropical E. Asia; the
-   majority are climbing shrubs. The leaf-stalks are twining
-   organs, and terminate either simply in a tendril, or in addition
-   to this, with a pitcher-shaped body (which in some species may
-   be as much as a foot in length) on whose upper edge a lid-like
-   structure is found (Fig. 420). In this pitcher, as among the
-   Sarraceniaceæ, a fluid is secreted which is able to digest the
-   animals captured (sometimes rather large) and which corresponds
-   in some degree to the gastric juice.
-
-Order 5. =Violaceæ (Violets).= The flowers are ☿, and generally
-zygomorphic, hypogynous, with S5, P5, A5, G3 (Fig. 421). The stamens
-are closely applied to the ovary, they have a very short filament,
-and at their summit generally a membranous appendage formed by the
-prolongation of the connective (Fig. 422 _g_). The ovary is unilocular
-with 3 parietal placentæ; style undivided (Fig. 422 _B_). The fruit
-is usually a 3-valved capsule, opening along the dorsal sutures
-(Fig. 423). Embryo straight; endosperm fleshy (Fig. 425).--Many are
-herbaceous plants (_e.g. Viola_), but in the Tropics shrubs are also
-found (_e.g. Ionidium_); a few are lianes; the leaves are scattered,
-with stipules, and involute in the bud.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 421.--Diagram of _Viola_.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 422.--The large-flowered form of _Viola
-  tricolor_: _A_ the flower in median longitudinal section; _B_ the
-  gynœceum.]
-
-_Viola._ The sepals are prolonged backwards beyond the point of
-insertion (appendiculate); the corolla is polypetalous, descending
-imbricate, and zygomorphic, its anterior petal being larger than the
-others and provided with a spur (Fig. 421). The 2 anterior of the 5
-almost sessile stamens are provided with a spur-like nectary, which
-protrudes a considerable distance into the petaloid spur (Figs. 421,
-422 _n_, _sp_). The style is club-like, and bears the stigma in a
-groove on the anterior side (Fig. 422 _st_). ~Herbs with rhizomes,
-or annuals; flowers solitary. _V. odorata_, _canina_, etc., have
-cleistogamic flowers which produce fruit in addition to the large,
-coloured (violet) flowers. The Pansy (_V. tricolor_) has large flowers
-adapted for insect-pollination, and also smaller, less conspicuous
-ones designed for self-pollination. The stigma, as in Fig. 422 _A_,
-_st_, and _B_, is situated on the anterior side of the stylar-head,
-immediately in front of the channel leading down to the spur (_sp_);
-below it is situated a valve, easily covered with pollen when
-the proboscis of an insect is introduced into the spur, but which
-closes upon its withdrawal; cross-pollination is thus secured.--The
-sweet-scented _V. odorata_ is visited by the honey-bee, which insures
-cross-pollination, and in the absence of insect visits it effects
-self-fertilisation by cleistogamic flowers. The conspicuous but
-scentless _V. tricolor_, var. _vulgaris_, is less frequently visited by
-insects (humble-bees). In _V. silvatica_ and _V. canina_ the pollen is
-carried on the head or proboscis of the honey-sucking bee.--The fruits
-of _V. odorata_ bury themselves slightly in the soil. In the others
-the fruits are raised above the ground; the 3 boat-shaped valves close
-together along the central line, and eject the seeds, one by one, with
-much violence, so that they are thrown to a great distance.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 423–425.--_Viola Tricolor._
-
-  FIG. 423.--Capsule after dehiscence (nat. size).
-
-  FIG. 424.--External view of the seed.
-
-  FIG. 425.--Seed in longitudinal section.]
-
-   The _Alsodeia_-group has regular or almost regular flowers.
-   Gamopetalous corollas are found in _Paypayroleæ_. _Sauvagesieæ_
-   differs the most by its regular corolla, and 5–∞ free or united
-   staminodes.
-
-   250 species; especially in the Tropics.--The _Ionidium_-species
-   are used as ipecacuanha. A number of _Viola_-species are
-   cultivated as garden plants, especially _V. odorata_
-   (sweet-scented Violet) and _V. tricolor_, which have a large
-   number of varieties.
-
-   Order 6. =Frankeniaceæ.= A small order with doubtful
-   relationships. Perennial herbs or shrubs; beach plants with
-   nodose stem. Sepals united, petals free. Unilocular ovary,
-   with 3–4 parietal placentæ. Fruit a capsule. Embryo straight,
-   endospermous. Especially in S. Europe, Africa, on the shores of
-   the Mediterranean and Atlantic.
-
-   Order 7. =Tamaricaceæ (Tamarisks).= To this order belong only
-   _Tamarix_ and _Myricaria_. They are shrubs of a cypress- or
-   heather-like appearance, as the scattered leaves are very small,
-   sessile, scale-like or linear, adpressed, entire, and usually
-   glaucous, and the branches are slender and whip-like. The
-   flowers are borne in small spikes or racemes, and are small,
-   reddish or whitish, regular, ☿, hypogynous and polypetalous;
-   formula S5, P5, A5 + 0 (_Tamarix_, which often has stipular
-   teeth at the base of the filaments), or A5 + 5 (_Myricaria_,
-   in which the stamens are united at the base); the number 4 may
-   appear instead of 5, but in either case there is usually a
-   tricarpellate gynœceum, which is _unilocular_ and has either
-   parietal placentæ (_Myricaria_) or a small basal placenta
-   (_Tamarix_); 1 trifid style, or 3 styles. Capsule dehiscing
-   along the dorsal suture, and resembling the Willows in having a
-   unilocular ovary with numerous _woolly_ seeds; but the seed-wool
-   in this case is borne on the chalaza, and may be attached to a
-   long stalk.--Some _Tamarix_-species shed part of their branches
-   in the winter.--40 species; North Temperate, on the sea-shores
-   or steppes, especially in Asia. Ornamental shrubs: _Myricaria
-   germanica_, and _Tamarix gallica_.
-
-Order 8. =Cistaceæ.= Shrubs or herbs, natives especially of the
-Mediterranean region. Flowers generally in raceme-like scorpioid
-cymes, regular, ☿, hypogynous; sepals 5, free, _twisted_ in the bud,
-of which the two outer are generally much smaller than the others;
-petals 5, free, _twisted_ in the bud (in the direction _opposite_
-to the sepals), fugacious; stamens _numerous_; gynœceum syncarpous,
-carpels usually 3–5, style simple, ovary unilocular, with parietal
-placentation (seldom divided into loculi, with axile placentation). The
-ovules are _orthotropous_ in opposition to some of the other orders
-of this family. The capsule dehisces along the dorsal sutures; embyro
-_curved_. The leaves are simple, undivided, generally opposite and
-stipulate.--~They are Violaceæ with regular flowers, numerous stamens,
-and curved embryo. The numerous stamens are in reality only one or two
-5-merous whorls, divided into a large number of stamens; these are
-formed, therefore, in descending order, like the lobes of many compound
-foliage-leaves.~
-
-_Helianthemum_ (Rock-Rose), has 3 carpels.--_Cistus_ has 5 (-10)
-carpels.
-
-   About 70 species; temperate climates, especially about the
-   Mediterranean. The resin of the _Cistus_-species has been used
-   medicinally (ladanum).
-
-   Order 9. =Bixaceæ.= This order is closely allied to the Cistaceæ
-   and Ternstrœmiaceæ; like these it has regular, 5-merous,
-   hypogynous flowers with numerous stamens, unilocular ovary and
-   _parietal_ placentæ; sometimes unisexual flowers; it differs in
-   having anatropous ovules, in the æstivation of the sepals, etc.
-   All species (about 180) are trees or shrubs, with scattered,
-   simple leaves, which usually have stipules, and are occasionally
-   dotted with pellucid oil-glands.--_Bixa orellana_ (Trop. Am.)
-   is the best known species; it has a 2-valved capsule; the seeds
-   are enclosed in a shiny _red, fleshy testa_, which contains the
-   well-known orange or yellow dye, annatto.
-
-   Order 10. =Dilleniaceæ.= Gynœceum usually apocarpous, seed
-   arillate. The flower has most frequently S5, P5, and compound
-   stamens (one or more bundles); sometimes irregular. 200 species;
-   Tropical; woody plants, many lianes.--_Dillenia_, _Candollea_,
-   _Pleurandra_, _Davilla_, etc.
-
-   Order 11. =Elatinaceæ= (=Water-worts=). About 25 species belong
-   to this order; especially in temperate climates. They are small,
-   creeping, rooted, aquatic plants, with opposite or verticillate
-   leaves and _stipules_. The flowers are solitary or situated in
-   small dichasia in the leaf-axils, they are small, regular, ☿,
-   hypogynous, with free petals, the same number in all 5 whorls
-   (Sn, Pn, An + n, Gn), 3-merous (_e.g. Elatine hexandra_),
-   4-merous (_e.g. E. hydropiper_), or 5-merous (_Bergia_); the
-   corolla-stamens are sometimes suppressed; petals imbricate
-   without being twisted; the ovary is 3–4–5-locular, with 3–4–5
-   _free styles_; the capsule dehisces septicidally. The seeds are
-   orthotropous or curved, often transversely ribbed, endosperm
-   wanting. The order is most nearly allied to Hypericaceæ, whose
-   primitive form it appears to represent.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 426.--Diagram of _Hypericum quadrangulum_:
-  _S_ indicates the bud of the helicoid cyme in the axil of the
-  bracteole β.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 427.--_Hypericum._ Flower with three bundles
-  of stamens.]
-
-Order 12. =Hypericaceæ= (=St. John’s-worts=). This order is recognised
-by its always _opposite_ or _verticillate_, _simple_, and entire,
-penninerved leaves, without stipules, and usually dotted with
-_pellucid_ glands; by the always ☿, regular, hypogynous flowers in a
-cymose inflorescence; the generally 5-merous calyx and corolla, with
-sepals and petals free; the stamens 3–5, numerously branched (Figs.
-426, 427); and the gynœceum, 3–5-carpellate, styles usually _free_. The
-ovary is 3–5-locular, or unilocular with 3–5 parietal placentæ. Fruit a
-capsule (dehiscing septicidally) or berry. Endosperm absent.
-
-   The inflorescence is a _dichasium_ or _helicoid cyme_. The
-   structure of the flowers is the same as that of the foregoing
-   orders: S5, P5; succeeding these in some cases are two 5-merous
-   whorls of stamens in regular alternation, of which the inner
-   is epipetalous; but the outer whorl is only represented by 5
-   small scales (Fig. 427), or is altogether absent (_Hypericum
-   calycinum_, _H. hircinum_), and the inner divided into numerous
-   stamens, that is, these 5 stamens are so deeply divided that
-   5 _epipetalous_ groups bearing anthers are found (as in the
-   Cistaceæ); in other cases the flower becomes _3-merous after
-   the petals_, stamens 3 + 3 following in regular alternation
-   (Figs. 426, 427), the outer whorl of stamens in these cases is
-   also present as staminodes (Fig. 427), or may be altogether
-   suppressed. Carpels 3–5. _The petals are often twisted_ in the
-   bud, and are then oblique.
-
-_Hypericum._ Some species have a square stem; in these cases the
-leaves are placed opposite the edges. Fruit a capsule.--_Vismia_ has
-a berry.--~The flowers of _Hypericum_ have no honey, and supply only
-pollen; self-pollination often takes place.~
-
-   About 240 species; the tropical ones being often shrubs or
-   trees; the others generally perennial shrubs.--_Hypericum_,
-   St. John’s-wort, contains a resinous, red matter, which can be
-   extracted with alcohol. The American gamboge is the dried sap of
-   species of _Vismia_.
-
-   Order 13. =Guttiferæ=, or =Clusiaceæ=. Closely allied to the
-   Hypericaceæ and Ternstrœmiaceæ. Leaves opposite or verticillate.
-   The flowers are often unisexual; stamens united; the gynœceum
-   has most frequently a sessile, radiating or shield-like stigma.
-
-   370 species; chiefly in the Tropics (Am.). They are principally
-   woody plants and their bark contains a yellow gum resin,
-   “gamboge,” which is extracted from _Garcinia morella_ (E. Ind.)
-   and others. Mangosteen (_Garcinia mangostana_ S.E. Asia), and
-   _Mammea americana_ (W. Ind.), have very delicious fruits.
-   To this order also belong _Platonia insignis_, _Pentadesma
-   butyracea_ (the Butter-tree), _Clusia_, _Calophyllum_, _Cataba_,
-   etc.
-
-Order 14. =Ternstrœmiaceæ.= Trees and shrubs with scattered, simple,
-and often more or less leathery, evergreen, penninerved leaves, without
-stipules (Fig. 428). The two most important genera are: _Camellia_
-and the closely allied _Thea_ (by some authorities these are united
-into one genus). The flowers are regular, hypogynous, and situated
-singly on very short stalks. A number of green floral-leaves are placed
-below the calyx and gradually pass over into the sepals, and the
-leaves (5–6) of the calyx again gradually pass over into the corolla
-(this being especially marked in _Camellia_), of which the number of
-leaves varies (5, 6, 7 and upwards); the calyx and the corolla are
-_acyclic_ or _eucyclic_; the petals are slightly united at the base;
-stamens _numerous_ in many whorls, the external ones are arranged in
-bundles and united with the petals as in the Columniferæ; gynœceum
-syncarpous; styles often _free_ nearly to the base; ovary 3–5-locular,
-ovules numerous in each loculus. The fruit is a woody capsule.--~Other
-genera show more distinctly than these the same structure as in the
-preceding orders, namely: S5, P5, A5 + 5, of which the calyx-stamens
-are often suppressed, and the petal-stamens divided into numerous
-stamens.--_Kielmeyera_ (S. Am.)~
-
-   260 species; especially in the Tropics (E. Asia, Am.) The
-   leaves of _Thea chinensis_ (or _Camellia thea_), the Tea-tree
-   (E. Asia), are cultivated for the well-known “tea,” and contain
-   theine: the best are the young, still hairy leaves, of greyish
-   colour; there are many varieties. Ornamental plants, _Camellia
-   japonica_ and _Actinidia_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 428.--_Thea chinensis_ (reduced).]
-
-   Closely allied to this order are: Order 15. =Rhizoboleæ= (with
-   enormously large hypocotyl--hence the name), and Order 16.
-   =Marcgraviaceæ= (partly epiphytes, with dimorphic leaves and
-   cup- or helmet-like, coloured, honey-secreting floral-leaves,
-   which serve to attract insects).
-
-   Order 17. =Dipterocarpaceæ.= This order has taken its name from
-   the large wings attached to the fruits in _Dipterocarpus_ (the
-   wings being largely developed sepals); trees and shrubs from
-   Trop. Asia. 180 species. Camphor ready prepared is found in the
-   stem of _Dryobalanops camphora_. _Hopea_; _Vateria_.
-
-
-                        Family 12. =Gruinales.=
-
-The flowers are hypogynous, ☿, polypetalous, usually regular (except
-_Pelargonium_, _Tropæolaceæ_, _Balsaminaceæ_) and _throughout
-5-merous_: S5, P5, A5 + 5, or 5 + 0, G5 (_epipetalous_). The stamens
-soon fall off and are _obdiplostemonous_, often united at the base
-(_monadelphous_); the corolla-stamens are in some completely suppressed
-(_e.g. Balsaminaceæ_, Fig. 438), in others reduced to teeth (_Linum_,
-Fig. 431; _Erodium_). The _Tropæolaceæ_ have 3 carpels and only 8
-stamens (Fig. 437). Ring-like nectaries are not present, but at most
-only glandular bodies, borne outside the base of the stamens. Ovaries
-many-locular. The ovules as a rule are pendulous, with the micropyle
-directed outwards (Fig. 431, B), and the radicle therefore also points
-outwards. Usually _herbs_. Related to the Columniferæ.
-
-Order 1. =Oxalidaceæ.= Most of the species are herbs with rhizomes;
-the leaves are stalked, _compound_, with entire leaflets which are
-folded and bent backwards in the bud (and in the sleep position),
-exstipulate; some species have sensitive leaves. The flowers (Fig. 429)
-are regular, and have S5, P5, which are _twisted_ to the left or right
-in æstivation, A5 + 5, all united at the base (monadelphous), gynœceum
-5-carpellate, _styles 5 free_, stigmas capitate, ovary 5-locular,
-ovules numerous. The fruit is a _capsule opening_ with clefts _on the
-dorsal sutures_ through which the seeds are ejected, while the _fleshy,
-external layer of the testa_ springs off elastically. Embryo straight.
-Endosperm.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 429.--Diagram of _Oxal’s acetosella_.]
-
-   _Oxalis_ (Wood-Sorrel). Leaves digitate. Species also occur
-   with phyllodia, _i.e._ leaf-like petioles placed vertically
-   without lamina; a few have pinnate leaves. The flowers are
-   situated singly or in dichasia, and unipared scorpioid cymes.
-   The pollination is effected by insects. Some species are
-   trimorphic (long-, short-, medium-styled flowers) and some,
-   _e.g. O. acetosella_, have cleistogamic flowers in addition
-   to the ordinary ones. Glands are found on the outer side of
-   the corolla-stamens or of all the stamens. _O. tetraphylla_
-   and others have adventitious edible roots, resembling
-   tap-roots.--_Averrhoa_ is a tropical tree, with berries and
-   pinnate leaves.
-
-   235 species (205 belong to _Oxalis_); chiefly in S. Africa and
-   Trop. America.--Oxalate of potash is contained in the leaves of
-   _Oxalis_.
-
-Order 2. =Linaceæ.= Herbs with scattered or opposite, sessile,
-_simple_, small, entire leaves, without (rarely with small) stipules.
-The flowers (Fig. 430) are regular, 5- or 4-merous. Petals are free,
-_twisted_, quickly falling off. Stamens united at the base; the
-petal-stamens _are either reduced to teeth_ (Fig. 431 _A_, _m_) _or
-entirely suppressed_. _Styles free._ The (5–4) epipetalous loculi
-of the ovary are incompletely halved by _false divisional walls_,
-each half contains one ovule (Fig. 431 _C_). The fruit is a spherical
-_capsule, dehiscing along the divisional wall_ (Fig. 432); the 10 (-8)
-seeds have a straight embryo and very slight endosperm (Fig. 433).
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 430–433.--_Linum usitatissimum._
-
-  Fig. 430.--The Flax plant.
-
-  Fig. 431.--_A_ Flower after removal of sepals and petals; _m_
-  petal-stamens reduced to teeth. _B_ Longitudinal section of
-  ovary. _C_ Transverse section of capsule.
-
-  Fig. 432.--Capsule (nat. size).
-
-  Fig. 433.--Transverse and longitudinal section of seed: _bl_ the
-  cotyledons; _k_ the plumule; _R_ the radicle; _fr_ the endosperm;
-  _sk_ the testa.]
-
-_Linum_ (Flax) has 5-merous flowers. ~The main axis terminates in a
-flower; and the succeeding branching is cymose, or unipared scorpioid
-branching by unilateral development, and the flowers in consequence of
-the vigorous sympodial development of the lateral axis (and also by the
-leaves being displaced and pushed aside), assume a position apparently
-lateral (_i.e._ racemose) without bracts; each branch of the sympodium
-generally has 2 leaves. The testa is shining and smooth when dry, but
-its external cellular layer becomes mucilaginous in water.~--_Radiola_
-has a 4-merous flower. It is a small herb with opposite leaves, and
-regular, dichasial branching.
-
-   The anthers and stigmas in _L. catharticum_ and _usitatissimum_
-   develop simultaneously, and cross-pollination as well as
-   self-pollination takes place. _L. grandiflorum_, _perenne_,
-   and others, are dimorphic (short-and long-styled). There are 5
-   nectaries outside the stamens.
-
-   130 species; _Linum_ and _Radiola_ are native genera.--_L.
-   usitatissimum_ is extensively cultivated in Europe (especially
-   in Russia and Belgium), N. America and elsewhere (its home no
-   doubt being Asia), partly on account of the oil (linseed oil)
-   which is extracted from the seeds, and partly on account of
-   the bast of the stem, which has very thick-walled cells. The
-   seeds and oil are OFFICINAL. The species cultivated in ancient
-   times was _L. angustifolium_. Several species are cultivated as
-   ornamental plants.
-
-Order 3. =Geraniaceæ.= The majority are herbs with dichasial branching,
-and scattered or opposite, stalked, _palminerved_ (rarely penninerved)
-leaves with small _stipules_. The flowers are regular (except
-_Pelargonium_) and 5-merous, with 10 or 5 stamens, which are slightly
-united at the base. Nectaries alternate with the corolla-stamens.
-The ovary is most frequently 5-locular, deeply 5-grooved, and bears
-1 _well developed style_ (“beak”), which towards the apex divides
-into 5 branches bearing stigmas; ovules 1 in each loculus, pendulous
-or ascending. _The 5 carpels become detached from one another when
-ripe_, and bend or _roll back_ (Fig. 434) or become _spirally twisted_
-in the upper “beak-like” part (Figs. 435, 436), whilst a _central
-column_ (septal column) persists; each carpel, in consequence, remains
-either closed, and the fruit is a 5-merous _schizocarp_ whose nut-like
-lower portion, containing the seed, is forced into the ground, thus
-burying the seed by the movements of the spirally-twisted, hygroscopic
-“beak” (Figs. 435, 436); or it opens along the ventral suture, so
-that the seeds may fall out, and it is then a 5-valved _capsule_,
-with septicidal dehiscence (Fig. 434) and the rolling up often takes
-place so suddenly and violently that the seeds are shot out to
-considerable distances. The embryo is usually green and _curved_, and
-the _cotyledons are folded_; endosperm is wanting.
-
-_Geranium_ (Crane’s-bill) has 5 + 5 stamens,and a septicidal capsule;
-the carpels most frequently remain suspended from the apex of the
-column (Fig. 434). The leaves are most frequently palminerved. The
-flowers are situated solitarily or 2 together (2-flowered scorpioid
-cyme).--_Erodium_ (Stork’s-bill); inflorescence a many-flowered
-unipared scorpioid cyme, stamens 5 + 0 (petal-stamens are wanting), and
-fruit a schizocarp whose carpels become detached; their beaks are hairy
-on the internal surface and _twist themselves spirally_ (Fig. 436).
-The umbellate inflorescences are composed of multiflowered scorpioid
-cymes. The leaves are often penninerved.--~The most primitive type is
-represented by _Biebersteinia_: S5, P5, A5 + 5, G5 (ovaries _free_,
-and styles united above); fruit 5 small nuts. The most advanced type
-is _Pelargonium_, which has _zygomorphic_ flowers, the posterior sepal
-being prolonged into a spur which becomes adnate to the peduncle;
-the petals are unequal in size; some of the petal-stamens are often
-wanting. (_Erodium_ may be slightly zygomorphic).~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 434.--_Geranium sanguineum._ Fruit (3/1).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 435.--_Pelargonium._]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 436.--_Erodium cicutarium_, detached carpel.]
-
-   POLLINATION. The large-flowered _Geranium_-species are
-   protandrous, _e.g. G. pratense_ (one whorl of stamens opens
-   first, and then the other, and succeeding these the stigmas,
-   after shedding the pollen the stamens bend outwards); the
-   small-flowered are also adapted, with various modifications,
-   for self-pollination.--470 species; moderately hot climates,
-   especially S. Africa.--Several _Pelargonium_-species, with
-   numerous varieties, are ornamental plants (from S. Africa).
-
-Order 4. =Tropæolaceæ.= Herbaceous, juicy plants which have scattered,
-long-stalked, peltate leaves without stipules, and often climb by their
-sensitive petioles. The flowers are situated singly in the axils of the
-foliage-leaves on long stalks, and are _zygomorphic_, the receptacle
-under the posterior sepal being prolonged _into a spur_; there are also
-differences between the posterior and anterior petals, the 2 posterior
-petals situated on the border of the spur being _perigynous_, and the
-edge of the anterior petals adjoining the claw fringed. After the 5
-sepals (which are more or less coloured) and the 5 petals, follow 8
-_stamens_ (as the 2 median ones are suppressed, one from each whorl)
-and a gynœceum formed of 3 carpels; in each of the 3 loculi of the
-3-grooved ovary is 1 ovule. The fruit is a _schizocarp_ and divides
-into 3 1-seeded, _drupe-like_ fruitlets, which do not (as in the
-Geraniaceæ) leave any pronounced column between them. Endosperm is
-wanting. The cotyledons are thick and sometimes slightly coalescent.
-~Tubers often occur.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 437.--Diagram of _Tropæolum_: _sp_, spur.]
-
-_Tropæolum._--About 40 species; all from America.
-
-   POLLINATION.--The spur is the receptacle for the nectar; the
-   flowers are protandrous; the anthers open first, and one by
-   one take up a position in front of the entrance to the spur,
-   resuming their original position when the pollen is shed; the
-   stigma finally takes their place after the filaments have bent
-   backwards.--These plants have an acrid taste (hence the name
-   “Nasturtium,” “Indian Cress”), on which account the flower-buds
-   and young fruits of _T. majus_ are used as capers. Some species
-   are ornamental plants.
-
-Order 5. =Balsaminaceæ.= Herbaceous, chiefly annual plants with
-juicy, brittle stems, so transparent that the vascular bundles may be
-distinctly seen. The leaves are simple, usually scattered, penninerved
-and dentate; stipules are wanting, but sometimes large glands are
-present in their place at the base of the petioles. The flowers are
-strongly zygomorphic; of their five 5-merous whorls the petal-stamens
-are suppressed (S5, P5, A5 + 0, G5); the sepals are _coloured_, the
-2 _anterior ones_ (Fig. 438 _3_, _5_) _are very small_ or entirely
-suppressed, _the posterior one_ is very large and _elongated into a
-spur_, and the 2 lateral ones pushed forward; sometimes the weight
-of the spur turns the flower completely round, so that the posterior
-leaves assume an anterior position; apparently only 3 petals, since
-the lateral and the posterior petals become united in pairs, and
-the anterior is larger and differently shaped; the 5 stamens have
-very short and thick filaments united at the base, and their anthers
-finally adhere together and remain in this condition, covering over
-the gynœceum; the filaments ultimately rupture at the base, and the
-entire anthers are raised on the apex of the gynœceum as it grows
-up. The gynœceum has a _sessile stigma_ and a 5-locular ovary. The
-fruit is a capsule which, on maturity, opens suddenly when irritated,
-dividing into valves from the base upwards, and as the 5 valves roll
-up elastically, the seeds are shot out on all sides to considerable
-distances; a central column persists (Fig. 439). The embryo is
-straight, and without endosperm.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 438.--Diagram of _Impatiens glanduligera_.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 439.--Fruit of _Impatiens_.]
-
-   _Impatiens_; in Europe only _I. noli-me-tangere_. 225 species;
-   especially from Asia. Several species have two kinds of flowers:
-   small, cleistogamic, but fertile; and large, coloured flowers,
-   which in _I. balsamine_ (ornamental plant, E. Ind.) are
-   protandrous and pollinated by hive-and humble-bees, as they suck
-   the honey from the spur.
-
-   Order 6. =Limnanthaceæ.= The flowers are regular and differ
-   from all the other orders in the family by having the carpels
-   not in front of the petals, but _in front of the sepals_
-   (which are _valvate_), and further, the loculi are nearly
-   _free individually_, but with a _common gynobasic_ style;
-   the ovules are _ascending_ and _apotropous_ (anatropous with
-   ventral raphe). The fruit is a schizocarp, with nut-like
-   cocci.--_Limnanthes_ (4 species; N. Am.) perhaps belongs to
-   another family.
-
-   Order 7. =Humiriaceæ.= Trees and shrubs; about 20 species; Trop.
-   Am.
-
-
-                       Family 13. =Columniferæ.=
-
-The chief characteristics of the orders belonging to this family are
-the ☿, regular, generally 5-merous, _hypogynous_ flowers with 5-merous
-_calyx_, sepals united and _valvate_ in the bud; petals 5, free (often
-_twisted_ in the bud); stamens ∞ _e.g._: 10, in two whorls, but one of
-these is more or less suppressed, often altogether wanting, or replaced
-by 5 staminodes, while _the other_ (inner whorl) _is generally divided
-more or less deeply_ into a large number of anther-bearing filaments.
-The filaments too (except _Tiliaceæ_) are _united into a tube_, which,
-especially in the _Malvaceæ_, forms a long column in the centre of
-the flower, surrounding the gynœceum (Figs. 445, 448); in this case,
-which is the most pronounced, the filaments are united into one bundle
-(_monadelphous_), in other instances, _polyadelphous_. The number of
-carpels varies greatly (2 to about 50), but they are nearly always
-united and form a syncarpous multilocular gynœceum.--The vegetative
-characters also closely agree, the leaves _are always scattered and
-generally stipulate_; all the green portions very often bear _stellate
-hairs_, and the bark in all the 3 orders is _rich in tough bast_.
-Mucilage is often present in cells or passages.--This family is
-connected with the _Ternstrœmiaceæ_, from which it is very hard to draw
-a sharp line of demarcation, and it is also allied to the _Cistaceæ_
-and to the _Gruinales_.
-
-Order 1. =Sterculiaceæ= (including Buettneriaceæ). This is, no
-doubt, the least modified order, and one in which the stamens occur
-undivided. Obdiplostemonous. The 10 stamens in two whorls are most
-frequently united at the base into a short tube, and have _4-locular,
-extrorse_ anthers. The calyx-stamens are nearly always simple,
-tooth-like staminodes, situated on the edge of the tube, or are
-entirely suppressed. The same relation is found, for instance, in the
-Ampelidaceæ and Rhamnaceæ, namely _5 stamens in front of the 5 petals_;
-not infrequently the 5 stamens are doubled (Fig. 441). Unisexual
-flowers are found in _Sterculia_, _Cola_, _Heritiera_. The corolla
-is often wanting, or developed in an unusual manner. Each loculus of
-the ovary (generally 5) always contains more than one ovule. Fruit a
-capsule. Androgynophore often present (_Helicteres_; _Sterculia_, etc.).
-
-   _Hermannia_, _Mahernia_, _Melochia_, etc., have flat petals
-   with twisted æstivation; 5 undivided stamens, which usually
-   are but slightly united at the base, and most frequently,
-   without staminodes. _Thomasia_; _Helicteres_; _Sterculia_
-   (free follicles).--_Theobroma_, _Rulingia_, _Buettneria_,
-   _Commersonia_, _Guazuma_, etc., have petals concave at the
-   base, and terminating in a limb abruptly bent back, and at the
-   boundary between them most frequently ligular outgrowths, as in
-   certain genera of the Caryophyllaceæ; stamens 5–15–∞, anthers
-   at the edge of a short tube and 5 linear staminodes (Fig.
-   441).--The Cocoa-tree (_Theobroma_), (Fig. 440) bears large,
-   reddish-yellow, berry-like fruits, resembling short cucumbers,
-   but ultimately becoming leathery to woody; in each of the 5
-   loculi are 2 (apparently only 1) rows of horizontal, oily seeds,
-   as large as almonds. Cotyledons large, thick, and irregularly
-   folded. Endosperm absent (Fig. 442).
-
-   49 genera, with about 750 species; almost entirely confined
-   to the Tropics; none in Europe or in N. Asia.--The seeds
-   of the Cocoa-tree (_T. cacao_, _bicolor_, _glaucum_, etc.,
-   natives of Trop. Am., especially north of the Equator) are
-   used for chocolate and are also _officinal_ (“Cocoa-beans,”
-   “Cocoa-butter,” “Oil of Theobroma”). Theobromine. _Cola
-   acuminata_, Africa.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 440.--_Theobroma cacao._ Branch with flowers
-  and fruits (⅙).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 441–442.--_Theobroma cacao._
-
-  FIG. 441.--Diagram of the flower: _st_ barren stamens.
-
-  FIG. 442.--_B_ Seed in transverse section: _n_ hilum. _A_ Embryo
-  after the removal of one of the cotyledons.]
-
-Order 2. =Tiliaceæ.= This differs from the other orders of the
-Columniferæ chiefly in the stamens being entirely _free_ from each
-other, and also _divided_ into many filaments, _as far as the base_,
-or at all events very far down, so that the _flower appears to have
-numerous stamens_ or to be _slightly_ polyadelphous (Fig. 443); in
-addition to this, it may be observed that the anthers are _4-locular_
-and _introrse_. In _Luehea_ the groups of stamens alternate with the
-petals. In a few genera (_Corchorus_, _Triumfetta_) 10 free and single
-stamens are found in 2 whorls; but, in the majority, groups of free
-stamens in separate bundles. The stamens are more or less united
-in _Apeiba, Luehea_. Style simple. Ovary 2-locular. The ovules are
-pendulous; raphe turned inwards. The calyx readily falls off; the
-æstivation of the entirely free petals is slightly imbricate (_not
-twisted_).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 443.--Inflorescence of _Tilia_, with
-  its winged bracteole (_h_); _a_, _a_ axis of the shoot; the
-  vegetative bud is seen between the inflorescence and the axis of
-  the shoot; _b_ petiole of foliage-leaf.]
-
-_Tilia_ (Figs. 443, 444). Calyx and corolla 5-merous; the 5 staminal
-leaves (opposite the petals) divided as far as the base into a large
-number of stamens which are free or united into groups; gynœceum with
-5 loculi in the ovary (opposite the sepals); there are 2 ovules in
-each loculus, though the ovary ripens into a 1-seeded nut, which is
-not detached from the axis of the inflorescence, but is carried away
-by the wind, whirling round and round, its large-winged bracteole
-serving as a parachute (Fig. 443).--~Only trees, with alternate,
-obliquely heart-shaped and dentate leaves; stellate hairs, as in the
-other Columniferæ, are often present. The terminal bud of the branch
-always fails to develop, and the growth is then continued sympodially
-by the uppermost axillary buds. The INFLORESCENCE (Figs. 443, 444) is
-a 3–7-flowered dichasium (Fig. 444 _t_, _d_, _e_), which is developed
-in the axil of a foliage-leaf (Fig. 444). The first of its 2 bracteoles
-(_a_) is large, thin, leaf-like, and united with the inflorescence,
-the lower portion of which forms a broad wing, its so-called “bract”;
-the second bracteole (_b_), on the other hand, remains scale-like,
-and supports a winter foliage-bud covered with bud-scales which thus
-is situated at the base of the inflorescence, and is a bud of the
-2nd order, in relation to the vegetative shoot. This bud is always
-found beneath the inflorescence on the branch placed horizontally,
-and the winged bracteole is always found above it, a relation which
-is connected with the fact that the 2 rows of shoots on the sides
-of a branch are _antidromous_ with regard to each other.--The
-dichasium itself (Fig. 444) terminates with the flower (_t_); it has
-3 floral-leaves (_c_, _d_, _e_), which soon fall off; _c_ is barren:
-the other two bear flowers, or few-flowered dichasia, or unipared
-scorpioid cymes (indicated in the figure).--The foliage-leaves are
-folded in the bud upon the median line (1, 2, 3 in Fig. 444 are
-foliage-leaves with their 2 stipules), the inner half is broader than
-the outer, and after unfolding is turned away from the mother-axis (the
-position of the new inflorescences and vegetative buds is indicated in
-their axils on the figure).--The cotyledons on germination appear above
-the ground as large, _lobed_ leaves.~
-
-   Of the other genera some have a bell-shaped, gamosepalous
-   calyx, some have no corolla, the anthers of some open at the
-   apex (_Aristotelia_, _Elæocarpus_, etc.), the majority have
-   a capsule, some have berries, or drupes, some separate into
-   fruitlets, etc.--_Corchorus_, _Triumfetta_ (nut, with hooked
-   bristles), _Luehea_, _Apeiba_, etc. _Sparmannia_ is an African
-   genus; 4-merous flowers; fruit a warted capsule; filaments
-   numerous and sensitive to touch, the external ones are without
-   anthers and moniliform above. The plant is covered with numerous
-   soft and stellate hairs, and at the apex of the branches bears
-   several cymose umbels.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 444.--Diagram of the inflorescence of _Tilia_
-  and the vegetative bud; the position of the leaves is indicated,
-  and also the position of the inflorescences, which develop from
-  their axils in the following year.]
-
-   POLLINATION in _Tilia_ is effected by insects, especially
-   bees and Diptera, which swarm round the tree tops, allured
-   by the numerous strongly-scented flowers and the easily
-   accessible honey (formed in the hollow sepals). As the flowers
-   are pendulous, the nectar is protected from ruin; and, in
-   addition, the inflorescence is more or less concealed beneath
-   the foliage-leaf. Self-pollination is impossible, on account of
-   protandry.--About 470 species (nearly all trees and shrubs);
-   especially in the Tropics, only a few being found in the
-   temperate, none in the polar regions, or in high mountainous
-   districts.--The inflorescence of the native species of _Tilia_
-   is medicinal. The wood is used for charcoal.--The majority are
-   used for timber, and for the sake of the bast (“Bast,” “Jute,”
-   the bast of _Corchorus textilis_, _Luehea_, and others).
-
-Order 3. =Malvaceæ= (=Mallows=). The plants are easily recognised by
-the scattered, simple, _palminerved_, most frequently lobed, stipulate
-_leaves_, folded in the bud; the perfect, regular, hypogynous flowers,
-with _gamosepalous_, persistent, 5-merous calyx with _valvate_
-æstivation; the 5 _petals twisted_ in the bud and united with one
-another at the base, and by the 5 _apparently numerous stamens_ (Figs.
-445, 448), with the filaments _united into a tube_, with _reniform
-bilocular anthers_ opening by a crescentic slit (in 2 valves).
-Carpels 3–∞ united into one gynœceum; the _embryo is curved and the
-cotyledons are folded_ (Figs. 447, 451); endosperm scanty, often
-mucilaginous.--Most of the plants belonging to this order are herbs,
-often closely studded with _stellate hairs_. The leaves are most
-frequently palmatifid or palmatisect.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 445.--Longitudinal section through the flower
-  of _Malva silvestris_.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 446.--Diagram of _Althæa rosea_: _i_ the
-  epicalyx.]
-
-   An _epicalyx_ is often found formed by _floral-leaves_ placed
-   close beneath the calyx, in some 3, in others several. The
-   median sepal is posterior in the species without epicalyx,
-   often anterior in those which have an epicalyx.--The petals are
-   _twisted either to the right or to the left_ in accordance with
-   the spiral of the calyx; they are most frequently oblique, as
-   in the other plants with twisted corollas, so that the portion
-   covered in the æstivation is the most developed. The corolla
-   drops off as a whole, united with the staminal tube.--Only
-   the 5 petal-stamens are developed, but they are divided into
-   a number of stamens, placed in 2 rows, and provided only with
-   _half_-anthers (leaf-segments, see Fig. 446; the sepal-stamens
-   are completely suppressed); these 5 staminal leaves are then
-   united into a tube, frequently 5-dentate at the top, and
-   bearing the anthers on its external side. The pollen-grains
-   are specially large, spherical and spiny. There are from 3 to
-   about 50 carpels united into one gynœceum and placed round the
-   summit of the axis which most frequently projects between them.
-   There is only 1 style, which is generally divided into as many
-   stigma-bearing branches as there are carpels (Figs. 445, 448).
-   The fruit is a schizocarp or capsule. Endosperm (Figs. 447 A,
-   451) scanty, often mucilaginous round the _embryo_, which is
-   rich in oil.
-
-   The order is the most advanced type of Columniferæ; it stands
-   especially near to the Sterculiaceæ, but is separated from these
-   and from the Tiliaceæ, among other characters, by its 2-locular
-   (ultimately 1-chambered) anthers.
-
-The sub-orders may be arranged as follows:--
-
-I. Carpels in one whorl.
-
-=A.= =The fruit a capsule=, ~most frequently with loculicidal
-dehiscence, and many seeds in each loculus~.
-
-=1.= GOSSYPIEÆ. The staminal-column is naked at the apex, blunted, or
-5-dentate.--_Gossypium_ (the Cotton plant) has an epicalyx of 3 large
-ovate-cordate leaves, an almost entire, low and compressed calyx.
-Solitary flowers. Large, most frequently yellow, corollas. A 3–5-valved
-capsule with many spherical seeds. “Cotton” is the seed-hairs developed
-upon the entire surface of the seeds (Fig. 447), and consists of long,
-1-cellular hairs, filled with air (and therefore white); these are
-thin-walled, with a large lumen, and during drying twist spirally,
-and come together more or less in the form of bands. They consist
-of cellulose, and have a cuticle.--_Hibiscus_ has several, most
-frequently narrow, epicalyx-leaves, a distinct 5-toothed or 5-partite
-calyx.--_Abutilon_; _Modiola_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 447.--_A_ Seed of _Gossypium_ with hairs; _B_
-  the same in longitudinal section.]
-
-   =2.= BOMBACEÆ. The staminal tube is more or less deeply cleft
-   into bundles, sometimes almost to the base; pollen smooth,
-   style simple with capitate, lobed stigma. Almost all plants
-   belonging to this group are trees, and in many instances have
-   large barrel-shaped stems, that is, swollen in the centre, and
-   sometimes covered with large warts. The wood is exceptionally
-   light and soft. The flowers are often enormously large, and have
-   beautiful petals; in some they unfold before the leaves. The
-   capsule-wall is sometimes closely covered on its inner service
-   with long, silky, woolly hairs, while the seeds themselves
-   are generally without hairs. These hairs, however, on account
-   of their brittle nature, cannot be used like those of the
-   Cotton-plant. Digitate leaves are found in the _Baobab-tree_
-   (_Adansonia_) from Africa, noted for its enormously thick, but
-   short stem, and in the American _Silk-cotton trees_ (_Bombax_,
-   _Eriodendron_, _Chorisia_). _Ochroma_, _Cheirostemon_, _Durio_,
-   and others also belong to this group. _Durio_ is noted for its
-   delicious fruits, which have a most unpleasant smell.
-
-   [_Bombax malabaricum_ is diplostemonous; the five sepal-stamens
-   repeatedly branch, and the filaments bear unilocular anthers;
-   the five petal-stamens bear bilocular anthers.]
-
-=B.= =Schizocarps=, with 1-seeded fruitlets, most frequently nut-like
-and reniform (Figs. 449, 451).
-
-=3.= MALVEÆ, MALLOW GROUP. The carpels are arranged in one whorl
-(Fig. 449); the number of stylar-branches equals that of the
-carpels; fruitlets 1-seeded, reniform, indehiscent, but detaching
-themselves from one another and from the persistent central column
-(Figs. 450, 451).--~_Malva_ has an _epicalyx of 3 free leaves_. ~A
-flower with 2 suppressed bracteoles is situated in the axil of the
-foliage-leaves; one of these supports a homodromous foliage-shoot
-which forms a repetition of the main axis, the other an antidromous
-flower which continues the branching as a unipared scorpioid
-cyme.~--_Althæa_, Rose Mallow, has an _epicalyx of 6–9 leaves united at
-the base_.--~_Lavatera_, _Sida_, _Anoda_, _Bastardia_, etc., have no
-epicalyx.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 448–451.--_Malva silvestris._]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 448.--The flower after removal of the
-  perianth (5/1).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 449.--The fruit (5/1).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 450.--A fruitlet (5/1).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 451.--The same in longitudinal section.]
-
-   =4.= URENEÆ, have always only 5 carpels arranged in 1 whorl,
-   with 1 ovule in each loculus, and the fruit a schizocarp,
-   generally with nut-like fruitlets provided with warts and
-   hooks; but in some they dehisce by 2 valves (capsule). They
-   differ principally from the other groups _in having twice as
-   many stylar-branches as carpels_; the staminal tube is naked at
-   the point, blunt or 5 toothed.--The genera _Urena_, _Pavonia_,
-   _Malachra_, _Malvaviscus_ (with _berry-like fruits_) belong to
-   this group.
-
-II. Carpels arranged in a spherical head in five groups opposite to the
-petals.
-
-   =5.= MALOPEÆ, differ from all the others in having a large
-   number of fruitlets arranged irregularly in a round head, and
-   separating considerably from each other even before maturity;
-   there is, however, only 1 style, divided into a corresponding
-   number of branches (this condition may be considered to have
-   arisen from the branching [dédoublement] of 5 _carpels_).
-   _Malope_ has 3 large, heart-shaped (_Kitaibelia_ 6–9)
-   epicalyx-leaves, united at the base. _Palava_ has no epicalyx.
-
-   POLLINATION. The majority have protandrous flowers, and are
-   pollinated by insects. Between the basal portions of the 5
-   petals, there are 5 nectaries, protected from the rain by
-   hairs, _e.g._ in _Malva silvestris_. When the flower first
-   opens the numerous anthers occupy the centre of the flower, and
-   the still undeveloped stigmas are concealed in the staminal
-   tube; in the next stage the anthers are withered and empty,
-   and the stigmas protrude and assume their places (Fig. 452).
-   The large-flowered forms, it appears, are pollinated only by
-   insects; but self-pollination takes place in small-flowered
-   forms, as, for example, in _Malva rotundifolia_, in which the
-   stylar-branches, twisting themselves, place the stigmas in
-   between the undeveloped anthers.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 452.--_Anoda hastata_: _a_ the bud just
-  opened, the stigmas are concealed by the anthers; _b_ fully
-  opened flower in ♂-stage; the upper stamens are developed first,
-  and then the others in descending order; the stylar-branches
-  are now visible, and lie bent back on the staminal column; _c_
-  all the stamens project upwards, and all the anthers are open,
-  but the stylar-branches are still bent back; d the anthers are
-  emptied and the filaments shrunk together, but the styles have
-  now straightened themselves upwards, and the stigmas are in the
-  receptive condition.]
-
-   DISTRIBUTION. 800 species (63 genera), most of which are
-   natives of the Tropics, especially America. _Althæa_ and some
-   of the species of _Malva_ are natives of the temperate regions
-   of the Old World, the latter is also found in North America.
-   _Gossypium_ is tropical, no doubt especially Asiatic (_G.
-   herbaceum_ from India; _G. arboreum_ from Upper Egypt). Cotton
-   was introduced into Greece in the time of Herodotus, and was
-   cultivated in America before the arrival of the Europeans.
-
-   USES. Pungent and poisonous properties are entirely wanting;
-   _mucilage_, on the other hand, is found in abundance in all
-   parts of the plant. Medicinal: the root of _Althæa officinalis_,
-   leaves and flowers of _Malva_-species (_M. silvestris vulgaris_
-   and _borealis_) and _Gossypium_.--The seeds contain a large
-   quantity of _fatty oil_, which is in some cases extracted
-   (Cotton-seeds and others). _The seed-hairs of the Cotton
-   plant_ are the most important product of the order. The
-   cultivated forms of Cotton belong to several species: _G.
-   barbadense_, _herbaceum_, _religiosum_, _arboreum_ (Nankin),
-   _hirsutum_, and others. According to other botanists, there
-   are only 3 species. _Bast_ is obtained from _e.g. Hibiscus
-   cannabinus_ (Gambo-hemp, Africa), _Paritium tiliaceum_ and
-   _Sida retusa_. The fruits of certain species of _Hibiscus_
-   (_e.g. H. esculentus_, from Tropical Africa) are used in
-   tropical countries as a vegetable before they are ripe.--_The
-   colouring matter_ in the flowers of _Althæa rosea_, var.
-   _nigra_, is used for colouring wines, and hence is extensively
-   cultivated in certain parts of Europe.--_Ethereal oils and
-   sweet-scented flowers_ are rare; but several species possess
-   a peculiar musk-like odour (_Malva moschata_, _Hibiscus
-   abelmoschus_, and others).--Many are cultivated as _ornamental
-   plants_ on account of the large flowers, _e.g._ Hollyhock (_A.
-   rosea_, etc.), _Lavatera trimestris_, _Malope grandiflora_ and
-   _trifida_, _Malva_-species, _Hibiscus rosa sinensis_, _syriaca_;
-   _Sphæralcea_, etc.
-
-
-                        Family 14. =Tricoccæ.=
-
-The very large order _Euphorbiaceæ_ and three smaller ones belong to
-this family. They have in common: _unisexual_, hypogynous, frequently
-regular flowers, the perianth most frequently single, rarely double, or
-entirely wanting; there is such a great variety in the structure and
-parts of the flower that one only can be cited as the _rule_: viz. the
-simple gynœceum composed of 3 carpels forming a 3-locular ovary, which
-is frequently more or less deeply grooved (hence the name, _Tricoccæ_);
-in the inner angles of the loculi are found 1 or 2 (never several)
-pendulous (except _Empetraceæ_), anatropous ovules, with upward and
-outwardly turned, frequently swollen, micropyle (Fig. 455). The seed
-most frequently has a large endosperm and a straight embryo (Figs.
-455 _B_, 464).--~The family approaches the nearest to the Gruinales
-and Columniferæ; it may perhaps be regarded as an offshoot from the
-Sterculiaceæ.~
-
-Order 1. =Euphorbiaceæ.= Flowers unisexual. In each of the loculi of
-the ovary, generally 3, there are 1 or 2 pendulous ovules with upward
-and outwardly turned micropyle. The placenta protrudes above the ovules
-(Figs. 454, 461 _B_). On the ripening of the capsule the 3 carpels
-separate septicidally, frequently with great violence, ejecting the
-seeds and leaving a central column. Endosperm copious.--For the rest,
-the flowers present all stages, from genera with calyx and corolla,
-to those which are the most reduced in Nature, namely the naked,
-1-stamened flowers of _Euphorbia_.
-
-The same variety which is found in the flower is also present in the
-vegetative parts. Some are herbs, as our Spurges, others are shrubs
-and trees; some African _Euphorbia_-species even resemble the habit
-of a Cactus. Leaf-like branches with rudimentary leaves are found in
-_Phyllanthus_ (sub-genus _Xylophylla_) (Fig. 456). The leaves are
-scattered or opposite, often stipulate; they are nearly always simple.
-Large, highly-branched cells containing a great quantity of pungent
-latex are found in many, and watery juice in others. Glands and
-glandular hairs are general.--Only a few genera can be considered in
-this book.
-
-As an example of the most perfect flowers (which partly reproduce
-the Geraniaceous type) may be mentioned, _Croton_, _Manihot_, and
-_Jatropha_; 5 sepals, 5 petals, sometimes gamopetalous, andrœcium
-diplostemonous, or many-stamened, often monodelphous.
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 453–455.--_Ricinus communis._
-
-  FIG. 453.--♂-flower (magnified).
-
-  FIG. 454.--♀-flower in longitudinal section.
-
-  FIG. 455.--_A_ seed entire; _B_ in longitudinal section.]
-
-_Ricinus_ (Castor-oil) (Figs. 453–455); monœcious; the ♂-flowers,
-situated in the lower portion of the inflorescence, have 5
-perianth-leaves and a large number of branched stamens; the ♀-flower
-has 3–5 perianth-leaves; 3 bifid styles. Leaves peltate, palmately
-lobed. The seeds (Fig. 455) contain an abundance of fatty oil and
-large aleurone grains.--_Mercurialis_ (Mercury): the perianth is most
-frequently 3-merous; in the ♂-flowers 9–12 stamens; in the ♀-flowers
-most frequently a _2-locular_ gynœceum.--_Phyllanthus_: Pr3 + 3, A3,
-united in some and forming a column in the centre of the flower (Figs.
-457, 458); _Xylophylla_ is a section of this genus.-- _Hura crepitans_
-(Sand-box tree) has a many-carpellate gynœceum, which separates with
-great violence when ripe.--A drupe is found in _Hippomane mancinella_
-(the Mancinil-tree, W. Ind.)--_Alchornea (Coelebogyne) ilicifolia_ is
-well known on account of its “parthenogenesis”; only the ♀-plant has
-been introduced into Europe, but it nevertheless produces seeds capable
-of germination; these have generally several embryos.
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 456–458.--_Phyllanthus (Xylophylla)
-  angustifolius._
-
-  FIG. 456.--Leaf-like branch with flowers (nat. size).
-
-  FIG. 457.--♂-flower; and FIG. 458, ♀-flower (mag.).]
-
-_Euphorbia_ (Spurge) has the most reduced flowers, which are borne
-in a very complicated inflorescence. Each ♂-flower (Fig. 460 _B_) is
-naked, and consists of one stamen only (terminal on the axis). In the
-closely allied genus _Anthostema_, a small perianth is situated at
-the place where, in _Euphorbia_, there is a joint in the “filament,”
-(Fig. 461 _A_). The ♀-flowers (Fig. 460) are naked, with a 3-locular
-ovary and 3 bifid styles. (_Anthostema_ has a distinct perianth (Fig.
-461 _B_); in a few Euphorbias traces of a perianth are present).
-In _Euphorbia_ the ♂-and ♀-flowers are grouped into flower-like
-inflorescences termed “cyathia.” Each cyathium consists of a centrally
-placed ♀-flower which is first developed, surrounded by 5 groups of
-♂-flowers (stamens) placed in a zig-zag, with a centrifugal order
-of development (Figs. 459, 460 _B_), that is, in unipared scorpioid
-cymes; these flowers are surrounded by an _involucre_ of 5 leaves
-united into a _bell-shaped structure_ (Fig. 459, 1–5) (resembling a
-calyx); on its edge are placed 4, generally crescent-like, yellow
-glands, one in each of the intervals, except one, between the lobes of
-the involucre (shaded in Fig. 459; see also Fig. 460 _A_). Scale-like
-thin structures (floral-leaves?) are situated between the ♂-flowers.
-The ♀-flower has a long stalk, and finally bends down on one side,
-namely to the place on the edge of the involucre where the gland is not
-developed. These cyathia are again arranged in an inflorescence which
-commences as a 3–5-rayed umbellate cyme (pleiochasium), the branches
-of which ramify dichasially and finally as scorpioid cymes.--Latex,
-with peculiar-shaped starch-grains, is found in laticiferous _cells_
-(especially in the Cactus-like, leafless species.)
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 459.--Diagram of an inflorescence (cyathium)
-  of _Euphorbia_ with 3 floral-leaves, _m_, _n_, _o_, supporting
-  other cyathia which are subtended by 2 floral-leaves (bracteoles;
-  _m_, _n_). 1–5, the involucral leaves in their order of
-  development; the shaded portions are the crescentic glands.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 460.--_Euphorbia lathyris_: _A_ an (entire)
-  inflorescence (cyathium); _B_ the same after the removal of the
-  involucre.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 461.--_Anthostema_: ♂- (_A_) and ♀-(_B_)
-  flowers; _p_ the perianth; _ar_ the node; _o_ the ovule.]
-
-   205 genera; more than 3,000 species; especially in the
-   Tropics.--Many are used on account of the oil, and of the
-   pungent (aperient, poisonous, anthelmintic, etc.) properties in
-   the latex or the seeds. OFFICINAL: “Cascarilla-bark” of _Croton
-   eluteria_; the fatty oil of the seeds of _Croton tiglium_
-   (Trop. Asia); “Castor oil” from _Ricinus communis_ (Africa,
-   and cultivated in all warm climates throughout the world);
-   the glandular hairs of _Mallotus philippinensis_ (“Kamala”);
-   this also yields a red dye. Gum “Euphorbium” is the hardened
-   (resinous) latex of the _Cactus_-like _Euphorbia resinifera_
-   (Morocco).--NUTRITIVE plants: _Manihot utilissima_ and other
-   species (Maniok, Am.). Their large, farinaceous roots form a
-   very important article of food in the Tropics (Cassava-flour,
-   Tapioca or Brazilian arrowroot). The fresh latex of the root in
-   some species is a powerful poison; but the poisonous properties
-   are diminished by roasting or cooking. _Caoutchouc_ is obtained
-   from _Siphonia elastica_ (Trop. S. Am.). The vegetable
-   tallow of the Chinese tallow-tree (_Stillingia sebifera_) is
-   used in large quantities in soap factories. An indigo-like
-   _dye_ is obtained from _Crozophora tinctoria_, and is also
-   found in _Mercurialis perennis_. Shellac is obtained from
-   _Aleurites laccifera_. ORNAMENTAL plants: _Acalypha_, _Croton_,
-   _Dalechampia_.--_Hippomane_ is poisonous.
-
-   Order 2. =Buxaceæ.= This order differs from the Euphorbiaceæ
-   in having the micropyle turned inwards; the ♂-flower has a
-   4-partite perianth and 4 stamens; the ♀-flower a 6-partite
-   perianth and 3 carpels. Capsule with loculicidal dehiscence,
-   the inner layer being detached elastically from the outer.--30
-   species. Shrubs without latex and with evergreen leaves.--_Buxus
-   sempervirens_ (Box) is an ornamental shrub (poisonous); it has a
-   very hard and valuable wood which is used for wood-engraving and
-   carving.
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 462–464. _Callitriche stagnalis._
-
-  FIG. 462.--♂-flower with the 2 bracteoles and the solitary stamen.
-
-  FIG. 463.--♀-flower.
-
-  FIG. 464.--Longitudinal section of the ripe fruit.]
-
-   Order 3. =Callitrichaceæ.= Aquatic plants, growing at the bottom
-   of shallow water, with opposite, simple, undivided, entire,
-   exstipulate leaves, which are generally crowded and form a
-   rosette in the apex of the branches. The flowers are unisexual
-   (monœcious) and borne singly in the leaf-axils; they have no
-   perianth, but are provided with two delicate bracteoles; the
-   ♂-flowers consist of only _1 terminal stamen_ (Fig. 462);
-   the ♀-flowers of a bicarpellate gynœceum (Fig. 463) which is
-   originally 2-locular, but later on becomes 4-locular, as in the
-   case of the gynœceum of the Labiatæ, by the formation of a false
-   partition-wall; in each loculus there is 1 pendulous ovule with
-   the micropyle turned outwards. Fruit a _4-partite schizocarp_
-   (Fig. 464). 25 species.--_Callitriche._
-
-   Order 4 (?). =Empetraceæ.= 4 species. _Empetrum_; _E. nigrum_
-   (Crowberry) is a heather-like, moorland, evergreen undershrub
-   with linear leaves, having a deep groove closed with hairs, on
-   the under side. The _erect ovules_ show the greatest deviation
-   from the Euphorbiaceæ. Diœcious (and ☿); S3, P3; in the
-   ♂-flower, 3 stamens; in the ♀-flower, a 6–9-locular ovary. Fruit
-   a _drupe_.
-
-
-                      Family 15. =Terebinthinæ.=
-
-The diagram of the flower (Figs. 465–467) is the same as in the
-Gruinales, namely S, P, A2 and G in whorls of 5 (less frequently 3, 4,
-6, 8), and the same modifications also occur with the suppression of
-the petal-stamens, etc. But a _ring_ or sometimes _cup-like glandular
-structure_ (_disc_) is found _between_ the andrœcium and the gynœceum
-(Figs. 465, 466). The flowers similarly are regular, _hypogynous_, ☿
-and polypetalous, though exceptions are found to all these characters:
-thus, for example, united sepals and petals frequently occur, and,
-in some orders, unisexual flowers by the suppression of one sex. In
-most cases the flowers are small, greenish-yellow, and arranged in
-paniculate inflorescences. The carpels (most frequently 5) are free in
-a few, but generally united into a multilocular gynœceum; rarely more
-than 1 or 2 ovules in each loculus. The gynœceum in the Anacardiaceæ
-is so reduced that it has only 1 fertile loculus with 1 ovule.--The
-_ovules are epitropous_, _i.e._ anatropous with outward-turned raphe
-(except the Anacardiaceæ).--The majority of the species are trees
-and shrubs with scattered, often _compound (pinnate) leaves_ without
-stipules, and as in addition they frequently contain _aromatic,
-especially turpentine-like substances_, they assume a certain
-resemblance to the Walnut trees, and were formerly classed with them
-mainly on this account. In a series of genera the volatile, scented
-oils are found in special glands in the bark of the branches and in the
-leaves, in the latter case appearing as _pellucid dots_. This family
-includes several orders which are somewhat difficult to distinguish
-from each other.
-
-   Order 1. =Connaraceæ.= This order forms the connecting link
-   between Terebinthinæ and Rosifloræ (_Spiræa_) as well as
-   Leguminosæ, with which they are sometimes classed. The flowers
-   have 5 5-merous whorls; 2 ovules in each loculus; micropyle
-   turned upwards. Fruit a _follicle_, rarely a collection
-   of follicles. Seed with aril. Shrubs with scattered (most
-   frequently pinnate) leaves, without stipules. 170 species.
-   Tropical.
-
-   Order 2. =Meliaceæ.= Trees and shrubs with scattered, often
-   pinnate leaves without pellucid dots and exstipulate; the
-   leaflets are nearly always entire. Flowers small in paniculate
-   inflorescences. Calyx and corolla 4–5-merous; 2 whorls of
-   stamens; 3–5 carpels in the gynœceum. A very characteristic
-   feature is the union of the filaments into a tube, on the
-   edge of which stipule-like teeth are often found. There are
-   most frequently 2 ovules in the loculi; fruit a capsule with
-   many winged seeds in _Swietenia_ (Mahogany tree; Trop. Am.),
-   _Cedrela_, etc.; berries in others. The wood of _Cedrela_ is
-   used for making cigar boxes. 550 species; tropical.
-
-Order 3. =Rutaceæ.= Leaves glandular with pellucid dots. The type
-is the same as that of the family. Flowers 4–5-merous. The ovary is
-most frequently 4–5-grooved. Disc well pronounced, often appearing as
-a “gynophore.” The majority are shrubs with alternate or opposite,
-compound, more rarely simple, leaves.
-
-=A.= The ovary is deeply 2–5-cleft with basal styles which are more or
-less united; the carpels in some genera are entirely free (groups 1,
-2). The fruit is capsular and most frequently dehisces like follicles
-along the ventral suture or septicidally, so that a horn-like internal
-layer (endocarp) separates elastically from the external layer.
-
-   =1.= ZANTHOXYLEÆ. _Zanthoxylum_; _Choisya_; _Evodia_.
-
-   =2.= BORONIEÆ. Australia.--_Correa._
-
-   =3.= DIOSMEÆ. Heather-like shrubs; Africa.--_Diosma_,
-   _Coleonema_, _Empleurum_ and _Barosma_. OFFICINAL: _Barosma
-   crenulata_ and _betulina_, “broad Buchu leaves” (_B.
-   serratifolia_ and _Empleurum serrulatum_, “narrow Buchu-leaves”).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 465.--_Ruta._ Flower (mag.).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 466.--_Ruta._ Longitudinal section of flower.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 467.--_Ruta._ Floral diagram.]
-
-=4.= RUTEÆ. _Ruta_ (Figs. 465–467) _graveolens_ is an herbaceous,
-glaucous, strongly smelling plant with bipinnate leaves and yellow
-flowers; the terminal flower is 5-merous, the others 4-merous (S.
-Eur.).--_Dictamnus_; zygomorphic flower. ~The individual carpels of the
-fruit separate from each other, and dehisce like follicles, upon which
-the internal layer is detached elastically and springs out, carrying
-the seeds with it. Several species are ornamental plants.~
-
-   =5.= CUSPARIEÆ. American. Flowers often zygomorphic with
-   gamopetalous corolla; stamens 5.--_Ticorea_; _Galipea_ (_G.
-   officinalis_; S. Am.; “Cortex angosturæ”); _Cusparia_;
-   _Almeidea_.
-
-=B.= The ovary is entire or only slightly grooved; the style is
-terminal, undivided. The fruit is most frequently a drupe or berry.
-
-   =6.= TODDALIEÆ. _Ptelea_; winged fruit. The buds are enclosed in
-   the leaf-sheath. _Skimmia_; _Phellodendron_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 468–470.--_Citrus vulgaris._
-
-  FIG. 468.--Branch with compound leaves.
-
-  FIG. 469.--Transverse section of fruit.
-
-  FIG. 470.--Flowers (after the removal of the petals).]
-
-=7.= AURANTIEÆ, ORANGE GROUP. Fruit a berry with a leathery external
-layer.--The most typical flower is found for example in _Limonia_:
-S5, P5, A5 + 5, G5 (2–5).--_Citrus_ has 4–5–8-merous flowers, a
-gamosepalous, dentate calyx, free petals, one whorl of stamens which
-are split irregularly into several bundles (Fig. 470). The fruit is a
-_multilocular berry_ provided with a thick, tough, outer layer. The
-juicy pulp, which fills up the loculi and envelopes the seeds, is
-formed from many large-celled, juicy hair-structures which arise on the
-inner side of the walls of the loculi and by degrees entirely fill them
-up; the dissepiments remain thin, and form the partitions so easily
-separating from each other (Fig. 469). The seeds in many instances are
-remarkable for containing several embryos. The blade of the leaf is
-separated from the frequently winged stalk by a _node_ (and hence is a
-compound leaf with only the terminal leaflet developed?) (Fig. 468);
-in other genera, as _Triphasia_, there is a fully developed trifoliate
-leaf. Thorns are frequently developed.--~The species of this genus,
-which is a native of the warmer parts of S. E. Asia, are very hard to
-separate. The differences are found in the forms of the fruit, the
-leaves and the leaf-stalks, and in the number of stamens. _Citrus
-medica_, “Cedrat” (Ind.); _C. limonum_, “Citron,” “Lemon” (introduced
-into Italy in the 3rd to 4th century). OFFICINAL: the fruits and
-essential oil of Lemon. _C. aurantium_ from E. Asia, the Orange
-(introduced into Italy in the 14th century). _C. vulgaris_ (Fig. 468),
-Bitter Orange (introduced into Europe at the time of the Crusades);
-the unripe Bitter Oranges, and peel of the Bitter Orange is officinal;
-it is from the flowers of this species especially that the essence
-of Neroli is made. _C. limetta_, _C. bergamia_, Bergamot; essence of
-Bergamot is officinal. _C. decumana_, Pomalo, a native of the Islands
-of the Pacific. About 780 species; chiefly tropical.~
-
-   Order 4. =Burseraceæ.= Fruit a drupe; 1–5 stones. The bark,
-   as well as the other parts, contain strong aromatic resins
-   and balsams, and hence several species are used: the Myrrh
-   tree, _Commiphora_ (_Balsamodendron_) from Arabia and Africa;
-   OFFICINAL: Myrrha (_Commiphora myrrha_). Mecca-balsam from _C.
-   opobalsamum_, Arabia; E. Africa. The Incense-tree (_Boswellia_)
-   from the same parts of the globe and E. India. The incense of
-   _B. carteri_ is medicinal (Frankincense). The resin (Elemi) of
-   _Protium_-species is officinal, and is used technically for
-   varnish (S. Am.). Takamahaka-resin from _Elaphrium_ (S. Am.)
-   _Protium_ (_Icica_); _Amyris_ (1 carpel). 270 species; tropical.
-
-   Order 5. =Zygophyllaceæ.= The majority have opposite, pinnate
-   leaves with stipules. _Leaves without pellucid dots._ The
-   filaments have a scale on the inner side. The most important is
-   _Guaiacum officinale_ (West India), the wood (Lignum Vitæ) of
-   which is very hard and heavy, this wood and Gum-guaiacum are
-   officinal. Others have a peculiar repulsive smell and taste: the
-   Creosote shrub (_Larrea mexicana_) and _Zygophyllum simplex_.
-   _Tribulus terrester_ is a common weed in S. Europe. _Fagonia._
-   _Peganum harmala_ (South of Russia) yields a red dye.--110
-   species; especially in the Tropics; several species in sandy
-   deserts. _Nitraria._
-
-   Order 6. =Simarubaceæ.= This order is distinguished by the
-   abundance of _bitter_ substances which it contains (Quassine)
-   especially in the bark and the wood. The wood of _Quassia amara_
-   (Guiana, Antilles) is officinal; _Picraena excelsa_ yields
-   Jamaica Quassia; the bark of _Simaruba_, _Simaba_-species
-   and others is used. _Ailanthus glandulosa_ is a garden plant
-   (pinnate leaves, winged fruit).--110 species. Tropical.
-
-   Order 7. =Ochnaceæ.= Flowers diplostemonous, 5-merous. The
-   unilocular ovaries, which are individually free, project
-   considerably into the air around the gynobasic style; 1 ovule
-   in each loculus; the fruitlets are drupes. Shrubs; leaves
-   alternate, with stipules. _Ochna_; _Ouratea_.--160 species;
-   tropical; especially American.
-
-   Order 8. =Anacardiaceæ.= The ovary rarely contains more than 1
-   ovule, even though there be several loculi and several carpels;
-   in _Anacardium_ all the 10 stamens except one become suppressed.
-   Resin passages.--_Anacardium._ The most peculiar feature is the
-   development of the flower-stalk into a fleshy body about the
-   form and size of a pear (_A. occidentale_ from Trop. Am. and
-   _A. orientale_ from E. Ind.) which bears the kidney-shaped nut
-   (the so-called “Cashew-nut”) on its apex. _Mangifera indica_
-   (the Mango-tree, from E. Ind.) is cultivated in several tropical
-   countries on account of its delicious drupe. Similarly, species
-   of _Spondias_ (_S. dulcis_, Pacific Islands, _S. lutea_).
-   Several species of _Rhus_ are ornamental shrubs in this country,
-   for instance, _R. typhina_ (N. Am.), _R. cotinus_ (the Wig-tree,
-   the _barren_ flower-stalks of the panicles being feather-like
-   and hairy); _R. toxicodendron_ (Poisonous Sumach, from N. Am.)
-   is poisonous. Chinese galls are produced by the sting of a
-   leaf-louse (_Aphis chinensis_) on _R. semialata_ (China), and
-   Japanese wax is from the seeds of _R. succedanea_ (Japan).
-   Considerable quantities of Sumach (_R. coriaria_) are used in
-   tanning and as a black dye. OFFICINAL: the mastic resin of
-   _Pistacia lentiscus_ (the Mastic-tree, from the Mediterranean).
-   The fruits of _Pistacia vera_ (Syria) are edible; _P.
-   terebinthus_ and others yield turpentine.--450 species; tropical.
-
-   Order 9. =Icacinaceæ.= Flowers 4–5-merous; haplostemonous;
-   receptacle convex or cup-like surrounding the gynœceum; in
-   the (single) loculus of the ovary, 2 anatropous, pendulous
-   ovules.--200 species; tropical.
-
-                        Family 16. =Aesculinæ.=
-
-The essential characters of this family are in the main the same as
-those of the Terebinthinæ and Gruinales. The flowers are hypogynous,
-perfect, with free petals, 5-merous (S5, P5, typically A5 + 5, all
-of which, however, are not generally developed; in our native orders
-there are only 7–8 stamens), and most frequently a _3-merous, 3-locular
-gynœceum_ (less frequently 2 or 5 carpels with as many loculi). In
-each loculus there are usually only 1–2 ovules. A deviation from the
-preceding families is the frequent _zygomorphy_ of the flower, with,
-as a rule an _oblique_ plane of symmetry (Fig. 471). When a _disc_ is
-developed it is placed _outside_ the stamens. The majority have no
-endosperm (Fig. 473).--The members of the family are nearly all trees.
-
-   The family is closely allied to the Terebinthinæ, but unlike
-   this it never has aromatic properties, and differs also
-   in the position of the nectary, in the flowers, which are
-   often irregular with a reduction in the number of stamens,
-   and in the ovule which is usually ascending with micropyle
-   pointing downwards (the Terebinthinæ having the micropyle
-   turned upwards), etc. It is also related to Frangulinæ, the
-   Staphyleaceæ being the chief connecting link; but the Æsculinæ
-   generally have compound leaves.
-
-   Order 1. =Staphyleaceæ.= Leaves opposite, often compound.
-   Flowers regular, ☿, 5-merous in calyx and corolla, 5-stamened.
-   The stamens are placed _outside_ the nectary. Ovary syncarpous
-   or 2–3-partite with free styles. The capsule is thin,
-   bladder-like, 2–3-locular, opening at the apex, and has several
-   very hard seeds with a shining testa without aril. Endosperm.
-   _Staphylea pinnata_ (S. Europe) and _trifoliata_ (N. Am.) are
-   cultivated in gardens; they have white flowers in pendulous,
-   axillary racemes or panicles.--16 species.--_Staphylea_ is found
-   in the Tertiary of N. America.
-
-   Order 2. =Melianthaceæ.= Glaucous shrubs with scattered, pinnate
-   leaves, and large stipules. _Melianthus._--8 species; S. Africa.
-
-Order 3. =Sapindaceæ.= Trees or shrubs, often climbing by tendrils
-(lianes with anomalous structure of the stem) and with compound leaves.
-The flowers, in most cases, are small, insignificant, and without
-scent, and in some polygamous and zygomorphic. S4–5, P4–5, A8 (less
-frequently 5–10) inside the nectary (disc); ovary generally 3-locular,
-with 1–2 ovules in each loculus (raphe ventral, micropyle turned
-downwards). Seed without endosperm, often with an aril. The embryo is
-often thick and curved (Fig. 473).
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 471–473.--_Æsculus hippocastanum._
-
-  FIG. 471.--Diagram of the flower and of a scorpioid cyme.
-
-  FIG. 472.--Flower in longitudinal section.
-
-  FIG. 473.--Seed in longitudinal section.]
-
-_Æsculus_ (Horse-Chestnut). Trees with opposite, digitate, dentate
-leaves without stipules; the inflorescence is composed of unipared
-scorpioid cymes arranged in a pyramidal panicle (termed a thyrsus). The
-flowers are irregular, with an _oblique plane of symmetry_ (through the
-4th sepal, Fig. 471); there are 5 sepals, 5 free petals, of which the
-one lying between S^3 and S^5 is the smallest (see Fig. 471) and may
-be absent; stamens 7 (5 + 2), three being suppressed; gynœceum simple,
-3-carpellary and 3-locular, with single style; of the two ovules one is
-ascending, the other descending (Fig. 472).--The fruit is a 3-valvate,
-sometimes spiny, capsule, with loculicidal dehiscence, the seed having
-a large hilum, a curved embryo without endosperm and united cotyledons
-(the radicle lies in a fold of the testa, Fig. 473). _Æ. hippocastanum_
-(Greece, Asia), introduced into cultivation about 300 years ago;
-the majority of the other species, _e.g. Æ. pavia_, etc., several
-of which are frequently cultivated in gardens, are from N. America.
-~The flower of the Horse-Chestnut is adapted for bees, whose abdomen
-touches the anthers or style when visiting the flower. The flowers are
-protogynous.~
-
-   The other Sapindaceæ have most frequently 4 sepals, 8 stamens,
-   various fruits (septicidal capsule, nuts with or without wings,
-   schizocarp), etc. _Serjania_, _Cardiospermum_, _Sapindus_,
-   _Koelreuteria_, etc. (about 118 genera, 970 species). The seeds
-   of _Paullinia sorbilis_ contain caffeine, and are used as “Pasta
-   guaranà,” in the North Western Brazils in the manufacture of a
-   common drink. _Nephelium_ (or _Euphoria_) _litchi_ (with edible
-   aril), and other species, from Asia.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 474.--Samara of _Acer platanoides_.]
-
-Order 4. =Aceraceæ.= This order is so closely allied to the Sapindaceæ,
-that some authorities have classed it with them. The main difference
-is in the _regularity_ of the flowers, and the =2=-merous gynœceum
-(in abnormal cases several carpels occur).--They are trees, and, like
-the Horse-Chestnuts, have opposite leaves without stipules; in _Acer_
-the leaves are palminerved, but imparipinnate in _Negundo_, a plant
-frequently cultivated in gardens. The flowers are often unisexual,
-polygamous (some species have ☿-, ♂-and ♀-flowers); sepals 5, petals
-5 free, =stamens 8= (that is, 5 + 5, but the two median ones are
-absent) inside a large disc. Fruit a samara (schizocarp) with 2
-_winged, nut-like_ fruitlets (Fig. 474). In each of the 2 loculi of the
-ovary are 2 ovules. Embryo _curved_, with thin, _folded_ cotyledons.
-Endosperm absent.--~The inflorescences are racemes with a more or
-less elongated main axis and terminal flower (which sometimes has 10
-stamens); when the lateral branches are developed they are similar
-to the main axis. In some species both corolla and petal-stamens are
-suppressed. _Acer_ is pollinated by insects, _Negundo_ by the wind.--88
-species; North Temperate zone. _Acer_ in the Tertiary from the
-Oligocene. The following are native plants: Maple (_Acer campestre_),
-Sycamore (_A. pseudoplatanus_, doubtful native). Important as avenue
-trees and timber. Sugar is obtained from the spring sap of the Sugar
-Maple (N. Am.).~
-
-   Order 5. =Malpighiaceæ.= A tropical (especially American) order
-   closely related to the Aceraceæ, having often the same form of
-   fruit (but 3-partite). Some species are lianes with anomalous
-   stem-structure. Leaves opposite. The flowers are regular or
-   obliquely zygomorphic (the plane of symmetry passing through
-   sepal 3), with S5, P5, A5 + 5, G3; 1 pendulous ovule in each
-   loculus. Important characteristics for identification are the
-   numerous grandular structures on the sepals. Peculiar 2-spined
-   hairs are found in some. _Malpighia_, _Bunchosia_, _Galphimia_,
-   _Tetrapterys_, _Heteropterys_, etc.--About 600 species.
-
-   Order 6. =Erythroxylaceæ.= Sepals 5, petals 5 (with a ligular
-   corona), 10 stamens in one bundle. Gynœceum 3-locular. Fruit
-   a drupe. Tropical (especially American) trees and shrubs, the
-   _Coca-plant_ (_Erythroxylon coca_) being best known. Its leaves
-   are considered by the inhabitants of Chile and Peru to be one
-   of the indispensable necessaries of life; they are chewed, and
-   possess intoxicating, exhilarating properties, and contain
-   the alkaloid cocaine, which is frequently employed as a local
-   anæsthetic.--103 species; chiefly in America.
-
-   Order 7. =Vochysiaceæ.= Trees; Trop. Am. 1 stamen.--140 species.
-
-   Order 8. =Trigoniaceæ.= Shrubs; Trop. Am.--30 species.
-
-   Order 9. =Tremandraceæ.= Polygalaceæ with regular flowers.--27
-   species. Australia.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 475.--Diagram of _Polygala_: _d_ a gland
-  in the posterior side of the flower; α and β the two caducous
-  bracteoles.]
-
-Order 10. =Polygalaceæ.= Herbs or shrubs (some tropical species are
-lianes) with scattered (rarely opposite), simple and most frequently
-quite entire leaves, without stipules. The flowers are usually borne in
-terminal spikes or racemes, and are strongly zygomorphic (_the plane
-of symmetry being median_); they have 5 free sepals, the 2 _lateral
-ones_ of which (4 and 5 in Figs. 475, 476) are very large, _petaloid_,
-and frequently project on each side like the “wings” of a Pea-flower;
-petals 5, of which the two lateral ones are wanting or rudimentary
-(dotted on Fig. 475), and the _anterior_ “the _keel_” (Fig. 476 _c_)
-is large, hollow and boat-shaped, and frequently with a lobed or
-fimbriated edge (Fig. 476 _A_ and _B_, _c_); stamens 8, the two median
-ones being absent, all _united_ into a tube split along the back, which
-is also slightly united to the keel (the anthers, often 2 locular,
-_open by pores_, Fig. 476 _B_, _st_); the 2 median carpels form a
-bilocular ovary. 1 pendulous ovule in each loculus (Figs. 476 _C_,
-475); capsule compressed with loculicidal dehiscence, rarely a nut.
-_Polygala_ (Milk-wort).
-
-   470 species; distributed over the whole globe (none Arctic).
-   OFFICINAL: the root of _P. senega_, from N. Am. Some are used as
-   ornamental plants.
-
-   POLLINATION. The flowers of _Polygala_ are pollinated by insects
-   (chiefly bees). The fimbriated processes of the anterior petal
-   support the insect when it alights. The anthers lie on each
-   side of the stigma in the pouch of the anterior petal; the apex
-   of the style is spoon-shaped, and immediately behind it is a
-   viscid stigmatic lobe. In reaching the honey the proboscis of
-   the insect must come in contact with the pollen and the viscid
-   stigma, by which it is rendered sticky; this ensures the pollen
-   adhering to the proboscis and so being carried to other flowers.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 476.--_Polygala amara._ Parts of the flower
-  (mag.) _A_ Flower from side, 1-5 sepals: _c_ keel; _B_ flower
-  from above spread out: _st_ the 8 stamens; _c_ fimbriated edge of
-  “keel”; _C_ ovary with style and stigma.]
-
-
-                       Family 17. =Frangulinæ.=
-
-The plants belonging to this family, with very few exceptions, are
-trees or shrubs. The leaves are usually simple; stipules may be
-absent or present. The flowers in almost all the orders are _small,
-green or whitish_; they are _always regular_, 4-_or_ 5-_merous_ with
-2–5 _carpels_, but never have more than 1 _whorl of stamens_, which
-in _Rhamnaceæ_ and _Ampelidaceæ_ are placed _opposite_ the petals
-(typically 5 + 5 or 4 + 4 stamens, of which however either the
-external or internal whorl is always wanting); hypogynous or slightly
-perigynous, in _Rhamnaceæ_ only strongly perigynous or epigynous;
-generally ☿; the calyx is inconspicuous; petals free or slightly
-united. Gynœceum simple; _ovary generally multilocular_; style short or
-entirely wanting. A _disc_ is nearly always developed in the flower,
-but is found sometimes inside the staminal whorl, sometimes outside
-it or between the stamens. The ovules are apotropous (anatropous with
-dorsal or ventral raphe).
-
-Order 1. =Celastraceæ.= _Euonymus europæa_ (Spindle-tree) may be
-chosen as a type. It is a shrub with simple, opposite leaves and
-small caducous stipules. The small, greenish-yellow flowers, borne
-in regularly-branched dichasia, are regular, ☿, with 4 whorls, 4-(or
-5-) merous in regular alternation. There is a _thick disc_ upon which
-the polypetalous corolla (imbricate in the bud) and the stamens are
-borne, with a slightly perigynous insertion. The style is short and
-thick; the ovary has 2 _erect_ ovules in each loculus. The fruit is
-a red, 4-valvate capsule with loculicidal dehiscence; the seeds are
-few in number, and have a large, red-yellow _aril_ (developed from
-the micropyle). Embryo green, in a large, fleshy, white endosperm.
-~The dingy yellow flowers are generally visited only by flies and ants
-for the sake of the honey secreted by the disc, and while they run
-about on the flowers they touch the anthers and stigmas, now with one
-part of the body, now with another. The flower is protandrous. The
-stigmas are not developed till several days after the opening of the
-anthers.--_Celastrus_, _Cassine_, _Catha_, etc.~
-
-   38 genera; 300 species. Distributed over the entire globe, with
-   the exception of the colder districts, and especially in the
-   Tropics. Some are ornamental bushes (_Euonymus japonica_). The
-   leaves of _Catha edulis_ are used by the Arabs and Abyssinians
-   in the same way as those of _Coca_ by the Peruvians.
-
-   Order 2. =Hippocrateaceæ.= 150 species; tropical; chiefly
-   lianes. S5, P5, A3, G3. Anthers extrorse.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 477.--_Ilex aquifolium_: magnified flower.]
-
-Order 3. =Aquifoliaceæ (Hollies).= The genus _Ilex_ forms almost the
-entire order. (175 species out of 180; especially from S. Am.) They
-are shrubs or trees with scattered, leathery, simple leaves (in _Ilex
-aquifolium_, spiny) with very small stipules. The flowers are small,
-white, and borne in few-flowered inflorescences in the axils of the
-foliage-leaves; they are most frequently unisexual and diœcious. There
-are 4–5 sepals, petals, stamens and carpels in regular alternation;
-the calyx and _corolla_ have their leaves _slightly_ connate; stamens
-slightly adnate to the corolla; the ovary is generally almost spherical
-with a thick, sessile stigma (Fig. 477). This order deviates especially
-from _Celastraceæ_ in the _absence of the disc_ and in having only
-1 (_pendulous_) ovule in each of the 4 loculi of the ovary, and in
-having a _drupe_ with generally 4 stones. Embryo extremely small, at
-the apex of the large endosperm, with the radicle directed upwards.--~3
-genera.--_I. aquifolium_ (Holly) principally on the coasts of European
-countries; from Norway to W. Denmark, and further westward. It is a
-common garden shrub with stiff, shining leaves and red fruits. Several
-South American species contain so much _caffeine_ that they may be used
-as a beverage in the place of tea (_I. paraguayensis_, Paraguay tea, or
-Maté). The Holly does not contain caffeine.~
-
-Order 4. =Ampelidaceæ (Vines).= Shrubs with the stem swollen at the
-insertion of the petioles and climbing by _tendrils borne opposite
-the leaves_ (Figs. 478, 479). The leaves are scattered (generally
-1/2), stalked, stipulate, frequently palminerved and lobed, divided or
-compound. The small, greenish flowers are generally borne in paniculate
-_inflorescences, whose position is the same as that of the tendrils_
-(Fig. 478); they are hypogynous or slightly perigynous, ☿, with 4–5
-sepals, petals, stamens (which, as in the Rhamneæ, are _opposite the
-petals_; Fig. 480 _A_, _B_) and 2 carpels. The calyx is very small,
-entire, or slightly dentate; corolla _valvate_, and in some falling off
-as a hood, since the individual parts remain united at the summit (Fig.
-480 _A_). Between the stamens and gynœceum is situated an hypogynous
-_disc_, with 5 lobes alternating with the stamens (Fig. 480 _A_, _B_,
-_E_). In each loculus of the 2-locular ovary there are 2 _erect_
-ovules (_E_); the style is short or wanting. The fruit is a _berry_.
-The embryo is small and lies in a horny, sometimes slightly folded
-(ruminate) endosperm (Fig. 480 _C_, _D_).
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 478–481.--_Vitis vinifera._
-
-  FIG. 478.--Branch with bunch of grapes.
-
-  FIG. 479.--Diagram of the position of leaf and tendrils. The
-  branch is divided into sections on the sympodial theory (the
-  successive generations, I, II, III, IV, are alternately white and
-  shaded); _k_ buds.
-
-  FIG. 480.--A Flower throwing off the corolla; _B_ flower after
-  the removal of the corolla; _C_, _D_ longitudinal and transverse
-  section of seed; _E_ longitudinal section of gynœceum; _s_ calyx.
-
-  FIG. 481.--Diagram of branch and position of leaves; _sl_
-  tendril; _lt_ the main axis; _ax_ stipules of the foliage-leaf
-  shown below; _g_ axillary-bud (the dwarf-branch); _v_ its
-  fore-leaf; _l_{1} l_{2}_ its first two foliage-leaves with
-  their stipules; _lt_{1}_ long-branch in the axil of _v_
-  (everything appertaining to this branch is entirely black);
-  _v_{1}_ the first leaf of this branch.]
-
-   _Vitis_ and _Ampelopsis_ (5-merous flowers); _Cissus_ (4-merous
-   flower); _Leea_ (without stipules, corolla gamopetalous). The
-   inflorescence in _Pterisanthes_ (E. Ind.) has a peculiar, flat,
-   leaf-like axis, on the edges of which ♂-flowers are borne, and
-   on the surface ♀-flowers.
-
-   The TENDRILS in Ampelidaceæ are modified branches, since they
-   bear leaves and may be abnormally developed as branches with
-   foliage-leaves, and finally the inflorescences are borne in
-   the position of the tendrils, and tendrils are met with which
-   are partly inflorescences. The explanation of the position
-   of the tendril, namely, right opposite the foliage-leaf but
-   without a subtending-leaf, has been much disputed. The relative
-   positions are as follows: in _Vitis vinifera_ the following
-   two kinds of shoots and relative positions are found (the
-   other species deviate in one or other particular), (_a_)
-   LONG-BRANCHES, which have 2 scale-leaves and a large number of
-   foliage-leaves with a divergence of 1/2; opposite the lowest
-   3–5 foliage-leaves no tendrils are found, then follow: 2
-   foliage-leaves with tendrils, 1 without a tendril, 2 with and
-   1 without, etc., with great regularity. Buds are developed in
-   the axils of the foliage-leaves (Fig. 479): these develop into
-   (_b_) DWARF-BRANCHES, which commence with 1 laterally-placed
-   scale-leaf (fore-leaf; Fig. 481 _v_) succeeded by several
-   foliage-leaves with a divergence of 1/2 (in a plane at right
-   angles to that of the mother-shoot), but the whole shoot is
-   extremely small, and often dries up and drops off in the
-   autumn, so that only the scale-leaf, _v_, with the bud (Fig.
-   481 _lt_{1}_) in its axil remains. This bud in the following
-   year developes into a new long-branch, and since its leaves
-   lie in a plane at right angles to that of the dwarf-branch,
-   their plane coincides with that of the long-branch from which
-   it is developed (the grandmother axis).--The tendrils no doubt
-   may most correctly be regarded as the modified main axis which
-   has been pushed aside by a lateral branch. The branches are
-   then sympodia, whose successive shoots bear alternately 1
-   and 2 foliage-leaves: thus, on the figure there are portions
-   altogether of 5 shoots (I.-V.), the 1-leaved ones are shaded,
-   the 2-leaved ones are white. The following facts however are
-   adverse to this theory: (1) the first leaf on an axillary bud
-   is then situated 180° from the subtending leaf (_e.g._ the
-   lowermost shaded leaf, Fig. 479, 180° from the lowermost white
-   leaf), whilst the rule in the Dicotyledons is that it is placed
-   only about 90° to one side. (2) The buds (Fig. 479 _K_) from
-   which the dwarf-branches develop, must then be accessory and
-   sister-buds to the sympodial shoots, but their first leaves have
-   a different relative position to this, which is very peculiar,
-   and a still more remarkable fact is that the buds, _K_, etc. are
-   similar in structure and present in _all the axils_; thus we
-   _only_ find accessory buds in the cases where no tendrils are
-   opposite to the leaves, and the main bud must then be considered
-   to be suppressed. (3) The development proves that the tendrils
-   arise on the side of a vigorous growing-point of the stem or by
-   its division, and do not develop, as might be expected, from
-   the apex of the shoot. But these relations however, find their
-   analogues and are all capable of explanation, whereas other less
-   natural modes of explanation are opposed to them.
-
-   435 species; especially in the Tropics; they are rarer in
-   America. In N. Am. some _Vitis_-species and _Ampelopsis
-   quinquefolia_ are found. _Vitis vinifera_ is supposed to have
-   originated in the districts East and South of the Caspian Sea.
-   Wine is obtained from _Vitis_-species, especially _V. vinifera_,
-   and “raisins,”--(the name “currants,” given to a special variety
-   with small, seedless fruits, is derived from Corinth).--The
-   species of _Ampelopsis_ (Virginian Creeper) are cultivated as
-   ornamental plants.
-
-Order 5. =Rhamnaceæ.= _The stamens are placed opposite the petals_
-as in the Ampelidaceæ (Fig. 482), but the flowers are _much more
-perigynous or entirely epigynous_. The trees and shrubs belonging
-to this order have simple, most frequently penninerved leaves with
-stipules; frequently thorny (modified branches). The flowers are
-inconspicuous, sometimes unisexual (Fig. 482), and have 5 (-4) sepals,
-petals, stamens, and generally 3 (2–5) carpels. The calyx has _valvate_
-æstivation. The petals are very _small_ (generally less than the
-sepals), often spoon-like, hollow, and embracing the stamens; _a disc
-covers the inner surface of the thalamus_ or the base of the style in
-the epigynous flower; gynœceum simple, with one style and one _erect
-ovule in each loculus_. The fruit is most frequently a _drupe_. The
-embryo is large, often green or yellow, with endosperm.
-
-_Rhamnus_ (Buckthorn) has a juicy drupe with 3 (2–4) stones, surrounded
-at the base by the persistent portion of the receptacle; the disc is
-thin. _R. cathartica_ (common Buckthorn): diœcious, with opposite,
-serrate leaves. _R. frangula_ (Alder Buckthorn): flowers ☿, with
-scattered, entire leaves.--~_Ceanothus_ (N. Am., with richly-flowered
-inflorescences and a fruit closely resembling that of the Euphorbias).
-_Phylica_, _Pomaderris_ (Austr., fruit a capsule). _Zizyphus_,
-_Paliurus_, _Colletia_ (S. Am.) are thorny shrubs; _C. spinosa_ has
-thorny shoots with small, caducous leaves; the seedling has normal
-foliage-leaves. Others climb by tendrils as in the Ampelidaceæ, _e.g._
-_Gouania_.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 482.--_Rhamnus cathartica_: _A_ long-styled
-  ♂-flower; _pet_ petals; _B_ short-styled ♂-flower; _C_
-  long-styled ♀-flower; _D_ short-styled ♀-flower (after Darwin).]
-
-   475 species, 40 genera; chiefly in temperate and tropical
-   climes. Some are medicinal plants, the bark and fruit
-   having purgative properties (the bark of _Rhamnus frangula_
-   and “Cascara Sagrada” from the bark of _R. purshiana_ are
-   officinal). The fruits and seeds of others are edible, for
-   example, the fruits of _Zizyphus lotus_, _Z. vulgaris_, _Z.
-   spina Christi_, etc. Green and yellow _dyes_ are obtained from
-   the fruit of _R. cathartica_, _infectoria_ and others (Avignon
-   grain). _Ceanothus-_, _Rhamnus-_ and evergreen _Phylica_-species
-   are ornamental shrubs.
-
-
-                       Family 18. =Thymelæinæ.=
-
-Exclusively trees or shrubs with simple, entire, scattered leaves
-without stipules. They have a _strongly perigynous_, regular,
-_4-merous_ flower. The receptacle (often coloured) envelopes a simple
-gynœceum formed of =1= _carpel_ and with, in most cases, =1= ovule,
-bearing on its edge 4 (or 5) petaloid sepals and, but rarely at the
-same time, small, scale-like petals. The corolla is most frequently
-entirely wanting (and hence these plants were formerly reckoned among
-the Monochlamydeæ); frequently only one of the 2 whorls of stamens,
-which are situated on the inner side of the edge of the receptacle, is
-developed. The fruit is most frequently a _1-seeded_ berry or drupe, or
-a nut which may be falsely berry-like, the partly persistent receptacle
-being fleshy and enveloping it.
-
-   This family appears the most nearly allied to the Frangulinæ,
-   especially the Rhamnaceæ, and may be considered as a further
-   development of these in the direction of the petaloid
-   development of the receptacle and reduction of the corolla and
-   gynœceum, which in this instance only consists of one carpel.
-   Another deviation is that both the whorls of stamens are
-   present, while one of these is always wanting in Frangulinæ.
-   They also appear to be related to the Lauraceæ (see page 391).
-
-Order 1. =Thymelæaceæ.= The flowers are most frequently ☿ (Fig. 483).
-The receptacle is high, generally tubular, coloured, and bears on its
-edge the 4-(or 5)-merous calyx, with imbricate æstivation. The corolla
-is wanting or is represented by small scales. The stamens are situated
-on the inside of the receptacle, and number 4 + 4 (or 5 + 5); stigma
-capitate. 1 _pendulous ovule_ (Fig. 483 _B_), the _radicle pointing
-upwards_. The fruit is most frequently a berry. ~A disc is sometimes
-developed. Endosperm wanting or very slight.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 483.--_Daphne mezereum_: _A_ flower; _B_
-  longitudinal section of pistil.]
-
-_Daphne_ (Spurge-Laurel, Fig. 483) has a deciduous receptacle, often
-coloured; sepals 4; petals absent; stamens 4 + 4. Berry.--_Gnidia_
-(corolla); _Pimelea_ (2 stamens); _Thymelæa_; _Passerina_ and others.
-
-   400 species; chiefly in the warm, sub-tropical zone, especially
-   the Cape and Australia. Only _Daphne_ and _Thymelæa_ in
-   Europe. In the fruit and bark of some, for example _Daphne_,
-   pungent, burning and poisonous properties are found. The bark
-   of _D. mezereum_ (native and cultivated) and _D. laureola_ is
-   officinal. A specially tough bast is found in some species, for
-   example _Lagetta lintearia_ (Lace-tree, Jamaica), which is used
-   in weaving. Some are cultivated in gardens as ornamental shrubs,
-   especially species of _Daphne_.
-
-Order 2. =Elæagnaceæ.= Shrubs or trees, which are easily recognised
-by the covering of _peltate hairs_ found upon almost all parts of the
-plant, causing them to assume a _silvery_ or rusty-brown appearance.
-Stipules are absent; the leaves are simple, most frequently scattered.
-Flowers (Figs. 484, 485) frequently unisexual. The sepals are
-valvate, 2-4; the _corolla is wanting_; _stamens_ 4 + 4 or 0 + 4.
-The ovule is _erect_ and _the radicle turned downwards_ (Fig. 486).
-The fruit is a _nut_, but becomes _a false fruit_, being surrounded
-by the persistent receptacle or the lower part of it, and thus
-assuming a berry- or drupe-like appearance (Fig. 486). Endosperm
-insignificant.--_Shepherdia_ (opposite leaves) has 4 sepals, 4+4
-stamens, as in _Daphne_. Diœcious.--_Elæagnus_ (Silver-leaf) is ☿,
-has 4–6 sepals, and 4–6 stamens alternating with them. _Hippophaë_
-is diœcious; it has 2 sepals and 4 stamens in the ♂-flower (perhaps
-properly speaking 2+2 stamens); thorny (stem-structures).
-
-   16 species; especially ornamental shrubs, _e.g. Elæagnus
-   argentea_, _angustifolia_; _Hippophaë rhamnoides_ and
-   _Shepherdia canadensis_. Northern Temp.
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 484–486.--_Elæagnus angustifolia._
-
-  FIG. 484.--Floral diagram.
-
-  FIG. 485.--Longitudinal section through the flower.
-
-  FIG. 486.--Longitudinal section through the fruit.]
-
-Order 3 (?). =Proteaceæ.= This order has its chief centre in the dry
-regions of Australia (6/10–7/10 of about 1,000 species), a smaller
-number in S. Africa (2/10–3/10). a few species in S. Am. Trees or
-shrubs, leaves generally scattered, without stipules, and more or
-less dry, leathery, evergreen, and often of very different forms on
-the same plant (undivided, compound, etc.) The flowers are ☿ (rarely
-unisexual), and _4-merous_ in the single, petaloid perianth and in the
-staminal whorl; 1 carpel; sometimes zygomorphic. The perianth-leaves
-are generally almost free, with _valvate_, æstivation, often leathery.
-Small scales alternating with the perianth are often found at the
-base of the ovary. The stamens generally have extremely short
-filaments, and are situated opposite, sometimes quite on the tip of the
-perianth-leaves, in a spoon-like groove. The gynœceum is 1-locular, has
-1–several ovules, and is often raised on a stalk-like internode. The
-fruit is a follicle or nut. The seeds, most frequently winged, have no
-endosperm.--_Protea_, _Manglesia_, _Hakea_, _Banksia_, _Grevillea_,
-etc. 50 genera; about 1,000 species. Several species are cultivated in
-our conservatories for the sake of the flowers, which are beautifully
-coloured and arranged in crowded inflorescences. Protandrous. It is
-doubtful whether they were existent in Europe in the Tertiary Period.
-The true systematic position of the order is doubtful. They are related
-to the Leguminosæ and Rosifloræ, but more closely no doubt to the two
-preceding orders.
-
-
-                       Family 19. =Saxifraginæ.=
-
-The flower is generally perfect, regular and polypetalous, usually
-_perigynous_ or _epigynous_, _eucyclic_ and 5-merous; most frequently
-S5, P5, A5 + 5 or 5 + 0 and G=2=-5, but other numbers are found,
-especially 4; the flowers are very frequently obdiplostemonous. The
-calyx is sometimes large and the corolla small; the carpels in some
-are entirely free, in others more or less united. Endosperm is found
-in the majority. ~The hypogynous forms approach the Cistifloræ, the
-others the following families, especially the Rosifloræ. This family
-is not, upon the whole, so well defined and natural as most of the
-others. The Saxifragaceæ proper, approach very near to the Rosaceæ,
-especially _Spiræa_, and form a transition to it. The forms with
-opposite leaves, as _Philadelphus_, etc., approach the Myrtifloræ, just
-as the Escalloniæ appear to be closely allied to Bicornes, especially
-_Vacciniaceæ_. Finally through _Pittosporaceæ_, they pass over to the
-Frangulinæ. The family terminates in very reduced forms, on the one
-hand in the arborescent orders with crowded inflorescences, on the
-other perhaps in the very remarkable order _Podostemaceæ_.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 487.--Diagram of a 6-merous flower (_Sedum
-  hispanicum_): _w_ branch of scorpioid cyme in the axil of the
-  bracteole β.]
-
-Order 1. =Crassulaceæ.= Nearly all are herbs or small shrubs with
-round, succulent branches and scattered, _fleshy_, often more or less
-round leaves, which are very rarely incised, and never have stipules.
-The flowers are generally borne in dichasia or unipared scorpioid
-cymes, which again may be arranged in racemes, umbels, etc.; they are
-regular, ☿, hypogynous or perigynous, and most frequently have free
-sepals and petals (gamopetalous corollas with sessile stamens are found
-in _Cotyledon_, _Bryophyllum_, _Echeveria_, and others); the floral
-formula is Sn, Pn, An + n, Gn, where n may have very different values,
-partly depending upon the size of the flower (_e.g._ 4–7 in _Sedum_,
-Fig. 487; 6–30 in _Sempervivum_; 4 in _Rhodiola_, _Bryophyllum_,
-and _Kalanchoë_; 5 in _Echeveria_, _Umbilicus_, _Cotyledon_). The
-carpels are _free_ and are _placed opposite the petals_ (Fig. 487).
-Fruit a _syncarp composed of follicles_ containing many, small seeds
-without endosperm. Outside each carpel is found a small, nectariferous
-scale (Fig. 487). ~The northern genus, _Rhodiola_, is diœcious. The
-petal-stamens are wanting in some (_Crassula_, _Bulliarda_, and
-others). The floral-leaves are very often displaced upon their axillary
-branches. A multicarpellary gynœceum also occurs.~
-
-_Sedum_ (Stonecrop) is generally 5-merous with 10 stamens; _Sempervivum
-tectorum_ (House-leek), 12-merous, and with 24 stamens. ~The leaves
-of _Bryophyllum calycinum_ very readily form buds, and also frequently
-exude water from the edges.~
-
-   485 species; especially Temp. (Cape, Europe). Principally used
-   as ornamental plants.
-
-Order 2. =Saxifragaceæ.= The flowers are 4–5-merous with =2= (-3)
-carpels, most frequently: S5, P5, A5 + 5 (obdiplostemonous), G2. They
-are regular, ☿, polypetalous, hypogynous, perigynous or most frequently
-_more or less epigynous_ (Fig. 488). The carpels may be individually
-quite free, but are more frequently united at the base, or the entire
-portion enclosing the ovules is united into a 1- or 2-locular ovary, the
-styles, however, are always free. _Fruit a capsule_ with many seeds;
-endosperm present.--They are herbs, most frequently with _scattered_
-leaves without stipules; but the leaf-base is broad. The inflorescences
-are most frequently cymose, and a displacement of the floral-leaves is
-frequent (_e.g._ _Chrysosplenium_).--~Some _Saxifraga_-species, _e.g._
-_S. sarmentosa_, have irregular flower with an _oblique_ plane of
-symmetry. The petal-stamens in some may be wanting: _Heuchera_, species
-of _Saxifraga_ and _Mitella_. The corolla is wanting in others.~
-
-_Saxifraga_ (Saxifrage): S5, P5, A5 + 5, G2 (Fig. 488); capsule
-bilocular, opening along the ventral suture between the 2 persistent
-styles. ~_S. granulata_ has small tubers at the base of the
-stem.~--_Chrysosplenium_ (Golden Saxifrage): 4 sepals, _no corolla_, 4
-+ 4 stamens; 1-locular capsule.
-
-   Protandry is most frequently found in _Saxifraga_, with the
-   stamens successively bending towards the gynœceum; protogyny
-   is more rare. In other genera there is protogyny without any
-   movement of the stamens; _Chrysosplenium_ is homogamous.--About
-   300 species; mostly in temperate climates. _Saxifraga_ is
-   especially Alpine. _S. crassifolia_ and other species, _Hoteia
-   japonica_, _Tellima_, etc., are ornamental plants.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 488.--_Saxifraga granulata._ Longitudinal
-  section of flower.]
-
-The following genera are allied to the Saxifragaceæ:--
-
-=1.= _Parnassia_ (about 14 species; _P. palustris_, Grass of
-Parnassus). The flower is slightly perigynous, and has S5, P5, 5
-fertile sepal-stamens, and 5 petal-stamens, which are developed as
-barren staminodes, palmately-lobed, and (3–) 4 carpels united in a
-1-locular ovary with (3–) 4 parietal placentæ. Capsule.--~Protandrous.
-The flower has a slightly oblique plane of symmetry, which is
-especially shown during its development and in the order of sequence
-in which the anthers dehisce: originally they lie closely round the
-gynœceum; the anthers dehisce extrorsely, first the one which is placed
-opposite the most external sepal (the 2/5 arrangement is very distinct
-in the calyx), the filament elongating so that the anther lies over
-the ovary, and this is followed successively by the 4 others in a
-zig-zag line; the filaments bend backwards after the pollen is shed
-and the anthers drop off, and the stigmas are not developed until this
-is completed. The barren stamens are palmately divided into an uneven
-number (7, 9, 11) of lobes, tapering from the centre towards the edge,
-and bearing apparently glandular tips; their gland-like appearance is
-supposed to allure flies to visit the flower, or they may act as a kind
-of fence which compels the insects to enter the flower in a certain
-way, and thus effect pollination; the honey is secreted on their inner
-side, and not by the gland-like tips.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 489.--Portion of _Cephalotus follicularis_:
-  _k_ pitcher-like leaf with thick corrugated edge (_m_) and lid
-  (_l_); _b_ foliage-leaf of the ordinary form.]
-
-=2.= _Adoxa moschatellina_ (Moschatel). This is a perennial, creeping
-herb; the horizontal rhizome has an unlimited growth, and bears, in
-a _scattered_ arrangement, both foliage-leaves, and white, fleshy
-scale-leaves. The aerial stem bears 2 opposite foliage-leaves and a
-capitate inflorescence of 5 flowers, 4 placed laterally (in opposite
-pairs) and 1 terminally. The flower is semi-epigynous, the calyx
-gamosepalous, corolla absent. The stamens are divided to the base, so
-that each filament bears a bilocular anther. The style is free, deeply
-cleft. The _terminal_ flower has 2 bracteoles, 4 sepals, 4 stamens,
-cleft to the base, and a 4-locular ovary. The bracts of the _lateral_
-flowers are displaced on the flower-stalk, as in _Chrysosplenium_, and
-united with the 2 bracteoles into a kind of 3-leaved involucre; these
-flowers have 5 sepals, 5 split stamens with 2-locular anthers, and a
-5-locular ovary. 1 pendulous ovule in each loculus. Fruit a _drupe_,
-green-coloured, with 1–5 stones.--This plant, which would perhaps
-be best placed in a special order, has also been classed with the
-Araliaceæ and Caprifoliaceæ.
-
-   The following are also allied to this order: _Escalloniaceæ_
-   (arborescent plants with simple, scattered, leathery leaves),
-   _Cunoniaceæ_ (arborescent with opposite leaves), _Cephalotaceæ_
-   (with pitcher-like, insect-catching leaves; Australia; Fig.
-   489) and _Francoaceæ_. These have respectively 85, 107, 1 and 3
-   species.
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 490–492.--_Ribes rubrum._
-
-  FIG. 490.--Floral diagram.
-
-  FIG. 491.--Flower in longitudinal section.
-
-  FIG. 492.--Seeds in longitudinal section.]
-
-Order 3. =Ribesiaceæ= (=Currants=). 5-stamened Saxifragaceæ with
-epigynous flowers.--Moderately sized shrubs with _scattered_, stalked
-and palminerved, and generally palmilobed leaves, with a large
-leaf-sheath. The flowers (Figs. 490, 491), most frequently borne in
-_racemes_, are regular, _epigynous_, and have often, _above the ovary_,
-a cup- or bell-shaped, or tubular prolongation of the receptacle, on
-which the sepals, petals and stamens are situated; they have 5 sepals
-(often large, coloured), 5 _small_, free petals, only =5= stamens
-(opposite the sepals) and a =2=-carpellate gynœceum with a _unilocular_
-ovary and 2 _parietal_ placentæ bearing many ovules. The fruit is a
-_berry_, whose seeds have a fleshy and juicy outer covering (Fig. 492).
-~In some species, for example _Ribes grossularia_, there is found an
-unbranched, or a 3–5-branched spine, very closely resembling the spiny
-leaves of the _Berberis_, but which, however, are emergences springing
-from the base of the petiole. _Ribes_ has two kinds of branches:
-long-branches and dwarf-branches, the latter alone bearing the
-flowers.~--_Ribes_ (Figs. 490–492). The blades of the leaf are folded
-or rolled together in vernation. _R. alpinum_ is diœcious.
-
-   75 species; especially from the N. Temp. regions (especially
-   N. Am.).--The receptacle secretes honey on its inner surface.
-   The Gooseberry-flower is slightly protandrous, others are
-   homogamous; insect-and self-pollination are found. The following
-   are FRUIT BUSHES: _R. nigrum_ (Black Currant), _R. rubrum_
-   (Red Currant), _R. grossularia_ (Gooseberry), originating in
-   Northern Europe and Asia. ORNAMENTAL BUSHES: the North American
-   _R. aureum_ (Golden Currant) and _R. sanguineum_ (Blood-red
-   Currant), etc.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 493.--_Deutzia crenata._ Longitudinal section
-  of flower.]
-
-Order 4. =Hydrangeaceæ.= Shrubs, with simple, opposite leaves,
-without stipules; flowers generally epigynous, 4–5-merous (Fig.
-493).--_Hydrangea_ (_H. hortensia_, etc.). Shrubs from N. Am. and E.
-Asia; corolla often valvate. The inflorescence, as in the case of the
-inflorescence of _Viburnum opulus_ (Guelder Rose), has often irregular,
-large, but barren flowers at the circumference, whilst the others are
-much smaller, regular and ☿; the barren flowers are mostly 4-merous;
-in these cases it is the calyx which is large and petaloid, while the
-other parts of the flower are more or less suppressed. The branches of
-the inflorescence appear to be partially devoid of floral-leaves, since
-they are displaced upon the main axis.--_Philadelphus_; racemes (with
-terminal flower), sepals 4 (valvate), petals 4 (twisted), stamens many,
-and carpels 4 (opposite the petals), forming a 4-locular ovary. The
-numerous stamens (20–30) occur by the splitting of the sepal-stamens
-and are often therefore placed in distinct bundles. Fruit a capsule.
-_Ph. coronaria_ (Syringa, Mock Orange-blossom), from S. Eur., is a
-common ornamental shrub, as also is _Deutzia_ (Fig. 493) from N. Am.
-and E. Asia. The latter has S5, P5, A5 + 5, G3.--About 70 species.
-
-Order 5 (?). =Pittosporaceæ.= This order has its home especially in
-Australia (90 species). The flower has S5, P5, A5 (episepalous), G2
-(3–5), most frequently a unilocular ovary with many ovules in 2 rows,
-borne on 2 parietal placentæ, or a bilocular ovary. Some have berries,
-others capsules. _Pittosporum, Citriobatus, Sollya, Billardiera._
-
-Order 6. =Hamamelidaceæ.= Flowers more or less epigynous, with S4, P0
-or 4, 4 fertile sepal-stamens, and 4 barren petal-stamens, bilocular
-ovary with 1–2 ovules in each loculus. Fruit a capsule. _Hamamelis_:
-one species in Japan and one in N. Am. _Fothergilla._ _Liquidambar_:
-monœcious; flowers in capitula or spikes; ♂-flowers without perianth,
-stamens indefinite; ♀-flower: slight perianth, 2-locular ovary with
-many ovules. OFFICINAL: “Styrax-balsam,” which is obtained by boiling
-the bark of _Liq. orientalis_, from Asia Minor. _Liquidambar_ and
-_Parrotia_ are found as fossils in the Upper Oligocene; _Hamamelis_
-perhaps in the Chalk.
-
-Finally two orders with very reduced flowers are included in this
-family.
-
-Order 7. =Platanaceæ.= Trees, with large, scattered, palminerved and
-lobed leaves, and ochreate stipules; the buds are concealed in a hollow
-at the base of the petiole. The bark falls off in large scales. ♂-and
-♀-flowers (monœcious) in crowded, spherical inflorescences which are
-placed at wide intervals on a terminal, thin, and pendulous axis. The
-flowers have an insignificant calyx and corolla; the ♂-flower has few
-stamens; ♀-flower, perigynous, with 4 free carpels, 1 _pendulous_,
-_orthotropous_ ovule in each. Fruit a nut; endosperm absent. 5 species;
-frequently grown in avenues and parks. _P. occidentalis_ (N. Am.); _P.
-orientalis_ (W. Asia.).
-
-Order 8. =Podostemaceæ.= Aquatic plants, especially in swiftly
-running water, with somewhat of an Alga-like, Moss-like, or thalloid
-appearance; they show themselves in many ways to be adapted to their
-mode of life and situations (having a dorsiventral creeping stem, the
-flowers sunk in hollows, a formation of haptera upon the roots, and
-thalloid assimilating roots and thalloid stems, etc.). Tropical; 100
-species.
-
-
-                        Family 20. =Rosifloræ.=
-
-The leaves are scattered, stipulate, or have at least a well developed
-sheath, which is generally prolonged on each side into a free
-portion (“adnate stipules”). The flowers are regular, _perigynous_
-or _epigynous_. Calyx and corolla 5 (-4)-_merous_ with the usual
-position. The corolla is always polypetalous. The stamens are present
-in very varying numbers (5–∞) and position, but _always_ placed in
-5-_or_ 10-_merous whorls_; they _are frequently_ 20 in 3 whorls (10
-+ 5 + 5; see Figs. 494, 502, 505); the nearer they are placed to the
-circumference, the longer they are; they are generally _incurved in the
-bud, or even rolled up_. The number of the carpels is from 1–∞; in most
-cases all are _individually free_ (syncarp), and when they are united
-it is in every case with the ovaries only, whilst the _styles_ remain
-more or less _free_ (_Pomaceæ_, species of _Spiræa_). The _seeds_ have
-a straight embryo, and usually no endosperm.
-
-   The perianth and stamens are most frequently _perigynous_ on
-   the edge of the widened receptacle; its form varies between a
-   flat cupule and a long tube or a cup (Figs. 495, 496, 498, 499,
-   500); the carpels are situated on its base or inner surface, in
-   some instances on a central conical elongation of the floral
-   axis (Fig. 496). The carpels in _Pomaceæ_ also unite more or
-   less with the hollow receptacle, or this grows in and fills up
-   the space between the carpels, so that a more or less epigynous
-   flower is formed (Fig. 504).--The following numbers of _stamens_
-   occur: 5, 10 (in 1 whorl), 15 (10 + 5), 20 (10 + 5 + 5), 25 (10
-   + 10 + 5), 30-50 (in 10-merous whorls)--compare the diagrams.
-   The theoretical explanation of this relation of the 10-merous
-   whorls and their alternation with the 5-merous whorls is not
-   definitely determined; a splitting of the members of the
-   5-merous whorls may be supposed, but the development shows no
-   indication of this, and it is not supported in any other way.
-   Several genera have “_gynobasic_” styles, that is, the style
-   springs from the base of the ovary (Fig. 497 _A_, _B_).
-
-   The Rosifloræ are on one side closely related to the
-   Saxifragaceæ (especially through _Spiræa_) from which it is
-   difficult to separate them, and to the Myrtifloræ; on the other
-   side they are allied, through the Mimosaceæ with the large
-   number of stamens, and through the Amygdalaceæ with its single
-   carpel, to the Leguminosæ. The family begins with forms which
-   have many-seeded follicles, and passes on the one side to forms
-   with nuts and drupes in perigynous flowers, and on the other
-   side to the Pomaceæ.
-
-Order 1. =Rosaceæ.= Herbs or shrubs, generally with compound leaves and
-persistent (adnate) stipules, flower _perigynous_, _gynœceum formed of
-many free_ (therefore oblique) _carpels, syncarps_ with fruitlets of
-various kinds. The exceptions are noted under the genera.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 494.--Diagram of _Comarum palustre_.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 495.--Flower of _Spiræa lanceolata_.]
-
-=1.= SPIRÆEÆ (Fig. 495) has 2–many ovules in each ovary, while in the
-other groups there is generally only 1, and never more than 2 ovules in
-each loculus. There are generally 5 _cyclic_ carpels and the fruit is
-5 _follicles_, which are not enclosed by the receptacle. The majority
-are shrubs. Stipules are often wanting.--_Spiræa_ (Meadow-Sweet).
-The flowers are generally borne in richly flowered inflorescences
-of various forms. The carpels, in some species, unite together
-and form a _simple_ gynœceum with free styles (an approach to the
-_Pomaceæ_).--~Closely allied to _Spiræa_ are the East Asiatic shrubs:
-_Kerria japonica_, which has solitary flowers, in this country nearly
-always double (the fruit a nut), and _Rhodotypos kerrioides_ which
-has opposite leaves, a remarkable feature among the Rosifloræ; it has
-a 4-merous flower, a well developed disc inside the andrœcium, and a
-drupe. Closely allied also is _Gillenia_ (N. Am.) differing chiefly
-in the ascending ovules, _Spiræa_ having pendulous ovules, and a more
-tubular receptacle.~
-
-   The groups _Quillajeæ_ and _Neuradeæ_ form a transition from
-   _Spiræa_ to _Pomaceæ_. In the first group, which contains only
-   trees or shrubs with generally simple leaves, the carpels are
-   either free or united (into a capsule); in the second the
-   receptacle unites with the carpels, which are themselves often
-   united together; in this case, too, the fruit is a capsule.
-   _Quillaja_ (S. Am.); _Exochorda_ (China).
-
-=2.= POTENTILLEÆ (Figs. 494, 496, 497). The flower has an “_epicalyx_”
-(Fig. 494 _C_) alternating with the sepals and formed by their
-stipules which are united in pairs, and hence its leaves are often
-more or less deeply bifid. The receptacle is cupular and often quite
-insignificant. The sepals are valvate in the bud. The large number of
-fruitlets are _achenes_, borne on a well-developed convex portion of
-the receptacle (~the Ranunculeæ resemble the Potentilleæ, but have
-no epicalyx, no enlarged receptacle, and spirally-placed stamens~).
-Most of the species are herbs with dichasial inflorescences, often
-arranged in racemes.--_Potentilla_ (Cinquefoil). The achenes are
-borne on a _dry_, hairy receptacle; the style is situated towards
-the apex of the ovary, and is not prolonged after flowering. Herbs
-with digitate, in some, however, pinnate leaves, and generally yellow
-flowers.--_Comarum_ (Fig. 494) (Marsh Cinquefoil) forms, by its
-fleshy-spongy receptacle, a transition to the next genus.--_Fragaria_
-(Strawberry) (Fig. 496). The receptacle becomes finally fleshy,
-coloured, and falls off (biologically it is a berry); the numerous
-fruitlets (drupes with thin pericarp) have basal styles (Fig. 497);
-leaves trifoliate; long, creeping runners.--_Geum_ (Avens) has a
-terminal style which after flowering elongates into a long beak, with
-the apex (after the uppermost part has been thrown off) bent back into
-a hook, thus furnishing a means of distribution for the fruits. Leaves
-pinnate.--~_Dryas_ comprises 3 Arctic or Alpine species with simple
-leaves and solitary flowers, the calyx and corolla 8–9-merous, the
-fruit resembles that of _Geum_, but the styles become still longer and
-feather-like (a flying apparatus).~
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 496, 497.--_Fragaria vesca._
-
-  FIG. 496.--Longitudinal section of flower.
-
-  FIG. 497.--A carpel, entire, and in longitudinal section.]
-
-=3.= RUBEÆ. _Rubus_ (Bramble) has the same form of receptacle as the
-_Potentilleæ_, but _no epicalyx_; _the fruitlets are drupes_, not
-enclosed by the persistent calyx. Most frequently shrubs or undershrubs
-with prickles (emergences), glandular bristles and compound leaves.
-In the Raspberry (_R. idæus_) the fruitlets unite together and detach
-themselves from the receptacle.
-
-=4.= ROSEÆ. _Rosa_; the receptacle is hollow, ovoid and contracted
-beneath the insertion of the calyx (Fig. 498), ultimately _fleshy_
-and _coloured_; it encloses a large number of fruitlets which are
-achenes as hard as stones (“hip,” biologically a berry).--Shrubs with
-imparipinnate leaves and adnate stipules. ~The sepals show clearly the
-order of their development (a divergence of 2/5), the two outer ones on
-both sides are lobed, the third one on one side only, and the two last,
-whose edges are covered by the others, are not lobed at all. _Prickles_
-(emergences) are generally present and in some species are placed in
-regular order, being found immediately below each leaf (usually two)
-although at somewhat varying heights.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 498.--Longitudinal section of flower of
-  _Rosa_.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 499, 500.--_Agrimonia eupatoria._
-
-  FIG. 499.--Flower in longitudinal section.
-
-  FIG. 500.--Fruit and receptacle in longitudinal section.]
-
-=5.= AGRIMONIEÆ. The receptacle is more or less cup- or bell-shaped,
-and almost closed at the mouth; it is persistent and envelopes the
-_nut-like fruitlets_, but is _dry_, and in some species hard, the
-fruitlets being firmly attached to it. In biological connection
-with this the number of the carpels is generally only 1 or 2, and
-the whole becomes a _false nut_ (Fig. 500). Herbs.--_Agrimonia_
-(Agrimony; Figs. 499, 500); the perianth is 5-merous, stamens 5–20.
-The receptacle bears externally, on the upper surface, a number of
-hooked bristles which serve as a means of distribution for the 1–2
-achenes which are enclosed in it, and hence the entire flower finally
-falls off. The inflorescence is a long upright raceme. ~These bristles
-are arranged in whorls of 5 and 10, of which the uppermost alternate
-with the sepals.~--_Alchemilla_ (Ladies-mantle; Fig. 501) has 8 green
-perianth-leaves in two whorls (some authorities consider the four outer
-as an epicalyx, and the flower therefore apetalous), and 4 stamens
-_alternating with the innermost whorl_. There is only one carpel with a
-_basal_ style and capitate stigma. The flowers are small and greenish,
-the filaments jointed. The anthers open by one extrorse cleft. The
-leaf-sheath entirely envelops the stem; the leaves are palminerved.
-_A. aphanes_ has often only 1–2 stamens. ~The following genera, with
-4-merous flowers borne in short spikes or capitula, are allied to this
-group. _Sanguisorba_ has entomophilous, ☿-flowers with 4(-20) stamens,
-1 carpel; stigma papillose.--_Poterium_; spike or capitulum, the
-uppermost flowers are ♀, the lowermost ♂, and some intermediate ones ☿
-(the order of opening is not always centripetal); S4, P0, A20–30, G2,
-the long styles having brush-like stigmas (wind-pollination). Leaves
-imparipinnate.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 501.--Flower of _Alchemilla_ in longitudinal
-  section.]
-
-   POLLINATION. A yellow ring on the inner side of the receptacle,
-   inside the stamens, serves as a nectary when any honey
-   is formed; this, for instance, is not the case in _Rosa,
-   Agrimonia_, _Spiræa ulmaria_, _S. filipendula_, _S. aruncus_,
-   etc., to which the insects (especially flies and bees) are
-   allured by the quantity of pollen. Homogamy and slight
-   protogyny are frequent, in many instances self-pollination
-   also is finally possible. _Poterium_, with the long-haired
-   stigma, is wind-pollinated.--About 550 (1100?) species,
-   especially in northern temperate regions.--USES. OFFICINAL:
-   the petals of _Rosa centifolia_ and _gallica_, the fruits of
-   the Raspberry (_Rubus idæus_), the rhizome of _Geum urbanum_,
-   the flowers of the Koso-tree (_Hagenia abyssinica_ or _Brayera
-   anthelmintica_).--The bark of _Quillaja saponaria_ (Chili) is
-   used as soap and contains _saponin_. “Attar of Roses” from
-   _Rosa damascena_, _centifolia_ and other species, especially
-   from the southern slopes of the Balkans. Many species and
-   varieties of Roses are ORNAMENTAL plants: from S. Europe, _Rosa
-   lutea_ (the Yellow Rose), _R. gallica_ (the French Rose) and
-   _R. rubrifolia_; from W. Asia, _R. centifolia_, of which the
-   Moss Roses (_R. muscosa_ and _cristata_) are varieties, and _R.
-   damascena_; from India and N. Africa, _R. moschata_ (the Musk
-   Rose); from China, _R. indica_ (Tea Rose) etc., besides the
-   native species and the varieties which have been derived from
-   them. In addition, _Kerria japonica_, species of _Potentilla_,
-   _Rubus odoratus_ from N. Am., and many species of _Spiræa_ from
-   South-eastern Europe and N. Am. ESCULENT: the “hips” of _R.
-   mollissima_, _R. pomifera_, etc.; the fruits of _Rubus_-species:
-   Raspberry (_R. idæus_), Cloudberry (_R. chamæmorus_), Blackberry
-   (_R. fruticosus_), etc.; of _Fragaria_-species (_F. vesca_,
-   _collina_, _grandiflora_, etc).
-
-Order 2. =Amygdalaceæ.= Trees or shrubs with rosaceous flowers;
-leaves simple with caducous stipules; a regular, _perigynous_ flower,
-the receptacle being partly thrown off by a circular slit; sepals
-5, petals 5, stamens 20–30; _gynœceum simple, formed of 1 carpel_
-(hence oblique, Fig. 502), with terminal style and 2 pendulous ovules,
-ripening into a _drupe_ (Fig. 503).--The leaves are penninerved and
-frequently have _glands_ on the stalks and edges; _thorns_ (modified
-branches) often occur, _i.e._ dwarf-branches, which, after producing
-a few leaves, terminate their growth in a thorn (_e.g._ _Prunus
-spinosa_). ~The vernation of the _foliage-leaves_ varies in the
-different genera; in the Almond, Peach, Cherry, and Bird-Cherry they
-are folded; in the Apricot, Plum, Sloe and Bullace, rolled together. In
-some the flowers unfold before the leaves (_Amygdalus_, _Armeniaca_).
-That the gynœceum is formed of 1 carpel is evident in this as in other
-instances (_e.g._ in the Leguminosæ, which are closely related to this
-order), from the fact that the carpel is oblique, and has only one
-plane of symmetry, and similarly in the fruit there is a longitudinal
-groove on one side which indicates the ventral suture. It is only
-exceptionally that both ovules are developed. In abnormal instances
-more than 1 carpel is developed.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 502.--Diagram of _Prunus virginiana_.]
-
-=A.= FRUIT HAIRY: _Amygdalus_ (_A. communis_, Almond-tree) has a dry
-pulp which is detached irregularly, when ripe, from the wrinkled,
-grooved, ovoid and somewhat compressed stone.--_Persica_ (_P.
-vulgaris_, Peach-tree) differs from the Almond in having a juicy pulp,
-not detachable from the stone, which is deeply grooved and has pits
-in the grooves (Fig. 503). (~The name of the genus is derived from
-Persia, though it is a native of China.~).--_Armeniaca_ (_A. vulgaris_,
-Apricot) has a hairy, velvety fruit, but the stone is smooth and has
-two ribs along one of the edges; the pulp is juicy. (~The generic name
-has been given on the incorrect assumption that it was a native of
-Armenia; its home is China.~)
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 503.--Fruit of the Peach. The pulp is cut
-  through so that the stone is visible.]
-
-=B.= FRUIT GLABROUS (_i.e._ without hairs): _Prunus_ (Plum) has a
-glabrous fruit with bluish bloom; the stone is compressed, smooth or
-wrinkled. The flowers are borne solitarily or in couples, and open
-before or at the same time as the leaves; they are borne on shoots
-without foliage-leaves.--_Cerasus_ (Cherry) has a glabrous, spherical
-fruit, without bloom, and a spherical stone. The flowers are situated
-in 2–many-flowered umbels or racemes, and open at the same time as the
-leaves or a little before them. ~_Long-stalked_ flowers in _umbels_
-are found in _C. avium_ (Wild Cherry), _C. vulgaris_ (the cultivated
-Cherry, from Western Asia); _racemes_ at the apex of leaf-bearing
-branches and small spherical fruits are found in _C. padus_ (Bird
-Cherry), _C. virginiana_, _C. laurocerasus_ (Cherry-laurel), _C.
-mahaleb_.~
-
-   POLLINATION. _Prunus spinosa_ (Sloe, Blackthorn) is protogynous,
-   but the stamens are developed before the stigma withers. Honey
-   is secreted by the receptacle. _Cerasus padus_ (Bird-Cherry)
-   agrees in some measure with _P. spinosa_. In the flowers of
-   the Plum and Cherry the stamens and stigma are developed
-   simultaneously and self pollination seems general; the
-   stigma, however, overtops the inner stamens and thus promotes
-   cross-pollination.--DISTRIBUTION. 114 species in the N. Temp,
-   zone; few in the warmer regions; the majority from W. Asia. _C.
-   vulgaris_, from the regions of the Caspian; _Prunus spinosa_,
-   _insititia_ (Bullace), _domestica_ (Plum, from the Caucasus,
-   Persia).--USES, principally as fruit-trees: Cherry, Plum,
-   Apricot, etc.; “Almonds” are the seeds of _Amygdalus communis_
-   (W. Mediterranean), “bitter,” “sweet,” and “shell” almonds are
-   from different varieties, the latter being remarkable for the
-   thin, brittle stone. In the majority of species and in almost
-   all parts of the plant (especially the bark, seed and leaves)
-   is found the glycoside, _amygdalin_, which forms prussic acid.
-   Many form _gum_, and the seeds have _fatty oils_ (“Almond
-   oil”). OFFICINAL: the seeds and oil of _Amygdalus communis_,
-   and the fruit of the Cherry; in other countries also the leaves
-   of _C. laurocerasus_.--The stems of _Cerasus mahaleb_ are
-   used for pipes. Ornamental Shrubs: _Amygdalus nana_, _Cerasus
-   laurocerasus_.
-
-   Order 3. _Chrysobalanaceæ._ Tropical Amygdalaceæ with
-   zygomorphic flower and gynobasic style. 200 species; especially
-   Am. and Asia. _Chrysobalanus icaco_ (Cocoa-plum) is cultivated
-   on account of its fruit (Am.)
-
-Order 4. =Pomaceæ.= Trees and shrubs, most frequently with simple
-leaves and caducous stipules. The flowers (Fig. 505) have 5 sepals, 5
-petals and generally 20 stamens (10 + 5 + 5, or 10 + 10 + 5). There are
-from 1–5 _carpels_, which unite entirely or to some extent with each
-other, and with the hollow, fleshy receptacle (the _flower_ becoming
-_epigynous_), (Figs. 505, 506, 507). The carpels are nearly always
-free on the ventral sutures, rarely free at the sides also. The whole
-outer portion of the fruit becomes fleshy, but the portions of the
-pericarp surrounding the loculi (endocarp) are most frequently formed
-of sclerenchymatous cells, and are more or less firm (the “core”). The
-nature of the fruit varies, according to the thickness and hardness
-of the endocarp, being either a “berry” or a “drupe” (see _A_ and
-_B_). When the endocarp is thin and parchment-like, the fruit has the
-characteristics of a berry, each of the 5 loculi generally present
-containing several seeds; but when this is hard the fruit resembles a
-drupe, only one seed is developed in each loculus, and the number of
-the loculi is reduced to one or two. There are nearly always 2 ovules
-in the loculi of the ovary, but in _Cydonia_ there are a large number
-in 2 rows. In the genera which have stones, only one seed is developed
-in each stone. The genera are distinguished mainly in accordance with
-the kind of fruit and the number of ovules and seeds.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 504.--Longitudinal and transverse section
-  through the flowers of _A_, _B_ _Cotoneaster_; _C_ _Cydonia_;
-  _D_ _Malus communis_; _E_ _Raphiolepis_; _F_ _Cydonia_; _G_
-  _Mespilus_.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 505.--Floral diagram of _Mespilus germanica_.]
-
-=A.= SORBEÆ. THE ENDOCARP IS PARCHMENT-LIKE OR PAPERY (drupe, with thin
-stone or berry).
-
-1. _Pyrus_ and _Cydonia_; carpels completely embedded in the cup-like
-receptacle, styles always free.--_Pyrus_: the fruit is glabrous,
-and has only a small calyx, withering or deciduous, and a 5-locular
-ovary with at most 2 ascending ovules in each loculus (Fig. 504
-_D_). The large flowers are situated in few-flowered umbels or
-corymbs. ~_P. communis_ (Pear; free styles, Fig. 507; it has the
-well-known pear-shaped fruit; the core is reduced to several groups
-of sclerenchymatous cells embedded in the pulp, the leaf-stalk is as
-long as the blade).~--_Cydonia_ (Quince) has a hairy fruit with _many
-seeds in 2 rows_ in each loculus of the endocarp (Figs. 504 _C_, _F_;
-506); the testa of these seeds is mucilaginous. _C. vulgaris_, large,
-terminal flowers on lateral branches, and large leaf-like, persistent
-sepals.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 506.--_Cydonia vulgaris._ Longitudinal
-  section of fruit.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 507.--Longitudinal section of Pear flower.]
-
-2. _Malus_ and _Amelanchier_ (_Aronia_); carpels free on the ventral
-edge; styles united. _Malus communis_ (Apple) the fruit is “umbilicate”
-at the base; no sclerenchymatous cells in the pulp; styles united at
-the base (Fig. 504 _D_); leaf-stalk shorter than the blade. _Sorbus_
-(Mountain-ash) differs only in having a 2–3-locular fruit with
-extremely thin endocarp. Cymose inflorescences in umbellate cymes.
-~_S. aucuparia_ has pinnate leaves, _S. aria_ (White-beam) and other
-species have simple leaves.--_Amelanchier_ (the Service-tree) has a
-false divisional wall springing from the dorsal suture, and more or
-less projecting into each of the loculi of the ovary; _Raphiolepis_
-(Fig. 504 _E_) has racemes and a juicy berry; _Eriobotrya japonica_
-(Loquat).~
-
-=B.= CRATÆGEÆ. THE ENDOCARP IS HARD AND BONY (“drupes,” generally
-with several, sometimes, however, with only 1–2 stones, rarely one
-multilocular stone; only 1 seed in each of the loculi).--_Cratægus_
-(Hawthorn, May). There are 1–5 stones in the spherical or ovoid fruit.
-The disc, found on the apex of the fruit, inside the small, withered
-calyx, is small (much less than the transverse section of the fruit).
-Shrubs with thorns (branches) and moderately large flowers borne in
-corymbs.--_Mespilus_ (Medlar) differs from the last-named only in
-having a _large disc_ at the apex of the fruit, inside the large,
-_leaf-like sepals_, _i.e._ almost equal to the greatest diameter of the
-fruit. The flowers are solitary and terminal.--_Cotoneaster_ is chiefly
-distinguished from the others by its syncarps, the 2–5 carpels (and
-stones) being free from one another, and only united to the receptacle
-by a larger or smaller portion of their dorsal surface (Figs. 504 _A_,
-_B_). Small shrubs with leathery leaves, generally covered with white,
-felted hairs on the lower surface, and with small flowers; the fruit is
-red or black.
-
-   Pear, Apple, Mountain Ash and Hawthorn have protogynous
-   flowers which secrete honey, and are conspicuous to ensure
-   insect pollination.--180 species; in the northern temperate
-   regions.--Pear and Apple are especially cultivated as fruit
-   trees in a number of varieties; the Paradise Apple (_Pyrus
-   baccata_); especially in southern countries also the Quince
-   (from N. Persia and the Caucasian districts), Medlar and
-   _Amelanchier vulgaris_. _Malus pumila_ (Caucasus,
-   Altai) and _M. dasyphylla_ (Orient, S. Eur.) are regarded
-   as primitive forms of the Apple-tree; _M. sylvestris_,
-   which grows wild in European forests, appears to have been less
-   used. The early Lake-dwellers in Switzerland had the apple-tree
-   both wild and cultivated.--The original form of the Pear is
-   supposed to be _Pyrus achras_ (Central Asia).--Many of
-   the species of _Cratægus_, some with double flowers, and
-   _Pyrus (Chænomeles) japonica_, with brilliant red flowers,
-   are cultivated as ornamental shrubs. OFFICINAL: Quince
-   pips, on account of the mucilaginous testa.--The fruits contain
-   free organic acids and sugar; prussic acid may be obtained from
-   the seeds. The wood of the Pear-tree is used in manufactures.
-
-
-                       Family 21. =Leguminosæ.=
-
-The most characteristic feature is, that the _gynœceum is 1-locular_
-and formed of _1 carpel, the ventral suture of which is turned
-posteriorly_. The fruit, in most instances, is a _pod_ (legume),
-which opens generally along both sutures, the two valves twisting
-more or less in opposite directions. ~In other instances it opens
-along one suture only, or as a pyxidium (Red Clover), or it is
-indehiscent, in which case it is more or less berry-like (_e.g._ the
-Tamarind, Carob-bean), or it is a drupe (_e.g._ the Tonquin-bean), or
-a 1–few-seeded nut (_e.g._ _Melilotus_), or a lomentum, which divides
-transversely into as many joints as there are seeds (_Ornithopus_, see
-Fig. 513).~
-
-The inflorescences belong to the _centripetal_ type (_i.e._
-indefinite); cymes do not occur. The flowers are _zygomorphic_, with
-vertical plane of symmetry, seldom regular; _5-merous_ with but a few
-exceptions, ☿, and slightly _perigynous_. The following diagram is the
-most general (Fig. 511): 5 sepals, with the _unpaired sepal median
-and anterior_, 5 petals, 5 + 5 stamens, all in alternating whorls, 1
-carpel. The calyx is most frequently gamosepalous, the gynœceum is
-narrowed down at the base to a short stalk and, in the majority, is
-more or less bent. The seed is most frequently kidney-shaped, with
-a smooth, hard and shining testa, the hilum being very distinct.
-_Endosperm is wanting_, or is reduced to a thin layer, which is of
-service when the seed swells during germination. The vegetative parts
-have these features in common, namely, the _leaves are scattered,
-stipulate_, and almost always _compound_. Peculiar _sleep-movements_
-and _sensitiveness_ are found in some, chiefly in the Mimosas. Many,
-probably all, Leguminosæ have _small tubercles on their roots_ which
-are produced by a kind of bacterium, and assist in the assimilation
-of free nitrogen. Spontaneous movements are exhibited by _Desmodium
-gyrans_ (Telegraph-plant).
-
-   This family is closely allied to the Rosifloræ, with which it
-   agrees in the scattered leaves, the presence of stipules, the
-   generally 5-merous and most frequently perigynous flowers with
-   eucyclic stamens, and the absence of endosperm. _Amygdalaceæ_
-   and _Chrysobalanaceæ_, with solitary carpels, approach on one
-   side to the Leguminosæ, among which genera with drupes are also
-   found; _Mimosaceæ_, with their many stamens, form a connecting
-   link on the other side. In this respect the Mimosa-genus
-   _Affonsea_, and certain Cæsalpineæ and Swartzieæ, are of special
-   interest in having more than one carpel (syncarp), a condition
-   which is sometimes met with abnormally in other Leguminosæ, as
-   well as in Amygdalaceæ. About 7,000 species of the Leguminosæ
-   are known.
-
-Order 1. =Cæsalpiniaceæ.= These are _leguminous plants with straight
-embryo and a flower which is not papilionaceous and has not the
-same æstivation_ (Figs. 508–510); but in reality there is not a
-single characteristic which absolutely distinguishes them from the
-Papilionaceæ.--The majority are arborescent; the leaves as a rule
-are pinnate or bipinnate. The flower is 5-merous, most frequently
-perigynous and slightly zygomorphic; the calyx is free or gamosepalous,
-the corolla polypetalous with _ascending imbricate æstivation_ (_i.e._
-the two lowest petals envelop the lateral ones, and these again the
-posterior; Fig. 508); 10 _free stamens_; fruit various.
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 508–510.--_Cassia floribunda._
-
-  FIG. 508.--Floral diagram.
-
-  FIG. 509.--Flower.
-
-  FIG. 510.--The same in long. sect.]
-
-_Cassia_ (Figs. 508–510) is the largest genus (about 200 species); it
-has an almost hypogynous, zygomorphic flower with 5 free sepals and
-petals; of the 10 stamens the 3 posterior are generally barren, the
-others are of very unequal length and open at the apex by _pores_ (Fig.
-509). In some (the _Senna_ group) the fruit is a flat, short, thin,
-dehiscing pod; in others (_Cathartocarpus_) it is round, long, woody
-or fleshy, indehiscent, and divided internally by more or less fleshy
-transverse walls into as many cells as there are seeds.--The following
-also have DEHISCENT FRUITS: _Bauhinia_ (often lianes, tropical climbers
-with tendrils [stem-structures] and anomalous stems), _Copaifera_,
-_Hæmatoxylon_ (whose pod does not dehisce along the suture, but
-laterally), _Cercis_ (simple leaves; the corolla resembles that of
-the Papilionaceæ, but the posterior petal is the smallest, and is
-enveloped by the 2 lateral ones, which are enveloped in their turn by
-the 2 anterior).--FRUIT INDEHISCENT: _Tamarindus indica_; the pod is
-almost round, often a little abstricted between the seeds; the wall
-is formed by a thin, brittle external layer, enclosing an acid pulp;
-well-developed septa are present, between the seeds; the most internal
-layer is parchment-like. Calyx 4-merous by the coalescence of 2 sepals.
-Only 3 fertile stamens.--_Ceratonia siliqua_ (Carob-bean, Locusts);
-the pod is long, compressed, with thick sutures, and has a wall, the
-central part of which is more or less leathery, fleshy and sweet;
-there are transverse septa between the seeds, as in the Tamarind.
-Embryo greenish in endosperm. The flower is without a corolla, 5
-stamens.--_Pterogyne_ (winged fruit), etc.--KRAMERIEÆ with _Krameria_
-is an anomalous group.
-
-   DISTRIBUTION. 80 genera, with 740 species; almost exclusively
-   in the Tropics. The Carob-tree and _Cercis_ grow in the
-   Mediterranean basin. The largest and most widely distributed
-   genus is _Cassia_, which is found as trees, shrubs, and weeds
-   in all tropical countries. The order has many important
-   uses to mankind. MEDICINAL: the leaves and pods of _Cassia
-   acutifolia_ and _angustifolia_ (officinal, Senna-leaves),
-   the fruit-pulp of the _Cassia_-sub-genus, _Cathartocarpus_.
-   Rhatany root from _Krameria triandra_ (Peru, officinal).
-   _Balsam_ is extracted from a number of _Copaifera_-species
-   (Balsam of Copaiba) from S. Am. (officinal), and from _Hymenæa_
-   (Copal balsam), _Trachylobium_ and others. _Edible fruits_ are
-   obtained especially from the Carob-tree (from the East) and
-   the Tamarind (officinal). The heart-wood of several species of
-   _Cæsalpinia_, such as _C. brasiliensis_ (the Pernambuco-tree),
-   _echinata_ (Red-tree), and _sappan_, yield _dyes_; _Hæmatoxylon_
-   (_H. campechianum_, Logwood), _Copaifera bracteata_
-   (Amarant-tree).--_Timber_ is obtained from many (_Melanoxylon_
-   and others). In Europe they are of little importance as
-   ornamental plants, these being confined principally to the
-   species of _Gleditschia_ (_G. triacantha_, from N. Am.) and
-   _Cercis_ (the Judas-tree, _C. siliquastrum_, S. Eur.), which
-   are cultivated in gardens; but in tropical gardens beautiful
-   flowering species, _e.g._ of _Cassia_, _Poinciana_, _Brownea_,
-   are found, and the most beautiful of all ornamental plants, the
-   Indian _Amherstia nobilis_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 511.--Diagram of _Faba vulgaris_: _f_ the
-  standard; _v_ the wings; _k_ the keel.]
-
-Order 2. =Papilionaceæ.= The flower (Figs. 511, 512) is _strongly
-zygomorphic_ and somewhat perigynous (Fig. 512 _B_; most frequently
-more on one side than the other). The calyx is _gamosepalous_ and
-persistent. The polypetalous corolla has _descending_ imbricate
-æstivation, the posterior, large leaf, the _standard_ (Figs. 511 _f_;
-512 _B’_, _e_), _covering in the bud_ the two lateral ones, the _wings_
-(Figs. 511 _v_; 512 _B’_, _a_), which again cover the two anterior;
-these are united in the form of a boat, the _keel_ (_k_ and _c_); the
-wings and the two petals of the keel are very unsymmetrical. That the
-keel is formed of two petals is seen by its position (in front of one
-sepal) and by the two often more or less free claws. The 10 (5 + 5)
-_stamens_ (monadelphous) _are either all united into one bundle, or
-into two bundles_ (diadelphous), the posterior one being free (Fig. 512
-_C_). The ovules are _curved_ and _also the embryo_ (Fig. 512 _G_),
-especially the hypocotyl, so that the radicle assumes a position close
-to the edge of the thick, fleshy cotyledons. Endosperm wanting; the
-cotyledons are very rich in proteid reserve material. The forms of the
-fruit and exceptions are described under the genera.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 512.--_Pisum sativum_: _A_ entire flower; _B_
-  in longitudinal section; _C_ gynœceum and stamens; _D_ gynœceum;
-  _B’_ corolla dissected, _e_ standard, _a_, _a_ wings, _c_ keel;
-  _D_ seed opened to show the cotyledons (_c_), the radicle (_r_),
-  the plumule (_g_); _E_ fruit (legume); _F_ seed.]
-
-   _Geocarpic_ fruits, _i.e._ those which penetrate the soil during
-   their development and ripen underground, are found in _e.g._
-   _Arachis hypogæa_ (see page 472), _Trifolium subterraneum_,
-   _Vicia amphicarpæa_. _Germination_ takes place in various ways.
-   In the majority the cotyledons are raised above the ground as
-   green, leaf-like bodies; in the Vicieæ they remain thick and
-   white, and are always enclosed in the testa, and are therefore
-   never able to take part in the work of assimilation; in species
-   of _Phaseolus_, on the other hand, they are raised well above
-   the ground and become green, but remain however thick and fleshy.
-
-   =1, 2.= The two groups PODALYRIEÆ (the majority of the genera
-   are Australian) and SOPHOREÆ (_Sophora_, _Edwardsia_, etc.),
-   represent the oldest type, as they have 10 _free stamens_ and so
-   form the transition to the Cæsalpiniaceæ. Nearly all are trees
-   and shrubs.
-
-=3.= ASTRAGALEÆ. Herbs or shrubs, less frequently trees, with
-_imparipinnate_ leaves (without tendrils). The flowers are
-generally borne in racemes or spikes. Stamens monadelphous or
-diadelphous.--_Astragalus_ (Milk-Vetch) has the legume incompletely
-divided longitudinally into 2 loculi by a septum formed by the incurved
-dorsal suture. Diadelphous.--_Glycyrrhiza_ (Liquorice); _Colutea_
-(Bladder-Senna) from S. Europe; _Robinia_ (the false Acacia) with
-thorny stipules; _Indigofera_ (the Indigo plant); _Amorpha_ (which has
-only one petal, namely the standard, and the fruit a nut), _Caragana_,
-_Wistaria_ (a climbing shrub), _Galega_. _Carmichælia australis_, when
-old, produces flat branches with scale-like leaves.
-
-=4.= VICIEÆ. _Climbing herbs_ with _paripinnate_ leaves, the midrib
-ending in a point or frequently in a _tendril_, which generally is
-branched, representing lateral veins without mesophyll; stamens
-diadelphous; the cotyledons remain underground on germination.--_Vicia_
-(Vetch) has a filamentous style, hairy towards the tip, and a
-pod with many seeds; climbing by means of tendrils; the leaves
-have many leaflets.--_Faba_ (_F. vulgaris_, Horse-bean) is erect,
-without tendrils; its pod is thick with spongy septa between the
-seeds.--_Ervum_ (Lentil) has a pod with only 1–2 seeds, and sweeping
-hairs (stylar-brush) on the inner side of the style.--_Pisum_ (Pea;
-Fig. 512) has very large stipules, the bent style has a hollow groove
-on the anterior side. _P. sativum_ (Common Pea), _P. arvense_ (Grey
-Pea).--_Lathyrus_ (Sweet Pea) generally has an angular, winged stem and
-most frequently only a few pairs of leaflets. The style is flattened,
-with sweeping hairs on the back. ~In _L. aphaca_ the stipules alone
-are developed into foliage-leaves, while the remainder of the leaf is
-modified into a tendril.~--_Cicer_ has a nearly straight embryo and
-imparipinnate leaves with dentate or incised leaflets. _C. arietinus_
-(Chick-pea).--~_Abrus_ (_precatorius_, etc.); the seeds (“Crab’s eyes,”
-“Paternoster peas,” “Jequirity”) are scarlet with a black spot round
-the hilum.~
-
-=5.= PHASEOLEÆ. Herbs, twining or erect, but not climbing by tendrils;
-the leaves are imparipinnate, generally _ternate_, and bear small,
-linear bodies resembling stipules at the base of the stalks of the
-leaflets. The inflorescences are most frequently compound, groups of
-few flowers being situated on short, nodose, lateral axes borne on a
-longer stem. On germination the cotyledons are raised a considerable
-distance above the ground, and become greenish, but do not become
-leaf-like; in _P. multiflorus_ they remain underground. Stamens as
-in the Vetches.--_Phaseolus_ (Kidney-bean): the keel with the stamen
-and style is spirally _twisted_ (to the right). Herbs, twining to the
-left.--~The “Calabar-bean” (_Physostigma venenosum_), _Erythrina_,
-_Clitoria_, _Glycine_, _Soja_, _Mucuna_, _Apios_, _Canavalia_, _Vigna_,
-_Dolichos_, _Cajanus_, _Rhynchosia_, etc.~
-
-=6.= TRIFOLIEÆ (CLOVERS). Herbs with _ternate_ leaves, the leaflets
-are often dentate with the veins prolonged into the teeth; stamens
-diadelphous; fruit 1-locular, 1–few-seeded, pyxidium-like, irregularly
-dehiscent, or more frequently a _nut_. The flowers are generally borne
-in capitula, racemes, or spikes.--_Trifolium_ (Clover). The corolla
-is gamopetalous. The calyx persists, together with the corolla, round
-the ripe fruit. The inflorescence is a spike, capitulum or capitate
-umbel; the leaves are ternate, and have adnate stipules.--_Medicago_
-(Medick). The corolla falls off after flowering; fruit curved like a
-sickle or spirally twisted; it is a nut, and opens with difficulty.
-Leaves ternate.--_Melilotus_ (Melilot) has a small, spherical or
-lanceolate, thick and wrinkled fruit, which as a rule is indehiscent.
-The inflorescence is a raceme, often long, or a spike, sometimes a
-capitulum. Leaves ternate.--_Ononis_ (Rest-harrow) differs in having
-monadelphous stamens and in being more shrub-like and bushy, and in
-having a normal, 2-valved pod, by which characteristic it approaches
-the Genisteæ. The flowers are generally rose-coloured, solitary, or in
-few-flowered racemes in the leaf-axils. Thorns (branches) are often
-present; the leaves are compound with only one small leaflet (the
-terminal one), or ternate with adnate stipules.
-
-=7.= LOTEÆ. Herbs with ternate or imparipinnate leaves, with entire
-leaflets. In the latter case, when the lowest pair of leaflets is
-placed quite close to the sheath, the stalk is wanting, and apparently
-a trifoliate leaf with large stipules is developed. Flowers in
-an umbel or capitulum. Stamens monadelphous or diadelphous, the
-filaments (either all of them, or only the 5 sepal-stamens) are
-widened at the top.--_Lotus_ (Bird’s-foot-trefoil) has a long, round
-pod.--_Tetragonolobus._--_Anthyllis_ (Lady’s-finger); the fruit is
-a nut, which is distributed by the wind by means of the membranous,
-bladder-like calyx, which completely encloses and falls off with it.
-
-=8.= GENISTEÆ. The majority are shrubs or trees with apparently simple
-leaves, _i.e._ compound leaves with only one leaflet (the terminal
-leaflet), or ternate leaves; the stipules in most instances are very
-small or are entirely wanting; stamens monadelphous.--_Genista_
-(Dyer’s-weed) has apparently simple leaves; the branches often
-terminate in a thorn. ~The strongly-winged stems in _G. sagittalis_
-are its most important organs of assimilation. _Bossiæa rufa_
-has flat branches, its leaves being reduced to small, pointed
-stipules.~--_Sarothamnus_ (Broom) has switch-like, angular branches
-and often both the apparently simple and ternate leaves on the same
-shoot; style spirally rolled.--_Cytisus_ (Laburnum). _Ulex_ (Furze;
-~in _U. europæus_, the seedlings bear a few foliage leaves, but
-the leaves succeeding these are modified into thorns~); _Spartium_;
-_Crotalaria_, etc.--_Lupinus_ (Lupin) is allied to this group; it has
-a thick, often somewhat fleshy pod, and digitate leaves with adnate
-stipules.--_Retama._
-
-=9.= HEDYSAREÆ are especially recognised by having the ovary divided
-by transverse septa into as many cells as there are seeds, the fruit
-thus becomes a _lomentum_, dehiscing transversely into nut-like joints
-(Fig. 513).--_Ornithopus_ (Bird’s-foot); _Coronilla_; _Hippocrepis_;
-_Onobrychis_ (Sainfoin) has a fruit with only 1 joint (_i.e._ a
-1-seeded nut); _Desmodium_; _Alhagi_; _Hedysarum_, etc.--_Arachis
-hypogæa_ (Earth-nut) has a pod which is abstricted between the seeds,
-and is indehiscent, but is not multilocular nor a true lomentum; it is
-reticulately wrinkled externally, and ripens underground; the basal
-part of the ovary is prolonged after flowering, attaining a length of
-several inches, and buries the young fruit in the soil. The embryo is
-straight.--~_Desmodium gyrans_ is well-known for its motile leaflets.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 513.--_Hedysarum coronarium._]
-
-=10.= DALBERGIEÆ. 25 genera; especially in Tropical America; the
-majority are trees, a few shrubs or lianes; the leaves are simple
-or imparipinnate. The fruit is _indehiscent_ in all; in some it is
-a winged, in others a wingless _nut_ (_Machærium_, _Dalbergia_,
-_Centrolobium_, etc.), in others, again, a drupe, _e.g._ in _Dipteryx_
-(Tonquin-bean) and _Andira_. In some genera the embryo is straight.
-
-   POLLINATION. Especially effected by Bees. The nectar is secreted
-   by a ring or disc-like portion round the base of the gynœceum or
-   the inner surface of the receptacle. The flower is constructed
-   with a peculiar mechanism to ensure cross-pollination by
-   insects. The pollen is shed just before the flower opens, and
-   is retained in a pouch formed by the keel. An insect visiting
-   the flower uses the wings and keel for a landing-stage, and
-   in attempting to reach the honey presses down the wings and
-   the keel which are locked together near the standard; the
-   stylar-brush by this means is forced through the apical opening
-   of the keel and a little pollen is thus swept out and deposited
-   upon the abdomen of the visiting insect as it presses against
-   the apex of the keel; the insect thus carries away pollen and
-   may effect cross-pollination. In the different flowers this
-   arrangement is modified in various ways to promote pollination.
-   5000 species (319 genera); especially in the Tropics, where
-   many are important forest trees.--The following plants are used
-   FOR FOOD: _Pisum sativum_ (W. Asia?) and _arvense_ (Italy);
-   _Phaseolus vulgaris_ (Kidney-bean, American; _Dolichos sinensis_
-   was known to the Greeks and Romans under the name “φασηλος,”
-   “phaseolus”), _P. compressus_ (French-bean), etc.; _Faba_
-   _vulgaris_ (Field-bean, Horse-bean; from the Old World);
-   _Ervum lens_ (Lentil, Eastern Mediterranean); in tropical
-   countries the oil-containing seeds of _Arachis hypogæa_.--The
-   following are FODDER plants: _Vicia sativa_, _Faba vulgaris_,
-   _Onobrychis sativa_ (Sainfoin), _Medicago sativa_ (Lucerne),
-   and _lupulina_ (Medick), species of _Trifolium_, _Hedysarum
-   coronarium_. OFFICINAL: “Liquorice root,” from _Glycyrrhiza
-   glabra_ (S. Europe); “Red Sandalwood,” from _Pterocarpus
-   santalinus_ (Tropical E. Asia); Gum Tragacanth, from
-   _Astragalus_-species (E. Mediterranean); Balsam of Peru, from
-   _Toluifera pereiræ_, and Balsam of Tolu, from _Toluifera
-   balsamum_. Calabar-beans, from _Physostigma venenosum_; Kino,
-   from _Pterocarpus marsupium_; the pith of _Andira araroba_ is
-   used under the name of “Chrysarobin.”--Of use TECHNICALLY:
-   _Genista tinctoria_ (yellow dye) and _Indigofera-species_
-   (Indigo), the bast of _Crotalaria juncea_ (Sunn Hemp); the
-   seeds of _Dipteryx_, which contain Coumarin, and are highly
-   scented, and Balsam of _Myroxylon_. POISONOUS: the seeds of
-   _Laburnum_ (_Cytisus laburnum_), various species of _Lathyrus_,
-   and _Abrus precatorius_; the latter contain two poisonous
-   proteids, paraglobulin and albumose, which resemble snake-poison
-   in their effects. The following are ORNAMENTAL plants:
-   _Phaseolus multiflorus_ (Scarlet runner, from America), _Robinia
-   pseudacacia_, _Amorpha_, _Colutea_, _Coronilla_, _Indigofera
-   dosua_, _Wistaria polystachya_, _Cytisus laburnum_ (Laburnum, S.
-   Europe, Orient.) and other species.
-
-Order 3. =Mimosaceæ.= The flowers are most frequently hypogynous
-and _regular_, the æstivation of the corolla is _valvate_ and, in
-the majority of instances, that of the calyx also. The flower is
-4-merous, less frequently 5- or 3-merous.--The flowers are generally
-small, but are always borne in compact, round _capitula_ or spikes
-(Fig. 514); they are hypogynous or perigynous. The calyx is generally
-_gamosepalous_ and the corolla _gamopetalous_, the latter being
-frequently wanting. The stamens are equal or double the number of the
-petals (_Mimosa_, etc., in _M. pudica_, _e.g._ S4, P4, A4, G1) or
-(in _Acacia_, _Inga_, etc.) in a large, indefinite number, free or
-monadelphous, often united to the corolla (Fig. 514 _b_). The colour of
-the flower in most cases is due to the long and numerous stamens. The
-_fruit_ is various. The embryo is _straight_ as in the Cæsalpiniaceæ.
-_Entada_ and many species of _Mimosa_ have a flat, straight, or
-somewhat sickle-like pod, which resembles the siliqua of the Cruciferæ
-in that the sutures (in this instance, however, dorsal and ventral
-suture) persist as a frame, but the intermediate portion divides, as
-in the transversely divided siliqua, into as many nut-like portions as
-there are seeds. Some species have a pod of enormous dimensions. The
-seeds of _Entada gigalobium_ are often carried from the West Indies to
-the N. W. coasts of Europe by the Gulf Stream.--The fruit of _Acacia_
-in some species is an ordinary pod, in others it is transversely
-divided, or remains an undivided fruit, a nut.--This order includes
-both trees and herbaceous plants, which are often thorny; the leaves
-are usually bipinnate (Fig. 514) and are sensitive, and also possess
-sleep-movements.--Many Australian Acacias have compound leaves only
-when young, but when old have _phyllodia_, _i.e._ leaf-like petioles
-without blades, placed vertically. A large number have thorny stipules,
-which in some (_Acacia sphærocephala_) attain an enormous size, and
-serve as a home for ants, which in return protect their host-plant
-against the attacks of other, leaf-cutting ants.
-
-   [Illustration: FIG. 514.--_Acacia farnesiana_: _a_
-  inflorescence; _b_ flower.]
-
-Other genera besides those mentioned are: _Adenanthera_, _Desmanthus_,
-_Parkia_, _Inga_ (with rather fleshy, indehiscent fruit), _Calliandra_,
-etc.
-
-   1350 species (30 genera); none natives of Europe, their home
-   being the Tropics and sub-tropical regions, especially
-   Australia and Africa.--Fossils in Tertiary.--Gums are found in
-   many species of _Acacia_, especially the African (Gum arabic)
-   and Australian, of which some are _officinal_. The bark, and
-   also the fruits, contain a large amount of _tannic acid_ and
-   are used as astringents and in tanning (“Bablah” is the fruits
-   of several species of _Acacia_). Catechu is a valuable tanning
-   material extracted from the wood of _Acacia catechu_ (E. Ind).
-   The flowers of _Acacia farnesiana_ (Fig. 514) are used in
-   the manufacture of perfumes. With us they are cultivated as
-   ornamental plants, _e.g._ _A. lophantha_ and many others, in
-   conservatories.
-
-
-                      Family 22. =Passiflorinæ.=
-
-The flowers are most frequently regular, 5-merous in the three
-most external whorls, eucyclic and perigynous or epigynous, less
-frequently hypogynous. A characteristic feature is that the ovary is
-_tricarpellary_, _unilocular_, and with 3 _parietal_ placentæ which
-sometimes meet in the central line (_Cucurbitaceæ_). The styles are
-generally free and _bifid_. To all these characteristics, however,
-there are exceptions. ~The Cucurbitaceæ are sometimes placed among the
-Sympetalæ, close to the Campanulinæ, but they are not allied to the
-Sympetalæ, from which they differ especially, for instance, in the
-structure of the ovule. The position of the Begoniaceæ in this family
-is also open to doubt.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 515.--_Passiflora cœrulea_ (reduced).]
-
-Order 1. =Passifloraceæ= (=Passion-flowers=). The majority are
-herbs which climb by means of tendrils (modified branches) and have
-scattered, stipulate leaves, often palminerved and lobed (Fig. 515).
-The flowers, which are often large and beautiful, are regular, ☿, with
-S5, P5, A5, G3; the calyx and corolla are _perigynous_, and immediately
-inside the corolla is the “corona,” consisting of numerous, tapering,
-filamentous bodies, or sometimes united in rings, most frequently
-petaloid and coloured; the stamens are raised on a long, round
-internode above the _cup-like receptacle_; immediately above these is
-the gynœceum with its 3 free styles and capitate stigmas; the ovary is
-unilocular with 3 parietal placentæ. Fruit most frequently a _berry_.
-The seeds have an aril.
-
-   210 species; especially in Tropical America. Several
-   _Passiflora_-species are ornamental plants, and the fruits of
-   some species are edible.
-
-Order 2. =Papayaceæ.= The best known representative is the Papaw
-(_Carica papaya_), a Tropical American tree whose stem is usually
-unbranched, and bears at its summit several large, palmilobed leaves
-on long stalks. The stem and leaves have latex. The large, Melon-like
-berries are edible, and for this reason it is cultivated in the
-Tropics. Flowers unisexual, with slightly different structure in
-the ♂-and ♀-flowers, besides intermediate forms. The ♂-flower has a
-gamopetalous, the ♀-flower a polypetalous corolla.--The milky juice
-contains a substance with similar action to pepsine. 10 stamens. 5
-carpels.
-
-   Order 3. =Turneraceæ.= 85 species; especially in America.
-
-   Order 4. =Samydaceæ.= 160 species; tropical.
-
-Order 5. =Loasaceæ.= Herbaceous plants seldom shrubs, sometimes
-climbing, and nearly always studded with _stiff hairs_, in some
-instances stinging or hooked. The leaves are most frequently palmilobed
-and without stipules. The flowers are regular, ☿, polypetalous,
-entirely _epigynous_, with 4–5 sepals, petals and stamens, or more
-frequently (by splitting) many stamens, those which are placed before
-the sepals being generally barren and more or less petaloid; carpels
-most frequently 3, united into an inferior, unilocular ovary with 3
-parietal placentæ, above which the receptacle is generally more or less
-prolonged. Fruit a capsule; in _Gronovia_ an ovary with 1 ovule and
-fruit a nut.
-
-   115 species; principally from S. Am. A number of annuals are
-   often grown in our gardens: _Bartonia aurea_ (California);
-   _Mentzelia_; _Cajophora_; _Gronovia_.
-
-Order 6. =Datiscaceæ.= 4 species, especially in the Tropics.--_Datisca
-cannabina_ (Asia Minor) resembles the Hemp in external appearance. The
-flowers are diœcious, insignificant; ♂-flowers: a low, gamosepalous
-calyx, no corolla, and an indefinite number of stamens; ♀-flowers;
-_epigynous_; ovary unilocular with free, mostly bifid, styles, and
-generally 3 parietal placentæ. In most cases the ovary is not entirely
-closed at the top (as in _Reseda_).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 516.--_Begonia rex_ (reduced).]
-
-Order 7. =Begoniaceæ.= This order principally comprises herbs or
-under-shrubs with succulent stems (having scattered vascular bundles
-in the pith); the leaves are arranged in two rows (a divergence of
-1/2) and _are asymmetrical_, as a rule more or less obliquely cordate,
-or ovate with cordate base (Fig. 516); large, caducous stipules are
-present. Inflorescences dichasial, or unipared scorpioid cymes; the
-flowers are unisexual; the first ones (the oldest) are ♂-flowers, while
-♀-flowers are found especially on the younger axes. The ♂-flowers
-have most frequently 2 + 2 coloured perianth-leaves, and many stamens
-collected into a head in the centre of the flower; the ♀-flowers are
-_epigynous_ with 5 coloured perianth-leaves (placed spirally with a
-divergence of 2/5) and a trilocular ovary, bearing 3 bifid styles and
-3 wings (the wings usually of unequal size); in the inner angle of
-each loculus there is one large projecting placenta, or two plate-like
-placentæ (the bent back edges of the carpels) studded with ovules.
-Fruit a capsule, with many extremely small seeds.--_Begonia._
-
-   420 species; almost all from the Tropics (Am., Asia).--Many
-   species, with varieties and hybrids, are ornamental plants in
-   houses and conservatories, chiefly on account of the form,
-   colour and markings of their leaves; but also for their very
-   beautiful flowers. They reproduce easily by adventitious buds
-   from leaves and portions of leaves placed on damp soil; some
-   have bulbils. Like the Oxalideæ they contain an acid sap.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 517.--_Ecballium agreste._ Diagram of a ♂-and
-  a ♀-flower.]
-
-Order 8. =Cucurbitaceæ.= The flower is _epigynous_, and, as a rule,
-is also provided with a leaf-like, cup- or bell-shaped receptacle
-above the ovary, to which the perianth and stamens are attached; the
-flowers are regular, _unisexual_, with rudiments of the other sex,
-and 5-merous: sepals 5, narrow and pointed, with the median sepal
-posterior (Fig. 517), petals 5, stamens 5, and carpels 3 (rarely 4–5);
-the corolla is _gamopetalous_ in the majority, polypetalous in some;
-generally plicate-valvate in the bud. _The anthers in the ♂-flowers are
-extrorse, and monothecious, i.e. only one half of each of the anthers
-of the 5 stamens is developed_, the _pollen-sac_ having frequently a
-peculiar [tilde]-shaped curve (Fig. 518 _A_, _B_); the stamens are
-_either all united_ into a column (_e.g._ in _Cucurbita_), or they
-are _united in pairs_, so that only one remains free (Figs. 517 _A_;
-518 _A_); in the latter case there appears to be one small stamen
-with a [tilde]-shaped, curved pollen-sac and two larger ones, each
-with two curved pollen-sacs placed as in Fig. 517 _A_. The original
-form appears to be _Fevillea_ with free petals and 5 free stamens.
-Sometimes the rudiment of a gynœceum is present. The carpels are united
-into an _ovary_ with 3 (4–5) placentæ formed by their united edges.
-These are thick, fleshy, and _bifid_, bearing a number of ovules on
-each side (Figs. 517 _B_; 518 _C_, _D_); in general the placentæ are
-so large that they not only meet in the centre, but also fill up the
-ovary as far as the wall of the pericarp. The whole interior of the
-fruit thus becomes a juicy mass in which three lines may be seen,
-meeting in the centre (the boundaries of the individual placentæ),
-and near the circumference 6 groups of seeds (Fig. 518 _D_). When the
-carpels are equal in number to the petals they alternate with them.
-The _style_ is short and thick, and generally divided into 3 (4–5)
-branches, with a horse-shoe shaped stigma on each branch (Fig. 518
-_C_). The _fruit_ is most frequently a many-seeded _berry_; in some it
-attains a considerable size and has a firm external layer (_Cucurbita_,
-_Lagenaria_, etc.). _The embryo is straight_, has _no endosperm_,
-but contains a large quantity of _oil_. The exceptions to the above
-characters will be found under the genera.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 518.--_Citrullus colocynthis_: _A_ ♂-flower,
-  cut open and spread out; _B_ stamen; _C_ ♀-flower in long
-  section; _h_ receptacle; _ca_ calyx; _D_ transverse section of
-  ovary.]
-
-Exclusively herbs, generally with stiff hairs and yellow flowers. Many
-species are annuals, others are perennial, having tuberous roots or
-hypocotyls. The leaves are scattered, long-stalked, in most cases more
-or less heart-shaped, palminerved, palmilobed, and exstipulate; in
-their axils are found both flowers (singly, or in an inflorescence)
-and a vegetative bud, and outside the axil, _on the anodic[37] side of
-the leaf, a simple or branched tendril_, by which the plant _climbs_
-(exceptions: _e.g._ _Ecballium_).
-
-   The position of the flowers, branches and tendrils situated
-   in and near the leaf-axils is as follows. In the leaf-axils,
-   a flower is borne (as a branch of the first order), ♂ or ♀,
-   according to the conditions of the various genera. This branch
-   is not situated in the centre of the axil, but is removed
-   slightly towards the anodic side of the leaf. Of its two
-   bracteoles as a rule only the one lying on the anodic side is
-   developed, namely as a tendril, which is displaced to a position
-   outside the axil. The branch of the first order bears on its
-   catodic side an inflorescence (in the axil of the suppressed
-   bracteole), on the anodic side a vegetative bud which grows out
-   into a branch like the main axis. The subtending leaf of this
-   branch is thus the tendril; but when it has several arms the
-   condition is complicated by the appearance of an accessory bud
-   which unites with its subtending leaf, the tendril, its leaves
-   also becoming tendrils (situated on an undeveloped internode);
-   the many-branched tendril is thus a branch, and the tendril-arms
-   are its leaves, except the main arm which is its subtending
-   leaf. Other explanations of these difficult relations have
-   been given.--The _germination_ is somewhat peculiar, owing to
-   the fact that a heel-like prolongation is formed at the base
-   of the hypocotyl to assist in separating the two halves of the
-   testa from each other, and to facilitate the unfolding of the
-   cotyledons.
-
-_Cucurbita_ (Pumpkin, Marrow) has branched tendrils; the flowers are
-monœcious, and are borne singly; the corolla is bell-shaped, and
-divided almost as far as the middle. The stamens are all united into
-a tube; the compressed seeds have a thick, blunt edge.--_Cucumis_ has
-(generally) unbranched tendrils; the ♀-flowers are borne singly, whilst
-the ♂-flowers are borne in groups: the corolla is divided nearly as
-far as the base, and the stamens are united 2-2-1. The connective is
-elongated above the anthers. The seeds have a sharp edge.--_Citrullus_
-(Fig. 518) has a corolla similar to _Cucumis_, but ☿-and ♂-flowers are
-borne singly; the stigma is only 3-lobed, the fruit most frequently
-spherical.--_Ecballium_ (Squirting Cucumber, only 1 species, E.
-_elaterium_) has no tendrils, and is therefore not a climber. The
-oblong fruit is pendulous from the apex of its stalk, and when ripe is
-distended with an acrid, watery fluid; on being touched the fruit is
-detached, and the seeds, together with the watery fluid, are violently
-ejected through the aperture formed at the base of the fruit. The
-♂-flowers are borne in racemes near the solitary ♀-flowers (Fig.
-517).--_Bryonia_ (White Bryony) has chiefly unbranched tendrils and
-small, greenish-yellow, usually diœcious flowers with rotate corolla,
-in many-flowered inflorescences; the small, spherical berry has no
-specially firm outer layer, and generally only few seeds. The tap-root
-and a few of the other roots are tuberous. _B. alba_ (berry black;
-monœcious) and _dioica_ (berry red; diœcious). ~Among other genera may
-be mentioned: _Lagenaria_ (Gourd); the fruit has a woody external
-layer which, after the removal of the pulpy integument, may be used
-as a gourd. _Luffa_ has a polypetalous corolla; the fruit is dry, and
-consists internally of a network of vascular bundles; it opens by an
-aperture at the summit. _Benincasa_; the fruit has a close, bluish
-coating of wax. _Trichosanthes_ (Snake Cucumber) has a thin, round,
-long and curved fruit. _Momordica_; the fleshy fruit opens and ejects
-the seeds. _Cyclanthera_ takes its name from the staminal column which
-is found in the centre of the ♂-flower, bearing a bilocular, ring-like
-anther which opens by a horizontal cleft. The fruit is unilocular by
-suppression, has 1 placenta, and when touched opens and ejects the
-seeds. _Sicyos_ and _Sechium_ have only unilocular ovaries with one
-pendulous ovule. _Sechium_ has, moreover, 5 free stamens, of which only
-one is halved, the other 4 having both halves of the anther. _Fevillea_
-and _Thladiantha_ also have 5 free stamens. _Dimorphochlamys_ has
-dimorphic flowers.~
-
-   POLLINATION is effected by insects, chiefly bees or wasps,
-   the nectar being secreted by the inner, yellow portion of the
-   receptacle; in the ♂-flower access is gained to the nectar
-   through the slits between the stamens, which arch over the
-   nectary.--85 genera; about 637 species; especially in the
-   Tropics. Only two are found in the whole of N. Europe, _Bryonia
-   alba_ and _dioica_; in S. Europe, _Ecballium_ also. Most of
-   the cultivated species have been obtained from Asia, such as
-   the Cucumber, Melon, Colocynth, several _Luffa_-species (the
-   “Gourds” mentioned in Scripture are _Cucumis chate_); from
-   Africa, the Water-melon, _Cucurbita maxima_, and others; from
-   S. Am., no doubt, the Pumpkin (_C. pepo_ and _melopepo_). USES.
-   Many species are used in medicine or for domestic purposes.
-   _Bitter_, _poisonous properties_ are found; the fruits of the
-   two _officinal_ ones are purgative: _Citrullus colocynthis_
-   (Mediterranean, E. India, Ceylon) and _Ecballium elaterium_,
-   as well as various tropical species, the roots of Bryonia,
-   etc.--The following are cultivated AS ARTICLES OF FOOD: Pumpkin
-   (_Cucurbita pepo_, etc.), Cucumber (_Cucumis sativus_), Melon
-   (_Cucumis melo_), the Water-melon (_Citrullus vulgaris_),
-   _Sechium edule_ (Chocho), certain species of _Luffa_ (the
-   young fruit). The Bottle Gourd is cultivated in tropical
-   countries for the sake of its hard pericarp, which is useful
-   for bowls, bottles, etc. The fruits of _Luffa_ have a number
-   of reticulately felted, tolerably firm vascular bundles, which
-   render them serviceable in various ways (as a kind of “sponge”).
-   The Cucurbits are of no use in the manufactures. Only a few are
-   cultivated as ornamental plants, chiefly as curiosities.
-
-
-                       Family 23. =Myrtifloræ.=
-
-The leaves are most frequently _opposite_, _simple_, _entire_ (rarely
-dentate), and _exstipulate_. The flowers are _regular_ and _epigynous_
-(perigynous in _Lythraceæ_ and a few others), ☿, polypetalous; the
-number of members in a whorl is generally 4 or 5 (S, P, A, or most
-frequently A 2, G), but sometimes it becomes (_e.g._ Myrtles and
-_Lythraceæ_) very large in the andrœcium by splitting, and in the
-gynœceum also is often different. (When suppression takes place it is
-principally in the corolla and petal-stamens.) In nearly all instances
-the calyx is _valvate_. Gyncœceum multicarpellary, multilocular,
-with only one _style_ (except _Haloragidaceæ_). In the majority the
-ovules are situated on an axile placenta in the multilocular ovary.
-_Endosperm is wanting_ in the majority.--~Less important exceptions:
-_Rhizophoraceæ_ and _Gunnera_ have stipules. _Haloragidaceæ_ have
-several styles and endosperm. _Rhizophora_ also has endosperm.~
-
-Order 1. =Lythraceæ.= _Hermaphrodite_, _perigynous_ flowers which are
-_most frequently =6=-merous_, viz. S 6 (often with a _commissural_
-“_epicalyx_,” Fig. 519 _c_), one segment posterior, P 6, A 6 + 6 or
-6 + 0 and G =2–6=, forming a 2–6-locular ovary with many ovules in
-the loculi, style single, and capitate stigma. The _gynœceum is free_
-at the base of the tubular, or bell-shaped, _thin_, strongly veined
-receptacle, which bears the other leaf-whorls on its edge and inner
-side. Fruit a capsule. No endosperm.--To this order belong both herbs,
-shrubs and trees. The branches are frequently square, the leaves always
-_undivided_, _entire_, and without stipules, or with several very
-small stipules, and often opposite. The calyx is valvate. The flower
-is regular (except _Cuphea_) and frequently large and beautiful. The
-stamens are generally incurved in the bud, and the petals irregularly
-folded.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 519.--_Lythrum salicaria._ _c_ the
-  “epicalyx.”]
-
-_Lythrum_ (Loose-strife). The flower is diplostemonous and 6-merous,
-with a long, tubular receptacle with epicalyx-teeth (Fig. 519 _c_).
-The 12 stamens are arranged in two tiers on the inner side of the
-receptacle. The gynœceum is bicarpellary. ~The flowers are borne
-in small dichasia in the leaf-axils, and their number is increased
-by accessory inflorescences beneath the main inflorescence.--The
-native species, _L. salicaria_, is trimorphic (long-styled, mid-and
-short-styled forms, Fig. 520). Cross-pollination is chiefly
-effected by humble-bees and bees, which seek the nectar formed at
-the bottom of the receptacle. Other species are only dimorphic,
-or even monomorphic.~--Closely allied are, _Nesæa_, _Diplusodon_,
-_Lagerstrœmia_, and _Cuphea_, whose flower resembles that of _Lythrum_,
-but is zygomorphic. In _Cuphea_ the receptacle is oblique and at the
-back prolonged into a _spur_, in which the nectar, secreted by a
-gland situated behind the ovary, is collected; the calyx and corolla
-gradually become reduced in size toward the anterior side of the
-flower; the reverse, however, is the case with the 11 stamens (the
-posterior one is absent); the posterior loculus in the bilocular ovary
-is sometimes barren; the fruit, when ripe, dehisces along the posterior
-side, the ovary as well as the wall of the receptacle being ruptured
-by the placenta, which expands and projects freely. ~The flowers stand
-singly in the centre of the stem, between the pairs of leaves. This
-may be explained as follows: of the two foliage-leaves in each pair,
-one supports a foliage-shoot, the other a flower; the foliage-shoot
-remains in the axil, but the flower is displaced through the length
-of an entire internode to the next pair of leaves, and then assumes
-a position between these two leaves. All foliage-shoots stand in two
-rows, the flowers in two other rows.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 520.--_Lythrum salicaria._ One side of the
-  perianth is removed from all three flowers. _A_ is long-styled,
-  _B_ mid-styled, and _C_ short-styled. The direction of the arrows
-  and dotted lines indicates the best (legitimate) methods of
-  crossing.]
-
-   _Peplis_ (Water-purslane), a small, annual plant, with thin,
-   bell-shaped receptacle without projecting nerves. The small
-   flowers have no petal-stamens, and often also no corolla; fruit
-   indehiscent.--_Ammannia_ is closely allied to it.
-
-   365 species; 30 genera; mostly in the Tropics, and more
-   especially S. Am.--Some yield _dyes_, _e.g._ _Lawsonia inermis_
-   (cultivated in Africa and Asia) and _Lagerstrœmeria indica_;
-   some contain tannin; others are ornamental plants, especially in
-   gardens in warm countries.
-
-   Order 2. =Blattiaceæ.= 12 species. Tropical Asia and Africa.
-   Trees. Formerly included with _Punica_, but best placed as an
-   independent order.
-
-   Order 3. =Melastomaceæ.= A very natural and very large order
-   (150 genera; 2,500 species), its home being chiefly in tropical
-   S. America, especially the Brazils (termed by Schouw “The
-   kingdom of Palms and Melastomaceæ”). There are both herbaceous
-   and arborescent species, which are easily recognized by the
-   opposite or verticillate, simple leaves which have (with the
-   exception of a few heather-like species) 3–5–7–9 curved veins
-   proceeding from the base of the leaf, and connected very
-   regularly by closely parallel, transverse veins. The flower
-   is perigynous or epigynous; its type is that of the Onagraceæ
-   (4–5-merous; 1 whorl of sepals, petals and carpels, 2 of
-   stamens); the calyx is valvate, the corolla is twisted (to
-   the left) in æstivation; the stamens are very characteristic;
-   in the bud they are geniculate; the anther opens in the often
-   long, beak-like, prolonged point, with 1, less frequently with
-   2 pores, and has generally ear-like appendages at its base.
-   The fruit is a berry or capsule. These large and beautiful
-   flowering-plants play a very important part in South American
-   landscapes; otherwise they are of slight importance (a few are
-   cultivated in conservatories, _e.g._ _Centradenia_, _Medinilla_,
-   _Lasiandra_, _Tibouchina_, _Miconia_, etc.).
-
-Order 4. =Œnotheraceæ= (or =Onagraceæ=). The flowers are arranged in
-racemes or spikes, ☿, epigynous, regular, polypetalous, _=4=-merous in
-all 5 whorls_ (1 whorl of sepals, petals and carpels, 2 of stamens);
-2–3–5–6-merous flowers are less frequent; _the calyx is valvate_, the
-_corolla twisted_ in æstivation (the left edge being covered). Gynœceum
-simple with multilocular ovary; the _style is undivided_, filiform,
-and bears a capitate or 4-partite stigma; endosperm wanting; embryo
-straight.--The majority are herbs, especially water- and marsh-plants;
-several are shrubs. No essential oils. The leaves are alternate or
-opposite, always single, and without (or with very small) stipules.
-~The odourless flowers sometimes have a coloured calyx. In some
-instances (_e.g._ _Œnothera_, _Fuchsia_) the receptacle is prolonged
-more or less beyond the inferior ovary, and finally falls off. The
-stamens are obdiplostemonous (carpels epipetalous); the petal-stamens
-are sometimes suppressed. The anthers in some genera are divided into
-storeys. The well-pronounced, triangular pollen-grains are connected
-together by viscous threads. Small stipules are sometimes found, _e.g._
-_Fuchsia_, _Lopezia_.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 521.--Flower of _Lopezia_.]
-
-=A.= =Fruit a capsule.= _Œnothera_ (Evening Primrose) is 4-merous,
-has 8 stamens, a tubular receptacle, and an oblong capsule with
-loculicidal dehiscence leaving a centrally placed column, bearing
-the seeds.--_Epilobium_ (Willow-herb) deviates from _Œnothera_
-especially in the seeds being hairy (at the chalazal end of the
-seed).--_Chamænerium_ is a Willow-herb with zygomorphic flowers.--~The
-following may be included here: _Clarkia_, _Eucharidium_ (an _Œnothera_
-with 4 stamens and 3-lobed petals), _Godetia_ and _Boisduvalia_,
-_Jussiæa_ (dehiscence septicidal), _Isnardia_ (petal-stamens absent,
-sometimes the petals also).--_Lopezia_ has a peculiar, zygomorphic
-flower (Fig. 521); one of the four sepals is bent forwards and the
-other 3 backwards; the posterior petals are narrower than the 2
-anterior ones which are turned obliquely backwards and bent like
-a knee, with a greenish nectary at the bend; 2 stamens, one only
-fertile (the posterior), while the anterior is barren, petaloid, and
-spoon-shaped; both are sensitive, which is essential for pollination.
-In Fig. 521, _a_ represents an early stage, in which the stamen and
-style lie concealed in the staminode; _b_ is the ♂ stage, the stamen
-projects from the centre of the flower; _c_, the ♀ stage, the style
-occupies the place of the stamen.~
-
-=B.= =Fruit a berry.= _Fuchsia_ generally has a coloured calyx and
-tubular receptacle; the corolla may be wanting.
-
-=C.= =Fruit a nut.= _Circæa_ (Enchanter’s Nightshade) has a 2-merous
-flower (S2, P2, A2 + 0 [petal-stamens are wanting], G2). The flowers
-are borne in racemes without bracts.--_Gaura._
-
-=D.= =Fruit a drupe.= _Trapa_ (Horn-nut); a peculiar aquatic plant;
-the submerged stem has long internodes and lanceolate leaves, falling
-off at an early period, but at each node are found 4 long roots with
-thin, lateral roots (sometimes erroneously regarded as leaves) borne
-pinnately; the stem reaching the surface of the water, bears a rosette
-of rhombic foliage-leaves, with large, inflated stalks containing air,
-and forming the floating apparatus of the plants. In the axils of the
-leaves (as in _Gunnera_) 8 small, stipular structures are present. The
-flowers are solitary in the axils of the foliage-leaves (S4, P4, A4 +
-0, G2), _semi_-epigynous. There is an 8-lobed, crenate disc on the free
-portion of the ovary; one ovule in each loculus. The fruit is a _drupe_
-with 4 (or 2) prominent horns (the persistent sepals), which after the
-pulp has decayed away bear a series of hooks turned downwards on each
-side, _i.e._ sclerenchymatous bundles which formerly lay concealed
-in the pulp of the sepals. ~The germination is peculiar: one of the
-cotyledons is large, and its thick extremity remains in the fruit,
-the other however is small and is pushed out at the apex of the fruit
-together with the radicle and plumule; the development of the root soon
-ceases, and the plumule usually grows into a stem entirely without
-branches, similar to the one described above, only that 1–2 precisely
-similar shoots arise in the axil of each cotyledon, so that each embryo
-produces 3–5 shoots.--_Trapa_, by its mode of life, its 1-seeded fruit,
-etc., forms a transition to _Haloragidaceæ_.~
-
-   The large-flowered forms are adapted for insect-pollination and
-   are often protandrous, the small-flowered ones are homogamous
-   and may pollinate themselves. _Œnothera_ is adapted for
-   hawk-moths and bees.--330 species; especially in temperate
-   climates, chiefly in the Northern Hemisphere. _Epilobium_,
-   _Circæa_ are natives of this country; _Trapa_ is extinct in this
-   country, it has been found in a semi-fossilized condition near
-   Cromer and in bogs in Denmark, and existed in Sweden until a few
-   years ago; _Œnothera_ has been introduced from N. Am.--A number
-   of N. Am. species are grown as ornamental plants in our gardens.
-   The seeds of _Trapa natans_ are edible, and used as food in
-   China.
-
-Order 5. =Haloragidaceæ.= This is a reduced form of the Œnotheraceæ,
-and principally differs from these in the presence of _endosperm_
-and _free styles_. _Only 1 ovule in each loculus._--84 species
-distributed over the entire globe; the majority are aquatic
-plants. The most advanced type is _Myriophyllum_ (Water-Milfoil),
-with a regular, epigynous flower (S4, P4, A4 + 4, G4), most
-frequently _diclinous_ (monœcious); the fruit is a _2–4-partite
-schizocarp_. Aquatic plants, most frequently with pectinate, pinnate
-leaves.--_Haloragis._--~_Gunnera_ (a dozen species from the Southern
-Hemisphere) forms the next step in the reduction. Large, scattered,
-rough-haired, and softly-spined leaves, with small flowers in crowded
-inflorescences. The flower, when most complete, has S2, P2, A2
-(petal-stamens) and G2, forming an inferior, unilocular ovary with
-1 ovule. It is remarkable for the great number of stipules placed
-in transverse rows in the leaf-axils, for the peculiar glandular
-organs, and for the colonies of _Nostoc_, which are found embedded in
-the cortex as a kind of parasite.~--The simplest form is _Hippuris_
-(Mare’s-tail) with an extremely small, crenate or entire calyx, without
-corolla, and with only one stamen and one carpel, forming an inferior,
-unilocular ovary with only one ovule. Fruit a drupe with thin pulp.
-~It is an aquatic plant with creeping, sympodial rhizome, and erect
-unbranched shoots, bearing numerous small, verticillate leaves. The
-small flowers are situated singly in the leaf-axils.~
-
-   Order 6. =Rhizophoraceæ.= Tropical trees or shrubs (50 species,
-   the best known being _Rhizophora mangle_, Mangrove) which grow
-   gregariously, especially along the banks of rivers and by
-   sea-coasts, where the water is quiet and brackish, and where
-   they form the so-called Mangrove-swamps. Aerial roots are formed
-   on the stems and branches (Fig. 522 _A_). The seeds germinate
-   in the fruit, which by arrest contains only one seed (Fig. 522
-   _B_), before it is detached from the tree. The radicle projects
-   considerably from the seed, and hangs down freely in the air;
-   when the embryo is finally detached from the mother-plant,
-   the separation is effected by the hood-like cotyledon, which
-   entirely envelops the plumule, becoming detached from the rest
-   of the embryo, which falls down, while the hood-like cotyledon
-   remains enclosed in the fruit. The embryo, after it has fallen,
-   strikes root, and continues growing in the undisturbed mud
-   under the trees, or perhaps it may first be drifted about by
-   the water, being well adapted for this by its peculiar, tough
-   nature, and large, intercellular spaces.--It may also further
-   be remarked that the anther is divided into a number of small
-   loculi. The leaves are stipulate. The endosperm projects from
-   the micropyle, growing out from the base of the seed, and thus
-   serves as an organ of suction to convey nutriment to the embryo
-   from the mother-plant.
-
-   Order 7. =Combretaceæ.= Trees and shrubs, partly lianes.
-   An inferior, unilocular ovary with few pendulous ovules.
-   _Conocarpus_ and _Laguncularia_ form, in conjunction with
-   the species of Rhizophoraceæ, the tropical Mangrove-swamps.
-   _Terminalia._--280 species; Tropics.
-
-  [Illustration:  FIG. 522.--_Rhizophora mangle_ with the germinating
-  fruit (much reduced).]
-
-Order 8. =Myrtaceæ (Myrtles).= The plants belonging to this order are
-shrubs or trees, the majority being easily recognised by the vegetative
-characters. The leaves, for instance, are most frequently opposite,
-without stipules, undivided and entire, parchment-like or leathery,
-evergreen, _aromatic_, finely dotted by _pellucid glands containing
-essential oils_; the venation is penninerved with a nerve just inside
-and running parallel to the edge of the leaf. The flowers are regular,
-epigynous (Figs. 523, 524, 525) and ☿, most frequently =4-= or 5-merous
-in the calyx and corolla, with _many_ stamens (by splitting, so that
-they are often in several distinct bundles) and an ovary with one
-style, formed of 2–5–many carpels; the receptacle is most frequently
-united for its entire length with the ovary. The fruit varies, but is
-_most frequently a berry_. The embryo is thick, often curved, with
-united cotyledons; no endosperm.
-
-=1.= MYRTEÆ, MYRTLE GROUP. Chiefly American, though some are found also
-in Africa and Asia. The fruit is a _berry_ with generally 2–5 loculi in
-the ovary, and many ovules in each.--_Myrtus_; _Eugenia_ (the petals
-fall off together as a hood in the Clove, _E. caryophyllata_, Figs.
-523, 524); _Myrcia_; _Jambosa_; _Amomis_; _Psidium_, etc.
-
-=2.= PUNICEÆ, POMEGRANATE GROUP. Only 2 species (_Punica granatum_;
-from Persia, Afghanistan), differing in several respects from the
-typical form of the Myrtaceæ. The leaves are generally _opposite_,
-without glands and marginal veins. The receptacle, calyx and corolla
-are red; the latter 5–8–(generally 6-) merous. Calyx valvate and
-corolla folded as in Lythraceæ, stamens also and epicalyx as in this
-order. The most characteristic feature is the inferior, spherical
-berry, with dry pericarp, formed from two whorls of carpels in two
-tiers (Fig. 525); the interior whorl, which is also the lower, has
-3 carpels, and the placentæ are situated in the inner angles of the
-3 loculi; the external whorl is 5-merous, and the placentæ have
-originally the same position in the inner angles of the loculi, but
-their position is changed to the outer side of the loculi owing to the
-growth of the wall of the ovary, which takes place early, causing the
-carpels to become, as it were, turned inside out, so that the part
-which was turned downwards is turned upwards, and the part which was
-turned inwards becomes turned outwards (as in _Mesembrianthemum_). The
-edible part of the fruit is the _fleshy testa_, as in _Ribes_. The
-cotyledons are rolled together spirally.
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 523, 524.--_Eugenia caryophyllata._
-
-  FIG. 523.--Flowers (nat. size).
-
-  FIG. 524.--A bud (“clove”), long. sec. (mag.).]
-
-   [Illustration: FIG. 525.--_Punica granatum._ Flower, long. sec.
-  (nat. size).]
-
-=3.= LECYTHIDEÆ. The majority are South American. The leaves are
-scattered, without pellucid glands, and frequently dentate. The flowers
-are zygomorphic. The woody fruits are either indehiscent, or open by
-a lid. To this belong: _Bertholletia_ (_B. excelsa_), the seeds well
-known as “Brazil-nuts,” _Lecythis_ (Sapucaia-nuts from _L. ollaria_),
-_Barringtonia_.
-
-=4.= LEPTOSPERMEÆ. Almost entirely from Australia and the East
-Asian and Pacific Islands. The fruit is a _capsule_. The leaves
-are scattered, and in some placed edgewise by the twisting of the
-leaf-stalks.--_Eucalyptus_, the Australian Gum-tree; the calyx falls
-off like a lid (Figs. 526, 527). Some of the species attain gigantic
-heights, _E. amygdalina_ 140–150 m. with a diameter of 8 m. The leaves
-in _E. globulus_ are opposite and dorsiventral on the young plant; on
-the older scattered, placed edgewise by the twisting of the leaf-stalk,
-and isolateral; _Metrosideros_, _Calothamnus_ (stamens distinctly
-polyadelphous), _Melaleuca_, _Leptospermum_, _Callistemon_ (the flowers
-are borne in spikes whose axis continues to grow after flowering, thus
-several zones of fruits may be seen on the same branch).
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 526, 527.--_Eucalyptus globulus._
-
-  FIG. 526.--Long. sect. of flower.
-
-  FIG. 527.--Flower opening.]
-
-
-=5.= CHAMÆLAUCIEÆ. Australian shrubs with heath-like appearance; they
-differ from the other Myrtaceæ in having a unilocular ovary with few,
-basal ovules, and a 1-seeded _nut_. The sepals are often pappus-like,
-and divided into many bristles.--_Chamælaucium_, _Darwinia_, etc.
-
-   This large order (2,100 species) is confined almost entirely to
-   the Tropics, being found principally in America and Australia.
-   In Europe, only _Myrtus communis_.--Several are useful on
-   account of the large quantity of _volatile oils_ (contained
-   in internal glands): the flower-buds (“Cloves”) of _Eugenia
-   caryophyllata_ (the Moluccas, cultivated in the Tropics, Figs.
-   523, 524); the unripe, dry berries (“Pimento”) of _Myrtus
-   pimenta_ (_Pimenta officinalis_, W. Indies); Cajeput oil is
-   extracted from _Melaleuca minor_ and _leucadendron_ (East
-   Asian Islands). _Eucalyptus globulus_ (Australia) has of late
-   years become well known on account of its rapid growth, its
-   hard wood, and its antipyretic qualities; it is cultivated on
-   swampy soils, which it helps to drain.--OFFICINAL: “Cloves,”
-   and the cork of both stem and root of _Punica granatum_.
-   Several have EDIBLE FRUITS, such as _Psidium guyava_ (Guava,
-   var. _pomiferum_ and _pyriferum_, Am.), _Eugenia cauliflora_
-   and others, _E. jambosa_, _Punica granatum_ (the Pomegranate),
-   etc. EDIBLE SEEDS (with abundance of _fatty oil_): “Brazil
-   nuts” from _Bertholletia excelsa_ (Trop. S. Am.). “Bay-rum”
-   is extracted from the leaves and fruits of the Bayberry-tree
-   (_Pimenta acris_, W. Ind.); Guava-rum from the berries of
-   _Eugenia floribunda_. _Tannin_ is found in large quantities
-   _e.g._ in _Punica_. _Gum_ is formed by many Australian Eucalypti
-   (“Gum-trees”). ORNAMENTAL PLANTS cultivated in this country are:
-   _Myrtus communis_ (Mediterranean), several in conservatories,
-   especially the Australian Leptospermeæ, Eucalyptæ and others.
-
-
-                      Family 24. =Umbellifloræ.=
-
-The flower is regular, ☿, and _completely epigynous_, 5- or 4-merous,
-with =1= whorl of stamens and 5–2 carpels. _Sepals very small,
-tooth-like._ The _corolla is polypetalous, most frequently valvate in
-æstivation_ (least pronounced in the Umbelliferous plants). Round the
-base of the styles, which are generally free, there is an _epigynous_
-(undivided, or divided) _nectar-disc_ (“stylar-foot”: Figs. 528 _B_,
-_C_, _D_; 539); the number of loculi in the ovary equals that of the
-carpels; _only =1= pendulous (anatropous) ovule_ (Fig. 528 _C_) _in
-each loculus_. Endosperm copious (Fig. 528 _D_). To this must be added
-that the inflorescence in the majority of cases is an _umbel_ or a
-capitulum, especially in the _Umbelliferæ_ and _Araliaceæ_. Stipules
-are absent, but most frequently the base of the petiole forms a large
-sheath.
-
-   The Umbellifloræ are on one side so closely allied to the
-   Frangulinæ, especially Rhamnaceæ, that they may perhaps be
-   regarded as the epigynous continuation of this family. On
-   the other hand, the similarities to the Rubiales, especially
-   those between Cornaceæ and Sambuceæ, are so great that there
-   is scarcely any character to distinguish them except the
-   polypetalous corolla of the former and the gamopetalous corolla
-   of the latter. Whether this is more than a merely analogous
-   resemblance, and if not, whether the Cornaceæ at least should
-   not be included in the Rubiales, must be left in abeyance.--The
-   sepals are very small, as is generally the case in epigynous
-   flowers.
-
-Order 1. =Cornaceæ.= The majority of the species are shrubs with solid
-internodes, _opposite_ (rarely scattered) leaves, which are _simple_,
-_entire_ (rarely incised), penninerved, _without_ stipules or large
-sheaths; flowers _=4=-merous_ (most frequently S4, P4, A4, G2), borne
-in dichasia which are either collected into corymbs (_e.g._ _Cornus
-sanguinea_), or in closely crowded umbels or capitula (_Cornus mas_,
-_C. suecica_), in which latter case there is often a _large_, leafy, or
-coloured, most frequently 4-leaved _involucre_ round the base of the
-inflorescence; the _style is undivided_, with lobed stigma; the raphe
-of the ovule is turned _outwards_. The fruit is a _berry_ or a _drupe_,
-with a 1–4-locular stone or 2 free stones.
-
-_Cornus_ (Dogwood, Cornel) has S4, P4, A4, G2. Leaves opposite.
-
-_Drupe_ with a bilocular, 2-seeded stone.--_Aucuba_, diœcious;
-unilocular ovary; 1 ovule; 1-seeded berry.--_Garrya._--_Helwingia._
-
-   80 species; N. Temp. The fruits of _Cornus mas_ are edible;
-   the wood is very hard; gum is found in some. Several species
-   of _Cornus_ and _Aucuba japonica_ (Japan) are cultivated as
-   ornamental shrubs.
-
-Order 2. =Araliaceæ (Ivies).= Principally _trees_ or _shrubs_ with
-_solid stems_. The leaves are _scattered_, simple or compound, with
-a sheath more or less developed. The flowers are most frequently
-situated in umbels or capitula which are either borne singly or in
-racemes, or in paniculate inflorescences. The small, most frequently
-yellowish-green flowers are =5=-_merous_, in the calyx, corolla, and
-andrœcium; the gynœceum may be 5-merous or may have some other number
-(=2=-∞). The styles are most frequently several, free; the _raphe_
-of the ovules is turned _inwards_ as in the Umbelliferous plants.
-The fruit is a _drupe_ or _berry_.--~Stellate hairs often occur. The
-petals generally have a broad base, and a thick apex which is slightly
-incurved, and a distinctly valvate æstivation.~
-
-_Hedera helix_ (Ivy) climbs by adventitious roots. The leaves are
-palminerved and lobed on the sterile branches, but often ovate and not
-lobed on the flowering branches. ~The flowers are yellowish-green and
-open in the autumn; they are slightly protandrous, and are visited by
-flies and wasps. Berries black. Endosperm ruminate.--_Panax._ _Aralia_
-(with _Dimorphanthus_).~
-
-   375 species, 51 genera; especially in the Tropics (E.
-   Asia).--The Ivy, several species of _Aralia_, _e.g._ _A.
-   japonica_ (_Fatsia_), _Gastonia palmata_, are cultivated as
-   ornamental plants. Paper is manufactured from the pith of
-   _Aralia papyrifera_ (China).
-
-Order 3. =Umbelliferæ.= _The stem is herbaceous_ with _hollow
-internodes_; the leaves are _scattered_, and have a broad, amplexicaul
-base, a _large, most frequently inflated sheath_, and generally a
-pinnate (often very much dissected) blade. ~Entire leaves are found in
-_Hydrocotyle vulgaris_; _Bupleurum_.~
-
-The flowers are ☿, regular, small, but collected in _compound umbels_,
-that is, in “simple umbels,” which again are borne in umbels (for
-exceptions see _Hydrocotyleæ_); the external flowers in the simple
-umbel have often subtending bracts, which surround the base as an
-_involucre_, and may be termed the _small involucre_; the internal ones
-have no bracts; when involucral leaves are present at the base of the
-compound umbel, they may be termed the _large involucre_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 528.--_Daucus carota_ with flower and fruit.]
-
-The _flower_ has =5= sepals (the median, as usual, posterior), =5=
-petals, =5= stamens and =2= carpels (in the median line) (Fig. 528).
-The calyx is often scarcely indicated. The petals have a short claw
-are most frequently obcordate, or have an incurved apex (Fig. 528 _B_,
-_C_), being incurved in the bud; they are white, rarely yellow (Fennel
-and Parsnips), blue or red. The flowers are sometimes zygomorphic,
-especially those on the circumference of the umbel, and in that case
-it is the petal which is directed outside (anterior) which is the
-largest, and the two posterior are the smallest (_e.g. Heracleum_).
-The stamens are _incurved_ in the bud. The 2 _free styles_ unite at
-the base into the “stylar-foot” (_stylopod_), a swollen nectary (Fig.
-528 _B_, _C_); the ovary is bilocular, the raphe of the ovules being
-directed inwards. _The fruit is a schizocarp_, _dividing into two
-mericarps_; the plane in which these separate coincides with that of
-the union of the carpels, and the two _nut-like mericarps_ are in
-most genera kept together for awhile at the top of a thin, bifid, or
-undivided stalk (_carpophore_) which is in direct continuation with
-the flower-stalk (Fig. 537). Each mericarp has most frequently 5 more
-or less strongly projecting ridges, the _primary ridges_ (Figs. 530,
-532, 534, 535, etc.), of which 3 lie on the back of the mericarp, the
-_dorsal ridges_, and 2 on its edge near the plane of division, the
-_marginal ridges_; five of these (10 ridges in all in the entire fruit)
-are placed opposite the calyx-teeth and the others between them. In
-some genera there are in addition 4 _secondary ridges_ to each mericarp
-between the primary ones (Fig. 528 _E_: the secondary ridges bear the
-long bristles). Inside these secondary ridges, or inside the grooves
-between the primary ridges, when the secondary ridges are absent, _oil
-ducts_ (vittæ, schizogenous ducts) are found in the pericarp, most
-frequently one in each groove; two are also often found on the ventral
-side of each mericarp (Figs. 528 _E_, 530 _ol_, etc.). The seed is
-most frequently united with the pericarp. The _embryo_ is _small_ and
-lies high up in the large, most frequently horny endosperm (Fig. 528
-_D_).--The endosperm _does not contain starch, but oil_, and presents
-three different forms, of important systematic value: (=a=) those which
-are quite flat on the ventral side (_i.e._ the side turned towards the
-plane of splitting) (Figs. 528 _E_, 530, 531, 534, etc.): the majority
-of the genera, ORTHOSPERMEÆ (_e.g._ _Carum_, _Pastinaca_); (=b=)
-those in which the endosperm on the ventral side is provided with a
-longitudinal groove, often deep: CAMPYLOSPERMEÆ (_e.g._ _Anthriscus_);
-the transverse section is nearly a crescent (Fig. 532); (=c=) those
-in which the endosperm is concave on the ventral side (hollow in
-both longitudinal and transverse sections): CŒLOSPERMEÆ (_e.g._
-_Coriandrum_) (Fig. 538).
-
-   The genera are distinguished first of all by the endosperm and
-   forms of fruit, the ridges and oil-ducts; then by the form of
-   the umbel, the calyx and corolla, by the absence or presence of
-   an involucre, etc.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 529.--_Hydrocotyle vulgaris._ Transverse
-  section of fruit.]
-
-1. HYDROCOTYLEÆ, PENNY-WORT GROUP. _Capitula_ or _simple umbels_
-(all the other groups have compound umbels). No oil-ducts.
-Orthospermous.--_Hydrocotyle_ (Penny-wort). The fruit is _considerably
-compressed_ laterally (Fig. 529). The calyx-teeth are small. The leaves
-are peltate.--_Didiscus._--_Sanicula_ (Sannicle). The umbels are small,
-capitate, generally collected in a raceme; calyx-teeth distinct. ♂-and
-♀-flowers in the same umbel. The fruits are round, studded with hooked
-bristles. No carpophore.--_Astrantia_ has an umbel surrounded by a
-large, often coloured involucre, with this exception it is the same
-as the preceding, but the fruit is slightly compressed, with 5 equal
-ridges. _Hacquetia_ (_Dondia_).--_Eryngium_ (Sea Holly): leaves often
-thorny. The flowers _are all sessile_, the inflorescence is thus a
-capitulum; each flower is often subtended by a bract, which is thorny
-like the involucre, resembling the burrs of the Teasel. The sepals are
-large.--~_Lagœcia_: one of the loculi of the ovary is suppressed.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 530.--Fruit of _Carum petroselinum_: _fr_
-  endosperm; _ol_ oil-ducts.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 531.--_Pimpinella._ Transverse section of
-  fruit.]
-
-=2.= AMMIEÆ, CARAWAY GROUP (Figs. 530–532). The fruit has only the 10
-primary ridges; it is usually short, almost spherical or broadly ovate
-and distinctly _compressed_ laterally. Oil-canals are most frequently
-present. Orthospermous (except _Conium_).--_Cicuta_ (Cow-bane).
-Pointed calyx-teeth. Glabrous herbs with pinnate or bipinnate leaves.
-~_C. virosa_ has a thick, vertical rhizome, divided by transverse
-septa into many compartments; the leaflets are narrow, lanceolate,
-and dentate; the large involucre is wanting.~--_Apium_ (Celery). No
-calyx-teeth. _A. graveolens_, a maritime plant, has neither large nor
-small involucre; the umbels are short-stalked or sessile.--_Carum_
-(Caraway). Calyx-teeth small; the large involucre is wanting or is only
-few-leaved. _C. carvi_ (Caraway). _C. petroselinum_, (Parsley) (Fig.
-530). _Falcaria_; _Ammi_; _Helosciadium_; _Bupleurum_ (Hare’s-ear) with
-simple leaves and yellow corolla; _Pimpinella_ (Fig. 531); _Sium_;
-_Ægopodium_ (_A. podagraria_, Gout-weed) has bi- or tri-ternate leaves,
-with ovate, dentate leaflets; the large involucre is wanting.--_Conium_
-is campylospermous (Fig. 532); the short, broadly ovate fruit has
-distinctly projecting, often wavy crenulate ridges. _C. maculatum_
-(Hemlock) has a round, smooth stem with purplish spots.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 532.--_Conium maculatum._ Fruit entire and
-  in transverse section.]
-
-=3.= SCANDICEÆ. This group has a distinctly oblong or linear fruit
-which is _slightly compressed laterally_, and generally prolonged
-upwards into a “beak”; wings absent. _Campylospermous._ Otherwise
-as in the Ammieæ.--_Anthriscus_ (Beaked Parsley) has a lanceolate
-fruit, round on the dorsal side, without ridges, but with a ten-ridged
-beak.--_Scandix_ (Shepherd’s-needle).--_Chærophyllum_ (Chervil): fruit
-lanceolate or linear with low, blunt ridges; beak absent or very short.
-_C. temulum_ has a red-spotted, hairy stem.--_Myrrhis_ (Cicely) has a
-short beak and sharp, almost winged ridges. _M. odorata_ (Sweet Cicely)
-has very long fruits.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 533.--_Œnanthe phellandrium._ Fruit entire
-  and in transverse section. _emb_ The embryo; _ol_ the oil-ducts;
-  _fr_ endosperm.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 534.--_Fœniculum vulgare._ Fruit in
-  transverse section.]
-
-=4.= SESELINEÆ, FENNEL GROUP (Figs. 533, 534). The fruit is slightly
-elliptical or oblong, in transverse section circular or nearly so,
-without grooves in the dividing plane; only primary ridges are
-present. Orthospermous.--_Fœniculum_ (Fennel) has yellow petals; both
-involucres are wanting; the fruit is oblong. The ridges are thick, all
-equally developed, or the lateral ridges are slightly larger (Fig.
-534).--_Æthusa_ (_A. cynapium_, Fool’s Parsley); the large involucre
-is wanting or is reduced to one leaf, the small involucre is composed
-of three linear leaves which hang downwards on the outer side of the
-umbels. The fruit is spherical-ovate, with thick, sharp, keeled ridges,
-the lateral ones of which are the broadest.--_Œnanthe_ (Dropwort); the
-fruit (Fig. 533) has usually an ovate, lanceolate form, with distinct,
-pointed sepals and long, erect styles; the ridges are very blunt, the
-marginal ones a trifle broader than the others.--_Seseli_, _Libanotis_,
-_Cnidium_, _Silex_, _Silaus_, _Meum_, etc.
-
-=5.= PEUCEDANEÆ, PARSNIP GROUP (Figs. 535–537). The fruit is most
-frequently very strongly _compressed_ dorsally, with broad, mostly
-_winged_, lateral ridges. Only primary ridges. The dorsal ridges may
-project considerably, but are not winged. Orthospermous.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 535.--_Archangelica officinalis._
-
-  Transverse section of fruit.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 536.--_Scorodosma fœtidum._
-
-  Transverse section of fruit.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 537.--_Heracleum sphondylium._ Fruit.]
-
-=a.= The winged lateral ridges stand _out from each other_, so that the
-fruit appears to be 4-winged (Fig. 535).--_Angelica_; _Archangelica_
-(Fig. 535); _Levisticum_ (Lovage).
-
-=b.= The winged lateral ridges lie _close together_, and form one
-wing on each side of the fruit (Fig. 536).--_Pastinaca_ (Parsnip).
-Corolla yellow. The dorsal ridges are very weak; the oil-ducts do not
-reach quite as far as the base of the fruit. Both large and small
-involucres are wanting; leaflets ovate. _Anethum_ (Dill) is a Parsnip
-with more distinct dorsal ridges and filamentous leaflets. _Peucedanum_
-(Hog’s-fennel); _Ferula_ (with _Scorodosma_, Fig. 536, and _Narthex_);
-_Dorema_.--_Heracleum_ (Cow-parsnip); the flowers in the margin of the
-umbels are often very large, zygomorphic, and project like rays, _e.g._
-in _H. sibiricum_. The fruit is very flat, with very small dorsal
-ridges; the oil-ducts are more or less club-like and _do not reach as
-far as_ the base of the fruit (Fig. 537). _Imperatoria_; _Tordylium_.
-
-=6.= DAUCEÆ, CARROT GROUP (Fig. 528). The fruit has 18 ridges, _i.e._
-each fruitlet has 5 primary and 4 secondary ridges, the latter being
-often more prominent and projecting further than the primary ones. The
-oil-ducts are situated under the secondary ridges (Fig. 528).
-
-=a.= ORTHOSPERMOUS: _Daucus_ (Carrot). The secondary ridges project
-much further than the primary, and bear on their crests a series of
-hooked spines (Fig. 528 _D_, _E_); these are much longer than the
-small bristles on the primary ridges. ~The involucral leaves of _D.
-carota_ (Carrot) are numerous and deeply pinnate; the inflorescence
-contracts during the ripening of the fruit, and since the external
-umbels have longer stalks than the central ones, they arch over them,
-and the inflorescence becomes hollow. For the terminal flower, see
-below.~--_Cuminum_; _Laserpitium_; _Melanoselinum_.
-
-=b.= CAMPYLOSPERMOUS: _Torilis_ (Hedge Parsley). The primary ridges
-are covered with bristles; the secondary ridges are not. very distinct
-on account of the spines, which entirely fill up the grooves.
-_Caucalis_ (Bur Parsley).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 538.--_Coriandrum sativum_: _b_ secondary
-  ridges; _d_ primary ridges; _f_ endosperm; _l_ embryo.]
-
-=c.= CŒLOSPERMOUS: _Coriandrum_ (Coriander) has a smooth, spherical
-fruit (Fig. 538) with a distinct, 5-dentate calyx, the two anterior
-(_i.e._ turned outward) teeth being generally longer than the others;
-the two fruitlets scarcely separate from each other naturally; all the
-ridges project only very slightly, the curved primary ones least, the
-secondary ridges most.
-
-   POLLINATION. The flowers are adapted for insect-pollination;
-   they secrete nectar at the base of the styles; individually
-   they are rather small and insignificant, but yet are rendered
-   conspicuous by being always crowded in many-flowered
-   inflorescences. _Protandry_ is common, sometimes to such
-   an extent that the stamens have already fallen off before
-   the styles begin to develop (Fig 539, 2). Insect visits are
-   more frequent and numerous as the inflorescences are more
-   conspicuous. The flowers as a rule are ☿, but ♂-flowers are
-   often found interspersed among the others (Fig. 539), and the
-   number of these becomes greater on the umbels developed at the
-   latest period. A terminal flower, which differs from the others
-   in form, and in _Daucus carota_ often in colour also (purple),
-   is sometimes found in the umbel. The nectar lies so exposed and
-   flat that the flowers are principally visited by insects with
-   short probosces, especially Diptera; bees are less frequent
-   visitors, and butterflies rare.--1400 species (175 genera);
-   especially from temperate climates in Europe, Asia, N. Am. About
-   68 species in this country.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 539.--_Anthriscus silvester_: 1 ♂-flower; 2
-  ☿-flower.]
-
-   USES. A few are cultivated as ornamental plants. They are,
-   however, useful in medicine,[38] and for culinary purposes
-   on account of the _essential oils_ and _gum-resins_ which
-   in many are formed in root, stem, and fruit. The FRUITS of
-   the following are used: _Carum carvi_ [+] (Caraway), _Carum
-   petroselinum_ (Parsley; also the leaves and root; its home
-   is the Eastern Mediterranean); _Fœniculum capillaceum_ [+]
-   (Fennel; S. Europe); _Pimpinella anisum_ [+] (Anise; E.
-   Mediterranean); _Coriandrum sativum_ [+] (Coriander; S. Eur.);
-   _Œnanthe phellandrium_ (Water Dropwort); _Cuminum cyminum_
-   (Point Caraway; Africa; cultivated in S. Europe); _Anethum
-   graveolens_ (Dill). The LEAVES of the following are used as
-   pot-herbs: _Anthriscus cerefolium_ (Chervil); _Myrrhis odorata_
-   (Sweet Cicely; Orient.); _Conium maculatum_ [+] (the green
-   portions; Hemlock). Besides Parsley, the ROOTS of the following
-   are used: Carrot, Parsnip, _Sium sisarum_ (Sugar-root; E. Asia);
-   _Chærophyllum bulbosum_ (Chervil-root); _Levisticum officinale_
-   (foliage-shoots; S. Europe); _Imperatoria ostruthium_;
-   _Apium graveolens_ (Celery, the root in conjunction with the
-   internodes); _Pimpinella saxifraga_ and _magna_ (Pimpinell);
-   _Archangelica_ (Angelica, the root of _A. norvegica_ was
-   formerly an article of food in Norway). _Poisonous alkaloids_
-   are found in a few, such as Fool’s Parsley (_Æthusa cynapium_),
-   Hemlock (_Conium maculatum_), Cow-bane (_Cicuta virosa_)
-   and species of _Œnanthe_.--_Gum-resin_ is extracted from
-   various species: “Galbanum” from _Ferula galbaniflua_ [+] and
-   _rubricalis_ [+] (Persia); Asafœtida from _Ferula scorodosma_
-   [+] and _F. narthex_ [+]; Ammoniac-gum from _Dorema ammoniacum_
-   [+], all from Central and S. W. Asia. “_Silphium_” was an
-   Umbelliferous plant which grew in ancient times in Cyrene, and
-   from which the Romans extracted a valued condiment.
-
-
-                      Family 25. =Hysterophyta.=
-
-This family (with the exception of Aristolochiaceæ) includes only
-parasitic plants. Partly on this ground, and partly because they
-all have _epigynous_ flowers, they are considered to belong to the
-youngest type (which is expressed in the name ὕστερος, the one that
-comes after). It is not certain to which of the preceding families they
-are most nearly allied. ~Again, it is a matter of doubt whether the
-Aristolochiaceæ are related to the others; they are by Engler united
-with Rafflesiaceæ into one family, _Aristolochiales_.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 540.--Flower of _Aristolochia clematitis_
-  (long. sect.). _A_ Before pollination, and _B_ after: _n_ stigma;
-  _a_ anthers; _t_ an insect; _kf_ ovary.]
-
-Order 1. _Aristolochiaceæ._ The majority are perennial herbs or
-twining shrubs, whose stalked, simple, and generally more or less
-cordate or reniform leaves are borne in 2 rows and are exstipulate.
-The flowers are _hermaphrodite_, _epigynous_, regular or zygomorphic;
-perianth-leaves united, _simple_ but most frequently _petaloid_ and
-3-merous; 6 or 12 (in _Thottea_ as many as 36) stamens with _extrorse_
-anthers. The ovary is more or less completely 4–6-locular with ovules
-attached in the inner angles of the loculi (Fig. 540 _kf_). The style
-is short, and has a large, radiating stigma (Fig. 540 _n_). Fruit a
-capsule. Seeds rich in endosperm.
-
-_Asarum europæum._ Each shoot has 2 reniform foliage-leaves, between
-which the terminal flower is borne (the rhizome becomes a sympodium
-by development of the bud in the axil of the upper foliage-leaf).
-The flower is _regular_ and has a bell-shaped perianth with 3 outer
-valvate, and 3 inner small segments (which may be wanting). =12= (2
-× 6) free, extrorse stamens, 6 carpels.--_Aristolochia clematitis_
-(Birth-wort) has an erect, unbranched stem, bearing many flowers in the
-leaf-axils, in a zig-zag row (accessory buds in a unipared scorpioid
-cyme). The flowers are zygomorphic (Fig. 540), formed by 3 alternating,
-6-merous whorls. The perianth has a lower, much-distended part (_k_),
-succeeded by a narrow, bent tube (_r_), which passes over into an
-oblique, almost tongue-like projection (6 vascular bundles indicate
-that the number 6 is prevalent here, as in _Asarum_); =6= stamens (Fig.
-540 _a_), with the dorsal portion turned upwards, are united with the
-short style to form a _stylar column_; they are placed quite beneath
-the 6 commissural stigmatic rays, which arch over them as short, thick
-lobes. ~Protogynous; POLLINATION is effected in _Arist. clematitis_
-by small flies; these enter the erect unfertilised flower through
-the tube (Fig. 540 _A_, _l_) without being prevented by the stiff,
-downwardly-turned hairs which line the tube and prevent their escape;
-they find the stigma (_n_) fully developed, and may pollinate it with
-the pollen they have brought with them. The stigmas then straighten
-and wither (_B_, _n_), the anthers open, and the flies may again be
-covered with pollen; but the hairs which blocked up the tube do not
-wither until the anthers have shed their pollen, and only then allow
-the imprisoned flies to escape and effect cross-pollination. Prior to
-pollination, the flowers stand erect, but after this has taken place
-they become pendulous, and the perianth soon withers.--_A. sipho_
-(Pipe-flower), another species, is a climber, and often grown in
-gardens; it has only one row of accessory buds in the leaf-axils.--200
-species; chiefly in S. Am. OFFICINAL: the rhizome of _Aristolochia
-serpentaria_ (N. Am.).~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 541.--A fruit of _Myzodendron brachystachyum_
-  (slightly mag.) germinating on a branch.]
-
-Order 2. =Santalaceæ.= Parasites containing chlorophyll, which, by
-the help of peculiar organs of suction (haustoria) on their roots,
-live principally on the roots of other plants. Some are herbs,
-others under-shrubs. The regular, most frequently ☿-flowers have
-a simple perianth, which is gamophyllous, 3- or 5 partite with the
-segments valvate in the bud, and a corresponding number of stamens
-opposite the perianth-leaves. In the inferior ovary there is a
-_free, centrally placed_, often long and curved _placenta_ with
-three ovules (one opposite each carpel); these are naked, or in any
-case have an extremely insignificant integument. Fruit a nut or
-drupe. Seed without testa. Endosperm fleshy. 225 species; chiefly
-in the Tropics.--_Thesium_, a native, is a herb with scattered,
-linear leaves and small 5-merous flowers (P5, A5, G3) in erect
-racemes; the subtending bracts are displaced on the flower-stalks.
-Fruit a nut.--_Osyris_ (diœcious shrub; 3-merous flowers) is
-another European genus.--_Santalum album_, which grows in E. Ind.,
-yields the valuable, scented Sandalwood, the oil of which is used
-medicinally.--_Quinchamalium._
-
-   _Myzodendron_ is a reduced form of the Santalaceæ; the ♂-flowers
-   are without perianth; the perianth of the ♀-flower is 3-merous.
-   About 7 species; S. Am.; parasitic on a Beech (_Nothofagus_).
-   The fruit has 3 feathery brushes, alternating with the lobes
-   of the stigma, which serve as flying organs and to attach the
-   fruits to a branch (Fig. 541), the brushes twining round as
-   soon as they come in contact with it. There is only 1 seed in
-   the fruit, which germinates by a long, negatively heliotropic
-   hypocotyl, and is attached by a radicle modified into an
-   haustorium.
-
-Order 3. =Loranthaceæ= (=Mistletoes=). Plants containing chlorophyll
-which are parasites on trees, and most frequently have opposite,
-simple, entire leaves and regular, epigynous, often unisexual, 2- or
-3-merous flowers, with single or double perianth. Stamens equal in
-number and opposite to the perianth-leaves, free, or in varying degrees
-united to one another. The inferior ovary is constructed as in the
-Santalaceæ, the ovules being situated on a low, free, centrally-placed
-placenta, but the placenta and ovules unite with the wall of the ovary
-into _one connected, parenchymatous mass_, in which _the embryo-sacs
-are imbedded_. Only 1 (less frequently 2–3) of the 1–6 embryo-sacs
-is fertile. The number of the carpels however varies. The fruit is a
-_1-seeded berry_, whose inner layer is changed into a _tough slimy
-mass_ (bird-lime), which serves to attach the fruits to other plants.
-
-   The two groups, _Loranthoideæ_ and _Viscoideæ_, are
-   distinguished by the fact that the former has a distinct
-   “calyculus,” _i.e._ an entire or lobed, or dentate swelling
-   on the receptacle below the perianth. The majority of the
-   Loranthoideæ have a petaloid perianth; in all the Viscoideæ, on
-   the other hand, it is sepaloid.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 542.--_Viscum album_: _A_ branch with leaves
-  and berries: _a_ scale-leaves; _b_ foliage-leaves; _n_ _m_ _n_
-  flowers; _B_ seedling, the bark of the branch being removed; _C_
-  an older embryo which still retains the cotyledons.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 543.--To the left the Rafflesiaceous _Cytinus
-  hypocistus_, parasitic on the roots of _Cistus_. To the right the
-  Balanophoraceous _Cynomorium coccineum_, parasitic on the roots
-  of _Salicornia_.]
-
-The Mistletoe (_Viscum album_, Fig. 542) is a native, evergreen plant
-which may be found growing on almost any of our trees (sometimes on
-the Oak), and, like other Loranthaceæ, it produces swellings of the
-affected branches. ~Its spherical white berries (Fig. 542 _A_) enclose
-(1–) 2–3 green embryos; they are eaten by birds (especially Thrushes),
-and are partly sown with their excrement, partly struck or brushed
-off the branches of the trees, the seed being enclosed, at maturity,
-by viscin, _i.e._ “bird-lime.” The seeds may also germinate on the
-branches, without having first passed through the alimentary canal
-of the birds. On germination, the hypocotyl-axis first appears, as
-in Fig. 541, and bends towards the branch; the apex of the root then
-broadens, and forms at the end a disc-like haustorium, from the centre
-of which a root-like body grows through the bark into the wood, and
-ramifies between the bark and wood. Suckers are developed on the root
-like strands which are formed in this manner, without, however, having
-a rootcap; they are green, and penetrate the wood by the medullary
-rays (Fig. 542 _C_). Adventitious buds may also be developed from the
-root-like strands which break through the bark and emerge as young
-plants. The young stem quickly ceases its longitudinal growth, and
-lateral shoots are developed from the axils of its foliage-leaves.
-These and all following shoots have a similar structure; each of
-them bears a pair of scale-leaves (Fig. 542 _A_, _a_) and a pair
-of foliage-leaves (Fig. 542 _A_, _b_), and then terminates its
-growth, if it does not produce an inflorescence; new lateral shoots
-proceed from the axils of the foliage-leaves, and the branching, in
-consequence, is extremely regular and falsely dichotomous. Only one
-internode (shoot-generation) is formed each year, so that each fork
-indicates one year. The foliage-leaves fall off in the second year.
-The inflorescence is a 3(-5)-flowered dichasium (Fig. 542 _A_, _m_ is
-the central flower, _n_ the lateral). The plants are _diœcious_; the
-♂-flower as a rule is 2-merous: perianth 2 + 2, each leaf of which
-bears on its inner side 6–20 pollen-sacs, each of which opens by a
-pore; this relationship may be considered to have arisen from the union
-of the perianth-leaves with the multilocular stamens (2 + 2) placed
-opposite them. The ♀-flowers always have Pr 2 + 2, G2.--_Loranthus_
-is also found in Europe (it has a 3-merous flower), especially in
-the central and south-eastern districts, on _Quercus cerris_ and _Q.
-pubescens_; but the great majority of the 520 species grow in the
-Tropics on trees which they ornament with their often brightly-coloured
-flowers, and ultimately kill when present in too great numbers. The
-pollination in the numerous Loranthaceæ with unisexual flowers, is
-effected by the wind. In _Viscum album_ this takes place in autumn,
-the actual fertilisation in the following spring, and the maturity in
-November or December; in the succeeding month of May the berry is ready
-to germinate, and falls off.~
-
-   USES. Birdlime from _Viscum album_.
-
-   Order 4. =Rafflesiaceæ= and Order 5. =Balanophoraceæ=.
-   These orders comprise _root-parasites_, almost entirely
-   devoid of chlorophyll; they are reddish or yellow, without
-   foliage-leaves (Fig. 543). As far as our knowledge of these
-   rare tropical plants extends, they have thalloid organs of
-   vegetation resembling the root-like strands of _Viscum_, or
-   they are filamentous and branched like Fungus-hyphæ; they live
-   in and on the tissues of the host-plant, from which their
-   flowering-shoots, often of mushroom-like form, are subsequently
-   developed (Fig. 543). In order to unfold they must often break
-   through the tissues of the host-plant.
-
-   Of the RAFFLESIACEÆ, _Cytinus hypocistus_ is found in S. Europe
-   living on roots of _Cistus_-plants and to some extent resembling
-   _Monotropa_ (Fig. 543). _Rafflesia_ is the best known; it lives
-   on roots of _Cissus_-species (belonging to the Ampelidaceæ) in
-   Java; its yellowish-red, stinking flowers attain a gigantic
-   size (one metre or more in diameter), and are borne almost
-   directly on the roots of the host-plant. Besides these there
-   are other genera: _Brugmansia_, _Pilostyles_, _Hydnora_.--To
-   BALANOPHORACEÆ (Fig. 543) belong: _Balanophora_, _Langsdorffia_,
-   _Scybalium_, _Sarcophyte_, _Helosis_, etc., and in S. Europe,
-   _Cynomorium coccineum_.
-
-
-                       Sub-Class 2. =Sympetalæ.=
-
-The characters which separate this from the first Sub-class, the
-Choripetalæ, have been described on page 336. They consist in the
-following: the flower is always verticillate, generally with =5=
-sepals, =5= petals, =5= stamens, and =2= carpels (in the median plane),
-the calyx is generally persistent and gamosepalous, the corolla is
-gamopetalous and united to the stamens, which are therefore adnate to
-it, the ovules have only _one_ thick integument and a small nucellus.
-(The exceptions are noted later.)
-
-   This Sub-class is no doubt more recent than the Choripetalæ; it
-   is also peculiar in including fewer trees and shrubby forms than
-   the latter.
-
-The Sympetalæ may be separated into 2 sections:--
-
-=A.= PENTACYCLICÆ (FIVE-WHORLED). The flowers in this section have
-5 _whorls equal in number_, namely, 2 staminal whorls in addition
-to the calyx, corolla, and carpels; in some instances, one of the
-staminal whorls is rudimentary or entirely suppressed, but in this
-case it is frequently the sepal-stamens which are suppressed, and
-the whorl which is present stands opposite the petals. The flowers
-are regular. The _number of carpels equals that of the sepals_, but
-in one of the orders (_Bicornes_) they are opposite the petals (the
-flower being obdiplostemonous); in the other two orders (_Primulinæ_
-and _Diospyrinæ_) they are placed opposite the sepals (the flower
-being diplostemonous). This section is the most closely allied to the
-Choripetalæ, since the petals may sometimes be found entirely free,
-and the stamens inserted directly on the receptacle (Ericaceæ); ovules
-with two integuments are also found. ~It is very doubtful, whether the
-orders included under this head have any relationship with the other
-Sympetalæ. They appear in any case to represent older types.~
-
-=B.= TETRACYCLICÆ (FOUR-WHORLED). The flowers have only 4 whorls,
-namely, beside sepals, petals, and carpels, only one whorl of stamens,
-which alternates with the petals; there is no trace of the second
-staminal whorl, and when the number of carpels is the same as that of
-the preceding whorls (“isomerous”) they alternate with the stamens; but
-in most cases there are 2 _carpels placed in the median plane_ (see the
-diagrams, _e.g._ Figs. 559, 567, 583, 590, etc.). This section is the
-largest, and the one which shows the characteristics of the Sympetalæ
-best. Very irregular flowers are met with.
-
-The following families belong to the =Pentacyclicæ=: 26, _Bicornes_;
-27, _Diospyrinæ_; 28, _Primulinæ_.
-
-The remaining families belonging to the =Tetracyclicæ= are:--
-
-=a.= HYPOGYNOUS flowers (with a few exceptions): 29, _Tubifloræ_; 30,
-_Personatæ_; 31, _Nuculiferæ_; 32, _Contortæ_.
-
-=b.= EPIGYNOUS flowers: 33, _Rubiales_; 34, _Dipsacales_; 35,
-_Campanulinæ_; 36, _Aggregatæ_. The ovaries and ovules in the last
-family are always reduced to one; and at the same time the fruits
-become nuts, and the flowers are united into crowded inflorescences.
-
-
-
-
-                           A. Pentacyclicæ.
-
-
-                        Family 26. =Bicornes.=
-
-This family is chiefly composed of shrubs, less frequently of small
-trees, or perennial herbs; their leaves are undivided, most frequently
-evergreen, stiff and leathery, and always without stipules. The flowers
-are ☿ and _regular_, rarely slightly zygomorphic, most frequently
-obdiplostemonous, and 4- or 5-merous through all the 5 whorls. _The
-stamens are attached to the receptacle_, and as a rule are quite
-free from the petals, an attachment which is very rare among the
-Gamopetalæ. They have a simple gynœceum with _one_ undivided style, a
-commissural stigma, and a _multilocular_ ovary, whose axile placentæ
-project considerably into the loculi, and bear a large number of
-ovules. ~The placentæ are sometimes not united, and in consequence, the
-ovary is 1-locular with incomplete partition-walls, _e.g._ _Pyrola_,
-_Monotropa_.~ Embryo straight, with endosperm. _The carpels are placed
-opposite the petals._
-
-The _diagram_ is generally Sn, Pn, An + n, Gn, in which n is 4 or 5. To
-this may be added, that the _corolla is in most cases gamopetalous_,
-but in some (especially _Pyrolaceæ_) perfectly polypetalous; and that
-the _anthers usually open by pores_, and often have _two horn-like_
-appendages (hence the name “Bicornes”) (Figs. 545, 546); frequently
-the two halves of the anther are also widely separated from each other
-at the upper end, so that the pores are placed each one at the end of
-its own tube (Fig. 546); the pollen-grains in the majority are united
-into _tetrads_ (Fig. 542 _D_).--The flowers, as a rule, are pendulous
-and borne in racemes, coloured (red or white), but odourless. When the
-fruit is a capsule, the placenta with the seeds attached persists as a
-central column. A _mycorhiza_ occurs on many.
-
-The majority of plants belonging to this family inhabit cold and
-temperate countries, or high mountains in tropical regions; they prefer
-cold and dry or damp places (bogs, heaths, etc.). Plentiful in N.
-America.
-
-Order 1. =Pyrolaceæ.= Perennial _herbs_; _petals most frequently
-quite free from each other_, and falling off singly after flowering;
-_the anthers are without appendages_, and open by pores (Fig. 544),
-or by a transverse slit. The placentæ are thick. The seeds in the
-_capsule-like_ fruit (loculicidal dehiscence) are exceedingly small and
-light, they have a sac-like testa which loosely envelops them, an oily
-endosperm, and an _extremely simple embryo_, which consists only of an
-ellipsoidal, cellular mass, without cotyledons or differentiation into
-plumule and radicle.
-
-_Pyrola_ (Winter-green) is green, and has also large evergreen
-foliage-leaves. The flowers, 5-merous, are most frequently borne in
-racemes without a terminal flower; the anthers are extrorse in the bud
-with the pores in the lower portion (Fig. 544 _A_), but they become
-inverted at a later period, so that the pores open at the top (Fig.
-544 _C_). ~_P. uniflora_ has a single, terminal flower; it winters by
-its roots, producing from these in the spring aerial, quite unbranched
-shoots. _Chimaphila umbellata._~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 544.--_Pyrola minor_: _A_ portions of a
-  young flower; _B_ the stigma; _C_ portions of an older flower
-  (longitudinal section).]
-
-_Monotropa_ (Yellow Bird’s-nest) is very pale yellow, without
-chlorophyll, succulent, and has only scale-like leaves closely pressed
-upon the stem; it is a saprophyte. The raceme has a terminal flower,
-and is pendulous before flowering. The anthers open by a semicircular,
-transverse cleft. ~_M. hypopitys_ reproduces chiefly by root-shoots.~
-
-   About 30 species, especially N. Europe, N. America, and N. Asia.
-
-Order 2. =Ericaceæ.= The flower (Fig. 545) is _hypogynous_, the median
-sepal posterior; corolla, _gamopetalous_; the stamens are generally
-_2-horned_, and the fruit is a _capsule_, less frequently a berry or
-drupe. At the base of the ovary is a nectar-secreting disc (Fig. 545
-_B_). This order comprises shrubs or undershrubs (rarely small trees),
-which are evergreen, and as a rule have densely crowded leaves.
-
-=1.= ERICEÆ, HEATH GROUP. Flowers most frequently _4-merous_ (S4,
-P4, A4 + 4, G4, united in a 4-locular gynœceum), rarely 5-merous.
-The withered corolla _persists_ after flowering. The leaves are most
-frequently acicular, opposite or verticillate; the buds are without
-scales. The fruit is a capsule.--_Calluna_ (_C. vulgaris_, Ling) has
-a deeply 4-cleft corolla, which is less than the coloured calyx;
-capsule with septicidal dehiscence.--_Erica_ (about 420 species; _E.
-tetralix_, Cross-leaved Heath) has a tubular or bell-shaped, 4-dentate
-corolla, which is much longer than the calyx. Capsule with loculicidal
-dehiscence.--_Pentapera._
-
-=2.= ANDROMEDEÆ. The flowers are 5-merous (S5, P5, A5 + 5, G5),
-with _deciduous_ corolla. Capsule with loculicidal dehiscence. The
-leaves are scattered, and incline more to the ordinary broad-leaved
-forms.--_Andromeda_; _Gaultheria_; _Cassandra (Lyonia)_; _Cassiope_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 545.--_Arctostaphylos uva-ursi._]
-
-=3.= ARBUTEÆ. The flowers as in the preceding group (Fig. 545), but the
-fruit is a berry or drupe. _Arctostaphylos_ (_A. uva-ursi_, Bear-berry)
-has a drupe with 5 stones in a dry, farinaceous pulp; in other
-species there is 1 stone with several loculi. _Arbutus_ (_A. unedo_,
-Strawberry-tree) has a spherical berry.
-
-   _Pollination_ is effected by means of insects, especially by
-   bees. The pollen is light and dry, and is shaken out through
-   the pores of the anthers when the insects agitate the horn-like
-   appendages during their visits. Self-pollination takes place,
-   no doubt, in many cases.--800 species; the very large genus,
-   _Erica_, especially in S. Africa (the Cape).--OFFICINAL: the
-   leaves of _Arctostaphylos uva ursi_. _Arbutus unedo_ (S. Europe)
-   has an edible, peculiarly warted (strawberry-like) fruit. Many
-   _Erica_-species are cultivated as ornamental plants.
-
-Order 3. =Rhodoraceæ= (=Rhododendrons=). This differs from the
-preceding order in the _median sepal being anterior_, and hence the
-position of the other floral whorls is also reversed. The flower is
-_hypogynous_, in most cases 5-merous; the corolla is most frequently
-deeply cleft or polypetalous, and falls off after flowering; the
-anthers open by pores, and have _no horn-like appendages_. _Capsule_
-with _septicidal_ dehiscence.--The shrubs or small trees belonging to
-this order have, like the Vaccineæ, ordinary foliage-leaves, and the
-buds are generally provided with _large bud-scales_.
-
-_Rhododendron_ has 10 stamens, and a slightly zygomorphic flower with
-deeply 5-cleft corolla (the section _Azalea_ has frequently only 5
-stamens, the petal-stamens being absent). They are Alpine plants (200
-species) in the mountains of Asia, especially the Himalayas; some in
-S. Europe.--_Menziesia._--_Ledum_; small, rusty-brown, hairy shrubs
-with polypetalous, expanded, star-like corolla.--_Kalmia_ (N. Am.) has
-a cupular corolla, with 10 small, pocket-like depressions in which
-the anthers are concealed until the arched, elastic filaments are
-freed from this position by means of the insects, when they quickly
-straighten themselves in the centre of the flower.--_Phyllodoce_;
-_Loiseleuria_ (5 stamens); (_Clethra_ (?); also placed among the
-Ternstrœmiaceæ).
-
-   About 270 species. Several species are ornamental plants.
-   Several plants of the order are more or less _narcotic_. _Ledum
-   palustre_ has been used as a substitute for hops.
-
-   Order 4. =Diapensiaceæ.= Hypogynous flower. 3 floral-leaves
-   beneath the flower (S5, P5, A5 + 0, G3). Stamens on the throat
-   of the corolla. Pollen-grains single. Disc absent. Capsule
-   loculicidal.--9 species from the Arctic regions. It is doubtful
-   whether this order should be included in the Bicornes; perhaps
-   it would be more correctly assigned to the _Polemoniaceæ_.
-
-   Order 5. =Epacridaceæ.= This order comprises those species of
-   the family which are confined to Australia and the South Sea
-   Islands. They are shrub-like plants, resembling the Ericaceæ in
-   habit, in the inflorescence, and in the structure, form, and
-   colour of the flower. They differ especially in having only
-   1 _whorl of stamens_ (placed opposite the sepals) and in the
-   anthers having only 2 loculi, and opening by a longitudinal
-   slit. Fruit most frequently a drupe (or loculicidal capsule).
-   _Epacris_-and _Styphelia_-species are ornamental plants. About
-   325 species.
-
-Order 6. =Vacciniaceæ= (=Bilberries=). _The flower_ (Fig. 546) _is
-epigynous, the corolla gamopetalous_, and _the fruit a berry_. The
-latter is most frequently spherical, and bears on its apex the calyx,
-which is generally very low, almost entire, and with a _disc-like
-expansion_ inside. The flower is 4- or 5-merous (Fig. 546 _B_, _D_). The
-anthers have 2 pores, and are most frequently 2-horned (Fig. 546 _F_,
-_G_). Small shrubs; the leaves are scattered, not needle-like.
-
-_Vaccinium_ (Bilberry, Whortleberry) has an urceolate, gamopetalous,
-only slightly dentate corolla, and horn-like appendages to the anthers
-(Fig. 546). ~_V. vitis idæa_ (Cowberry) is evergreen, with flowers in
-racemes, and bright red berries; _V. myrtillus_ (Bilberry) and _V.
-uliginosum_ (Bog Whortleberry) both have black berries with a blue
-bloom, leaves deciduous.~--_Oxycoccus_ has a _polypetalous_ corolla
-with the petals projecting backwards. Anthers without appendages. ~_O.
-palustris_ (Cranberry) has a slender, creeping stem, and is evergreen.
-Dark red berry.~
-
-   Pollination essentially the same as the preceding order.--320
-   species; especially in N. Am. Some are useful on account of
-   their edible fruits, especially _Vaccinium myrtillus_ and _V.
-   vitis-idæa_, and in a less degree _Oxycoccus_, etc. The fruits
-   of _V. myrtillus_ are _officinal_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 546.--_Vaccinium uliginosum_ (var.
-  _microphyllum_). The parts of the flower _A-E_ are enlarged 5–6
-  times; _C_ and _E_ are longitudinal sections; _B_ and _D_ the
-  flower seen from above; _F_ and _G_ a stamen seen from the back
-  and front; _H_ the style and stigma.]
-
-
-                       Family 27. =Diospyrinæ.=
-
-The flowers are _regular_, gamopetalous, typically diplostemonous,
-with the same number throughout all 5 whorls, thus: Sn, Pn, An + n,
-Gn, where n most frequently =5 (4–6), rarely 3, 7 or 8. Of the two
-whorls of stamens the one opposite the sepals is often present only
-as rudiments or is entirely suppressed, and the completely developed
-_stamens are thus placed opposite the petals_. The carpels are
-generally placed opposite the sepals. The _ovary is multilocular_ with
-the ovules attached in the inner angles. The fruit is most frequently
-a _berry_. The seeds are large, generally solitary, or a few in each
-loculus.--All plants belonging to this family are _trees_ or shrubs
-with _scattered_, _single_, _most frequently entire_, _penninerved_ and
-_leathery_ leaves without stipules; the majority are tropical (America,
-Asia), some are found in N. Am. and the Mediterranean.
-
-   Order 1. =Sapotaceæ.= Plants with latex; anthers extrorse, 1
-   _erect_ ovule in each loculus; fruit a berry; the seeds with
-   bony, shiny brown testa have a large, lateral hilum. The leaves
-   are frequently covered with silky hairs.--A useful order in
-   several respects (400 tropical species). The wood of some
-   genera, such as _Sideroxylon_ (Iron wood) and _Bumelia_, is as
-   hard as iron. The latex of _Palaquium_ (_P. oblongifolium_, _P.
-   gutta_, and other species), _Mimusops_ and _Payena_ (Sumatra,
-   E. Ind.), is the raw material of _gutta percha_. The following
-   have very delicious fruits: _Lucuma mammosa_, _Achras sapota_,
-   _Chrysophyllum cainito_ (Star-apple), etc. The seeds of _Bassia_
-   (E. Ind.) contain a large quantity of a fatty oil. _Isonandra_,
-   _Mimusops schimperi_ are often found in the Egyptian royal tombs.
-
-   Order 2. =Ebenaceæ.= Plants without latex, often diœcious;
-   flowers with a more or less leathery perianth. The number of
-   stamens is sometimes increased (by splitting?); ovules 1–2,
-   _pendulous_ in each loculus. Fruit a berry.--250 species;
-   chiefly tropical. Some are well known on account of their
-   hard and black-coloured heart-wood, _e.g._ _Maba ebenus_ (the
-   Moluccas) and _Diospyros ebenum_ (Ebony-wood, from Tropical
-   Asia) and others.--The fruits are edible _e.g._ of _Diospyros
-   lotus_ (Date-plum, Asia), which is also cultivated as an
-   ornamental shrub, together with several other species.
-
-   Order 3. =Styracaceæ.= The flower is more or less _epigynous_,
-   and the corolla is almost _polypetalous_. The stamens (by
-   splitting?) are more than double the number of the petals, and
-   often united at the base. Stellate hairs are frequent.--235
-   species; Tropical Asia and America, a few for example in the
-   East.--OFFICINAL: Gum-benzoin from _Styrax benzoin_ and perhaps
-   other species (Sumatra and Siam). _Halesia tetraptera_ (N. Am.)
-   is an ornamental shrub with 4-winged fruits.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 547.--Diagram of _Primula_.]
-
-
-                        Family 28. =Primulinæ.=
-
-The flowers are _regular_, ☿, _hypogynous_, and gamopetalous. The
-_stamens_ are _equal in number_ to the petals (Fig. 547) and _are
-placed opposite to them_. The ovary is _unilocular_, with _a free,
-central_ placenta with 1–many ovules.--The flower is a further
-development of the Diospyrinæ; the suppression of the calyx-stamens,
-which commenced in this family, is carried further in the Primulinæ,
-so that in the majority of cases no trace of them is present, but
-in certain species and genera (_Samolus_, _Lysimachia thyrsiflora_,
-_Soldanella_, certain Myrsineæ) some small bodies (scales, teeth,
-etc.) are found in the position of the suppressed stamens. Again, the
-lateral portions of the carpels are suppressed, so that the _ventral
-placentæ_ with the ovules are separated from the dorsal portions, and
-_are united into a free central placenta_; this theory is supported by
-the branching of the vascular bundles, the development, and various
-comparative considerations.--Sn, Pn, A0 + n, Gn; where n = 4–8,
-generally 5. The carpels are placed opposite the sepals (Fig. 547).
-
-Order 1. =Primulaceæ= (=Primroses=). This order has _many ovules_
-attached to a _thick, free, central placenta_ (Fig. 547); _style
-undivided_ with a _capitate_ stigma; ovules semi-anatropous; fruit a
-_capsule_ with many seeds.
-
-All the plants belonging to this order are _herbs_; stipules wanting;
-the flower is most frequently 5-merous (S5, P5, A0 + 5, G5; except
-_Centunculus_ and _Trientalis_). The corolla and capsule have various
-forms, but the capsule generally opens by teeth at the apex. The ovules
-are semi-anatropous (in _Hottonia_ they are anatropous), and the seeds
-are therefore _peltate_, with the hilum situated in the centre of one
-side. The endosperm is fleshy or horny. The flowers are borne either in
-racemes or in umbels; as _bracteoles are typically_ absent (Fig. 547),
-cymose branching does not occur.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 548.--_Primula_: dimorphic flowers. _A_
-  short-styled; _B_ long-styled.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 549.--_Cyclamen persicum._]
-
-_Primula_ (Primrose) has most frequently a vertical rhizome, bearing
-a rosette of leaves at its summit, and long-stalked umbels; corolla
-_rotate_ or slightly funnel-shaped; the capsule opens at the apex by 5
-_teeth_. The flowers in some species are heterostyled (long-styled or
-short-styled; Fig. 548). Closely allied are _Androsace_ (with ovate,
-cup-shaped corolla-tube and ligular scales, alternating with the
-corolla-lobes) and _Soldanella_ (funnel-shaped corolla with laciniate
-lobes and most frequently ligular scales).--_Hottonia_ (Water-Violet)
-is an aquatic plant with pectinate leaves and heterostyled
-flowers.--_Cortusa._ _Dodecatheon._ _Cyclamen_ (Fig. 549) has solitary,
-long-stalked flowers, and a rotate corolla with the lobes reflexed; the
-stalk of the capsule rolls up spirally; the tuberous rhizome is formed
-by the hypocotyledonary internode. Only 1 cotyledon.--_Lysimachia_
-(Money-wort); stem-internodes well developed, leaves opposite or
-verticillate, calyx almost polysepalous, corolla deeply 5-partite (Fig.
-550). The flowers are solitary or in racemes.--_Anagallis_ (Pimpernel),
-leaves opposite, flowers solitary; the fruit a pyxidium (Fig. 551);
-similarly in _Centunculus_, which is 4-merous.--_Trientalis_, the
-flowers are most frequently 7-merous.--_Glaux_ (Sea Milk-wort) is a
-creeping maritime plant with opposite leaves; flowers solitary in the
-leaf-axils, _corolla absent_, but with coloured calyx. ~The petals are
-usually developed later than the stamens in the Primulaceæ; but in
-this instance they are entirely suppressed.~--_Samolus_ (Brookweed)
-differs from all the others in having an _epigynous_ flower;
-barren sepal-stamens are also present. The bracts in the racemose
-inflorescences are displaced along the flower-stalks.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 550.--_Lysimachia thyrsiflora._]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 551.--_Anagallis arvensis._ Fruit dehiscing.]
-
-   POLLINATION. Insect-pollination in the majority;
-   cross-pollination is promoted in some by heterostyly (Fig.
-   548).--300 species; especially in northern temperate zones;
-   the majority on mountains (_Soldanella_, _Androsace_, etc.);
-   almost absent in the Tropics. A large number are ORNAMENTAL
-   PLANTS, _e.g._ _Primula auricula_ (from the Alps), _P. sinensis_
-   (China), _P. elatior_ (Oxslip, a native) and _grandiflora_, etc.
-   _Cyclamen europæum_ (Alpine Violet); the tubers are poisonous.
-
-   Order 2. =Myrsinaceæ.= Trees or shrubs; evergreen, tropical
-   Primulaceæ with fleshy fruits and few seeds, embedded in the
-   placenta. The leaves are nearly always dotted with yellow
-   glands (schizogenous resin-receptacles).--550 species;
-   especially Am.--ORNAMENTAL PLANTS: _Ardisia crenulata_ (W.
-   Ind.); other genera: _Clavija_, _Maesa_, _Theophrasta_ (barren
-   sepal-stamens), _Myrsine_, _Jacquinia_ (barren sepal-stamens),
-   etc.--_Ægiceras_, allied to this order, comprises arborescent
-   plants, often growing with _Rhizophora_ in tropical forests,
-   along the shore. The embryo germinates while still in the fruit.
-
-Order 3. =Plumbaginaceæ.= This order has a position of the stamens
-similar to that in Primulaceæ (S5, P5, A0 + 5, G5), but it differs
-from these in the flower, which has generally a _membranous_, dry,
-thin, coloured, folded, almost entire calyx and an _almost entirely
-polypetalous corolla_, which, as a rule, has twisted æstivation and is
-_only united_ with the stamens _at its base_; but more especially it
-differs in the ovary, which bears 5 _free_ or almost free _styles_ and
-only 1 _basal_ ovule with a _long_, twisted funicle (the placenta of
-the Primulaceæ is here so much reduced that it bears only 1 ovule).
-The fruit is a _nut_ or _capsule_. The radicle is turned outwards.
-Endosperm mealy.--To this order belong herbs or under-shrubs, which
-are especially natives of the sea-coast and of salt-steppes; they also
-resemble the Primulaceæ in the scattered, undivided, entire leaves
-(without stipules), often in rosettes, and the inflorescence borne
-on a long stalk. In opposition to the Primulaceæ, the _bracteoles
-are typically present, and hence the branching is generally cymose_
-(scorpioid).
-
-_Armeria_ (Thrift) has a round _capitulum_, composed of closely-packed
-dichasia, surrounded at its base by an involucre with peculiar
-prolongations, directed downwards, and united into a sheath protecting
-the intercalary zone of growth. The pericarp is finally ruptured at
-the base, and drops off like a hood.--In _Statice_ (Sea-lavender), the
-unipared scorpioid cymes are prolonged and collected into panicle-like
-inflorescences.--~_Plumbago_ is the genus which approaches nearest to
-the Primulaceæ, and differs most from the characters given above. It
-has capitate or spike-like inflorescences, a salver-shaped corolla, and
-the stamens are not attached to the corolla. The style is only divided
-at the extremity; the calyx is not membranous, but is covered with
-sticky, glandular hairs.~
-
-   250 species; chiefly in the Mediterranean and about the Caspian
-   Sea, on salt-steppes and beaches. Some are Tropical; a few are
-   ornamental plants.
-
-
-
-
-                           B. Tetracyclicæ.
-
-
-               a. Tetracyclicæ with hypogynous flowers.
-
-
-                        Family 29. =Tubifloræ.=
-
-The flower is regular, ☿, and _hypogynous_. The gamopetalous type is
-present in this family with great uniformity, without suppression
-or splitting; S5, P5, A5, G2 (3–5). The stamens are all fertile,
-alternating with the lobes of the corolla. Gynœceum with 2, more
-seldom 3–5 syncarpous carpels. Style nearly always simple; 2 dorsal
-stigmas. In each carpel 2–∞ ovules. At the base of the ovary is found
-a yellowish ring-like nectary (Fig. 552 C), sometimes 5-sinuate or
-5-partite.--The leaves are nearly always scattered; stipules are
-absent.--~The Solanaceæ, which formerly were classed here, are so
-closely allied to the Personatæ, that it would be unnatural not to
-place them first in this family; and the Boraginaceæ (which were also
-placed in the Tubifloræ) appear to be best united, with the Labiatæ and
-others, into one family Nuculiferæ.~
-
-   Order 1. =Polemoniaceæ.= The flowers are regular; S5, P5,
-   A5, G3. The calyx and corolla have united leaves, the petals
-   _twisted_ to the right in _æstivation_ (all the left edges
-   being covered). The ovary is 3-locular with 2–∞ ovules in
-   each loculus; the style is trifid at the apex; the fruit
-   is a 3-valved capsule. Embryo straight; endosperm fleshy.
-   The inflorescences are dichasia passing over into unipared
-   helicoid cymes (the shoot of the _lower_ bracteole being the
-   more strongly developed).--Herbs without latex. 150 species;
-   especially Western N. Am.--_Phlox_ (salver-shaped corolla;
-   entire, opposite leaves), _Polemonium_ (campanulate or almost
-   rotate corolla; scattered, pinnate leaves), _Leptosiphon_,
-   _Gilia_, _Collomia_, _Cobæa_ (climbing, like the Vetches, by
-   tendrils at the ends of the leaves), etc. They are frequently
-   ornamental plants.
-
-   Order 2. =Hydrophyllaceæ.= This order approaches very closely to
-   the Boraginaceæ. Herbs with pinnate or palmate leaves; S5, P5,
-   A5, G2. The lobes of the corolla are imbricate in æstivation.
-   Generally 2 median carpels. The ovary is _most frequently
-   unilocular_, and the seeds are situated on 2 _parietal
-   placentæ_; capsule 2-valved; embryo straight; endosperm fleshy.
-   In the corolla-tube, opposite the corolla-lobes, there are
-   frequently appendages of various forms, which resemble those of
-   _Cuscuta_. The inflorescences correspond exactly with those of
-   the Boraginaceæ, being _unipared scorpioid cymes_, which, prior
-   to opening, _are tightly rolled up_.--130 species, especially in
-   N. Am. (California, etc.). Many annual species of _Phacelia_,
-   _Nemophila_, _Whitlavia_, _Eutoca_, _Cosmanthus_, etc., are
-   cultivated in gardens as ornamental plants. _Hydrolea_ (has a
-   bilocular ovary, and two free styles).
-
-Order 3. =Convolvulaceæ= (=Bindweeds=). The flower is regular,
-hypogynous, with 5 almost free sepals (quincuncial æstivation), P5,
-A5, G2 (rarely 3–5). The _corolla_ is very characteristic; it is
-(with various forms) almost entire, or slightly 5-lobed, and _folded_
-longitudinally _in the bud_ in such a way that 5 projecting, flat
-portions, tapering towards the top and frequently differing in colour
-and hairiness from the rest, are visible externally and applied close
-together, while the remainder of the corolla is folded inwards (Fig.
-552 A); and hence the whole corolla is _strongly twisted to the right_
-in the bud. The gynœceum most frequently has a bilocular ovary; _in
-each loculus_ there are _only_ 2 (erect) _anatropous ovules_ on the
-placenta, which is not especially thickened (Fig. 552 _D_, _E_); each
-loculus is sometimes divided into two by a false septum (a relationship
-with the _Boraginaceæ_, etc.); style simple with most frequently a
-bilobed stigma, or a bipartite style. The fruit is nearly spherical,
-most frequently a _capsule_. The seeds are erect, and have a large
-hilum at the base. The embryo is _curved_, with leaf-like, thin,
-bilobed, most frequently folded cotyledons; _endosperm absent or
-mucilaginous_.
-
-=1.= CONVOLVULEÆ, BINDWEED GROUP. The majority are _twining_ (to
-the left) _herbs_, with _latex_. The leaves are scattered, without
-stipules, often long stalked, and nearly always with cordate base;
-some are palmately lobed. The flowers are most frequently solitary
-in the leaf-axils, large, quickly withering.--_Convolvulus_ (Fig.
-552), _Calystegia_ (unilocular ovary, 2 large bracteoles), _Ipomœa_,
-_Batatas_, _Evolvulus_ (with a doubly bifid style), _Calonyction_,
-_Pharbitis_, etc.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 552.--_Convolvulus scammonia._]
-
-=2.= DICHONDREÆ. This group is a more primitive form, not twining,
-and without latex. It has 2 _free_ carpels with basal style (as in
-Boraginaceæ) and valvate corolla.
-
-=3.= CUSCUTEÆ, DODDER GROUP (Fig. 553). Parasites, with round,
-filamentous stems, bearing only scale-like leaves and almost destitute
-of chlorophyll (they are reddish or yellowish); they are parasitic
-upon other plants, around which they twine, first with narrow, compact
-coils from which haustoria (Fig. 553 _A_) are developed which enter the
-host-plant, and then with wider coils by which they raise themselves
-to other portions of their host or try to reach other plants. On
-germination a very temporary primary root is developed, which bears
-root-hairs as far as the tip (rootcap is wanting); it only serves as a
-kind of reservoir for water, and perishes very soon after the seedling
-has fastened on to a host. The embryo is filamentous and rolled up
-_spirally_ (Fig. 553 _C_), and is sometimes destitute of cotyledons.
-The flowers are crowded into capitulate inflorescences, complicated
-by accessory shoots (Fig. 553 _A_); they have S5, P5 (_imbricate_
-æstivation), A5 (and beneath the stamens 5 scales on the corolla-tube),
-G2. Fruit a capsule opening by a lid.--_Cuscuta europœa_, _C.
-epilinum_ (Flax-Dodder), _C. epithymum_ (Lesser-Dodder), _C. trifolii_
-(Clover-Dodder), etc., are parasitic on different hosts, or parasitic
-each on its own particular host.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 553.--_Cuscuta trifolii_, parasitic on Red
-  Clover. _A_ A portion of the stem with an inflorescence and
-  haustoria (mag.); _B_ seed (nat. size); _C_ seed (mag.); _D_
-  embryo (nat. size).]
-
-   840 species; the majority in the Tropics, especially Am. Many
-   are ornamental plants. OFFICINAL: some on account of their
-   purgative properties: the tuberous roots of _Ipomæa purga_
-   (Jalap, from Mexico) and the dried latex (“Scammony”) of
-   _Convolvulus scammonia_ (from the East). The tuberous roots of
-   _Batatas edulis_ (Trop. S. Am.) are used as a common vegetable
-   (Sweet Potato) in the Tropics.
-
-
-                        Family 30. =Personatæ.=
-
-The type of the flower is: S5, P5, A5 (of which one, or in some cases
-several, are suppressed), and G2. The flowers are _hypogynous_, ☿,
-perfect with gamopetalous corolla, but most frequently irregular
-(medianly zygomorphic, except _Solanaceæ_), the _corolla_ being
-_bilabiate_ (divided into a posterior part of two lobes and an anterior
-part of three lobes), and the _stamens_ 4, _didynamous_ (the posterior
-being suppressed). The ovary has 2 loculi (only 1 in _Utriculariaceæ_,
-_Gesneriaceæ_, _Orobanche_); the placenta in the first-named orders
-(1–7) is most frequently very thick, and bears a _great many ovules_
-(Figs. 554, 555, 557, 562); the number of ovules in the last orders
-(8–9) is considerably reduced (Fig. 570).
-
-Special mention may be made of the apparently 4-merous flower which
-is found, _e.g._ in _Veronica_ and _Plantago_ (Figs. 567, 562 _C_,
-570, 571), and which arises from the typical 5-merous flower by the
-suppression of the posterior sepal and the posterior stamen, and by
-the union of the two posterior petals into one.--Terminal flowers
-very seldom occur on the main axis, and would not harmonise well
-with the very irregular form of the flower. When they do occur, they
-are, as a rule, “peloric,” _i.e._ regular (in _Linaria vulgaris_ two
-kinds of peloric flowers occur,--one with 5 spurs, and one without
-spurs). The halves of the anthers are often divided as far as the
-base, and laterally so widely separated from each other as to assume
-an almost straight line (Figs. 563, 564). There is generally a nectary
-(“disc”) round the base of the ovary, often 5-lobed (or divided into
-free glands).--A common vegetative characteristic is the _absence of
-stipules_.
-
-   The 9 orders of the Personatæ are: 1, Solanaceæ; 2, Nolanaceæ;
-   3, Scrophulariaceæ; 4, Utriculariaceæ; 5, Gesneriaceæ; 6,
-   Bignoniaceæ; 7, Pedaliaceæ; 8, Acanthaceæ; 9, Plantaginaceæ.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 554.--Diagram of _Petunia_.]
-
-Order 1. =Solanaceæ.= The flower (Figs. 554, 555, 559) is hypogynous,
-regular (zygomorphic in _Hyoscyamus_), ☿, and gamopetalous, with
-S5, P5 (most frequently _imbricate_ or _valvate_), A5, G2, the 2
-carpels being placed obliquely (Fig. 554); the bilocular ovary has a
-very _thick axile placenta_ (Figs. 554, 555 _H_, 557), which extends
-almost as far as the wall of the ovary. The fruit is a capsule
-or berry; the seeds are more or less reniform, and the embryo is
-_curved_ (rarely straight), in a fleshy endosperm (Figs. 555 _F_, _G_;
-561).--Both arborescent and herbaceous forms are found in the order;
-leaves scattered without stipules, but with variously formed laminæ
-(always penninerved). _A peculiar leaf-arrangement_ is found in many
-species, viz. the leaves are borne _in pairs, a large and a smaller
-one together_; these pairs stand in 2 rows, and the flowers are then
-situated _between_ the individual leaves in each pair, apparently _not_
-in a leaf axil. The inflorescences are frequently unipared scorpioid
-cymes without floral-leaves.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 555.--_Atropa belladonna_: _A_ is reduced.]
-
-   Zygomorphic flowers occur, and thus form a transition to the
-   closely allied Scrophulariaceæ; the zygomorphy sometimes
-   shows itself only in the relative length of the stamens,
-   sometimes also in the corolla (_Hyoscyamus_).--_Nicandra_ is
-   5-merous throughout all the whorls.--The peculiar relative
-   _leaf-arrangement_ in this order occurs from sympodial branching
-   and displacement. The most simple is, _e.g._ _Datura_ (Fig. 556
-   _A_); each shoot-generation in the floral parts of the plant has
-   only 2 foliage-leaves (_f^1_ and _f^2_), and then terminates
-   in a flower; the axillary buds of both the foliage-leaves
-   are developed and form a dichasium, but since the leaves are
-   displaced on their axillary-shoots as far, or almost as far, as
-   the first leaf of these axillary-shoots, the flowers are borne
-   singly on the dichasial branches, and all the branches appear to
-   be without subtending leaves (Shoot I is white, II shaded, III
-   white, etc., diagram _A_). _Scopolia_ and others (Fig. 556 _B_)
-   differ in that the lowest and smallest (_f^1_) of the two leaves
-   on each shoot is barren, and is therefore not displaced; but the
-   upper one (the second bracteole, _f^2_) is displaced as in the
-   first instance, and consequently it assumes a position near the
-   first leaf (the shaded leaf _f^2_ of shoot I being placed near
-   the white leaf _f^1_ of shoot II, etc.,) of the next youngest
-   shoot-generation, and hence the leaves are borne in pairs; the
-   flower placed between the two leaves of a pair is therefore the
-   terminal flower of the shoot to which the smaller of the two
-   leaves belongs, and the larger leaf is the subtending leaf for
-   the floral shoot itself.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 556.--Diagrammatic representation of the
-  branching in Solanaceæ. The various shoot-generations are white
-  or shaded.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 557.--Fruit of _Hyoscyamus niger_ after
-  removal of calyx.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 558.--Fruit of _Datura stramonium_.]
-
-=A.= FRUIT A CAPSULE. _Nicotiana_ (Tobacco) has a 2-valved capsule with
-septifragal dehiscence; the valves separate at the apex; the corolla is
-funnel-shaped, tubular, salver-shaped or campanulate. The flowers in
-panicles.--_Datura_ (_D. stramonium_, Thorn-apple) has a (frequently
-spiny) capsule (Fig. 558), which is _falsely 4-locular_ (at the top,
-bilocular) and opens septifragally with 4 valves. The lower part of
-the calyx persists as a thick collar (see Fig. 558). The corolla
-is funnel-shaped. The flowers are solitary, large.--_Hyoscyamus_
-(_H. niger_, Henbane) has a pyxidium (Fig. 557) enclosed in the
-campanulate, completely persistent, thick-walled calyx. The flowers
-are slightly _zygomorphic_, and borne in unipared scorpioid cymes.
-~_Scopolia_ (pyxidium); _Fabiana_ (Heather-like shrub); _Petunia_
-(slightly zygomorphic flower; funnel-shaped corolla); _Nierembergia_;
-_Brunfelsia_ (almost a drupe); _Franciscea_; _Browallia_.~--Among
-those with capsular fruits are found the most anomalous forms, which
-by their zygomorphic flowers and often didynamous stamens present the
-transition to the Scrophulariaceæ: _Salpiglossis_; _Schizanthus_ (lobed
-petals; 2 perfect, and 3 rudimentary stamens).
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 559–561.--_Solanum tuberosum._
-
-  FIG. 559.--Flower (1/1).
-
-  FIG. 560.--Stamen, ejecting pollen.
-
-  FIG. 561.--Longitudinal section of seed.]
-
-=B.= FRUIT A BERRY. _Solanum_ (Nightshade); rotate corolla (Fig.
-559). The stamens have short filaments, the anthers stand erect,
-close together round the style, like a cone in the centre of the
-flower, and open by pores at the apex (Fig. 560). ~_S. tuberosum_
-(the Potato-plant); the Potato-tuber is a swollen, underground
-stem; the “eyes” are buds, situated in the axils of its scale-like,
-quickly-perishing leaves.~--_Lycopersicum_ resembles _Solanum_ in
-the flower, but the united anthers open by longitudinal clefts and
-have an apical appendage. The cultivated species, _L. esculentum_
-(Tomato), has often a higher number than 5 in the flower, and in the
-fruit several loculi of unequal size.--_Physalis_ (Winter Cherry);
-the calyx ultimately swells out in the form of a bladder, becomes
-coloured, and loosely envelopes the spherical berry.--_Capsicum_
-(Guinea Pepper-plant); some species have very large, irregular,
-rather dry (red, yellow, black) berries, which are unilocular
-in the upper part.--_Lycium_ (false Tea-plant); the corolla is
-salver- or funnel-shaped; shrubs; often thorny.--_Atropa_ (_A.
-belladonna_, Deadly Nightshade, Fig. 555); corolla campanulate;
-the calyx projects beneath the spherical, black berry. The flowers
-are borne singly.--_Mandragora_; (Mandrake); _Nicandra_ (ovary
-often 5-locular).--~A small tropical group: CESTREÆ (_Cestrum_,
-_Habrothamnus_, etc.) has an almost _straight_ embryo, which may
-also be found _e.g_. in species of _Nicotiana_. Related to the
-Scrophulariaceæ.~
-
-   About 1,500 species; the majority within the Tropics, outside
-   these limits especially in America. _Solanum nigrum_ is a common
-   weed.--_The Potato-plant_ (_Solanum tuberosum_), from Peru
-   and Chili, was introduced into Europe in 1584 by Sir Walter
-   Raleigh. (Potatoes = Batatos). The fruits of several serve as
-   _condiments_: Chilies or Pod-pepper (_Capsicum annuum_ and
-   _longum_), and the Cayenne-pepper (_C. baccatum_ and others),
-   whose fruits also are officinal, were brought to Europe from S.
-   America by Columbus, and are commonly cultivated in Tropical
-   America; _Lycopersicum esculentum_ (Tomato) and others from
-   Peru; _Solanum ovigerum_ (Egg-plant); _Solanum melongena_,
-   etc. _Poisonous_, _acrid_, _narcotic_ properties (alkaloids,
-   etc., solanine, nicotine, atropine, hyoscyamine) are found in
-   many: _Atropa belladonna_ (from S. Europe; the roots and leaves
-   are officinal); _Solanum dulcamara_ (Bitter-sweet; formerly
-   officinal), _S. toxicarium_ (Guiana); _Datura stramonium_ from
-   Asia (leaves and seeds officinal), _D. sanguinea_, _metel_,
-   _tatula_, and others; _Hyoscyamus_ (officinal: the leaves
-   and seeds of _H. niger_); _Nicotiana tabacum_ (Virginian
-   tobacco, officinal: the leaves), _N. rustica_ and others from
-   Trop. America (_Tobacco_ was introduced into Europe in 1560);
-   _Cestrum_-species. _Duboisia myoporoides_ (Australia); the
-   leaves contain _hyoscyamine_ and are used in medicine. A number
-   of species of these genera are ornamental plants.
-
-   Order 2. =Nolanaceæ.= These most resemble the Convolvulaceæ
-   in the corolla, but the Solanaceæ in their branching, and
-   leaf-arrangement (in pairs, etc.). The diagram is the same as
-   in _Nicandra_ with 5 carpels, but the fruits of this order
-   most frequently form, by invaginations in various directions,
-   an ovary (with 1 style) consisting of numerous and irregularly
-   grouped, 1-ovuled cells; the fruit is a schizocarp with many
-   1-seeded fruitlets.--_Nolana_ (Western S. America): a few are
-   ornamental plants.
-
-Order 3. =Scrophulariaceæ.= The flower is hypogynous, ☿, _zygomorphic_,
-with the usual type: S5, P5, A5, and G2, the latter placed _in the
-median plane_; some genera have all 5 stamens developed (Fig. 562
-_A_), but most frequently the posterior one is suppressed and the
-flower becomes _didynamous_ (Fig. 562 _B_). The fruit, as in the
-capsular-fruited Solanaceæ, is a bilocular, 2-valved _capsule_, with
-a _thick, axile placenta_, and most often septicidal dehiscence
-(Fig. 563 _C_). The _numerous seeds_ are not reniform as in many
-Solanaceæ, and have a _straight, or only slightly curved embryo_, with
-abundant endosperm (Fig. 563 _D_).--The majority are herbs; some are
-arborescent; the leaves are opposite or scattered, but stipules are
-wanting as in the whole family.
-
-   The Scrophulariaceæ are closely allied to the Solanaceæ, and
-   there is, properly speaking, no characteristic feature which
-   absolutely separates them. The somewhat irregular corolla, with
-   five stamens of unequal length in _Verbascum_, is also found
-   in _Hyoscyamus_; curved and straight embryos are found in both
-   orders. The activation of the corolla in the Scrophulariaceæ is
-   _simple imbricate_, in the Solanaceæ most frequently _folded
-   imbricate_ (in _Atropa_ and those allied to it, imbricate
-   without folding). The genera (about 164) are distinguished
-   according to the form of the corolla, number of stamens,
-   inflorescence, arrangement of the leaves, etc. _Verbascum_
-   belongs to the most primitive 5-stamened forms, and from it
-   proceed a long series down to _Veronica_, with only two stamens
-   and most frequently the posterior sepal suppressed.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 562.--Diagrams. _A_ _Verbascum_; _B_
-  _Linaria_; _C_ _Veronica_.]
-
-=1.= ANTIRRHINEÆ, SNAPDRAGON GROUP. This has most frequently a
-descending æstivation of the petals (the posterior petals are outside
-the lateral ones, which again enclose the anterior; Fig. 562 _A_, _B_).
-The plants belonging to this group are not parasites.
-
-=a.= =5-stamened.=--_Verbascum_ (Mullein, Fig. 563 _A_) has a slightly
-irregular, rotate corolla; five stamens (frequently covered with woolly
-hairs), of which the two anterior ones are the longer and differ
-often also in other respects. ~The inflorescences are racemose, often
-with several series of accessory dichasia in the axil of each primary
-floral-leaf. The leaves are scattered and, together with the stems, are
-often covered with a grey felt of branched hairs.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 563.--_Verbascum thapsiforme._]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 564.--_Antirrhinum majus._ A flower, and the
-  upper lip of a flower with the stamens.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 565.--_Scrophularia nodosa._ Protogynous
-  flower in various stages: _A_ ♀ stage; _g_ the stigma projecting
-  from the throat of the corolla; _B_ the same in longitudinal
-  section; _C_ ♂ stage, the stigma is bent down and its former
-  position occupied by the stamens; _s_ staminode; _g_ stigma; _d_
-  nectary.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 566.--_Digitalis purpurea._]
-
-=b.= =4-stamened, didynamous= (Fig. 564).--_Scrophularia_ (Fig-wort,
-Fig. 565) has cymose inflorescences in a panicle; the corolla (Fig.
-565) is urceolate, short two-lipped; the posterior stamens are present
-as a scale below the upper lip of the corolla (Fig 565 _s_). ~_S.
-nodosa_ has a tuberous rhizome.--_Pentstemon_; the posterior stamen is
-barren and very long.~--_Antirrhinum_ (Snapdragon). The corolla (Fig.
-564) is personate, _i.e._ bilabiate, but with the under lip arched
-to such an extent that it meets the upper lip, closes the corolla
-throat, and entirely conceals the stamens and style; the corolla-tube
-is produced into a short pouch at the base on the anterior side. The
-capsule is oblique and opens by 2–3 pores, formed by small, dentate
-valves. In _Linaria_ (Toad-flax) the pouch is produced into a spur.
-Sometimes there are traces of the posterior stamens. The capsule opens
-by large pores (one for each loculus), produced by large, many-partite
-valves. _L. vulgaris_ reproduces by suckers.--_Digitalis_ (Foxglove,
-Fig. 566) has long racemes with drooping flowers; the posterior sepal
-is small (a step towards complete suppression, as in _Veronica_); the
-corolla is obliquely campanulate, and generally nearly 4-lobed, the
-two posterior petals coalescing.--_Alonsoa_; _Nemesia_; _Chelone_;
-_Herpestis_; _Mimulus_; _Torenia_; _Vandellia_; _Limosella_ (_L.
-aquatica_, Mud-wort, native); _Scoparia_; _Capraria_; _Erinus_ (found
-on the Roman Camp at Chesters, Northumberland, and supposed to have
-been introduced from Spain by the Roman soldiers); _Celsia_ (near
-_Verbascum_); _Maurandia_; _Lophospermum_; _Rhodochiton_; _Collinsia_;
-_Nycterinia_, etc.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 567.-Flower of _Veronica_.]
-
-=c.= =2-stamened.=--_Gratiola_ (Water-hyssop). 5-partite calyx.
-The upper lip of the corolla is undivided or slightly bifid; the
-two anterior stamens are either entirely absent or are reduced to
-staminodes (a transition to _Veronica_).--_Veronica_ (Speedwell), most
-frequently 4-partite calyx; 4-lobed, rotate, zygomorphic corolla with
-2 perfect stamens and no trace of the others (Figs. 567, 562 _c_);
-capsule with loculicidal dehiscence. _Calceolaria_; the corolla has two
-slipper-like lips.
-
-=2.= RHINANTHEÆ, YELLOW-RATTLE GROUP. Herbs, all of which (with
-the exception of _Lathræa_) are annual _parasites_ with green
-foliage-leaves. They attach themselves by haustoria to the roots of
-other plants and draw nourishment from them. The majority turn black
-when dried. Racemose inflorescences. In many the calyx is 4-partite,
-the posterior sepal being absent, or very small. The corolla is
-distinctly bilabiate (Fig. 568), with _most frequently ascending
-æstiration_; in the majority it does not become detached at the
-base, but by means of a ring-like cut some distance up the tube; 4
-didynamous stamens; pollen-grains dry, easily falling out; the anthers
-are often furnished at the base with bristles or hairs (Fig. 568)
-which play a part in the pollination, the probosces of the insects,
-being forcibly pushed against them, agitate the anthers and shake out
-the pollen-grains. Capsule with loculicidal dehiscence.--_Euphrasia_
-(Eye-bright), _Melampyrum_ (Cow-wheat), _Rhinanthus_ (Yellow-rattle),
-_Odontites_ (Bartsia), _Pedicularis_ (Louse-wort), and _Lathrœa_
-(Tooth-wort) all have native species. The last named is pale yellow,
-or reddish (without chlorophyll); ~it is a parasite on the roots of
-the Hazel, Beech and other shrubs, having an aerial stem, and an
-underground, perennial rhizome, covered with opposite, scale-like,
-more or less fleshy leaves with a number of internal glandular,
-labyrinthine cavities. The inflorescence is a unilateral raceme. It
-approaches _Gesneriaceæ_ in having a _unilocular_ ovary with two
-parietal placentæ.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 568.--_Euphrasia officinalis._ Flower of
-  the large and the small-flowered forms; showing the anthers and
-  stigmas.]
-
-   The mechanical contrivances for POLLINATION are so numerous
-   that no general principle can be laid down. Personate flowers,
-   like those of _Antirrhinum_ are only accessible to strong
-   insects, such as humble-bees, which can force themselves
-   between the two lips, and so become dusted with pollen on
-   the back. In _Euphrasia_ and other _Rhinantheæ_ the insects
-   become covered with smooth, powdery pollen when they shake
-   the anther-apparatus in touching the hairs and bristles
-   mentioned above. _Scrophularia nodosa_ is protogynous (Fig.
-   565). _Digitalis purpurea_, however, is protandrous. _Mimulus
-   luteus_ and some others have sensitive stigmatic lobes, which
-   shut up on being touched. The _Veronica_-species constitute
-   a series, from large-flowered down to small-flowered forms,
-   and parallel with them are found various gradations from
-   insect-to self-pollination. In some (as _Euphrasia officinalis_,
-   _Rhinanthus crista galli_) there are two kinds of flowers:
-   large, which are pollinated by insects, and small, which are
-   self-pollinated (Fig. 568). _Lathræa squamaria_ (Tooth-wort)
-   is a protogynous spring-flowering plant, largely visited by
-   humble-bees. Others have cleistogamic flowers. _Nycterinia
-   capensis_ opens its flowers at night.
-
-   2,000 species; chiefly from the Temp. OFFICINAL: _Digitalis
-   purpurea_ (the leaves; Europe), a poisonous plant. _Verbascum
-   thapsus_ and _thapsiforme_, _Veronica officinalis_ (“Herba V.”),
-   _Gratiola officinalis_ (“Herba”) have medicinal uses. The whole
-   of the Scrophulariaceæ are more or less suspicious, if not
-   actually poisonous, and none serve as food. Many are ORNAMENTAL
-   PLANTS: _Mimulus luteus_ (N. America), _Paulownia imperialis_
-   (the only species; in Japan; a tree), _Antirrhinum vulgare_ (S.
-   Eur.), _Linaria_, _Pentstemon_, _Veronica_, _Calceolaria_ (Peru,
-   Chili, etc.).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 569.--Leaf of _Utricularia vulgaris_, with
-  bladder. Median longitudinal section through a bladder containing
-  a _Cyclops_. At a a hair of the upper-lip, at _i_ 2 bristles
-  of the under-lip of the entrance (_a_, _b_); in the latter are
-  placed 4 bristles _h_; _k_ stalk of the bladder, in which is seen
-  a vascular bundle. (After Cohn.)]
-
-Order 4. =Utriculariaceæ.= To this order belong only perennial,
-_insectivorous_, _aquatic_, and _marsh-plants_ (200 species) with
-a more or less characteristic appearance. They differ from the
-Scrophulariaceæ, especially in having =2= stamens (the anterior) and
-a _unilocular ovary_, with _free, central placenta_ (like that of the
-Primulaceæ). For the rest the flower is distinctly bilabiate, both in
-the calyx and corolla. Two-valved capsule; no endosperm.
-
-_Pinguicula_ (Butter-wort) has a rosette of leaves close to the ground;
-these are sticky, covered with glandular hairs, and roll round any
-small insects which may be caught upon them; flowers solitary, terminal
-on a long scape; calyx, 5-partite; corolla with spur. The embryo
-germinates with 1 cotyledon.--_Utricularia_ (Bladder-wort). Our native
-species are floating, _without roots_, with hair-like, divided leaves,
-studded with peculiar bladders (in the Tropics there are terrestrial
-species, with ordinary foliage). The bladders (Fig. 569) have an
-aperture, closed by a valve opening inwards, so that small aquatic
-animals are allowed to enter, but are not able to escape; they are
-thus entrapped in the bladders, and are probably used as food. Calyx
-bipartite; corolla personate with spur.
-
-   The _embryo_ of _Utricularia_ is very imperfect, scarcely
-   more than a spherical, cellular mass, with a few slight
-   leaf-rudiments. On the germination of _U. vulgaris_, several
-   bristle-like leaves develop into a compact rosette; the stem
-   then develops, and also the finely-divided, bladder-bearing
-   leaves. A primary root is not developed. The stems branch
-   copiously and in a very peculiar manner. The growing-point of
-   the stem is rolled spirally.--The stigmatic lobes are sensitive
-   and close on being touched; self-pollination often takes place,
-   however, in _Pinguicula_.
-
-   Order 5. =Gesneriaceæ.= The flower in this order may be both
-   _epigynous_ (_Gesnerieæ_) and _hypogynous_ (_Cyrtandreæ_),
-   but otherwise is nearly the same as in Scrophulariaceæ,
-   only that _the ovary is unilocular_, with 2 _parietal_,
-   often bifid, _placentæ_. Of the 5 stamens the posterior is
-   rudimentary, or (more rarely) entirely wanting, and the others
-   are didynamous (Cyrtandreæ have often only 2 stamens); their
-   anthers are generally glued into a quadrangular mass. The
-   majority are herbs with juicy stems, opposite, verticillate
-   or scattered leaves without stipules, often, like the stems,
-   thick and juicy, soft-haired or glabrous. The corollas are
-   often highly-coloured (scarlet, red-yellow, etc., and spotted
-   internally), large and magnificent, so that many species are
-   ornamental plants. GESNERIEÆ (often epigynous) have endosperm;
-   S. Am.--CYRTANDREÆ, hypogynous, without endosperm; Asia, S.
-   Africa.--_Streptocarpus_, neither the primary root nor primary
-   shoot attains development; one of the cotyledons dies, while the
-   other grows and becomes a very large foliage-leaf, from which
-   spring adventitious roots and adventitious inflorescences.
-
-   500 species. _Gloxinia_, _Achimenes_, _Gesneria_, _Alloplectus_,
-   _Tydæa_, _Columnea_, _Nægelia_, _Æschynanthus_, and others,
-   especially in the forests of tropical America. Some are
-   epiphytes on trees, others prefer the leaf-mould of the
-   forest and crevices of cliffs. Several genera have peculiar,
-   catkin-like, underground shoots, with scale-like compact leaves;
-   others have tubers.
-
-   _Orobanche_ (Broom-rape) is allied to this order as a
-   _parasitic_ form. It is a parasite on the roots of other
-   plants, not like _Lathræa_ by means of thin rootbranches with
-   haustoria, but growing with the base of its stem in close
-   contact with its host, and probably even often protruding a kind
-   of thallus into it, in a manner similar to the Loranthaceæ. Its
-   aerial shoots are not entirely destitute of chlorophyll, but
-   are not green; they only bear scale-leaves and terminate in a
-   raceme or spike-like inflorescence.--Some _Orobanche_-species
-   are detrimental to various cultivated plants (Hemp, Lucerne,
-   Tobacco, etc.). The flowers are strongly zygomorphic; the
-   posterior sepal is often wanting, and the anterior are united
-   to the two lateral ones. Ovary unilocular, as in Gesneraceæ,
-   with 2 or 4 parietal placentæ.--The exceedingly small seeds have
-   a very rudimentary embryo, formed of an ellipsoidal, cellular
-   mass, without indication of cotyledons or other organs.--About
-   100 species; especially in the Mediterranean region.
-
-   Order 6. =Bignoniaceæ.= 500 species; nearly all trees and
-   shrubs, and to a great extent lianes, climbing by tendrils
-   (modified leaves), which are sometimes terminated by a
-   special clasping apparatus. These lianes have, as a rule, an
-   _anomalous stem structure_, the wood being either divided
-   into four wedges at right angles to each other, separated
-   by four grooves filled with secondary wood-parenchyma, or a
-   greater number of wedges occur, by the cambium ceasing to
-   form wood in several places. The leaves are most frequently
-   opposite and compound; the flowers in the main are similar
-   to the didynamous Scrophulariaceæ, and especially resemble
-   those of _Digitalis purpurea_; they are bilabiate, large,
-   and beautiful, campanulate or trumpet-shaped, many of the
-   prettiest ornamental plants in the Tropics belonging to this
-   order. The fruit is most frequently a large, woody, 2-valved,
-   siliqua-like, septifragal capsule, whose valves separate from
-   the flat and broad partition-wall, which bears the large,
-   generally winged seeds: _Tecoma_; _Bignonia_.--In gardens:
-   _Catalpa syringæfolia_ (Trumpet-wood); _Tecoma radicans_
-   (from S. Am.).--“Palisander”-wood is from _Jacaranda_ (S.
-   Am.).--_Eccremocarpus_ (N. Am.) forms, by its unilocular
-   capsule, a transition to the Gesneriaceæ (_E. scaber_;
-   herbaceous).
-
-   _Crescentia_ is allied to this order; _C. cujete_ (Calabash) is
-   its best known species. The fruit (unilocular with 2 parietal
-   placentæ) is a very large, spherical or ellipsoidal berry, with
-   a firm, finally woody outer layer. After the removal of the
-   juicy interior, these are commonly used as drinking vessels in
-   Tropical America.
-
-   Order 7. =Pedaliaceæ.= _Sesamum_ (_orientale_ and _indicum_);
-   very important oil-plants, which from olden times have been
-   cultivated in tropical Asia and Africa for food and as medicinal
-   plants, and are now cultivated in America also. The seeds are
-   used as a raw material in the manufacture of soap in Europe.--To
-   this order also belong _Martynia_ and _Craniolaria_, which have
-   a long horned capsule and sensitive stigmas.--46 species.
-
-   Order 8. =Acanthaceæ.= 1,500 species; mostly erect, slender,
-   branched herbs or shrubs, rarely arborescent, especially in
-   S. Am. and Ind. The branches frequently have swollen nodes;
-   the leaves are _opposite_, penninerved, undivided, more or
-   less lanceolate or elliptical, and generally leave a distinct
-   scar when they fall off. Stipules are wanting. The flowers are
-   solitary or in dichasia, which are arranged in 4-rowed spikes
-   or racemes, each flower with its subtending bract, which may be
-   brightly coloured, and most frequently also with two bracteoles.
-   With regard to the corolla (which is often labiate, in any
-   case irregular, and frequently prettily coloured), the 2 or
-   4 didynamous stamens (of whose anthers one half is inserted
-   lower than the other, or suppressed) and the gynœceum, the
-   Acanthaceæ are true Personatæ, approaching most nearly to the
-   Scrophulariaceæ: they differ from the other orders especially in
-   the _fruit_, which is a bilocular, 2-valved, often elastically
-   dehiscing capsule, which never has more than 2 rows, and in some
-   only 2 seeds in each loculus, the seeds being often compressed
-   and borne on _strong_, _curved_ or _hook-like funicles_
-   (_retinacula_) which persist after dehiscence. _Embryo curved
-   without endosperm_; radicle pointed downwards.--Cleistogamic
-   flowers are found in several species. Cystoliths are common.
-
-   The following grow wild in Europe: _Acanthus_ (_spinosus_
-   and _mollis_, whose pinnatifid leaves served as models for
-   the capitals of the Corinthian columns). The posterior sepal
-   is the largest of all the leaves of the flower, and covers
-   the other parts like a helmet; the 2 anterior sepals are
-   united, and the two lateral ones are small and greenish; the
-   corolla has no upper-lip, but only a 3-lobed under-lip. The
-   anthers are bilocular; the filaments ultimately become very
-   firm.--_Justicia_, _Eranthemum_, _Goldfussia_, _Thunbergia_ (a
-   twiner), _Ruellia_, _Dicliptera_, etc.--Ornamental plants in
-   conservatories.
-
-Order 9. =Plantaginaceæ= (=Plantains=). The flowers (Figs. 570, 571)
-are regular, ☿, hypogynous, with a =4=-partite, persistent calyx,
-a gamopetalous, _scarious_ corolla with =4= projecting lobes, =4=
-stamens, incurved in the bud, later on projecting considerably, about
-equal in length, and a bilocular ovary with _one_ long, filamentous,
-_undivided_, _feathery_, papillose style (see Fig. 571). The ovary
-is most frequently bilocular with 1–few ovules in each loculus. An
-hypogynous disc is wanting. The fruit is a _pyxidium_ with 1–few
-peltate seeds attached in each loculus (_Littorella_ is in several
-respects an exception). All species are herbs, the majority with
-leaf-rosettes near the ground, and the flowers in spikes or capitula.
-
-   The labiate-like flowers are in this case entirely concealed
-   under a regular, apparently 4-merous exterior. The structure of
-   the flower, however, is the same as in the _Scrophulariaceæ_,
-   only the reduction, which is found in _Veronica_ (compare Figs.
-   562 _C_, 567 with 570, 571), is also present in this instance
-   and the lobes are also more equally developed; the posterior
-   petal corresponds to the bilobed upper-lip; the posterior stamen
-   and the posterior sepal also are entirely wanting. In the
-   development of the flower there is no trace of posterior sepal
-   or stamen, and the posterior petal arises from one primordium,
-   but the two anterior sepals arise before the lateral ones. The
-   position of sepals and petals does not agree with that of a
-   true 4-merous flower, which is represented in Fig. 361 _E._ The
-   bracteoles are always suppressed in _Plantago_.
-
-_Plantago_ (Plantain, Rib-grass). The foliage-leaves are most
-frequently scattered, entire, with curved veins, arranged in a
-rosette close to the ground on an unlimited rhizome; the spike-like
-inflorescence is borne on a long scape; in some (_P. psyllium_) the
-leaves are opposite on a stem with well-developed internodes, and
-the inflorescences are borne in their axils. The order also presents
-a transition from insect-pollinated to wind-pollinated flowers.
-~The flowers are protogynous, wind-pollinated in _P. major_ and _P.
-lanceolata_, partly also in the other species, but insect pollination
-also occurs, and _P. media_ has three kinds of flowers, some of which
-are adapted for wind-pollination (Fig. 571), others, with short
-filaments, for insects.~ _Littorella lacustris_ (Shore-weed) is the
-most reduced of the Plantaginaceæ: an aquatic plant with rosettes
-of round, awl-like leaves and diclinous (monœcious) flowers. ~In the
-axils of the foliage-leaves is a very short 3-flowered spike, formed by
-2 sessile ♀-flowers, and above them a long-stalked ♂-flower; all the
-flowers are lateral, the terminal one being absent, as in _Plantago_.
-The ♂-flower is essentially the same as in _Plantago_, but the ♀-flower
-has a scarious corolla, with a narrow, 3–4-dentate mouth, which closes
-tightly round the nut-like fruit.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 570, 571.--_Plantago media._
-
-  FIG. 570.--Diagram of _Plantago media_.
-
-  FIG. 571.--Two different forms of the flower (magnified):
-  1, chiefly adapted for pollination by wind; 2, for
-  insect-pollination. _a_ The stigma; _b_ the calyx; _k_ the
-  corolla.]
-
-   The genus _Plantago_ constitutes nearly the entire
-   order (200 species). Some are widely distributed weeds
-   (_e.g._ _P. major_, “The white man’s footstep”). In
-   _P. psyllium_ (S. Eur.) the integument of the seeds is
-   mucilaginous, and swells considerably in water.
-
-
-                       Family 31. =Nuculiferæ.=
-
-The flowers are _hypogynous_ and _zygomorphic_ (in _Boraginaceæ_ and
-_Cordiaceæ_, however, they are regular, except _Echium_ and _Anchusa
-arvensis_). The calyx is gamosepalous, the corolla _bilabiate_ (except
-in the two orders mentioned), mostly after 2/3, _i.e._ divided into
-a 2-leaved posterior portion, and a 3-leaved anterior portion.
-The æstivation of the corolla is nearly always descending.--In
-_Boraginaceæ_ and _Cordiaceæ_ there are 5 stamens of equal length; in
-the other orders 4 didynamous ones, or only 2 fertile; the posterior
-stamen is sometimes developed as a staminode, sometimes fertile (in
-_Stilbaceæ_). The ovary is formed of 2 median carpels (except some
-_Verbenaceæ_), with (1-) =2= ovules on each carpel; in the majority of
-the orders it is, however, divided by a false partition-wall between
-the dorsal and ventral sutures, into =4= _loculi_, each of which is
-often raised independently, causing the style to be situated in the
-depression between the four lobes (“gynobasic” style, Figs. 572,
-573, 575, 579). The fruit in these orders most frequently becomes a
-_4-partite schizocarp_ with _nut-like fruitlets_. The other orders have
-a 1(-2)-locular ovary.--The leaves are _simple, without stipules_.
-
-   The family is related to (and proceeds from) the _Tubifloræ_,
-   especially _Convolvulaceæ_, which has an almost similar
-   construction of the ovary. It is doubtful whether the
-   _Cordiaceæ_ and _Boraginaceæ_ should be classed with the others.
-
-   The orders are: 1, Cordiaceæ; 2. Boraginaceæ; 3, Verbenaceæ; 4,
-   Labiatæ; 5, Selaginaceæ; 6. Globulariaceæ; 7, Stilbaceæ.
-
-   Order 1. =Cordiaceæ= unites Convolvulaceæ and Boraginaceæ.
-   Tree-like plants with 5-(4–10) merous flowers, doubly bifid
-   style, and drupe with 4 or less loculi. No endosperm; cotyledons
-   folded.--185 species; tropical.
-
-Order 2. =Boraginaceæ.= The vegetative parts are very characteristic:
-_herbs_ with _cylindrical_ stems and _scattered_, undivided, nearly
-always sessile, entire leaves, without stipules, and generally,
-together with the other green portions of the plant, covered with
-stiff hairs, consequently rough and often even stinging (hence
-the other name for the order _Asperifoliæ_). The inflorescences
-are _unipared scorpioid cymes_ with the branches coiled spirally
-(“helicoid,” Fig. 573) before the flowers open. The flower is perfect,
-_regular_ (obliquely zygomorphic in _Echium_ and _Anchusa arvensis_),
-hypogynous, gamopetalous: S5, P5 (often with ligular outgrowths),
-A5, G2, but each of the two loculi of the ovary becomes divided by a
-false partition-wall into two, each of which contains one _pendulous_
-anatropous ovule with the micropyle turned upwards; the four loculi
-arch upwards, so that the ovary becomes 4-lobed, and the style is
-then, as in the _Borageæ_, placed _at the base_ (“gynobasic”) between
-the four projections (Figs. 572, 573). The fruit is a _4-partite
-schizocarp_ with four nut-like fruitlets (Fig. 572).--_Endosperm is
-wanting_ (except in _Heliotropium_); the radicle is turned _upwards_.
-
-   The INFLORESCENCES are often double unipared scorpioid cymes;
-   the bud of the second bracteole is developed, that of the first
-   suppressed; in some cases both the bracteoles are suppressed
-   (_Myosotis_, _Omphalodes_, etc.), but in other instances all
-   the first bracteoles (_a_) only are suppressed, and the others
-   are then situated in two rows towards the under side of the
-   coiled axis, while the flowers are situated on the upper side.
-   Displacement of the branches or of the floral-leaves sometimes
-   takes place. The flowers are often red at first, and later on
-   become blue or violet; they hardly ever have any smell. The
-   fruit entirely resembles that of the Labiatæ, but the radicle
-   of the latter is turned downwards. The fruitlets present small
-   differences which have systematic importance; they are hollow or
-   flat at the base, attached to a flat or columnar receptacle, etc.
-
-=1.= HELIOTROPIEÆ. This group deviates from the characteristics
-mentioned above in the undivided ovary and terminal (“apical”) style.
-In this, as well as in the fact that in some genera (_Tournefortia_,
-_Ehretia_, etc.) the fruit is a drupe, it connects this order with the
-Cordiaceæ. _Heliotropium_, _Tiaridium_, and others have schizocarps.
-
-=2.= BORAGEÆ, BORAGE GROUP. Style gynobasic; fruit a schizocarp.
-
-=A.= The throat of the corolla is without ligules, or with very small
-ones.--_Pulmonaria_ (Lung-wort); funnel-shaped corolla; a whorl
-of hairs in the corolla-throat.--_Echium_ (Viper’s-bugloss) has
-zygomorphic flowers, the plane of symmetry almost coinciding with that
-of the very well-developed inflorescence (through the fourth sepal);
-the corolla is obliquely funnel-shaped, the style is more deeply cleft
-at the apex than in the others; stamens 2 longer, 2 shorter, and 1
-still shorter.--_Cerinthe_ has a tubular corolla with five small
-teeth and two bilocular fruitlets. The bracts are large and leafy,
-and, like all the rest of the plant, are _almost glabrous_.--A few
-_Lithospermum_-species have a naked corolla-throat; others have small
-hairy ligules, which do not close the corolla-throat. The fruitlets
-are as hard as stone, owing to the presence of carbonate of lime and
-silica.--_Mertensia_ (_Steenhammera_); _Arnebia_; _Nonnea_ (small
-ligules).
-
-=B.= The corolla-throat is closed by, or in any case provided with
-_ligules_, _i.e._ scale-like bodies or small protuberances, situated
-in the throat of the corolla _opposite_ the petals, and which are
-invaginations or _internal_ spurs of the petals (Fig. 572 _D_).--The
-nuts in _Cynoglossum_ (Hound’s-tongue) bear _hooked bristles_ over the
-entire surface, or, in _Echinospermum_, only on the edge. The following
-have smooth nuts:--_Symphytum_ (Comfrey) has a cylindrical, campanulate
-corolla, and prolonged-triangular, pointed ligules.--_Borago_
-(Borage) has a rotate corolla with projecting, emarginate ligules;
-the stamens have a horn-like appendage, projecting upwards from the
-back of the filament. The fruitlets are hollow below.--_Anchusa_
-(Alkanet, Fig. 572). The corolla is salver-shaped; the ligules
-small, hairy protuberances. _A. (Lycopsis) arvensis_ has an S-curved
-corolla-tube.--_Myosotis_ (Forget-me-not, Fig. 573); rotate corolla
-with small (yellow) protuberances in the throat; scorpioid cyme without
-floral-leaves; fruitlets flat.--_Omphalodes_; fruitlets hollow at the
-back, with a scarious, turned-in, toothed edge.--_Asperugo_ (Mad-wort);
-the calyx grows after flowering, becoming large, compressed, and
-deeply bifid.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 572.--_Anchusa officinalis_: _A_ diagram;
-  the brocteole _a_ is suppressed (dotted); β supports a flower.
-  _B_, _C_ _Myosotis_, the fruit, entire and with the calyx in
-  longitudinal section. _D_, _F_ _Alkanna tinctoria_: D the corolla
-  opened (4/1); _e_ the ligule; _f_, _g_ the anthers; _E_ gyncœceum
-  (3/1); _F_ fruit, with three fruitlets; _i_ an aborted loculus;
-  _h_ disc.]
-
-   CROSS-POLLINATION is most commonly effected by insects
-   (especially bees). There are a great many contrivances for
-   pollination; some flowers are protandrous (_Echium vulgare_,
-   _Borago officin._), others are heterostylous (long-and
-   short-styled: _Pulmonaria officin._); the corona (ligules) is
-   a protection against rain, and excludes certain insects. Some
-   are barren when self-pollinated (_Pulmonaria officinalis_,
-   _Echium vulgare_); others which have but little honey, may,
-   failing insect-pollination, fertilise themselves, and in
-   _Myosotis versicolor_ this regularly occurs by the growth of the
-   corolla during flowering, so that the anthers are brought into
-   contact with the stigma. Honey is secreted on the hypogynous
-   disc.--About 1,150 species, growing especially in the northern
-   temperate zone, _Mucilage_ is found (_e.g._ in the _officinal_
-   root of _Cynoglossum officinale_, in the root of _Symphytum_):
-   red _dyes_ are found in some roots (_e.g._ Alkanet-root, the
-   root of _Alkanna tinctoria_, which is also medicinal; S. E.
-   Europe, Asia Minor); some are _poisonous_: _Cynoglossum_,
-   _Echium_, _Anchusa_, etc. Several species are ornamental plants.
-   _Heliotropium_ (Peru) is cultivated chiefly on account of its
-   pleasant scent; essential oils are otherwise very rare.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 573.-_Myosotis._ Inflorescence and gynœceum.]
-
-Order 3. =Verbenaceæ.= The majority are shrubs; a few are herbs or
-trees (Teak-tree); some are lianes. The branches are often square.
-The leaves are opposite or verticillate, without stipules; in some
-compound. The inflorescences are racemes, spikes, capitula, or
-dichasia. Five sepals; five petals in a gamopetalous, zygomorphic
-corolla, which is often bilabiate, but rarely to such an extent as in
-the Labiatæ, and the upper lip in some is larger than the under, in
-others smaller; stamens four didynamous, or two; the ovary is entire
-(not grooved or divided), 1- or 2-locular, or, as in the Labiatæ,
-divided into four loculi with an _erect_ ovule in each, but in some
-the anterior carpel is suppressed. One _terminal_ style. The fruit is,
-_e.g._ in _Verbena_, a 4 partite schizocarp with nut-like fruitlets;
-in _Vitex_ (digitate leaves) a drupe with a 4-locular stone; in
-_Clerodendron_ a similar fruit, with four free stones; in _Lantana_
-a bilocular stone, or two unilocular stones. The radicle is _turned
-downwards_. Endosperm small or absent.--_Lippia_, _Stachytarpheta_,
-_Bouchea_, _Priva_, _Citharexylon_, _Callicarpa_, etc.--The Verbenaceæ
-are closely allied to the Labiatæ; they differ especially in the ovary
-not being 4-lobed with gynobasic style, but undivided, almost spherical
-or ovoid with a terminal style. Again, the leaves are not so constantly
-opposite, and the inflorescences are various.
-
-   730 species; especially in the Tropics; there are several in
-   America, especially _Lantana-species_; shrubby weeds.--Many of
-   those mentioned are ORNAMENTAL PLANTS, especially _Verbena_;
-   _Vitex agnus castus_ is a S. European shrub. _Lippia citriodora_
-   (S. Am.) etc., have strongly-scented leaves; the Teak tree
-   (_Tectona grandis_) is one of the largest trees in East India,
-   and has a very hard wood.
-
-   _Avicennia_ is allied to this order; it inhabits the Mangrove
-   swamps on tropical coasts. The endosperm emerges from the ovule,
-   carrying the embryo with it; the embryo ultimately bursts the
-   endosperm and lies free in the loculus of the fruit; this is
-   then filled by the embryo with its large, green cotyledons,
-   which are borne on an already hairy or rooted stem. The seedling
-   thus developed falls from the tree, together with the fruit, and
-   strikes root in the mud. One special cell of the endosperm at
-   an earlier period becomes a highly-developed organ of suction,
-   growing into a much-branched sac, very rich in protoplasm.
-
-Order 4. =Labiatæ.= The special characteristics are: the _square_ stem,
-the _opposite leaves_ (without stipules), the inflorescences which are
-formed by _two double unipared scorpioid cymes_, the _labiate_ corolla,
-the 4 _didynamous_ stamens (the posterior being entirely suppressed)
-(Fig. 574), and the _4-partite schizocarp_ with _nut-like fruitlets_.
-The floral formula is S5, P5, A5 (the posterior stamen is generally
-absent), G2.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 574.--Diagram of _Lamium album_: _sv_
-  dichasia.]
-
-They are chiefly aromatic plants (herbs, shrubs, _e.g._ Lavender,
-or trees), volatile oil being formed in internal cells or in the
-glandular hairs, which cover all green parts. The stem is always more
-or less markedly square; the leaves are borne upon the flat sides,
-and are simple and penninerved, but vary in the other characters.
-The inflorescences are double unipared scorpioid cymes, which may
-be situated at some distance from one another in the axils of the
-foliage-leaves (Fig. 575 _A_), but frequently when the subtending
-leaves are bract-like, they are crowded into spike-like inflorescences
-(_Lavandula_, _Mentha_, _Salvia_, etc.), each of the so-called “whorls”
-(verticillaster, glomerulus) being a double unipared scorpioid cyme
-(Fig. 574). (Solitary flowers are found in _e.g._ _Scutellaria_, and
-_Origanum_). The calyx is strongly gamosepalous, 5-toothed, often
-bilabiate (Fig. 575 _B_). The corolla is strongly bilabiate (Figs. 575,
-576, etc.), with 2 lobes in the upper lip and 3 lobes in the under lip
-(an approach to regularity occurs only when the upper lip is small,
-and thus resembles one lobe, as in _Mentha_ (Fig. 578) and _Lycopus_,
-so that the corolla approaches the 4-merous corolla of _Veronica_
-and _Plantago_). The posterior stamen in the diagram (Fig. 574*)
-is entirely suppressed; in most of the genera the posterior lateral
-stamens are the smaller (Fig. 575 _D_), and are entirely suppressed in
-some (see below); in others, _e.g._ _Nepeta_, they are the longer. 2
-stamens are found in _Salvia_, _Rosmarinus_, _Lycopus_, etc. The two
-halves of the anthers are often separated from one another, and are
-placed at an angle with each other. The gynœceum has 1 style with a
-bifid extremity (Fig. 575 _C_) bearing the stigma; the true bilocular
-ovary is divided by a false partition-wall into 4 loculi, each with 1
-erect ovule (Fig. 575 _H_). These 4 loculi project so strongly that the
-ovary becomes deeply 4-lobed with the style situated in the centre of
-the lobes and at their base, “gynobasic” (Figs. 575, 579). A ring-like,
-often crenate, nectary surrounds the base of the ovary (Fig. 575 _G_,
-_H_). The embryo in this order, as in the _Verbenaceæ_, is directed
-downwards (Fig. 575 _J_) (it is directed upwards in the _Boraginaceæ_,
-which have an entirely similar fruit). _Endosperm absent._
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 575.--_Thymus vulgaris._]
-
-   The 142 genera are mainly distinguished according to the form of
-   the calyx and corolla, the number, direction, and length of the
-   stamens, the forms of the nuts, etc.
-
-=1.= AJUGEÆ, BUGLE GROUP. Calyx 10-nerved; the upper lip is small; 4
-stamens. The ovary is not so strongly lobed as in the following group,
-so that it is most nearly allied to the _Verbenaceæ_. The nuts are
-reticulately wrinkled. _Ajuga_ (Bugle) has a very small upper lip. The
-upper lip of _Teucrium_ (Germander) is deeply cleft, and the two lobes
-are bent on their respective sides towards the under lip, which in
-consequence appears to be 5-lobed, and the upper lip to be wanting.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 576.--_Lamium album_: _A_ lateral view of
-  flower; _B_ longitudinal section; _C_ ovary with nectaries (_a_);
-  _D_ the apex of the style; _e_, upper lip of corolla; _c_, _b_,
-  _c_ the three petals of the lower lip; _f_ anthers; _g_ stigma.]
-
-=2.= STACHYDEÆ, BETONY GROUP. The calyx is 5- or 10-nerved. The
-upper lip of the corolla is most frequently _strongly arched_ or
-helmet-shaped; 4 stamens, the _anterior pair the longer_ (Fig. 576).
-
-=a.= A somewhat regular and 5–10-dentate calyx with _projecting_
-stamens.--_Stachys_ (Betony, Woundwort); the lobes of the under
-lip are rounded off. The anterior filaments, after pollination,
-_bend outwards_. _Betonica_--_Ballota_ (Horehound); the calyx
-is funnel-shaped, and has triangular, long, pointed, awn-like
-teeth.--_Galeopsis_ (Hemp-nettle) has two conical protuberances on the
-under lip between the lateral and the central lobes. The anthers open
-by 2 _unequal_ valves. _Lamium_ (Dead-nettle, Fig. 576) has dentate,
-lateral lobes on the under lip. _L. album_ (White Dead-nettle), _L.
-rubrum_, etc. _Galeobdolon._--_Leonurus_; _Phlomis_.
-
-=b.= Tubular, regular, often 10-toothed calyx and _concealed_
-stamens.--_Marrubium vulgare_ (Fig. 577); 10 calyx-teeth, hooked at
-the apex; many almost spherical whorls of flowers in the axils of the
-foliage-leaves, at some distance from one another.--_Sideritis._
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 577.--_Marrubium vulgare._]
-
-=c.= Strongly bilabiate calyx, the lips _closing together_ after
-flowering.--_Scutellaria_ (Skull-cap); the two lips of the calyx are
-entire, the upper lip has a large spur, and drops off on the ripening
-of the fruit. The flowers are generally solitary and turned to one
-side.--_Prunella_ (Heal-all); the calyx is compressed, its two lips are
-strongly dentate, the upper lips closing slightly round the under. The
-stamens have a tooth-like projection beneath the anthers.
-
-=3.= NEPETEÆ, CATMINT GROUP. 13–15 nerves in the calyx; this deviates
-from the other groups in the _posterior stamens being the longer_.
-The upper lip is slightly arched. _Nepeta_ (Catmint), also _Glechoma_
-(Ground Ivy), with regular, and _Dracocephalum_ with irregular calyx.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 578.--_Mentha aquatica_, var. _crispa_.]
-
-=4.= SATUREIEÆ, MINT GROUP. The upper lip is _flat_, most frequently
-ovate, or almost spherical, and emarginate (Fig. 578). The calyx
-is most frequently 5–10-nerved. 4 stamens, _the anterior being the
-longer_; rarely, 2 stamens only.--_Mentha_ (Mint, Fig. 578) has a
-regular, 5-dentate calyx, a small, almost regular, 4-partite corolla,
-and 4 erect stamens of nearly equal size. The verticillasters are
-many-flowered, and are often collected into cylindrical inflorescences.
-Herbs.--_Lycopus_ (Gipsy-wort); corolla almost regular. 2 stamens,
-the posterior lateral ones are wanting. _Preslia_: 4-dentate calyx,
-4-partite, regular corolla; 4 stamens of equal size.--_Thymus_ (Thyme,
-Fig. 575) has a strongly bilabiate calyx, the throat being closed by
-a whorl of hairs (Fig. 575 B). The corolla is distinctly labiate.
-Under-shrubs, with small entire leaves; verticillasters few-flowered
-and separate.--_Origanum_ (Marjoram); spike or capitate inflorescences
-with the flowers solitary in the axils of the rather large and
-distinctly 4-rowed (often slightly coloured) floral-leaves. _Melissa._
-_Calamintha._ _Clinopodium_ (Wild Basil). _Satureia._ _Hyssopus_
-(Hyssop); small, entire leaves; the verticillasters are situated
-unilaterally in a slender, spike-like inflorescence. _Lavandula_
-(Lavender); shrubs with verticillasters collected in cylindrical,
-long-stalked inflorescences; the calyx is tubular, has 13–15 nerves,
-the posterior tooth is much larger than the others. Stamens and style
-do _not_ project. ~_Coleus_ differs, among other characters, in having
-united filaments; the stamens and style are bent down and concealed in
-the boat-shaped under lip.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 579.--_Salvia officinalis._]
-
-=5.= MONARDEÆ, SALVIA GROUP. _Only the 2 anterior stamens are
-developed._--_Salvia_ (Fig. 579); calyx deeply bilabiate; the upper
-lip of the corolla is generally strongly compressed. Rudiments of
-the two lateral stamens are present. The connective in the two
-fertile stamens is long and filamentous, and bears at the upper end
-a normal half-anther, but at the lower one a barren, often broader
-portion, against which the insect is obliged to push its proboscis
-during its visits to the flowers, causing the pollen-bearing
-half-anther to be pressed down against its back. Floral-leaves often
-coloured.--_Rosmarinus_ (Rosemary); a shrub with leathery linear
-leaves, with rolled back edge. A small tooth on the filament represents
-the barren half of the anther. _Monarda._
-
-   The POLLINATION is generally effected by insects, especially
-   bees; the under-lip is the landing-stage and the pollen is
-   deposited on their backs. Cross-fertilisation is promoted by
-   dichogamy; honey is secreted by an hypogynous disc and collected
-   in the corolla-tube. Some genera are homogamous (_Lamium_,
-   _Galeopsis_, etc.); others are dichogamous (protandrous); a
-   few are _gynodiœcious_: ♀-and ☿-flowers in various relative
-   sizes (_Glechoma hederaceum_, _Thymus_, _Salvia pratensis_,
-   and others). The entrance of uninvited guests to the honey is
-   often rendered difficult by whorls of hairs, etc. In numerous
-   instances the upper lip protects the pollen from rain.
-   _Cleistogamy_ is found _e.g._ in _Lamium amplexicaule_.
-
-   2,700 species; distributed over the entire globe, but the
-   greater number in Mediterranean countries (especially in the
-   Eastern regions), where many are shrub-like.--Poisonous and
-   acrid properties are absent. On account of their _volatile oils_
-   they are principally used as _condiments_, for _perfumery_
-   and in _medicine_ (the officinal parts are therefore nearly
-   always “folia” and “herba,” in _Lavandula_ the flowers, and
-   the volatile oils extracted from them). Such are:[39]_Mentha
-   piperita_ [+] (Peppermint)--menthol is obtained from this
-   species and from _M. arvensis_--_M. viridis_ [+] (Spearmint),
-   _M. crispa_ (Curly-mint), _Thymus vulgaris_ (Garden Thyme),
-   _Melissa officinalis_ (S. Eur.), _Hyssopus officinalis_
-   (Hyssop, S. Eur.), _Origanum majorana_ (Marjoram, from the
-   Mediterranean), _O. vulgare_ (Wild Marjoram), _creticum_,
-   _smyrnæum_, etc., _Salvia officinalis_ (S. Eur.), _Rosmarinus
-   officinalis_ (oil of Rosemary, S. Eur.), _Lavandula vera_ [+]
-   (oil of Lavender, S. Eur.). Also: _Satureia hortensis_ (S.
-   Eur.), _Ocimum basilicum_ (E. India), _Pogostemon patchouli_
-   (E. India), etc.--As _ornamental_ plants, _e.g._ _Monarda_,
-   _Plectranthus_, and _Coleus_ (foliage-plants, often with red
-   stems and leaves), _Stachys lanata_ (white, woolly), _Phlomis_,
-   _Salvia_-species, _Perilla_, etc.
-
-   Order 5. =Selaginaceæ.= 130 species; small, most frequently
-   heath-like shrubs or herbs, mainly from S. Africa. They
-   differ from the other Nuculiferæ especially in the bilocular,
-   transversely-placed anthers of the 4 stamens (2 stamens
-   divided as far as the base (?)). The ovary has 2, or by
-   suppression only 1 loculus, each with 1 ovule, and the fruit
-   is a schizocarp dividing into two, or is a 1-seeded nut.
-   Radicle turned upwards.--A few are ornamental plants (_Selago_,
-   _Hebenstreitia_).
-
-   Order 6. =Globulariaceæ.= 12 species; especially in the
-   Mediterranean. They form an analogy to the Compositæ, and in the
-   main resemble _Jasione montana_ in appearance, the flowers being
-   crowded into a spherical head (hence their name) and supported
-   by bracts, but _without_ involucre; the ovary is _unilocular_
-   with 1 pendulous ovule. The _1-seeded nut_ is enveloped by the
-   persistent calyx. The corolla is more or less labiate, the
-   upper-lip is often absent as in the ligulate corollas of the
-   Astereæ; stamens 4, didynamous, with transversely placed anthers
-   opening by one transverse cleft. The leaves are scattered,
-   simple, entire, and generally form a rosette. _Globularia._
-
-   Order 7. =Stilbaceæ.= Heath-like shrubs. The ovary is bilocular;
-   1 erect seed in each loculus, or the posterior cell is empty.
-   _Stilbe._ 7 species. S. Africa.
-
-
-                        Family 32. =Contortæ.=
-
-_Hypogynous_, regular, ☿, gamopetalous flowers (Figs. 581, 582),
-which are generally 5- or 4-merous, with 5 or 4 stamens (with the
-exception of _Oleaceæ_ and _Jasminaceæ_ which have _only_ 2 stamens,
-alternating with the carpels). The gynœceum is formed of 2 (nearly
-always median) carpels. The corolla _very frequently has twisted
-æstivation_ (the upper edges of the petals being free; Fig. 581 _A_),
-and hence the individual lobes of the corolla are oblique, but the
-flower as a whole is regularly actinomorphic. A nectary, in the form of
-a honey-secreting ring or glands, is often found round the base of the
-ovary.--The leaves, with a few exceptions, are _opposite_ and _without
-stipules_. Endosperm large (Fig. 581 _C_), except in _Jasminaceæ_ and
-_Asclepiadaceæ_.
-
-   The Apocynaceæ and the Asclepiadaceæ, on account of the free
-   ovaries, without doubt represent a more primitive form, but the
-   Asclepiadaceæ on the other hand form an offshoot on account of
-   their peculiar pollen-masses. The Loganiaceæ form a transition
-   to the Rubiaceæ.
-
-   The orders are:--
-
-   A. STAMENS 5. 1, Gentianaceæ; 2, Apocynaceæ; 3, Asclepiadaceæ;
-   4, Loganiaceæ.
-
-   B. STAMENS 2. 5, Oleaceæ; 6, Jasminaceæ; 7, Salvadoraceæ.
-
-Order 1. =Gentianaceæ= (=Gentians=). _Glabrous_ herbs, without latex;
-the opposite, undivided and _entire_ leaves are often slightly united
-at the base; many have rosette-like radical leaves. _Stipules absent_.
-The flowers are generally borne in regular, dichotomously-branched
-_dichasia_ (Figs. 580, 581 _A_), which finally become transformed into
-unipared scorpioid cymes; the parts of the flower are 4–5-merous as
-far as the gynœceum, which is 2-merous; the calyx frequently is almost
-polysepalous; the corolla has distinctly twisted æstivation (the upper
-edges being free) (Fig. 581 _A_), except _Menyantheæ_. The carpels are
-_entirely_ united, and most frequently form a _1-locular_ ovary with 2
-_parietal placentæ_ bearing many ovules (often in several rows, Fig.
-581 _D_, _F_). _Capsule_, 2-valved, with septicidal dehiscence, the
-incurved edges bearing the seeds (Fig. 581 _D_, _F_).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 580.--_Erythræa._ Inflorescence. 1, 2, 3,
-  etc., the successive shoot-generations.]
-
-=1.= GENTIANEÆ.--_Gentiana_ (Gentian) has most frequently a tubular,
-campanulate or funnel-shaped corolla, sometimes with teeth between the
-corolla-lobes and fringed in the throat of the corolla; _G. lutea_ has
-a rotate, yellow corolla.--~_Swertia_: rotate corolla; each lobe has at
-its base 1–2 nectaries, with fringed edges.~
-
-_Erythræa_ (Centaury, Fig. 581); corolla most frequently salver-shaped.
-The anthers ultimately become spirally twisted (_E_). The style
-prolonged, deciduous. The flower has the _Lobelia_-arrangement,
-_i.e._ the median sepal is anterior; the corolla is rose-coloured (in
-the native species). The capsule is semi-bilocular (Fig. 581 _F_,
-_G_).--~_Cicendia_ has a low creeping stem, fine as a thread, and
-small, yellow flowers, 4-merous (without twisted anther).--_Chlora_
-(Yellow-wort) 6–8-merous.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 581.--_Erythræa centaurium._ Inflorescence,
-  flower and fruit: _br^1_, _br^2_ floral-leaves of the 1st and 2nd
-  order; _G_ a valve of the capsule separated from its fellow.]
-
-=2.= MENYANTHEÆ. _Menyanthes_ (Buck-bean) deviates in several respects
-from the type of the order. The leaves are _scattered_ and, in _M.
-trifoliata_, trifoliate; the corolla has _valvate_ æstivation; the
-testa is also very hard (thin in the true Gentians). They are aquatic
-plants with creeping rhizome; the flowers borne in racemes, with
-terminal flower, heterostylous. The corolla is funnel-shaped with a
-very hairy throat.--~_Limnanthemum_ with floating leaves, like the
-Water-lilies.~
-
-   575 species; distributed over the entire globe, but most
-   numerous in _Alpine_ districts. Neither poisonous nor nutritive
-   plants are found, but several are used in medicine on account of
-   the _bitter_ properties so prevalent amongst them. OFFICINAL:
-   the roots of _Gentiana lutea_. The roots of other species,
-   _e.g._ _G. purpurea_, _punctata_ and _pannonica_ (Europe) and
-   the leaves of _Menyanthes trifoliata_ are medicinal. Some are
-   grown as ornamental plants on account of the pure (often deep
-   blue) colour of the flowers.
-
-Order 2. =Apocynaceæ= (=Periwinkles=). Trees and shrubs (also lianes),
-less frequently herbs, generally _with latex_. The leaves are
-opposite, simple, entire, _without stipules_; the flowers are regular;
-corolla-lobes oblique, æstivation twisted. The stamens are individually
-free, and the _pollen-grains are free_ or at most united in fours (see
-Asclepiadaceæ). The two carpels have 2–∞ ovules, in all cases there is
-only 1 style and a capitate stigma, which towards the base is widened
-out into a disc-like table (stigma-disc) abstricted in the centre;
-but the carpels in most of the genera (_e.g._ those mentioned below)
-are entirely separate, and the fruit consists of two _follicles_, the
-seeds of which often have a tuft of _woolly hairs_ projecting from the
-micropyle, less frequently of two drupes. In some other genera there
-is a 1-locular (provided with 2 parietal placentæ) or a 2-locular ovary
-becoming a 2-valved capsule or a berry. Endosperm abundant.
-
-_Vinca_ (Periwinkle) has a salver-shaped corolla, which is twisted
-to the left in æstivation (_i.e._ the left edge of the petals is
-free); nectaries 2, alternating with the carpels; the summit of the
-style is hairy. Follicles; seeds without hairs. ~Mostly creeping,
-perennial, evergreen plants, whose large flowers are apparently
-axillary; in reality they are terminal, but by the development of
-the bud in the axil of one of the two uppermost leaves, they are
-thus displaced over the other leaf of the pair (a helicoid sympodium
-being formed).--_Plumeria_, _Tabernæmontana_, _Cerbera_ (drupe).
-_Aspidosperma._~
-
-_Nerium_ (Oleander). The leaves are in whorls of 3. Corolla
-funnel-shaped, in æstivation twisted to the right, and with a corona
-resembling that of _Lychnis_. The anthers are prolonged at the base
-and each also bears at the apex a long, linear, hairy appendage; these
-finally become spirally twisted. Follicles; seeds hairy. _Apocynum_,
-_Echites_, etc. _Epigynum_ is epigynous.
-
-   124 genera, 1,000 species; principally in the Tropics. Only 2
-   species of _Vinca_ are natives of this country; the following
-   are cultivated as ornamental plants:--_Vinca minor_, _V. major_,
-   _V. (Lochnera) rosea_, _Amsonia salicifolia_, _Nerium oleander_
-   (Eastern Mediterranean). The _latex_ of some is _poisonous_
-   (_Tanghinia venenifera_, _Cerbera_). Caoutchouc is obtained from
-   others (_Hankornia_, _Landolphia_, _Vahea_, etc.). Tough bast is
-   frequently developed. The bark of _Aspidosperma quebracho_ and
-   the seeds of _Strophanthus hispidus_ are used in medicine (also
-   for African arrow-poison), the latter is officinal.
-
-Order 3. =Asclepiadaceæ.= A natural and easily recognised order,
-closely allied to the Apocynaceæ, having, like it, frequently a
-poisonous latex, opposite, single, entire leaves and fundamentally the
-same floral diagram and floral structure (S5, P5, A5, G2); but in some
-the æstivation of the corolla is valvate. The carpels here also have
-_free ovaries_, but are united for some distance above into a _large,
-shield-like, 5-angular head_, having on its underside the true stigmas,
-and the fruit always consists of 2 _follicles_; seeds most frequently
-numerous and _hairy_ at the micropyle (“vegetable silk”); endosperm
-scanty.--The order is distinguished from the Apocynaceæ and from all
-other plants also, except the Orchids, by having all the pollen-grains
-in each of the =2= loculi of the anthers (true 2-locular anthers)
-united into _one waxy, club-shaped pollen-mass_ (“pollinium”), for the
-purpose of pollination by insects. These heavy masses, in order to
-secure pollination (as in the case of the Orchids), must be attached to
-sticky discs (corpuscula); there are 5 corpuscula, one at each of the
-corners of the 5-angular stylar-head (alternating with the anthers),
-and to each of these are attached 2 pollinia, one from each of the
-anthers situated on either side (thus each anther gives its right
-pollinium to one corpusculum and its left to another). The stamens are
-frequently united at the base, and each bears on the back a variously
-formed, petaloid appendage, termed a “cucullus.”
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 582.--_Asclepias cornuti._ _A_ An open flower
-  with the calyx (_k_) and corolla (_c_) turned down; the stamens
-  are bent together and surround the gynœceum. _B_ The andrœcium
-  after removal of the sterile part (cucullus) of the anther, which
-  functions as a nectary: _e_ the lateral expansions of the fertile
-  portion of the anthers; _f_ the slit between the expansions of
-  two contiguous anthers, through which the insect’s foot, and
-  later a pollinium which is caught by it, is dragged, and behind
-  which the only receptive part (stigma) is hidden; above the slit
-  _f_ is the gland (_r_), which secretes the horny corpusculum,
-  which is split at its base and joined on either side with a
-  pollinium (this is more distinctly seen in _D_ and _E_). When
-  the foot of the insect is caught in the slit (_f_) and is drawn
-  upwards, it becomes entrapped in the slit of the corpusculum,
-  which is then pulled out together with the pollinia firmly
-  attached to it. In walking over the flowers the insect will draw
-  its foot through other slits (_f_) and so leave the pollinia on
-  the stigmas. _C_, _D_ The gynœceum with the pollinia hanging
-  freely. _E_ A corpusculum and two pollinia.]
-
-A peculiar relative position (and therefore a good, distinctive
-characteristic) is often found in the _inflorescence_, which is cymose;
-it is placed _between_ the two leaves of a whorl, nearer to one than to
-the other. ~The leaf-pairs are placed obliquely in the floral region,
-at acute and obtuse angles, and not at right angles (as in the purely
-vegetative parts); the inflorescences are placed in two rows only which
-are nearly 90° from each other, and the two contiguous to one another
-are antidromous; they are in reality terminal, each on its own axis,
-and the entire floral portion of the shoot is a unipared scorpioid
-cymose sympodium; in addition, complications also arise through
-individual parts becoming united.--Herbs and shrubs, some twining or
-climbing.~
-
-In _Asclepias_ the corolla is bent back and there is a cup-like
-cucullus, from the base of which protrudes a horn-shaped body, bent
-inwards.--_Vincetoxicum_ has a rotate corolla and a ring-like, 5-lobed
-cucullus, without internal prominences.--~_Stapelia_ (especially from
-S. Africa) is remarkable on account of its Cactus-like, leafless stems
-and large, brownish flowers, often with carrion-like smell. _Periploca_
-has more powdery pollinia (S. Eur., etc.); _Hoya carnosa_ (Wax-flower;
-Trop. Asia) is a climber, and has small, annual, flower-bearing
-dwarf-branches. _Ceropegia._~
-
-   201 genera with 1700 species, distributed over all tropical
-   countries; few outside these limits: no native species. Several
-   are used in medicine on account of the pungent properties of the
-   latex. Condurango-bark of _Gonolobus condurango_ is medicinal.
-   Caoutchouc is obtained from the latex of some (_e.g._ from
-   _Cynanchum_). The seed-hairs, which are most frequently shining,
-   silk-like, and white, are not sufficiently pliant to be of much
-   value. Ornamental plants in our gardens: _Asclepias_-species,
-   etc.
-
-   Order 4. =Loganiaceæ.= Ovary single, with two loculi, in
-   structure resembling the Rubiaceæ, but superior. 360 species
-   are included in this order; the majority are tree-like, some
-   lianes which climb by tendril-like branches. The _interpetiolar
-   stipules_ of some species are very characteristic (as in
-   Rubiaceæ, to which they maybe considered to be closely related).
-   The fruit is a capsule or berry. The most familiar genus
-   is _Strychnos_, which has spherical berries with an often
-   firm external layer, and compressed seeds with shield-like
-   attachments; endosperm abundant. The leaves have 3–5 strong,
-   curved nerves proceeding from the base.--_Spigelia._--They
-   have _no latex_, as in the two preceding orders, but many are
-   _very poisonous_ (containing the alkaloid “strychnine,” etc.);
-   the South American arrow-poison, urare or curare, is made from
-   various species of _Strychnos_, also an arrow-poison in the East
-   Indian Islands (Java, etc.). OFFICINAL, the seeds of _Strychnos
-   nux vomica_ (“Vomic nut,” Ind.). The seeds of _Strychnos
-   ignatii_ (Ignatius-beans, medicinal), and others are poisonous.
-
-Order 5. =Oleaceæ.= The leaves are always opposite. The inflorescences
-are racemes or panicles. The calyx and corolla are _4-merous_,
-more or less united, free in some species; the corolla has most
-frequently _valvate_ æstivation. All four forms of fruit occur (see
-the genera). _Ovules pendulous_, 2 in each loculus (Fig. 583 _C_).
-Endosperm oily.--_Syringa_ (Lilac) and _Forsythia_ (anthers somewhat
-extrose) have _capsules_ with loculicidal dehiscence and winged
-seeds.--_Fraxinus_ (Ash) has _winged nuts_ (samara) (Fig. 583 _D_);
-trees with most frequently imparipinnate leaves; the flowers are
-_naked_ and sometimes unisexual (polygamous), the Manna Ash (_F.
-ornus_) has however a double perianth with 4 free petals (Fig. 583
-_a_); in the native species, _F. excelsior_, the flowers open before
-the foliage appears.--_Ligustrum_ (Privet) has _berries_.--_Olea_ (_O.
-europæa_; Olive) has _drupes_; the pulp and seeds of the ellipsoidal
-fruits are rich in oil. The lanceolate leaves are grey on the under
-surface, being covered with stellate hairs. In the wild state it is
-thorny (modified branches).--_Phillyrea_; _Chionanthus_.--Few species
-of _Linociera_ have 4 stamens.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 583.--_Fraxinus ornus_: _A_ flower; _ca_
-  calyx; co corolla; _B_ gynœceum and calyx; _C_ longitudinal
-  median section of gynœceum; _D_ fruit.]
-
-   180 species; chiefly in the northern temperate zone. The
-   _Olive-tree_ (_Olea europæa_) has been an important cultivated
-   plant from ancient times (Olive oil, Provence oil, “Sweet oil”).
-   The best oil is extracted from the fruit-pulp. The fruits are
-   edible. Home: Western Asia, Eastern Mediterranean. TIMBER:
-   the Ash (_Fr. excelsior_). OFFICINAL: the Manna Ash (_Fr.
-   ornus_), cultivated in the Mediterranean countries for the
-   sake of its saccharine juice, which flows out and coagulates
-   into “Manna.”--The following are ornamental plants: species of
-   _Ligustrum_ and _Syringa_ (introduced in the 16th century, from
-   S.E. Europe and Asia), _Forsythia_ (China, Japan; the large,
-   yellow flowers are borne on dwarf-branches with scale-like
-   leaves, before the opening of the foliage-leaves), _Chionanthus_.
-
-   Order 6. =Jasminaceæ.= The æstivation of the corolla is
-   _imbricate_; the _ovules are erect_; seeds almost without
-   endosperm; radicle directed downwards. The number of lobes
-   in the calyx and corolla is not 4, but _e.g._ 5, 8, 10,
-   and variations are sometimes found in the same individual.
-   The fruit is a berry or capsule. Many species are twiners,
-   and their scattered or opposite leaves are most frequently
-   imparipinnate.--120 species; especially in Trop. Asia (E.
-   India). Some _Jasminum_-species are cultivated as ornamental
-   shrubs in the warmer districts on account of their elegant
-   foliage, and beautiful, sweet-scented flowers, the essential
-   oil of which is also used in perfumery; the best known are: _J.
-   sambac_ and _grandiflorum_. _Nyctanthes arbor-tristis_ opens its
-   sweet-scented flowers only at night (E. India).
-
-   Order 7 (?). _Salvadoraceæ._ 8–9 species; Asia,
-   Africa.--_Salvadora._
-
-
-
-
-                b. Tetracyclicæ with epigynous flowers.
-
-
-                        Family 33. =Rubiales.=
-
-_The leaves are always opposite or verticillate. The flower is
-epigynous_, ☿, 5-(or 4-) merous, with the usual sympetalous diagram;
-2–5 carpels. The inflorescences are frequently dichasial. The sepals
-are small, reduced to teeth, and become almost entirely suppressed
-in the higher forms.--The flower is regular in _Rubiaceæ_ and some
-_Caprifoliaceæ_, but in other genera of this latter order (especially
-of _Lonicereæ_) it is unsymmetrical. In several genera of the order
-first mentioned the loculi of the ovary contain many ovules, but in
-the last the number of loculi and ovules becomes reduced. This is to
-some extent connected with the nature of the fruit which is many-seeded
-in most instances, namely a capsule or berry, but in others nut-like.
-Endosperm is present.
-
-   The family on one side is allied to the Contortæ (not only
-   through the _Loganiaceæ_ but also through the _Apocynaceæ_), and
-   may be regarded as an epigynous continuation of this family; on
-   the other side it is allied to the Valerianaceæ and Dipsacaceæ.
-   Many points of agreement with the _Cornaceæ_ and _Araliaceæ_ are
-   also found, and in fact several Caprifoliaceæ are distinguished
-   from these by hardly any other feature than the gamopetalous
-   corolla.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 584.--_Cinchona calisaya._ Flowering branch.]
-
-Order 1. =Rubiaceæ.= Leaves opposite (or verticillate), undivided and
-entire, with _interpetiolar stipules_ (Fig. 586). Flowers epigynous
-and hermaphrodite, _regular_, 4- or 5-merous with the usual arrangement
-(Figs. 585, 588–590); corolla gamopetalous, in æstivation often
-valvate; ovary _frequently 2-locular_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 585.--_Cinchona calisaya._ _A_ entire flower;
-  _B_ after removal of the corolla; _C_ longitudinal section of
-  ovary; _D_ fruit; _E_ seed.]
-
-   There are no external characters which at once distinguish
-   this exceedingly large order, as in many other natural orders
-   (Compositæ, Umbelliferæ, etc.), but the _opposite_ leaves with
-   _interpetiolar stipules_ form an excellent mark of recognition.
-   It is divided into many sub-orders and groups, especially
-   characterised by the nature of the ovary (1 or several ovules
-   in each loculus), and of the fruit (schizocarp, berry, drupe,
-   capsule).--The corolla is bilabiate in 4 genera; its æstivation
-   in some is twisted; in _Capirona_, etc., the filaments are of
-   unequal size. The ovary is semi-epigynous in _Henriquezia_, etc.
-   In _Morinda_ all the fleshy fruits coalesce into one multiple
-   fruit.
-
-=1.= CINCHONEÆ. The fruit is a 2-valved _capsule_, with many winged
-seeds (Fig. 585). _Cinchona_ (Quinine, Fig. 584). Trees and shrubs
-with the foliage and inflorescence somewhat resembling _Syringa_;
-the corolla also being of a lilac colour, more or less salver- or
-funnel-shaped, and frequently edged with a fringe of hairs (Fig. 585),
-is somewhat similar to that of _Menyanthes_. Their home is the Andes
-from Bolivia to Venezuela, varying in altitude from 1–3000 metres.
-There are now large plantations in Java and E. India. ~(The name
-“quinine” is of Indian origin; that of the genus “_Cinchona_,” is from
-the Spanish Duchess Cinchon, who in 1638 first introduced the bark into
-Europe.) The following are closely allied: _Cascarilla_, _Remijia_,
-_Ladenbergia_, _Manettia_, _Bouvardia_, etc.~
-
-=2.= GARDENIEÆ. Trees and shrubs, frequently having a many-locular
-berry. _Randia_, _Gardenia_, _Genipa_, _Hamelia_, etc.
-
-=3.= COFFEEÆ. Only 1 seed in each of the two loculi of the ovary;
-_the fruit is a drupe with 2 stones_. _Coffea_ has an ellipsoidal
-fruit about the size and colour of a cherry; the two thin-shelled,
-parchment-like stones are enclosed by a thin layer of pulp; the two
-seeds are flat on the side turned to one another, which has also a
-deep, longitudinal groove curving to the sides. The endosperm is hard,
-horny and greyish (without starch); the small embryo lies in the lower
-end near the circumference. The Coffee-plant (_C. arabica_) is a small
-tree, or more frequently, and especially in plantations, a shrub with
-large dark-green leaves and scented, white flowers. Its home is in
-Tropical Africa; it is now cultivated in many tropical countries.
-_C. liberica_, W. Africa.--_Cephaëlis_ (_C. ipecacuanha_, Fig. 586;
-the roots are officinal).--~_Psychotria_, _Chiococca_, _Ixora_,
-_Hydnophytum_, _Myrmecodia_, etc.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 586.--_Cephaëlis ipecacuanha._ Portion of a
-  branch: _st_ stipules.]
-
-=4.= SPERMACOCEÆ. Chiefly small shrubs and herbs, many of which
-are weeds in tropical countries. The stipular sheaths bear
-numerous bristles at the edge. _Spermacoce_, _Borreria_, _Diodia_,
-_Richardsonia_, etc.
-
-=5.= STELLATÆ. _Herbaceous plants with_ verticillate leaves (Figs.
-587, 588–590); _the stipules are large, leaf-like_, and resemble the
-lamina of the leaves, so that _the leaves appear to be placed several
-in a whorl_, while in reality there are only two opposite leaves, the
-stipules of which project _freely_, and are not erect (Fig. 587).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 587.--_Rubia tinctorum._]
-
-In some cases there are apparently 4 leaves in the whorl, and then 2 of
-these are leaves, and the other two are their interpetiolar stipules.
-When there are apparently 6 leaves, then the two of these which are
-opposite each other are leaves, and the other four are stipules;
-if there are several members in the whorl, then a division of the
-stipules has taken place. The proof of this theory is founded upon
-the fact that not more than 2 of the leaves of the whorl ever support
-buds (which, in addition, are seldom of equal vigour), and also that
-the whorls do not alternate with each other, which, according to the
-rules of the position of the leaves, they should do if all the members
-of a whorl had equal value. If there are, for instance, 4 members in
-two successive whorls, they stand right above one another, and do not
-alternate. The development and anatomical relations (the branching of
-the vascular bundles) also point to the same conclusion.~--All the
-other groups of the order have only 2 small scale-like interpetiolar
-stipules, or they form at the base of the leaf-stalks an interpetiolar
-sheath, having often a toothed edge (Fig. 586).--Another characteristic
-feature in this group is that the calyx is rudimentary, the corolla
-_valvate_ (Fig. 588), and that each of the two loculi of the ovary has
-only 1 ovule. The fruit is a _schizocarp dividing into 2 fruitlets_
-(Fig. 590). ~The forms of the fruit, as well as many other characters,
-as, for example, the epigynous flower, the rudimentary calyx, the two
-free or almost free styles, present interesting analogous resemblances
-to the polypetalous order of the Umbelliferæ.~ This group has its home
-chiefly in the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, especially
-about the Mediterranean; it is the only group which occurs in this
-country, represented by 4 genera.
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 588–590.--_Rubia tinctorum._
-
-  FIG. 588.--Diagram.
-
-  FIG. 589.--Longitudinal section of flower.
-
-  FIG. 590.--Longitudinal section of fruit (3/1).]
-
-_Galium_ (Cleavers) is almost destitute of a calyx; it has a
-small _4-partite, rotate corolla_, 4 stamens, and 2 free styles.
-The fruitlets are _nut-like_. The inflorescence is a paniculate
-dichasium passing into helicoid cymes.--_Asperula_ (Woodruff) is
-distinguished from the above by its salver- or funnel-shaped corolla.
-1 style.--_Rubia_ (Madder, Figs. 587–590) has almost the same form of
-corolla as _Galium_, but (most frequently) a _5-merous flower_, and the
-fruitlets are “_drupes_.” ~_Sherardia_ (Field Madder); the flowers are
-clustered in closely arranged cymes surrounded by _an involucre_; _the
-calyx has 6 distinct teeth_, while the number of petals and stamens is
-4. The corolla is funnel-shaped.--_Vaillantia._ _Crucianella._~
-
-   The DISTRIBUTION OF SEEDS, in some instances, is promoted by
-   hooked appendages on the fruitlets (_e.g._ _Galium aparine_).
-
-   The small flowers of the Stellatæ are frequently collected
-   in compact inflorescences, and are therefore rendered more
-   conspicuous; slight protandry is found in some, self-pollination
-   in the species which are less conspicuous. Many species are
-   heterostylous. _Myrmecodia_, _Hydnophytum_, and other genera
-   have large tubers (hypocotyledonous stems), whose labyrinthine
-   cavities and passages are inhabited by ants.
-
-   About 4,500 species; tropical or sub-tropical except the
-   Stellatæ; especially American. The tropical ones are mostly
-   trees.--Several are ~OFFICINAL~ on account of the large
-   amount of _alkaloids_ and _glycosides_ which they contain. The
-   most important are the Cinchonas (_Cinchona calisaya_, _C.
-   succirubra_, _C. officinalis_, _C. micrantha_, etc.), whose bark
-   contains the well-known febrifuge and tonic, Quinine, Cinchonin,
-   etc.; Quinine is also found in _Exostemma_, _Ladenbergia_, and
-   _Remijia_. The root “Ipecacuanha” (an emetic) from _Cephaëlis
-   ipecacuanha_ (Brazils). Caffeine is officinal. The use of the
-   seeds of the coffee plant (“the beans”) was first known in
-   Europe in 1583.--There are only a few which contain _aromatic_
-   properties, principally among the Stellatæ (coumarin in
-   _Asperula odorata_, the Woodruff), in which group _colouring
-   materials_ are also found. The root and root-stalks of _Rubia
-   tinctorum_, the Madder (S. Eur., Orient., Fig. 587), were
-   formerly largely used for dyeing, but are now superseded by
-   the analine colours. Red dyes are also obtained from the roots
-   of species of _Asperula_ and _Galium_. Gambier is a splendid
-   colouring material, obtained from _Uncaria gambir_ (S.E. Asia),
-   which is used in dyeing and tanning.--The order does not furnish
-   many ornamental flowers.
-
-Order 2. =Caprifoliaceæ.= This order agrees with the Rubiaceæ in having
-opposite leaves and an epigynous flower, most frequently 5-merous
-with the ordinary tetracyclic diagram, but in some species it is
-zygomorphic; the corolla has imbricate æstivation, _carpels 3–5, most
-frequently 3_ (not 2, which is the most usual number in the Rubiaceæ).
-The fruit is generally a _berry_ or a _drupe_, but the most important,
-and in any case most easily recognisable feature, is the _absence of
-stipules_; in exceptional cases, where they are present, they are not
-interpetiolar, and are most frequently small.--~The majority of plants
-belonging to this order are shrubs or trees. Compound leaves sometimes
-occur. Stipules only appear in a few species of _Lonicera_, _Sambucus_
-and _Viburnum_; in the common Elder (_Sambucus nigra_) they are in
-some instances glandular and small, but in other cases larger and more
-leaf-like (upon long, well-developed shoots); in the Dwarf Elder (_S.
-ebulus_) they have the normal leaf-like form; in _Viburnum opulus_ they
-are present as narrow lobes at the base of the petiole; in others they
-are completely absent. The leaves are frequently penninerved, rarely
-palminerved. The calyx, as in the Stellatæ and Aggregatæ, is often very
-insignificant.~
-
-=1.= LONICEREÆ, HONEYSUCKLE GROUP. This has _campanulate or tubular
-corollas_ which are often zygomorphic; in connection with the length of
-the corolla the _style is long, filamentous_, and most frequently has a
-large, capitate stigma. There are _several ovules_ in the loculi of the
-ovary, and the fruit is most frequently a _berry_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 591.--_Lonicera._]
-
-_Lonicera_ (Honeysuckle). Shrubs, sometimes twiners. The corolla in
-some species is considerably bilabiate (Fig. 591), with 4 lobes in
-the upper lip, and 1 in the under lip, but in others more regular,
-tubular, or campanulate. The flowers are either borne in capitate
-inflorescences, which are compound and formed of closely compressed
-3-flowered dichasia (sect. _Caprifolium_), or in dichasia with 2
-flowers (the terminal flower is wanting). The ovaries and fruits
-coalesce in some (sect. _Xylosteum_). ~The opposite leaves in some
-species unite with each other and form a broad collar encircling the
-stem (Fig. 591). Above the primary bud 1–2 accessory buds are often
-found in the leaf-axils.--_Diervilla_ (_Weigelia_); with a 2-locular,
-2-valved capsule.--_Symphoricarpus_ (Snowberry) has an almost regular,
-funnel-shaped corolla; a peculiar feature is found in the ovary which
-has 4 loculi, the 2 median having many ovules in 2 rows, all of which
-are aborted; the 2 lateral ones, on the other hand, each have only 1
-ovule which is developed. Different forms of leaves are frequently
-found on the same branch; they are entire or lobed.~
-
-=2.= SAMBUCEÆ, ELDER GROUP (Fig. 592). This has a _rotate_, _regular
-corolla_, extrorse anthers, a very short and thick (or almost absent)
-_style_, with tripartite stigmas, and only 1 pendulous ovule in each of
-the 3 (-5) loculi of the ovary. The fruit is a “_drupe_” with 1–3 (-5)
-stones. The inflorescence is made up of _cymes grouped in an umbel-like
-arrangement_.
-
-_Sambucus_ (Elder, Fig. 592) has _imparipinnate_ leaves and a “drupe”
-with 3 (-5) _stones_. Between the calyx and the style a disc remains
-on the apex of the fruit. _S. nigra_ with black fruit; _S. racemosa_
-with red fruit; _S. ebulus_ is a perennial herb; the others are
-woody.--_Viburnum_ (Guelder-rose) has _simple_ leaves (penninerved
-or palminerved, entire, dentate or lobed), and a “drupe” with only 1
-_stone_, which is compressed, cartilaginous, and parchment-like; 2 of
-the loculi of the ovary are aborted. ~(In _V. opulus_ the marginal
-flowers of the inflorescence are barren, and in that case their
-corollas are generally specially large; the cultivated _Viburnum_ has
-only barren flowers, with large corollas.)~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 592.--_Sambucus nigra_: _cor_ corolla; _s_
-  calyx.]
-
-=3.= LINNÆEÆ. _Linnæa borealis_ (the only species) is an extreme form
-of the order; it has a 2-flowered dichasium, funnel-shaped, slightly
-bilabiate corollas (2/3); 4 didynamous stamens. Two of the 3 loculi of
-the ovary have several ovules which are not developed, while the third
-has only 1 ovule, which developes into a seed. The fruit is a nut,
-which is enveloped by the two large bracteoles, which are covered by
-sticky, glandular hairs, and serve as a means of distribution. It is a
-small undershrub.
-
-   [_Adoxa_, which was formerly classed in this order, appears,
-   according to recent investigations, to be more properly placed
-   among the Saxifraginæ.]
-
-   In cases where the flowers are small, as in _Sambucus_ and
-   _Viburnum opulus_, they are rendered conspicuous by being
-   arranged in closely-packed inflorescences; they are massed
-   together and form large surfaces, and in the last named are
-   still more conspicuous on account of the barren, but large
-   ray-flowers, which are of service in this respect. Honey is
-   secreted in the nectaries at the base of the styles. In the
-   genera with rotate flowers, as _Viburnum_ and other Sambuceæ,
-   the honey lies so exposed and in such a thin layer, that only
-   flies and insects with short probosces can procure it; bees,
-   however, visit these flowers for the sake of the pollen. There
-   is hardly any nectar in the Elder; self-pollination frequently
-   takes place. The flowers of the Caprifoliaceæ, which, with their
-   long corolla-tube are adapted for evening-and night-flying
-   insects with long probosces, open in the evening, and at that
-   time give off their strongest scent.
-
-   DISTRIBUTION. 230 species; especially outside the Tropics in the
-   Northern Hemisphere. In this country they are found especially
-   in hedges and as under-shrubs.--OFFICINAL: the flowers and
-   fresh fruits of the Elder (_S. nigra_), the fruits (“berries”)
-   being also used in the household. ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS: species of
-   _Lonicera_, _Symphoricarpus_, _Diervilla_, which are chiefly
-   from N. Am., _Abelia_ and _Viburnum_.
-
-
-                       Family 34. =Dipsacales.=
-
-The leaves are _opposite and without stipules_. The flower (Figs. 593,
-595, 598, 599, 600) is _epigynous_, _zygomorphic_ or _asymmetrical_,
-5-merous with S5, P5, stamens typically 5, but by suppression _never
-more than 4_, sometimes less, carpels 3–2. The calyx is more or
-less insignificant, and almost suppressed in the extreme forms. The
-ovary has 3–1 loculi, but _only one loculus_ has an ovule, which is
-_pendulous_ with the micropyle _turned upwards_ (Fig. 594). Fruit a
-nut. Embryo straight, with the radicle _pointing upwards_ (Fig. 597),
-without or with endosperm.
-
-The inflorescences are distinct dichasia in Valerianaceæ, but in
-Dipsacaceæ and Calyceraceæ they are crowded together into capitula.
-
-   This family is closely allied to the Rubiales through the
-   Valerianaceæ, which have almost the same structure as many
-   of the Caprifoliaceæ. It attains the highest development in
-   the Dipsacaceæ, which are composite plants, but differs from
-   Compositæ in the position of the ovule, etc.
-
-Order 1. =Valerianaceæ.= Herbaceous plants or under-shrubs with
-opposite leaves, often pinnate; stipules absent. The flowers are
-borne in _dichasia_ and in _scorpioid cymose inflorescences_ and are
-_entirely without any plane of symmetry_ (Fig. 593). The calyx and
-corolla are 5-merous, but the calyx is frequently very insignificant
-and ultimately a pappus, as in Compositæ; the corolla is frequently
-saccate or produced into a spur at the base. Most frequently, only 3
-(4–1) of the 5 stamens are developed; these are free. Carpels =3=,
-which form an inferior _ovary_, often with 3 _loculi_, but only _1 of
-the loculi_ contains =1= _pendulous, anatropous ovule_ (Figs. 593, 594
-_A_), the other loculi are empty and shrink up more or less completely.
-(Compare Fig. 593 _A_, _B_). Style 1, stigma tripartite. Endosperm
-absent; embryo straight, with the radicle directed _upwards_.
-
-   The inflorescences are dichasia, or unipared scorpioid cymes
-   with the branches developed in the axil of the second bracteole.
-   Both the bracteoles are generally present and frequently form
-   4 very regular, longitudinal rows on the branches of the
-   inflorescence.--5 stamens do not occur (except perhaps in
-   _Patrinia_). The suppression of stamens and carpels takes place
-   most readily on the anterior side of the flower and that turned
-   towards the first bracteole (_a_) (Fig. 593), whose branch is
-   suppressed in the dichasium; after this the posterior median
-   stamen is next suppressed.
-
-   By the vegetative characters as well as by the inflorescence
-   and the flower, the order is allied to the Caprifoliaceæ and
-   especially to the Sambuceæ.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 593.--_A_ Diagram of _Valeriana officinalis_.
-  _B_ Diagram of _Centranthus_.]
-
-In the least modified (oldest) forms, _Patrinia_ and _Nardostachys_,
-there is an almost regular flower, a 5-merous calyx, 4 stamens, and
-3 loculi in the ovary, 2 of which however are barren. The stamens in
-_Valerianella_ are reduced to 3, in _Fedia_ to 2 (posterior), and
-the calyx is less distinctly 5-dentate; the 2 empty loculi in the
-ovary are still visible. _Fedia_ has a small spur at the base of the
-corolla. _Valeriana_ has a very reduced, hair-like calyx (pappus), an
-unsymmetrical, salver-shaped corolla with a _sac-like_, nectariferous
-spur at the base, 3 stamens and only 1 loculus in the ovary (Figs. 594,
-593). _Centranthus_ (Fig. 593) is still further reduced. The corolla
-has a spur and only 1 stamen; ~unipared scorpioid cymes with 4 rows
-of bracteoles. In the last two genera there is a peculiar wall in the
-corolla-tube, which divides it longitudinally into two compartments
-(indicated by a dotted line in Fig. 593), one of which encloses the
-style. This wall is low in _Valeriana_, but in _Centranthus_ it reaches
-as far as the throat.--The rays of the _pappus_ are pinnately branched
-and rolled up before the ripening of the fruit. 12–20 in number (Fig.
-594 _A_, _B_).~
-
-   _Val. officinalis_ and others are protandrous: in the first
-   period the stamens project from the centre of the flower (Fig.
-   595 _a_), the stigmas in the second (_b_) when the stamens have
-   become bent backwards. (_V. dioica_ is diœcious with large ♂-and
-   small ♀-flowers).--275 species; especially from the temperate
-   and colder parts of the northern hemisphere of the Old World,
-   Western North America and the Andes.--_Bitter_ properties are
-   characteristic, such for instance as the volatile acid and
-   volatile oil of _Valeriana_; these occur especially in the
-   rhizomes. OFFICINAL; the rhizomes of _V. officinalis_.--The true
-   Indian “Nardus,” an important medicine and perfume in India,
-   is extracted from _Nardostachys_ (Himalaya). A variety of
-   _Valerianella olitoria_ is sometimes used as salad.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 594.--_Valeriana_: _A_ ovary (longitudinal
-  section); _B_ ripe fruit.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 595.--_Valeriana_: _a_ flower in the ♂ stage;
-  _b_ in the ♀.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 596.--_Centranthus ruber._ Flower, its
-  lowermost portion (the ovary and spur) in longitudinal section.
-  (Mag.)]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 597.--_Scabiosa atropurpurea._ Fruit in
-  longitudinal section. Inside the “epicalyx” may be seen the fruit
-  drawn out into a beak, with straight embryo and radicle directed
-  upwards.]
-
-Order 2. =Dipsacaceæ= (=Teasels=). Herbs with _opposite_ leaves without
-stipules. The flowers are situated in compact capitula each with an
-involucre. A characteristic feature of the order is that _each flower_
-of the capitulum has a _gamophyllous_ “_epicalyx_” (Figs. 597, 599,
-600), which envelopes the inferior ovary. The flowers (Figs. 599, 600)
-are ☿, 5-merous (S5, P5, stamens typically 5, G=2=), but the calyx
-often expands at the edge into a membrane with 5, or an indefinite
-number of bristles or teeth (pappus, Figs. 597, 600), and the
-_zygomorphic, funnel-shaped corolla_ is sometimes 5-lobed and bilabiate
-(2/3), but most frequently 4-partite (Fig. 599), the two lobes of the
-upper lip coalescing into one lobe, as in certain Labiatæ, _Veronica_
-and _Plantago_; the æstivation is _imbricate_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 598–600.--_Dipsacus fullonum._
-
-  FIG. 598.--Inflorescence (the flowers in a zone below the apex
-  commence to flower first).
-
-  FIG. 599.--Flower (4/1).
-
-  FIG. 600.--The same in longitudinal section.]
-
-_The stamens are never more than 4_, the posterior one _remaining
-undeveloped_; they _usually have free anthers_ which generally project
-considerably (Fig. 599). The ovary is unilocular with 1 _pendulous_
-ovule and bears 1 _undivided style_; fruit a nut with 1 _seed,
-containing endosperm_ and with the radicle turned _upwards_ (Fig. 597).
-
-   The flowers do not always open in centripetal order, a fact
-   which may be observed especially in the Dipsacaceæ, in which a
-   zone of flowers round the centre of the capitulum opens first,
-   and the flowering then proceeds both upwards and downwards
-   (Fig. 598). This has probably some connection with the fact
-   that the capitulum has arisen from the coalescence of several
-   dichasial inflorescences. In species of _Scabiosa_ the flowers
-   open simultaneously at the circumference, or in a zone at the
-   centre.--The morphological explanation of the “_epicalyx_”
-   is not quite certain; in all probability it is formed from
-   two united bracteoles, for an “epicalyx” is distinctly formed
-   in this way in one of the Valerianaceæ, _Phyllactis_.--The
-   _ray-flowers_ are larger and more irregular, labiate or
-   ligulate, than the disc-flowers, yet not in so high a degree as
-   in the Compositæ.
-
-=A.= A scarious bract to each flower. _Scabiosa_ has a 5-lobed
-corolla; the “epicalyx” has a dry, scarious, often finally large
-collar, and the true calyx is formed of long bristles (generally 5)
-(Fig. 597). _Succisa pratensis_ (Devil’s-bit) has a 4-lobed corolla,
-the collar of the “epicalyx” is herbaceous; the calyx as in the
-preceding.--_Pterocephalus._--_Dipsacus_ (Teasel); large, spiny and
-stiff-haired herbs with capitula, or short, thick spikes on which
-both the involucral-leaves and bracts project considerably, and are
-stiff and spinose (Fig. 598). The “epicalyx” has short teeth, or is
-almost entire. ~The leaves of the stem unite together in pairs, so
-that shallow cups are formed round the stems in which rain-water may
-collect.--_Cephalaria._--_Morina_: the flowers are falsely verticillate
-as in the Labiatæ; the calyx has 2 laterally-placed, entire, or
-emarginate lobes; 2 stamens, or 2 large and 2 small ones.~
-
-=B.= Bristles, but _no_ true bract to each flower. _Knautia_; the
-corolla is 4-partite, the calyx cup-like, with many bristles or teeth
-on the edge.
-
-   POLLINATION is in many species effected by insects. The
-   honey is secreted by a ring round the base of the style. The
-   flowers in our native species are considerably protandrous.
-   Gynodiœcious flowers also occur.--150 species; especially in
-   the Mediterranean and the Orient; the order is not represented
-   in the South Sea Islands, Australia and America.--The heads of
-   the true Teasel (_Dips. fullonum_) are used for carding wool, on
-   account of the elastic bracts, which are hooked at the point.
-   The order has bitter properties; tanin, etc.; but no species are
-   used in medicine or the household.--_Scabiosa atropurpurea_,
-   etc., are used as ornamental plants.
-
-   Order 3. =Calyceraceæ.= This order resembles the Compositæ in
-   the valvate æstivation of the corolla and the more or less
-   united stamens, and the Dipsacaceæ in the undivided style,
-   pendulous ovule and endosperm. The calyx is frequently composed
-   of 5 distinct scales. An “epicalyx” is wanting.--20 species;
-   America.
-
-
-                       Family 35. =Campanulinæ.=
-
-The flower is _epigynous_, perfect, with 5 sepals, 5 petals, and 5
-stamens in regular alternation, and =3= (2–5) carpels. The sepals
-in all cases are _distinct_, but narrow and pointed, so that the
-æstivation is open. The corolla is gamopetalous with (as in the
-Compositæ) _valvate_, or slightly infolded-valvate æstivation. The
-stamens are nearly always _situated on the torus_ without being united
-to the corolla (Figs. 601, 604). The anthers adhere or unite and form
-a tube with introrse anthers from which the pollen is swept out by the
-projecting, brush-like hairs on the style (as in the Compositæ). The
-ovary is =3=-(2–5) locular, _many ovules_ in each loculus. The fruit is
-generally a _many-seeded_ capsule (or berry). Embryo in the centre of
-a fleshy _endosperm_.--The majority are herbs with scattered leaves,
-without stipules. The presence of _latex_ and _inulin_, together with
-the tubular formation of the anthers, the pollination, etc., indicate
-a relationship with the Compositæ.
-
-   The _Cucurbitaceæ_ are by some authorities placed in this family
-   as being most closely related to the Campanulaceæ. Although the
-   corolla is most frequently gamopetalous, and other similarities
-   to the Campanulaceæ are present, yet on account of the structure
-   of the ovule, and for other reasons, the Cucurbitaceæ are
-   here placed in the Choripetalæ. The Campanulinæ without doubt
-   proceed upwards to the Compositæ, with which, in addition to
-   the occurrence of inulin and laticiferous vessels (Cichorieæ),
-   there are many corresponding features both in the structural
-   and biological relations (epigyny, valvate æstivation of the
-   corolla, tendency of the anthers to adhere or unite, protandry
-   with a stylar-brush, etc.) The inflorescence of _Jasione_ is
-   almost identical with that of the Compositæ.
-
-Order 1. =Campanulaceæ= (=Campanulas=). The flowers are _regular_ and
-in some only semi-epigynous, 5-merous, except in the gynœceum which is
-3-merous (the unpaired, median carpel being generally posterior), more
-rarely 2–5-merous, and has a corresponding number of stigmas and loculi
-in the ovary; the placentation is axile with a large number of ovules.
-The median sepal is posterior. The stamens frequently have broad, free
-bases (Fig. 601 _H_) which cover the nectariferous upper surface of
-the ovary; the anthers only fit loosely together, and become separated
-as soon, as the pollen is shed (Fig. 601 _G_), 1 long style, which
-is studded by sweeping-hairs (stylar-brush), which ultimately become
-invaginated; the stigmas do not unfold until the stamens have shed
-the pollen (Fig. 601 _E_, _G_). Fruit a capsule.--Herbs, more rarely
-under-shrubs or shrubs, with latex and scattered, undivided leaves
-without stipules. The inflorescence is most frequently a raceme or
-spike _with_ terminal flower.
-
-=A.= Capsule opening at the side by pores and small valves: _Campanula_
-(Canterbury-bell); the corolla is bell-shaped, rarely almost rotate;
-capsule obconical. ~The pores of the capsule are found near the top of
-the fruit when it is erect, and near the base when it is pendulous, so
-that the seeds are not liberated unless the capsule is forcibly shaken,
-and they are thus ejected to a considerable distance.~--_Phyteuma_
-(Rampion) has free petals, which for a long time adhere at the
-apex and form a tube round the stamens (Fig. 601); inflorescence
-compact, spike-like or capitate, in the latter case resembling
-that of the Compositæ, and frequently with an involucre similar to
-the one possessed by this order. ~_Specularia_ (rotate corolla,
-prismatic capsule), _Michauxia_ (flower 8-merous).--_Symphyandra_ has
-syngenesious anthers.~
-
-=B.= Capsule with valves at the apex, loculicidal dehiscence:
-_Jasione_; the petals are almost free. The anthers are united at the
-base (syngenesious). The flowers are situated in capitate umbels with
-involucres.--_Wahlenbergia_; _Platycodon_.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 601.--_Phyteuma spicatum._ Flowers and parts
-  of flowers in various stages of development.]
-
-=C.= Berry: _Canarina_; flower, 6-merous; leaves opposite.
-
-Protandry is general (Fig. 601). 510 species; principally in temperate
-countries. Several genera furnish ornamental plants, but are of
-little use for other purposes. The roots of some _Campanula_-and
-_Phyteuma_-species are large and may serve as pot-herbs (_C.
-rapunculus_, _P. spicatum_).
-
-Order 2. =Cyphiaceæ.= In this order the corolla is zygomorphic and the
-stamens free, hence it is intermediate between orders 1 and 3.--About
-24 species; Africa.
-
-Order 3. =Lobeliaceæ= (=Lobelias=). This order may briefly be described
-as Campanulaceæ with _zygomorphic_ flowers and anthers _united into
-a tube_, in most cases slightly bent; generally 2 carpels and an
-_inverted_ position of the flower, _i.e._ the median sepal is turned
-anteriorly (Fig. 602) (a position which is found to occur within the
-Campanulaceæ). A twisting of the peduncle takes place even before
-flowering (as in the Orchids) so that the ordinary position of the
-5-merous Dicotyledons appears to be restored. The zygomorphy of the
-flower is especially present in the corolla, which has a _bipartite_
-under-lip and a _tripartite_ upper-lip, and is, in _Lobelia_,
-anteriorly (apparently posteriorly) deeply cleft (Fig. 602). There
-is 1 style, but the stigma is capitate and bilobed and surrounded
-at its base by a _whorl of hairs_, which assists in pollination
-(as a stylar-brush) in the same manner as the sweeping-hairs in the
-Campanulaceæ and Compositæ. There is _no terminal flower_ in the
-spicate, or racemose inflorescences.--_Lobelia_ has a capsule, several
-others have berries. ~_Isotoma_ (regular flower); _Heterotoma_ has a
-spur; _Siphocampylos_; _Lysipoma_ (pyxidium); _Clintonia_ (1–locular
-fruit). _Metzleria_ (all the petals are free).~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 602.--Diagram of _Lobelia fulgens_.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIGS. 603, 604.--_Lobelia syphilitica._
-
-  FIG. 603. Flower (2/1).
-
-  FIG. 604.--Longitudinal section of the same.]
-
-   Entomophilous and protandrous. About 500 species, especially
-   in the Tropics; in this country, _L. dortmanna_ (margin of
-   lakes).--Several are cultivated in gardens and conservatories as
-   ornamental plants (_Lobelia bicolor_, _erinus_, _fulgens_, etc.,
-   _Siphocampylos_, _Centropogon_). The latex of several species
-   of _Tupa_ is poisonous; caoutchouc is also obtained from them.
-   OFFICINAL: “herba _Lobeliæ_” (the alkaloid lobeline) from the
-   poisonous _L. inflata_ (N. Am.).
-
-   Order 4. =Goodeniaceæ.= Chiefly Australian (200 species),
-   closely related to Orders 3 and 5, but without latex. The style
-   is provided with a “collecting-cup” which receives the pollen
-   before the flower opens; it has a small, hairy aperture through
-   which the pollen is forced out by the stigmas, and through
-   which they emerge when the pollen is shed; it is sensitive and
-   exhibits movements when touched.--Herbs, under-shrubs, less
-   frequently shrubs. _Goodenia_, _Leschenaultia_, _Scævola_.
-
-   Order 5. =Stylidiaceæ= (or =Candolleaceæ=); 100 species,
-   the majority Australian; zygomorpbic flowers, but with the
-   ordinary position. The anterior petal is very small. The chief
-   characteristic feature is the presence of only 2 stamens (with
-   extrorse anthers) which are united with the style and form a
-   _stylar-column_; this is bent like a knee and sensitive at
-   the bend to such a degree that when touched it jerks violently
-   across the flower to the opposite side and then loses its
-   sensitiveness.--Herbs, less frequently under-shrubs. _Stylidium_
-   (_Candollea_).
-
-
-                        Family 36. =Aggregatæ.=
-
-The flowers, which are borne in “capitula” (Figs. 605, 610), are
-_epigynous_ (Fig. 605 _C_, _D_), _5-merous_ in the calyx, corolla and
-andrœcium, the corolla is _valvate_ in æstivation, with =2= carpels
-(S5, P5, A5, G2). The anthers are united into a tube (syngenesious)
-(except _Ambrosieæ_) which surrounds the bifid style. There is never
-more than =1= _loculus_ in the ovary, with =1= _erect_, anatropous
-ovule. The fruit is a 1–seeded nut (cypsela), with thin pericarp, the
-calyx generally persists as a tuft of hairs (_pappus_) (Fig. 606)
-on the summit of the fruit. Embryo _without endosperm_; the radicle
-_directed downwards_.
-
-Only 1 Order: Compositæ.
-
-With respect to the inflorescence and the development of the individual
-flowers, there is a very close resemblance to the Dipsacaceæ, which
-stand on the same plane of progression as the Compositæ. But while
-the latter are allied to Campanulinæ as the last stage in the
-process of evolution, the Dipsacaceæ form the final stage of the
-Rubiales-Dipsacales.
-
-Order =Compositæ=. (For the principal characteristics compare those
-of the family.) The Compositæ are chiefly herbs, but trees and shrubs
-also occur in tropical countries. The leaves may be scattered or
-opposite, but have no stipules. The outer leaves of the _involucre_
-as a rule are barren, especially when numerous and imbricate, while
-the innermost ones support the ray-flowers of the capitulum; in a
-few instances all are fertile (_e.g._ _Tragopogon_, _Tagetes_). The
-CAPITULA are many-flowered, with the exception, _e.g._ of _Echinops_,
-which has 1-flowered capitula (see page 570). The capitula are again
-arranged in inflorescences, most frequently corymbose with centrifugal
-order of development. The _form of the receptacle_ is an important
-character for the division of the genera (flat, convex, conical), and
-also the _presence of scales_; these may be one scale (bract) for
-each flower (Fig. 610 _br_), or a large number of bristles, which
-do not each correspond to a leaf, or the receptacle may be entirely
-without covering (_naked_). The flowers open in acropetal order in each
-capitulum. All the flowers in a capitulum may be of the same _sex_, and
-their form and colour are in that case the same, or the sexes may be
-different, in which case the form and colour are also most frequently
-different: the ray-flowers have projecting labiate or ligulate
-corollas, while the disc-flowers have tubular corollas. As a rule in
-the latter case the ♀ flowers are at the circumference, and the ☿ in
-the centre, less frequently ♀-flowers at the edge and ♂-flowers in the
-centre. The ray-flowers in some genera are neuter (_e.g._ _Centaurea_).
-Some are diœcious.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 605.--_Calendula arvensis_: _A_ capitulum;
-  _B_ capitulum in longitudinal section; _C_ ♀-flower; _D_
-  ☿-flower; _E_ the stamens; _F_ capitulum with ripe fruits; _G_
-  ripe fruit.]
-
-There is no trace of an epicalyx (in contrast to the Dipsacaceæ, which
-they generally so resemble). The formation of the CALYX is very varied.
-The calyx always consists of a very small cushion-like structure,
-most frequently developed later than the corolla; the 5 corners,
-which correspond to the 5 sepals, in a few instances are raised as 5
-large, flat, membranous bodies, _e.g._ in species of _Xeranthemum_,
-_Catananche_, _Sphenogyne_, etc.; in other instances each of these
-bears a shorter or longer bristle on its apex, followed by others in
-rather uncertain numbers and with but slight indications of order, on
-the edge and on the outer side of the calyx between the 5 points; in
-other instances, again, the calyx is covered with bristles and hairs
-without any indication of order or definite number (Fig. 606 _a_, _b_);
-finally instances occur in which the edge is raised as a membranous
-collar, irregularly toothed and notched, or divided into small
-scales. There are naturally differences in the means of distribution
-corresponding to the differences in structure of the calyx. The fruits
-_a_ and _b_ represented in Fig. 606 are distributed by the wind, those
-like _c_, on the other hand, by attaching themselves to animals and
-human beings. The rays of the pappus are termed _rough_ when special
-cells project a little beyond the surface, but if these grow out, and
-are hair-like, the pappus is said to be _feathery_. In some genera the
-pappus is raised on a long stalk, which is developed from the upper
-part of the fruit, and termed a _beak_ (Fig. 606 _a_). The pappus does
-not attain its full development till the ripening of the fruit, _i.e._
-until it is about to be of use.
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 606.--_a_ Fruit of _Taraxacum_; _b_ of
-  _Senecio_; _c_ of _Bidens_.]
-
-The COROLLA has various forms: (_a_) _tubular_ (Fig. 605 _D_), with
-a shorter or longer tube, not always of the same bore throughout and
-especially slightly widened at the top to form a bell-shaped opening,
-with 5 _regular_ teeth: (_b_) _labiate_ after 2/3, _i.e._ with 2 petals
-in the upper and 3 in the under lip: (_c_) _ligulate_, _i.e._ the
-corolla is split for a considerable distance on the posterior side (as
-in the Labiate genus _Teucrium_) and prolonged into a long, strap-like
-portion (Fig. 609 _A_), which projects upwards. A distinction must,
-however, be drawn between the true and false ligulate corolla. In the
-first case the corolla has 5 teeth at the apex (Fig. 609 _A_) and
-is made up of all the petals of the corolla united together; this is
-the usual condition in the _Ligulate-flowered_. In the latter case
-(Fig. 605 _C_) the tongue has only 3 teeth (or is more irregularly
-2–3-dentate), and is only formed of 3 petals; the corolla is then truly
-bilabiate, the tongue is the large under lip, and the upper lip is very
-slightly developed, or even at an early stage quite suppressed. This
-false “ligulate” corolla is found among the _ray-flowers_; sometimes
-the upper lip is seen quite plainly, _e.g._ in _Tagetes_, especially in
-the double capitula. ~The VENATION of the corolla is peculiar; there
-are always commisural veins which branch dichotomously at the angles
-between the teeth of the corolla, and send a branch into the edge of
-the two nearest teeth. The midrib is frequently absent, but may be
-present, and then it has sometimes no connection with the other veins
-of the corolla.~
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 607.--_Centaurea cyanus_: _A_ the anther-tube
-  (_st_) with the crescentic curved filament before irritation;
-  _g_ the style; _k_ the base of the corolla; _B_ the same after
-  irritation, the anthers are drawn further down.]
-
-The STAMENS are attached to the corolla, and have free filaments
-(_Silybum_ has united filaments), but the anthers, which at first are
-free, adhere together and form a tube (Fig. 605 _E_: only _Ambrosieæ_
-have free anthers). The _connective_ is generally prolonged, and
-protrudes above the anthers as a thin, brown membrane of various forms
-(Fig. 605 _E_); appendages of various forms may also be found at the
-base of the anthers. The anthers open introrsely, and the pollen must
-be carried out at the top of the tube by upward growth of the style,
-and by means of the “stylar-brush” (Figs. 607, 608, 609); the filaments
-are sometimes sensitive (_e.g._ in the Corn-flower, Fig. 607), and
-shorten on being touched, so that the anther-tube is pulled downwards,
-and the pollen swept out at the top (Figs. 607, 608 _A_, _B_).
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 608.--_Cirsium arvense_: _A_ the upper
-  portion of a flower, the pollen (_e_) is being ejected; _B_ part
-  of the upper portion of the style with stylar-brush (_b_, _c_)
-  and the stigmatic papillæ (_d_).]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 609.--_Leontodon autumnale_: _A_ ligulate
-  flower; _B_ extremity of the style with stylar-brush (_a_),
-  stigma (_b_) and pollen-grains (_c_). _C_ _Centaurea cyanus_.]
-
-  [Illustration: FIG. 610.--_Achillea millefolium._]
-
-The STYLE divides at the apex into two branches (Figs. 609, 610),
-both of which generally bear on the inner surface two lines of
-stigmatic papillæ (Fig. 610 _B_, _C_) and being in shape, etc.,
-very varied, are therefore employed as systematic characters.--~The
-most important types are: =A.= The style is uniformly cylindrical;
-its branches are semi-cylindrical, long, and with long hairs, and
-finally bend backwards; the stylar branches bear slightly projecting
-stigmatic papillæ on the inner side. This form is characteristic
-of the _Cichorieæ_ (Fig. 609 _A_ _B_). =B.= The style is uniformly
-cylindrical; the branches are long, cylindrical or club-like, short,
-not rolled back, with fine hairs externally; the stigmatic lines do
-not reach beyond the centre, and do not meet together. Characteristic
-of _Eupatorium_, _Petasites_, _Tussilago_. =C.= The style is thickened
-beneath the stigmatic branches in the form of a knob, or very hairy
-(Fig. 609 _C_); the stigmatic lines reach as far as the apex of the
-branches and then converge; sometimes the stigmatic branches are
-united as far as the apex. Characteristic of the _Cynareæ_. =D.= The
-stylar branches are lanceolate, or linear, pointed; externally flat
-and thickly covered with hairs in the upper portion; the stigmatic
-lines cease where the hairs commence externally. Characteristic of
-_Aster_, _Bellis_, _Inula_, _Dahlia_, etc. =E.= The stylar branches are
-linear, with long, brush-like hairs at the apex, where they are either
-abruptly cut off or prolonged into a very hairy, conical appendage;
-the stigmatic lines are broad, _reach as far_ as the brush-like hairs,
-and do not meet together (Fig. 610). Characteristic of _Senecio_,
-_Helianthus_, _Xanthium_, _Gnaphalium_, _Artemisia_, _Anthemis_, and
-others related to these.~
-
-A _ring-like nectary_ is found round the base of the style.
-
-The thin-walled _cypsela_ (Fig. 606), with seeds fitting closely
-to the pericarp, has many different forms (smooth, ribbed, spined,
-etc.); its point of attachment generally lies at the lowest end but
-sometimes it is drawn obliquely up the side (_Centaurea_, etc.).
-The calyx, persistent on the apex of the fruit, has been described
-above. Some genera have two or three different forms of fruits in
-each capitulum.--The embryo is straight, with the radicle _turned
-downwards_, and _without endosperm_, but is rich in oil.
-
-The variously flowered capitula, whose normal tubular disc-flowers have
-been changed to ligulate flowers, may be termed “double flowers.”
-
-   The relationship of the Compositæ to the Campanulinæ has been
-   described above (page 561). The alliance with the Dipsacaceæ
-   is more apparent than real. Similar capitate inflorescences
-   also occur as the final stage in other lines of descent, as in
-   _Eryngium_ among the _Umbelliferæ_.
-
-=1. Cynareæ, Thistle Group.= Flowers all ☿, regular, with _tubular_
-corollas. The receptacle is covered with numerous _bristles_, which
-surround the flowers without any definite order, or the edges of the
-grooves in which these are placed have a well-marked fringe. The
-involucral leaves are numerous, imbricate, and are either prolonged
-into a _thorn_ or terminate with a _membranous edge_. The style has
-been described on page 568 (Fig. 609 _C_). Nearly all have a hairy or
-feathery pappus. The filaments are sensitive.
-
-_Carduus_ (Thistle); capitula ovoid; involucral leaves compact,
-imbricate, with thorny points; the pappus-rays are _hair-like_
-and united at the base by a ring (_i.e._ the calyx), and fall off
-together.--_Cirsium_ (Fig. 608) has a _feathery_ pappus, in other
-respects it is like _Carduus_. ~_C. arvense_ reproduces and passes
-the winter by means of suckers.~--_Cynara_ (Artichoke) has a feathery
-pappus and large, _solitary_ capitulum, with broad involucral leaves;
-these have a fleshy base like the receptacle (edible).--~_Silylum_
-has united filaments. _S. marianum_ (Milk-thistle), has leaves with
-numerous _white spots_. _Onopordon_ (Cotton-thistle). _Cnicus_ (_C.
-benedictus_) has a large, many-spined thorn on the involucral leaves;
-pappus trimorphic.~--_Lappa_ (Burdock) is easily recognized by the
-_hooked involucral leaves_, which assist in the distribution of the
-fruit; in this respect it differs from the other inflorescences,
-and also in the fact that the pappus is short, and quickly falls
-off, without serving as a means of distribution.--~_Carlina_; the
-external involucral leaves are _leafy_, _thorny_, with branched
-or unbranched spines standing straight out or bent backwards; the
-_internal ones are dry_, and prolonged as _dry_, _coloured_, radiating
-_scales_. The well-developed bristles on the receptacle and edge of
-the calyx are _deeply cleft and lobed_.~--_Centaurea_ (Knap-weed,
-Fig. 607). The ray-flowers are neuter, and generally larger than the
-disc-flowers; the involucral leaves are regularly imbricate, but are
-frequently provided at the apex with a dry, chaffy, often lobed,
-fringed appendage. The attachment of the fruit is lateral. _Serratula_
-(Saw-wort).--~_Carthamus_, the outer and inner involucral leaves
-differ very much.~--_Echinops_ (Globe-thistle) is characterised by
-having “compound capitula,” _i.e._ there is only one flower in each
-capitulum, but many such capitula are collected into a spherical head,
-which at the base may also have a few involucral leaves. The individual
-capitula have narrow, linear involucral leaves. ~(There are altogether
-about 150 species of Compositæ with 1-flowered capitula, all from warm
-countries.)~--_Xeranthemum_, _Staehelina_, _Jurinea_, _Saussurea_, etc.
-
-   =2. Mutisieæ, Labiate-flowered Group.= Tropical (S. American)
-   forms whose zygomorphic flowers have a bilabiate corolla (2/3).
-   The involucre is nearly the same as in the Thistles.
-
-=3. Cichorieæ, Chicory Group= (or LIGULIFLORÆ). The flowers are all
-☿ and have a _ligulate, 5-dentate_ corolla. The stylar branches are
-thin and prolonged (Fig. 609 _B_). _Laticiferous vessels_ occur
-in the majority (in this feature they resemble the Lobeliaceæ and
-Campanulaceæ).
-
-=A.= The pappus is _wanting_, or it is _scale-like_, but not long and
-hairy.--_Cichorium_ (Chicory); capitula with _blue flowers_, borne
-singly or a few together in the leaf-axil; there are two whorls of
-involucral leaves, an outer one of short and radiating, an inner of
-more numerous, longer and erect leaves; pappus, scale-like.--_Lapsana_
-(Nipplewort). The few involucral leaves are nearly of the same size,
-and persist forming a sort of capsule round the fruits, which are
-entirely without a pappus. There are only a few flowers in the small
-capitula.--_Arnoseris_ (Swine’s-succory), _Catananche_, etc.
-
-=B.= The pappus is long and _hairy_ (not branched), generally fine
-and snowy-white. There are _no scales_ on the receptacle. The two
-genera first considered have _beaked_ fruits.--_Taraxacum_ (Dandelion)
-(Fig. 606 _a_); the capitula are many-flowered, and borne singly
-on the top of a leafless, hollow stalk.--_Lactuca_ (Lettuce) has
-many small, few-flowered capitula borne in panicles.--_Crepis_
-(Hawksbeard).--_Hieracium_ (Hawk-weed) has many imbricate involucral
-leaves, and a stiff, brittle, brownish pappus.--_Sonchus_
-(Sow-thistle); the capitula, when a little old, have a broad base, and
-are abstricted above in the form of a jug; involucral leaves imbricate;
-the fruit is compressed, without a beak, ridged. The soft, white pappus
-falls off collectively.
-
-=C.= The pappus is _feathery_ and branched; no scales on the
-receptacle.--_Tragopogon_ (Goat’s-beard) generally has 8 involucral
-leaves in one whorl. The fruit has a long beak; the rays of the pappus
-are interwoven in the form of an umbrella.--_Scorzonera_ has fruits
-like the preceding, but almost without any beak; involucral leaves
-many, imbricate.--_Leontodon_ (Hawkbit) has a slightly feathery pappus,
-rays not interwoven; beak absent.--_Picris._
-
-=D.= Long, chaff-like, deciduous scales on the receptacle; pappus
-_feathery_.--_Hypochœris_ (Cat’s-ear).
-
-=4. Eupatorieæ, Hemp-agrimony Group.= All the flowers are most
-frequently ☿; corollas tubular and regular; the involucral leaves are
-not stiff and spiny; the receptacle is not covered with stiff bristles.
-The stylar branches are long, club-like, or gradually tapering. There
-is no swelling below the stigma.
-
-_Eupatorium_ (Hemp-agrimony); all the flowers are ☿.--_Petasites_
-(Butterbur); ray-flowers ♀, disc-flowers ☿ or ♂; sometimes diœcious.
-Capitula in racemes or panicles. The leaves develop after the
-flowering.--_Tussilago_ (_T. farfara_, Colt’s-foot) has a solitary
-capitulum borne on a scaly, scape-like stem; the ray-flowers are ♀
-with _ligulate_ corollas, disc-flowers ♂. The leaves unfold after the
-flowering. _Ageratum_, _Mikania_, _Vernonia_.
-
-=5. Astereæ, Aster Group= (or RADIATÆ, Ray-flowered). The flowers are
-of two forms and different sexes; the ray-flowers are ♀ (sometimes
-neuter), most frequently with irregular, _falsely ligulate_, radiating
-corollas; the disc-flowers are ☿, regular, with tubular corollas (Fig.
-610). Sometimes only tubular flowers are present, as _e.g._ in _Senecio
-vulgaris_ (Groundsel), and the exterior of the capitulum is then as in
-the Eupatorieæ. The stylar branches are straight, more or less flat and
-short (Fig. 610).
-
-=A.= ANTHEMIDEÆ. Involucral leaves imbricate, generally membranous at
-the edge; _pappus wanting_, or at most a _membranous margin_ to the
-calyx, but without hairs.
-
-[+]. _Chaff-like bracts_ on the receptacle are found in _Anthemis_
-(Chamomile), _Anacyclus_ (_A. officinarum_), _Achillea_ (Milfoil, Fig.
-610), _Santolina_, etc.
-
-[++]. A _naked_ receptacle is found in the following: _Bellis_
-(Daisy) has solitary capitula on leafless stalks with white
-ray-flowers.--_Matricaria_ (Wild Chamomile) has a conical receptacle.
-~(_M. chamomilla_ has a very high, hollow receptacle; _M.
-inodora_ has large, odourless capitula, and the receptacle is not
-hollow.)~--_Chrysanthemum_ (Ox-eye) most frequently large, solitary
-capitula; flat receptacle.--_Pyrethrum_; pappus scanty.--With these are
-classed _Tanacetum_ (Tansy) and _Artemisia_ (Wormwood) with tubular
-corollas only.
-
-=B.= HELIANTHEÆ. Most frequently a bract to each flower is found on
-the receptacle. The pappus is never exactly hairy, but consists of
-scales, spines, etc., and the fruits are most frequently compressed
-(Fig. 606 _c_).--_Helianthus_ (Sun-flower); _H. tuberosus_ (Jerusalem
-Artichoke) has tuberous underground stems. _Dahlia_ has tuberous roots
-(Am.). _Bidens_ (Bur-marigold, Fig. 606 _c_); the fruits are compressed
-with 2 (or more) spines provided with reflexed barbs.--_Calliopsis_;
-_Rudbeckia_; _Zinnia_; _Tagetes_ has united involucral leaves,
-and yellow, transparent oil-glands. _Spilanthes_, _Galinsoga_,
-_Melampodium_, _Silphium_ (Compass-plant), _Helenium_, _Gaillardia_.
-
-=C.= CALENDULEÆ have 1–2 rows of involucral leaves, a naked receptacle,
-and large, crescent-shaped, irregularly warted fruits, of different
-forms in the same capitulum; pappus absent (Fig. 605).--_Calendula_
-(Marigold); ray-flowers ♀, disc-flowers ♂.
-
-=D.= SENECIONEÆ, have a fine, _hairy_, white pappus; no bracts,
-otherwise as in Anthemideæ. The involucral leaves are most frequently
-in 1–2 rows.--_Senecio_ (Groundsel) has two whorls of involucral
-leaves, which most frequently have black tips, the external being much
-shorter than the internal ones (_S. vulgaris_ has all flowers ☿ and
-alike).--_Cacalia_, _Doronicum_, _Cineraria_, _Ligularia_, _Arnica_
-(_A. montana_; large, long-stalked capitula; leaves opposite, forming a
-kind of rosette).
-
-=E.= ASTEREÆ have a bristle-like, unbranched pappus, often
-of a dingy brown; receptacle naked; involucral leaves
-numerous, imbricate.--_Solidago_ (Golden-rod); capitula small,
-yellow-flowered, borne in panicles. _Aster_; disc-flowers most
-frequently yellow, ray-flowers violet; _Callistephus_; _Erigeron_
-(Flea-bane)--_Inula_.--All the corollas are tubular in: _Gnaphalium_
-(Cud-weed); involucral leaves dry, rattling, often coloured; the
-foliage-leaves and stem often white with woolly hairs; ray-flowers
-♀, with narrow, tubular corolla; disc-flowers ☿ (few). _Antennaria_
-(Cat’s-foot; diœcious), _Filago_, _Helichrysum_, _Ammobium_,
-_Rhodanthe_ and others. _Leontopodium_ (_L. alpinum_, “Edelweiss”).
-
-   =F.= AMBROSIEÆ, a very reduced type of Compositæ, differing from
-   the others in having _free anthers_; the capitula are generally
-   unisexual, monœcious, the ♂ borne in a terminal inflorescence,
-   the ♀ in the leaf-axils. In other respects they are most closely
-   related to _Heliantheæ_.--_Xanthium._ In the ♂-capitula there
-   are many flowers without calyx, but with tubular corolla and
-   free involucral leaves. In the ♀-capitula there are only 2
-   flowers, which are entirely destitute of both calyx and corolla;
-   involucral leaves 2-spined, united to form an ovoid, bilocular
-   envelope, each compartment containing one flower. The envelope
-   of involucral leaves unites with the fruits, enclosing them at
-   maturity with a hard covering from which numerous hook-like
-   spines project, assisting very greatly in the distribution of
-   the fruit. The whole structure thus finally becomes a 1- or
-   2-seeded _false_ nut.--_Ambrosia_, the ♀ capitulum 1-flowered.
-
-   POLLINATION. The flowers are somewhat insignificant, but become
-   very conspicuous owing to a number being crowded together in
-   one inflorescence. The corollas of the ray-flowers, being
-   often very large (_Astereæ_; _Centaurea_), frequently render
-   the capitula still more conspicuous. The capitula display
-   many biological phenomena similar to those often shown by the
-   individual flowers in other orders, e.g. by periodically opening
-   and closing, in which the involucral leaves resemble the calyx
-   in their action. (The name “Compositæ” originates from the term
-   “flos compositus,” composite flower). An abundance of honey is
-   formed, which to some extent fills up the corolla-tube, and
-   since insects may visit a number of flowers in the course of a
-   short period they are very frequently visited, especially by
-   butterflies and bees. The pollination has been described on page
-   567. Protandry is universal. In the bud the tips of the styles,
-   covered by the sweeping-hairs, lie closely enveloped by the
-   anther-tube; in the next stage the style grows through the tube
-   and sweeps out the pollen as it proceeds; ultimately the stylar
-   branches expand and the stigma is then prepared to receive the
-   pollen. In many, the sensitiveness of the filaments assists in
-   sweeping out the pollen at the exact moment of the insect visit.
-   Regular self-pollination is found _e.g._ in _Senecio vulgaris_;
-   wind-pollination _e.g._ in _Artemisia_ and the plants related to
-   it.
-
-   This extremely natural and well-defined order is the largest
-   (and no doubt one of the youngest?); it embraces 10–12,000
-   known species (in 770 genera), or about one-tenth of all
-   Flowering-plants. They are distributed over the whole globe, but
-   are most numerous in temperate countries; the majority prefer
-   open spaces; a smaller number are forest-forms. They abound
-   especially in open districts in America.
-
-   Among the substances frequently found may be mentioned: INULIN
-   (especially in the subterranean parts), BITTER materials,
-   Tannin, volatile oils, fatty oils in the fruits. MEDICINAL:[40]
-   “Herba” of _Artemisia absinthium_ (Wormwood) and _maritima_[+]
-   (Sea-wormwood), _Achillea millefolium_; the _leaves_ of _Cnicus
-   benedictus_ and _Tussilago farfara_; the unopened _capitula_
-   of _Artemisia maritima_, var. _stechmanniana_; the _capitula_
-   of _Tanacetum_, _Matricaria chamomilla_[+] (wild Chamomile),
-   _Anthemis nobilis_[+] (common Chamomile); the separate flowers
-   of _Arnica_; the _roots_ of _Arnica montana_[+], _Taraxacum
-   officinale_[+], _Anacyclus officinarum_[+], _Lappa major_,
-   _minor_, _nemorosa_ and _tomentosa_, _Inula helenium_ and
-   _Artemisia vulgaris_; the latex of _Lactuca virosa_[+]. The
-   following are cultivated for food:--_Lactuca sativa_ (Lettuce),
-   _Cichorium endivia_ (from E. Asia, for salads), _Cynara
-   scolymus_ (Artichoke, Mediterranean), _Scorzonera hispanica_
-   (S. Eur.), _Helianthus tuberosus_ (Jerusalem Artichoke, from N.
-   Am., introduced into Europe 1616), _Cichorium intybus_ (roots
-   as “chicory,”) _Tragopogon porrifolium_ (Salsafy), _Artemisia
-   dracunculus_. OIL is extracted from the following (the seeds):
-   _Helianthus annuus_ (Peru), _Madia sativa_ (Chili), _Guizotia
-   oleifera_ (Abyssinia). DYES from: _Carthamus tinctorius_
-   (Safflower, used in the preparation of rouge; Egypt), _Serratula
-   tinctoria_. INSECT-POWDER from: _Pyrethrum cinerariifolium_
-   (Dalmatia) and _roseum_ (Persia, Caucasus). The following are
-   cultivated in houses and gardens for the sake of their scented
-   leaves:--_Tanacetum balsamita_ (Balsam), _Artemisia abrotanum_
-   (Southernwood) and _A. argentea_. A great many of the genera
-   enumerated are cultivated in dwelling-houses for the sake of
-   the flowers; _e.g._ _Pericallis cruenta_ (generally termed
-   “Cineraria”). _Asteriscus pygmæus_ is supposed to be the genuine
-   “Rose of Jericho”; the involucral leaves envelop the fruits
-   after their ripening and keep them enclosed for 8–10 months
-   until rain occurs.
-
-
-
-
-               APPENDIX ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.
-
-                           BY M. C. POTTER.
-
-
-The earliest systems of classification were derived from the properties
-and uses of plants; and it was not until some two centuries ago
-that any scientific grouping of plants was attempted. Aristotle and
-Theophrastus had adopted the groups of Trees, Shrubs and Herbs as the
-chief divisions of the Vegetable Kingdom, a system which persisted
-and was employed by Tournefort and Ray as late as the end of the 17th
-century. The arrangement by which these three divisions were separated
-into smaller divisions was often founded upon a single character, such
-as the formation of the corolla, the form of fruit, that of the calyx
-and corolla, etc. All these systems of classification which brought
-into close proximity plants distinguished by some one character alone,
-could only be considered as _artificial_, since plants related to one
-another would not necessarily be included in the same group. As the
-knowledge of the morphology, physiology, and reproduction of plants
-increased, such systems were recognised as unscientific, and it became
-the aim of botanists to establish a _natural_ system, founded upon
-mutual relationships, which would associate together _only_ those
-plants which are truly allied.
-
-The following are some of the chief systems of classification which
-will show the gradual development of the natural system, and may be of
-service to students making use of this text-book.[41]
-
-
-System of JOHN RAY (1703).
-
-     I. Herbæ.
-          A. IMPERFECTÆ (Flowerless).
-          B. PERFECTÆ (Flowering).
-               _Dicotyledones_.
-               _Monocotyledones._
-    II. Arbores.
-          A. _Monocotyledones._
-          B. _Dicotyledones._
-
-Ray was the first botanist who recognised the importance of the one
-or two seed-leaves of the embryo, and initiated the division of the
-Flowering-plants into Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons.
-
-
-System of LINNÆUS (1733).
-
-In his well known artificial system Linnæus divided the Vegetable
-Kingdom into twenty-four classes, based upon the number, relative
-position and union of the stamens with regard to each other, and also
-to the gynœceum.
-
-    Class    I.  MONANDRIA.    Flowers with  1 stamen.
-      „     II.  DIANDRIA.        „      „   2 stamens.
-      „    III.  TRIANDRIA.       „      „   3    „
-      „     IV.  TETRANDRIA.      „      „   4    „
-      „      V.  PENTANDRIA.      „      „   5    „
-      „     VI.  HEXANDRIA.       „      „   6    „
-      „    VII.  HEPTANDRIA.      „      „   7    „
-      „   VIII.  OCTANDRIA.       „      „   8    „
-      „     IX.  ENNEANDRIA.      „      „   9    „
-      „      X.  DECANDRIA.       „      „  10    „
-      „     XI.  DODECANDRIA.     „      „  11 to 19 stamens.
-      „    XII.  ICOSANDRIA.      „      „  20 or more stamens inserted
-                                               on the calyx.
-      „   XIII.  POLYANDRIA.      „      „  20 or more stamens inserted
-                                               on the receptacle.
-      „    XIV.  DIDYNAMIA.    Stamens didynamous.
-      „     XV.  TETRADYNAMIA.    „    tetradynamous.
-      „    XVI.  MONADELPHIA.  Filaments united into 1 bundle.
-      „   XVII.  DIADELPHIA.       „      „      „   2 bundles.
-      „  XVIII.  POLYADELPHIA.     „      „      „   several bundles.
-      „    XIX.  SYNGENESIA.   Anthers united together.
-      „     XX.  GYNANDRIA.    Stamens and pistil united.
-      „    XXI.  MONŒCIA.      Flowers diclinous, ♂ and ♀ on the same
-                                 plant.
-      „   XXII.  DIŒCIA.          „        „      ♂ and ♀ on different
-                                 plants.
-      „  XXIII.  POLYGAMIA.    ♂-, ♀-, and ☿-flowers on the same plant.
-      „   XXIV.  CRYPTOGAMIA.  Flowerless plants (Ferns, Mosses, Algæ,
-                                 Fungi).
-
-   These classes were further divided into orders, according to the
-   number of styles, as Monogynia, flowers with 1 style; Digynia,
-   with 2 styles, etc. Thus a Dock (_Rumex_), having 6 stamens and
-   3 styles, would be placed in Class VI., HEXANDRIA, and Order
-   III., Trigynia.
-
-   Class XIV. was divided into two orders. Order I., Gymnospermia,
-   with seeds apparently naked, comprising the Labiatæ; and
-   Order II., Angiospermia, with the seeds enclosed in a capsule
-   (_Bartsia_, _Rhinanthus_).
-
-   Class XV. was divided into two orders: Order I., Siliculosa,
-   fruit a silicula (_Capsella_); and Order II., Siliquosa, fruit a
-   siliqua (_Brassica_).
-
-   Class XIX. was divided into Order I., Æqualis, all the flowers
-   perfect (_Sonchus_); Order II., Superflua, flowers in the centre
-   perfect, those at the circumference with pistils only (seemingly
-   superfluous), _e.g._ _Aster_; Order III., Frustranea, flowers in
-   the centre perfect, those at the circumference neuter, _e.g._
-   _Centaurea_.
-
-   “Fragments” of a natural system have also come down to us from
-   Linnæus, who himself always recognised the imperfection of his
-   artificial system.
-
-
-System of ANTOINE LAURENT DE JUSSIEU (1789).
-
-                                                               Class
-    =Acotyledones.= Plants without cotyledons: Fungi, Ferns,
-                       Mosses, Algæ, Naiades                      I.
-
-    =Monoctyledones.= Plants with _one_ cotyledon:--
-      1. Stamens hypogynous                                      II.
-      2.    „    perigynous                                     III.
-      3.    „    epigynous                                       IV.
-
-    =Dicotyledones.= Plants with _two_ cotyledons:--
-
-                      { Stamens epigynous                         V.
-      1. APETALÆ      {    „    perigynous                       VI.
-                      {    „    hypogynous                      VII.
-
-                      { Corolla hypogynous                     VIII.
-      2. MONOPETALAE  {    „    perigynous                       IX.
-                      {    „    epigynous, {anthers connate       X.
-                                           {   „    free         XI.
-
-                      { Stamens epigynous                       XII.
-      3. POLYPETALÆ   {    „    hypogynous                     XIII.
-                      {    „    perigynous                      XIV.
-
-      4. DICLINES IRREGULARES, male and female flowers on different
-            plants, corolla generally absent.
-
-
-System of A. P. DE CANDOLLE (1819).
-
-     I. =Vasculares.= Plants with vascular bundles.
-          1. EXOGENÆ. Vascular bundles arranged in a ring.
-              A. _Diplochlamydeæ._ Calyx and corolla present.
-                  _a._ Thalamifloræ. Corolla polypetalous and
-                         hypogynous.
-                  _b._ Calycifloræ. Corolla perigynous or epigynous;
-                         stamens inserted on the calyx.
-                  _c._ Corollifloræ. Corolla gamopetalous; stamens
-                         inserted on the corolla.
-              B. _Monochlamydeæ._ Perianth simple.
-          2. ENDOGENÆ. Vascular bundles scattered, the youngest in
-               the centre.
-              A. _Phanerogamæ._ Flowers present.
-              B. _Cryptogamæ._ Flowers absent.
-    II. =Cellulares.= Vascular bundles absent.
-          1. FOLIACEÆ. Leaves present.
-          2. APHYLLÆ. Leafless.
-
-ROBERT BROWN published in 1827 his discovery of the gymnospermy of the
-ovules of the Coniferæ and Cycadeæ, and showed that the Gymnosperms,
-which had previously been classed with the Dicotyledons, must be
-regarded as an independent group.
-
-
-System of STEPHEN ENDLICHER (1836–40).
-
-     I. =Thallophyta.= No differentiation into stem and root.
-          1. PROTOPHYTA. Class I., Algæ; Class II., Lichenes.
-          2. HYSTEROPHYTA. Class III., Fungi.
-    II. =Cormophyta.= Differentiated into stem and root.
-          1. ACROBRYA. Stem growing at the point.
-                _Anophyta_ (Hepaticæ, Musci).
-                _Protophyta_ (Filices, etc.).
-                _Hysterophyta_ (Balanophoreæ, etc.).
-          2. AMPHIBRYA. Stem growing at the circumference
-               (Monocotyledons).
-          3. ACRAMPHIBRYA. Stem growing both at the point and
-               circumference.
-                _Gymnosperma_ (Coniferae).
-                _Apetala._ Perianth single or absent.
-                _Gamopetala._ Petals gamopetalous.
-                _Dialypetala._ Petals polypetalous.
-
-
-System of A. BRONGNIART (1843).
-
-     I. =Cryptogamæ.= Plants without flowers.
-          1. AMPHIGENÆ. Not differentiated into stem or leaf (Algæ,
-               Fungi, Lichenes).
-          2. ACROGENÆ. Plants with stem and leaf (Muscineæ, Filicinæ).
-    II. =Phanerogamæ.= Plants with flowers.
-          3. MONOCOTYLEDONES.
-              _a._ Albuminosæ. Seeds with endosperm.
-              _b._ Exalbuminosæ. Seeds without endosperm.
-          4. DICOTYLEDONES.
-              _a._ Angiosepermæ.
-                  α. Gamopetalæ.
-                  β. Dialypetalæ.
-              _b._ Gymnospermæ.
-
-
-System of JOHN LINDLEY (_Vegetable Kingdom_, 1845).
-
-                        Asexual, or Flowerless Plants.
-
-    Stem and leaves undistinguishable             I. =Thallogens.=
-    Stem and leaves distinguishable              II. =Acrogens.=
-
-                         Sexual, or Flowering Plants.
-
-    Fructification springing from a thallus      III. =Rhizogens.=
-    Fructification springing from a stem.
-        Wood of stem youngest in the centre; cotyledon
-            single. Leaves parallel-veined, permanent; wood
-            of stem always confused              IV. =Endogens.=
-
-        Leaves net-veined, deciduous; wood of the stem,
-            when perennial, arranged in a circle with a
-            central pith                          V. =Dictyogens.=
-
-        Wood of stem youngest at the circumference, always
-            concentric; cotyledons, 2 or more.
-    Seeds quite naked                            VI. =Gymnogens.=
-    Seeds inclosed in seed-vessels              VII. =Exogens.=
-
-
-System of ALEXANDER BRAUN (1864).
-
-      I. =Bryophyta.=
-          1. THALLODEA (Algæ, Fungi, Lichenes).
-          2. THALLOPHYLLODEA (Charas, Mosses).
-     II. =Cormophyta.=
-          1. PHYLLOPTERIDES (Ferns, Equisetums).
-          2. MASCHALOPTERIDES (Lycopods).
-          3. HYDROPTERIDES (Water-ferns).
-    III. =Anthophyta.=
-          GYMNOSPERMÆ.
-              1. _Frondosæ_ (Cycadeæ).
-              2. _Acerosæ_ (Coniferæ).
-          ANGIOSPERMÆ.
-              1. _Monocotyledones._
-              2. _Dicotyledones._
-                    Apetalæ.
-                    Sympetalæ.
-                    Eleutheropetalæ.
-
-
-W. HOFMEISTER published from 1849 to 1851 his researches upon the
-embryology of the Phanerogams, and upon the embryology and life-history
-of the Vascular Cryptogams, and established the phylogenetic connection
-existing between the Mosses, Vascular Cryptogams and Phanerogams.
-
-
-   System of HOOKER and BENTHAM (_Genera plantarum_, 1862–1883).
-
-                            Dicotyledones.
-
-                            I. Polypetalæ.
-
-Series I. =Thalamifloræ.= Calyx most often free from the ovary. Petals
-uniseriate or often 2–∞-seriate. Stamens ∞ or definite, inserted on the
-receptacle, often small, or raised, or stipitate. Ovary most frequently
-free.
-
-Cohort I. RANALES. Stamens ∞, or if definite the perianth is
-3–∞-seriate. Carpels apocarpous, or immersed in the receptacle.
-Endosperm usually abundant, fleshy.
-
-    Order 1. Ranunculaceæ.
-      „   2. Dilleniaceæ.
-      „   3. Calycanthaceæ.
-      „   4. Magnoliaceæ.
-      „   5. Anonaceæ.
-      „   6. Menispermaceæ.
-      „   7. Berberideæ.
-      „   8. Nymphæaceæ.
-
-Cohort II. PARIETALES. Stamens ∞ or definite. Ovary unilocular,
-or divided into loculi by spurious dissepiments, with parietal
-placentation. Endosperm absent or fleshy.
-
-    Order 9. Sarraceniaceæ.
-      „  10. Papaveraceæ.
-      „  11. Cruciferæ.
-      „  12. Capparideæ.
-      „  13. Resedaceæ.
-      „  14. Cistineæ.
-      „  15. Violarieæ.
-      „  16. Canellaceæ.
-      „  17. Bixineæ.
-
-Cohort III. POLYGALINÆ. Stamens definite. Ovary usually perfectly or
-imperfectly bilocular. Micropyle often superior. Fruit very often
-compressed laterally. Endosperm very often abundant and fleshy.
-
-    Order 18. Pittosporeæ.
-      „   19. Tremandreæ.
-      „   20. Polygaleæ.
-      „   20_a._ Vochysiaceæ.
-
-Cohort IV. CARYOPHYLLINEÆ. Stamens definite, or rarely ∞. Ovary
-unilocular, or imperfectly septate. Placenta central, more rarely
-parietal. Micropyle inferior. Embryo curved, rarely straight. Endosperm
-farinaceous.
-
-    Order 21. Frankeniaceæ.
-      „   22. Caryophylleæ.
-      „   23. Portulaceæ.
-      „   24. Tamariscineæ.
-
-Cohort V. GUTTIFERALES. Sepals inbricate. Stamens usually ∞. Ovary
-septate, placentæ on the inner angles of the loculi. Endosperm absent
-or fleshy.
-
-    Order 25. Elatineæ.
-      „   26. Hypericineæ.
-      „   27. Guttiferæ.
-      „   28. Ternstrœmiaceæ.
-      „   29. Dipterocarpeæ.
-      „   30. Chlænaceæ.
-
-Cohort VI. MALVALES. Sepals valvate. Stamens usually ∞ or
-monadelphous. Ovary septate, placentæ on the inner angles of the
-loculi. Endosperm absent or fleshy.
-
-    Order 31. Malvaceæ.
-      „   32. Sterculiaceae.
-      „   33. Tiliaceæ.
-
-Series II. =Discifloræ.= Calyx usually free from the ovary. Petals
-uniseriate. Stamens usually definite, inserted within, or upon, or
-around the receptacle, which is more often expanded as a disc. Ovary
-usually free, or embedded in the disc.
-
-Cohort VII. GERANIALES. Disc usually as a ring between the stamens,
-or adnate to the staminal tube, or reduced to glands alternating with
-the petals, more rarely absent. Gynœceum entire, or more often lobed,
-or sub-apocarpous. Ovules most often 1–2 in each loculus, _pendulous_,
-_raphe ventral_. Leaves various.
-
-    Order 34. Lineæ.
-      „   35. Humiriaceæ.
-      „   36. Malpighiaceæ.
-      „   37. Zygophylleæ.
-      „   38. Geraniaceæ.
-      „   39. Rutaceæ.
-      „   40. Simarubeæ.
-      „   41. Ochnaceæ.
-      „   42. Burseraceæ.
-      „   43. Meliaceæ.
-      „   44. Chailletiaceæ.
-
-Cohort VIII. OLACALES. Disc cupular or annular, free, or bearing
-the stamens and petals on its edge. Gynœceum entire. Ovules 1–3 in
-the unilocular ovaries, or 1–2 in each loculus, _pendulous_, _raphe
-dorsal_. Leaves simple.
-
-    Order 45. Olacineæ.
-      „   46. Ilicineæ.
-
-Cohort IX. CELASTRALES. Disc tumid, adnate to the calyx, or covering
-its base. Stamens inserted round the disc or affixed to its margin.
-Gynœceum usually entire. Ovules most often two in each loculus,
-_erect_, _raphe ventral_. Leaves simple, or rarely compound.
-
-    Order 47. Celastrineæ.
-      „   48. Stackhousieæ.
-      „   49. Rhamneæ.
-      „   50. Ampelideæ.
-
-Cohort X. SAPINDALES. Disc various. Stamens variously inserted on the
-disc. Gynœceum entire, or more often lobed, or sub-apocarpous. Ovules
-more often 1–2 in each loculus, _ascending_ with _ventral_ raphe, or
-reversed, or _solitary_ and _pendulous from an ascending funicle_, or
-rarely ∞ horizontal. Leaves pinnate, or more rarely simple or digitate.
-
-    Order 51. Sapindaceæ.
-      „   52. Sabiaceæ.
-      „   53. Anacardiaceæ.
-
-Anomalous orders, or rather genera,--
-
-    Order 54. Coriarieæ.
-      „   55. Moringeæ.
-
-Series III. =Calycifloræ.= Calyx-tube usually surrounding the ovary, or
-adnate to it. Petals uniseriate, inserted on the calyx-tube. Stamens
-∞ or definite, inserted on the calyx-tube, or most often on the disc
-lining the calyx-tube. Ovary often enclosed by the calyx-tube, or
-inferior.
-
-Cohort XI. ROSALES. Carpels solitary, or free, or united at the base,
-more rarely at the apex; styles distinct, or very rarely united into a
-column, and easily separated.
-
-    Order 56. Connaraceæ.
-      „   57. Leguminosæ.
-      „   58. Rosaceæ.
-      „   59. Saxifrageæ.
-      „   60. Crassulaceæ.
-      „   61. Droseraceæ.
-      „   62. Hamamelideæ.
-      „   63. Bruniaceæ.
-      „   64. Halorageæ.
-
-Cohort XII. MYRTALES. Ovary syncarpous, inferior, or enclosed in the
-calyx-tube, usually divided into loculi; style undivided. Ovules 2–∞ in
-the loculi.
-
-    Order 65. Rhizophoreæ.
-      „   66. Combretaceæ.
-      „   67. Myrtaceæ.
-      „   68. Melastomaceæ.
-      „   69. Lythrarieæ.
-      „   70. Onagrarieæ.
-
-Cohort XIII. PASSIFLORALES. Ovary syncarpous, inferior or superior,
-enclosed in the calyx-tube or exserted, unilocular with parietal
-placentation, or divided into loculi; styles distinct, one style
-divided, or undivided.
-
-    Order 71. Samydaceæ.
-      „   72. Loaseæ.
-      „   73. Turneraceæ.
-      „   74. Passifloreæ.
-      „   75. Cucurbitaceæ.
-      „   76. Begoniaceæ.
-      „   77. Datisceæ.
-
-Cohort XIV. FICOIDALES. Ovary syncarpous, inferior or superior, divided
-into loculi with sub-basilar placentæ, or more rarely unilocular with
-parietal placentæ. Styles distinct, or divided at the apex. Embryo
-curved or excentric.
-
-    Order 78. Cacteæ.
-      „   79. Ficoideæ.
-
-Cohort XV. UMBRELLALES. Ovary syncarpous, inferior, crowned by the
-disc, divided into loculi, or unicarpellate. Styles distinct or divided
-at the apex. Ovules solitary and pendulous in the loculi.
-
-    Order 80. Umbelliferæ.
-      „   81. Araliaceæ.
-      „   82. Cornaceæ.
-
-
-                            II. GAMOPETALÆ.
-
-Series I. =Inferæ.= Ovary inferior. Stamens equal to the lobes of the
-corolla, rarely fewer.
-
-Cohort I. RUBIALES. Stamens adnate to the corolla. Ovary 2–∞-locular,
-loculi 1–∞-ovuled.
-
-    Order 83. Caprifoliaceæ.
-      „   84. Rubiaceæ.
-
-Cohort II. ASTERALES. Stamens adnate to the corolla. Ovary formed of 2
-carpels, unilocular and 1-ovuled.
-
-    Order 85. Valerianeæ.
-      „   86. Dipsaceæ.
-      „   87. Calycereæ.
-      „   88. Compositæ.
-
-Cohort III. CAMPANALES. Stamens generally free from the corolla. Ovary
-2–6-locular, loculi most often ∞-ovuled.
-
-    Order 89. Stylidieæ.
-      „   90. Goodenovieæ.
-      „   91. Campanulaceæ.
-
-Series II. =Heteromeræ.= Ovary most often superior. Stamens free from
-the corolla, opposite to, or double the lobes of the corolla, or ∞, or
-if epipetalous, equal and alternating with them. Carpels more than 2.
-
-Cohort IV. ERICALES. Stamens double the lobes of the corolla, or
-alternating with them. Ovary 2–∞-locular. Seeds small, frequently
-minute.
-
-    Order 92. Vacciniaceæ.
-      „   93. Ericaceæ.
-      „   94. Monotropeæ.
-      „   95. Epacrideæ.
-      „   96. Diapensiaceæ.
-      „   97. Lennoaceæ.
-
-Cohort V. PRIMULALES. Stamens equal to and opposite the lobes of the
-corolla. Ovary unilocular, with a free central placenta, 1–∞ ovules.
-
-    Order 98. Plumbagineæ
-      „   99. Primulaceæ.
-      „   100. Myrsineæ.
-
-Cohort VI. EBENALES. Stamens equal to and opposite the lobes of the
-corolla, or double, or ∞. Ovary 2–∞-locular. Seeds few and large. Trees
-or shrubs.
-
-    Order 101. Sapotaceæ.
-      „   102. Ebenaceæ.
-      „   103. Styraceæ.
-
-Series III. =Bicarpellatæ.= Ovary most often superior. Stamens equal,
-or fewer than the lobes of the corolla, and alternating with them.
-Carpels 2, rarely 1 or 3.
-
-Cohort VII. GENTIANALES. Corolla regular. Stamens equal to the lobes of
-the corolla, or if fewer, usually alternating with the carpels. Leaves
-generally opposite.
-
-    Order 104. Oleaceæ.
-      „   105. Salvadoraceæ.
-      „   106. Apocynaceæ.
-      „   107. Asclepiadeæ.
-      „   108. Loganiaceæ.
-      „   109. Gentianeæ.
-
-Cohort VIII. POLEMONIALES. Corolla regular. Stamens equal to the lobes
-of the corolla. Leaves generally alternate.
-
-    Order 110. Polemoniaceæ.
-      „   111. Hydrophyllaceæ.
-      „   112. Boragineæ.
-      „   113. Convolvulaceæ.
-      „   114. Solanaceæ.
-
-Cohort IX. PERSONALES. Corolla most often irregular or oblique.
-Posterior stamen less than the others, more often reduced to a
-staminode, or altogether absent. Ovary ∞-ovuled, or 2-ovuled.
-
-    Order 115. Scrophularineæ.
-      „   116. Orobanchaceæ.
-      „   117. Lentibularieæ.
-      „   118. Columelliaceæ.
-      „   119. Gesneraceæ.
-      „   120. Bignoniaceæ.
-      „   121. Pedalineæ.
-      „   122. Acanthaceæ.
-
-Cohort X. LAMIALES. Corolla most often irregular or oblique. Posterior
-stamen less than the others, most frequently reduced to a staminode or
-absent. Carpels 1-ovuled or with 2 collateral ovules. Fruit enclosed in
-the persistent calyx, indehiscent, and with one seed, or dehiscing into
-2 or 4, rarely ∞, 1-seeded nuts.
-
-    Order 123. Myoporineæ.
-      „   124. Selagineæ.
-      „   125. Verbenaceæ.
-      „   126. Labiateæ.
-
-Anomalous Order 127. Plantagineæ.
-
-
-                          III. MONOCHLAMYDEÆ.
-
-Perianth simple, lobes or segments 1–2-seriate and often sepaloid, or
-small, or wanting.
-
-Series I. =Curvembryeæ.= Endosperm frequently farinaceous. Embryo
-curved, excentric, lateral or peripheral, rarely straight. Ovules most
-frequently 1 in the ovary, or 1 in each loculus. Flowers ☿, in some
-genera unisexual or polygamous. Petals very rare. Stamens equal to the
-segments of the perianth, rarely fewer or more.
-
-    Order 128. Nyctagineæ.
-      „   129. Illecebraceæ.
-      „   130. Amarantaceæ.
-      „   131. Chenopodiaceæ.
-      „   132. Phytolaccaceæ.
-      „   133. Batideæ.
-      „   134. Polygonaceæ.
-
-Series II. =Multiovulatæ Aquaticæ.= Aquatic herbs, submerged. Ovary
-syncarpous; ovules numerous in each loculus or on each placenta.
-
-    Order 135. Podostemaceæ.
-
-Series III. =Multiovulatæ Terrestres.= Terrestrial trees or shrubs.
-Ovary syncarpous; ovules numerous in each loculus or on each placenta.
-
-    Order 136. Nepenthaceæ.
-      „   137. Cytinaceæ.
-      „   138. Aristolochiaceæ.
-
-Series IV. =Micrembryeæ.= Ovary syncarpous, monocarpous, or apocarpous.
-Ovules generally solitary in each carpel, rarely 2 or few. Endosperm
-copious, fleshy, or rarely farinaceous. Embryo very minute.
-
-    Order 139. Piperaceæ.
-      „   140. Chloranthaceæ.
-      „   141. Myristiceæ.
-      „   142. Monimiaceæ.
-
-Series V. =Daphnales.= Ovary monocarpous, very rarely syncarpous,
-with 2–4 loculi; ovules in the ovary or in each loculus, solitary, or
-in pairs. Trees or shrubs, very rarely herbs; flowers generally ☿.
-Perianth perfect, sepaloid, 1–2 seriate. Stamens perigynous, equal to
-the lobes of the perianth, or double unless fewer.
-
-    Order 143. Laurineæ.
-      „   144. Proteaceæ.
-      „   145. Thymelæaceæ.
-      „   146. Penæaceæ.
-      „   147. Elæagnaceæ.
-
-Series VI. =Achlamydosporeæ.= Ovary unilocular, 1–3 ovules. Ovules most
-frequently poorly developed before flowering. Seeds endospermous, but
-without testa, either free in the pericarp or attached to its walls.
-Perianth generally perfect, sepaloid or petaloid.
-
-    Order 148. Loranthaceæ.
-      „   149. Santalaceæ.
-      „   150. Balanophoreæ.
-
-Series VII. =Unisexuales.= Flowers unisexual. Ovary syncarpous or
-monocarpous, ovules in the ovary or in each loculus, solitary, or
-in pairs. Endosperm copious, fleshy, or scanty, or absent. Trees or
-shrubs, rarely herbs. Stipules generally present. Perianth sepaloid, or
-minute, or absent. Styles equal in number to the carpels, not rarely
-bifid.
-
-    Order 151. Euphorbiaceæ.
-      „   152. Balanopseæ.
-      „   153. Urticaceæ.
-      „   154. Platanaceæ.
-      „   155. Leitnerieæ.
-      „   156. Juglandeæ.
-      „   157. Myricaceæ.
-      „   158. Casuarineæ.
-      „   159. Cupuliferæ.
-
-Series VIII. =Ordines Anomali.= Anomalous Orders.
-
-    Order 160. Salicineæ.
-      „   161. Lacistemaceæ.
-      „   162. Empetraceæ.
-      „   163. Ceratophylleæ.
-
-
-                             GYMNOSPERMEÆ
-
-    Order 164. Gnetaceæ.
-      „   165. Coniferæ.
-      „   166. Cycadaceæ.
-
-
-                           MONOCOTYLEDONES.
-
-Series I. =Microspermæ.= At least the inner series of the perianth
-petaloid. Ovary inferior, unilocular, with 3 parietal placentæ, or
-rarely 3-locular, with axile placentation. Seeds minute, numerous,
-without endosperm.
-
-    Order 167. Hydrocharideæ.
-      „   168. Burmanniaceæ.
-      „   169. Orchideæ.
-
-Series II. =Epigynæ.= At least the inner series of the perianth
-petaloid. Ovary most often inferior. Endosperm copious.
-
-    Order 170. Scitamineæ.
-      „   171. Bromeliaceæ.
-      „   172. Hæmodoraceæ.
-      „   173. Irideæ.
-      „   174. Amaryllideæ.
-      „   175. Taccaceæ.
-      „   176. Dioscoreaceæ.
-
-Series III. =Coronarieæ.= At least the inner series of perianth
-petaloid. Ovary free, very rarely slightly adnate at the base.
-Endosperm copious.
-
-    Order 177. Roxburghiaceæ.
-      „   178. Liliaceæ.
-      „   179. Pontederiaceæ.
-      „   180. Philydraceæ.
-      „   181. Xyrideæ.
-      „   182. Mayaceæ.
-      „   183. Commelinaceæ.
-      „   184. Rapateaceæ.
-
-Series IV. =Calycinæ.= Perianth sepaloid, small, rigid, or herbaceous
-(inner series subpetaloid or small). Ovary free. Endosperm copious.
-
-    Order 185. Flagellarieæ.
-      „   186. Juncaceæ.
-      „   187. Palmæ.
-
-Series V. =Nudifloræ.= Perianth absent, or reduced to hairs or scales.
-Ovary superior, carpel solitary, or if many, syncarpous, 1–∞-ovuled.
-Endosperm most frequently present.
-
-    Order 188. Pandaneæ.
-      „   189. Cyclanthaceæ.
-      „   190. Typhaceæ.
-      „   191. Aroideæ.
-      „   192. Lemnaceæ.
-
-Series VI. =Apocarpæ.= Perianth 1–2-seriate, or absent. Carpels
-superior, solitary, or if more, apocarpous. Endosperm absent.
-
-    Order 193. Triurideæ.
-      „   194. Alismaceæ.
-      „   195. Naiadaceæ.
-
-Series VII. =Glumaceæ.= Flowers solitary, sessile in the axils of
-bracts and arranged in capitula or spikelets with bracts. Segments of
-perianth small, scale-like, glumaceous or absent. Ovary 1-ovuled, or
-divided into 1-ovuled loculi. Endosperm present.
-
-    Order 196. Eriocauleæ.
-      „   197. Centrolepideæ.
-      „   198. Restiaceæ.
-      „   199. Cyperaceæ.
-      „   200. Gramineæ.
-
-
-Classification of the Thallophytes proposed by SACHS (_Text-Book of
-Botany_, English Edition, 1882).
-
-                              THALLOPHYTES.
-
-    _Containing chlorophyll._      |   _Not containing chlorophyll._
-
-                               Class I. =Protophyta.=
-
-    Cyanophyceæ.                   |   Schizomycetes.
-    Palmellaceæ (in part).         |   Saccharomycetes.
-
-                        Class II. =Zygosporeæ.=
-                       Conjugating cells motile.
-
-    Pandorineæ.                    |   Myxomycetes.
-    (Hydrodictyeæ).                |
-
-                     Conjugating cells stationary.
-
-    Conjugatæ (including           |  Zygomycetes.
-      Diatomaceæ).                 |
-
-                        Class III. =Oosporeæ.=
-
-    Sphæroplea.                    |
-    Vaucheria (_Cœloblastæ_).      | { Saprolegnieæ.
-                                   | { Peronosporeæ.
-    Volvocineæ.                    |
-    Œdogonieæ.                     |
-    Fucoideæ.                      |
-
-                        Class IV. Carposporeæ.
-
-    Coleochæteæ.                   |  Ascomycetes (including Lichens).
-    Florideæ.                      |  Æcidiomycetes (Uredineæ).
-    Characeæ.                      |  Basidiomycetes.
-
-
-System of A. W. EICHLER (1883).
-
-    A. =Cryptogamæ.=
-        I. =Thallophyta.=
-            1. Class. ALGÆ.
-                1 Group. Cyanophyceæ.
-                2   „   Diatomeæ.
-                3   „    Chlorophyceæ.
-                    1 Series. Conjugatæ.
-                    2    „    Zoosporeæ.
-                    3    „    Characeæ.
-                4 Group. Phæophyceæ.
-                5   „    Rhodophyceæ.
-            2. Class. FUNGI.
-                1 Group. Schizomycetes.
-                2   „    Eumycetes.
-                    1 Series. Phycomycetes.
-                    2    „    Ustilagineæ.
-                    3    „    Æcidiomycetes.
-                    4    „    Ascomycetes.
-                    5    „    Basidiomycetes.
-                3 Group. Lichenes.
-       II. =Bryophyta.=
-                1 Group. Hepaticæ.
-                2   „    Musci.
-      III. =Pteridophyta.=
-                1 Class. EQUISETINÆ.
-                2   „    LYCOPODINÆ.
-                3   „    FILICINÆ.
-    B. =Phanerogamæ.=
-                1. Gymnospermæ.
-                2. Angiospermæ.
-
-The subdivisions of the Phanerogamæ have with little variation been
-adopted in this book.
-
-Classification of the THALLOPHYTES, adopted in the 3rd Danish Edition
-(1891). [Algæ by Wille; Fungi by Rostrup (_after Zopf_).]
-
-    =I. DIVISION. THALLOPHYTA.=
-        I. Sub-division. =Algæ.=
-            1 Class. CHLOROPHYCEÆ (GREEN ALGÆ).
-                1 Family. Conjugatæ.
-                2    „    Protococcoideæ.
-                3    „    Confervoideæ.
-                4    „    Siphoneæ.
-                5    „    Gyrophyceæ.
-            2 Class. PHÆOPHYCEÆ (BROWN ALGÆ).
-                1 Family. Syngeneticæ.
-                2    „    Dinoflagellata.
-                3    „    Pyritophyceæ (Diatomeæ).
-                4    „    Phæosporeæ.
-                5    „    Cyclosporeæ.
-                6    „    Dictyoteæ.
-            3 Class. ACILIATÆ.
-              A. Sub-class. _Schizophyceæ._
-                1 Family. Myxophyceæ (Blue-Green Algæ).
-                2    „    Bacteria.
-              B. Sub-class. _Rhodophyceæ._
-                1 Family. Bangioideæ.
-                2    „    Florideæ.
-       II. Sub-division. =Myxomycetes.=
-      III.      „        =Fungi.=
-                    A. =Phycomycetes.=
-            1 Class. OOMYCETES.
-            2   „    ZYGOMYCETES.
-                    B. =Mycomycetes.=
-            3 Class. BASIDIOMYCETES.
-              A. Sub-class. _Protobasidiomycetes._
-              B.     „      _Autobasidiomycetes._
-                1 Family. Hymenomycetes.
-                2    „    Gasteromycetes.
-                3    „    Basidiolichenes.
-            4 Class. ASCOMYCETES.
-                1 Family. Gymnoasci.
-                2    „    Perisporieæ.
-                3    „    Pyrenomycetes.
-                4    „    Discomycetes.
-                5    „    Ascolichenes.
-
-
-System of A. ENGLER (_Syllabus der Vorlesungen_, etc., 1892).
-
-    =I. DIVISION. MYXOTHALLOPHYTA.=
-        Sub-division. =Myxomycetes.=
-            1 Class. ACRASIEÆ.
-            2   „    PLASMODIOPHORALES.
-            3   „    MYXOGASTERES.
-                1 Series. Ectosporeæ.
-                2    „    Endosporeæ.
-
-    =II. DIVISION. EUTHALLOPHYTA.=
-        I. Sub-division. =Schizophyta.=
-            1 Class. SCHIZOPHYCEÆ.
-            2   „    SCHIZOMYCETES.
-       II. Sub-division. =Dinoflagellata.=
-            Class. DINOFLAGELLATA.
-                1 Series. Adinida.
-                2    „    Dinifera.
-      III. Sub-division. =Bacillariales.=
-            Class. BACILLARIALES.
-       IV. Sub-division. =Gamophyceæ.=
-            1 Class. CONJUGATÆ.
-            2   „    CHLOROPHYCEÆ.
-              1 Sub-class. _Protococcales._
-              2     „      _Confervales._
-              3     „      _Siphoneæ._
-            3 Class. CHARALES.
-            4   „    PHÆOPHYCEÆ.
-              1 Sub-class. _Phæosporeæ._
-              2     „      _Cyclosporeæ._
-            5 Class. DICTYOTALES.
-            6  „     RHODOPHYCEÆ.
-              1 Sub-class. _Bangiales._
-              2     „      _Florideæ._
-                1 Series. Nemalionales.
-                2    „    Gigartinales.
-                3    „    Rhodymeniales.
-                4    „    Cryptonemiales.
-        V. Sub-division. =Fungi.=
-            1 Class. PHYCOMYCETES.
-                1 Series. Zygomycetes.
-                2    „    Oomycetes.
-                    1 Sub-series. Chytridiales.
-                    2      „      Mycosiphonales.
-            2 Class. MESOMYCETES.
-              1 Sub-class. _Hemiasci._
-              2    „       _Hemibasidii._
-             3 Class. MYCOMYCETES.
-               1 Sub-class. _Ascomycetes._
-                 1 Series. Exoasci.
-                 2   „     Carpoasci.
-                     1 Sub-series. Gymnoascales.
-                     2    „        Perisporiales.
-                     3    „        Pyrenomycetes.
-                       Appended.   Pyrenolichenes.
-                     4 Sub-series. Hysteriales.
-                     5    „        Discomycetes.
-                       Appended.   Discolichenes.
-               2 Sub-class. _Basidiomycetes._
-                 1 Series. Protobasidiomycetes.
-                     1 Sub-series. Uredinales.
-                     2    „        Auriculariales.
-                     3    „        Tremellinales.
-                     4    „        Pilacrales.
-                 2 Series. Autobasidiomycetes.
-                     1 Sub-series. Dacryomycetes.
-                     2    „        Hymenomycetes.
-                       Appended.   Hymenolichenes.
-                     3 Sub-series. Phalloideæ.
-                     4    „        Gasteromycetes.
-                       Appended.   Gasterolichenes.
-                         Fungi imperfecti.
-
-    =III. DIVISION. EMBRYOPHYTA ZOIDIOGAMA= (Archegoniatæ).
-         I. Sub-division. =Bryophyta (Muscinei).=
-             1 Class. HEPATICÆ.
-                 1 Series. Marchantiales.
-                 2   „     Anthocerotales.
-                 3   „     Jungermanniales.
-                     1 Sub-series. Anacrogynæ.
-                     2    „        Acrogynæ.
-             2 Class. MUSCI.
-               1 Sub-class. _Sphagnales._
-               2    „       _Andreæales._
-               3    „       _Archidiales._
-               4    „       _Bryales._
-                 1 Series. Cleistocarpæ.
-                 2   „     Stegocarpæ.
-                     1 Sub-series. Acrocarpæ.
-                     2    „        Pleurocarpæ.
-        II. Sub division. =Pteridophyta.=
-             1 Class. FILICALES.
-               1 Sub-class. _Filices._
-                 1 Series. Planithallosæ.
-                 2   „     Tuberithallosæ.
-               2 Sub-class. _Hydropterides._
-          2 Class. EQUISETALES.
-            1 Sub-class. _Isosporæ._
-            2     „      _Heterosporæ._
-          3 Class. SPHENOPHYLLALES.
-          4   „    LYCOPODICELES.
-            1 Sub-class. _Isosporæ._
-            2     „      _Heterosporæ._
-
-    IV. DIVISION. EMBRYOPHYTA SIPHONOGAMA.
-
-    (Siphonogamæ, Phanerogamæ).
-
-        I. Sub-division. =Gymnospermæ.=
-            1 Class. CYCADALES.
-            2   „    CORDAITALES.
-            3   „    BENNETTITALES.
-            4   „    CONIFERÆ.
-            5   „    GNETALES.
-       II. Sub-division. =Angiospermæ.=
-            1 Class. CHALAZOGAMÆ.
-                Series. Verticillatæ.
-            2 Class. ACROGAMÆ.
-              1 Sub-class. _Monocotyledoneæ._
-                  1 Series. Pandanales.
-                  2    „    Helobiæ.
-                  3    „    Glumifloræ.
-                  4    „    Principes.
-                  5    „    Synanthæ.
-                  6    „    Spathifloræ.
-                  7    „    Farinosæ.
-                  8    „    Liliifloræ.
-                  9    „    Scitamineæ.
-                 10    „    Microspermæ.
-
-              2 Sub-class. _Dicotyledoneæ._
-
-                1 Group of Series. Archichlamydeæ.
-
-                  1 Series. Piperales.
-                  2    „    Juglandales.
-                  3    „    Salicales.
-                  4    „    Fagales.
-                  5    „    Urticales.
-                  6    „    Proteales.
-                  7    „    Santalales.
-                  8    „    Aristolochiales.
-                  9    „    Polygonales.
-                 10    „    Centrospermæ.
-                 11    „    Ranales.
-                 12    „    Rhœadales.
-                 13    „    Sarraceniales.
-                 14    „    Rosales.
-                 15    „    Geraniales.
-                 16    „    Sapindales.
-                 17    „    Rhamnales.
-                 18    „    Malvales.
-                 19    „    Parietales.
-                 20    „    Opuntiales.
-                 21    „    Thymelæales.
-                 22    „    Myrtifloræ.
-                 23    „    Umbellifloræ.
-
-                2 Group of Series. Sympetalæ.
-
-                  1 Series. Ericales.
-                  2    „    Primulales.
-                  3    „    Ebenales.
-                  4    „    Contortæ.
-                  5    „    Tubifloræ.
-                  6    „    Plantaginales.
-                  7    „    Rubiales.
-                  8    „    Aggregatæ.
-                  9    „    Campanulatæ.
-
-
-                        TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS.
-
-    S  = Sepals.
-    P  = Petals.
-    Pr = Perianth.
-    A  = Andrœcium.
-    G  = Gynœceum.
-
-        ♂ = Male.
-        ♀ = Female.
-       ☿ = Hermaphrodite.
-        ∞ = Indefinite.
-
-Names of continents and countries have sometimes been abbreviated, for
-example:--Am. = America; As.=Asia; Af. = Africa; Ind. = India, etc.
-N., S., E., W., = North, South, East, West; Temp. = Temperate Regions;
-Trop. = Tropics.
-
-
-
-
-                                INDEX.
-
-
-    Abelia, 556.
-
-    Abies, 124, 129, 130, 132, 133, 148, 155, 165, 246, 264, 265, 266.
-
-    Abietaceæ, 255, 263, 272.
-
-    Abrus, 470, 473.
-
-    Abutilon, 427.
-
-    Acacia, 473, 474, 475.
-      False, 470.
-
-    Acalypha, 434.
-
-    Acanthaceæ, 518, 529, 530.
-
-    Acanthus, 530.
-
-    Acer, 122, 441, 442.
-
-    Aceraceæ, 441.
-
-    Aceranthus, 390.
-
-    Acetabularia, 12, 63.
-
-    Achillea, 568, 572, 574.
-
-    Achimenes, 528.
-
-    Achlya, 107, 108.
-
-    Achnantheæ, 21.
-
-    Achras, 511.
-
-    Acinetæ, 68, 72.
-
-    Aconitum, 379, 383.
-
-    Acorin, 306.
-
-    Acorus, 303, 304, 306.
-
-    Acrasieæ, 6.
-
-    Acrocarpi, 196.
-
-    Acrocomia, 301.
-
-    Acrogynæ, 192.
-
-    Acrospermaceæ, 132.
-
-    Acrostichum, 213.
-
-    Acrotonous, 331.
-
-    Acrotylaceæ, 83.
-
-    Acrotylus, 83.
-
-    Actæa, 379, 380, 382.
-
-    Actinidia, 415.
-
-    Adansonia, 427.
-
-    Adder’s tongue, 211.
-
-    Adenanthera, 475.
-
-    Adiantum, 201, 206, 213.
-
-    Adinida, 17.
-
-    Adlumia, 395.
-
-    Adonis, 379, 383.
-
-    Adoxa, 453, 555.
-
-    Aerobic, 31.
-
-    Æchmea, 319, 320.
-
-    Æcidiospores, 147.
-
-    Æcidium, 147, 148, 150, 155.
-
-    Ægiceras, 513.
-
-    Ægilops, 296.
-
-    Ægopodium, 494.
-
-    Æschynanthus, 528.
-
-    Æsculinæ, 439.
-
-    Æsculus, 440.
-
-    Æthalium, 8.
-
-    Æthusa, 495, 498.
-
-    Affonsea, 466.
-
-    Agapanthus, 312, 314.
-
-    Agar-Agar, 33, 84.
-
-    Agaricaceæ, 166.
-
-    Agaricinei, 171.
-
-    Agathis, 263.
-
-    Agave, 318.
-
-    Agaveæ, 318.
-
-    Ageratum, 571.
-
-    Aggregatæ, 505, 564.
-
-    Agraphis, 312.
-
-    Agrimonia, 459, 460.
-
-    Agrimonieæ, 459.
-
-    Agrimony, 459.
-
-    Agropyrum, 113, 295.
-
-    Agrostemma, 365, 367.
-
-    Agrostideæ, 294.
-
-    Agrostis, 294.
-
-    Ahnfeltia, 83.
-
-    Ailanthus, 439.
-
-    Aira, 294.
-
-    Aizoaceæ, 374.
-
-    Aizoideæ, 374.
-
-    Aizoon, 375.
-
-    Ajuga, 47, 537.
-
-    Ajugeæ, 537.
-
-    Akebia, 390.
-
-    Akinetes, 10.
-
-    Alaria, 71, 72.
-
-    Albugo, 107.
-
-    Albumen, 246.
-
-    Albuminous, 249.
-
-    Albumose, 473.
-
-    Alchemilla, 460.
-
-    Alchornea, 432.
-
-    Alcoholic fermentation, 97.
-
-    Alder, 8, 118, 341.
-
-    Aldrovandia, 408, 409.
-
-    Aleurites, 434.
-
-    Algæ, 1, 4, 8.
-
-    Algal-Fungi, 95, 96.
-
-    Alhagi, 472.
-
-    Alisma, 281, 282.
-
-    Alismaceæ, 278, 281.
-
-    Alismeæ, 281.
-
-    Alkanet, 534.
-
-    Alkanna, 534, 535.
-
-    Alliariinæ, 404.
-
-    Allieæ, 312.
-
-    Allium, 312, 313, 314.
-
-    Alloplectus, 528.
-
-    Allosorus, 213.
-
-    Almeidea, 437.
-
-    Almond, 461, 462.
-
-    Alnus, 8, 117, 118, 341, 342.
-
-    Alocasia. 306.
-
-    Aloë, 274, 312, 313, 314.
-
-    Aloineæ, 312.
-
-    Alonsoa, 525.
-
-    Alopecurus, 290, 294, 296.
-
-    Alpine Violet, 513.
-
-    Alpinia, 326.
-
-    Alsine, 364, 366.
-
-    Alsineæ, 365.
-
-    Alsodeia, 411.
-
-    Alsophila, 214, 215.
-
-    Alstrœmeria, 318.
-
-    Alstrœmerieæ, 318.
-
-    Alternanthera, 369.
-
-    Althæa, 426, 428, 429, 430.
-
-    Althenia, 279.
-
-    Alyssinæ, 404.
-
-    Alyssum, 400.
-
-    Amanita, 167, 171.
-
-    Amarantaceæ, 364, 368.
-
-    Amarant-tree, 468.
-
-    Amarantus, 368, 369.
-
-    Amarylleæ, 317.
-
-    Amaryllidaceæ, 310, 316.
-
-    Amaryllis, 317, 318.
-
-    Amber, 267.
-
-    Ambrosia, 573.
-
-    Ambrosieæ, 564, 567, 573.
-
-    Ambrosinia, 305.
-
-    Amelanchier, 464, 465.
-
-    Amentaceæ, 337.
-
-    Amherstia, 468.
-
-    Ammannia, 483.
-
-    Ammi, 494.
-
-    Ammieæ, 494.
-
-    Ammobium, 573.
-
-    Ammoniac-gum, 498.
-
-    Ammophila, 295.
-
-    Amomis, 488.
-
-    Amorpha, 470.
-
-    Ampelidaceæ, 445.
-
-    Ampelopsis, 445, 447.
-
-    Amphidinium, 16.
-
-    Amphigastria, 181, 188.
-
-    Amphipleureæ, 21.
-
-    Amphisphæriaceæ, 130.
-
-    Amphithecium, 186.
-
-    Amphitropideæ, 21.
-
-    Amphoreæ, 21.
-
-    Amsonia, 544.
-
-    Amygdalaceæ, 461, 466.
-
-    Amygdalin, 462.
-
-    Amygdalus, 461, 462.
-
-    Amyris, 438.
-
-    Anabæna, 25, 219.
-
-    Anacampseros, 373.
-
-    Anacamptis, 332.
-
-    Anacamptodon, 197.
-
-    Anacardiaceæ, 439.
-
-    Anacardium, 439.
-
-    Anacrogynæ, 192.
-
-    Anacyclus, 572, 574.
-
-    Anadyomene, 62.
-
-    Anaerobic, 31.
-
-    Anagallis, 513.
-
-    Anamirta, 390.
-
-    Ananassa, 319, 320.
-
-    Anastatica, 401.
-
-    Anathyllis, 471.
-
-    Anatropous, 242, 243.
-
-    Anchusa, 150, 531, 532, 534, 535.
-
-    Ancylistaceæ, 104.
-
-    Ancylonema, 44.
-
-    Andira, 472, 473.
-
-    Andreæa, 185, 187, 188, 195.
-
-    Andrœcium, 239.
-
-    Androgenesis, 14.
-
-    Andromeda, 161, 508.
-
-    Andromedeæ, 508.
-
-    Andropogon, 289, 293, 296.
-
-    Andropogoneæ, 293, 296.
-
-    Androsace, 512, 513.
-
-    Androspore, 57.
-
-    Aneimia, 215.
-
-    Anelatereæ, 192.
-
-    Anemone, 379, 384.
-
-    Anemoneæ, 384.
-
-    Anemonopsis, 379.
-
-    Anethum, 496, 498.
-
-    Aneura, 191, 192.
-
-    Angelica, 496, 498.
-
-    Angiopteris, 212.
-
-    Angiospermæ, 3, 234, 239, 250, 273.
-
-    Angiosperms, 237, 245, 248.
-
-    Angiosporeæ, 82.
-
-    Angosturæ, Cortex, 437.
-
-    Anguliferæ, 21.
-
-    Anise, 498.
-
-    Anlage, 90.
-
-    Annatto, 412.
-
-    Annularia, 225.
-
-    Annulariæ, 225.
-
-    Annulus, 195, 209.
-      inferus, 167.
-      superus, 168.
-
-    Anoda, 428, 429.
-
-    Anodic, 480.
-
-    Anomodon, 197.
-
-    Anona, 388.
-
-    Anonaceæ, 388.
-
-    Antennaria, 124, 573.
-
-    Anthemideæ, 572.
-
-    Anthemis, 569, 572, 574.
-
-    Anther, 237, 238.
-      Fibrous layer of, 241.
-      Structure of, 239.
-
-    Anthericeæ, 312.
-
-    Anthericum, 312, 313.
-
-    Antheridium, 13, 100, 198.
-
-    Antherozoid, 13.
-
-    Anthocarp, 374.
-
-    Anthoceros, 25, 186, 187, 188, 189, 191.
-
-    Anthoceroteæ, 191.
-
-    Antholyza, 321.
-
-    Anthostema, 432, 433.
-
-    Anthoxanthum, 295, 296.
-
-    Anthrax bacillus, 31, 39, 40.
-
-    Anthriscus, 493, 495, 498.
-
-    Anthurium, 304.
-
-    Anthyllis, 471.
-
-    Antiaris, 356.
-
-    Antipodal cells, 248.
-
-    Antirrhineæ, 523.
-
-    Antirrhinum, 524, 527.
-
-    Antisepsis, 32.
-
-    Apeiba, 424, 425.
-
-    Apetalæ, 336, 337.
-
-    Aphanizomenon, 25.
-
-    Aphanocapsa, 24.
-
-    Aphanochæte, 54.
-
-    Aphthæ, 180.
-
-    Aphyllanthes, 312.
-
-    Apiocystis, 51.
-
-    Apios, 471.
-
-    Apiosporium, 124.
-
-    Apium, 494, 498.
-
-    Aplanogametangium, 12.
-
-    Aplanogametes, 12.
-
-    Aplanospores, 10.
-
-    Apocynaceæ, 542, 543, 549.
-
-    Apocynum, 514.
-
-    Apogamy, 203.
-
-    Aponogeton, 281.
-
-    Aponogetonaceæ, 281.
-
-    Apospory, 188.
-
-    Apostasia, 329.
-
-    Apostasieæ, 328, 329.
-
-    Apothecium, 118, 132.
-
-    Apple, 127, 130, 464, 465.
-
-    Apricot, 121, 461, 462.
-
-    Aquifoliaceæ, 444.
-
-    Aquilegia, 378, 379, 381, 382.
-
-    Arabis, 402.
-
-    Araceæ, 276, 278, 303.
-
-    Arachis, 469, 472, 473.
-
-    Aralia, 491.
-
-    Araliaceæ, 454, 491, 549.
-
-    Araucaria, 237, 263.
-
-    Araucariaceæ, 257, 263, 272.
-
-    Arbor vitæ, 267.
-
-    Arbuteæ, 508.
-
-    Arbutus, 508.
-
-    Archangelica, 496, 498.
-
-    Archegoniata, 3, 185.
-
-    Archegonium, 3, 184, 198.
-      Development of, 201.
-
-    Archesporium, 186, 202.
-
-    Archicarp, 120.
-
-    Archidium, 193, 195.
-
-    Arctostaphylos, 161, 508.
-
-    Arcyria, 7, 8.
-
-    Ardisia, 513.
-
-    Areca, 301, 302.
-
-    Areca-palm, 302.
-
-    Arecineæ, 301.
-
-    Arenaria, 366.
-
-    Arenga, 301.
-
-    Argemone, 395.
-
-    Aria, 152.
-
-    Aril, 255, 258.
-
-    Arineæ, 305.
-
-    Arisarum, 305.
-
-    Aristida, 295.
-
-    Aristolochia, 499, 500.
-
-    Aristolochiaceæ, 499.
-
-    Aristolochiales, 499.
-
-    Aristotelia, 425.
-
-    Armeniaca, 461.
-
-    Armeria, 514.
-
-    Armillaria, 117, 169, 170.
-
-    Arnebia, 533.
-
-    Arnica, 572, 574.
-
-    Arnoseris, 571.
-
-    Aronia, 464.
-
-    Arrack, 296, 301.
-
-    Arrow-head, 282.
-
-    Arrow-poison, 544, 546.
-
-    Arrowroot, 327, 434.
-
-    Artabotrys, 388.
-
-    Artemisia, 569, 572, 573, 574.
-
-    Arthonia, 134.
-
-    Arthoniaceæ, 134.
-
-    Arthrosporous, 29.
-
-    Arthrotaxis, 267.
-
-    Artichoke, 570, 574.
-      Jerusalem, 572, 574.
-
-    Artocarpeæ, 354.
-
-    Artocarpus, 356.
-
-    Arum, 303, 304, 305, 306.
-
-    Arundo, 294, 296.
-
-    Asafœtida, 498.
-
-    Asarum, 499, 500.
-
-    Asclepiadaceæ, 238, 542, 544.
-
-    Asclepias, 545, 546.
-
-    Ascobolaceæ, 135.
-
-    Ascobolus, 136.
-
-    Ascocarps, 88.
-
-    Ascocorticium, 116, 117.
-
-    Ascogone, 120.
-
-    Ascoidea, 108.
-
-    Ascoideaceæ, 108.
-
-    Ascolichenes, 95, 116, 136.
-
-    Ascomycetes, 95, 114, 116.
-
-    Ascophyllum, 73, 75.
-
-    Ascospore, 88.
-
-    Ascus, 88.
-
-    Aseroë, 173.
-
-    Asexual reproductive cells, 10.
-
-    Ash, 127, 546, 547.
-
-    Asimina, 388.
-
-    Asparageæ, 314.
-
-    Asparagus, 314, 316.
-
-    Aspen, 152, 338.
-
-    Aspergillus, 122.
-
-    Asperifoliæ, 532.
-
-    Asperococcus, 70.
-
-    Asperugo, 534.
-
-    Asperula, 552, 553.
-
-    Asphodelus, 312, 313, 314.
-
-    Aspidistra, 314.
-
-    Aspidium, 203, 204, 207, 213, 214.
-
-    Aspidosperma, 344.
-
-    Asplenium, 213, 214.
-
-    Astelia, 316.
-
-    Aster, 569, 571, 573.
-
-    Astereæ, 571, 573.
-
-    Asteriscus, 574.
-
-    Asterocystis, 78.
-
-    Asterophylliteæ, 225.
-
-    Asterophyllites, 225.
-
-    Astragaleæ, 470.
-
-    Astragalus, 114, 470, 473.
-
-    Astrantia, 493.
-
-    Astrocarpus, 407.
-
-    Atherurus, 305.
-
-    Athyrium, 204, 207, 213.
-
-    Atragene, 379, 385.
-
-    Atraphaxis, 360.
-
-    Atriplex, 371, 372.
-
-    Atripliceæ, 371.
-
-    Atropa, 519, 521, 522, 523.
-
-    Atropine, 522.
-
-    Attalea, 297, 301.
-
-    Attar of Roses, 460.
-
-    Aubrietia, 400.
-
-    Aucuba, 491.
-
-    Aulacomnium, 197.
-
-    Aurantieæ, 437.
-
-    Auricula, 156.
-
-    Auricularia, 156.
-
-    Auriculariaceæ, 145, 155.
-
-    Austrian Pine, 267.
-
-    Autobasidia, 144.
-
-    Autobasidiomycetes, 96, 145, 157.
-
-    Autœcious, 148.
-
-    Autoxenous, 118.
-
-    Auxiliary cells, 81.
-
-    Auxospore, 19.
-
-    Avena, 294, 296.
-
-    Aveneæ, 294.
-
-    Avens, 458.
-
-    Averrhoa, 416.
-
-    Avicennia, 535.
-
-    Avignon grain, 448.
-
-    Awlwort, 401.
-
-    Awn, 288, 290.
-
-    Azalea, 508.
-
-    Azolla, 25, 219.
-
-
-    “Bablah,” 475.
-
-    Bacillus, 26, 28, 30, 31, 35, 36, 37.
-      anthracis, 39.
-      diphtheriæ, lepræ, mallei, tetani, tuberculosis, typhosus, 40.
-
-    Bacteria, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 22, 26.
-
-    Bacterium, 26, 28, 30, 35, 39.
-
-    Bactris, 301.
-
-    Bæomyces, 140, 142.
-
-    Balanophora, 504.
-
-    Balanophoraceæ, 504.
-
-    Ballota, 538.
-
-    Balsaminaceæ, 420.
-
-    Balsamodendron, 438.
-
-    Balsam of Copaiba, 468.
-      of Peru, 473.
-
-    Bamboo, 289, 291, 292, 293.
-
-    Bambusa, 289, 291, 293.
-
-    Bambuseæ, 293, 296.
-
-    Banana, 324, 325.
-
-    Baneberry, 382.
-
-    Bangia, 77, 78.
-
-    Bangioideæ, 77.
-
-    Banksia, 450.
-
-    Baobab, 427.
-
-    Barbacenia, 318.
-
-    Barbarea, 402.
-
-    Barberries, 389.
-
-    Barbula, 196.
-
-    Bark-canker, 169.
-
-    Barley, 113, 292, 296.
-
-    Barosma, 436.
-
-    Barringtonia, 489.
-
-    Bartonia, 476.
-
-    Bartramia, 197.
-
-    Bartsia, 526.
-
-    Basella, 371.
-
-    Baselleæ, 371.
-
-    Basidial-layer, 89.
-
-    Basidiocarp, 89.
-
-    Basidiolichenes, 96, 145, 176.
-
-    Basidiomycetes, 96, 114, 144, 145.
-
-    Basidiospore, 88.
-
-    Basidium, 89, 144, 146.
-
-    Basitonous, 331.
-
-    Bassia, 511.
-
-    Bast, 251, 425, 430.
-
-    Bastardia, 428.
-
-    Batatas, 516, 517.
-
-    Batidaceæ, 372.
-
-    Batis, 372.
-
-    Batrachium, 383.
-
-    Batrachospermum, 80, 83.
-
-    Bauhinia, 467.
-
-    Bayberry-tree, 490.
-
-    “Bay-rum,” 489.
-
-    Beaked parsley, 495.
-
-    Beak-rush, 286.
-
-    Bear-berry, 508.
-
-    Beard lichen, 143.
-
-    Beech, 127, 134, 164, 165, 526.
-
-    Beef-steak fungus, 166.
-
-    Beer-yeast, 177, 178.
-
-    Beet, 369.
-
-    Beet-root, 372.
-
-    Beggiatoa, 26, 28, 37.
-
-    Begonia, 477, 478.
-
-    Begoniaceæ, 475, 477.
-
-    Bellis, 569, 572.
-
-    Benincasa, 481.
-
-    Berberidaceæ, 238, 389.
-
-    Berberis, 149, 389, 390.
-
-    Bergamot, 438.
-
-    Bergia, 413.
-
-    Berteroa, 400.
-
-    Bertholletia, 489.
-
-    Beta, 369, 370, 372.
-
-    Betel, 363.
-
-    Betonica, 538.
-
-    Betony, 538.
-
-    Betula, 342.
-
-    Betulaceæ, 341.
-
-    Biarum, 305.
-
-    Biatorella, 134.
-
-    Bicornes, 336, 451, 505, 506.
-
-    Biddulphieæ, 21.
-
-    Bidens, 566, 572.
-
-    Biebersteinia, 419.
-
-    Bignonia, 529.
-
-    Bignoniaceæ, 518, 529.
-
-    Bilberry, 509.
-
-    Billardiera, 455.
-
-    Billbergia, 320.
-
-    Bindweed, 515, 516.
-
-    Biota, 268.
-
-    Birch, 117, 135, 165, 342.
-
-    Bird-cherry, 461, 462.
-
-    Birdlime, 501, 504.
-
-    Bird’s-foot, 472.
-
-    Bird’s-foot-trefoil, 471.
-
-    Biscutella, 401.
-
-    Bitter-cress, 402.
-
-    Bitter-sweet, 522.
-
-    Bixa, 412.
-
-    Bixaceæ, 412.
-
-    Blackberry, 461.
-
-    Black-boy, 312.
-
-    Black-currant, 153, 455.
-
-    Black-mustard, 401, 405.
-
-    Black-pepper, 363.
-
-    Blackthorn, 462.
-
-    “Bladder” plums, 117.
-
-    Bladder-senna, 470.
-
-    Bladder-wort, 528.
-
-    Blasia, 25, 191, 192.
-
-    Blattiaceæ, 483.
-
-    Blechnum, 209, 214, 254.
-
-    Bletia, 332.
-
-    Blight, 132.
-
-    Blindia, 196.
-
-    Blinks, 373.
-
-    Blitum, 369.
-
-    Blood-red Currant, 455.
-
-    Blue-green Algæ, 5, 22.
-
-    Bocconia, 395.
-
-    Boehmeria, 353.
-
-    Boerhaavia, 374.
-
-    Bog-mosses, 193.
-
-    Bog-myrtle, 351.
-
-    Bog Wortleberry, 509.
-
-    Boisduvalia, 485.
-
-    Boletus, 166.
-
-    Bomarea, 318.
-
-    Bombaceæ, 427.
-
-    Bombax, 427.
-
-    Bonnemaisonia, 83.
-
-    Bonnemaisoniaceæ, 83.
-
-    Borage, 533.
-
-    Borageæ, 532, 533.
-
-    Boraginaceæ, 515, 531, 532, 537.
-
-    Borago, 533, 534.
-
-    Borassinæ, 301.
-
-    Borassus, 301.
-
-    Borderea, 323.
-
-    Boronieæ, 436.
-
-    Borreria, 550.
-
-    Boschia, 190.
-
-    Bossiæa, 472.
-
-    Boswellia, 438.
-
-    Bo-tree, 356.
-
-    Botrychium, 202, 210, 211.
-
-    Botrydiaceæ, 47, 59.
-
-    Botrydium, 59.
-
-    Botrytis, 128, 134, 135.
-
-    Bottle-gourd, 481.
-
-    Bouchea, 535.
-
-    Bougainvillea, 374.
-
-    Boussingaultia, 371.
-
-    Bouvardia, 550.
-
-    Bovista, 174.
-
-    Bowenia, 253, 254.
-
-    Bowiea, 312.
-
-    Box, 434.
-
-    Brachypodium, 294.
-
-    Brachythecium, 197.
-
-    Bracken-fern, 207, 213.
-
-    Bract, 235.
-
-    Bracteole, 235, 275, 334.
-
-    Bradypus, 8, 54, 356.
-
-    Brahea, 300.
-
-    Bramble, 458.
-
-    Branching of Palm, 298.
-
-    Brand-fungi, 95, 108, 109.
-
-    Brand-spores, 91.
-
-    Brasenia, 386.
-
-    Brassica, 399, 400, 401.
-
-    Brassicinæ, 404.
-
-    Brayera, 460.
-
-    Brazil-nuts, 489.
-
-    Bread-fruit, 356.
-
-    Briza, 290, 294, 296.
-
-    Brome, 296.
-
-    Bromeliaceæ, 308, 309, 310, 318.
-
-    Bromus, 287, 289, 290, 293, 296.
-
-    Brookweed, 513.
-
-    Broom, 472.
-
-    Broom-rape, 528.
-
-    Brosimum, 356.
-
-    Broussonetia, 354.
-
-    Browallia, 521.
-
-    Brown Algæ, 1.
-
-    Brownea, 468.
-
-    Brownian movement, 28.
-
-    Brugmansia, 504.
-
-    Brunfelsia, 521.
-
-    Bryaceæ, 197.
-
-    Bryonia, 481.
-
-    Bryophyllum, 451, 452.
-
-    Bryophyta, 1, 234.
-
-    Bryopsidaceæ, 47, 60.
-
-    Bryopsis, 60, 62.
-
-    Bryum, 197.
-
-    Buchu, 436.
-
-    Buck-bean, 543.
-
-    Buckthorn, 448.
-
-    Buckwheat, 361.
-
-    Buettneria, 422.
-
-    Buettneriaceæ, 422.
-
-    Bugle, 537.
-
-    Bulbine, 312.
-
-    Bulbochæte, 55, 56.
-
-    Bulbocodium, 310.
-
-    Bulbophyllum, 332.
-
-    Bulgaria, 134.
-
-    Bulgariaceæ, 134.
-
-    Bullace, 461, 462.
-
-    Bulliarda, 452.
-
-    Bull-rush, 303.
-
-    Bumelia, 511.
-
-    Bunchosia, 442.
-
-    Bunias, 400, 403.
-
-    Bupleurum, 491, 494.
-
-    Burdock, 570.
-
-    Burmanniaceæ, 328.
-
-    Bur-marigold, 572.
-
-    Bur Parsley, 497.
-
-    Bur-reed, 302.
-
-    Burseraceæ, 438.
-
-    Butcher’s broom, 316.
-
-    Butomeæ, 281.
-
-    Butomus, 281, 282.
-
-    Butterbur, 571.
-
-    Butter-tree, 414.
-
-    Butter-wort, 528.
-
-    Butyric-acid-bacíllus, 38.
-
-    Buxaceæ, 434.
-
-    Buxbaumia, 197.
-
-    Buxbaumiaceæ, 197.
-
-    Buxus, 434.
-
-
-    Cabbage, 401.
-
-    Cabomba, 386.
-
-    Cabombeæ, 386.
-
-    Cacalia, 572.
-
-    Cactaceæ, 375.
-
-    Cacti, 375.
-
-    Cactifloræ, 375.
-
-    Cæoma, 147, 148, 152.
-
-    Cæsalpinia, 468.
-
-    Cæsalpiniaceæ, 466, 470.
-
-    Caffeine, 441, 553.
-
-    Cajanus, 471.
-
-    Cajeput-oil, 489.
-
-    Cajophora, 476.
-
-    Cakile, 403.
-
-    Calabar-bean, 471, 473.
-
-    Calabash, 529.
-
-    Caladium, 306.
-
-    Calamagrostis, 289, 294.
-
-    Calamintha, 540.
-
-    Calamites, 224.
-
-    Calamus, 298, 301, 303.
-
-    Calamus-oil, 306.
-
-    Calandrinia, 373.
-
-    Calathea, 327.
-
-    Calceolaria, 525, 527.
-
-    Calcocytaceæ, 15.
-
-    Calendula, 565, 572.
-
-    Calenduleæ, 572.
-
-    Caliciaceæ, 134.
-
-    Calicium, 134.
-
-    Calla, 305, 307.
-
-    Calleæ, 305.
-
-    Calliandra, 475.
-
-    Callianthemum, 379.
-
-    Callicarpa, 535.
-
-    Calligonum, 361.
-
-    Calliopsis, 572.
-
-    Callistemon, 489.
-
-    Callistephus, 573.
-
-    Callithamnion, 78, 79, 84.
-
-    Callitrichaceæ, 434.
-
-    Callitriche, 434.
-
-    Callitris, 269.
-
-    Calloria, 134.
-
-    Calluna, 507.
-
-    Calocera, 158, 159.
-
-    Calonyction, 516.
-
-    Calophyllum, 414.
-
-    Calothamnus, 489.
-
-    Calothrix, 25.
-
-    Caltha, 379, 380, 381, 382.
-
-    Calycanthaceæ, 389.
-
-    Calycanthus, 389.
-
-    Calyceraceæ, 556, 560.
-
-    Calypogeia, 192.
-
-    Calypso, 332.
-
-    Calyptospora, 152.
-
-    Calyptra, 186.
-
-    Calystegia, 516.
-
-    Calyx-stamens, 335.
-
-    Camelina, 400, 401.
-
-    Camellia, 414, 415.
-
-    Campanula, 153, 561, 562.
-
-    Campanulaceæ, 561, 563.
-
-    Campanulinæ, 505, 560, 564, 569.
-
-    Camphor, 392.
-
-    Campion, 367.
-
-    Campylopus, 196.
-
-    Campylospermeæ, 493, 497.
-
-    Campylotropous, 242, 243.
-
-    Canada-balsam, 266.
-
-    Cananga, 388.
-
-    Canarina, 562.
-
-    Canary-grass, 295.
-
-    Canavalia, 471.
-
-    Candollea, 413, 564.
-
-    Candolleaceæ, 564.
-
-    Cane, 298, 301.
-
-    “Canker,” 127.
-
-    Canna, 326.
-
-    Cannabaceæ, 356.
-
-    Cannabis, 357, 358.
-
-    Cannaceæ, 277, 326, 327.
-
-    Canterbury-bell, 561.
-
-    Cantharellei, 172.
-
-    Cantharellus, 170, 172.
-
-    Caoutchouc, 434, 544, 546, 563.
-
-    Capers, 405.
-
-    Capillitium, 7, 174.
-
-    Capirona, 549.
-
-    Capnodium, 124.
-
-    Capparidaceæ, 405.
-
-    Capparis, 405, 406.
-
-    Capraria, 525.
-
-    Caprification, 355.
-
-    Caprificus, 355.
-
-    Caprifoliaceæ, 454, 548, 549, 553, 556, 557.
-
-    Caprifolium, 554.
-
-    Capsella, 400, 401, 402.
-
-    Capsellinæ, 404.
-
-    Capsicum, 521, 522.
-
-    Capsosira, 26.
-
-    Capsule, 186.
-
-    Caragana, 470.
-
-    Caraway, 494, 498.
-
-    Cardaminæ, 404.
-
-    Cardamine, 400, 402, 404.
-
-    Cardamom, 326.
-
-    Cardiospermum, 441.
-
-    Carduus, 569.
-
-    Carex, 113, 151, 247, 286, 287.
-
-    Carica, 476.
-
-    Cariceæ, 286.
-
-    Caries dentium, 38.
-
-    Carlina, 570.
-
-    Carludovica, 302.
-
-    Carmichælia, 470.
-
-    Carnation, 367.
-
-    Carnaueba-wax, 301.
-
-    Carob-bean, 466, 468.
-
-    Carpels, 235, 238.
-
-    Carpinus, 117, 344.
-
-    Carpoasci, 95, 115, 116, 118.
-
-    Carpogonium, 77, 81.
-
-    Carpophore, 91, 492.
-
-    Carpospore, 77, 82.
-
-    Carragen, 33, 84.
-
-    Carrot, 496, 497, 498.
-
-    Carthamus, 570, 574.
-
-    Carum, 493, 494, 498.
-
-    Carya, 350.
-
-    Caryophyllaceæ, 336, 364.
-
-    Caryopsis, 288.
-
-    Caryota, 301.
-
-    Cascara, 448.
-
-    Cascarilla, 434, 550.
-
-    Cashew-nut, 439.
-
-    Cassandra, 508.
-
-    Cassava, 434.
-
-    Cassia, 467, 468.
-
-    Cassine, 444.
-
-    Cassiope, 508.
-
-    Cassytha, 392.
-
-    Castanea, 346.
-
-    Castilloa, 356.
-
-    Castor-oil, 431, 434.
-
-    Casuarinaceæ, 339.
-
-    Casuarina, 273, 274.
-
-    Casuarinifloræ, 339.
-
-    Cataba, 414.
-
-    Catabrosa, 294.
-
-    Catalpa, 529.
-
-    Catananche, 566, 571.
-
-    Catasetum, 332, 333.
-
-    Catch-fly, 367.
-
-    Catechu, 475.
-
-    Catha, 444.
-
-    Catharinea, 197.
-
-    Cathartocarpus, 467, 468.
-
-    Catmint, 539.
-
-    Catodic, 480.
-
-    Cat’s-ear, 571.
-
-    Cat’s-foot, 573.
-
-    Cat’s-tail, 294.
-
-    Cattle-beet, 372.
-
-    Cattleya, 332.
-
-    Caucalis, 497.
-
-    Caudicle, 331, 332.
-
-    Caulerpa, 10, 61, 62.
-
-    Caulerpaceæ, 47, 61.
-
-    Cauliflower, 405.
-
-    Cayenne-pepper, 522.
-
-    Ceanothus, 448.
-
-    Cecropia, 356.
-
-    Cedar, 266.
-
-    Cedrat, 438.
-
-    Cedrela, 436.
-
-    Cedrus, 266.
-
-    Celandine, 394.
-
-    Celastraceæ, 444.
-
-    Celastrus, 444.
-
-    Celery, 494, 498.
-
-    Celidium, 134.
-
-    Cell, Vegetative, 228.
-
-    Celosia, 368, 369.
-
-    Celsia, 525.
-
-    Celtideæ, 352.
-
-    Cenangiaceæ, 134.
-
-    Cenangium, 134.
-
-    Cenchrus, 295.
-
-    Centaurea, 565, 567, 568, 569, 570, 573.
-
-    Centaury, 543.
-
-    Centradenia, 484.
-
-    “Central cell,” 185.
-
-    Centranthus, 557, 558.
-
-    Centrolepidaceæ, 308, 309.
-
-    Centrolepis, 309.
-
-    Centrolobium, 472.
-
-    Centropogon, 563.
-
-    Centunculus, 512, 513.
-
-    Cephaëlis, 550, 553.
-
-    Cephalanthera, 328, 331.
-
-    Cephalaria, 560.
-
-    Cephalotaceæ, 454.
-
-    Cephalotaxeæ, 259.
-
-    Cephalotus, 453.
-
-    Ceramiaceæ, 84.
-
-    Ceramium, 78, 80, 84.
-
-    Cerastium, 364, 366.
-
-    Cerasus, 462.
-
-    Ceratiomyxa, 8.
-
-    Ceratium, 16, 17.
-
-    Ceratocapnos, 396.
-
-    Ceratodon, 196.
-
-    Ceratonia, 468.
-
-    Ceratophyllaceæ, 388.
-
-    Ceratophyllum, 388.
-
-    Ceratostomaceæ, 130.
-
-    Ceratozamia, 238, 253, 254.
-
-    Cerbera, 544.
-
-    Cercis, 467, 468.
-
-    Cereus, 375, 377.
-
-    Cerinthe, 533.
-
-    Ceropegia, 546.
-
-    Ceroxylon, 301.
-
-    Cestreæ, 522.
-
-    Cestrum, 522.
-
-    Ceterach, 214.
-
-    Cetraria, 138, 141, 142.
-
-    Chænomeles, 465.
-
-    Chærophyllum, 495, 498.
-
-    Chætangiaceæ, 83.
-
-    Chætoceros, 20.
-
-    Chætocladiaceæ, 100.
-
-    Chætocladium, 100.
-
-    Chætomiaceæ, 129.
-
-    Chætomium, 129.
-
-    Chætomorpha, 58.
-
-    Chætopeltis, 54.
-
-    Chætophora, 54.
-
-    Chætophoraceæ, 47, 54.
-
-    Chætopteris, 70.
-
-    Chalaza, 242.
-
-    Chalazogames, 273.
-
-    Chalazogams, 273.
-
-    Chamæcyparis, 268, 269.
-
-    Chamædorea, 298, 301.
-
-    Chamædoris, 62.
-
-    Chamælaucieæ, 489.
-
-    Chamælaucium, 489.
-
-    Chamænerium, 484.
-
-    Chamaerops, 298, 300, 301, 302.
-
-    Chamæsiphon, 22, 24, 25.
-
-    Chamæsiphonaceæ, 24, 25.
-
-    Chamomile, 572, 574.
-
-    Chantransia, 83.
-
-    Chara, 65, 66, 67.
-
-    Characeæ, 1, 4, 10, 14, 64.
-
-    Characium, 47, 51.
-
-    Chareæ, 67.
-
-    Charlock, 404.
-
-    Cheilanthes, 213.
-
-    Cheiranthus, 399, 400, 402.
-
-    Cheirostemon, 427.
-
-    Chelidonium, 394, 395.
-
-    Chelone, 525.
-
-    Chenopodiaceæ, 364, 369.
-
-    Chenopodieæ, 369.
-
-    Chenopodina, 371, 372.
-
-    Chenopodium, 369, 372.
-
-    Cherry, 117, 156, 461, 462.
-
-    Cherry-laurel, 462.
-
-    Chervil, 495, 498.
-
-    Chervil-root, 498.
-
-    Chick-pea, 470.
-
-    Chickweed, 366.
-
-    Chicory, 570, 574.
-
-    Chilies, 522.
-
-    Chimaphila, 505.
-
-    Chimonanthus, 389.
-
-    China-grass, 353.
-
-    Chinese galls, 439.
-
-    Chiococca, 550.
-
-    Chionanthus, 547.
-
-    Chionodoxa, 312.
-
-    Chive, 312.
-
-    Chlamydomonas, 48.
-
-    Chlamydomoneæ, 14.
-
-    Chlamydomucor, 97, 98.
-
-    Chlamydospore, 90.
-
-    Chlora, 47, 543.
-
-    Chlorangium, 51.
-
-    Chloranthaceæ, 363.
-
-    Chloranthus, 363.
-
-    Chlorideæ, 295.
-
-    Chloris, 295.
-
-    Chlorochytrium, 47, 51.
-
-    Chlorococcum, 51.
-
-    Chlorocystis, 51.
-
-    Chlorophyceæ, 1, 14, 46.
-
-    Chlorophytum, 312.
-
-    Chlorosphæra, 51.
-
-    Chlorosphæraceæ, 47, 51.
-
-    Chlorosplenium, 135.
-
-    Chlorotylium, 54.
-
-    Choanephora, 100.
-
-    Choanephoraceæ, 100.
-
-    Chocho, 481.
-
-    Choiromyces, 124.
-
-    Choisya, 436.
-
-    Chondrus, 79, 83, 84.
-
-    Chorda, 72.
-
-    Chordaria, 71.
-
-    Chordariaceæ, 71.
-
-    Choripetalæ, 336, 337, 505, 561.
-
-    Chorisia, 427.
-
-    Choristocarpaceæ, 70.
-
-    Choristocarpus, 70.
-
-    Chromaceæ, 15.
-
-    Chromulina, 15.
-
-    Chroococcaceæ, 24.
-
-    Chroococcus, 24, 176.
-
-    Chrysalis Fungus, 127.
-
-    Chrysanthemum, 572.
-
-    Chrysarobin, 473.
-
-    Chrysobalanaceæ, 462, 466.
-
-    Chrysobalanus, 462.
-
-    Chrysomonadinaceæ, 15, 17.
-
-    Chrysomyxa, 147, 148, 153, 155.
-
-    Chrysophyllum, 511.
-
-    Chrysopyxaceæ, 15.
-
-    Chrysopyxis, 15.
-
-    Chrysosplenium, 452, 454.
-
-    Chylocladia, 83.
-
-    Chysis, 333.
-
-    Chytridiales, 95, 102.
-
-    Chytridium, 103.
-
-    Cibotium, 214, 215.
-
-    Cicely, 495.
-
-    Cicendia, 543.
-
-    Cicer, 470.
-
-    Cichorieæ, 561, 568, 570.
-
-    Cichorium, 570, 574.
-
-    Cicinnobolus, 120.
-
-    Cicuta, 494, 498.
-
-    Cilioflagellata, 17.
-
-    Cimaruoli, 355.
-
-    Cimicifuga, 383.
-
-    Cinchona, 548, 549, 550, 553.
-
-    Cinchoneæ, 550.
-
-    Cinchonin, 553.
-
-    Cinclidotus, 197.
-
-    Cineraria, 572, 574.
-
-    Cinnamon, 392.
-
-    Cinnamomum, 391, 392.
-
-    Cinquefoil, 458.
-
-    Cipura, 321.
-
-    Circaea, 485, 486.
-
-    Circinate, 208.
-
-    Cirsium, 151, 568, 569.
-
-    Cissampelos, 390.
-
-    Cissus, 445, 504.
-
-    Cistaceæ, 412.
-
-    Cistifloræ, 406, 451.
-
-    Cistus, 412, 503.
-
-    Citharexylon, 535.
-
-    Citriobatus, 455.
-
-    Citron, 438.
-
-    Citronella oil, 296.
-
-    Citrullus, 479, 480, 481.
-
-    Citrus, 437, 438.
-
-    Cladium, 286.
-
-    Cladochytrium, 103.
-
-    Cladonia, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143.
-
-    Cladophora, 11, 58.
-
-    Cladophoraceæ, 47, 58.
-
-    Cladosporium, 124.
-
-    Cladothrix, 27, 33, 34, 35.
-
-    Clamp-connections, 86.
-
-    Clarkia, 485.
-
-    Clastidium, 25.
-
-    Clatbrus, 173.
-
-    Clavaria, 159, 161.
-
-    Clavariaceæ, 161.
-
-    Claviceps, 125, 126, 127.
-
-    Clavija, 513.
-
-    Claytonia, 373.
-
-    Cleavers, 552.
-
-    Cleistocarpeæ, 195.
-
-    Clematideæ, 385.
-
-    Clematis, 378, 379, 380, 385.
-
-    Cleome, 406.
-
-    Clerodendron, 535.
-
-    Clethra, 509.
-
-    Climacium, 197.
-
-    Clinopodium, 540.
-
-    Clintonia, 563.
-
-    Clitocybe, 171.
-
-    Clitoria, 471.
-
-    Clivia, 317, 318.
-
-    Closterium, 43, 44.
-
-    Clostridium, 31.
-
-    Cloudberry, 461.
-
-    Clover, 135, 471.
-
-    Cloves, 489.
-
-    Club-mosses, 2, 205, 226.
-
-    Club-rush, 285.
-
-    Clusia, 414.
-
-    Clusiaceæ, 414.
-
-    Cluster-cups, 150.
-
-    Clypeosphæriaceæ, 130.
-
-    Cnicus, 570, 574.
-
-    Cnidium, 495.
-
-    Cobæa, 515.
-
-    Coca, 442.
-
-    Cocaine, 442.
-
-    Cocci, 26.
-
-    Coccochromaticæ, 21.
-
-    Coccoloba, 360.
-
-    Cocconeideæ, 21.
-
-    Cocconeis, 21.
-
-    Cocconema, 20.
-
-    Cocculus, 390.
-
-    Coccus, 356.
-
-    Cochineal, 377.
-
-    Cochineal-insect, 377.
-
-    Cochlearia, 398, 400.
-
-    Cochleariinæ, 404.
-
-    Cock’s-comb, 369.
-
-    Cock’s-foot, 294, 296.
-
-    Cocoa-beans, 423.
-
-    Cocoa-butter, 423.
-
-    Cocoa-plum, 462.
-
-    Cocoa-tree, 422.
-
-    Cocoanut, 298, 300, 302.
-
-    Cocoanut, Double, 301.
-
-    Cocoanut-palm, 301.
-
-    Cocoineæ, 300.
-
-    Cocos, 298, 301, 302.
-
-    Codiaceæ, 61.
-
-    Codiolum, 59.
-
-    Codium, 62.
-
-    Cœlastrum, 52.
-
-    Cœlebogyne, 432.
-
-    Cœloglossum, 332.
-
-    Cœlospermeæ, 493, 497.
-
-    Cœlosphærium, 24.
-
-    Cœnobia, 47, 51.
-
-    Cœnogonium, 142.
-
-    Coffea, 550.
-
-    Coffeeæ, 550.
-
-    Coffee, 555.
-
-    Coffee-plant, 550, 553.
-
-    Coix, 293.
-
-    Cola, 422, 423.
-
-    Colchicaceæ, 309, 310.
-
-    Colchiceæ, 310.
-
-    Colchicin, 311.
-
-    Colchicum, 310, 311.
-
-    Coleochætaceæ, 47, 57.
-
-    Coleochæte, 57, 58.
-
-    Coleonema, 436.
-
-    Coleorhiza, 293.
-
-    Coleosporium, 147, 148, 152, 154.
-
-    Coleus, 540, 541.
-
-    Collema, 138, 142.
-
-    Colletia, 448.
-
-    Collinsia, 525.
-
-    Collomia, 515.
-
-    Collybia, 171.
-
-    Colocasia, 303, 305, 306.
-
-    Colocynth, 481.
-
-    Colts-foot, 571.
-
-    Columba-root, 390.
-
-    Columbine, 382.
-
-    Columella, 187, 189, 193.
-
-    Columnea, 528.
-
-    Columniferæ, 421.
-
-    Colus, 173.
-
-    Colutea, 470, 473.
-
-    Comarum, 457, 458.
-
-    Combretaceæ, 487.
-
-    Comfrey, 533.
-
-    Comma-bacillus, 40.
-
-    Commelina, 308.
-
-    Commelinaceæ, 308.
-
-    Commersonia, 422.
-
-    Commiphora, 438.
-
-    Compass-plant, 572.
-
-    Compositæ, 556, 560, 561, 563, 564.
-
-    Comptonia, 350.
-
-    Condurango-bark, 546.
-
-    Cone, 235.
-
-    Cone-scales, 256.
-
-    Conferva, 54.
-
-    Confervoideæ, 47, 53.
-
-    Conidia, 87, 90.
-      Liberation and distribution of, 91.
-
-    Conidial-layers, 88.
-
-    Conidiocarp, 89, 147.
-
-    Conidio-fructification, 87.
-
-    Conidiophore, 87, 88.
-
-    Coniferæ, 3, 237, 238, 252, 255.
-      Female flower of, 255, 257.
-      Pollination, 258.
-
-    Coniocybe, 134.
-
-    Conium, 494, 498.
-
-    Conjugatæ, 1, 12, 14, 41, 88.
-
-    Conjugation, 11.
-
-    Connaraceæ, 435.
-
-    Conocarpus, 487.
-
-    Conomitrium, 196.
-
-    Contortæ, 505, 541, 549.
-
-    Convallaria, 314, 316.
-
-    Convallariaceæ, 309, 314.
-
-    Convallarieæ, 314.
-
-    Convolvulaceæ, 5, 515, 522, 532.
-
-    Convolvuleæ, 516.
-
-    Convolvulus, 114, 516, 517.
-
-    Co-operating cells, 248.
-
-    Copaifera, 467, 468.
-
-    Copal-balsam, 468.
-
-    Copernicia, 300, 301.
-
-    Copper-beech, 157.
-
-    Coprinarius, 171.
-
-    Coprinei, 172.
-
-    Coprinus, 172.
-
-    Coptis, 379, 382.
-
-    Cora, 176.
-
-    Corallina, 79, 84.
-
-    Corallinaceæ, 84.
-
-    Coralliorrhiza, 332.
-
-    Corallorhiza, 5, 332.
-
-    Coral-root, 332.
-
-    Corchorus, 424, 425.
-
-    Cordaitaceæ, 271.
-
-    Cordiaceæ, 47–61, 531, 532.
-
-    Cordyceps, 125, 127, 128.
-
-    Cordyline, 316.
-
-    “Core,” 463.
-
-    Coriander, 497, 498.
-
-    Coriandrum, 493, 497, 498.
-
-    Cork-elm, 352.
-
-    Cork-oak, 348.
-
-    Cormophyta, 1.
-
-    Cormophytes, 234.
-
-    Cornaceæ, 490, 549.
-
-    Cornel, 490.
-
-    Corn-cockle, 367.
-
-    Corn-flower, 567.
-
-    Corn-poppy, 395.
-
-    Cornus, 490, 491.
-
-    Corona, 317, 476.
-
-    Coronilla, 472, 473.
-
-    Correa, 436.
-
-    Corrigiola, 365, 367.
-
-    Corsinia, 190.
-
-    Corsiniaceæ, 190.
-
-    Cortex angosturæ, 437.
-
-    Corticium, 144, 161.
-
-    Cortinarius, 171.
-
-    Cortusa, 512.
-
-    Corydalis, 334, 395, 396, 397.
-
-    Corylaceæ, 341, 343.
-
-    Corylus, 122, 343, 344, 348.
-
-    Corypha, 298, 300.
-
-    Coscinodisceæ, 21.
-
-    Coscinodiscus, 20.
-
-    Coscinodon, 197.
-
-    Cosmanthus, 515.
-
-    Cosmarium, 42, 43, 44.
-
-    Costus, 326.
-
-    Cotoneaster, 463, 465.
-
-    “Cotton” 427, 429, 430.
-
-    Cotton-grass, 286.
-
-    Cotton-thistle, 570.
-
-    Cotyledon, 451.
-
-    Cotyledons, 247.
-
-    Couch, 295.
-
-    Coumarin, 296, 473, 553.
-
-    Cover-scale, 255, 256.
-
-    Cow-bane, 494, 498.
-
-    Cowberry, 509.
-
-    Cow-parsnip, 496.
-
-    Cow-tree, 356.
-
-    Cow-wheat, 526.
-
-    “Crab’s-eyes,” 470.
-
-    Crambe, 400, 403.
-
-    Craniolaria, 529.
-
-    Crassula, 452.
-
-    Crassulaceæ, 451.
-
-    Cratægeæ, 465.
-
-    Cratægus, 152, 465.
-
-    Craterellus, 162, 172.
-
-    Craterocolla, 156.
-
-    Crenothrix, 30, 37.
-
-    Creosote, 438.
-
-    Crepis, 571.
-
-    Crescentia, 529.
-
-    Crinum, 318.
-
-    Crocus, 320, 321.
-
-    Cronartium, 146, 147, 153, 155, 156.
-
-    Crotalaria, 472, 473.
-
-    Croton, 431, 434.
-
-    Crowberry, 434.
-
-    Crown-imperial, 314.
-
-    Crozophora, 434.
-
-    Crucianella, 552.
-
-    Crucibulum, 176.
-
-    Cruciferæ, 398.
-
-    Crucifers, 398.
-
-    Crucigenia, 51.
-
-    Cruoria, 84.
-
-    Cryptogams, 3, 234.
-      Vascular, 2, 198.
-
-    Cryptoglena, 15.
-
-    Cryptogramme, 213.
-
-    Cryptomeria, 267.
-
-    Cryptonemia, 84.
-
-    Cryptonemiales, 82, 84.
-
-    Ctenanthe, 327.
-
-    Ctenium, 295.
-
-    Ctenomyces, 119.
-
-    Cubeb, 363.
-
-    Cucubalus, 367.
-
-    Cucullus, 545.
-
-    Cucumber, 481.
-
-    Cucumis, 121, 480, 481.
-
-    Cucurbita, 478, 479, 480, 481.
-
-    Cucurbitaceæ, 475, 478, 561.
-
-    Cucurbitariaceæ, 130.
-
-    Cud-weed, 573.
-
-    Cuminum, 497, 498.
-
-    Cunninghamia, 263.
-
-    Cunoniaceæ, 454.
-
-    Cuphea, 482, 483.
-
-    Cupressaceæ, 257, 262, 267, 272.
-
-    Cupressus, 241, 245, 268, 269.
-
-    Cupule, 343.
-
-    Cupuliferæ, 341, 345.
-
-    Curare, 546.
-
-    Curculigo, 318.
-
-    Curcuma, 326.
-
-    Curly-mint, 541.
-
-    Currants, 447, 454.
-
-    Curvembryæ, 363.
-
-    Cuscuta, 5, 515, 517.
-
-    Cuscuteæ, 516.
-
-    “Cushion,” 206.
-
-    Cusparia, 437.
-
-    Cusparieæ, 437.
-
-    Cutleria, 68, 72.
-
-    Cutleriaceæ, 11, 72.
-
-    Cyanophyceæ, 22.
-
-    Cyanophyll, 22.
-
-    Cyanotis, 308.
-
-    Cyathea, 214, 215.
-
-    Cyatheaceæ, 210, 215.
-
-    Cyathium, 432.
-
-    Cyathus, 176.
-
-    Cycadaceæ, 252.
-
-    Cycadeæ, 3, 236, 252, 254.
-
-    Cycas, 25, 231, 236, 238, 251, 252, 253, 254.
-
-    Cyclamen, 334, 512, 513.
-
-    Cyclanthaceæ, 302.
-
-    Cyclanthera, 481.
-
-    Cyclolobeæ, 371.
-
-    Cyclosporeæ, 68, 73.
-
-    Cydonia, 463, 464.
-
-    Cylindrocapsa, 14, 55.
-
-    Cylindrocapsaceæ, 47, 54.
-
-    Cylindrocystis, 44.
-
-    Cylindrospermum, 22, 25.
-
-    Cymbella, 20, 21.
-
-    Cymbelleæ, 20, 21.
-
-    Cymodocea, 281.
-
-    Cymopolia, 63.
-
-    Cynanchum, 546.
-
-    Cynara, 570, 574.
-
-    Cynareæ, 569.
-
-    Cynips, 355.
-
-    Cynodon, 295.
-
-    Cynodontium, 196.
-
-    Cynoglossum, 533, 535.
-
-    Cynomorium, 503, 504.
-
-    Cynosurus, 294, 296.
-
-    Cypella, 321.
-
-    Cyperaceæ, 277, 283, 284, 291.
-
-    Cyperus, 286, 287, 290.
-
-    Cyphella, 162.
-
-    Cyphiaceæ, 562.
-
-    Cypress, 267, 268.
-
-    Cypripedileæ, 329, 330.
-
-    Cypripedilum, 330.
-
-    Cypripedium, 330.
-
-    Cypsela, 564.
-
-    Cyrtandreæ, 528.
-
-    Cystocarp, 14, 58, 82.
-
-    Cystoclonium, 83.
-
-    Cystopteris, 214.
-
-    Cystopus, 107.
-
-    Cytinus, 503, 504.
-
-    Cytisus, 472, 473.
-
-
-    Dacrydium, 255, 260, 261.
-
-    Dacryomitra, 158, 159.
-
-    Dacryomyces, 134, 158, 159.
-
-    Dacryomycetaceæ, 159.
-
-    Dacryomycetes, 96, 145, 159.
-
-    Dactylis, 287, 294, 296.
-
-    Dactylococcus, 51.
-
-    Dædalea, 166, 171.
-
-    Dahlia, 569, 572.
-
-    Daisy, 572.
-
-    Dalbergia, 472.
-
-    Dalbergieæ, 472.
-
-    Dalechampia, 434.
-
-    Damasonium, 282.
-
-    Dammara, 263.
-
-    Danæa, 212.
-
-    Dandelion, 571.
-
-    Daphne, 449, 450.
-
-    Darlingtonia, 409.
-
-    Darwinia, 489.
-
-    Dasycladaceæ, 63.
-
-    Dasycladus, 63.
-
-    Dasyscypha, 135.
-
-    Date-palm, 298, 299, 301, 302.
-
-    Date-plum, 511.
-
-    Datisca, 477.
-
-    Datiscaceæ, 477.
-
-    Datura, 519, 520, 522.
-
-    Dauceæ, 496.
-
-    Daucus, 134, 492, 496.
-
-    Davallia, 214.
-
-    Davilla, 413.
-
-    Deadly nightshade, 521.
-
-    Dead-nettle, 538.
-
-    Delesseria, 79, 80, 83.
-
-    Delesseriaceæ, 83.
-
-    Delphinieæ, 383.
-
-    Delphinium, 379, 383.
-
-    Dendrobium, 332.
-
-    Derbesia, 10, 60.
-
-    Derbesiaceæ, 47, 60.
-
-    Dermatea, 116, 134.
-
-    Dermateaceæ, 134.
-
-    Dermateales, 134.
-
-    Dermatophyton, 54.
-
-    Dermocarpa, 25.
-
-    Desmanthus, 475.
-
-    Desmarestia, 71.
-
-    Desmarestiaceæ, 71.
-
-    Desmidiaceæ, 10, 18, 21, 42, 44, 48.
-
-    Desmidium, 44.
-
-    Desmodium, 466, 472.
-
-    Deutzia, 455.
-
-    Devil’s-bit, 560.
-
-    Dianthus, 364, 367.
-
-    Diapensiaceæ, 509.
-
-    Diatoma, 19.
-
-    Diatomaceæ, 10, 12, 14, 19, 20, 21.
-
-    Diatomeæ, 1, 18.
-
-    Diatomin, 18.
-
-    Diatoms, 1.
-
-    Diatrypaceæ, 130.
-
-    Diatrype, 130.
-
-    Dicentra, 395, 396, 397.
-
-    Dichaenaceæ, 132.
-
-    Dichelyma, 197.
-
-    Dichondreæ, 516.
-
-    Dichorisandra, 308.
-
-    Dichospermum, 371.
-
-    Dicksonia, 207, 215.
-
-    Diclinous, 236.
-
-    Dicliptera, 530.
-
-    Dicotyledones, 3, 334.
-
-    Dicranella, 196.
-
-    Dicranum, 196.
-
-    Dictamnus, 436.
-
-    Dictyochaceæ, 15.
-
-    Dictyonema, 176.
-
-    Dictyosiphon, 71.
-
-    Dictyosiphonaceæ, 71.
-
-    Dictyosphærium, 51.
-
-    Dictyostelium, 8.
-
-    Dictyota, 76.
-
-    Dictyotaceæ, 76.
-
-    Dictyotales, 1, 14, 76.
-
-    Dicypellium, 392.
-
-    Didiscus, 493.
-
-    Didymium, 8.
-
-    Dieffenbachia, 306.
-
-    Dielytra, 395.
-
-    Diervilla, 554, 556.
-
-    Digitalis, 524, 525, 527.
-
-    Digraphis, 295, 296.
-
-    Dill, 496.
-
-    Dillenia, 413.
-
-    Dilleniaceæ, 413.
-
-    Dimorphanthus, 491.
-
-    Dimorphochlamys, 481.
-
-    Dinifera, 17.
-
-    Dinobryinaceæ, 15.
-
-    Dinobryon, 15.
-
-    Dinoflagellata, 1, 14, 16, 17, 18, 21.
-
-    Dinophysis, 17.
-
-    Diodia, 550.
-
-    Diœcious, 236.
-
-    Dionæa, 408.
-
-    Dioon, 254.
-
-    Dioscorea, 322, 323.
-
-    Dioscoreaceæ, 276, 309, 310, 322.
-
-    Diosma, 436.
-
-    Diosmeæ, 436.
-
-    Diospyrinæ, 505, 510.
-
-    Diospyros, 511.
-
-    Diphtheria, 40.
-
-    Diphyscium, 197.
-
-    Diplarrhena, 321.
-
-    Diplecolobeæ, 400.
-
-    Diplococcus, 39.
-
-    Diploderma, 78.
-
-    Diplostemonous, 335, 336.
-
-    Diplusodon, 483.
-
-    Dipsacaceæ, 549, 556, 558, 559, 560, 569.
-
-    Dipsacales, 505, 556, 564.
-
-    Dipsacus, 559, 560.
-
-    Dipterocarpaceæ, 415.
-
-    Dipterocarpus, 415.
-
-    Dipteryx, 472, 473.
-
-    Discelium, 197.
-
-    Discolichenes, 142.
-
-    Discomycetes, 95, 116, 132.
-
-    Discosporangium, 70.
-
-    Disease, 32.
-
-    Disinfection, 32.
-
-    Dispora, 36.
-
-    Distichium, 196.
-
-    Doassansia, 110.
-
-    Docidium, 44.
-
-    Dock, 359.
-
-    Dodder, 5, 516, 517.
-
-    Dodecatheon, 513.
-
-    Dog’s-tail, 294, 296.
-
-    Dogwood, 499.
-
-    Dolichos, 471.
-
-    Dondia, 493.
-
-    Dorema, 496, 498.
-
-    Doronicum, 240, 572.
-
-    Dorstenia, 131, 354.
-
-    Dothideaceæ, 131.
-
-    Double Cocoanut, 301.
-
-    Doum-palm, 298, 301.
-
-    Draba, 400.
-
-    Dracæna, 274, 316.
-
-    Dracæneæ, 316.
-
-    Dracocephalum, 539.
-
-    Dracunculus, 303, 305.
-
-    Dragon’s blood, 301, 316.
-
-    Dragon-tree, 316.
-
-    Draparnaldia, 54.
-
-    Drimys, 389.
-
-    Drosera, 408.
-
-    Droseraceæ, 407.
-
-    Drosophyllum, 408.
-
-    Dryas, 458.
-
-    Dryobalanops, 415.
-
-    Dry-rot, 165, 166.
-
-    Dry yeast, 179.
-
-    Duboisia, 522.
-
-    Duckweed, 307.
-
-    Dudresnaya, 84.
-
-    Dumontia, 84.
-
-    Dumontiaceæ, 84.
-
-    Durio, 427.
-
-    Durra, 296.
-
-    Dwarf-elder, 553.
-
-    Dwarf-male, 57.
-
-    Dwarf-palm, 300.
-
-    Dyer’s Weed, 407, 472.
-
-
-    Earth-nut, 472.
-
-    Earth-star, 174.
-
-    Earth-tongue, 136.
-
-    Eating-chestnut, 346.
-
-    Ebenaceæ, 511.
-
-    Ebony, 511.
-
-    Ecballium, 478, 480, 481.
-
-    Eccremocarpus, 529.
-
-    Echeveria, 451.
-
-    Echinocactus, 375, 376, 377.
-
-    Echinodorus, 281.
-
-    Echinops, 564, 570.
-
-    Echinopsis, 376, 377.
-
-    Echinospermum, 533.
-
-    Echites, 544.
-
-    Echium, 531, 532, 533, 534, 535.
-
-    Ectocarpaceæ, 70.
-
-    Ectocarpus, 69, 70.
-
-    Edelweiss, 573.
-
-    Edwardsia, 469.
-
-    Egg-cell, 13.
-
-    Egg-fertilisation, 13.
-
-    Egg-plant, 522.
-
-    Ehretia, 533.
-
-    Eichhornia, 316.
-
-    Elachista, 71.
-
-    Elachistaceæ, 71.
-
-    Elæagnaceæ, 449.
-
-    Elæagnus, 450.
-
-    Elæis, 301, 302.
-
-    Elæocarpus, 425.
-
-    Elaphomyces, 124.
-
-    Elaphrium, 438.
-
-    Elatereæ, 192.
-
-    Elaters, 189.
-
-    Elatinaceæ, 413.
-
-    Elatine, 413.
-
-    Elder, 156, 553, 555, 556.
-
-    Elemi, 438.
-
-    Elettaria, 326.
-
-    Eleusine, 295.
-
-    Elisma, 281, 282.
-
-    Elm, 124, 165, 351.
-
-    Elodea, 282.
-
-    Elymus, 113, 296.
-
-    Elyna, 286, 287.
-
-    Embryo, 246, 247, 248.
-
-    Embryo-sac, 241, 247.
-
-    Emericella, 176.
-
-    Emex, 360.
-
-    Empetraceæ, 434.
-
-    Empetrum, 434.
-
-    Empleurum, 436.
-
-    Empusa, 101, 102.
-
-    Enantioblastæ, 277, 308.
-
-    Encephalartos, 254.
-
-    Enchanter’s Nightshade, 485.
-
-    Encoeliaceæ, 70.
-
-    Endocarpon, 142.
-
-    Endomyces, 116, 117.
-
-    Endophyllum, 147, 151.
-
-    Endophytic parasites, 85.
-
-    Endosperm, 233, 246, 248, 249.
-
-    Endospermous, 249.
-
-    Endosphæra, 47, 51.
-
-    Endospore, 89, 187.
-
-    Endosporous, 29.
-
-    Endothecium, 186.
-
-    Endozoic Fungi, 85.
-
-    Enhalus, 283.
-
-    Entada, 473, 474.
-
-    Enteromorpha, 53.
-
-    Entoderma, 54.
-
-    Entomophthora, 102.
-
-    Entomophthoraceæ, 102.
-
-    Entomophthorales, 95, 102.
-
-    Entyloma, 109, 111, 113.
-
-    Enzyme, 32.
-
-    Epacridaceæ, 509.
-
-    Epacris, 509.
-
-    Ephebe, 139, 142.
-
-    Ephedra, 271.
-
-    Ephemerum, 195.
-
-    Epibasal, 186.
-
-    Epichloë, 125, 127.
-
-    Epiclemmydia, 54.
-
-    Epidendreæ, 332.
-
-    Epidendron, 332.
-
-    Epigynum, 544.
-
-    Epilobium, 484, 485.
-
-    Epimedium, 390.
-
-    Epipactis, 331, 333.
-
-    Epipetalous, 336.
-
-    Epiphyllum, 375, 377.
-
-    Epiphytic parasites, 85.
-
-    Epipogon, 331.
-
-    Epipyxis, 15.
-
-    Episepalous, 335.
-
-    Epithemia, 20, 21.
-
-    Epizoic Fungi, 85.
-
-    Equisetaceæ, 202, 204, 221, 234, 235, 236, 240.
-
-    Equisetinæ, 2, 204, 221, 225.
-
-    Equisetum, 200, 206, 221, 222, 224.
-
-    Eragrostis, 294.
-
-    Eranthemum, 530.
-
-    Eranthis, 379, 382.
-
-    Ergot, 125, 127.
-
-    Eria, 332.
-
-    Erica, 507, 508.
-
-    Ericaceæ, 238, 505, 507.
-
-    Ericeæ, 507.
-
-    Erigeron, 573.
-
-    Erinus, 525.
-
-    Eriobotrya, 465.
-
-    Eriocaulaceæ, 308, 309.
-
-    Eriocaulon, 309.
-
-    Eriodendron, 427.
-
-    Eriophorum, 285, 286.
-
-    Erodium, 419.
-
-    Eruca, 402.
-
-    Ervum, 470, 473.
-
-    Eryngium, 493, 569.
-
-    Erysiminæ, 404.
-
-    Erysimum, 402.
-
-    Erysiphaceæ, 119.
-
-    Erysiphe, 119, 120, 121.
-
-    Erythræa, 542, 543.
-
-    Erythrina, 471.
-
-    Erythronium, 312.
-
-    Erythrotrichia, 78.
-
-    Erythroxylaceæ, 442.
-
-    Erythroxylon, 442.
-
-    Escalloniaceæ, 454.
-
-    Escalloniæ, 451.
-
-    Eschalot, 312.
-
-    Eschsholzia, 393, 395.
-
-    Esparto grass, 296.
-
-    Euactæa, 379.
-
-    Euaspergillus, 122.
-
-    Euastrum, 44.
-
-    Eucalyptus, 489.
-
-    Eucalypta, 197.
-
-    Eucharidium, 485.
-
-    Eucharis, 317, 318.
-
-    Euchlæna, 293.
-
-    Eucomis, 312.
-
-    Eudorina, 48, 50.
-
-    Eugeissonia, 301.
-
-    Eugenia, 488, 489.
-
-    Euglena, 103.
-
-    Eunotieæ, 21.
-
-    Euonymus, 152, 444.
-
-    Eupatorieæ, 571, 572.
-
-    Eupatorium, 569, 571.
-
-    Euphacidiaceæ, 133.
-
-    Euphorbia, 148, 151, 430, 432, 433.
-
-    Euphorbiaceæ, 430.
-
-    Euphorbium, 434.
-
-    Euphoria, 441.
-
-    Euphrasia, 526.
-
-    Eupodisceæ, 21.
-
-    Eurhynchium, 197.
-
-    Eurotium, 121, 122.
-
-    Euryale, 386, 387, 388.
-
-    Eusporangiatæ, 202, 210, 239.
-
-    Euterpe, 301.
-
-    Euthora, 83.
-
-    Eutoca, 515.
-
-    Evening Primrose, 484.
-
-    Evernia, 143.
-
-    Evodia, 436.
-
-    Evolvulus, 516.
-
-    Exalbuminous, 249.
-
-    Exidia, 156.
-
-    Exoasci, 95, 115, 116.
-
-    Exobasidium, 160, 161.
-
-    Exochorda, 457.
-
-    Exospore, 87, 187.
-
-    Exostemma, 553.
-
-    Exuviella, 16, 17, 18, 21.
-
-    Eye-bright, 526.
-
-    “Eye-spot,” 10.
-
-
-    Faba, 468, 470, 473.
-
-    Fabiana, 521.
-
-    Fabroniaceæ, 197.
-
-    “Fæchel,” 284.
-
-    Facultative parasites, 84.
-
-    Fagonia, 438.
-
-    Fagus, 122, 347, 348.
-
-    “Fairy-rings,” 86, 136, 163, 168.
-
-    Falcaria, 494.
-
-    “Fan,” 284.
-
-    Fan-palm, 298.
-
-    Farinosæ, 308.
-
-    Fatsia, 491.
-
-    Feather-grass, 294.
-
-    Feather palm, 298.
-
-    Fedia, 557.
-
-    Fegatella, 191.
-
-    Fennel, 492, 495, 498.
-
-    “Ferment of wine,” 178.
-
-    Fermentation, 32.
-      Alcoholic, 97.
-
-    Ferns, 2.
-      Stem of, 202, 204, 205.
-      True, 204, 205.
-      Water, 205.
-      Various, 208.
-
-    Ferraria, 321.
-
-    Ferula, 496, 498.
-
-    Fescue, 293, 296.
-
-    Festuca, 293, 296.
-
-    Festuceæ, 293.
-
-    Fevillea, 478, 481.
-
-    Ficaria, 334, 383.
-
-    Ficus, 351, 354, 355, 356.
-
-    Field-horsetail, 224.
-
-    Field-madder, 552.
-
-    Field-thistle, 151.
-
-    Fig-wort, 524.
-
-    Filago, 573.
-
-    Filament, 238.
-
-    Filbert, 345.
-
-    Filices, 204, 205.
-      Systematic division of, 210.
-
-    Filicinæ, 2, 204, 205, 234, 236, 239.
-
-    Fiori di fico, 355.
-
-    Fiorin, 294.
-
-    Fir, 124, 153, 155, 165, 170, 263, 264, 265.
-
-    Fir-cones, 163.
-
-    Firneedle-rust, 152.
-
-    Fissidens, 196.
-
-    Fissidentaceæ, 196.
-
-    Fission-Algæ, 1, 14, 22, 29.
-
-    Fission-Fungi, 26, 29.
-
-    Fission-plants, 10.
-
-    Fistulina, 166.
-
-    Flag, 320.
-
-    Flagellata, 48.
-
-    Flagellatæ, 15.
-
-    Flax, 417.
-
-    Flea-bane, 573.
-
-    “Fleur de vin,” 179.
-
-    Floral-leaves, 235.
-
-    Florideæ, 9, 10, 77, 78.
-
-    Flower, 235.
-      Monocotyledonous, 276.
-
-    Flowering-plants, 3, 249.
-
-    Flowering-rush, 281.
-
-    Flowers-of-tan, 7.
-
-    Fly-mould, 101.
-
-    Fly-mushroom, 167, 171.
-
-    Fly-trap, 408.
-
-    Fœniculum, 495, 498.
-
-    Foliage-leaves, 235.
-
-    Fontinalaceæ, 197.
-
-    Fontinalis, 197.
-
-    Fool’s-parsley, 495, 498.
-
-    Foot, 186.
-
-    Fore-leaf, 275, 334.
-
-    Forget-me-not, 334.
-
-    Forskohlea, 353.
-
-    Forsythia, 546, 547.
-
-    Fossil Gymnosperms, 271.
-
-    Fothergilla, 455.
-
-    Fourcroya, 318.
-
-    Fovea, 231.
-
-    Foxglove, 525.
-
-    Fox-tail, 294, 298, 369.
-
-    Fragaria, 458, 461.
-
-    Fragilarieæ, 21.
-
-    Franciscea, 521.
-
-    Francoaceæ, 454.
-
-    Frangulinæ, 443, 449, 451, 490.
-
-    Frankeniaceæ, 411.
-
-    Frankincense, 438.
-
-    Fraxinus, 122, 130, 546, 547.
-
-    French-bean, 473.
-
-    French Rose, 460.
-
-    Freycinetia, 302.
-
-    Fritillaria, 312, 313, 314.
-
-    Frog-bit, 282.
-
-    “Fruit,” 91.
-
-    Fruit, 249.
-
-    Fruit-bearers, 91.
-
-    Fruit-bodies, 91.
-
-    “Fruit-forms,” 91.
-
-    Frullania, 191, 192.
-
-    Frustule, 18.
-
-    Frustulia, 20.
-
-    Fucaceæ, 75.
-
-    Fuchsia, 484, 485.
-
-    Fucoideæ, 9.
-
-    Fucus, 13, 73, 74, 75.
-
-    Fuligo, 6, 8.
-
-    Fumago, 124.
-
-    Fumaria, 396, 397.
-
-    Fumariaceæ, 395.
-
-    Fumitory, 395.
-
-    Funaria, 182, 188, 197.
-
-    Funariaceæ, 197.
-
-    Funckia, 312, 313, 314.
-
-    Fundaments, 90.
-
-    Fungi, 1, 4, 5, 8, 84.
-
-    Fungi-galls, 85.
-
-    Fungi Imperfecti, 96.
-
-    Fungus chirurgorum, 164.
-      laricis, 164.
-
-    Funicle, 241.
-
-    Furcellaria, 79, 84.
-
-    Furze, 472.
-
-    Fusicladium, 130.
-
-
-    Gagea, 312.
-
-    Gaillardia, 572.
-
-    Galactodendron, 356.
-
-    Galangal, 326.
-
-    Galanthus, 317, 318.
-
-    Galaxaura, 83.
-
-    Galaxia, 321.
-
-    Galbanum, 498.
-
-    Galega, 470.
-
-    Galeobdolon, 538.
-
-    Galeopsis, 538, 540.
-
-    Galinsoga, 572.
-
-    Galipea, 437.
-
-    Galium, 552, 553.
-
-    Galphimia, 442.
-
-    Gambier, 553.
-
-    Gamboge, 414.
-
-    Gambo-hemp, 430.
-
-    Gametangium, 12.
-
-    Gamete, 11.
-
-    Gametophore, 183.
-
-    Gametophyte, 181.
-
-    Gamopetalæ, 336.
-
-    Garcinia, 414.
-
-    Garden-cress, 405.
-
-    Gardenia, 550.
-
-    Gardenieæ, 550.
-
-    Garidella, 383.
-
-    Garlic, 312.
-
-    Garrya, 491.
-
-    Gasteria, 312.
-
-    Gasterolichenes, 176.
-
-    Gasteromycetes, 96, 145, 173.
-
-    Gastonia, 491.
-
-    Gaultheria, 508.
-
-    Gaura, 485.
-
-    Geaster, 174.
-
-    Gelidiaceæ, 83.
-
-    Gelidium, 83, 84.
-
-    Genipa, 550.
-
-    Genista, 471, 473.
-
-    Genisteæ, 471.
-
-    Gentian, 542.
-
-    Gentiana, 542, 543.
-
-    Gentianaceæ, 542.
-
-    Gentianeæ, 542.
-
-    Geoglossum, 136.
-
-    Geonoma, 301.
-
-    Georgiaceæ, 197.
-
-    Geraniaceæ, 418.
-
-    Geranium, 419.
-
-    Germ-pores, 93.
-
-    Gesneria, 528.
-
-    Gesneriaceæ, 518, 526, 528.
-
-    Gesnerieæ, 528.
-
-    Geum, 458, 460.
-
-    Gigartina, 83, 84.
-
-    Gigartinaceæ, 83.
-
-    Gigartinales, 82, 83.
-
-    Gilia, 515.
-
-    Gillenia, 457.
-
-    Gills, 166.
-
-    Ginger, 326.
-
-    Ginkgo, 255, 257, 259, 260, 272.
-
-    Gipsy-wort, 539.
-
-    Gladiolus, 321.
-
-    Glandulæ, 329.
-
-    Glasswort, 371.
-
-    Glaucium, 394, 395.
-
-    Glaucocystis, 22, 24.
-
-    Glaux, 513.
-
-    Gleba, 172.
-
-    Glechoma, 539, 541.
-
-    Gleditschia, 468.
-
-    Gleichenia, 215.
-
-    Gleicheniaceæ, 215, 236.
-
-    Glenodinium, 17.
-
-    Globba, 326.
-
-    Globe-thistle, 570.
-
-    Globularia, 541.
-
-    Globulariaceæ, 532, 541.
-
-    Glœocapsa, 24.
-
-    Glœotrichia, 25.
-
-    Gloiopeltis, 84.
-
-    Gloiosiphoniaceæ, 84.
-
-    Gloxinia, 528.
-
-    Glume, 287.
-
-    Glumifloræ, 277, 283.
-
-    Glyceria, 113, 290, 294, 296.
-
-    Glycine, 471.
-
-    Glycyrrhiza, 470, 473.
-
-    Glyptostrobus, 267.
-
-    Gnaphalium, 569, 573.
-
-    Gnetaceæ, 3, 251, 271, 272.
-
-    Gneteæ, 252, 270.
-
-    Gnetum, 271.
-
-    Gnidia, 449.
-
-    Gnomonia, 130.
-
-    Gnomoniaceæ, 130.
-
-    Goat’s-beard, 571.
-
-    Godetia, 485.
-
-    Godlewskia, 25.
-
-    Golden-currant, 455.
-
-    Golden-rod, 573.
-
-    Golden Saxifrage, 452.
-
-    Goldfussia, 530.
-
-    Gold-of-pleasure, 401.
-
-    Gomontia, 58.
-
-    Gomontiaceæ, 47, 58.
-
-    Gomphonema, 19.
-
-    Gomphonemeæ, 20, 21.
-
-    Gomphosphæria, 24.
-
-    Gomphrena, 368, 369.
-
-    Gonatozygon, 44.
-
-    Gongrosira, 54.
-
-    Gonidia, 138.
-
-    Gonimoblast, 82.
-
-    Goniotrichaceæ, 78.
-
-    Goniotrichum, 78.
-
-    Gonium, 48.
-
-    Gonococcus, 39.
-
-    Gonolobus, 546.
-
-    Goodenia, 564.
-
-    Goodeniaceæ, 563.
-
-    Gooseberry, 455.
-
-    Goosefoot, 369.
-
-    Gossypieæ, 427.
-
-    Gossypium, 427, 429, 430.
-
-    Gouania, 448.
-
-    “Gourds,” 481.
-
-    Gout-weed, 494.
-
-    Gracilaria, 83.
-
-    “Grains of Paradise,” 390.
-
-    Gramineæ, 277, 283, 287.
-
-    Grape-disease, 121.
-
-    Graphiola, 110.
-
-    Graphis, 140, 142.
-
-    Grasses, 287.
-
-    Grass-flower, 290, 291.
-
-    Grass-fruit, 292.
-
-    Grass of Parnassus, 453.
-
-    Grass-wrack, 279.
-
-    Grateloupiaceæ, 84.
-
-    Gratiola, 525, 527.
-
-    Green Algæ, 1, 14.
-
-    “Greenheart,” 393.
-
-    Grevillea, 450.
-
-    Griffithsia, 84.
-
-    Grimmia, 197.
-
-    Grimmiaceæ, 197.
-
-    Gronovia, 476.
-
-    Ground Ivy, 539.
-
-    Groundsel, 153, 572.
-
-    Gruinales, 416.
-
-    Guaiacum, 438.
-
-    Guano, 20.
-
-    Guava, 489.
-
-    Guava-rum, 490.
-
-    Guazuma, 422.
-
-    Guelder-rose, 455, 555.
-
-    Guepinia, 159.
-
-    Guinea-corn, 296.
-
-    Guinea Pepper-plant, 521.
-
-    Guizotia, 574.
-
-    Gulf-weed, 75.
-
-    Gum-arabic, 475.
-
-    Gum-benzoin, 511.
-
-    Gum-tragacanth, 473.
-
-    Gum-trees, 490.
-
-    Gunnera, 25, 482, 485, 486.
-
-    Guttapercha, 511.
-
-    Guttiferæ, 414.
-
-    Gymnadenia, 332.
-
-    Gymnoascaceæ, 119.
-
-    Gymnoascales, 95, 116, 118.
-
-    Gymnoascus, 119.
-
-    Gymnodinium, 17.
-
-    Gymnogramme, 214.
-
-    Gymnospermæ, 2, 234, 239, 250, 251.
-
-    Gymnosperms, 244, 246.
-      Fossil, 271.
-
-    Gymnosporangium, 146, 147, 151, 154.
-
-    Gymnosporeæ, 82.
-
-    Gymnostomum, 196.
-
-    Gymnozyga, 42, 44.
-
-    Gynandræ, 278, 328.
-
-    Gynandropsis, 405, 406.
-
-    Gynerium, 294, 296.
-
-    Gynœceum, 237.
-
-    Gynophore, 367.
-
-    Gynostemium, 329.
-
-    Gysophila, 368.
-
-
-    Habenaria, 332.
-
-    Hablitzia, 370.
-
-    Habrothamnus, 522.
-
-    Hacquetia, 493.
-
-    Hæmanthus, 317, 318.
-
-    Hæmatoxylon, 467, 468.
-
-    Hæmodoraceæ, 320.
-
-    Hæmodorum, 320.
-
-    Hagenia, 460.
-
-    Hair-grass, 294.
-
-    Hakea, 450.
-
-    Halesia, 511.
-
-    Halianthus, 366.
-
-    Halidrys, 73, 75.
-
-    Halimeda, 62, 63.
-
-    Halimus, 371.
-
-    Halophila, 283.
-
-    Haloragidaceæ, 482, 485, 486.
-
-    Haloragis, 486.
-
-    Halymenia, 84.
-
-    Hamamelidaceæ, 455.
-
-    Hamamelis, 455.
-
-    Hamelia, 550.
-
-    Hankornia, 544.
-
-    Hapalosiphon, 26.
-
-    Haplomitrium, 192.
-
-    Haplospora, 72.
-
-    Haptera, 4, 10.
-
-    Hard-fern, 214.
-
-    Hare’s-ear, 494.
-
-    Hart’s-tongue, 214.
-
-    “Harzsticken,” 169.
-
-    Haschisch, 358.
-
-    Hassalia, 26.
-
-    Haustoria, 86.
-
-    Hawkbit, 571.
-
-    Hawksbeard, 571.
-
-    Hawthorn, 465.
-
-    Hay-bacillus, 37, 38, 39.
-
-    Hazel, 526.
-
-    Hazel-nut, 343.
-
-    Heal-all, 539.
-
-    Heath, 507.
-
-    Hebenstretia, 541.
-
-    Hechtia, 319.
-
-    Hedera, 491.
-
-    Hedge-mustard, 402.
-
-    Hedge-parsley, 497.
-
-    Hedwigia, 197.
-
-    Hedycarya, 389.
-
-    Hedychium, 326.
-
-    Hedyosmum, 363.
-
-    Hedysareæ, 472.
-
-    Hedysarum, 472, 473.
-
-    Helenium, 572.
-
-    Heleocharis, 285.
-
-    Heliantheæ, 572, 573.
-
-    Helianthemum, 412.
-
-    Helianthus, 569, 572, 574.
-
-    Helichrysum, 573.
-
-    Heliconia, 325.
-
-    Heliconiæ, 325.
-
-    Helicophyllum, 303.
-
-    Helicteres, 422.
-
-    Heliophilinæ, 404.
-
-    Heliotropieæ, 533.
-
-    Heliotropium, 533, 535.
-
-    Hellebore, 382.
-
-    Helleboreæ, 381.
-
-    Helleborus, 379, 380, 382.
-
-    Helminthocladiaceæ, 83.
-
-    Helobieæ, 277, 278.
-
-    Helosciadium, 494.
-
-    Helosis, 504.
-
-    Helotiaceæ, 135.
-
-    Helotium, 135.
-
-    Helvella, 136.
-
-    Helvellaceæ, 136.
-
-    Helvellales, 95, 116, 136.
-
-    Helwingia, 491.
-
-    Hemerocallideæ, 312.
-
-    Hemerocallis, 312, 313, 314.
-
-    Hemiasci, 95, 108.
-
-    Hemibasidii, 95, 108, 109.
-
-    Hemichlamydeous, 257.
-
-    Hemileia, 155.
-
-    Hemlock, 494, 498.
-
-    Hemp, 356, 529.
-
-    Hemp-agrimony, 571.
-
-    Hemp-nettle, 538.
-
-    Henbane, 521.
-
-    Henriquezia, 549.
-
-    Hepaticæ, 2, 188.
-
-    Hepialus, 128.
-
-    Heracleum, 492, 496.
-
-    Herb-Paris, 314.
-
-    Heritiera, 422.
-
-    Hermannia, 422.
-
-    Hermaphrodite, 236.
-
-    Herminium, 332.
-
-    Hermodactylus, 321.
-
-    Hernandia, 392.
-
-    Herniaria, 365, 367.
-
-    Herpestis, 525.
-
-    Herposteiron, 54.
-
-    Herpotrichia, 129.
-
-    Hesperideæ, 404.
-
-    Hesperidinæ, 404.
-
-    Hesperis, 400, 402.
-
-    Heteranthera, 316.
-
-    Heterobasidion, 145, 165.
-
-    Heterocysteæ, 24.
-
-    Heterocysts, 22.
-
-    Heterœcious, 148.
-
-    Heteromerous, 138.
-
-    Heteropteris, 442.
-
-    Heterosphæria, 116, 133.
-
-    Heterosphæriaceæ, 133.
-
-    Heterosporous Vascular Cryptogams, 200.
-
-    Heterotoma, 563.
-
-    Heuchera, 452.
-
-    Hibiscus, 427, 430.
-
-    Hickory, 350.
-
-    Hieracium, 571.
-
-    Hierochloa, 295, 296.
-
-    Higher Fungi, 95, 114.
-
-    Hilum, 243.
-
-    Himanthalia, 75.
-
-    Himantidium, 20.
-
-    Hip, 459, 460.
-
-    Hippocrateaceæ, 444.
-
-    Hippocrepis, 472.
-
-    Hippomane, 434.
-
-    Hippophaë, 450.
-
-    Hippuris, 486.
-
-    “Hochblatt,” 235.
-
-    Hog’s-fennel, 496.
-
-    Holbœllia, 390.
-
-    Holcus, 294, 296.
-
-    Holly, 444.
-
-    Hollyhock, 151, 430.
-
-    Holochlamydeous, 256.
-
-    Holosteum, 366.
-
-    Homalia, 197.
-
-    Homalothecium, 197.
-
-    Homocysteæ, 24.
-
-    Homoiomerous, 138.
-
-    Honckenya, 366.
-
-    Honesty, 400.
-
-    Honey-dew, 126.
-
-    Honey-leaves, 379.
-
-    Honeysuckle, 553, 554.
-
-    Hookeriaceæ, 197.
-
-    Hop, 124, 356, 357.
-
-    Hopea, 415.
-
-    Hordeæ, 295.
-
-    Hordeum, 291, 296.
-
-    Horehound, 538.
-
-    Hormidium, 54.
-
-    Hormogonia, 10, 24.
-
-    Hornbeam, 157, 343, 344.
-
-    Horned Pond-weed, 279.
-
-    Horn-nut, 485.
-
-    Horn-poppy, 395.
-
-    Horn-wort, 388.
-
-    Horse-bean, 470, 473.
-
-    Horse-chestnut, 440.
-
-    Horse-radish, 400, 405.
-
-    Horsetails, 2, 204, 221.
-
-    Hosta, 312.
-
-    Hoteia, 452.
-
-    Hottonia, 512.
-
-    Hound’s-tongue, 533.
-
-    House-leek, 452.
-
-    Houttuynia, 359, 362.
-
-    Hoya, 546.
-
-    Humiriaceæ, 421.
-
-    Humulus, 121, 357, 358.
-
-    Hura, 432.
-
-    Hyacintheæ, 312.
-
-    Hyacinthus, 312, 313, 314.
-
-    Hyalotheca, 42, 44.
-
-    Hydnaceæ, 162.
-
-    Hydnophytum, 550, 553.
-
-    Hydnora, 504.
-
-    Hydnum, 162.
-
-    Hydra, 9.
-
-    Hydrangea, 455.
-
-    Hydrangeaceæ, 455.
-
-    Hydrastin, 385.
-
-    Hydrastis, 381.
-
-    Hydrilla, 283.
-
-    Hydrocharis, 282.
-
-    Hydrocharitaceæ, 278, 282.
-
-    Hydrocleis, 281.
-
-    Hydrocotyle, 491, 493.
-
-    Hydrocotyleæ, 493.
-
-    Hydrodictyaceæ, 47, 51.
-
-    Hydrodictyon, 9, 52.
-
-    Hydrolea, 515.
-
-    Hydrophyllaceæ, 515.
-
-    Hydropterideæ, 205, 215, 239.
-
-    Hydruraceæ, 16.
-
-    Hydrurus, 16.
-
-    Hygrophorei, 172.
-
-    Hygrophorus, 172.
-
-    Hylocomium, 197.
-
-    Hymenæa, 468.
-
-    Hymenium, 88.
-
-    Hymenogaster, 174, 175, 176.
-
-    Hymenogastraceæ, 176.
-
-    Hymenolichenes, 176.
-
-    Hymenomycetes, 96, 145, 159.
-
-    Hymenophore, 159.
-
-    Hymenophyllaceæ, 206, 210, 215.
-
-    Hymenophyllum, 215.
-
-    Hyoscyamine, 522.
-
-    Hyoscyamus, 518, 519, 520, 521, 522, 523.
-
-    Hypecoum, 395, 396.
-
-    Hypericaceæ, 413.
-
-    Hypericum, 413, 414.
-
-    Hypha, 85.
-
-    Hyphæ-like threads, 9.
-
-    Hyphæne, 298, 301.
-
-    Hypholoma, 171.
-
-    Hypnaceæ, 197.
-
-    Hypnum, 47, 196, 197.
-
-    Hypobasal, 186.
-
-    Hypochæris, 571.
-
-    Hypochnus, 161.
-
-    Hypocreaceæ, 125.
-
-    Hypocreales, 125.
-
-    Hypoderma, 132.
-
-    Hypodermaceæ, 132.
-
-    Hypomyces, 125.
-
-    Hyporhodius, 171.
-
-    Hypothecium, 132.
-
-    Hypoxideæ, 317.
-
-    Hypoxis, 318.
-
-    Hypoxylon, 131.
-
-    Hypsophyllary leaves, 235.
-
-    Hyssop, 540, 541.
-
-    Hyssopus, 540, 541.
-
-    Hysteriaceæ, 132.
-
-    Hysteriales, 95, 116, 132.
-
-    Hysterium, 132.
-
-    Hysterophyta, 498.
-
-
-    Iberis, 398, 400, 401.
-
-    Icacinaceæ, 439.
-
-    Iceland-lichen, 142.
-
-    Iceland-moss, 143.
-
-    Ice-plant, 375.
-
-    Icica, 438.
-
-    Ignatius-beans, 546.
-
-    Ilex, 444.
-
-    Illecebrum, 367.
-
-    Illicieæ, 389.
-
-    Illicium, 389.
-
-    Impatiens, 421.
-
-    Imperatoria, 496, 498.
-
-    Incense, 438.
-
-    Indian-corn, 293.
-
-    Indian-cress, 420.
-
-    Indigo, 470, 473.
-
-    Indigofera, 470, 473.
-
-    Indusium, 210.
-
-    Inflorescence of Palm, 299.
-
-    Infusoria, 9.
-
-    Inga, 473, 475.
-
-    Integuments, 242.
-
-    Inula, 569, 573, 574.
-
-    Inulin, 574.
-
-    Involucre, 189.
-
-    Involution-forms, 36.
-
-    Ionidium, 410.
-
-    Ipecacuanha, 553.
-
-    Ipomæa, 515, 517.
-
-    Iridaceæ, 277, 310, 320.
-
-    Iris, 276, 291, 320, 321.
-
-    Irish-moss, 84.
-
-    Iron-bacteria, 33.
-
-    Iron-wood, 339, 511.
-
-    Irpex, 163.
-
-    Isactis, 25.
-
-    Isaria, 127, 128.
-
-    Isatis, 403, 404.
-
-    Isnardia, 485.
-
-    Isoëtaceæ, 230.
-
-    Isoëtes, 200, 202, 204, 228, 230, 245.
-
-    Isogamous fertilisation, 11.
-
-    Isolepis, 287.
-
-    Isonandra, 511.
-
-    Isopyrum, 382.
-
-    Isosporous Vascular Cryptogams, 200.
-
-    Isothecium, 197.
-
-    Isotoma, 563.
-
-    Ivy, 491.
-
-    Ixia, 321.
-
-    Ixora, 550.
-
-
-    Jacaranda, 529.
-
-    Jack, 356.
-
-    Jacquinia, 513.
-
-    Jalap, 517.
-
-    Jambosa, 488.
-
-    Japanese wax, 439.
-
-    Jasione, 541, 561, 562.
-
-    Jasminaceæ, 541, 542, 547.
-
-    Jasmine, 547.
-
-    Jasminum, 547.
-
-    Jateorhiza, 390.
-
-    Jatropha, 431.
-
-    Jequirty, 470.
-
-    Jerusalem-Artichoke, 572, 574.
-
-    Jonquil, 318.
-
-    Judas’-ear, 156.
-
-    Judas-tree, 468.
-
-    Juglandaceæ, 337, 349.
-
-    Juglandifloræ, 349.
-
-    Juglans, 349, 350.
-
-    Juncaceæ, 277, 283, 284, 291.
-
-    Juncaginaceæ, 278.
-
-    Juncus, 283, 284.
-
-    Jungermannia, 191, 192.
-
-    Jungermannieæ, 191.
-
-    Juniper, 259, 268, 269.
-
-    Juniperus, 151, 152, 241, 268, 269.
-
-    Jurinea, 570.
-
-    Jussiæa, 485.
-
-    Justicia, 530.
-
-    Jute, 425.
-
-
-    Kalanchoë, 451.
-
-    Kale, 403, 405.
-
-    Kalmia, 509.
-
-    Kæmpferia, 325, 326.
-
-    Kamala, 434.
-
-    Kaulfussia, 212.
-
-    Kefir-grains, 36.
-
-    Kelp, 76.
-
-    Kerria, 457, 460.
-
-    Kidney-bean, 471, 473.
-
-    Kielmeyera, 415.
-
-    “King Charles and the Oak,” 207.
-
-    Kingia, 312.
-
-    Kino, 473.
-
-    Kitaibelia, 429.
-
-    Knap-weed, 570.
-
-    Knapwell, 367.
-
-    Knautia, 560.
-
-    Knot-grass, 359.
-
-    Knowltonia, 379.
-
-    Kobresia, 287.
-
-    Kochia, 371.
-
-    Koeleria, 294.
-
-    Koelreuteria, 441.
-
-    Koenigia, 361.
-
-    Kohlrabi, 405.
-
-    Krameria, 468.
-
-    Kramerieæ, 468.
-
-    Koso-tree, 460.
-
-
-    Labellum, 277, 323, 325.
-
-    Labiatæ, 515, 532, 535, 536.
-
-    Labiate-flowered, 567, 570.
-
-    Laburnum, 472, 473.
-
-    Labyrinth Fungus, 166.
-
-    Lace-tree, 449.
-
-    Lacmus, 142.
-
-    Lactarius, 171.
-
-    Lactoridaceæ, 362.
-
-    Lactoris, 362.
-
-    Lactuca, 571, 574.
-
-    Ladanum, 412.
-
-    Ladenbergia, 550, 553.
-
-    Ladies-mantle, 460.
-
-    Lady-fern, 213.
-
-    Lady’s-finger, 471.
-
-    Lælia, 332.
-
-    Lagenandra, 306.
-
-    Lagenaria, 479, 481.
-
-    Lagenedium, 104.
-
-    Lagerstrœmia, 483.
-
-    Lagetta, 449.
-
-    Lagœcia, 494.
-
-    Laguncularia, 487.
-
-    Lagurus, 296.
-
-    Lamellæ, 166.
-
-    Laminaria, 71.
-
-    Laminariaceæ, 71.
-
-    Lamium, 536, 538, 540, 541.
-
-    Lamprothamnus, 67.
-
-    Landolphia, 544.
-
-    Langsdorffia, 504.
-
-    Lantana, 535.
-
-    Lappa, 570, 574.
-
-    Lapsana, 570.
-
-    Larch, 266, 267.
-
-    Larch-canker, 135.
-
-    Larch-fungus, 164.
-
-    Lardizabalaceæ, 390.
-
-    Larix, 266.
-
-    Larkspur, 383.
-
-    Larrea, 438.
-
-    Laserpitium, 497.
-
-    Lasiandra, 484.
-
-    Latania, 301.
-
-    Lathræa, 525, 526, 528.
-
-    Lathyrus, 470, 473.
-
-    Lattice-rust, 147.
-
-    Laudatea, 176.
-
-    Lauraceæ, 238, 391, 449.
-
-    Laurus, 161, 391, 392, 393.
-
-    Lavandula, 536, 540, 541.
-
-    Lavatera, 428, 430.
-
-    Lavender, 540.
-      Oil of, 541.
-
-    Lawsonia, 483.
-
-    Leafy-mosses, 183.
-
-    Leathesia, 71.
-
-    Leaven, 179.
-
-    Lecanora, 140, 142.
-
-    Lechenaultia, 564.
-
-    Lecidea, 142.
-
-    Lecythideæ, 489.
-
-    Lecythis, 489.
-
-    Ledum, 153, 509.
-
-    Leea, 445.
-
-    Leek, 312.
-
-    Leersia, 291, 293.
-
-    Leguminosæ, 466.
-
-    Legume, 466.
-
-    Lejolisia, 81.
-
-    Lemanea, 80, 82.
-
-    Lemaneaceæ, 82.
-
-    Lemna, 25, 47, 307.
-
-    Lemnaceæ, 307.
-
-    Lemon, 438.
-
-    Lentil, 470, 473.
-
-    Lentinus, 171.
-
-    Leontice, 390.
-
-    Leontodon, 568, 571.
-
-    Leontopodium, 593.
-
-    Leonurus, 538.
-
-    Lepidiinæ, 404.
-
-    Lepidium, 400, 401.
-
-    Lepidocaryinæ, 301.
-
-    Lepidodendraceæ, 233.
-
-    Lepidozia, 192.
-
-    Lepiota, 171.
-
-    Leptobryum, 197.
-
-    Leptogium, 140, 142.
-
-    Leptomitus, 108.
-
-    Leptopleura, 387.
-
-    Leptopuccinia, 151.
-
-    Leptosiphon, 515.
-
-    Leptospermeæ, 489.
-
-    Leptospermum, 489.
-
-    Leptosporangiatæ, 202, 210, 212, 239.
-
-    Leptothrix, 26, 33, 35, 38.
-
-    Leptotrichum, 196.
-
-    Lepturus, 295.
-
-    Lescuræa, 197.
-
-    Leskea, 197.
-
-    Leskeaceæ, 197.
-
-    Lessonia, 72.
-
-    Lettuce, 571, 574.
-
-    Leucobryaceæ, 196.
-
-    Leucobryum, 192, 196.
-
-    Leucodon, 197.
-
-    Leucojum, 317, 318.
-
-    Leuconostoc, 28, 29, 35.
-
-    Levisticum, 496, 498.
-
-    Liagora, 83.
-
-    Libanotis, 495.
-
-    Libocedrus, 269.
-
-    Lichen, 4, 8.
-
-    Lichen-forming Ascomycetes, 116, 136.
-      Basidiomycetes, 176.
-
-    Lichenin, 142.
-
-    Lichina, 142.
-
-    Licmophoreæ, 21.
-
-    Lignum Vitæ, 438.
-
-    Ligularia, 572.
-
-    Ligulate-flowered, 567.
-
-    Ligule, 283.
-
-    Ligulifloræ, 570.
-
-    Ligustrum, 547.
-
-    Lilac, 547.
-
-    Lilæa, 279.
-
-    Liliaceæ, 274, 309, 311.
-
-    Lilies, 311, 314.
-
-    Liliifloræ, 278, 309.
-
-    Lilium, 245, 312, 313, 314.
-
-    Lily of the Valley, 314.
-
-    Lime, 165.
-
-    Limnanthaceæ, 421.
-
-    Limnanthemum, 543.
-
-    Limnanthes, 421.
-
-    Limnocharis, 281.
-
-    Limodorum, 331.
-
-    Limonia, 437.
-
-    Limosella, 525.
-
-    Linaceæ, 417.
-
-    Linaria, 523, 525, 527.
-
-    Lindera, 393.
-
-    Ling, 507.
-
-    Linnæa, 555.
-
-    Linnæeæ, 555.
-
-    Linociera, 547.
-
-    Linseed, 418.
-
-    Linum, 417, 418.
-
-    Liparis, 332.
-
-    Lippia, 535.
-
-    Liquidambar, 455.
-
-    Liquorice, 470, 473.
-
-    Liriodendron, 388.
-
-    Listera, 331.
-
-    Litchi, 441.
-
-    Lithoderma, 71.
-
-    Lithodermataceæ, 71.
-
-    Lithophyllum, 84.
-
-    Lithospermum, 533.
-
-    Lithothamnion, 80, 84.
-
-    Littorella, 530, 531.
-
-    Liverworts, 2, 181, 188.
-
-    Livistona, 298, 299, 300, 302.
-
-    Lloydia, 312.
-
-    Loasaceæ, 476.
-
-    Lobelia, 562, 563.
-
-    Lobeliaceæ, 335, 562.
-
-    Lobeline, 563.
-
-    Lochnera, 544.
-
-    Locusts, 468.
-
-    Lodicules, 288, 291.
-
-    Lodoicea, 301.
-
-    Loganiaceæ, 542, 546, 549.
-
-    Logwood, 468.
-
-    Loiseleuria, 509.
-
-    Lolium, 295, 296.
-
-    Lomandra, 312.
-
-    Lomaria, 214.
-
-    Lomentaceæ, 403.
-
-    Lomentaria, 83.
-
-    Lonicera, 553, 554, 556.
-
-    Lonicereæ, 549, 553.
-
-    Long-pepper, 363.
-
-    Loose-strife, 482.
-
-    Lopezia, 484, 485.
-
-    Lophiostomaceæ, 130.
-
-    Lophocolea, 192.
-
-    Lophodermium, 132.
-
-    Lophospermum, 525.
-
-    Loquat, 465.
-
-    Loranthaceæ, 501.
-
-    Loranthoideæ, 501.
-
-    Loranthus, 504.
-
-    Loteæ, 471.
-
-    Lotus, 471.
-
-    Louse-wort, 526.
-
-    Love-in-the-mist, 382.
-
-    Lucerne, 473, 529.
-
-    Lucuma, 511.
-
-    Luehea, 424, 425.
-
-    Luffa, 481.
-
-    Lunaria, 400, 401.
-
-    Lung-Lichen, 143.
-
-    Lung-wort, 533.
-
-    Lunularia, 191.
-
-    Lupin, 472.
-
-    Lupinus, 472.
-
-    Luzula, 283, 284.
-
-    Lychnis, 365, 367.
-
-    Lychnothamnus, 67.
-
-    Lycium, 521.
-
-    Lycogala, 6, 8.
-
-    Lycoperdaceæ, 174.
-
-    Lycoperdon, 174.
-
-    Lycopersicum, 521, 522.
-
-    Lycopodiaceæ, 202, 226.
-
-    Lycopodieæ, 205, 226.
-
-    Lycopodinæ, 2, 205, 226, 228, 234, 235, 236, 240.
-
-    Lycopodium, 200, 226, 227, 228, 233.
-
-    Lycopsis, 534.
-
-    Lycopus, 536, 539.
-
-    Lygeum, 293.
-
-    Lygodium, 215.
-
-    Lyme-grass, 296.
-
-    Lyngbya, 24.
-
-    Lyngbyaceæ, 22, 24.
-
-    Lyonia, 508.
-
-    Lysimachia, 47, 151, 513.
-
-    Lysipoma, 563.
-
-    Lythraceæ, 482.
-
-    Lythrum, 482, 483.
-
-
-    Maba, 511.
-
-    Machærium, 472.
-
-    “Mace,” 393.
-
-    Macleya, 395.
-
-    Maclura, 354, 356.
-
-    Macrosporangium, 241, 243.
-
-    Macrospore, 200, 242, 243, 245, 246.
-
-    Macrocystis, 72.
-
-    Macrozamia, 254.
-
-    Madder, 552, 553.
-
-    Madia, 574.
-
-    Madotheca, 192.
-
-    Mad-wort, 534.
-
-    Maesa, 513.
-
-    Magnolia, 389.
-
-    Magnoliaceæ, 388.
-
-    Magnolieæ, 388.
-
-    Mahernia, 422.
-
-    Mahogany, 436.
-
-    Mahonia, 149, 390.
-
-    Maiden-hair, 206, 213.
-
-    Maize, 289, 293, 296.
-
-    Maize-blight, 113.
-
-    Majanthemum, 309, 314.
-
-    Malachium, 366.
-
-    Malachra, 428.
-
-    Malaxis, 332.
-
-    Malcolmiinæ, 404.
-
-    Male-Fern, 214.
-
-    Mallow, 425.
-
-    Malope, 429, 430.
-
-    Malopeæ, 428.
-
-    Malpighiaceæ, 442.
-
-    Malpighia, 422.
-
-    Malt, 296.
-
-    Malus, 152, 463, 464, 465.
-
-    Malva, 426, 428, 429, 430.
-
-    Malvaceæ, 425.
-
-    Malveæ, 428.
-
-    Malvaviscus, 428.
-
-    Mamme, 355.
-
-    Mammea, 414.
-
-    Mammillæ, 377.
-
-    Mammillaria, 375, 377.
-
-    Mammoni, 355.
-
-    Mancinil-tree, 432.
-
-    Mandragora, 522.
-
-    Mandrake, 522.
-
-    Manettia, 550.
-
-    Mangifera, 439.
-
-    Manglesia, 450.
-
-    Mango, 439.
-
-    Mangold, 369, 372.
-
-    Mangosteen, 414.
-
-    Mangrove, 486.
-
-    Manihot, 431, 434.
-
-    Manilla Hemp, 325.
-
-    Maniok, 434.
-
-    “Manna,” 547.
-
-    Manna Ash, 546, 547.
-
-    Manna-grass, 296.
-
-    Manna-lichen, 142.
-
-    Mannit, 72.
-
-    Maple, 442.
-
-    Maranta, 327.
-
-    Marantaceæ, 277, 327.
-
-    Marasmiei, 171.
-
-    Marasmius, 168, 171.
-
-    Marattia, 212.
-
-    Marattiaceæ, 209, 210, 212, 236.
-
-    Marcgraviaceæ, 415.
-
-    Marchantia, 181, 183, 184, 190.
-
-    Marchantiaceæ, 190.
-
-    Marchantieæ, 190.
-
-    Mare’s-tail, 486.
-
-    Marigold, 572.
-
-    Marjoram, 539, 541.
-
-    Marrow, 480.
-
-    Marrubium, 538.
-
-    Marsilia, 216, 217, 219, 220, 245.
-
-    Marsiliaceæ, 210, 218, 239.
-
-    Marsh Cinquefoil, 458.
-
-    Marsh-marigold, 382.
-
-    Martynia, 529.
-
-    Masdevallia, 332.
-
-    Massariaceæ, 130.
-
-    Massulæ, 331.
-
-    “Mast,” 347.
-
-    Mastic, 439.
-
-    Mastigobryum, 192.
-
-    Mastigocoleus, 24.
-
-    Maté, 445.
-
-    Matico, 363.
-
-    Matricaria, 572, 574.
-
-    Matthiola, 400, 402.
-
-    Maurandia, 525.
-
-    Mauritia, 301.
-
-    Maxillaria, 332.
-
-    May, 465.
-
-    Mayacaceæ, 308.
-
-    Maydeæ, 293.
-
-    Meadow-grass, 151, 294, 296.
-
-    Meadow Rue, 385.
-
-    Meadow-sweet, 457.
-
-    Mecca-balsam, 438.
-
-    Meconopsis, 395.
-
-    Medicago, 471, 473.
-
-    Medick, 471, 473.
-
-    Medinilla, 484.
-
-    Medlar, 465.
-
-    Meesea, 197.
-
-    Megacarpæa, 400, 401.
-
-    Melaleuca, 489.
-
-    Melampodium, 572.
-
-    Melampsora, 147, 152, 153.
-
-    Melampsorella, 147.
-
-    Melampyrum, 526.
-
-    Melanconidaceæ, 130.
-
-    Melandrium, 367.
-
-    Melanogaster, 176.
-
-    Melanommaceæ, 30.
-
-    Melanoselinum, 497.
-
-    Melanosinapis, 402.
-
-    Melanospora, 125.
-
-    Melanoxylon, 468.
-
-    Melanthium, 310.
-
-    Melastomaceæ, 483.
-
-    Meliaceæ, 435.
-
-    Melianthaceæ, 440.
-
-    Melianthus, 440.
-
-    Melica, 287, 290, 294.
-
-    Melilotus, 466, 470, 471.
-
-    Melinophyl, 18.
-
-    Melissa, 540, 541.
-
-    Melobesia, 80, 84.
-
-    Melocactus, 375, 377.
-
-    Melochia, 422.
-
-    Melogrammataceæ, 130.
-
-    Melon, 481.
-
-    Melosira, 19.
-
-    Melosireæ, 21.
-
-    Menispermaceæ, 390.
-
-    Menispermum, 390.
-
-    Mentha, 47, 536, 539, 541.
-
-    Menthol, 541.
-
-    Mentzelia, 476.
-
-    Menyantheæ, 542, 543.
-
-    Menyanthes, 240, 543, 550.
-
-    Menziesia, 509.
-
-    Mercurialis, 431, 434.
-
-    Mercury, 431.
-
-    Merendera, 310.
-
-    Mericarp, 492.
-
-    Meridieæ, 21.
-
-    Merismopedium, 10, 24.
-
-    Merismopedium form, 27.
-
-    Mertensia, 533.
-
-    Merulius, 166.
-
-    Mesembrianthemeæ, 375.
-
-    Mesembrianthemum, 375.
-
-    Mesocarpaceæ, 46.
-
-    Mesomycetes, 1, 95, 108.
-
-    Mesotænium, 43, 44.
-
-    Mespilus, 463, 465.
-
-    Metaxenous, 148.
-
-    Metrosideros, 489.
-
-    Metroxylon, 298, 301.
-
-    Metzgeria, 191, 192.
-
-    Metzleria, 563.
-
-    Meum, 495.
-
-    Michauxia, 562.
-
-    Miconia, 484.
-
-    Micrasterias, 44.
-
-    Microcachrys, 255, 260, 261.
-
-    Microchæte, 26.
-
-    Microchloa, 295.
-
-    Micrococcus, 26, 35, 38.
-
-    Microcoleus, 22, 24.
-
-    Microconidia, 89.
-
-    Microcycas, 254.
-
-    Microdictyon, 62.
-
-    Microglena, 15.
-
-    Micropyle, 242.
-
-    Microsphæra, 121.
-
-    Microspira-comma, 40.
-
-    Microspora, 54.
-
-    Microsporangia, 237, 240.
-
-    Microspore, 200, 214.
-
-    Microtea, 372.
-
-    Mignonette, 406.
-
-    Mikania, 571.
-
-    Mildews, 119, 122.
-
-    Milfoil, 572.
-
-    Milium, 294.
-
-    Milk-thistle, 570.
-
-    Milk-vetch, 470.
-
-    Milk-wort, 443.
-
-    Millet, 296.
-
-    Mimosa, 473.
-
-    Mimosaceæ, 466, 473.
-
-    Mimulus, 525, 526, 527.
-
-    Mimusops, 511.
-
-    Mint, 539.
-
-    Mirabilis, 374.
-
-    Mistletoe, 501.
-
-    Mitella, 452.
-
-    Mitromyces, 173.
-
-    Mitrula, 136, 159.
-
-    Mnium, 197.
-
-    Mock Orange-blossom, 455.
-
-    Modiola, 427.
-
-    Moehringia, 366.
-
-    Mohria, 215.
-
-    Molinia, 151, 294.
-
-    Mollinedia, 389.
-
-    Mollisia, 135.
-
-    Mollisiaceæ, 135.
-
-    Mollugo, 375.
-
-    Momordica, 481.
-
-    Monacanthus, 333.
-
-    Monangic, 243.
-
-    Monarda, 540, 541.
-
-    Monardeæ, 540.
-
-    Money-wort, 513.
-
-    Monimia, 389.
-
-    Monimiaceæ, 389.
-
-    Monkshood, 383.
-
-    Monoblepharis, 102, 108.
-
-    Monocotyledones, 3, 273, 274, 276.
-
-    Monocotyledonous flower, 276.
-
-    Monœcious, 236.
-
-    Monostroma, 53.
-
-    Monotropa, 334, 506, 507.
-
-    Monstera, 303, 305, 307.
-
-    Montia, 373.
-
-    Moonwort, 211.
-
-    Moraceæ, 351, 353.
-
-    Moræa, 321.
-
-    Morchella, 136.
-
-    Moreæ, 354.
-
-    Morell, 136.
-
-    Moricandiinæ, 404.
-
-    Morina, 560.
-
-    Morinda, 549.
-
-    Mortierellaceæ, 100.
-
-    Mortierella, 100.
-
-    Morus, 351, 354.
-
-    Moschatel, 453.
-
-    Moss, 182.
-
-    “Moss-flower,” 183.
-
-    Moss-fruit, 186.
-
-    Moss-rose, 460.
-
-    Mosses, 1, 2, 181, 188, 192, 234.
-
-    Mougeotia, 46.
-
-    Moulds, 31, 94, 122.
-
-    Mountain-ash, 465.
-
-    Mountain-meal, 20.
-
-    Mountain-pine, 266.
-
-    Mouse-tail, 383.
-
-    Mucor, 97, 98, 99.
-
-    Mucoraceæ, 96.
-
-    “Mucor-yeast,” 97.
-
-    Mucro, 257.
-
-    Mucuna, 471.
-
-    Mud-wort, 525.
-
-    Muehlenbeckia, 360.
-
-    Mulberry, 353, 356.
-
-    Mullein, 523.
-
-    Murracytaceæ, 15.
-
-    Musa, 324, 325.
-
-    Musaceæ, 277, 323.
-
-    “Muscardine,” 128.
-
-    Muscari, 312, 314.
-
-    Musci, 2.
-      frondosi, 188, 192.
-
-    Muscineæ, 1, 181.
-
-    Museæ, 325.
-
-    Mushroom, 159, 166, 168.
-
-    Musk-rose, 460.
-
-    Mutisieæ, 570.
-
-    Myanthus, 333.
-
-    Mycelium, 85.
-
-    Mycena, 171.
-
-    Mycoidea, 8, 54.
-
-    Mycoideaceæ, 47, 54.
-
-    Mycomycetes, 1, 95, 114.
-
-    Mycorhiza, 124, 175, 180, 506.
-
-    Mycosiphonales, 95, 104.
-
-    Myosotis, 533, 534, 535.
-
-    Myosurus, 379, 380, 383, 384.
-
-    Myrcia, 488.
-
-    Myrica, 350.
-
-    Myricaceæ, 337, 350.
-
-    Myricaria, 411, 412.
-
-    Myriophyllum, 486.
-
-    Myriotrichia, 71.
-
-    Myriotrichiaceæ, 71.
-
-    Myristica, 392, 393.
-
-    Myristicaceæ, 393.
-
-    Myrmecodia, 550, 553.
-
-    Myroxylon, 473.
-
-    Myrrh, 438.
-
-    Myrrha, 438.
-
-    Myrrhis, 495, 498.
-
-    Myrsinaceæ, 513.
-
-    Myrsine, 513.
-
-    Myrtaceæ, 487.
-
-    Myrteæ, 488.
-
-    Myrtifloræ, 451, 482.
-
-    Myrtle, 487, 488.
-
-    Myrtus, 488, 489.
-
-    Myxamœba, 6.
-
-    Myxogasteres, 5.
-
-    Myxomycetes, 1, 4, 5.
-
-    Myxophyceæ, 22.
-
-    Myzodendron, 500, 501.
-
-
-    Naccaria, 83.
-
-    Nægelia, 528.
-
-    Najadaceæ, 278, 281.
-
-    Najas, 281.
-
-    Nandina, 390.
-
-    Narcissus, 316, 317, 318.
-
-    Nardostachys, 557, 558.
-
-    Nardus, 291, 295, 558.
-
-    Narthecium, 310.
-
-    Narthex, 496.
-
-    Nasturtium, 400, 402, 420.
-
-    Navicula, 19.
-
-    Naviculeæ, 20, 21.
-
-    Neck-canal-cells, 184.
-
-    Neckera, 197.
-
-    Neckeraceæ, 197.
-
-    Nectandra, 392, 393.
-
-    Nectria, 116, 125, 127.
-
-    Neea, 374.
-
-    Negundo, 441, 442.
-
-    Nelumbo, 386.
-
-    Nelumboneæ, 386.
-
-    Nemalion, 81.
-
-    Nemalionales, 82.
-
-    Nemastomaceæ, 84.
-
-    Nemesia, 525.
-
-    Nemophila, 515.
-
-    Neomeris, 63.
-
-    Neottia, 5, 331.
-
-    Neottieæ, 331.
-
-    Neovossia, 111.
-
-    Nepenthaceæ, 408, 409.
-
-    Nepenthes, 409.
-
-    Nepeta, 536, 539.
-
-    Nepeteæ, 539.
-
-    Nephelium, 441.
-
-    Nephrolepis, 214.
-
-    Nephroselmis, 15.
-
-    Nerium, 544.
-
-    Nesæa, 483.
-
-    Neslia, 403.
-
-    Nest-fungi, 176.
-
-    Nettle, 351, 352, 353.
-
-    Neuradeæ, 457.
-
-    Neuwiedia, 329.
-
-    Nicandra, 519, 522.
-
-    Nicotiana, 520, 522.
-
-    Nicotine, 522.
-
-    Nidularia, 176.
-
-    Nidulariaceæ, 176.
-
-    Nierembergia, 521.
-
-    Nigella, 379, 380, 382.
-
-    Nightshade, 521.
-
-    Nigritella, 332.
-
-    Nile-lily, 305.
-
-    Nipa, 301.
-
-    Nipplewort, 570.
-
-    Nitella, 65.
-
-    Nitelleæ, 67.
-
-    Nitraria, 438.
-
-    Nitrifying Bacteria, 5.
-
-    Nitzchieæ, 21.
-
-    Noble Pine, 264.
-
-    Noctiluca, 17.
-
-    Nodularia, 25.
-
-    Nolana, 522.
-
-    Nolanaceæ, 518, 522.
-
-    Noli-me-tangere, 421.
-
-    Nonnea, 533.
-
-    Nonsexual reproduction, 10.
-
-    Nostoc, 22, 23, 25, 27, 29, 138, 486.
-
-    Nostocaceæ, 22, 24, 25.
-
-    Nostocopsis, 26.
-
-    Nothofagus, 347, 348, 501.
-
-    Notorhizæ, 400.
-
-    Nucellus, 235, 241, 243, 247.
-
-    Nuculiferæ, 505, 515, 531.
-
-    Nucumentaceæ, 403.
-
-    Nullipora, 84.
-
-    Nuphar, 387.
-
-    Nutmegs, 393.
-
-    Nutritive-tissue, 248.
-
-    Nux vomica, 546.
-
-    Nyctaginiaceæ, 373.
-
-    Nyctalis, 172.
-
-    Nyctanthes, 547.
-
-    Nycterinia, 525, 526.
-
-    Nymphæa, 387, 388.
-
-    Nymphæaceæ, 385.
-
-    Nymphæeæ, 386.
-
-
-    Oak, 117, 130, 134, 135, 161, 164, 166, 346, 347, 348.
-
-    Oat, 113, 151, 292, 294, 296.
-
-    Oat-grain, 290.
-
-    Oat-grass, 296.
-
-    Obdiplostemonous, 336.
-
-    Obelidium, 103.
-
-    Obligate parasites, 85.
-
-    Ochna, 439.
-
-    Ochnaceæ, 439.
-
-    Ochroma, 427.
-
-    Ocimum, 541.
-
-    Ocrea, 359.
-
-    Odonthalia, 83.
-
-    Odontites, 526.
-
-    Œdogoniaceæ, 47, 55.
-
-    Œdogonium, 10, 11, 55, 56.
-
-    Œnanthe, 495, 498.
-
-    Œnothera, 484, 485, 486.
-
-    Œnotheraceæ, 484.
-
-    Oidia, 90.
-
-    Oidium, 121, 179.
-
-    Oidium forms, 179.
-
-    Oil-mould, 99.
-
-    Oil-palm, 301.
-
-    Olea, 547.
-
-    Oleaceæ, 541, 542, 546.
-
-    Oleander, 544.
-
-    Oligorus, 166.
-
-    Olive, 547.
-
-    Olive-brown Seaweeds, 68.
-
-    Olive Oil, 547.
-
-    Olpidiaceæ, 103.
-
-    Olpidieæ, 103.
-
-    Olpidium, 103.
-
-    Olyreæ, 296.
-
-    Omphalodes, 533, 534.
-
-    Onagraceæ, 484.
-
-    Oncidium, 332.
-
-    Oncobyrsa, 24.
-
-    Onion, 312.
-
-    Onobrychis, 472, 473.
-
-    Ononis, 471.
-
-    Onopordon, 570.
-
-    Ooblastema-filaments, 82.
-
-    Oocystis, 51.
-
-    Oogamous fertilisation, 13.
-
-    Oogonium, 13.
-
-    Oomycetes, 95, 96, 100.
-
-    Oophyte, 181.
-
-    Oosphere, 13, 248.
-
-    Oospore, 14.
-
-    Operculum, 193.
-
-    Ophiocytium, 51.
-
-    Ophioglossaceæ, 209, 210.
-
-    Ophioglossum, 210, 211, 238.
-
-    Ophiopogon, 320.
-
-    Ophrydeæ, 331.
-
-    Ophrys, 332, 333.
-
-    Opium-poppy, 395.
-
-    Oplismenus, 295.
-
-    Opuntia, 375, 377.
-
-    Orange, 438.
-
-    Orchid, diagram of flower, 329.
-
-    Orchidaceæ, 5, 238, 328.
-
-    Orchideæ, 277.
-
-    Orchids, 151.
-
-    Orchis, 276, 331, 332, 333.
-
-    Oreobolus, 285.
-
-    Oreodoxa, 301.
-
-    Organs of attachment, 4.
-
-    Origanum, 536, 539, 541.
-
-    Ornithogalum, 312, 314.
-
-    Ornithopus, 466, 472.
-
-    Orobanche, 334, 528, 529.
-
-    Orontieæ, 303.
-
-    Orontium, 304.
-
-    Orris-root, 321.
-
-    Orseille, 142.
-
-    Orthoploceæ, 400.
-
-    Orthospermeæ, 493.
-
-    Orthothecium, 197.
-
-    Orthotrichum, 197.
-
-    Orthotropous, 242, 243.
-
-    Oryza, 293.
-
-    Oryzeæ, 293.
-
-    Oscillaria, 10, 23, 24, 26, 37.
-
-    Oscillariaceæ, 24.
-
-    Osiers, 152.
-
-    Osmunda, 209, 215.
-
-    Osmundaceæ, 202, 210, 215.
-
-    Ostioles, 73.
-
-    Ostropa, 133.
-
-    Ostropaceæ, 133.
-
-    Ostrya, 345.
-
-    Osyris, 500.
-
-    Ouratea, 439.
-
-    Ouvirandra, 281.
-
-    Ovary, 3, 239, 250.
-
-    Ovule, 241, 242, 248.
-
-    Ovuliferous scale, 256, 257.
-
-    Oxalidaceæ, 416.
-
-    Oxalis, 416.
-
-    Ox-eye, 572.
-
-    Oxslip, 513.
-
-    Oxybaphus, 374.
-
-    Oxycoccus, 509, 510.
-
-    Oxyria, 360.
-
-    Oyster Mushroom, 171.
-
-
-    Padina, 76.
-
-    Pæonia, 379, 381.
-
-    Pæonieæ, 381.
-
-    Pæpalanthus, 309.
-
-    Palaquium, 511.
-
-    Palava, 429.
-
-    Paleæ, 209.
-
-    Pales, 288.
-
-    Palisander-wood, 529.
-
-    Paliurus, 448.
-
-    Palm, 275, 276, 297.
-      Branching of, 298.
-      Inflorescence of, 299.
-
-    Palm-oil, 301.
-
-    Palm-wax, 301.
-
-    Palm-wine, 301.
-
-    Palmæ, 297.
-
-    Palmella-stage, 15, 16.
-
-    Palmyra-palm, 301.
-
-    Paludella, 197.
-
-    Pampas-grass, 296.
-
-    Panama hats, 302.
-
-    Panax, 491.
-
-    Pancratium, 317.
-
-    Pandanaceæ, 302.
-
-    Pandanus, 302.
-
-    Pandorina, 45, 48.
-
-    Paniceæ, 295.
-
-    Panicum, 295, 296.
-
-    Pansy, 411.
-
-    Panus, 171.
-
-    Papaveraceæ, 394.
-
-    Papaver, 394, 395.
-
-    Papaw, 476.
-
-    Papayaceæ, 476.
-
-    Paper-mulberry tree, 354, 356.
-
-    Papilionaceæ, 335, 468.
-
-    Pappus, 564, 566.
-
-    Papyrus, 287.
-
-    Paradise apple, 465.
-
-    Paraglobulin, 473.
-
-    Paraphyses, 88.
-
-    Paraguay tea, 445.
-
-    Parasites, 5.
-
-    Parasites, endophytic, 85.
-      endozoic, 85.
-      epiphytic, 85.
-      epizoic, 85.
-      facultative, 84.
-      obligate, 85.
-      pathogenic, 85.
-
-    Parasitic Bacteria, 38.
-
-    Parasol-fungus, 171.
-
-    Pariana, 291.
-
-    Parietaria, 353.
-
-    Paris, 309, 314, 316.
-
-    Paritium, 430.
-
-    Parkia, 475.
-
-    Parmelia, 140, 141, 142, 143.
-
-    Parnassia, 453.
-
-    Paronychia, 365, 367.
-
-    Paronychieæ, 366.
-
-    Parrotia, 455.
-
-    Parsley, 494, 498.
-
-    Parsnip, 492, 496, 498.
-
-    Parthenogenesis, 14.
-
-    Pasanea, 346, 348.
-
-    Paspalum, 295.
-
-    Pasta guaranà, 441.
-
-    Pastinaca, 493, 496.
-
-    Passerina, 449.
-
-    Passiflora, 475, 476.
-
-    Passifloraceæ, 476.
-
-    Passiflorinæ, 475.
-
-    Passion-flower, 476.
-
-    Patellaria, 134.
-
-    Patellariaceæ, 134.
-
-    Patellea, 134.
-
-    Paternoster peas, 470.
-
-    Pathogenic Rod-Bacteria, 39.
-
-    Patrinia, 557.
-
-    Paullinia, 441.
-
-    Paulownia, 527.
-
-    Pavonia, 428.
-
-    Paxillei, 172.
-
-    Payena, 511.
-
-    Paypayroleæ, 411.
-
-    Pea, 470.
-
-    Peach, 117, 121, 461.
-
-    Pear, 130, 464, 465.
-
-    Pedagnuoli, 355.
-
-    Pedaliaceæ, 518, 529.
-
-    Pediastrum, 52.
-
-    Pedicularis, 151, 526.
-
-    Peganum, 438.
-
-    Pelargonium, 418, 419.
-
-    Peliosanthes, 320.
-
-    Pellia, 191, 192.
-
-    Pellitory, 353.
-
-    Peltigera, 143.
-
-    Pelvetia, 73.
-
-    Penicillium, 122, 123.
-
-    Penium, 43, 44.
-
-    Pennisetum, 295.
-
-    Penny-cress, 401.
-
-    Penny-wort, 493.
-
-    Pentacyclicæ, 505, 506.
-
-    Pentadesma, 414.
-
-    Pentapera, 505.
-
-    Pentstemon, 524, 527.
-
-    Peplis, 47, 483.
-
-    Pepper, 361.
-
-    Peppermint, 541.
-
-    Peperomia, 361, 362.
-
-    Pepperwort, 401.
-
-    Pereskia, 375, 376.
-
-    Perianth, 235.
-
-    Perichætium, 192.
-
-    Pericarp, 249.
-
-    Pericallis, 574.
-
-    Peridermium, 147, 148, 153, 154, 155, 156.
-
-    Peridinea, 1, 14, 17.
-
-    Peridinin, 16.
-
-    Peridinium, 17.
-
-    Peridiola, 176.
-
-    Peridium, 88, 89, 147.
-
-    Perigynium, 189.
-
-    Perilla, 541.
-
-    Periphyses, 88.
-
-    Periplasm, 104.
-
-    Periploca, 546.
-
-    Perisperm, 249.
-
-    Perisporiaceæ, 122.
-
-    Perisporiales, 95, 116, 118, 119.
-
-    Peristome, 195.
-
-    Perithecia, 125.
-
-    Periwinkle, 543, 544.
-
-    Perizonium, 20.
-
-    Pernambuco-tree, 468.
-
-    Peronocarpic ascocarps, 125.
-
-    Peronospora, 101, 104, 105, 107.
-
-    Peronosporaceæ, 104.
-
-    Persea, 393.
-
-    Persica, 461.
-
-    Personatæ, 505, 515, 517.
-
-    Pertusaria, 140, 142.
-
-    Petals, 235.
-
-    Petasites, 153, 569, 571.
-
-    Petiveria, 372.
-
-    Petrocelis, 84.
-
-    Petunia, 518, 521.
-
-    Peucedaneæ, 496.
-
-    Peucedanum, 496.
-
-    Peyssonellia, 84.
-
-    Peziza, 115, 135, 159.
-
-    Pezizaceæ, 135.
-
-    Pezizales, 134.
-
-    Phacelia, 515.
-
-    Phacidiales, 133.
-
-    Phacidium, 133.
-
-    Phacotus, 48.
-
-    Phæophyceæ, 1, 14, 68.
-
-    Phæophyl, 68.
-
-    Phæosporeæ, 68.
-
-    Phæothamnion, 54.
-
-    Phagocytes, 41.
-
-    Phajus, 332.
-
-    Phalarideæ, 295.
-
-    Phalaris, 295.
-
-    Phallaceæ, 172.
-
-    Phalloideæ, 96, 145, 172.
-
-    Phallus, 172, 173.
-
-    Phanerogams, 3, 234, 236, 249.
-
-    Pharbitis, 516.
-
-    Pharus, 291, 293.
-
-    Phascum, 195.
-
-    Phaseoleæ, 470.
-
-    Phaseolus, 134, 469, 471, 473.
-
-    Phegopteris, 213, 214.
-
-    Phellodendron, 437.
-
-    Philadephus, 451, 455.
-
-    Phillyrea, 547.
-
-    Philodendron, 303, 305.
-
-    Philonotis, 197.
-
-    Phlebia, 163.
-
-    Phleum, 290, 294, 296.
-
-    Phloëm, 251.
-
-    Phlœospora, 70.
-
-    Phlomis, 538, 541.
-
-    Phlox, 515.
-
-    Phœniceæ, 299.
-
-    Phœnix, 298, 299, 301, 302.
-
-    Pholiota, 171.
-
-    Phormium, 312, 313, 314.
-
-    Phragmidium, 146, 147, 148, 151, 152.
-
-    Phragmites, 113, 131, 291, 294.
-
-    Phragmonema, 22, 25.
-
-    Phrynium, 327.
-
-    Phycocyan, 22, 77.
-
-    Phycoerythrin, 22, 77.
-
-    Phycomyces, 99.
-
-    Phycomycetes, 1, 5, 95, 96.
-
-    Phycophæin, 69.
-
-    Phycopyrrin, 16.
-
-    Phycoxanthin, 69.
-
-    Phylica, 448.
-
-    Phyllachora, 131.
-
-    Phyllactinia, 122.
-
-    Phyllactis, 560.
-
-    Phyllanthus, 431, 432.
-
-    Phyllitis, 70.
-
-    Phyllobium, 47, 51.
-
-    Phyllocactus, 377.
-
-    Phyllocladus, 260.
-
-    Phyllodia, 474.
-
-    Phyllodoce, 509.
-
-    Phylloglossum, 228.
-
-    Phyllophora, 83.
-
-    Phyllosiphon, 8.
-
-    Phyllosiphonaceæ, 47, 61.
-
-    Physalis, 521.
-
-    Physarum, 6, 8.
-
-    Physcia, 139, 143.
-
-    Physcomitrium, 188, 197.
-
-    Physiological varieties, 41.
-
-    Physoderma, 103.
-
-    Physostigma, 471, 473.
-
-    Phytelephantinæ, 301.
-
-    Phytelephas, 299, 301, 302.
-
-    Phyteuma, 562.
-
-    Phytoamœbæ, 10, 61.
-
-    Phytolacca, 372.
-
-    Phytolaccaceæ, 372.
-
-    Phytomyxa, 8.
-
-    Phytophthora, 101, 104, 105, 106.
-
-    Piassava, 297.
-
-    Picea, 124, 129, 132, 155, 165, 265.
-
-    Pichurim, 392.
-
-    Picraena, 438.
-
-    Picris, 571.
-
-    Picrotoxine, 390.
-
-    Pilacraceæ, 157.
-
-    Pilacre, 157.
-
-    Pilea, 353.
-
-    Pilobolus, 99, 100.
-
-    Pilostyles, 504.
-
-    Pilularia, 216, 220.
-
-    Pimelea, 449.
-
-    Pimenta, 489.
-
-    Pimento, 489.
-
-    Pimpernel, 513.
-
-    Pimpinell, 498.
-
-    Pimpinella, 494, 498.
-
-    Pine, 127, 153, 161, 165, 255, 263, 266.
-
-    Pine-apple, 320.
-
-    Pine-shoot Fungus, 152.
-
-    Pinellia, 305.
-
-    Pinguicula, 334, 528.
-
-    Pink, 367.
-
-    Pin-mould, 99.
-
-    Pinnularia, 19.
-
-    Pinus, 129, 132, 153, 155, 165, 264, 265, 266, 267, 272.
-
-    Pinoideæ, 256, 258, 259, 262.
-
-    Pipe-flower, 500.
-
-    Piper, 361, 363.
-
-    Piperaceæ, 361.
-
-    Pipereæ, 361.
-
-    Piptocephalidaceæ, 100.
-
-    Piptocephalis, 100.
-
-    Pircunia, 372.
-
-    Pisonia, 374.
-
-    Pistia, 306.
-
-    Pistacia, 439.
-
-    Pistil, 239.
-
-    Pistillaria, 161.
-
-    Pistillate, 236.
-
-    Pisum, 469, 470, 473.
-
-    Pitcairnia, 320.
-
-    Pitcher-plant, 409.
-
-    Pittosporaceæ, 451, 455.
-
-    Pittosporum, 455.
-
-    Placenta, 237, 241.
-
-    Placochromaticæ, 21.
-
-    Plagiochila, 189, 192.
-
-    Plagiothecium, 197.
-
-    Plagiotropideæ, 21.
-
-    Planera, 351.
-
-    “Plankton,” 15, 17, 20.
-
-    Planogametes, 12.
-
-    Plantago, 335, 530, 531, 536, 559.
-
-    Plantaginaceæ, 518, 530.
-
-    Plantain, 530.
-
-    Plasmodia, 4, 5, 7.
-
-    Plasmodiophora, 8.
-
-    Plasmodiophorales, 6.
-
-    Platanaceæ, 455.
-
-    Platanus, 456.
-
-    Platanthera, 332, 333.
-
-    Plate-cultures, 33.
-
-    Platonia, 414.
-
-    Platycerium, 213.
-
-    Platycodon, 562.
-
-    Platystemon, 395.
-
-    Plectonema, 24.
-
-    Plectranthus, 541.
-
-    Pleospora, 130.
-
-    Pleosporaceæ, 130.
-
-    Pleurandra, 413.
-
-    Pleuridium, 195.
-
-    Pleurocarpi, 197.
-
-    Pleurococcaceæ, 47, 51.
-
-    Pleurococcus, 10, 51, 138.
-
-    Pleurorhizæ. 400.
-
-    Pleurotænium, 44.
-
-    Pleurothallis, 332.
-
-    Pleurotus, 171.
-
-    Plocamium, 83.
-
-    Plum, 117, 164, 461, 462.
-
-    Plumbaginaceæ, 514.
-
-    Plumbago, 514.
-
-    Plumeria, 544.
-
-    Plumule, 247.
-
-    Pneumathodia, 267.
-
-    Poa, 287, 290, 294, 296.
-
-    “Pocket-plum,” 85.
-
-    “Pockets,” 117.
-
-    Pod, 466.
-
-    Pod-pepper, 522.
-
-    Podalyrieæ, 469.
-
-    Podocarpeæ, 260.
-
-    Podocarpus, 251, 255, 261, 272.
-
-    Podophyllum, 390.
-
-    Podosphæra, 120.
-
-    Podospora, 129.
-
-    Podostemaceæ, 451, 456.
-
-    Pogostemon, 541.
-
-    Poinciana, 468.
-
-    Point Caraway, 498.
-
-    Polanisia, 406.
-
-    Polemoniaceæ, 509, 515.
-
-    Polemonium, 515.
-
-    Polianthes, 318.
-
-    Pollinarium, 332.
-
-    Pollinia, 329.
-
-    Pollinodium, 100, 120.
-
-    Pollen-chamber, 251.
-
-    Pollen-grain, 240, 244, 245.
-
-    Pollen-sac, 235, 237, 240.
-
-    Pollen-tube, 244, 249.
-
-    Polycarpicæ, 377.
-
-    Polycystis, 24.
-
-    Polydinida, 16, 17, 18.
-
-    Polyembryony, 247.
-
-    Polygala, 442, 443.
-
-    Polygalaceæ, 442.
-
-    Polygamous, 236.
-
-    Polygonaceæ, 239, 359.
-
-    Polygonatum, 314, 316.
-
-    Polygonifloræ, 358.
-
-    Polygonum, 359, 360, 361.
-
-    Polyides, 84.
-
-    Polykrikos, 17.
-
-    Polypetalæ, 336.
-
-    Polyphagus, 103, 104.
-
-    Polypodiaceæ, 202, 205, 206, 209, 210, 212.
-
-    Polypodium, 207, 213.
-
-    Polyporaceæ, 163.
-
-    Polyporus, 163, 164, 165.
-
-    Polysiphonia, 79, 83.
-
-    Polystachya, 332.
-
-    Polystigma, 125, 127.
-
-    Polytrichaceæ, 197.
-
-    Polytrichum, 197.
-
-    Pomaceæ, 456, 462.
-
-    Pomaderris, 448.
-
-    Pomalo, 438.
-
-    Pomegranate, 488, 489.
-
-    Pomona-fungus, 171.
-
-    Pond-weed, 279.
-
-    Pontederia, 316.
-
-    Pontederiaceæ, 308, 316.
-
-    Poplar, 124, 164, 338.
-
-    Poppies, 394.
-
-    Populus, 152, 338.
-
-    Pore-fungus, 163.
-
-    Porogames, 273.
-
-    Poronia, 131.
-
-    Porphyra, 10, 78.
-
-    Porphyraceæ, 78.
-
-    Portulaca, 373.
-
-    Portulacaceæ, 373.
-
-    Posidonia, 281.
-
-    Potamogeton, 47, 278, 279.
-
-    Potamogetonaceæ, 278, 279.
-
-    Potato-fungus, 104, 107.
-
-    Potato-plant, 521, 522.
-
-    Potentilla, 458, 460.
-
-    Potentilleæ, 458.
-
-    Poterium, 460.
-
-    Pothos, 304.
-
-    Pottia, 196.
-
-    Pottiaceæ, 196.
-
-    Pouzolzia, 353.
-
-    Prasiola, 53.
-
-    Preissia, 191.
-
-    Preslia, 539.
-
-    Primrose, 512.
-
-    Primula, 511, 512, 513.
-
-    Primulaceæ, 239, 512, 514.
-
-    Primulinæ, 505, 511.
-
-    Pringsheimia, 54.
-
-    Prionium, 284.
-
-    Pritchardia, 298.
-
-    Priva, 535.
-
-    Privet, 547.
-
-    Procarpium, 81.
-
-    Proembryo, 64.
-
-    Profichi, 355.
-
-    Promycelium, 94, 146.
-
-    Pronucleus, 245.
-
-    Prorocentrum, 17, 18.
-
-    Protea, 450.
-
-    Proteaceæ, 450.
-
-    Prothallium, 198, 244, 248.
-      Secondary, 233.
-
-    Protistæ, 5.
-
-    Protium, 438.
-
-    Protobasidia, 144.
-
-    Protobasidiomycetes, 96, 145.
-
-    Protococcaceæ, 47, 48, 51.
-
-    Protococcoideæ, 8, 47.
-
-    Protomyces, 108.
-
-    Protomycetaceæ, 108.
-
-    Protonema, 181.
-
-    Provence oil, 547.
-
-    Prunella, 539.
-
-    Prunus, 117, 118, 127, 130, 152, 461, 462.
-
-    Psalliota, 167, 168, 169, 171.
-
-    Psamma, 295, 296.
-
-    Pseudophacidiaceæ, 133.
-
-    Pseudopodium, 10, 193.
-
-    Pseudotsuga, 264, 265, 266.
-
-    Psidium, 488, 489.
-
-    Psilotaceæ, 228.
-
-    Psilotum, 201, 228.
-
-    Psychotria, 550.
-
-    Ptelea, 437.
-
-    Pteridium, 131, 207, 213, 214.
-
-    Pteridophyta, 2, 198, 234.
-
-    Pterigynandrum, 197.
-
-    Pteris, 199, 203, 213, 214.
-
-    Pterisanthes, 445.
-
-    Pterocarpus, 473.
-
-    Pterocarya, 350.
-
-    Pterocephalus, 560.
-
-    Pterogoniaceæ, 197.
-
-    Pterogyne, 468.
-
-    Pterostegia, 360.
-
-    Pterygophyllum, 197.
-
-    Ptilidium, 192.
-
-    Ptilota, 84.
-
-    Ptychogaster, 166.
-
-    Puccinia, 147, 148, 149, 150.
-
-    Puff-ball, 174.
-
-    Pulmonaria, 533, 534.
-
-    Pulque, 318.
-
-    Pulsatilla, 384.
-
-    Pumpkin, 480, 481.
-
-    Punctaria, 70.
-
-    Punica, 483, 488, 489, 490.
-
-    Puniceæ, 488.
-
-    Puschkinia, 312.
-
-    Putrefaction, 32.
-
-    Puya, 319.
-
-    Pycnidia, 89.
-
-    Pylaiella, 70.
-
-    Pyrenoid, 46.
-
-    Pyrenolichenes, 142.
-
-    Pyrenomycetes, 95, 116, 118, 125.
-
-    Pyrenula, 142.
-
-    Pyrethrum, 572, 574.
-
-    Pyrola, 334, 506, 507.
-
-    Pyrolaceæ, 506.
-
-    Pyrrophyl, 16.
-
-    Pyrus, 152, 463.
-
-    Pythium, 101, 106.
-
-
-    Quaking-grass, 294, 296.
-
-    Quassia, 438, 439.
-
-    Quassine, 438.
-
-    Quercifloræ, 337, 340.
-
-    Quercitron-wood, 348.
-
-    Quercus, 341, 346, 347, 348, 504.
-
-    Quillaja, 457, 460.
-
-    Quillajeæ, 457.
-
-    Quill-wort, 230.
-
-    Quince, 464, 465.
-
-    Quinchamalium, 500.
-
-    Quinine, 550, 553.
-
-
-    Racomitrium, 197.
-
-    Radiatæ, 571.
-
-    Radicle, 247.
-
-    Radiola, 418.
-
-    Radiolarias, 9.
-
-    Radish, 403, 404, 405.
-
-    Radula, 192.
-
-    Rafflesia, 504.
-
-    Rafflesiaceæ, 499, 504.
-
-    Raisins, 447.
-
-    Rajania, 323.
-
-    Ralfsia, 71.
-
-    Ralfsiaceæ, 71.
-
-    Ramalina, 143.
-
-    Ramenta, 209.
-
-    Ramié, 353.
-
-    Rampion, 562.
-
-    Randia, 550.
-
-    Ranunculaceæ, 278, 378.
-
-    Ranunculeæ, 383.
-
-    Ranunculus, 151, 378, 379, 380, 382, 383, 384.
-
-    Rapateaceæ, 308.
-
-    Rape, 404.
-
-    Raphanus, 400, 403.
-
-    Raphia, 301.
-
-    Raphidium, 51.
-
-    Raphiolepis, 463, 465.
-
-    Raspberry, 459, 460, 461.
-
-    Ravenala, 325.
-
-    Ray-flowers, 567.
-
-    Reboulia, 191.
-
-    Receptacle, 210.
-
-    Red Algæ, 1.
-
-    Red-beet, 372.
-
-    Red-cabbage, 405.
-
-    Red-clover, 466, 517.
-
-    Red-currant, 455.
-
-    Red-pine, 264, 266.
-
-    “Red-rot,” 164, 166.
-
-    Red Sandalwood, 473.
-
-    Red Seaweeds, 4, 77.
-
-    Red Snow, 48.
-
-    Red-strip, 165.
-
-    Red-tree, 468.
-
-    Reed, 151, 294.
-
-    Reed-mace, 303.
-
-    Reindeer Moss, 141.
-
-    Reineckea, 314.
-
-    Remijia, 550, 553.
-
-    Renealmia, 326.
-
-    Replum, 398.
-
-    Reseda, 407.
-
-    Resedaceæ, 406.
-
-    Resin, 266.
-
-    Rest-harrow, 471.
-
-    Restiaceæ, 309.
-
-    Restio, 309.
-
-    Restrepia, 332.
-
-    Retama, 472.
-
-    Reticularia, 8.
-
-    Retinospora, 268.
-
-    Rhamnaceæ, 447, 449.
-
-    Rhamnus, 151, 448.
-
-    Rhaphidophora, 305.
-
-    Rhatany, 468.
-
-    Rheum, 151, 359, 360.
-
-    Rhinanthaceæ, 153.
-
-    Rhinantheæ, 525, 526.
-
-    Rhinanthus, 526.
-
-    Rhingia, 320.
-
-    Rhipidium, 320.
-
-    Rhipsalis, 375, 376, 377.
-
-    Rhizidiaceæ, 103.
-
-    Rhizoboleæ, 415.
-
-    Rhizocarpeæ, 205, 215.
-
-    Rhizoclonium, 58.
-
-    Rhizoids, 4, 10.
-
-    Rhizomorpha, 169, 170.
-
-    Rhizopaceæ, 99.
-
-    Rhizophora, 482, 486, 487, 513.
-
-    Rhizophoraceæ, 482, 486.
-
-    Rhizophyllidaceæ, 84.
-
-    Rhizophyllis, 84.
-
-    Rhizopods, 5.
-
-    Rhizopogon, 175, 176.
-
-    Rhizopus, 99.
-
-    Rhizosolenia, 20.
-
-    Rhodanthe, 573.
-
-    Rhodiola, 451, 452.
-
-    Rhodochiton, 525.
-
-    Rhododendron, 161, 508.
-
-    Rhodomela, 83.
-
-    Rhodomelaceæ, 83.
-
-    Rhodophyceæ, 1, 14, 77.
-
-    Rhodophyll, 77.
-
-    Rhodophyllidaceæ, 83.
-
-    Rhodophyllis, 83.
-
-    Rhodoraceæ, 335, 508.
-
-    Rhodotypus, 457.
-
-    Rhodymenia, 83, 84.
-
-    Rhodymeniaceæ, 83.
-
-    Rhodymeniales, 82, 84.
-
-    Rhœadinæ, 393.
-
-    Rhopographus, 131.
-
-    Rhubarb, 359.
-
-    Rhus, 439.
-
-    Rhynchosia, 471.
-
-    Rhynchospora, 285, 286.
-
-    Rhytisma, 132.
-
-    Ribbon-grass, 296.
-
-    Ribes, 121, 152, 153, 241, 454, 455.
-
-    Ribesiaceæ, 454.
-
-    Rib-grass, 530.
-
-    Riccia, 186, 189, 190.
-
-    Ricciaceæ, 190.
-
-    Rice, 291, 293, 296.
-
-    Richardia, 305.
-
-    Richardsonia, 550.
-
-    Ricinus, 431.
-
-    Riella, 192, 231.
-
-    Ringworm, 180.
-
-    Rivina, 372.
-
-    Rivularia, 10, 25.
-
-    Rivulariaceæ, 22, 24, 25.
-
-    Robinia, 470, 473.
-
-    Roccella, 142.
-
-    Rock-cress, 402.
-
-    Rock-rose, 412.
-
-    Rod-bacteria, 39.
-
-    Roestelia, 147, 148, 151, 152, 153.
-
-    Roman spinach, 372.
-
-    Roots, 4.
-
-    “Ropiness,” 35.
-
-    Rosa, 148, 459, 460.
-
-    Rosaceæ, 451, 457.
-
-    Rose, 121.
-
-    Rose-mallow, 428.
-
-    Rose of Jericho, 401, 574.
-
-    Roseæ, 459.
-
-    Rosellinia, 130.
-
-    Rosemary, 540.
-      Oil of, 541.
-
-    Rosifloræ, 456, 466.
-
-    Rosmarinus, 536, 540, 541.
-
-    Rostellum, 329, 332.
-
-    Rotang, 298.
-
-    Royal-fern, 209, 215.
-
-    Rubeæ, 458.
-
-    Rubia, 551, 552, 553.
-
-    Rubiaceæ, 542, 546, 548, 549, 553.
-
-    Rubiales, 490, 505, 548, 556, 564.
-
-    Rubus, 458, 460, 461.
-
-    Rudbeckia, 572.
-
-    Ruellia, 530.
-
-    Rulingia, 422.
-
-    Rumex, 151, 359, 360.
-
-    Ruppia, 278, 279.
-
-    Ruscus, 316.
-
-    Rush, 283, 284.
-
-    Russula, 171.
-
-    Russulei, 171.
-
-    Rust of Wheat, 148.
-
-    Rusts, 146.
-
-    “Rust spots,” 130.
-
-    Ruta, 436.
-
-    Rutaceæ, 436.
-
-    Ruteæ, 436.
-
-    Rye, 125, 151.
-
-    Rye-grass, 295, 296.
-
-    Rye-stem blight, 113.
-
-
-    Sabal, 300.
-
-    Sabaleæ, 299.
-
-    Saccharomyces, 177, 178.
-
-    Saccharomyces-forms, 176.
-
-    Saccharum, 293.
-
-    Safflower, 574.
-
-    Saffron, 321.
-
-    Sagina, 364, 365, 366.
-
-    Sagittaria, 281, 282.
-
-    Sago, 254.
-
-    Sago-palm, 298.
-
-    Sainfoin, 472, 473.
-
-    “Salep,” 333.
-
-    Salicaceæ, 338.
-
-    Salicin, 339.
-
-    Salicifloræ, 337.
-
-    Salicornia, 369, 371, 503.
-
-    Salicornieæ, 371.
-
-    Salisburia, 259.
-
-    Salix, 122, 337, 338.
-
-    Salpiglossis, 521.
-
-    Salsafy, 574.
-
-    Salsola, 370, 371, 372.
-
-    Salsoleæ, 370.
-
-    Saltpetre formation, 35.
-
-    Saltwort, 370.
-
-    Salvadora, 547.
-
-    Salvadoraceæ, 542, 547.
-
-    Salvia, 536, 540, 541.
-
-    Salvinia, 201, 216, 217, 218, 245.
-
-    Salviniaceæ, 210, 218.
-
-    Sambuceæ, 555, 557.
-
-    Sambucus, 156, 553, 555.
-
-    Samolus, 513.
-
-    Samydaceæ, 476.
-
-    Sandalwood, 473, 500.
-
-    Sandarack resin, 269.
-
-    Sand-box tree, 432.
-
-    Sand-star, 287.
-
-    Sanguinaria, 395.
-
-    Sanguisorba, 460.
-
-    Sanicula, 493.
-
-    Sannicle, 493.
-
-    Sanseviera, 320.
-
-    Santalaceæ, 500.
-
-    Santalum, 500.
-
-    Santolina, 572.
-
-    Sapindaceæ, 440.
-
-    Sapindus, 441.
-
-    Saponaria, 368.
-
-    Saponin, 460.
-
-    Sapotaceæ, 510.
-
-    Saprolegnia, 102, 107, 108.
-
-    Saprolegniaceæ, 107.
-
-    Saprophytes, 5.
-
-    Sapucaia-nuts, 489.
-
-    Saranthe, 327.
-
-    Sarcina, 27, 28, 38.
-
-    Sarcophyte, 504.
-
-    Sargassum, 4, 10, 73, 75.
-
-    Sarothamnus, 472.
-
-    Sarracenia, 409.
-
-    Sarraceniaceæ, 408.
-
-    Sarsaparilla, 316.
-
-    Sassafras, 392.
-
-    Satureia, 540, 541.
-
-    Satureieæ, 539.
-
-    Saurureæ, 362.
-
-    Saururus, 362.
-
-    Saussurea, 570.
-
-    Sauvagesieæ, 411.
-
-    Saw-wort, 570.
-
-    Saxifraga, 161, 452.
-
-    Saxifragaceæ, 451, 452.
-
-    Saxifrage, 452.
-
-    Saxifraginæ, 451, 555.
-
-    Scabiosa, 558, 559, 560.
-
-    Scævola, 564.
-
-    Scale-leaves, 235.
-
-    Scammony, 517.
-
-    Scandiceæ, 495.
-
-    Scandix, 495.
-
-    Scapania, 192.
-
-    Scarlet-runner, 473.
-
-    Scenedesmus, 51.
-
-    Scheuchzeria, 278.
-
-    Schistostega, 196, 197.
-
-    Schistostegaceæ, 197.
-
-    Schizæa, 215.
-
-    Schizæaceæ, 210, 215.
-
-    Schizanthus, 521.
-
-    Schizocarp, 492.
-
-    Schizocarpeæ, 195.
-
-    Schizochlamys, 51.
-
-    Schizomeris, 53.
-
-    Schizomycetes, 26, 33.
-
-    Schizopetaleæ, 404.
-
-    Schizopetalum, 402.
-
-    Schizophyceæ, 8, 10, 23, 26.
-
-    Schizophyllum, 171.
-
-    Schizophyta, 1, 14, 19, 22, 24.
-
-    Schœnocaulon, 310.
-
-    Schœnoxiphium, 287.
-
-    Schœnus, 286.
-
-    Schwendenerian Theory, 139.
-
-    Sciadium, 51.
-
-    Sciadopitys, 267.
-
-    Scilla, 312, 314.
-
-    Scirpeæ, 285.
-
-    Scirpus, 285, 286, 287.
-
-    Scirrhia, 131.
-
-    Scitamineæ, 276, 278, 323, 328.
-
-    Scitonemaceæ, 22, 24, 25, 27.
-
-    Scleranthus, 365, 367.
-
-    Scleria, 286.
-
-    Scleroderma, 175.
-
-    Sclerodermataceæ, 175.
-
-    Sclerotinia, 116, 134, 135.
-
-    Sclerotium, 87, 127.
-
-    Scolopendrium, 213, 214.
-
-    Scoparia, 525.
-
-    Scopolia, 519, 521.
-
-    Scorodosma, 496.
-
-    Scorzonera, 571, 574.
-
-    Scotch Fir, 259, 266.
-
-    Scotinosphæra, 47, 51.
-
-    Screw Pine, 302.
-
-    Scrophularia, 524, 526.
-
-    Scrophulariaceæ, 518, 521, 522, 527.
-
-    Scutellaria, 536, 539.
-
-    Scutellum, 293.
-
-    Scyballium, 504.
-
-    Scytonema, 22, 26, 176.
-
-    Scytonemaceæ, 25.
-
-    Sea-holly, 493.
-
-    Sea-kale, 403, 405.
-
-    Sea-lavender, 514.
-
-    Sea-milkwort, 513.
-
-    Seaweed, 4.
-
-    Sea-wormwood, 574.
-
-    Sebacina, 156.
-
-    Secale, 127, 295, 296.
-      cornutum, 127.
-
-    Sechium, 481.
-
-    “Sedimentary-yeast,” 178.
-
-    Sedum, 451, 452.
-
-    Seed, 247, 248, 249.
-
-    Seguieria, 372.
-
-    Selaginaceæ, 532, 541.
-
-    Selaginella, 200, 203, 228, 229, 230, 232, 233, 245, 254.
-
-    Selaginellaceæ, 231.
-
-    Selaginelleæ, 205, 228.
-
-    Selago, 541.
-
-    Selenastrum, 51.
-
-    Selenipedilum, 329, 330.
-
-    Seligeria, 196.
-
-    Seligeriaceæ, 196.
-
-    Semele, 316.
-
-    Sempervivum, 151, 451, 452.
-
-    Senebiera, 400, 401.
-
-    Senecio, 566, 569, 572, 573.
-
-    Senecioneæ, 572.
-
-    Senna, 468.
-
-    Sepals, 235.
-
-    Sequoia, 267, 272.
-
-    Serapias, 332.
-
-    Serjania, 441.
-
-    Serratula, 570, 574.
-
-    Serum, 33.
-
-    Service-tree, 465.
-
-    Sesamum, 529.
-
-    Seseli, 495.
-
-    Seselineæ, 495.
-
-    Sesleria, 294.
-
-    Sesuvium, 375.
-
-    Seta, 186.
-
-    Setaria, 295.
-
-    Sexual reproduction, 11.
-
-    Sheep-seaweed, 84.
-
-    Shellac, 356, 434.
-
-    Shepherdia, 450.
-
-    Shepherd’s-needle, 495.
-
-    Shepherd’s-purse, 401.
-
-    Sherardia, 552.
-
-    “Sichel,” 284.
-
-    “Sickle,” 284.
-
-    Sicyos, 481.
-
-    Sida, 428, 430.
-
-    Sideritis, 538.
-
-    Sideroxylon, 511.
-
-    Sigillariaceæ, 233.
-
-    Silaus, 495.
-
-    Sileneæ, 367.
-
-    Silene, 367.
-
-    Siler, 495.
-
-    Siliceous earth, 20.
-
-    Siliculosæ angustiseptæ, 401.
-      latiseptæ, 400.
-
-    Siliqua, 398.
-
-    Siliquosæ, 402.
-
-    Silk-cotton, 427.
-
-    Silphium, 498, 572.
-
-    Silver-leaf, 450.
-
-    Silybum, 567, 570.
-
-    Simaba, 439.
-
-    Simaruba, 439.
-
-    Simarubaceæ, 438.
-
-    Sinapeæ, 404.
-
-    Sinapis, 400, 402.
-
-    Siphocampylos, 563.
-
-    Siphoneæ, 4, 9, 47, 59.
-
-    Siphonia, 434.
-
-    Siphonocladus, 62.
-
-    Sirosiphoniaceæ, 22, 24, 26.
-
-    Sisal hemp, 318.
-
-    Sisymbriinæ, 404.
-
-    Sisymbrium, 399, 402, 410.
-
-    Sisyrinchium, 321.
-
-    Sium, 494, 498.
-
-    Skimmia, 437.
-
-    Skull-cap, 539.
-
-    Slime-fungi, 1, 4, 5.
-
-    Sloe, 461, 462.
-
-    Sloth, 8, 356.
-
-    Smilaceæ, 316.
-
-    Smilacina, 314.
-
-    Smilax, 315, 316.
-
-    “Smut,” 113, 130.
-
-    Smut-fungi, 114.
-
-    Snake cucumber, 481.
-
-    Snapdragon, 523, 524.
-
-    Snowberry, 554.
-
-    Snowdrop, 317.
-
-    Soapwort, 368.
-
-    Soft-grass, 296.
-
-    Soja, 471.
-
-    Solanaceæ, 514, 518, 520, 522.
-
-    Solanine, 522.
-
-    Solanum, 238, 521, 522.
-
-    Soldanella, 513.
-
-    Solenia, 162.
-
-    Solidago, 573.
-
-    Sollya, 455.
-
-    Solomon’s seal, 314.
-
-    Sonchus, 153, 571.
-
-    Sophora, 469.
-
-    Sophoreæ, 469.
-
-    Sorbus, 152, 465.
-
-    Sordaria, 129.
-
-    Sordariaceæ, 129.
-
-    Soredia, 141.
-
-    Sorghum, 296.
-
-    Sori, 205.
-
-    Sorocea, 356.
-
-    Sorrel, 361.
-
-    Southernwood, 574.
-
-    Sow-thistle, 571.
-
-    Spadicifloræ, 277, 297.
-
-    Spadix, 297.
-
-    Sparassis, 161.
-
-    Sparaxis, 321.
-
-    Sparganium, 302, 303.
-
-    Sparmannia, 425.
-
-    Spartium, 472.
-
-    Spathe, 297.
-
-    Spathicarpa, 306.
-
-    Spathulea, 136.
-
-    Spearmint, 541.
-
-    Specularia, 562.
-
-    Speedwell, 525.
-
-    Spergula, 366.
-
-    Spergularia, 366.
-
-    Spermacoce, 550.
-
-    Spermacoceæ, 550.
-
-    Spermagonia, 116.
-
-    Spermaphyta, 3.
-
-    Spermatangia, 81.
-
-    Spermatia, 13, 76, 77, 141, 146.
-
-    Spermatochnaceæ, 71.
-
-    Spermatochnus, 71.
-
-    Spermatozoid, 13, 183.
-
-    Sperm-nucleus, 245.
-
-    Spermocarp, 58.
-
-    Spermogonia, 89, 141, 146, 147, 149.
-
-    Spermothamnion, 84.
-
-    Sphacelaria, 70.
-
-    Sphacelariaceæ, 70.
-
-    Sphacelia, 125, 126.
-
-    Sphacelotheca, 110.
-
-    Sphæralcea, 430.
-
-    Sphærella, 48, 130.
-
-    Sphærellaceæ, 130.
-
-    Sphæriales, 129.
-
-    Sphærobolaceæ, 173.
-
-    Sphærobolus, 173.
-
-    Sphærocarpus, 191, 192.
-
-    Sphærococcaceæ, 83.
-
-    Sphærophorus, 142.
-
-    Sphæroplea, 13, 14, 58.
-
-    Sphæropleaceæ, 47, 58.
-
-    Sphærotheca, 120, 121.
-
-    Sphærozosma, 44.
-
-    Sphagneæ, 193.
-
-    Sphagnum, 186, 188, 192, 194, 195, 197.
-
-    Sphenogyne, 566.
-
-    Sphenophyllaceæ, 233.
-
-    Sphinctrina, 140.
-
-    Spigelia, 546.
-
-    Spikelet, 285, 287, 289.
-
-    Spikes, 285.
-
-    Spilanthes, 572.
-
-    Spinach, 371.
-
-    Spinacia, 371, 372.
-
-    Spindle-tree, 444.
-
-    Spiræa, 151, 451, 456, 457, 460.
-
-    Spiræeæ, 457.
-
-    Spiranthes, 331.
-
-    Spirilla, 27.
-
-    Spirillum, 30.
-
-    Spirochætæ, 27.
-
-    Spirochæte, 28, 38, 40.
-
-    Spirodela, 307.
-
-    Spirogyra, 44, 45.
-
-    Spirolobeæ, 371, 400.
-
-    Spirotænia, 44.
-
-    Spirulina, 24.
-
-    Splachnaceæ, 197.
-
-    Splachnum, 196, 197.
-
-    Spondias, 439.
-
-    Sponges, 8.
-
-    Sporangia, 239.
-
-    Sporangial-layers, 88.
-
-    Sporangiocarp, 88.
-
-    Sporangio-fructification, 87.
-
-    Sporangiophore, 88.
-
-    Spores, 10.
-      Liberation and Distribution of, 91.
-      Germination of, 93.
-
-    Sporidia, 112.
-
-    Sporobolus, 295.
-
-    Sporocarp, 205, 219.
-
-    Sporochnaceæ, 71.
-
-    Sporochnus, 71.
-
-    Sporogonium, 186.
-
-    Sporophylls, 223, 235, 236.
-
-    Sporophyte, 181, 186.
-
-    Spring-spores, 147.
-
-    Spumaria, 8.
-
-    Spurge, 431, 432.
-
-    Spurge-laurel, 449.
-
-    Spurry, 366.
-
-    Squamariacæ, 84.
-
-    “Squills,” 314.
-
-    Squirting cucumber, 480.
-
-    Stachydeæ, 538.
-
-    Stachys, 538, 541.
-
-    Stachytarpheta, 535.
-
-    Staehelina, 570.
-
-    Stag-truffle, 124.
-
-    Stalk, 186.
-
-    Stamen, 235, 236.
-
-    Staminate, 236.
-
-    Stangeria, 253, 254.
-
-    Stanhopea, 332.
-
-    Stanleyinæ, 404.
-
-    Stapelia, 546.
-
-    Staphylea, 440.
-
-    Staphyleaceæ, 440.
-
-    Staphylococcus, 39.
-
-    Star-aniseed, 389.
-
-    Statice, 514.
-
-    Staurastrum, 42, 43, 44.
-
-    Steenhammera, 533.
-
-    Stegocarpeæ, 195.
-
-    Stellaria, 364, 365, 366.
-
-    Stellatæ, 550, 552, 553.
-
-    Stemless Plants, 1.
-
-    Stemonitis, 7, 8.
-
-    Stephanospermum, 272.
-
-    Stephanosphæra, 48.
-
-    Sterculia, 422.
-
-    Sterculiaceæ, 422.
-
-    Stereocaulon, 143.
-
-    Stereum, 162.
-
-    Sterigmata, 144, 146.
-
-    Sterilization, 32.
-
-    Sticta, 134, 137, 143.
-
-    Stictidaceæ, 133.
-
-    Stictidales, 133.
-
-    Stictis, 133.
-
-    Stigeoclonium, 54.
-
-    Stigma, 3, 250.
-
-    Stigmaria, 233.
-
-    Stigonema, 26, 142.
-
-    Stilbaceæ, 532, 541.
-
-    Stilbe, 541.
-
-    Stillingia, 434.
-
-    Stilophora, 71.
-
-    Stilophoraceæ, 71.
-
-    Stinkbrand, 113.
-
-    Stink-horn, 172, 173.
-
-    Stipa, 291, 294, 296.
-
-    Stitchwort, 366.
-
-    St. John’s-wort, 413.
-
-    Stock, 402, 405.
-
-    Stonebrand, 113.
-
-    Stonecrop, 451.
-
-    Stone-wort, 1, 14.
-
-    Stork’s-bill, 419.
-
-    Stratiotes, 282.
-
-    Strawberry, 458.
-
-    Strawberry-tree, 508.
-
-    Strelitzia, 325.
-
-    Streptocarpus, 528.
-
-    Streptochæta, 290.
-
-    Streptococcus, 39.
-
-    Streptopus, 314.
-
-    Striaria, 70.
-
-    Striariaceæ, 70.
-
-    Strickeria, 129, 130.
-
-    Stroma, 88.
-
-    Stromanthe, 327.
-
-    Strophanthus, 544.
-
-    Struthiopteris, 209, 214, 254.
-
-    Struvea, 9, 62.
-
-    Strychnine, 546.
-
-    Strychnos, 546.
-
-    Sturmia, 332.
-
-    Stylar-column, 328.
-      -brush, 567.
-
-    Style, 250.
-
-    Stylidiaceæ, 564.
-
-    Stylidium, 564.
-
-    Stylochrysalis, 15.
-
-    Stylopod, 492.
-
-    Styphelia, 509.
-
-    Styracaceæ, 511.
-
-    Styrax, 511.
-
-    Styrax-balsam, 455.
-
-    Subhymenial layer, 167.
-
-    Subularia, 393, 399, 400, 401.
-
-    Succisa, 517.
-
-    Sugar-beet, 372.
-
-    Sugar-cane, 289, 293, 296.
-
-    Sugar-root, 498.
-
-    Sulphur-bacteria, 37, 38.
-
-    Sumach, 439.
-
-    Summer-spores, 147.
-
-    Sundew, 407.
-
-    Sun-flower, 572.
-
-    Sunn hemp, 473.
-
-    “Surface yeast,” 178.
-
-    Surirayeæ, 21.
-
-    Suspensor, 233, 246, 247.
-
-    Swamp cypress, 267.
-
-    Swarmspores, 10, 87.
-
-    Swede, 405.
-
-    Sweet Cicely, 498.
-
-    Sweet-flag, 303.
-
-    Sweet-gale, 351.
-
-    Sweet oil, 547.
-
-    Sweet-pea, 470.
-
-    Sweet-potato, 517.
-
-    Sweet-vernal, 295, 296.
-
-    Swertia, 542.
-
-    Swietenia, 436.
-
-    Swine’s-succory, 571.
-
-    Sycamore, 133, 442.
-
-    Symbiosis, 85.
-
-    Sympetalæ, 336, 504.
-
-    Symphoricarpus, 554, 556.
-
-    Symphyandra, 562.
-
-    Symphyllodium, 257.
-
-    Symphytopleura, 387.
-
-    Symphytum, 533, 535.
-
-    Symploca, 24.
-
-    Synalissa, 139.
-
-    Synandrium, 306.
-
-    Synangium, 212.
-
-    Syncarp, 278.
-
-    Syncephalis, 100.
-
-    Synchytrieæ, 103.
-
-    Synchytrium, 103.
-
-    Syncrypta, 15.
-
-    Synedra, 21.
-
-    Synergidæ, 248.
-
-    Syngeneticæ, 1, 14, 15, 17, 48.
-
-    Syngonium, 306.
-
-    Synura, 15.
-
-    Syringa, 455, 546, 547, 550.
-
-    Systegium, 196.
-
-    Systematic division of the Algæ, 14.
-      of Filices, 210.
-      of Fungi, 95.
-      of Monocotyledons, 277.
-      of Thallophytes, 4.
-      of Vascular Cryptogams, 204.
-
-
-    Tabellaria, 19.
-
-    Tabellarieæ, 21.
-
-    Tabernæmontana, 544.
-
-    Taccarum, 306.
-
-    Tacona, 284.
-
-    Tagetes, 564, 572.
-
-    Takamahaka, 438.
-
-    Talinum, 373.
-
-    Talipot, 298.
-
-    Tallow-tree, 434.
-
-    Tamaricaceæ, 411.
-
-    Tamarind, 466, 468.
-
-    Tamarindus, 467.
-
-    Tamarisk, 411.
-
-    Tamarix, 411, 412.
-
-    Tamus, 323.
-
-    Tanacetum, 572, 574.
-
-    Tanghinia, 544.
-
-    Tannin, 490.
-
-    Tansy, 572.
-
-    Tapetum, 203, 239, 240.
-
-    Taphrina, 116, 117, 118.
-
-    Taphrinaceæ, 116.
-
-    Tapioca, 434.
-
-    Tar, 266.
-
-    Taraxacum, 571, 566, 574.
-
-    Targionia, 191.
-
-    Tassel Pond-weed, 279.
-
-    Taxaceæ, 259, 272.
-
-    Taxeæ, 261.
-
-    Taxodiaceæ, 257, 267, 272.
-
-    Taxodium, 267.
-
-    Taxoideæ, 258, 259.
-
-    Taxus, 237, 238, 255, 257, 259, 261, 262, 272.
-
-    Tea, 415.
-
-    Tea-plant, False, 521.
-
-    Tea-rose, 460.
-
-    Teak-tree, 535.
-
-    Tear-Fungus, 166.
-
-    Teasel, 494, 558, 560.
-
-    Tecoma, 529.
-
-    Tectona, 535.
-
-    Teesdalia, 398, 401.
-
-    Telegraph-plant, 466.
-
-    Teleutospores, 146.
-
-    Tellima, 452.
-
-    Terebinthinæ, 435.
-
-    Terfezia, 124.
-
-    Terminalia, 487.
-
-    Ternstrœmiaceæ, 414.
-
-    Testa, 247, 248.
-
-    Testudinaria, 323.
-
-    Tetmemorus, 44.
-
-    Tetracyclicæ, 505, 514.
-
-    Tetradynamia, 398.
-
-    Tetragonia, 375.
-
-    Tetragonolobus, 471.
-
-    Tetraphis, 195, 196, 197.
-
-    Tetrapoma, 400.
-
-    Tetrapteris, 442.
-
-    Tetraspora, 51.
-
-    Tetrasporaceæ, 47, 48, 51.
-
-    Tetraspores, 10, 76.
-
-    Teucrium, 567.
-
-    Thalassia, 283.
-
-    Thalia, 327.
-
-    Thalictrum, 379, 385.
-
-    Thallophyta, 1, 4.
-
-    Thallus, 1, 4.
-
-    Thamnidiaceæ, 99.
-
-    Thamnidium, 100.
-
-    Thea, 414, 415.
-
-    Thecaphora, 110, 114.
-
-    Thëin, 374.
-
-    Thelebolaceæ, 109.
-
-    Thelebolus, 109, 120.
-
-    Thelephora, 162, 176.
-
-    Thelephoraceæ, 162.
-
-    Thelygonum, 372.
-
-    Thelypodieæ, 404.
-
-    Theobroma, 422, 423.
-
-    Theobromine, 423.
-
-    Theophrasta, 513.
-
-    Thesium, 500.
-
-    Thistle, 569.
-
-    Thladiantha, 481.
-
-    Thlaspi, 400, 401, 402.
-
-    Thomasia, 422.
-
-    Thorn-apple, 520.
-
-    Thottea, 499.
-
-    Thrift, 514.
-
-    Thrinax, 300.
-
-    Thrush, 180.
-
-    Thuidium, 197.
-
-    Thuja, 241, 268.
-
-    Thujopsis, 269.
-
-    Thunbergia, 530.
-
-    Thyme, 539, 541.
-
-    Thymelæa, 449.
-
-    Thymelæaceæ, 449.
-
-    Thymelæinæ, 448.
-
-    Thymus, 537, 539, 541.
-
-    Tiaridium, 533.
-
-    Tibouchina, 484.
-
-    Ticorea, 437.
-
-    Tigridia, 321.
-
-    Tilia, 424, 425.
-
-    Tiliaceæ, 423.
-
-    Tillandsia, 320.
-
-    Tilletia, 111, 112, 113.
-
-    Tilletiaceæ, 110, 113.
-
-    Tilopteridaceæ, 72.
-
-    Tilopteris, 72.
-
-    Timothy-grass, 294, 296.
-
-    Tinnantia, 308.
-
-    Tmesipteris, 228.
-
-    Toad-flax, 525.
-
-    Toad-rush, 284.
-
-    Toadstools, 159, 166.
-
-    Tobacco, 520, 529.
-      Virginian, 522.
-
-    Toddalieæ, 437.
-
-    Todea, 203.
-
-    Tofieldia, 310.
-
-    Tofieldieæ, 310.
-
-    Tolu, Balsam of, 473.
-
-    Toluifera, 473.
-
-    Tolypella, 67.
-
-    Tolypellopsis, 67.
-
-    Tolyposporium, 110.
-
-    Tolypothrix, 26.
-
-    Tomato, 521.
-
-    Tomentella, 161.
-
-    Tomentellaceæ, 161.
-
-    Tonquin-bean, 466, 472.
-
-    Tooth-wort, 526.
-
-    Tordylium, 496.
-
-    Torenia, 525.
-
-    Torilis, 497.
-
-    Torreya, 262, 272.
-
-    Touchwood, 164.
-
-    Tournefortia, 533.
-
-    Trabeculæ, 231.
-
-    Tracheides, 251.
-
-    Trachylobium, 468.
-
-    Tradescantia, 308.
-
-    Trama, 167, 174.
-
-    Trametes, 164, 165.
-
-    Tragacanth, Gum, 473.
-
-    Tragopogon, 113, 564, 571, 574.
-
-    Trapa, 485, 486.
-
-    Travellers’ Palm, 325.
-
-    Tremandraceæ, 442.
-
-    Tremella, 156, 157, 159.
-
-    Tremellaceæ, 146, 156.
-
-    Trentepohlia, 8, 54.
-
-    Tribulus, 438.
-
-    Trichia, 8.
-
-    Trichocoma, 176.
-
-    Trichodesmium, 22.
-
-    Trichogyne, 58, 81.
-
-    Tricholoma, 168, 171.
-
-    Trichomanes, 206, 215.
-
-    Trichophilus, 8, 54.
-
-    Trichosanthes, 481.
-
-    Trichosphæria, 129, 130.
-
-    Trichosphæriaceæ, 129.
-
-    Trichostomum, 196.
-
-    Tricoccæ, 430.
-
-    Tricyrtis, 310.
-
-    Trientalis, 512, 513.
-
-    Trifolieæ, 471.
-
-    Trifolium, 469, 471, 473.
-
-    Triglochin, 278, 279.
-
-    Trigoniaceæ, 442.
-
-    Trillium, 314.
-
-    Triodia, 294.
-
-    Triphasia, 438.
-
-    Triphragmium, 147, 151.
-
-    Triplaris, 361.
-
-    Triteleia, 312.
-
-    Triticum, 288, 295, 296.
-
-    Tritonia, 321.
-
-    Triumfetta, 424, 425.
-
-    Trollius, 379, 381.
-
-    Tropæolaceæ, 419.
-
-    Tropæolum, 420.
-
-    True Ferns, 204, 205.
-
-    True Laurels, 391.
-
-    True Mosses, 192.
-
-    Truffles, 124.
-
-    Trumpet-tree, 356.
-
-    Trumpet-wood, 529.
-
-    Tryblidiaceæ, 133.
-
-    Tryblidiales, 133.
-
-    Tryblidium, 133.
-
-    Tsuga, 265, 266.
-
-    Tuber, 124.
-
-    Tuberaceæ, 124.
-
-    Tubercles, 8, 466.
-
-    Tubercularia, 127.
-
-    Tuberose, 318.
-
-    Tubifloræ, 505, 514, 532.
-
-    Tuburcinia, 110, 111, 113.
-
-    Tulip, 312.
-
-    Tulipa, 312, 314.
-
-    Tulipeæ, 312.
-
-    Tupa, 563.
-
-    Turkish-millet, 296.
-
-    Turmeric, 326.
-
-    Turneraceæ, 476.
-
-    Turnip, 405.
-
-    Turpentine, 266, 439.
-
-    Turritinæ, 404.
-
-    Tussilago, 151, 569, 571, 574.
-
-    Tydæa, 528.
-
-    Tylostoma, 174.
-
-    Tylostomaceæ, 174.
-
-    Typha, 302, 303.
-
-    Typhaceæ, 302.
-
-    Typhula, 161.
-
-
-    Ulex, 472.
-
-    Ullucus, 371, 372.
-
-    Ulmaceæ, 351.
-
-    Ulmeæ, 351.
-
-    Ulmus, 351.
-
-    Ulothricaceæ, 47, 53.
-
-    Ulothrix, 12, 14, 53, 54.
-
-    Ulva, 10, 53.
-
-    Ulvaceæ, 47, 53.
-
-    Umbelliferæ, 491.
-
-    Umbellifloræ, 490.
-
-    Umbilicaria, 143.
-
-    Umbilicus, 451.
-
-    Uncaria, 553.
-
-    Uncinia, 287.
-
-    Uncinula, 122.
-
-    Upas-tree, 356.
-
-    Urare, 546.
-
-    Uredinaceæ, 145, 146.
-
-    Uredo, 148.
-
-    Urena, 428.
-
-    Ureneæ, 428.
-
-    Urginea, 312, 314.
-
-    Urocystis, 113.
-
-    Uroglena, 15.
-
-    Uromyces, 148, 151.
-
-    Urophlyctis, 103.
-
-    Urospora, 58.
-
-    Urtica, 134, 151, 351, 353.
-
-    Urticaceæ, 352.
-
-    Urticifloræ, 351.
-
-    Usnea, 143.
-
-    Ustilaginaceæ, 110, 113.
-
-    Ustilagineæ, 109.
-
-    Ustilago, 111, 113.
-
-    Ustulina, 131.
-
-    Utricularia, 527, 528.
-
-    Utriculariaceæ, 518, 527.
-
-    Utriculus, 287.
-
-    Uvularia, 310.
-
-
-    Vaccines, 41.
-
-    Vacciniaceæ, 451, 508, 509.
-
-    Vaccinium, 134, 160, 161, 509, 510.
-
-    Vaginula, 189.
-
-    Vahea, 544.
-
-    Vaillantia, 552.
-
-    Valeriana, 557, 558.
-
-    Valerianaceæ, 549, 556.
-
-    Valerianella, 557, 558.
-
-    Vallisneria, 282, 283.
-
-    Valloons, 348.
-
-    Vallota, 318.
-
-    Valonia, 59, 62.
-
-    Valoniaceæ, 47, 62.
-
-    Valsa, 130.
-
-    Valsaceæ, 130.
-
-    Vanda, 332.
-
-    Vandellia, 525.
-
-    Vandeæ, 332.
-
-    Vanilla, 331, 333.
-
-    Vascular Cryptogams, 2, 198, 240.
-      Isosporous, 200.
-      Heterosporous, 200.
-
-    Vateria, 415.
-
-    Vaucheria, 10, 33, 61.
-
-    Vaucheriaceæ, 47, 60.
-
-    Vegetable-ivory, 301, 302.
-
-    Vegetable-silk, 545.
-
-    Velamen, 332.
-
-    Vella, 400.
-
-    Vellinæ, 404.
-
-    Vellosia, 318.
-
-    Vellosieæ, 318.
-
-    Ve11theimia, 312.
-
-    Velum partiale, 167, 168.
-      universale, 167.
-
-    Venter, 184.
-
-    Ventral-canal-cell, 185.
-
-    Venturia, 130.
-
-    Veratreæ, 310.
-
-    Veratrin, 311.
-
-    Veratrum, 310, 311.
-
-    Verbascum, 523, 525, 527.
-
-    Verbena, 535.
-
-    Verbenaceæ, 532, 535, 537.
-
-    Vernonia, 571.
-
-    Veronica, 335, 523, 525, 526, 527, 530, 536, 559.
-
-    Verpa, 136.
-
-    Verrucaria, 140, 142.
-
-    Vesicaria, 400.
-
-    Vetch, 470.
-
-    Vibriones, 27.
-
-    Viburnum, 455, 553, 555, 556.
-
-    Vicia, 469, 470, 473.
-
-    Vicieæ, 469, 470.
-
-    Victoria, 386, 387.
-
-    Vigna, 471.
-
-    Vinca, 544.
-
-    Vincetoxicum, 155, 546.
-
-    Vine, 121, 444.
-
-    Vinegar-bacterium, 31, 32, 35.
-
-    Viola, 410, 411.
-
-    Violaceæ, 410.
-
-    Violets, 114, 410.
-
-    Violet-stone, 54.
-
-    Viper’s-bugloss, 533.
-
-    Virginian-creeper, 447.
-
-    Viscaria, 364, 367.
-
-    Viscoideæ, 501.
-
-    Viscum, 501, 502, 504.
-
-    Vismia, 414.
-
-    Vitex, 535.
-
-    Vitis, 445, 446, 447.
-
-    Vochysiaceæ, 442.
-
-    Volkmannia, 225.
-
-    Volva, 167.
-
-    Volvaria, 171.
-
-    Volvocaceæ, 14, 47, 48.
-
-    Volvox, 48, 50.
-
-    Vomic nut, 546.
-
-    “Vorblatt,” 275.
-
-
-    Wahlenbergia, 562.
-
-    Wallflower, 402, 405.
-
-    Wall-lichen, 143.
-
-    Wall-rue, 213.
-
-    Walnut, 165, 349, 350.
-
-    Water-cress, 402, 405.
-
-    Water-dropwort, 498.
-
-    Water-ferns, 205, 215.
-
-    Water-fungi, 96.
-
-    Water-hyssop, 525.
-
-    Water-lilies, 385.
-
-    Water-melon, 481.
-
-    Water-milfoil, 486.
-
-    Water-net, 52.
-
-    Water-purslane, 483.
-
-    Water-soldier, 282.
-
-    Water-wort, 413.
-
-    Water-violet, 512.
-
-    Wax-flower, 546.
-
-    Weberia, 197.
-
-    Weigelia, 554.
-
-    Weingærtneria, 294.
-
-    Weisia, 196.
-
-    Weisiaceæ, 196.
-
-    Wellingtonia, 267.
-
-    Welwitschia, 270, 271.
-
-    “Wendungszellen,” 67.
-
-    West-Indian arrowroot, 327.
-
-    Weymouth Pine, 266, 267.
-
-    Wheat, 113, 291, 292, 295, 296.
-
-    Wheat-grain, 292.
-
-    Wheat, seedling of, 292.
-
-    White-beam, 465.
-
-    White Bryony, 481.
-
-    White-cabbage, 405.
-
-    White-mustard, 405.
-
-    White Pine, 266.
-
-    White-pepper, 363.
-
-    White-rot, 164, 165.
-
-    White Water-lily, 387.
-
-    Whitlavia, 515.
-
-    Whortleberry, 509.
-
-    Wig-tree, 439.
-
-    Wild Basil, 540.
-
-    Wild Cabbage, 404.
-
-    Willow, 124, 133, 338.
-
-    Willow-herb, 484.
-
-    Winter-aconite, 382.
-
-    Winter-cherry, 521.
-
-    Winter-cress, 402.
-
-    Winter-green, 507.
-
-    Winter-spores, 146.
-
-    Wistaria, 470, 473.
-
-    Witches’-brooms, 85, 117, 155.
-
-    Woad, 403, 405.
-
-    Wolffia, 307.
-
-    Wood, 251.
-
-    Wood-rush, 284.
-
-    Wood-sorrel, 416.
-
-    Woodruff, 552, 553.
-
-    Woodsia, 214.
-
-    Wormwood, 572, 574.
-
-    Woundwort, 538.
-
-
-    Xanthellaceæ, 15.
-
-    Xanthidium, 44.
-
-    Xanthium, 569, 573.
-
-    Xanthorhiza, 379, 383.
-
-    Xanthorrhæa, 312.
-
-    Xeranthemum, 566, 570.
-
-    Xerotes, 312.
-
-    Xylaria, 131.
-
-    Xylariaceæ, 131.
-
-    Xylem, 251.
-
-    Xylopia, 388.
-
-    Xylophylla, 431, 432.
-
-    Xylosteum, 554.
-
-    Xyridaceæ, 308.
-
-
-    Yam, 323.
-
-    Yeast-formation, 94.
-
-    Yeast-fungi, 31, 36.
-
-    Yellow bird’s-nest, 507.
-
-    Yellow-rattle, 525, 526.
-
-    Yellow Water-lily, 387.
-
-    Yellow-wort, 543.
-
-    Yew, 259, 261, 266.
-
-    Ylang-ylang, 388.
-
-    Yorkshire-fog, 294, 296.
-
-    Yucca, 312, 313, 316.
-
-
-    Zamia, 253.
-
-    Zannardinia, 12, 72.
-
-    Zannichellia, 278, 279.
-
-    Zantedeschia, 305, 306.
-
-    Zanthoxyleæ, 436.
-
-    Zanthoxylum, 436.
-
-    Zea, 290, 293.
-
-    Zelkova, 351.
-
-    Zingiber, 326.
-
-    Zingiberaceæ, 277, 323, 325.
-
-    Zinnia, 572.
-
-    Zizania, 293.
-
-    Zizyphus, 448.
-
-    Zoochlorella, 9.
-
-    Zoogametes, 12.
-
-    Zooglœa, 27.
-
-    Zoogonicæ, 68, 70.
-
-    Zoosporangia, 10.
-
-    Zoospores, 10, 87.
-
-    Zooxantella, 9.
-
-    Zostera, 279, 280, 306, 316.
-
-    Zostereæ, 278.
-
-    Zygadenus, 310.
-
-    Zygochytriaceæ, 103.
-
-    Zygomorphy, 277.
-
-    Zygomycetes, 95, 96.
-
-    Zygophyllaceæ, 438.
-
-    Zygophyllum, 438.
-
-    Zygospore, 12.
-
-    Zygote, 12.
-
-    Zygnema, 44, 45.
-
-    Zygnemaceæ, 44.
-
-
-    Butler & Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London.
-
-
-FOOTNOTES:
-
-[1] See Angiospermæ.
-
-[2] According to the recent investigations of Winogradsky some
-micro-organisms (Nitrifying-bacteria) can build organic from inorganic
-matter. Sachs’ hypothesis that the first organisms must necessarily
-have contained chlorophyll is therefore untenable.
-
-[3] Myxogasteres, Engler’s Syllabus, p. 1.
-
-[4] Acrasieæ and Plasmodiophorales, _ibid._
-
-[5] Myxophyceæ, Cyanophyceæ.
-
-[6] The Bacteria are more usually included under Fungi. It seems
-better, however, to place them under the Algæ in a separate class with
-the Schizophyceæ.
-
-[7] See Marshall Ward, “On the Characters or Marks employed for
-Classifying the Schizomycetes,” _Annals of Botany_, 1892.
-
-[8] According to Hansen these are not disease forms, but occur
-regularly under certain conditions, _e.g._ temperature.
-
-[9] Before fertilisation the oosphere divides and cuts off at the base
-one or more cells (polar bodies?), termed “wendungszellen.”
-
-[10] From the Greek μὐκης = Fungus, hence “mycology.”
-
-[11] This term is adopted as a translation of the German “anlage.”
-
-[12] Also termed Water-Fungi (Wasserpilzen).
-
-[13] Antheridium is preferred in this sub-class as keeping a more
-uniform term (Kn).
-
-[14] In the _resupinate_ fruit-bodies a fertile and sterile
-surface cannot be distinguished (_cf._ Polyporaceæ and some
-_Stereum_-species).
-
-[15] The two last genera are identical, the Algal part being a
-_Scytonema_, that of _Cora_ a _Chroococcus_; while the same Fungus--a
-_Thelephora_--takes part in the formation of all three (A. Möller,
-Flora, 1893).
-
-[16] Formerly termed _oophyte_.
-
-[17] The oospore divides by a wall transverse or oblique to the longer
-axis of the archegonium. From the upper (epibasal) cell, the capsule
-(and seta) is derived, while the lower (hypobasal) gives rise to the
-_foot_. In _Riccia_ the hypobasal half takes part in the
-formation of the sporangium.
-
-[18] In the Polypodiaceæ unisexual prothallia as distinct as those of
-_Equisetum_ are of common occurrence.
-
-[19] The position of the annulus varies in the different orders;
-longitudinal in Polypodiaceæ, Hymenophyllaceæ, and Cyatheaceæ;
-transverse in Schizæaceæ, Gleicheniaceæ; indistinct or apical in
-Osmundaceæ, Ophioglossaceæ, Marattiaceæ, Salviniaceæ, Marsiliaceæ.
-
-[20] The former genus _Pteris_ is divided into _Pteris_ and
-_Pteridium_.
-
-[21] Floral-leaves (hypsophyllary leaves) are here adopted as an
-equivalent of the term “Hochblätter,” to signify leaves on the
-floral-shoot other than foliage or sporangia-bearing leaves. The
-term _bract_ is applied only to leaves in whose axil a flower
-is borne, and _bracteoles_ to leaves borne on the flower-stalk
-(_pedicel_).
-
-[22] It may be here remarked that another explanation is possible,
-based on the study of the development (_K_).
-
-[23] Piperaceæ, Nymphæaceæ.
-
-[24] “Fore-leaf” is adopted as a translation of “Vorblatt.”
-
-[25] Regarding these and other abbreviations see the appendix in the
-book.
-
-[26] Syncarp = cluster of fruits belonging to one flower.
-
-[27] “Fan” and “sickle” are adopted as terms for these inflorescences
-from the German “_fæchel_” and “_sichel_.”
-
-[28] [Although unbranched stems are characteristic of the Palms, yet
-branched specimens are recorded from some eleven genera. The branches
-are developed from lateral buds, which in many instances only develope
-when the terminal bud has been destroyed. A few Palms develope axillary
-branches at the base of the stem; these form rhizomes, and give rise to
-clusters of aerial stems.]
-
-[29] The aggregation of the fruits of several distinct flowers into one
-mass.
-
-[30] According to Pfitzer, the column is the prolongation of the floral
-axis beyond the insertion of the perianth, and is not formed by the
-coalescence of sporophylls (filament and style).
-
-[31] _Cypripedilum_ = _Cypripedium_.
-
-[32] _Corallorhiza_ = _Coralliorrhiza_.
-
-[33] This is Eichler’s view.--According to Drude the perianth is
-absent; at the base of the bracts, a nectary or cup-like disc. Prantl
-holds the same view. According to Pax the perianth is absent, but there
-is a disc cup-like, or reduced to a single toothed scale.
-
-[34] The fruit of the Walnut is thus a false fruit; and the term drupe
-must therefore not be used in the same sense as in the Rosaceæ.
-
-[35] The pollen-tube in _Ulmus_ does not enter the ovule through
-the micropyle.
-
-[36] According to Prantl, some species of _Trollius_ (_T.
-europæus_, and _asiatiacus_) have a perianth, differentiated
-into calyx and corolla, which does not pass over into the honey-leaves.
-The outer leaves of the perianth have frequently an incised apex, the
-intermediate ones sometimes present transitional forms to the inner,
-and sometimes there is a distinct boundary between them.
-
-[37] If we suppose a spiral line drawn through the leaves
-_upwards_ on a stem with scattered leaves (in the shortest way),
-then the side of the leaf first touched is the catodic, or descending,
-and the other the anodic, or ascending side.
-
-[38] Those marked [+] are officinal, and when no home is stated, the
-plant is a native.
-
-[39] Those which are officinal are indicated by [+].
-
-[40] Those marked with a [+] are officinal.
-
-[41] For further reference see Sachs, _History of Botany_;
-Lindley, _Vegetable Kingdom_; Le Maout and Decaisne, _General
-System of Botany_, etc.
-
-
-Transcriber’s Notes:
-
-1. Obvious printers’, punctuation and spelling errors have been
-corrected silently.
-
-2. Where hyphenation is in doubt, it has been retained as in the
-original.
-
-3. Some hyphenated and non-hyphenated versions of the same words have been
-retained as in the original.
-
-4. Superscripts are represented using the caret character, e.g. D^r. or
-X^{xx}. Subscripts are shown as _{1}.
-
-5. Italics are shown as _xxx_.
-
-6. Smaller font is shown as ~xxx~.
-
-7. Bold print is shown as =xxx=.
-
-8. The corrigenda have been corrected.
-
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-<body>
-<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of A handbook of systematic botany, by Johannes Eugenius Warming</p>
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
-at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
-are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
-country where you are located before using this eBook.
-</div>
-
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: A handbook of systematic botany</p>
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Johannes Eugenius Warming</p>
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Translator: Michael Cresse Potter</p>
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Contributor: Emil Friedrich Knoblauch</p>
-<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: July 21, 2022 [eBook #68580]</p>
-<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p>
-  <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Peter Becker, Karin Spence and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p>
-<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK A HANDBOOK OF SYSTEMATIC BOTANY ***</div>
-
-<h1><span class="smaller">A HANDBOOK</span><br />
-
-<span class="sm">OF</span><br />
-
-SYSTEMATIC BOTANY</h1>
-
-<p class="center p2 xs">BY</p>
-
-<p class="center">DR. E. WARMING</p>
-
-<p class="center p0"><i>Professor of Botany in the University of Copenhagen</i></p>
-
-<p class="center sm"><span class="smcap">With a Revision of the Fungi by</span><br />
-
-DR. E. KNOBLAUCH,<br />
-
-<span class="xs"><i>Karlsruhe</i></span></p>
-
-<p class="center p2"><span class="smcap">Translated and Edited by</span><br />
-
-M. C. POTTER, M.A. F.L.S.</p>
-
-<p class="center xs"><i>Professor of Botany in the University of Durham<br />
-College of Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne<br />
-Author of “An Elementary Text-book of Agricultural Botany”</i></p>
-
-<p class="center p1 xs">WITH 610 ILLUSTRATIONS</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="a003">
-    <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/a003.jpg"
-    alt="" />
-  </div>
-
-<p class="center sm"><b>London</b></p>
-
-<p class="center">SWAN SONNENSCHEIN &amp; CO</p>
-
-<p class="center sm">NEW YORK: MACMILLAN &amp; CO</p>
-
-<p class="center sm">1895</p>
-
-
-
-<p class="smcap xs p6 center">Butler &amp; Tanner,<br />
-The Selwood Printing Works,<br />
-Frome, and London.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[v]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="gesperrt">PREFACE.</h2>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="a009_deco">
-    <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/a009_deco.jpg"
-    alt="" />
-  </div>
-
-<p>The present translation of Dr. E. Warming’s <i>Haandbog i den
-Systematiske Botanik</i> is taken from the text of the 3rd Danish
-Edition (1892), and from Dr. Knoblauch’s German Edition (1890), and
-the book has been further enriched by numerous additional notes which
-have been kindly sent to me by the author. Dr. Warming’s work has long
-been recognised as an original and important contribution to Systematic
-Botanical Literature, and I have only to regret that the pressure
-of other scientific duties has delayed its presentation to English
-readers. Dr. Warming desires me to record his high appreciation of the
-careful translation of Dr. Knoblauch, and his obligation to him for a
-number of corrections and improvements of which he has made use in the
-3rd Danish Edition. In a few instances I have made slight additions
-to the text; these, however, appear as footnotes, or are enclosed in
-square brackets.</p>
-
-<p>In the present Edition the Thallophytes have been revised and
-rearranged from notes supplied to me by Dr. Knoblauch, to whom I am
-indebted for the Classification of the Fungi, according to the more
-recent investigations of Brefeld. The Bacteria have been revised by
-Dr. Migula, the Florideæ rearranged after Schmitz, and the Taphrinaceæ
-after Sadebeck. The main body of the text of the Algæ and Fungi remains
-as it was originally written by Dr. Wille and Dr. Rostrup in the Danish
-Edition, though in many places considerable alterations and additions
-have been made. For the sake of comparison a tabular key to the
-Classification adopted in the Danish Edition is given in the Appendix.</p>
-
-<p>In the Angiosperms I have retained the sequence of orders in the Danish
-original, and have not rearranged them according to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vi">[vi]</span> the systems
-more familiar to English students. In any rearrangement much of the
-significance of Dr. Warming’s valuable and original observations
-would have been lost, and also from a teacher’s point of view I have
-found this system of great value. Although at present it may not be
-completely satisfactory, yet as an attempt to explain the mutual
-relationships, development and retrogression of many of the orders, it
-may be considered to have a distinct advantage over the more artificial
-systems founded upon Jussieu’s Divisions of Polypetalæ, Gamopetalæ, and
-Apetalæ.</p>
-
-<p>With reference to the principles of the systematic arrangement adopted,
-I may here insert the following brief communication from the author
-(dated March, 1890), which he has requested me to quote from the
-preface of Dr. Knoblauch’s edition:&mdash;“Each form which, on comparative
-morphological considerations, is clearly less simple, or can be shown
-to have arisen by reduction or through abortion of another type having
-the same fundamental structure, or in which a further differentiation
-and division of labour is found, will be regarded as younger, and
-as far as possible, and so far as other considerations will admit,
-will be reviewed later than the ‘simpler,’ more complete, or richer
-forms. For instance, to serve as an illustration: <span class="smcap">Epigyny</span>
-and <span class="smcap">Perigyny</span> are less simple than <span class="smcap">Hypogny</span>; the
-Epigynous <i>Sympetalæ</i>, <i>Choripetalæ</i>, <i>Monocotyledones</i>
-are, therefore, treated last, the <i>Hydrocharitaceæ</i> are
-considered last under the <i>Helobieæ</i>, etc. <span class="smcap">Zygomorphy</span>
-is younger than <span class="smcap">Actinomorphy</span>; the <i>Scitamineæ</i> and
-<i>Gynandræ</i> therefore follow after the <i>Liliifloræ</i>, the
-<i>Scrophulariaceæ</i> after the <i>Solanaceæ</i>, <i>Linaria</i> after
-<i>Verbascum</i>, etc. <span class="smcap">Forms with united leaves</span> indicate
-younger types than those with free leaves; hence the <i>Sympetalæ</i>
-come after the <i>Choripetalæ</i>, the <i>Sileneæ</i> after the
-<i>Alsineæ</i>, the <i>Malcaceæ</i> after the <i>Sterculiaceæ</i> and
-<i>Tiliaceæ</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<p>“<span class="smcap">Acyclic</span> (spiral-leaved) flowers are older than cyclic
-(verticillate-leaved) with a definite number, comparing, of
-course, only those with the same fundamental structure. The
-<i>Veronica</i>-type must be considered as younger, for example, than
-<i>Digitalis</i> and <i>Antirrhinum</i>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_vii">[vii]</span> these again as younger than
-<i>Scrophularia</i>; <i>Verbascum</i>, on the contrary, is the least
-reduced, and therefore considered as the oldest form. Similarly the
-one-seeded, nut-fruited <i>Ranunculaceæ</i> are considered as a later
-type (with evident abortion) than the many-seeded, folicular forms of
-the Order; the <i>Paronychieæ</i> and <i>Chenopodiaceæ</i> as reduced
-forms of the <i>Alsineæ</i> type; and the occurrence of few seeds in
-an ovary as generally arising through reduction of the many-seeded
-forms. The <i>Cyperaceæ</i> are regarded as a form derived from the
-<i>Juncaceæ</i> through reduction, and associated with this, as is
-so often the case, there is a complication of the inflorescence; the
-<i>Dipsacaceæ</i> are again regarded as a form proceeding from the
-<i>Valerianaceæ</i> by a similar reduction, and these in their turn
-as an offshoot from the <i>Caprifoliaceæ</i>, etc. Of course these
-principles of systematic arrangement could only be applied very
-generally; for teaching purposes they have often required modification.”</p>
-
-<p>In preparing the translation considerable difficulty has been
-experienced in finding a satisfactory rendering of several terms which
-have no exact equivalent in English. I may here especially mention the
-term Vorblatt (Forblad) which I have translated by the term bracteole,
-when it clearly applied to the first leaf (or leaves) on a pedicel; but
-in discussing questions of general morphology a term was much needed
-to include both vegetative and floral shoots, and for this I have
-employed the term “Fore-leaf.” Also, the term “Floral-leaf” has been
-adopted as an equivalent of “Hochblatt,” and the term “bract” has been
-limited to a leaf subtending a flower. I have followed Dr. E. L. Mark
-in translating the word “Anlage” by “Fundament.”</p>
-
-<p>At the end of the book will be found a short appendix giving an outline
-of some of the earlier systems of Classification, with a more complete
-account of that of Hooker and Bentham.</p>
-
-<p>In a book of this character it is almost impossible to avoid some
-errors, but it is hoped that these will be comparatively few. In
-correcting the proof-sheets I have received invaluable assistance
-from Dr. Warming and Dr. Knoblauch, who have kindly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_viii">[viii]</span> read through
-every sheet, and to whom I am greatly indebted for many criticisms
-and suggestions. I have also to thank Mr. I. H. Burkill for his kind
-assistance in looking over the proofs of the Monocotyledons and
-Dicotyledons, and Mr. Harold Wager for kindly reading through the
-proofs of the Algæ and Fungi. My thanks are also especially due to Mr.
-E. L. Danielsen, and I wish to take this opportunity of acknowledging
-the very considerable help which I have received from him in
-translating from the Original Danish.</p>
-
-<p class="r2 p0">M. C. POTTER.</p>
-
-<p class="p-min"><i>January, 1895.</i></p>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[ix]</span></p>
-
-<h2>TABLE OF CONTENTS.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class="center">BEING THE SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION ADOPTED IN
- THE PRESENT VOLUME.</p>
-
-<p class="center">(<i>The Algæ and Fungi rearranged in co-operation with Dr. E.
-Knoblauch, the other Divisions as in the 3rd Danish Edition.</i>)</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter">
-    <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/a009_deco.jpg"
-    alt="" />
-  </div>
-
-<table summary="contents" class="smaller">
-  <tr>
-    <th></th>
-    <th class="pag">PAGE</th>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr">DIVISION I. THALLOPHYTA</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht">A. Sub-Division. Myxomycetes, Slime-Fungi</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht">B. Sub-Division. Algæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_8">8</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 1. <span class="smcap">Syngeneticæ</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">&emsp;„&emsp;2. <span class="smcap">Dinoflagellata</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">&emsp;„&emsp;3. <span class="smcap">Diatomeæ</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">&emsp;„&emsp;4. <span class="smcap">Schizophyta</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 1. Schizophyceæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp; 2. Bacteria</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 5. <span class="smcap">Conjugatæ</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">&emsp;„&emsp;6. <span class="smcap">Chlorophyceæ</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 1. Protococcoideæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. Confervoideæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;3. Siphoneæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 7. <span class="smcap">Characeæ</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">&emsp;„&emsp;8. <span class="smcap">Phæophyceæ (Olive-Brown Seaweeds)</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 1. Phæosporeæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. Cyclosporeæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 9. <span class="smcap">Dictyotales</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">&emsp;„&emsp;10. <span class="smcap">Rhodophyceæ (Red Seaweeds)</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 1. Bangioideæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. Florideæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht">C. Sub-Division. Fungi</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 1. <span class="smcap">Phycomycetes</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">Sub-Class 1. <i>Zygomycetes</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp; 2. <i>Oomycetes</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 1. Entomophthorales</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. Chytridiales</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_102">102</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;3. Mycosiphonales<span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">[x]</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 2. <span class="smcap">Mesomycetes</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">Sub-Class 1. <i>Hemiasci</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;2. <i>Hemibasidii</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 3. <span class="smcap">Mycomycetes</span> (<span class="smcap">Higher Fungi</span>)</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">Sub-Class 1. <i>Ascomycetes</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht3">Series 1. Exoasci</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht3">&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;2. Carpoasci</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 1. Gymnoascales</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. Perisporiales</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;3. Pyrenomycetes</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;4. Hysteriales</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;5. Discomycetes</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;6. Helvellales</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht5">Ascolichenes</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">Sub-Class 2. <i>Basidiomycetes</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht3">Series 1. Protobasidomycetes</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht3">&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;2. Autobasidiomycetes</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 1. Dacryomycetes</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. Hymenomycetes</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;3. Phalloideæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;4. Gasteromycetes</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht5">Basidiolichenes</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Fungi Imperfecti</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr1">DIVISION II. MUSCINEÆ (MOSSES)</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 1. <span class="smcap">Hepaticæ</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 1. Marchantieæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. Anthoceroteæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;3. Jungermannieæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_191">191</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 2. <span class="smcap">Musci frondosi</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 1. Sphagneæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. Schizocarpeæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;3. Cleistocarpeæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;4. Stegocarpeæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_195">195</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr1">DIVISION III. PTERIDOPHYTA</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 1. <span class="smcap">Filicinæ</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">Sub-Class 1. <i>Filices</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 1. Eusporangiatæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. Leptosporangiatæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_212">212</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">Sub-Class 2. <i>Hydropterideæ</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_215">215</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 2. <span class="smcap">Equisetinæ (Horsetails)</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">Sub-Class 1. <i>Isosporous Equisetinæ</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_221">221</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;2. <i>Heterosporous Equisetinæ</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_225">225</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 3. <span class="smcap">Lycopodinæ (Club Mosses)</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">Sub-Class 1. <i>Lycopodieæ</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_226">226</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;2. <i>Selaginelleæ</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">[xi]</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_228">228</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1"><span class="smcap">Transition from the Cryptogams to the Phanerogams</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">Asexual Generation of the Cormophytes</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_234">234</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">Sexual Generation; Fertilisation</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_243">243</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr1">DIVISION IV. GYMNOSPERMÆ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_251">251</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 1. <span class="smcap">Cycadeæ</span> (<span class="smcap">Cycads</span>)</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_252">252</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">&emsp;„&emsp;2. <span class="smcap">Coniferæ</span> (<span class="smcap">Pine-Trees</span>)</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_255">255</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 1. Taxoideæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_259">259</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. Pinoideæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_262">262</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 3. <span class="smcap">Gneteæ</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_270">270</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht5">Fossil Gymnosperms</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_271">271</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr1">DIVISION V. ANGIOSPERMÆ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_273">273</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 1. <span class="smcap">Monocotyledones</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_274">274</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 1. Helobieæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_278">278</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. Glumifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_283">283</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;3. Spadicifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_297">297</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;4. Enantioblastæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_308">308</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;5. Liliifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;6. Scitamineæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_323">323</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;7. Gynandræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_328">328</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Class 2. <span class="smcap">Dicotyledones</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_334">334</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">Sub-Class 1. <i>Choripetalæ</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_337">337</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 1. Salicifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_337">337</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. Casuarinifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_339">339</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;3. Quercifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_340">340</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;4. Juglandifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_349">349</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;5. Urticifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_351">351</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;6. Polygonifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_358">358</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;7. Curvembryæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_363">363</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;8. Cactifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_375">375</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;9. Polycarpicæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_377">377</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;10. Rhœadinæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_393">393</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;11. Cistifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_406">406</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;12. Gruinales</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_416">416</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;13. Columniferæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_421">421</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;14. Tricoccæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_430">430</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;15. Terebinthinæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_435">435</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;16. Aesculinæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_439">439</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;17. Frangulinæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_443">443</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;18. Thymelæinæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_448">448</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;19. Saxifraginæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_451">451</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;20. Rosifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_456">456</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;21. Leguminosæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_466">466</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;22. Passiflorinæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_475">475</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;23. Myrtifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_482">482</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;24. Umbellifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_490">490</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;25. Hysterophyta<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">[xii]</span></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_498">498</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht2">Sub-Class 2. <i>Sympetalæ</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_504">504</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr"><i>A. Pentacyclicæ</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_506">506</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 26. Bicornes</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_506">506</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;27. Diospyrinæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_510">510</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;28. Primulinæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_511">511</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr"><i>B. Tetracyclicæ</i></td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_514">514</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">Family 29. Tubifloræ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_514">514</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;30. Personatæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_517">517</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;31. Nuculiferæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_531">531</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;32. Contortæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_541">541</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;33. Rubiales</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_548">548</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;34. Dipsacales</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_556">556</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;35. Campanulinæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_560">560</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;36. Aggregatæ</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_564">564</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Appendix</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_574">574</a></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Index</td>
-    <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_593">593</a></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2 class="smaller">CORRIGENDA.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<ul>
-  <li class="hangingindent">Page 9, line 12 from top, for <i>Hydrodicton</i> read <i>Hydrodictyon</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;14, lines 1 and 2 from top, for <i>as in the preceding case</i> read <i>in this case</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;14,&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;2 and 15 from top, for <i>zygote</i> read <i>oospore</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;88, line 15 from bottom, for <i>Periphyses</i> read <i>periphyses</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;124,&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;7&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;for <i>Chæromyces</i> read <i>Choiromyces</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;142,&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;2&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;and in Fig. 137, for <i>Bœomyces</i> read <i>Bæomyces</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;152,&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;2&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;top, for <i>Pirus</i> read <i>Pyrus</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;152,&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;5&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;for <i>Crategus</i> read <i>Cratægus</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;216, Fig. 215, for <i>Salvina</i> read <i>Salvinia</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;306, line 6 from top, for <i>Pista</i> read <i>Pistia</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;316,&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;26&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;after Dracæna insert a comma.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;337,&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;13&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;for <i>end</i> read <i>beginning</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;483,&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;11&emsp;„&ensp;&nbsp;bottom, for <i>Lagerstrœmia</i> read <i>Lagerstrœmeria</i>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>For ä, ö and ü read æ, œ and ue throughout.</p>
-
-<p>The following are not officinal in the British Pharmacopœia:&mdash;page
-316, <i>Dracæna</i> (Dragon’s-blood), <i>Smilax glabra</i>; p.
-321, “Orris-root”; p. 326, species of <i>Curcuma</i>, <i>Alpinia
-officinarum</i>; p. 333, <i>Orchis</i>-species (“Salep”). On page <a href="#Page_296">296</a>,
-par. 4, only Pearl Barley is offic. in the Brit. Phar.</p>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[1]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="smaller">CLASSIFICATION OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.</h2>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>The Vegetable Kingdom is arranged in 5 Divisions.</p>
-
-<p>Division I.&mdash;<b>Thallophyta</b>, <b>Stemless Plants</b>, or those which
-are composed of a “thallus,” <i>i.e.</i> organs of nourishment which
-are not differentiated into root (in the sense in which this term is
-used among the higher plants), stem, or leaf. Vascular bundles are
-wanting. Conjugation and fertilisation in various ways; among most of
-the Fungi only vegetative multiplication.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In contradistinction to the Thallophytes all other plants are
-called “Stem-plants” (“Cormophyta”), because their shoots are
-leaf-bearing stems. The name Thallophyta (Stemless-plants) is
-to some extent unsuitable, since many of the higher Algæ are
-differentiated into stem and leaf.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Thallophytes are again separated into 3 sub-divisions, namely:</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li class="hangingindent1">Sub-Division <b>A.</b>&mdash;<b>Myxomycetes, Slime-Fungi</b>, with only 1 class.</li>
-  <li>Sub-Division <b>B.</b>&mdash;<b>Algæ</b>, with 10 classes:</li>
-  <li class="i3">Class 1. Syngeneticæ.</li>
-  <li class="i3">&emsp;„&emsp;2. Dinoflagellata, Peridinea.</li>
-  <li class="i3">&emsp;„&emsp;3. Diatomeæ, Diatoms.</li>
-  <li class="i3">&emsp;„&emsp;4. Schizophyta, Fission Algæ.</li>
-  <li class="i3">&emsp;„&emsp;5. Conjugatæ.</li>
-  <li class="i3">&emsp;„&emsp;6. Chlorophyceæ, Green Algæ.</li>
-  <li class="i3">&emsp;„&emsp;7. Characeæ, Stone-worts.</li>
-  <li class="i3">&emsp;„&emsp;8. Phæophyceæ, Brown Algæ.</li>
-  <li class="i3">&emsp;„&emsp;9. Dictyotales.</li>
-  <li class="i3">&emsp;„&ensp;10. Rhodophyceæ, Red Algæ.</li>
-  <li>Sub-Division <b>C.</b>&mdash;<b>Fungi</b>, with 3 classes:</li>
-  <li class="i3">Class 1. Phycomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i3">&emsp;„&emsp;2. Mesomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i3">&emsp;„&emsp;3. Mycomycetes, Higher Fungi.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Division II.&mdash;<b>Bryophyta or Muscineæ, Mosses.</b> These have
-leaf-bearing shoots, but neither true roots nor vascular<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[2]</span> bundles. The
-lowest Mosses have, however, a thallus. Fertilisation is accomplished
-by means of self-motile, spirally coiled spermatozoids, through the
-agency of water. From the fertilised oosphere a “fruit-body” (capsule)
-with unicellular organs of reproduction (spores) is produced. The spore
-on germination gives rise to the vegetative system, which bears the
-organs of sexual reproduction; and this system is divided into two
-stages&mdash;the protonema, and the leaf-bearing plant produced on it.</p>
-
-<p>Alternation of generations:</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li class="hangingindent2">&ensp;I. The protonema and the entire nutritive system which
-                                     bears the organs of sexual reproduction.</li>
-  <li>II. The capsule-like sporangium, with spores.</li>
-  <li>&ensp;2 Classes: 1. Hepaticæ, Liverworts.</li>
-  <li class="i5">2. Musci, Leafy Mosses.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Division III.&mdash;<b>Pteridophyta or Vascular Cryptogams</b>, <b>Fern-like
-Plants</b> having leaf-bearing shoots, true roots, and vascular bundles
-with tracheides and sieve-tubes. Fertilisation as in the Mosses. From
-the fertilised oosphere the leaf-bearing shoot arises, which bears
-on its leaves the reproductive organs, the spores, in capsule-like
-sporangia. From the germination of the spore a small prothallium is
-formed, which bears the sexual reproductive organs.</p>
-
-<p>Alternation of generations:</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li class="hangingindent2">&ensp;I. Prothallium with organs of sexual reproduction.</li>
-  <li>II. Leaf-bearing shoot with capsule-like sporangia.</li>
-  <li>&ensp;3 Classes: 1. Filicinæ, True Ferns.</li>
-  <li class="i5">2. Equisetinæ, Horsetails.</li>
-  <li class="i5">3. Lycopodinæ, Club-mosses.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Division IV.&mdash;<b>Gymnospermæ.</b> The vegetative organs are in the
-main similar to those in the 3rd Division; special shoots are modified
-into flowers for the service of reproduction. From the oosphere, which
-is fertilised by means of the pollen-tube, the leaf-bearing plant is
-derived; this passes the first period of its life as an embryo in
-the seed, and continues its development when the germination of the
-seed takes place. The organs corresponding to the spores of the two
-preceding Divisions, are called respectively the pollen-grain and
-embryo-sac. The pollen-grains are multicellular; i.e. they contain
-an indistinct prothallium. In the embryo-sac a prothallium, rich in
-reserve material (endosperm),<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[3]</span> with female organs of reproduction, is
-developed <span class="allsmcap">BEFORE FERTILISATION</span>. The pollen-grains are carried
-by means of the wind to the ovules; these enclose the embryo-sac, and
-are situated on the open fruit-leaf (carpel), which has no stigma.</p>
-
-<p>Alternation of generations:</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>&ensp;I. Prothallium = Endosperm in ovule.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent2">II. Leaf-bearing plant, with flowers which produce the pollen-sac
-and ovule.</li>
-  <li>&ensp;3 Classes: 1. Cycadeæ.</li>
-  <li class="i5">2. Coniferæ.</li>
-  <li class="i5">3. Gnetaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Division V.&mdash;<b>Angiospermæ</b>. The members of this group are very
-similar to those of Division IV. The ovules are, however, encased in
-closed fruit-leaves (ovary), which have a special portion (stigma)
-adapted for the reception and germination of the pollen-grains. The
-pollen-grains are bicellular, but with only a membrane separating
-the two nuclei; they are carried to the stigma by animals (chiefly
-insects), by the wind, or by some other means. Endosperm is not formed
-till <span class="allsmcap">AFTER FERTILISATION</span>. Alternation of generations in
-the main as in the Gymnosperms, but less distinct; while the sexual
-generation, the prothallium, with the organs of fertilisation, is also
-strongly reduced.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li class="hangingindent1">2 Classes:<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> 1. Monocotyledones. Embryo with one seed-leaf.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent3">2. Dicotyledones. Embryo with two seed-leaves.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>For a long time the vegetable kingdom has been divided
-into. <span class="smcap">Cryptogams</span> (so called because their organs
-of reproduction remained for some time undiscovered), and
-<span class="smcap">Phanerogams</span> or Flowering-plants which have evident
-sexual organs.</p>&emsp;
-
-<p>The first three divisions belong to the Cryptogams, and the
-third and fourth divisions to the Phanerogams. This arrangement
-has no systematic value, but is very convenient in many ways.</p>
-
-<p>The Cryptogams are also known as Spore-plants, since they
-multiply by unicellular organs (spores), and the Phanerogams in
-contradistinction are called Seed-plants (Spermaphyta), since
-they multiply by seeds, multicellular bodies, the most important
-part of which is the embryo (a plant in its infancy). Mosses,
-Ferns, and Gymnosperms are together known as Archegoniatæ, since
-they possess in common a female organ of distinct structure, the
-Archegonium.</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[4]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="smaller">DIVISION I.<br />
-<span class="subhed">THALLOPHYTA.</span></h2></div>
-
-<p>The thallus in the simplest forms is unicellular; in the majority,
-however, it is built up of many cells, which in a few instances are
-exactly similar; but generally there is a division of labour, so
-that certain cells undertake certain functions and are constructed
-accordingly, while others have different work and corresponding
-structure. Vessels or similar high anatomical structures are seldom
-formed, and the markings on the cell-wall are with few exceptions very
-simple. The Myxomycetes occupy quite an isolated position; their organs
-of nourishment are naked masses of protoplasm (plasmodia).</p>
-
-<p>As regards the external form, the thallus may be entirely without
-special prominences (such as branches, members), but when such are
-present they are all essentially alike in their origin and growth,
-that is, disregarding the hair-structures which may be developed. A
-shoot of a Seaweed or of a Lichen, etc., is essentially the same as any
-other part of the plant; only among the highest Algæ (Characeæ, certain
-Siphoneæ, <i>Sargassum</i>, and certain Red Seaweeds) do we find the
-same differences between the various external organs of the plant body
-as between stem and leaf, so that they must be distinguished by these
-names.</p>
-
-<p><i>Roots</i> of the same structure and development as in the
-Seed-plants are not found, but <i>organs of attachment</i> (rhizoids
-and haptera) serve partly the biological functions of the root.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Systematic division of the Thallophytes</span>. To the Thallophytes
-belong three sub-divisions&mdash;Slime-Fungi, Algæ, and Fungi. Formerly
-the Thallophytes were divided into Algæ, Fungi, and Lichens. But this
-last group must be placed among the Fungi, since they are really
-Fungi, which live symbiotically with Algæ. The <i>Slime-Fungi</i>
-must be separated from the true Fungi as a distinct subdivision. The
-<i>Algæ</i> possess a colouring substance, which is generally green,
-brown, or red, and by means of which they are able to build up organic
-compounds from carbonic acid and water. The Bacteria, especially,
-form an exception to the Algæ in this respect; like the Fungi and
-Slime-Fungi they have as a rule no such colouring material, but must
-have organic carbonaceous food; these plants form no starch, and
-need no light<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[5]</span> for their vegetation (most Fungi require light for
-fructification). The Myxomycetes, Bacteria, and Fungi derive their
-nourishment either as <i>saprophytes</i> from dead animal or vegetable
-matter, or as <i>parasites</i> from living animals or plants (hosts),
-in which they very often cause disease.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>A remark, however, must be made with regard to this division.
-Among the higher plants so much stress is not laid upon the
-biological relations as to divide them into “green” and
-“non-green”; <i>Cuscuta</i> (Dodder), a parasite, is placed
-among the Convolvulaceæ, <i>Neottia</i> and <i>Corallorhiza</i>,
-saprophytes, belong to the Orchidacere, although they live
-like Fungi, yet their relations live as Algæ. In the same
-manner there are some colourless parasitic or saprophytic
-forms among the Algæ, and stress must be laid upon the fact
-that not only the Blue-green Algæ, but also the Bacteria,
-which cannot assimilate carbonic-acid, belong to the Algæ
-group, Schizophyceæ. The reason for this is that systematic
-classifications must be based upon the relationship of form,
-development, and reproduction, and from this point of view we
-must regard the Bacteria as being the nearer relatives of the
-Blue-green Algæ. All the Thallophytes, which are designated
-Fungi (when the entire group of Slime-Fungi is left out), form
-in some measure a connected series of development which only
-in the lower forms (Phycomycetes) is related to the Algæ, and
-probably through them has taken its origin from the Algæ;
-the higher Fungi have then developed independently from this
-beginning. The distinction of colour referred to is therefore
-not the only one which separates the Algæ from the Fungi, but it
-is almost the only characteristic mark by which we can at once
-distinguish the two great sub-divisions of the Thallophytes.</p>
-
-<p>The first forms of life on earth were probably “Protistæ,”
-which had assimilating colour material, or in other words, they
-were Algæ because they could assimilate purely inorganic food
-substances, and there are some among these which belong to the
-simplest forms of all plants. Fungi and Slime-Fungi must have
-appeared later, because they are dependent on other plants which
-assimilate carbon.<a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h2 class="smaller"><i>Sub-Division I.</i>&mdash;<b>MYXOMYCETES, SLIME-FUNGI.</b></h2>
-
-<p>The Slime-Fungi occupy quite an isolated position in the Vegetable
-Kingdom, and are perhaps the most nearly related to the group of
-Rhizopods in the Animal Kingdom. They live in and on organic remains,
-especially rotten wood or leaves, etc., on the surface of which their
-sporangia may be found.</p>
-
-<p>They are organisms without chlorophyll, and in their vegetative
-condition are masses of protoplasm without cell-wall
-(<i>plasmodia</i>). They multiply by means of <i>spores</i>, which
-in the true Slime-Fungi<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[6]</span> are produced in sporangia, but in some
-others<a id="FNanchor_4" href="#Footnote_4" class="fnanchor">[4]</a> free. The spores are round cells (Fig. <a href="#fig1">1</a> <i>a</i>) which
-in all the true Slime-Fungi are surrounded by a cell-wall. The wall
-bursts on germination, and the contents float out in the water which
-is necessary for germination. They move about with swimming and
-hopping motions like swarmspores (<i>e</i>, <i>f</i>), having a cilia
-at the front end and provided with a cell-nucleus and a pulsating
-vacuole. Later on they become a little less active, and creep about
-more slowly, while they continue to alter their form, shooting out
-arms in various places and drawing them in again (<i>g</i>, <i>h</i>,
-<i>i</i>, <i>k</i>, <i>l</i>, <i>m</i>); in this stage they are called
-<i>Myxamœbæ</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig1" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig1.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;<i>a-l</i> Development of
-“<i>Fuligo</i>” from spore to Myxamœba; <i>a-m</i> are magnified 300
-times; <i>m</i> is a Myxamœba of <i>Lycogala epidendron</i>; <i>l´</i>
-three Myxamœbæ of <i>Physarum album</i> about to unite; <i>o</i>, a
-small portion of plasmodium, magnified 90 times.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig2" style="width: 475px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig2.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;The plasmodium (<i>a</i>) of
-<i>Stemonitis fusca</i>, commencing to form into sporangia (<i>b</i>);
-drawn on July 9. The dark-brown sporangia were completely formed by the
-next morning; <i>c-e</i> shows the development of their external form.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig3" style="width: 289px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig3.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Four sporangia of <i>Stemonitis
-fusca</i>, fixed on a branch. <i>a</i> The plasmodium.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig4" style="width: 252px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig4.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Sporangium of <i>Arcyria
-incarnata</i>. <i>B</i> closed; <i>C</i> open; <i>p</i> wall of
-sporangium; <i>cp</i> capilitium.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The Myxamœba grows whilst taking up nourishment from the material in
-which it lives, and multiplies by division. At a later stage a larger
-or smaller number of Myxamœbæ may be seen to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[7]</span> coalesce and form large
-masses of protoplasm, <i>plasmodia</i>, which in the “Flowers of Tan”
-may attain the size of the palm of a hand, or even larger, but in most
-others are smaller. The plasmodia are independent, cream-like masses of
-protoplasm, often containing grains of carbonate of lime and colouring
-matter (the latter yellow in the Flowers of Tan). They creep about in
-the decaying matter in which they live, by means of amœboid movements,
-internal streamings of the protoplasm continually taking place; finally
-they creep out to the surface, and very often attach themselves to
-other objects, such as Mosses, and form sporangia (Fig. <a href="#fig2">2</a>). These are
-stalked or sessile and are generally cylindrical (Fig. <a href="#fig3">3</a>), spherical
-or pear-shaped (Fig. <a href="#fig4">4</a>); they rarely attain a larger size than that of
-a pin’s head, and are red, brown, white, blue, yellow, etc., with a
-very delicate wall. In some genera may be found a “Capillitium” (Fig.
-<a href="#fig4">4</a> <i>cp</i>), or network of branched fine strands between the spores.
-Flowers of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[8]</span> Tan (<i>Fuligo septica</i>) has a fruit-body composed
-of many sporangia (an Æthalium), which has the appearance of flat,
-irregular, brown cakes, inside the fragile external layer of which a
-loose powder, the spores, is found. It generally occurs on heaps of
-tanners’ bark, and appears sometimes in hot-beds in which that material
-is used, and is destructive by spreading itself over the young plants
-and choking them.</p>
-
-<p>All the motile stages may pass into <i>resting stages</i>, the small
-forms only surrounding themselves with a wall, but the large ones at
-the same time divide in addition into polyhedral cells. When favourable
-conditions arise, the walls dissolve and the whole appears again as a
-naked (free-moving) mass of protoplasm.</p>
-
-<p>To the genuine Slime-Fungi belong: <i>Arcyria</i>, <i>Trichia</i>,
-<i>Didymium</i>, <i>Physarum</i>, <i>Stemonitis</i>, <i>Lycogala</i>,
-<i>Fuligo</i>, <i>Spumaria</i>, <i>Reticularia</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Some genera wanting a sporangium-wall belong to the Slime-Fungi:
-<i>Ceratiomyxa</i>, whose fruit-body consists of polygonal plates, each
-bearing stalked spores; <i>Dictyostelium</i>, in which the swarm-stage
-is wanting and which has stalked spores. <i>Plasmodiophora brassicæ</i>
-preys upon the roots of cabbages and other cruciferous plants, causing
-large swellings. <i>Pl. alni</i> causes coral-shaped outgrowths on the
-roots of the Alder (<i>Alnus</i>). <i>Phytomyxa leguminosarum</i> may
-be found in small knobs (tubercles) on the roots of leguminous plants.
-It is still uncertain whether it is this Fungus or Bacteria which is
-the cause of the formation of these tubercles.</p>
-
-
-<h2 class="smaller"><i>Sub-Division</i> II.&mdash;<b>ALGÆ</b>.</h2>
-
-<p><b>Mode of Life.</b> The Algæ (except most of the Bacteria) are
-themselves able to form their organic material by the splitting up of
-the carbonic acid contained in the water, or air in some cases, and for
-this purpose need light. The majority live in water, fresh or salt, but
-many are present on damp soil, stones, bark of trees, etc.</p>
-
-<p>With the exception of the Bacteria, no saprophytes have actually been
-determined to belong to this group, and only very few true parasites
-(for instance, <i>Phyllosiphon arisari</i>, <i>Mycoidea</i>, etc.),
-but a good many are found epiphytic or endophytic on other Algæ, or
-water plants, and on animals (for instance, certain <i>Schizophyceæ</i>
-and <i>Protococcoideæ</i>; <i>Trichophilus welckeri</i> in the hairs
-of <i>Bradypus</i>, the Sloth), and several species in symbiotic
-relation to various<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[9]</span> Fungi (species of Lichen), to Sponges (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Trentepohlia spongiophila</i>, <i>Struvea delicatula</i>), and to
-sundry Infusoria and other lower animals as Radiolarias, <i>Hydra</i>,
-etc. (the so-called <i>Zoochlorella</i> and <i>Zooxantella</i>, which
-are perhaps partly stages in development of various Green and Brown
-Algæ).</p>
-
-<p><b>Vegetative Organs.</b> The cells in all the Algæ (excepting certain
-reproductive cells) are surrounded by a membrane which (with the
-exception of the Bacteria) consists of pure or altered cellulose,
-sometimes forming a gelatinous covering, at other times a harder one,
-with deposits of chalk or silica formed in it. The cell-nucleus,
-which in the Schizophyta is less differentiated, may be one or more
-(<i>e.g. Hydrodictyon</i>, <i>Siphoneæ</i>) in each cell.
-Excepting in the majority of the Bacteria, <i>colour materials</i> (of
-which <i>chlorophyll</i>, or modifications of it, always seems to be
-found) occur, which either permeate the whole cytoplasm surrounding
-the cell-nucleus, as in most of the coloured Schizophyta, or are
-contained in certain specially formed small portions of protoplasm
-(chromatophores).</p>
-
-<p>The individual at a certain stage of development consists nearly always
-of only one cell; by its division multicellular individuals may arise,
-or, if the daughter-cells separate immediately after the division, as
-in many of the simplest forms, the individual will, during the whole
-course of its existence, consist of only a single cell (unicellular
-Algæ). In multicellular individuals the cells may be more or less
-firmly connected, and all the cells of the individual may be exactly
-alike, or a division of labour may take place, so that certain cells
-undertake certain functions, and are constructed accordingly; this
-may also occur in parts of the cell in the large unicellular and
-multinuclear Algæ (Siphoneæ, p. <a href="#Page_62">62</a>).</p>
-
-<p>The cells in most of the Algæ belong to the <i>parenchymatous</i>
-form; these, however, in the course of their growth, may very often
-become somewhat oblong; in many Algæ (particularly Fucoideæ and
-Florideæ) occur, moreover, <i>hyphæ-like threads</i>, which are very
-long, often branched, and are either formed of a single cell, or,
-more frequently, of a row of cells, having a well-pronounced apical
-growth. The parenchymatous as well as the hyphæ-like cells may, in the
-higher Algæ (especially in certain Fucoideæ and Florideæ), be further
-differentiated, so that they form well-defined anatomico-physiological
-systems of tissue, <i>i.e.</i> assimilating, conducting, storing, and
-mechanical.</p>
-
-<p>With regard to <i>the external form</i>, the thallus may present no<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span>
-differentiation, as in many unicellular Algæ, or in multicellular Algæ
-of the lower order, which are then either equally developed in all
-directions (<i>e.g. Pleurococcus</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig47">47</a>), or form flat
-cell-plates (<i>Merismopedium</i>) or threads (<i>Oscillaria</i>,
-Fig. <a href="#fig21">21</a>). The first step in the way of differentiation appears as a
-difference between apex and base (<i>Rivularia</i>, <i>Porphyra</i>);
-but the division of labour may proceed so that differences may arise
-between vegetative and reproductive cells (<i>Œdogonium</i>, Fig.
-<a href="#fig54">54</a>); hairs and organs of attachment (rhizoids and haptera), which
-biologically serve as roots, are developed, and even leaves in certain
-forms of high order, belonging to different classes (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Caulerpa</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig59">59</a>; <i>Characeæ</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig61">61</a>; <i>Sargassum</i>,
-Fig. <a href="#fig72">72</a>; and many Florideæ).</p>
-
-<p><b>The non-sexual reproduction</b> takes place <i>vegetatively</i>, in
-many instances, simply by division into two, and more or less complete
-separation of the divisional products (Diatomaceæ, Desmidiaceæ (Fig.
-<a href="#fig36">36</a>), many Fission-plants, etc.), or by detached portions of the thallus
-(<i>e.g. Caulerpa</i>, <i>Ulva lactuca</i>, etc.; among many
-Schizophyceæ, small filaments known as <i>hormogonia</i> are set free),
-or <i>asexually</i> by special reproductive cells (<i>spores</i>)
-set free from the thallus; these may be either <i>stationary</i>
-or <i>motile</i>. The stationary reproductive cells (spores) may
-either be devoid of cell-wall (tetraspores of the Florideæ), or may
-possess a cell-wall; in the latter case they may be formed directly
-from the vegetative cells, generally by the thickening of the walls
-(<i>akinetes</i>), or only after a process of re-juvenescence
-(<i>aplanospores</i>). Aplanospores, as well as akinetes, may either
-germinate immediately or may become resting-cells, which germinate only
-after a period of rest.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The motile asexual reproductive cells</span> are spherical, egg- or
-pear-shaped, naked, <i>swarmspores</i> (<i>zoospores</i>), which have
-arisen in other cells (<i>zoosporangia</i>), and propel themselves
-through the water by means of cilia; or they are <i>Phyto-Amœbæ</i>,
-which have no cilia and creep on a substratum by means of pseudopodia.
-The cilia, which are formed from the protoplasm (in the Bacteria,
-however, from the membrane), are mostly situated at the pointed and
-colourless end, which is directed forwards when in motion, and are
-1, 2 (Fig. <a href="#fig5">5</a> <i>B</i>), 4 or more. Both the cilia in the Brown Algæ
-are attached to one side (Fig. <a href="#fig65">65</a>); they are occasionally situated
-in a circle round the front end (<i>Œdogonium</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig6">6</a> <i>a</i>,
-and <i>Derbesia</i>), or are very numerous and situated in pairs
-distributed over a large part or nearly the whole of the zoospore
-(<i>Vaucheria</i>). Besides being provided with one or more nuclei<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span>
-(<i>Vaucheria</i>), they may also have a red “eye spot” and vacuoles,
-which are sometimes pulsating, <i>i.e.</i> they appear and reappear
-at certain intervals. The swarmspores move about in the water in
-irregular paths, and apparently quite voluntarily, revolving round
-their longer axes; but they come to the surface of the water in great
-numbers either because of their dependence on light, or driven by
-warm currents in the water, or attracted by some passing mass of food
-material. The swarmspores germinate, each forming a new plant, as their
-movement ceases they surround themselves with a cell-wall, grow, and
-then divide; in Fig. <a href="#fig6">6</a> <i>b</i>, two may be seen in the condition of
-germination, and about to attach themselves by means of the front end,
-which has been developed into haptera (see also Fig. <a href="#fig5">5</a> <i>B</i>, lowest
-figure).</p>
-
-<p><b>The sexual reproduction</b> here, probably in all cases, consists in
-the coalescence of two masses of protoplasm, that is, in the fusion of
-their nuclei.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig5" style="width: 581px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig5.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;<i>Cladophora glomerata. A</i>
-The lower cells are full of swarmspores, whilst from the upper one the
-greater part have escaped through the aperture <i>m</i>. <i>B</i> Free
-and germinating swarmspores.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig6" style="width: 351px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig6.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;<i>Œdogonium</i>: <i>a</i> (free),
-<i>b</i> germinating swarmspores.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig7" style="width: 548px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig7.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;<i>Zanardinia collaris.</i>
-<i>A</i> Male gametangia (the small-celled) and female gametangia
-(large-celled). <i>C</i> Female gamete. <i>D</i> Male gamete. <i>B</i>
-<i>E</i> Fertilisation. <i>F</i> Zygote. <i>G</i> Germinating zygote.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The simplest and lowest form is termed <b>conjugation</b>, or
-<b>isogamous</b> fertilisation, and is characterized by the fact
-that the two coalescing cells (termed gametes) are equal, or almost
-equal, in shape and size (the female gamete in the <i>Cutleriaceæ</i>,
-<i>e.g. Zanardinia<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[12]</span> collaris</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig7">7</a>, is considerably
-larger than the male gamete). The cell in which the <i>gametes</i>
-are developed is called a <i>gametaugium</i>, and the reproductive
-cell formed by their union&mdash;which generally has a thick wall and only
-germinates after a short period of rest&mdash;is termed a <i>zygote</i> or
-<i>zygospore</i>. The conjugation takes place in two ways:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>(<i>a</i>) In the one way the gametes are motile cells
-(<i>planogametes</i>, <i>zoogametes</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig8">8</a>), which unite in pairs
-during their swarming hither and thither in the water; during this
-process they lie side by side (Fig. <a href="#fig8">8</a> <i>d</i>), generally at first
-touching at the clear anterior end, and after a time they coalesce
-and become a motionless <i>zygote</i>, which surrounds itself with
-a cell-wall (Fig. <a href="#fig8">8</a> <i>e</i>). This form of conjugation is found in
-<i>Ulothrix</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig8">8</a> <i>d</i>), <i>Acetabularia</i>, and other Algæ
-(Figs. <a href="#fig45">45</a>, <a href="#fig56">56</a>, <a href="#fig66">66</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig8" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig8.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;<i>Ulothrix zonata</i>: a portion
-of a thread with zoospores, of which two are formed in each cell
-(zoosporangium), the dark spots upon them are the “red eye-spots”; 1,
-2, 3, 4 depict successive stages in the development of the zoospores;
-<i>b</i> a single zoospore, at <i>v</i> the pulsating vacuole; <i>c</i>
-portion of a thread with gametes, of which sixteen are formed in
-each gametangium; <i>d</i> gametes free and in conjugation; <i>e</i>
-conjugation has been effected, and the formed zygotes are in the
-resting condition.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>(<i>b</i>) Among other Algæ (<i>e.g. Diatomaceæ</i> and
-<i>Conjugatæ</i>), the conjugating cells continue to be surrounded
-by the cell-wall of the mother-cell (<i>aplanogametes</i> in an
-<i>aplanogametangium</i>); the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span> aplanogametangia generally grow out
-into short branches, which lie close together and touch one another,
-the wall at the point of contact is then dissolved (Fig. <a href="#fig39">39</a>). Through
-the aperture thus formed, the aplanogametes unite, as in the first
-instance, and form a rounded zygote, which immediately surrounds itself
-with a cell-wall. Various modifications occur; compare Figs. <a href="#fig37">37</a>, <a href="#fig39">39</a>,
-<a href="#fig41">41</a>, <a href="#fig43">43</a>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig9" style="width: 513px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig9.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 center sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;Fertilisation in the Bladder-wrack
-(<i>Fucus vesiculosus</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig10" style="width: 414px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig10.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;<i>Sphæroplea annulina.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The highest form of the sexual reproduction is the <b>Egg- or
-Oogamous</b> fertilisation. The two coalescing cells are in the
-main unlike each other in form as well as size. The one which is
-considered as the male, and is known as the <i>spermatozoid</i>
-(<i>antherozoid</i>), developes as a rule in large numbers in each
-mother-cell (<i>antheridium</i>); they are often self-motile (except
-in the Florideæ, where they are named <i>spermatia</i>), and are
-many times smaller than the other kind, the female, which is known
-as the <i>egg-cell</i>, (<i>oosphere</i>). The egg-cell is always a
-motionless, spherical, primordial cell which can either float about
-freely in the water, as in the Fucaceæ (Fig. <a href="#fig9">9</a>), or is surrounded by a
-cell-wall (<i>oogonium</i>); generally only one oosphere is to be found
-in each oogonium, but several occur in <i>Sphæroplea</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig10">10</a>). The
-result<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span> of the spermatozoid coalescing with the egg-cell is, as in this
-case, the formation of a oospore, which generally undergoes a period of
-rest before germination (the Florideæ are an exception, a fruit-body,
-<i>cystocarp</i>, being produced as the result of coalescence).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>An example of fertilisation is afforded by the Alga,
-<i>Sphæroplea annulina</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig10">10</a>). The filamentous thallus
-is formed of cylindrical cells with many vacuoles (<i>r</i> in
-<i>A</i>); some cells develope egg-cells (<i>B</i>), others
-spermatozoids (<i>C</i>), the latter in a particularly large
-number. The egg-cells are spherical, the spermatozoids of a
-club- or elongated pear-shape with two cilia at the front end
-(<i>G</i>; <i>E</i> is however a swarmspore). The spermatozoids
-escape from their cells through apertures in the wall (<i>o</i>
-in <i>C</i>) and enter through similar apertures (<i>o</i> in
-<i>B</i>) to the egg-cells. The colourless front end of the
-spermatozoid is united at first with the “receptive spot” of the
-egg-cell (see <i>F</i>), and afterwards completely coalesces
-with it. The result is the formation of a oospore with wart-like
-excrescences (<i>D</i>).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The female (<i>parthenogenesis</i>) or male (<i>androgenesis</i>)
-sexual cell may, sometimes without any preceding fertilisation,
-form a new individual (<i>e.g. Ulothrix zonata</i>,
-<i>Cylindrocapsa</i>, etc.).</p>
-
-<p><b>Systematic division of the Algæ.</b> The Algæ are divided into the
-following ten classes:</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Syngeneticæ</span>; 2. <span class="smcap">Dinoflagellata</span>, or
-<span class="smcap">Peridinea</span>; 3. <span class="smcap">Diatomaceæ</span>; 4. <span class="smcap">Schizophyta,
-Fission-algæ</span>; 5. <span class="smcap">Conjugatæ</span>; 6. <span class="smcap">Chlorophyceæ,
-Green-algæ</span>; 7. <span class="smcap">Characeæ, Stone-worts</span>;
-8. <span class="smcap">Phæophyceæ</span>; 9. <span class="smcap">Dictyotales</span>; 10.
-<span class="smcap">Rhodophyceæ</span>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Among the lowest forms of the Algæ, the Syngeneticæ, the
-Dinoflagellata, and the unicellular Volvocaceæ (Chlamydomoneæ),
-distinct transitional forms are found approaching the animal kingdom,
-which can be grouped as animals or plants according to their method of
-taking food or other characteristics. Only an artificial boundary can
-therefore be drawn between the animal and vegetable kingdoms. In the
-following pages only those forms which possess <i>chromatophores</i>,
-and have <i>no mouth</i>, will be considered as Algæ.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Class 1. <b>Syngeneticæ.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The individuals are uni- or multicellular, free-swimming or motionless.
-The cells (which in the multicellular forms are loosely connected
-together, often only by mucilaginous envelopes) are naked or surrounded
-by a mucilaginous cell-wall, in which silica is never embedded. They
-contain one cell-nucleus, one or more pulsating<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[15]</span> vacuoles, and one to
-two band- or plate-like chromatophores with a brown or yellow colour,
-and sometimes a pyrenoid.</p>
-
-<p>Reproduction takes place by vegetative division, or asexually by
-zoospores, akinetes (or aplanospores?). Sexual reproduction is unknown.
-They are all fresh water forms.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>To this class may perhaps be assigned the recently arranged
-and very little known orders of <i>Calcocytaceæ</i>,
-<i>Murracytaceæ</i>, <i>Xanthellaceæ</i>, and
-<i>Dictyochaceæ</i>, which partly occur in the free condition in
-the sea, in the so-called “Plankton,” and partly symbiotic in
-various lower marine animals.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <i>Syngeneticæ</i> are closely related to certain forms in the
-animal kingdom, as the Flagellatæ.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Chrysomonadinaceæ.</b> Individuals, uni- or
-multicellular, swimming in free condition, naked or surrounded
-by a mucilaginous covering. The cells are generally oval or
-elongated, with 2 (rarely only 1) cilia, almost of the same
-length, and generally with a red “eye-spot” at their base, and
-with 2 (rarely 1 only) band-shaped chromatophores. Reproduction
-by the longitudinal division of the individual cells either
-during the swarming, or during a resting stage; in the
-multicellular forms also by the liberation of one or more cells,
-which in the latter case are connected together.</p>
-
-<p>A. Unicellular: <i>Chromulina</i>, <i>Cryptoglena</i>,
-<i>Microglena</i>, <i>Nephroselmis</i>.</p>
-
-<p>B. Multicellular: <i>Uroglena</i>, <i>Syncrypta</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig11">11</a>),
-<i>Synura</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig11" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig11.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 11.&mdash;<i>Syncrypta volvox</i>: the
-multicellular individual is surrounded by a mucilaginous granular
-envelope.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Among the unicellular Chrysomonadinaceæ are probably classed
-some forms which are only stages in the development of the
-multicellular, or of other <i>Syngeneticæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Chrysopyxaceæ</b> are unicellular, and differ
-mainly from the preceding in being attached either on a
-slime-thread (<i>Stylochrysalis</i>), or enclosed in an
-envelope (<i>Chrysopyxis</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig12">12</a>). They have two cilia,
-and multiply by longitudinal (<i>Chrysopyxis</i>) or transverse
-division, and the swarming of one of the daughter-individuals
-(zoospore). Division may also take place in a motionless stage
-(<i>palmella-stage</i>).</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig12" style="width: 243px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig12.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;<i>Chrsopyxis bipes</i>: <i>m</i>
-envelope, <i>Ec</i> chromatophore, <i>cv</i> contractile vacuole.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Dinobryinaceæ.</b> The individuals are originally
-attached, uni- or multicellular; each individual cell is
-distinctly contractile, and fixed at the bottom of a cup-shaped,
-open envelope. Cilia 2, but of unequal length. Asexual
-reproduction by zoospores, which are formed by straight or
-oblique longitudinal division of the mother-cell, during a
-palmella-stage which is produced in the winter aplanospores.
-<i>Epipyxis</i>, <i>Dinobryon</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[16]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Hydruraceæ.</b> The individuals are attached,
-without cilia, multicellular, branched, and with apical
-growth. The cells are spherical, but in the final stage almost
-spindle-shaped, and embedded in large masses of mucilage.
-Asexual reproduction by zoospores which are tetrahedric, with 1
-cilia, and by resting akinetes. <i>Hydrurus</i> is most common
-in mountain brooks.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h3>Class 2. <b>Dinoflagellata.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The individuals are of a very variable form, but always unicellular,
-and floating about in free condition. The cell is <i>dorsiventral</i>,
-<i>bilateral</i>, <i>asymmetric</i> and generally surrounded by a
-colourless membrane, which has <i>no silica</i> embedded in it, but
-is formed of a substance allied to <i>cellulose</i>. The membrane,
-which externally is provided with pores and raised borders, easily
-breaks up into irregularly-shaped pieces. In the forms which have
-longitudinal and cross furrows, <i>two cilia</i> are fixed where these
-cross each other, and project through a cleft in the membrane; one of
-these cilia <i>projects freely</i> and is directed longitudinally to
-the front or to the rear, the other one <i>stretches crosswise</i>
-and lies close to the cell, often in a furrow (cross furrow). The
-chromatophores are coloured brown or green and may either be two
-parallel (<i>Exuviella</i>), or several radially placed, discs, which
-sometimes may coalesce and become a star-shaped chromatophore. The
-coloring material (pyrrophyl) consists, in addition to a modification
-of chlorophyl, also of <i>phycopyrrin</i> and <i>peridinin</i>;
-this colour is sometimes more or less masked by the products of
-assimilation which consist of yellow, red or colourless oil (?)
-and starch. Cell-nucleus one: in <i>Polydinida</i> several nuclei
-are found; contractile vacuoles many, which partly open in the
-cilia-cleft (Fig. <a href="#fig13">13</a> <i>gs</i>). In some an eye-spot, coloured red by
-hæmatochrome, is found. Pyrenoids occur perhaps in <i>Exuviella</i> and
-<i>Amphidinium</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The reproduction</span> takes place as far as is known at present,
-only by division. This, in many salt water forms, may take place in
-the swarming condition, and, in that case, is always parallel to the
-longitudinal axis. The daughter-individuals, each of which retains half
-of the original shell, sometimes do not separate at once from each
-other, and thus chains (<i>e.g.</i> in <i>Ceratium</i>) of several
-connected individuals may be formed. In others, the division occurs
-after the cilia have been thrown off and the cell-contents rounded. The
-daughter-cells then adopt entirely new cell-walls. A palmella-stage
-(motionless division-stage) sometimes appears to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[17]</span> take place, and also
-aplanospores (?) with one or two horn-like elongations (<i>e.g.</i> in
-<i>Peridinium cinctum</i> and <i>P. tabulatum</i>); at germination one,
-or after division, two or more, new individuals may be formed.</p>
-
-<p>Sexual reproduction has not been observed with certainty.</p>
-
-<p>The Dinoflagellata move forward or backward, turning round their
-longitudinal axes; in their motion they are influenced by the action
-of light. The motion possibly may be produced only by the transverse
-cilium, which vibrates rapidly; whilst the longitudinal cilium moves
-slowly, and is supposed to serve mainly as a steering apparatus. They
-live principally in salt water, but also in fresh.</p>
-
-<p>Besides the coloured forms, which are able to make their own organic
-compounds by the splitting up of the carbonic acid contained
-in the water, there are a few colourless forms (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Gymnodinium spirale</i>), or such as do not possess chromatophores
-(<i>Polykrikos</i>); these appear to live saprophytically, and may be
-able to absorb solid bodies with which they come in contact.</p>
-
-<p>Dinoflagellata occur in the “Plankton” of the open sea, where they form
-together with Diatomaceæ the basis for the animal life. It is known
-with certainty that some salt water forms (like the <i>Noctiluca</i>,
-which belongs to the animal kingdom and to which they are perhaps
-related) produce light, known as phosphorescence.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig13" style="width: 516px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig13.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i> and <i>B Glenodinium
-cinctum</i>. <i>A</i> seen from the ventral side, <i>B</i> from behind;
-<i>fg</i> transverse cilium; <i>g</i> longitudinal cilium; <i>ch</i>
-chromatophores; <i>a</i> starch; <i>n</i> cell-nucleus; <i>v</i>
-vacuole; <i>oc</i> eye-spot; <i>C Ceratium tetraceros</i>
-from the ventral side; <i>r</i> the right, <i>b</i> the posterior
-horn; <i>lf</i> longitudinal furrow; <i>gs</i> cilium-cleft; <i>v</i>
-vacuole; <i>g</i> longitudinal cilium. (<i>A</i> and <i>B</i> mag. 450
-times, <i>C</i> 337 times.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Dinoflagellata</i> (<i>Peridinea</i>, <i>Cilioflagellata</i>)
-are allied through their lowest form (<i>Exuviella</i>) to the
-Syngeneticæ and especially to the order Chrysomonadinaceæ. They
-may be divided into three orders.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Adinida.</b> Without transverse or longitudinal
-furrows, but enclosed in two shells, and with two
-parallel chromatophores in each cell. <i>Exuviella</i>,
-<i>Prorocentrum</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Dinifera.</b> With tranverse and generally
-longitudinal furrow. Many radially-placed, disc-formed
-chromatophores. The most common genera are&mdash;<i>Ceratium</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig13">13</a>), <i>Peridinium</i>, <i>Glenodinium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig13">13</a>),
-<i>Gymnodinium</i>, <i>Dinophysis</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Polydinida.</b> With several transverse furrows,
-no chromatophores, and several cell-nuclei. Only one
-genus&mdash;<i>Polykrikos</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span></p>
-
-<p>The order <i>Polydinida</i> deviates in a high degree from the
-other Dinoflagellata, not only by its many tranverse furrows,
-each with its own transverse cilium, and by the absence of
-chromatophores, but also in having several cell-nuclei and a
-kind of stinging capsule, which otherwise does not occur within
-the whole class. It may therefore be questionable whether this
-order should really be placed in the vegetable kingdom.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h3>Class 3. <b>Diatomeæ.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The individuals&mdash;each known as a <i>frustule</i>&mdash;assume very
-various forms and may be unicellular or multicellular, but present
-no differentiation; many similar cells may be connected in chains,
-embedded in mucilaginous masses, or attached to mucilaginous
-stalks. The cells are bilateral or centric, often asymmetrical,
-slightly dorsiventral and have no cilia; those living in the free
-condition have the power of sliding upon a firm substratum. The cell
-contains 1 cell-nucleus and 1–2 plate-shaped or several disc-shaped
-chromatophores. The colouring material “<i>Melinophyl</i>” contains,
-in addition to a modification of chlorophyl, a brown colouring matter,
-<i>diatomin</i>. 1 or 2 pyrenoids sometimes occur. Starch is wanting
-and the first product of assimilation appears to be a kind of oil (?).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig14" style="width: 289px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig14.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;<i>Pinnularia</i>: <i>B</i>, from the
-edge, shows the valves fitting together; <i>A</i>, a valve.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig15" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig15.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;Various Diatomaceæ. A <i>Diatoma
-vulgare</i>. B <i>Tabellaria flocculosa</i>. C <i>Navicula tumida</i>
-(lateral views). D <i>Gomphonema constrictum</i> (lateral views). E
-<i>Navicula west[=i][=i]</i> (lateral views).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The cell-walls are <i>impregnated with silica</i> to such a degree that
-they are imperishable and are therefore able to contribute in a great
-measure to the formation of the earth’s crust. The structure of their
-cell-wall is most peculiar and <i>differs from all other plants</i>
-(except certain Desmidiaceæ); it does not consist of a single piece
-but is made up of two&mdash;the “shells”&mdash;(compare <i>Exuviella</i> and
-<i>Prorocentrum</i> among the Dinoflagellata) which are fitted into
-each other, one being a little larger than the other and embracing its
-edge, like a box with its lid (Fig. <a href="#fig14">14</a> <i>B</i>). The two parts which
-correspond to the bottom and lid of the box are known as <i>valves</i>.
-Along the central line of the valves a longitudinal <i>rib</i> may
-often be found, interrupted at its centre by a small cleft (perhaps
-homologous with the cilia-cleft of the Dinoflagellata), through which
-the protoplasm is enabled to communicate with the exterior (Fig. <a href="#fig14">14</a>
-<i>A</i>). It is principally by reason of the valves, which bear
-numerous fine, transverse ribs, striæ or warts, etc. (Figs. <a href="#fig14">14</a>, <a href="#fig15">15</a>,
-<a href="#fig17">17</a>), that the Diatomeæ have become so well known and employed as test
-objects in microscopical science. When the division takes place, the
-two shells are separated a little from each other, and after the
-cell-contents have divided into two masses, two new shells are formed,
-one fitting into the larger valve, the other one<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[19]</span> into the smaller
-valve of the original frustule. The latter cell (frustule) is thus,
-upon the whole, smaller than the mother-cell, and as the cells do not
-increase in size, some frustules are smaller than the ones from which
-they are derived, and thus, by repeated divisions, it follows that
-smaller and smaller frustules are produced. This continued diminution
-in size is, however, compensated for by the formation, when the cells
-have been reduced to a certain minimum, of <i>auxospores</i>, 2–3 times
-larger. These may either be formed <i>asexually</i> by the protoplasm
-of a cell increasing, rounding off and surrounding itself with a
-new wall (<i>e.g. Melosira</i>) or after <i>conjugation</i>,
-which may take place with various modifications: 1. Two individuals
-unite after the secretion of a quantity of mucilage, and the valves
-then commence to separate from each other, on the side which the two
-individuals turn towards each other. The protoplasmic bodies now
-release themselves from their cell-wall, and each rounds off to form
-an ellipsoidal mass; these two protoplasmic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span> masses (gametes) coalesce
-to form a zygote, the cell-nuclei and chromatophores also fusing
-together. The zygote increases in size, and surrounds itself with a
-firm, smooth, siliceous wall&mdash;the <i>perizonium</i>. The auxospores,
-whichever way they arise, are not resting stages. The germination of
-the zygote commences by the protoplasm withdrawing itself slightly from
-the cell-wall and constructing first the larger valve, and later on the
-smaller one; finally the membrane of the zygote bursts (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Himantidium</i>). 2. The conjugation occurs in a similar manner, but
-the protoplasm of the cells divides transversely before conjugation
-into two daughter-cells. Those lying opposite one another conjugate
-(Fig. <a href="#fig16">16</a>) and form two zygotes. The formation of the perizonium, and
-germination take place as in the preceding instance (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Epithemia</i>). 3. Two cells place themselves parallel to each
-other, and each of the two cell-contents, without coalescing, becomes
-an auxospore. The formation of the wall takes place as in the preceding
-case. This is found in the Naviculeæ, Cymbelleæ, the Gomphonemeæ
-(<i>e.g. Frustulia</i>, <i>Cocconema</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig16" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig16.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;Conjugation of <i>Cymbella
-variabilis</i>. <i>A</i>, The protoplasm in the two cells has divided
-into two masses; <i>B</i> these masses coalesce in pairs; the cells
-(<i>B C</i>) enclosed in a mucilaginous matrix. <i>C</i>
-<i>D</i> Auxospores and their formation.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The Diatomaceæ may be found in salt as well as in fresh water
-(often in such masses that the colour of the water or mud becomes
-yellow or brown; in the same manner the genera <i>Chætoceros</i>,
-<i>Rhizosolenia</i>, <i>Coscinodiscus</i>, and several others, form
-large slime-masses, “Plankton” on the surface of the sea), on damp soil
-and in dust blown by the wind. They occur as fossils in the recent
-formations, often in large deposits (siliceous earth, mountain meal),
-as in the cement lime in Jutland, the alluvial deposits beneath Berlin,
-in clay strata beneath peat bogs, in guano, etc.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span> These accumulations
-of fossilized diatoms are used in the manufacture of dynamite and in
-various manufactures.</p>
-
-<p>The Diatomaceæ appear nearest to, and must be placed as a group
-co-ordinate with the Dinoflagellata, as they doubtless may be supposed
-to derive their origin from forms resembling <i>Exuviella</i>, and to
-have lost the cilia. The resemblances to the Desmidiaceæ which are
-striking in many respects, can only be conceived as analogies, and
-cannot be founded upon homologies, and it is therefore impossible to
-regard them as proof of genetic relationship. The family contains only
-one order.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig17" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig17.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span>&mdash;Various Diatomeæ. <i>A Synedra
-radians. B Epithemia turgida</i> (from the two different sides).
-<i>C Cymbella cuspidata. D Cocconeis pediculus</i> (on the right
-several situated on a portion of a plant, on the left a single one more
-highly magnified).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Diatomaceæ.</b> This order may be divided into two
-sub-orders, viz.&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>Sub-Order 1. <b>Placochromaticæ.</b> The chromatophores are discoid,
-large, 1 or 2 in each cell; the structure of the valves is bilateral
-and always without reticulate markings. The following groups belong to
-this sub-order: <i>Gomphonemeæ</i>, <i>Cymbelleæ</i>, <i>Amphoreæ</i>,
-<i>Achnantheæ</i>, <i>Cocconeideæ</i>, <i>Naviculeæ</i>,
-<i>Amphipleureæ</i>, <i>Plagiotropideæ</i>, <i>Amphitropideæ</i>,
-<i>Nitzchieæ</i>, <i>Surirayeæ</i>, and <i>Eunotieæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Sub-Order 2. <b>Coccochromaticæ.</b> The chromatophores are granular,
-small and many in each cell. The structure of the cells is zygomorphic
-or centric, often with reticulate markings. The following groups
-belong to this sub-order: <i>Fragilarieæ</i>, <i>Meridieæ</i>,
-<i>Tabellarieæ</i>, <i>Licmophoreæ</i>, <i>Biddulphieæ</i>,
-<i>Anguliferæ</i>, <i>Eupodisceæ</i>, <i>Coscinodisceæ</i>, and
-<i>Melosireæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Class 4. <b>Schizophyta, Fission-Algæ.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The individuals are 1&mdash;many celled; the thallus consists in many of a
-single cell, in others of chains of cells, the cells dividing in only
-one definite direction (Figs. <a href="#fig18">18</a>, <a href="#fig21">21</a>). In certain Fission-Algæ the
-cell-chain branches (Fig. <a href="#fig30">30</a>) and a difference between the anterior
-and the posterior ends of the chain is marked; in some, the cells may
-be united into the form of flat plates by the cell-division taking
-place in two directions; and in others into somewhat cubical masses, or
-rounded lumps of a less decided form, by the divisions taking place in
-three directions; or less defined masses may be formed by the divisions
-taking place in all possible directions.</p>
-
-<p>The cell-walls rarely contain cellulose, they often swell considerably
-(Figs. <a href="#fig20">20</a>, <a href="#fig22">22</a>), and show distinct stratifications, or they are almost
-completely changed into a mucilaginous mass in which the protoplasts
-are embedded, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Nostoc</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig22">22</a>), and in the
-“Zooglœa” stage of the Bacteria (Fig. <a href="#fig27">27</a>). Sexual reproduction is
-wanting. Vegetative reproduction by division and the separation of
-the divisional products by the splitting of the cell-wall or its
-becoming mucilaginous; among the Nostocaceæ, Lyngbyaceæ, Scytonemaceæ,
-etc., “Hormogonia” are found; in <i>Chamæsiphon</i> and others single
-reproductive akinetes are formed. Many Fission-Algæ conclude the
-growing period by the formation of resting akinetes or aplanospores.</p>
-
-<p>The Schizophyta may be divided into 2 families:</p>
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Schizophyceæ.</span></p>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">Bacteria.</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 1. <b>Schizophyceæ,<a id="FNanchor_5" href="#Footnote_5" class="fnanchor">[5]</a> Blue-Green Algæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>All the Blue-green Algæ are able to assimilate carbon by means of
-a colouring material containing chlorophyll (cyanophyll); but the
-chlorophyll in this substance is masked by a blue (phycocyan), or
-red (phycoerythrin, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Trichodesmium erythræum</i>
-in the Red Sea) colouring matter which may be extracted from them
-in cold water after death. The colouring matter, in most of them,
-permeates the whole of the protoplasm (excepting the cell-nucleus),
-but in a few (<i>e.g. Glaucocystis</i>, <i>Phragmonema</i>),
-slightly developed chromatophores are to be found. Where the cells are
-united into filaments (cell-chains) a differentiation into apex and
-base (<i>Rivulariaceæ</i>) may take place, and also between ordinary
-vegetative cells and heterocysts; these latter cannot divide, and are
-distinguished<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span> from the ordinary vegetative cells (Fig. <a href="#fig22">22</a> <i>h</i>) by
-their larger size, yellow colour, and poverty of contents. Branching
-sometimes occurs and is either true or spurious.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig18" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig18.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>&mdash;<i>Microcoleus lyngbyanus</i>:
-<i>a</i> portion of a filament, the thick sheath encloses only one
-cell-chain; in one place a cell is drawn out by the movement of
-the cell-chain; <i>b</i> the cell-chain has divided into two parts
-(“hormongonia”) which commence to separate from each other.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The cell-chain in the spurious branching divides into two parts, of
-which either one or both grow beyond the place of division (Fig.
-<a href="#fig18">18</a>) and often out to both sides (<i>e.g. Scytonema</i>), the
-divisions however, always take place transversely to the longitudinal
-direction of the cell-chain. In the true branching a cell elongates
-in the direction transverse to the cell-chain, and the division
-then takes place nearly at right angles to the former direction
-(<i>Sirosiphoniaceæ</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig19" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig19.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>&mdash;<i>Cylindrospermum majus</i>:
-<i>a</i> resting akinete with heterocyst; <i>b-d</i> germinating
-stages of a resting akinete; <i>e</i> filament with two heterocysts
-and the formation of new akinetes; <i>f</i> part of a filament with a
-heterocyst, and mature resting akinete.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Cilia are wanting, but the filaments are sometimes self-motile
-(<i>e.g.</i> hormogonia in <i>Nostoc</i>) and many partly turn round
-their axes, partly slide forward or backward (<i>Oscillaria</i>).</p>
-
-<p>Reproduction takes place by spores and hormogonia in addition<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[24]</span> to
-simple cell-division. Hormogonia are peculiar fragments of a cell-chain
-capable of motion, and often exhibit a vigorous motion in the sheath,
-until at last they escape and grow into a new individual (Fig. <a href="#fig18">18</a>).
-The spores are reproductive akinetes (<i>Chamæsiphon</i>, etc.) or
-resting akinetes; these latter arise by the vegetative cells enlarging
-and constructing a thick cell-wall (Fig. <a href="#fig19">19</a> <i>e f</i>). On
-germination, this cell-wall bursts and the new cell-chain elongates in
-the same longitudinal direction as before (Fig. <a href="#fig19">19</a> <i>b c</i>).
-Many (<i>e.g. Oscillaria</i>) may however winter in their
-ordinary vegetative stage. Aplanospores are wanting.</p>
-
-<p>The Fission-Algæ are very prevalent in fresh water and on damp soil,
-less so in salt water; they also often occur in water which abounds in
-decaying matter. Some are found in warm springs with a temperature as
-high as 50° C.</p>
-
-<p>The Family may be divided into 2 sub-families:</p>
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Homocysteæ</span> (heterocysts are wanting): <i>Chroococcaceæ</i>,
-<i>Lyngbyaceæ</i> and <i>Chamœsiphonaceæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">Heterocysteæ</span> (heterocysts present): <i>Nostocaceæ</i>,
-<i>Rivulariaceæ</i>, <i>Scytonemaceæ</i> and <i>Sirosiphoniaceæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Chroococcaceæ.</b> The individuals are 1&mdash;many-celled,
-but all the cells are uniform, united to form plates or irregular
-masses, often surrounded by a mucilaginous cell-wall, but never forming
-cell-chains. Multiplication by division and sometimes by resting
-akinetes, but reproductive akinetes are wanting. <i>Chroococcus</i>,
-<i>Aphanocapsa</i>, <i>Glœocapsa</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig20">20</a>), <i>Cœlosphærium</i>,
-<i>Merismopedium</i>, <i>Glaucocystis</i>, <i>Oncobyrsa</i>,
-<i>Polycystis</i>, <i>Gomphosphæria</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig20" style="width: 509px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig20.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span>&mdash;<i>Glœocapsa atrata</i>: <i>A</i>,
-<i>B</i>, <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>, <i>E</i> various stages of development.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig21" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig21.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>&mdash;<i>Oscillaria</i>; <b>a</b> terminal, <b>b</b>
-central portion of a filament.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Lyngbyaceæ (Oscillariaceæ).</b> The cells are discoid (Fig.
-<a href="#fig21">21</a>), united to straight or spirally twisted, free filaments, which are
-unbranched, or with spurious branching. The ends of the cell-chains
-are similar. Heterocysts absent. Reproduction by synakinetes, resting
-akinetes are wanting. <i>Oscillaria</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig21">21</a>), <i>Spirulina</i>,
-<i>Lyngbya</i>, <i>Microcoleus</i>, <i>Symploca</i>, <i>Plectonema</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Chamæsiphonaceæ.</b> The individuals are 1&mdash;many-celled,
-attached, unbranched filaments with differentiation into apex and
-base, without heterocysts. Multiplication by reproductive akinetes;
-resting akinetes are wanting. <i>Dermocarpa</i>, <i>Clastidium</i>,
-<i>Chamæsiphon</i>, <i>Godlewskia</i>, <i>Phragmonema</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Nostocaceæ.</b> The individuals are formed of
-multicellular, unbranched filaments, without differentiation into apex
-and base; heterocysts present. Reproduction by synakinetes and resting
-akinetes.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig22" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig22.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span>&mdash;<i>Nostoc verrucosum. A</i>
-The plant in its natural size; an irregularly folded jelly-like
-mass. <i>B</i> One of the cell-chains enlarged, with its heterocysts
-(<i>h</i>), embedded in its mucilaginous sheath.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Some genera are not mucilaginous, <i>e.g. Cylindrospermum</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig19">19</a>). The cell-chains in others, <i>e.g. Nostoc</i>,
-wind in between one another and are embedded in large structureless
-jelly-like masses, which may attain the size of a plum or even larger
-(Fig. <a href="#fig22">22</a>); sometimes they are found floating in the water, sometimes
-attached to other bodies. Other genera as follows: <i>Aphanizomenon</i>
-and <i>Anabæna</i> (in lakes and smaller pieces of water);
-<i>Nodularia</i> is partly pelagic. Some occur in the intercellular
-spaces of higher plants, thus <i>Nostoc</i>-forms are found in
-<i>Anthoceros</i>, <i>Blasia</i>, <i>Sphagnum</i>, <i>Lemna</i>, and
-in the roots of <i>Cycas</i> and <i>Gunnera</i>; <i>Anabæna</i> in
-<i>Azolla</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Rivulariaceæ.</b> The individuals are multicellular
-filaments, with differentiation into apex and base; spurious branching,
-and a heterocyst at the base of each filament, reproduction by
-synakinetes and resting akinetes, rarely by simple reproductive
-akinetes. <i>Rivularia</i>, <i>Glœotrichia</i>, <i>Isactis</i>,
-<i>Calothrix</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Scytonemaceæ.</b> The individuals are formed
-of multicellular filaments with no longitudinal division;
-differentiation into apex and base very slight or altogether
-absent;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[26]</span> branching spurious; heterocysts present. Reproduction by
-synakinetes, rarely by resting akinetes and ordinary reproductive
-akinetes. <i>Tolypothrix</i>, <i>Scytonema</i>, <i>Hassalia</i>,
-<i>Microchæte</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Sirosiphoniaceæ.</b> The individuals are formed of
-multicellular threads with longitudinal divisions; true branching
-and heterocysts, and often distinct differentiation into apex and
-base. Reproduction by synakinetes, rarely by resting akinetes and
-ordinary reproductive akinetes. <i>Hapalosiphon</i>, <i>Stigonema</i>,
-<i>Capsosira</i>, <i>Nostocopsis</i>, <i>Mastigocoleus</i>.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 2. <b>Bacteria.</b><a id="FNanchor_6" href="#Footnote_6" class="fnanchor">[6]</a></h4>
-
-<p>The Bacteria (also known as Schizomycetes, and Fission-Fungi) are the
-smallest known organisms, and form a parallel group to the Blue-green
-Algæ, but separated from these Algæ by the absence of their colouring
-material; chlorophyll is only found in a few Bacteria.</p>
-
-<p>The various forms under which the vegetative condition of the Bacteria
-appear, are termed as follows:</p>
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Globular forms, cocci</span> (Figs. <a href="#fig27">27</a>, <a href="#fig30">30</a> <i>c</i>): spherical or
-ellipsoidal, single cells, which, however, are usually loosely massed
-together and generally termed “<i>Micrococci</i>.”</p>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">Rod-like forms</span>: more or less elongated bodies; the shorter
-forms have been styled “<i>Bacterium</i>” (in the narrower sense of the
-word), and the term “<i>Bacillus</i>” has been applied to longer forms
-which are straight and cylindrical (Figs. <a href="#fig28">28</a>, <a href="#fig29">29</a>, <a href="#fig30">30</a> <i>E</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig23" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig23.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>&mdash;<i>Spirillum sanguineum.</i> Four
-specimens. One has two cilia at the same end, the sulphur grains are
-seen internally.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>3. <span class="smcap">Thread-like forms</span>: unbranched, long, round filaments,
-resembling those of <i>Oscillaria</i>, are possessed by
-<i>Leptothrix</i> (very thin, non-granular filaments; Fig. <a href="#fig30">30</a> <i>A</i>,
-the small filaments) and <i>Beggiatoa</i> (thicker filaments, with
-strong, refractile grains or drops of sulphur (Fig. <a href="#fig31">31</a>); <span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span>often
-self-motile). Branched filaments, with false branching like many
-<i>Scytonemaceæ</i>, are found in <i>Cladothrix</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig30">30</a> <i>B</i>,
-<i>G</i>).</p>
-
-<p>4. <span class="smcap">Spiral forms</span>: Rod-like or filamentous bodies, which more or
-less strongly resemble a corkscrew with a spiral rising to the left.
-In general these are termed <i>Spirilla</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig23">23</a>); very attenuated
-spirals, <i>Vibriones</i> (standing next to Fig. <a href="#fig30">30</a> <i>M</i>); if
-the filaments are slender and flexible with a closely wound spiral,
-<i>Spirochætæ</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig24">24</a>).</p>
-
-<p>5. The <span class="smcap">Merismopedium-form</span>, consisting of rounded cells
-arranged in one plane, generally in groups of four, and produced by
-divisions perpendicular to each other.</p>
-
-<p>6. The <span class="smcap">Sarcina-form</span>, consisting of roundish cells which are
-produced by cellular division in all the three directions of space,
-united into globular or ovoid masses (“parcels”) <i>e.g. Sarcina
-ventriculi</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig25">25</a>, <a href="#fig26">26</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig24" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig24.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span>&mdash;<i>Spirochæte obermeieri</i>, in
-active motion (<i>b</i>) and shortly before the termination of the
-fever (<i>c</i>); a blood corpuscles.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>All Bacteria are unicellular. In the case of the micrococci this is
-self-evident, but in the “rod,” “thread,” and “spiral” Bacteria, very
-often numerous cells remain united together and their individual
-elements can only be recognised by the use of special reagents.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig25" style="width: 347px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig25.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span>&mdash;<i>Sarcina ventriculi.</i> One
-surface only is generally seen. Those cells which are drawn with double
-contour are seen with the correct focus, and more distinctly than those
-cells lying deeper drawn with single contour.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig26" style="width: 414px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig26.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span>&mdash;<i>Sarcina minuta</i>: <i>a-d</i>
-successive stages of one individual (from 4–10 p.m.); <i>f</i> an
-individual of 32 cells.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The condition termed “Zooglœa,” which reminds us of <i>Nostoc</i>,
-is produced by the cells becoming strongly mucilaginous. A number
-of individuals in active division are found embedded in a mass of
-mucilage, which either contains only one, or sometimes more, of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span>
-the above-named forms. The individuals may eventually swarm out and
-continue their development in an isolated condition. Such mucilaginous
-masses occur especially upon moist vegetables (potatoes, etc.), on
-the surface of fluids with decaying raw or cooked materials, etc. The
-mucilaginous envelope is thrown into folds when the Bacteria, with
-their mucilaginous cell-walls, multiply so rapidly that there is no
-more room on the surface of the fluid.</p>
-
-<p>The cells of the Bacteria are constructed like other plant-cells in
-so far as their diminutive size has allowed us to observe them. The
-cell-wall only exceptionally shows the reactions of cellulose (in
-<i>Sarcina</i>, <i>Leuconostoc</i>; also in a Vinegar-bacterium,
-<i>Bacterium xylinum</i>); a mucilaginous external layer is always
-present. The body of the cell mostly appears to be an uniform
-or finely granulated protoplasm. Very few species (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Bacillus virens</i>) contain chlorophyll; others are coloured red
-(purple sulphur Bacteria); the majority are colourless. <i>Bacillus
-amylobacter</i> shows a reaction of a starch-like material when
-treated with iodine before the spore-formation. Some Bacteria
-contain sulphur (see p. <a href="#Page_37">37</a>). The body, which has been described as a
-<i>cell-nucleus</i>, is still of a doubtful nature.</p>
-
-<p>Artificial colourings with aniline dyes (especially methyl-violet,
-gentian-violet, methylene-blue, fuchsin, Bismarck-brown and Vesuvin)
-play an important part in the investigations of Bacteria.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Movement.</span> Many Bacteria are self-motile; the long
-filaments of <i>Beggiatoa</i> exhibit movements resembling those
-of <i>Oscillaria</i>. In many motile forms the presence of cilia
-or flagella has been proved by the use of stains; many forms have
-one, others several cilia attached at one or both ends (Fig. <a href="#fig23">23</a>) or
-distributed irregularly over the whole body; the cilia are apparently
-elongations of the mucilaginous covering and not, as in the other Algæ
-of the protoplasm. In <i>Spirochæte</i> the movement is produced by
-the flexibility of the cell itself. Generally speaking, the motion
-resembles that of swarm-cells (<i>i.e.</i> rotation round the long axis
-and movement in irregular paths); but either end has an equal power of
-proceeding forwards.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The swarming motion must not be confounded with the hopping
-motion of the very minute particles under the microscope
-(Brownian movement).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Vegetative reproduction</span> takes place by continued transverse<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span>
-division; hence the name “Fission-Fungi” or “Fission-Algæ,” has been
-applied to the Bacteria.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Spores.</span> The spores are probably developed in two ways. In
-the <span class="allsmcap">ENDOSPOROUS</span> species (Figs. <a href="#fig28">28</a>, <a href="#fig29">29</a>), the spore arises
-as a new cell inside the mother-cell. The spores are strongly
-refractile, smaller than the mother-cell, and may be compared to
-the aplanospores of other Algæ. In addition to these there are
-the <span class="allsmcap">ARTHROSPOROUS</span> species in which the cells, just as in
-<i>Nostoc</i> and other Blue-green Algæ, assume the properties of
-spores without previously undergoing an endogenous new construction,
-and are able to germinate and form new vegetative generations (Fig.
-<a href="#fig27">27</a>). The formation of spores very often commences when the vegetative
-development begins to be restricted.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig27" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig27.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span>&mdash;<i>Leuconostoc mesenterioides</i>:
-<i>a</i> a zooglœa, natural size; <i>b</i> cross section of zooglœa;
-<i>c</i> filaments with spores; <i>d</i> mature spores; <i>e-i</i>
-successive stages of germination; in <i>e</i> portions of the ruptured
-spore-wall are seen on the external side of the mucilaginous covering.
-(<i>b-i</i> magnified 520.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The spores germinate as in <i>Nostoc</i> by the bursting of the
-external layer of the cell-wall, either by a transverse or longitudinal
-cleft, but always in the same way, in the same species (Fig. <a href="#fig28">28</a>,
-example of transverse cleft).</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Distribution.</span> Bacteria and their germs capable of development,
-are found everywhere, in the air (dust), in surface water, and in
-the superficial layers of the soil. The number varies very much in
-accordance with the nature of the place, season, etc. They enter,
-together with air and food, into healthy animals and occur always in
-their alimentary tract.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Growth and reproduction</span> depend upon the conditions of
-temperature. There is a certain minimum, optimum and maximum for each
-species; for instance (in degrees Centigrade)&mdash;</p>
-
-<table summary="bacteria" class="smaller">
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht"></td>
-    <td class="ctr">Minim.</td>
-    <td class="ctr">Opt.</td>
-    <td class="ctr">Maxim.</td>
-    <td></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht"><i>Bacillus subtilis</i></td>
-    <td class="right">+ 6</td>
-    <td class="right">c. 30</td>
-    <td class="right">+ 50</td>
-    <td class="cht"></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht"><i>B. anthracis</i></td>
-    <td class="right">15</td>
-    <td class="right">20–25</td>
-    <td class="right">43</td>
-    <td class="cht"></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht"><i>Spirillum choleræ asiaticæ</i></td>
-    <td class="right">8</td>
-    <td class="right">37</td>
-    <td class="right">40</td>
-    <td class="cht">(but grows only feebly if under 16°).</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht"><i>Bacterium tuberculosis</i></td>
-    <td class="right">28</td>
-    <td class="right">37–38</td>
-    <td class="right">42</td>
-    <td class="cht"></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig28" style="width: 564px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig28.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span>&mdash;<i>Bacillus megaterium</i>: <i>a</i>
-outline of a living, vegetative cell-rod; <i>b</i> a living, motile,
-pair of rods; <i>p</i> a similar 4-celled rod after the effects
-of iodine alcohol; <i>c</i> a 5-celled rod in the first stages of
-spore-formation; <i>d-f</i> successive stages of spore-formation in one
-and the same pair of rods (in the course of an afternoon); <i>r</i>
-a rod with mature spores; <i>g<sup>1</sup>–g<sup>3</sup></i> three stages of a 5-celled
-rod, with spores sown in nutritive solution; <i>h<sup>1</sup>–h<sup>2</sup></i>, <i>i</i>,
-<i>k</i>, <i>l</i> stages of germination; <i>m</i> a rod in the act of
-transverse division, grown out from a spore which had been sown eight
-hours previously. (After de Bary; <i>a</i> mag. 250, the other figures
-600 times).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig29" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig29.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>&mdash;<i>Bacillus amylobacter.</i> Motile
-rods, partly cylindrical and without spores, partly swollen into
-various special shapes and with spore-formation in the swelling.
-<i>s</i> Mature spore, with thick mucilaginous envelope. (After de
-Bary; mag. 600 times, with the exception of <i>s</i>, which is more
-highly magnified.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The functions of life cease on a slight excess of the maximum or
-minimum temperature, numbness setting in when either of these limits is
-passed. <i>Crenothrix</i>-threads provided with mucilaginous envelopes
-may, according to Zopf, sustain a temperature of-10°. Some Bacteria are
-said to be able to resist the exposure to as low a temperature as-110°
-for a short time. It is not known at what degree of cold the death of
-the Bacteria occurs: the greatest degree of heat which the vegetative
-cells can<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span> withstand is about the same as that for other vegetative
-plant-cells, namely, about 50–60° C. Certain Bacteria, <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>B. thermophilus</i>, grow and thrive vigorously at 70° C. Many
-spores, on the contrary, are able to bear far higher temperatures (in
-several species a temperature for some duration of above 100°, those
-of <i>Bacillus subtilis</i>, for instance, can withstand for hours a
-temperature of 100° in nutrient solutions; the spores remain capable of
-development after exposure to a dry heat of 123° C.).</p>
-
-<p>The <i>Desiccation</i> of the air, if prolonged, kills many forms when
-in the vegetative condition. The spores however can bear a much longer
-period of dryness, some even several years.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Oxygen.</span> Some species cannot live without a supply of free
-oxygen (<i>Aerobic</i>), <i>e.g.</i> the Vinegar-bacteria, the
-Hay-bacilli, the Anthrax-bacilli, the Cholera-<i>Microspira</i>.
-Other species again thrive vigorously without supply of free
-oxygen, and are even checked in their development by the admission
-of air (<i>Anaerobic</i>), <i>e.g.</i> the butyric acid Bacterium
-(<i>Clostridium butyricium</i> = <i>Bacillus amylobacter</i>). A
-distinction may be drawn between obligate and facultative aerobics
-and obligate and facultative anaerobics. Several Bacteria, producing
-fermentation, may grow without the aid of oxygen when they are living
-in a solution in which they can produce fermentation; but, if this is
-not the case, they can only grow when a supply of oxygen is available.
-A great number of the pathogenic Bacteria belong to the facultative
-anaerobics.</p>
-
-<p>A luminous Bacterium (<i>Bacillus phosphorescens</i>) which in the
-presence of a supply of oxygen gives a bluish-white light, has been
-found in sea-water. Phosphorescent Bacteria have frequently been
-observed upon decaying sea-fish, as well as on the flesh of other
-animals; by transferring the Bacteria from cod fish to beef, etc., the
-latter may be made luminous.</p>
-
-<p><i>Organic carbon compounds</i> are indispensable for all Bacteria,
-(except, as it appears, for the nitrifying organisms), as they can
-only obtain the necessary supplies of <i>carbon</i> from this source.
-The supplies of <i>nitrogen</i>, which also they cannot do without,
-can be obtained equally as well from organic compounds as from
-inorganic salts, such as saltpetre or ammonia-compounds. The various
-“ash-constituents” are also essential for their nourishment.</p>
-
-<p>While Moulds and Yeast-Fungi grow best in an acid substratum, the
-<i>Bacteria</i>, on the other hand, generally thrive <i>best</i> in a
-<i>neutral</i> or slightly <i>alkaline</i> one.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span></p>
-
-<p>In <i>sterilization</i>, <i>disinfection</i>, and <i>antisepsis</i>,
-means are employed by which the Bacteria are killed, or checked in
-their development, for instance, by heat (ignition, cooking, hot
-vapours, hot air, etc.), or poisons (acids, corrosive sublimate). The
-process of preserving articles of food, in which they are boiled and
-then hermetically sealed, aims at destroying the Bacteria, or the
-spores of those which already may be present in them, and excluding all
-others.</p>
-
-<p>As the Bacteria are unable to assimilate carbon from the carbonic acid
-of the air, but must obtain it from the carbon-compounds already in
-existence in the organic world, they are either <i>saprophytes</i> or
-<i>parasites</i>. Some are exclusively either the one or the other,
-<i>obligate</i> saprophytes or parasites. But there are transitional
-forms among them, some of which are at ordinary times saprophytes,
-but may, when occasion offers, complete their development wholly
-or partly as parasites&mdash;<i>facultative parasites</i>; others are
-generally parasitic, but may also pass certain stages of development as
-saprophytes&mdash;<i>facultative saprophytes</i>.</p>
-
-<p>All chlorophyll-free organisms act in a transforming and disturbing
-manner on the organic compounds from which they obtain their
-nourishment, and while they themselves grow and multiply, they produce,
-each after its kind, compounds of a less degree of complexity,
-<i>i.e.</i> they produce <i>fermentation</i>, <i>putrefaction</i>,
-sometimes the formation of <i>poisons</i>, and in living beings often
-<i>disease</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Those organisms which produce fermentation are called <i>ferments</i>;
-this word, however, is also employed for similar transformations in
-purely chemical materials (inorganic ferments or enzymes). Many organic
-(“living”) ferments, among which are Yeast-cells and Bacteria, give
-off during their development certain inorganic and soluble ferments
-(enzymes) which may produce other transformations without themselves
-being changed. Different organisms may produce in the same substratum
-different kinds of transformation; alcoholic fermentation may for
-instance be produced by different species of Fungi, but in different
-proportions, and the same species produces in different substrata,
-different transformations (<i>e.g.</i> the Vinegar-bacteria oxydize
-diluted alcohol to vinegar, and eventually to carbonic acid and water).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In the study of Bacteria it is absolutely necessary to sterilize
-the vessels employed in cultivation, the apparatus, and nutrient
-solutions, <i>i.e.</i> to free them from Bacteria germs and
-also to preserve the cultures from the intrusion of any foreign
-germs (“pure-cultures”). A firm, transparent, nutritive medium
-is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span> frequently employed. This may be prepared by adding to
-the nutrient solutions (broth) either gelatine, or&mdash;when the
-Bacteria are to be cultivated at blood-heat&mdash;serum of sheep’s or
-calf’s blood, agar-agar or carragen; serum alone may in itself
-serve as a nutrient medium. The so-called “plate-cultures” are
-frequently employed, <i>i.e.</i> the germs are isolated by
-shaking them with the melted liquid nutrient gelatine, which
-is then spread on a glass plate and allowed to coagulate; when
-later on the individual germs grow into colonies, these remain
-separate in the solid substratum and it is easy to pursue
-their further development. Similar plate-cultures may also be
-cultivated in test-tubes and on microscopic slides. The slides
-and glass plates must be placed in “moist chambers” free from
-Bacteria. By sowing a few cells (if possible one) using a fine
-platinum wire, pure cultures for further investigation may be
-obtained.</p>
-
-<p>In order to prove the relationship between pathogenic Bacteria
-and certain diseases, the experimental production of pathogenic
-Bacteria by the inoculation of Bacteria from pure cultures into
-healthy animals, is very important.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>It has not so far been possible to establish a <i>classification</i>
-of the Bacteria, as the life-history of many species, has not yet
-been sufficiently investigated.<a id="FNanchor_7" href="#Footnote_7" class="fnanchor">[7]</a> The opinions of botanists are at
-variance, in many cases, about the forms of growth of a particular
-kind. Some species are pleomorphic (many-formed) while others possess
-only one form.</p>
-
-<p>The following Bacteria are <b>Saprophytes</b>:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><i>Cladothrix dichotoma</i> is common in stagnant and running water
-which is impregnated with organic matter; the cell-chains have false
-branching. According to Zopf, <i>Leptothrix ochracea</i> is one of
-the forms of this species which, in water containing ferrous iron
-(<i>e.g.</i> as FeCO<sub>3</sub>), regularly embeds ferric-oxide in its sheath
-by means of the activity of the protoplasm. <i>Leptothrix ochracea</i>
-and other Iron-bacteria, according to Winogradsky (1888), do not
-continue their growth in water free from protoxide of iron; while
-they multiply enormously in water which contains this salt of iron.
-The large masses of ochre-coloured slime, found in meadows, bogs, and
-lakes, are probably due to the activity of the Iron-bacteria.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig30" style="width: 571px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig30.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 center sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span>&mdash;<i>Cladothrix dichotoma.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Those forms which, according to Zopf’s views, represent the forms of
-development of <i>Cladothrix dichotoma</i> are placed together in
-Fig. <a href="#fig30">30</a>. A represents a group of plants, seventy times magnified,
-attached to a Vaucheria. The largest one is branched like a tree,
-with branches of ordinary form; a specimen with spirally twisted
-branches is seen to the right of the figure, at the lower part some
-small <i>Leptothrix</i>-like forms. <i>B</i> shows the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span> manner of
-branching and an incipient <i>Coccus</i>-formation. <i>C</i> a
-<i>Coccus</i>-mass whose exit from the sheath has been observed.
-<i>D</i> the same mass as <i>C</i> after the course of a day, the
-Cocci having turned into <i>rods</i>. <i>E</i> a group of Cocci in
-which some have developed into shorter or longer rods. <i>F</i> one of
-these rods before<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span> and after treatment with picric acid, which causes
-the chain-like structure to become apparent. <i>G</i> a portion of a
-plant with conspicuous sheath, two lateral branches are being formed.
-<i>H</i> part of a plant, whose cells have divided and form Cocci.
-The original form of the cells in which the Cocci are embedded may
-still be recognised. I. <i>Leptothrix</i>-filaments with conspicuous
-mucilaginous sheath, from which a series of rods is about to emerge;
-the rod near the bottom is dead, and has remained lying in the sheath.
-<i>K</i> part of a plant which is forming Cocci, those at the top are
-in the zooglœa-stage, at the base they are elongating to form rods
-and <i>Leptothrix</i>-filaments. <i>L</i> a portion of a branched
-<i>Cladothrix</i>, which divides into motile <i>Bacillus</i>-forms; the
-rays at the free ends indicate the currents which the cilia produce
-in the water. <i>M</i> a spirally-twisted, swarming filament, before
-and after division into halves. <i>N</i> part of a tree-like zooglœa
-with Cocci and short rods.&mdash;All of these spirilla, zooglœa, etc.,
-which Zopf has connected with <i>Clad. dichotoma</i>, are according to
-Winogradsky, independent organisms.</p>
-
-<p><i>Micrococcus ureæ</i> produces <i>urinal fermentation</i>
-(transformation of urinal matter into ammonium carbonate); aerobic;
-round cells generally united to form bent chains or a zooglœa.&mdash;Several
-other kinds of Bacteria have the same action as this one: in damp soil
-containing ammonia-compounds, <i>saltpetre-formations</i> are produced
-by <i>M. nitrificans</i> and several different kinds of Bacteria.</p>
-
-<p><i>Micrococcus prodigiosus</i> is found on articles of food containing
-starch; “bleeding bread” is caused by this Bacterium, which has the
-power of forming a red pigment; it also occurs in milk, and produces
-lactic acid.</p>
-
-<p><i>Leuconostoc mesenterioides</i> is the frog-spawn Bacterium (Fig. <a href="#fig27">27</a>)
-which is found in sugar manufactories, and has the power of producing
-a viscous fermentation in saccharine solutions which have been derived
-from plants, <i>e.g.</i> in beetroot-sugar manufactories, where large
-accumulations of mucilage are formed at the expense of the sugar, with
-an evolution of carbonic acid. The cell-rows, resembling somewhat a
-pearl necklace, have thick mucilaginous cell-walls, and form white
-“Nostoc”-lumps. The mucilage eventually deliquesces and the cells
-separate from each other; arthrospores?&mdash;Similar viscous deteriorations
-occur in beer and wine, which may then be drawn out into long, string
-like filaments&mdash;“ropiness.”</p>
-
-<p><i>Bacterium aceti</i>, the Vinegar-bacterium, oxidizes alcohol into<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span>
-acetic acid (acetous-fermentation) and forms a greyish covering of
-Bacteria (“Vinegar-mother”) on the surface of the liquid; the acetic
-acid formed, becomes by continued oxidization by <i>B. aceti</i>, again
-transformed into carbonic acid and water. Aerobic; short cylindrical
-cells, often united into chains, or to form a zooglœa; sometimes also
-rod-and spindle-shaped. The Vinegar-bacteria and other kinds with
-ball- or rod-forms sometimes become swollen, spindle-shaped, or oval
-links; they are supposed to be diseased forms<a id="FNanchor_8" href="#Footnote_8" class="fnanchor">[8]</a> (“Involution-forms”).</p>
-
-<p><i>Bacillus lacticus</i> (<i>Bacterium acidi lactici</i>, Zopf) is
-always found in milk which has stood for some time, and in sour foods
-(cabbage, cucumbers, etc.); it turns the milk sour by producing lactic
-acid fermentation in the sugar contained in the milk; the lactic acid
-formed, eventually causes the coagulation of the casein. It resembles
-the Vinegar-bacteria, occurring as small cylindrical cells, rarely in
-short rows; not self-motile.&mdash;Several other Bacteria appear to act in
-the same way, some occurring in the mouth of human beings; some of
-these Bacteria give to butter its taste and flavour.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>kefir-grains</i> which are added to milk for the preparation of
-kefir, contain in large numbers a Bacterium (<i>Dispora caucasica</i>)
-in the zooglœa-form, a Yeast-fungus, and <i>Bacillus lacticus</i>.
-Kefir is a somewhat alcoholic sour milk, rich in carbonic acid; it is
-a beverage manufactured by the inhabitants of the Caucasus, from the
-milk of cows, goats, or sheep, and is sometimes used as a medicine. In
-the production of kefir, lactic acid fermentation takes place in one
-part of the sugar contained in the milk, and alcoholic fermentation
-in another part, and the casein which had become curdled is partially
-liquefied (peptonised) by an enzyme of a Zooglœa-bacterium.</p>
-
-<p><i>Bacillus amylobacter</i> (<i>Bacillus butyricus</i>), the
-Butyric-acid-bacterium (Fig. <a href="#fig29">29</a>), is a very common anaerobic which
-produces fermentation in sugar and lactic-acid salts, and whose
-principal product is <i>butyric acid</i>. It destroys articles of
-food and (together with other species) plays a part in the butyric
-acid fermentation which is necessary in the making of cheese; it is
-very active wherever portions of plants are decaying, in destroying
-the cellulose in the cell-walls of herbaceous plants, and is thus
-useful in the preparation of flax and hemp. The cells are self-motile,
-generally cylindrical, sometimes united into short rows; endosporous;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[37]</span>
-the spore-forming cells swell, assume very different forms, and show
-granulose reaction. The germ-tube grows out in the direction of the
-long axis of the spore.</p>
-
-<p><i>Bacillus subtilis</i>, the Hay-bacillus, is developed in all
-decoctions of hay; a slender, aerobic, self-motile Bacillus;
-endosporous (aplanospores); the spore-wall ruptures transversely on
-germination.</p>
-
-<p><i>Crenothrix kuehniana</i> occurs in the springs of many baths, in
-wells, in water or drain-pipes.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig31" style="width: 341px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig31.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span>&mdash;<i>Beggiatoa alba</i>: <i>a</i> from
-a fluid containing abundance of sulphuretted hydrogen; <i>b</i> after
-lying 24 hours in a solution devoid of sulphuretted hydrogen; <i>c</i>
-after lying an additional 48 hours in a solution devoid of sulphuretted
-hydrogen, by this means the transverse walls and vacuoles have become
-visible.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Beggiatoa</i> (parallel with the Blue-green Alga <i>Oscillaria</i>).
-Long filaments formed of cylindrical cells which are attached by
-one of the ends, but which are nearly always free when observed.
-The filaments, like those of <i>Oscillaria</i>, describe conical
-figures in their revolutions, the free filaments slide upwards and
-parallel with one another; sheaths are wanting; strongly refractive
-sulphur drops are found in the interior. The Beggiatoas are the most
-prevalent <i>Sulphur-bacteria</i>. They occur, very commonly in large
-numbers, wherever plant or animal remains are decaying in water in
-which sulphuretted hydrogen is being formed; thus, for example, <i>B.
-alba</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig31">31</a>) occurs frequently as a white covering or slimy
-film on mud containing organic remains. <span class="smaller"><i>B. mirabilis</i> is
-remarkable for its size and its strong peristaltic movements.</span> The
-Sulphur-bacteria oxidize the sulphuretted hydrogen, and accumulate
-sulphur in the shape of small granules of soft amorphic sulphur, which
-in the living cell never passes over into the crystalline state. They
-next oxidize this sulphur into sulphuric acid, which is immediately
-rendered neutral by absorbed salts of calcium, and is given off in
-the form of a sulphate, thus CaCO<sub>3</sub> is principally changed into
-CaSO<sub>4</sub>. In the absence of sulphur the nutritive processes are
-suspended, and consequently death occurs either sooner or later. The
-Sulphur-bacteria may exist and multiply in a fluid which only contains
-traces of organic matter, in which organisms devoid of chlorophyll are
-not able to exist. The Beggiatoas very frequently form white, bulky
-masses in sulphur wells and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[38]</span> in salt water, the traces of organic
-material which the sulphur water contains proving sufficient for them.
-<span class="smaller">The cellulose-fermentation, to which the sulphur wells in all
-probability owe their origin, mainly procures them suitable conditions
-for existence. The CaCO<sub>3</sub> and H<sub>2</sub>S, formed during the cellulose
-fermentation by the reduction of CaSO<sub>4</sub> is again changed into
-CaSO<sub>4</sub> and CO<sub>2</sub> by the Sulphur-bacteria (Winogradsky, 1887).&mdash;Other
-Sulphur-bacteria, the so-called purple Sulphur-bacteria, <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>B. roseo-persicina</i>, <i>Spirillum sanguineum</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig23">23</a>),
-<i>Bacterium sulfuratum</i>, etc., have their protoplasm mixed with a
-red colouring matter (bacterio-purpurin) which, like chlorophyll, has
-the power, in the presence of light, of giving off oxygen (as proved
-by T. W. Englemann, 1888, in oxygen-sensitive Bacteria). The three
-purple Sulphur-bacteria mentioned, are, according to Winogradsky, not
-pleomorphic kinds but embrace numerous species.</span></p>
-
-<p>Many <i>Spirilli</i> (<i>Spirillum tenue</i>, <i>S. undula</i>, <i>S.
-plicatile</i>, and others) are found prevalent in decaying liquids.</p>
-
-<p>Bacteria (especially Bacilli) are the cause of many substances emitting
-a foul odour, and of various changes in milk.</p>
-
-<p><b>Parasitic Bacteria</b> live in other living organisms; but the
-relation between “host” and parasite may vary in considerable
-degree. Some parasites do no injury to their host, others produce
-dangerous contagious diseases; some choose only a special kind as
-host, others again live equally well in many different ones. There
-are further specific and individual differences with regard to the
-<i>predisposition</i> of the host, and every individual has not the
-same receptivity at all times.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The harmless parasites of human beings.</span> Several of the above
-mentioned saprophytes may also occur in the alimentary canal of human
-beings; <i>e.g.</i>, the Hay-bacillus, the Butyric-acid-bacillus,
-etc.; but the gastric juice prevents the development of others, at
-all events in their vegetative condition. <i>Sarcina ventriculi</i>,
-“packet-bacterium,” is only known to occur in the stomach and
-intestines of human beings, and makes its appearance in certain
-diseases of the stomach (dilation of the stomach, etc.) in great
-numbers, without, however, being the cause of the disease. It occurs in
-somewhat cubical masses of roundish cells (Fig. <a href="#fig25">25</a>).</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Less dangerous parasites.</span> In the mouth, especially between
-and on the teeth, a great many Bacteria are to be found (more than
-fifty species are known), <i>e.g. Leptothrix buccalis</i> (long,
-brittle, very thin filaments which are united into bundles), Micrococci
-in large lumps, <i>Spirochæte cohnii</i>, etc. Some of them are known
-to be injurious, as they contribute in various ways to the decay of
-the teeth (<i>caries dentium</i>); a <i>Micrococcus</i>, for instance,
-forms lactic acid<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span> in materials containing sugar and starch, and the
-acid dissolves the lime salts in the external layers of the teeth:
-those parts of the teeth thus deprived of lime are attacked by other
-Bacteria, and become dissolved. Inflammation in the tissues at the root
-of a tooth, is probably produced by septic materials which have been
-formed by Bacteria in the root-canal.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Dangerous Parasites.</span> In a large number of the infectious
-diseases of human beings and animals, it has been possible to prove
-that parasitic Bacteria have been the cause of the disease. Various
-pathogenic Bacteria of this nature, belonging to the coccus, rod, and
-spiral Bacteria groups, are mentioned in the following:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><b>Pathogenic Micrococci.</b> <i>Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus</i>
-produces abscesses of various natures (boils, suppurative processes in
-internal organs). The same effects are produced by&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><i>Streptococcus pyogenes</i>, which is the most frequent cause of
-malignant puerperal fever; it is perhaps identical with&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><i>Streptococcus erysipelatis</i>, which is the cause of erysipelas in
-human beings.</p>
-
-<p><i>Diplococcus pneumoniæ</i> (A. Fränkel) is the cause of pneumonia,
-and of the epidemic cerebro-spinal meningitis.</p>
-
-<p><i>Gonococcus</i> (Neisser) is the cause of gonorrhea and inflammation
-of the eyes.</p>
-
-<p><b>Pathogenic Rod-Bacteria.</b> <i>Bacterium choleræ gallinarum</i>,
-an aerobic, facultative parasite which produces fowl-cholera among
-poultry; it is easily cultivated on various substrata as a saprophyte.
-The disease may be conveyed both through wounds and by food, and may
-also be communicated to mammals.</p>
-
-<p><i>Bacillus anthracis</i>, the <i>Anthrax bacillus</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig32">32</a>),
-chiefly attacks mammals, especially herbivorous animals (house mice,
-guinea-pigs, rabbits, sheep, cattle), in a less degree omnivorous
-animals (including human beings), and in a still less degree the
-Carnivores. Aerobic. Cylindrical cells, 3–4 times as long as broad,
-united into long rod-like bodies, which may elongate into long, bent,
-and twisted filaments. Not self-motile. Endosporous. Germination
-takes place without the throwing off of any spore-membrane (compare
-Hay-bacillus p. <a href="#Page_37">37</a> which resembles it). Contagion may take place
-both by introduction into wounds, and from the mucous membrane of
-the intestines or lungs, both by vegetative cells and by spores; in
-intestinal anthrax, however, only by spores. The Bacillus multiplies as
-soon as it has entered the blood, and the anthrax disease commences.
-The Bacilli not only give off poison,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span> but also deprive the blood
-of its oxygen. Vegetative cells only occur in living animals. This
-species is a <i>facultative parasite</i> which in the first stage is a
-saprophyte, and only in this condition forms spores.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig32" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig32.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span>&mdash;<i>Anthrax bacillus</i>
-(<i>Bacillus anthracis</i>) with red (<i>b</i>) and white (<i>a</i>)
-blood-corpuscles.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig33" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig33.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span>&mdash;<i>Anthrax bacillus.</i> The
-formation of the spores; magnified 450 times.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Bacillus tuberculosis</i> produces tuberculosis in human beings,
-also in domestic animals (<i>perlsucht</i>). It is a distinct parasite,
-but may also live saprophytically. It is rod-formed, often slightly
-bent, and is recognised principally by its action with stains (when
-stained with an alkaline solution of methyl-blue or carbolic fuchsin,
-it retains the colour for a long time even in solutions of mineral
-acids, in contrast with the majority of well-known Bacteria): it
-probably forms spores which are able to resist heat, dryness, etc.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Bacillus lepræ</i> produces leprosy; <i>Bacillus mallei</i>
-produces glanders; <i>Bacillus tetani</i>, tetanus (the tetanus
-bacillus is very common in soil; anaerobic); <i>Bacillus
-diphtheriæ</i>, diphtheria; <i>Bacillus typhosus</i>, typhoid
-fever, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>Pathogenic Spiral Bacteria.</b> <i>Spirochæte obermeieri</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig24">24</a>) produces intermittent fever (febris recurrens); it makes its
-appearance in the blood during the attacks of fever, but it is not to
-be found during intervals when there is no fever. Obligate parasite.</p>
-
-<p><i>Spirillum choleræ asiaticæ</i> (<i>Microspira comma</i>) without
-doubt produces Asiatic cholera; an exceedingly motile spirillum, which
-is also found in short, bent rods (known as the “Comma-bacillus”),<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span> it
-lives in the intestines of those attacked by the disease, and gives off
-a strong poison which enters the body. It is easily cultivated as a
-saprophyte.</p>
-
-<p>A great many circumstances seem to show that a number of other
-infectious diseases (syphilis, small-pox, scarlet-fever, measles,
-yellow-fever, etc.) owe their origin to parasitic Bacteria, but this
-has not been proved with certainty in all cases.</p>
-
-<p>It has been possible by means of special cultivations (ample supply
-of oxygen, high temperature, antiseptic materials) to produce from
-the parasitic Bacteria described above (<i>e.g.</i> the fowl-cholera
-and the anthrax Bacteria) <i>physiological varieties</i> which are
-distinct from those appearing in nature and possess a less degree of
-“virulence,” <i>i.e.</i> produce fever and less dangerous symptoms
-in those animals which are inoculated with them. The production
-of such physiological varieties has come to be of great practical
-importance from the fact that they are used as vaccines, <i>i.e.</i>
-these harmless species produce in the animals inoculated with them
-<i>immunity</i> from the malignant infectious Bacteria from which
-they were derived. This immunity is effected by the change of the
-products of one or more of the Bacteria, but we do not yet know
-anything about the way in which they act on the animal organism. The
-white blood corpuscles, according to the Metschnikoff, play the part
-of “Phagocytes” by absorbing and destroying the less virulent Bacteria
-which have entered the blood, and by so doing they are gradually
-enabled to overcome those of a more virulent nature.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig34" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig34.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span>&mdash;<i>a</i> and <i>b</i> The
-same blood-cell of a Frog: <i>a</i> in the act of engulfing an
-anthrax-bacillus; <i>b</i> after an interval of a few minutes when the
-bacillus has been absorbed.</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h3>Class 5. <b>Conjugatæ.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The Algæ belonging to this class have chlorophyll, and pyrenoids
-round which starch is formed. The cells divide only in one direction,
-they live solitarily, or united to form filaments which generally
-float freely (seldom attached). Swarm-cells are wanting. <i>The
-fertilisation is isogamous (conjugation) and takes place by means
-of aplanogametes.</i> The zygote, after a period of rest, produces,
-immediately on germination, one or more new vegetative<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span> individuals;
-sometimes akinetes or aplanospores are formed in addition. They only
-occur in fresh or slightly brackish water.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Desmidiaceæ.</b> The cells generally present markings on
-the outer wall, and are mostly divided into two symmetrical halves by a
-constriction in the middle, or there is at least a symmetrical division
-of the protoplasmic cell-contents. The cell-wall consists nearly always
-of two layers, the one overlapping the other (Fig. <a href="#fig35">35</a> <i>C</i>). The
-cells either live solitarily or are united into unbranched filaments.
-The mass of protoplasm formed by the fusion of the two conjugating
-cells becomes the zygote, which on germination produces one (or after
-division 2, 4 or 8) new vegetative individual. The chromatophores are
-either star-, plate-, or band-shaped, and regularly arranged round the
-long axis of the cell.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig35" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig35.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span>&mdash;A Cell of <i>Gymnozyga
-brebissonii</i>, external view showing the distribution of the pores.
-<i>B A</i> portion of the membrane of <i>Staurastrum bicorne</i>
-with pores containing protoplasmic projections. <i>C</i> Cell-wall of
-<i>Hyalotheca mucosa</i> during cell-division: the central part, being
-already formed, shows the connection with the divisional wall.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The Desmidiaceæ are not able to swim independently, many species,
-however, show movements of different kinds by rising and sliding
-forward on the substratum. These movements, which are partly dependent
-upon, and partly independent of light and the force of gravitation, are
-connected with the protrusion of a mucilaginous stalk. The mucilage,
-which sometimes surrounds the whole individual, may acquire a prismatic
-structure, it is secreted by the protoplasmic threads which project
-through certain pores definitely situated in the walls (Fig. <a href="#fig35">35</a>
-<i>A</i>, <i>B</i>).</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Vegetative multiplication</span> takes places by division. A good
-example of this is found in <i>Cosmarium botrytis</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig36">36</a>
-<i>A-D</i>). The nucleus and chromatophores divide, and simultaneously
-the central indentation becomes deeper, the outer wall is then ruptured
-making a circular aperture through which the inner wall protrudes
-forming a short, cylindrical canal between the two halves to which it
-is attached (Fig. <a href="#fig36">36</a> <i>C</i>). After elongation the canal is divided
-by a central transverse wall, which commences as a ring round its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span>
-inner surface and gradually forms a complete septum. The dividing wall
-gradually splits, and the two individuals separate from each other,
-each one having an old and a new half. The two daughter-cells bulge
-out, receive a supply of contents from the parent-cells, and gradually
-attain their mature size and development (Fig. <a href="#fig36">36</a> <i>B-D</i>).
-Exceptions to this occur in some forms.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig36" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig36.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span>&mdash;<i>Cosmarium botrytis. A-D</i>
-Different stages of cell-division.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig37" style="width: 700px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig37.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span>&mdash;<i>Cosmarium meneghinii</i>:
-<i>a-c</i> same individual seen from the side, from the end, and from
-the edge; <i>d-f</i> stages of conjugation; <i>g-i</i> germination of
-the zygote.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Conjugation</span> takes place in the simplest way in
-<i>Mesotænium</i>, where the two conjugating cells unite by a short
-tube (conjugation-canal), which is not developed at any particular
-point. The aplanogametes merge together after the dissolution of the
-dividing wall, like two drops of water, almost without any trace of
-preceding contraction, so that the cell-wall of the zygote generally
-lies in close contact with the conjugating cells. The conjugating cells
-in the others lie either transversely (<i>e.g. Cosmarium</i>,
-Fig. <a href="#fig37">37</a> <i>d</i>; <i>Staurastrum</i>, etc.), or parallel to one
-another (<i>e.g. Penium</i>, <i>Closterium</i>, etc.), and
-emit a short conjugation-canal (Fig. <a href="#fig37">37</a> <i>d</i>) from the centre of
-that side of each cell which is turned towards the other one. These
-canals touch, become spherical, and on the absorption of the dividing
-wall the aplanogametes coalesce in the swollen conjugation-canal
-(Fig. <a href="#fig37">37</a> <i>e</i>), which is often surrounded by a mucilaginous
-envelope. The zygote, which is often spherical, is surrounded by a
-thick cell-wall, consisting of three layers; the outermost of these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span>
-sometimes bears thorn-like projections, which in some species are
-simple (Fig. <a href="#fig37">37</a> <i>f</i>), in others branched or variously marked; in
-some, however, it remains always smooth (<i>e.g. Tetmemorus</i>,
-<i>Desmidium</i>). Deviation from this mode of conjugation may occur
-within certain genera (<i>e.g. Closterium</i>, <i>Penium</i>).
-Upon germination the contents of the zygote emerge, surrounded by
-the innermost layers of the wall (Fig. <a href="#fig37">37</a> <i>g</i>, <i>h</i>) and
-generally divide into two parts which develop into two new individuals,
-placed transversely to each other (Fig. <a href="#fig37">37</a> <i>i</i>); these may have a
-somewhat more simple marking than is generally possessed by the species.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig38" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig38.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span>&mdash;Desmidiaceæ. <i>A Closterium
-moniliferum</i>; <i>B Penium crassiusculum</i>; <i>C</i>
-<i>Micrasterias truncata</i> (front and end view); <i>D Euastrum
-elegans</i>; <i>E Staurastrum muticum</i> (end view).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The most frequent genera are:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><i>A.</i> Solitary cells: <span class="smcap">Mesotænium</span>, <span class="smcap">Penium</span>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig38">38</a> <i>B</i>), <span class="smcap">Cylindrocystis</span>, <span class="smcap">Euastrum</span>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig38">38</a> <i>D</i>), <span class="smcap">Micrasterias</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig38">38</a> <i>C</i>),
-<span class="smcap">Cosmarium</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig36">36</a>, <a href="#fig37">37</a>), <span class="smcap">Xanthidium</span>,
-<span class="smcap">Staurastrum</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig38">38</a> <i>E</i>), <span class="smcap">Pleurotænium</span>,
-<span class="smcap">Docidium</span>, <span class="smcap">Tetmemorus</span>, <span class="smcap">Closterium</span>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig38">38</a> <i>A</i>), <span class="smcap">Spirotænia</span>.</p>
-
-<p><i>B.</i> Cells united into filaments: <span class="smcap">Sphærozosma</span>,
-<span class="smcap">Desmidium</span>, <span class="smcap">Hyalotheca</span>, <span class="smcap">Gymnozyga</span>,
-<span class="smcap">Ancylonema</span>, <span class="smcap">Gonatozygon</span>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Zygnemaceæ.</b> Cell-wall without markings. The cells are
-cylindrical, not constricted in the centre, and (generally) united into
-simple, unbranched filaments. The whole contents of the conjugating
-cells take part in the formation of the zygote, which on germination
-grows out directly into a new filament.</p>
-
-<p><i>Spirogyra</i> is easily recognised by its spiral chlorophyll band;
-<i>Zygnema</i> has two star-like chromatophores in each cell (Fig. <a href="#fig40">40</a>);
-both these genera are very common Algæ in ponds and ditches.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig39" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig39.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span>&mdash;<i>Spirogyra longata. A</i>
-At the commencement of conjugation, the conjugation-canals begin to
-protrude at <i>a</i> and touch one another at <i>b</i>; the spiral
-chlorophyll band and cell-nuclei (<i>k</i>) are shown. <i>B</i> A more
-advanced stage of conjugation; <i>a</i>, <i>a’</i> the rounded female
-and male aplanogametes: in <i>b’</i> the male aplanogamete is going
-over to and uniting with the female aplanogamete (<i>b</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig40" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig40.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.</span>&mdash;A cell of <i>Zygnema</i>. <i>S</i>
-Pyrenoid.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig41" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig41.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.</span>&mdash;<i>Zygnema insigne</i>, with zygote.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig42" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig42.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span>&mdash;Germinating zygote of <i>Spirogyra
-jugalis</i>: the young plant is still unicellular; the end which
-is still in the wall of the zygote is elongated and root-like; the
-chromatophore divides and forms the spiral band.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The conjugation among the Zygnemaceæ takes place in the following
-manner: the cells of two filaments, lying side by side, or two cells,
-the one being situated above the other in the same filament (Fig. <a href="#fig41">41</a>),
-push out small protuberances opposite each other (Fig. <a href="#fig39">39</a> <i>A</i>,
-<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>); these finally meet, and the dividing wall is
-absorbed so that a tube is formed connecting one cell with the other;
-the protoplasmic contents round off, and the whole of these contents
-of one of the cells glides through the conjugation-tube and coalesces
-with that of the other (Fig. <a href="#fig39">39</a> <i>B</i>), the aggregate mass then
-rounds off, surrounds itself with a cell-wall, and becomes a zygote.
-A distinct difference<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[46]</span> may be found between the cells in the two
-filaments, those in the one whose protoplasmic contents pass over being
-cylindrical, while those of the recipient one are more barrel-shaped,
-and of a larger diameter. The former may be regarded as a male, the
-latter as a female plant. The zygote germinates after a period of rest,
-and grows out into a new filament (Fig. <a href="#fig42">42</a>).</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Mesocarpaceæ.</b> The cell-walls are glabrous,
-unconstricted in the centre, and united into simple unbranched
-filaments. The chromatophore consists of an axial chlorophyll-plate,
-with several pyrenoids. The zygote is formed by the coalescence
-of two cells (Fig. <a href="#fig43">43</a>) (sometimes three or four), but the whole
-protoplasmic contents of the cells do not take part in this process,
-a portion always remaining behind; the aplanogametes coalesce in
-the conjugation-canal. The zygote thus formed appears incapable of
-germination until after 3–5 divisions. Of the cells so formed, only one
-is fertile, the sterile cells, according to Pringsheim, constituting
-a rudimentary sporocarp. The germinating cells grow out into a new
-filament. In this order, conjugation has been observed between two
-cells of the same filament. The Mesocarpaceæ thrive best in water which
-contains lime.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig43" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig43.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span>&mdash;Mougeotia calcarea. Cells showing
-various modes of conjugation: at <i>m</i> tripartition; <i>pg</i>
-quadripartition; <i>s</i> quinquipartilion of the zygote.</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h3>Class 6. <b>Chlorophyceæ (Green Algæ).</b></h3>
-
-<p>These Algæ are coloured green by chlorophyll, seldom in combination
-with other colouring matter, and then especially with red. The product
-of assimilation is frequently starch, which generally accumulates round
-certain specially formed portions of protoplasm termed pyrenoids.
-The thallus is uni- or multicellular; in the higher forms (certain
-Siphoneæ) the organs of vegetation attain differentiation into stem
-and leaf. The asexual reproduction takes place in various ways; the
-sexual reproduction is effected by conjugation of motile gametes, or
-by oogamous fertilisation. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span> swarm-cells (zoospores, gametes, and
-spermatozoids) are constructed symetrically, and have true protoplasmic
-cilia, these generally being attached to the front end of the
-swarm-cells. Most of these Algæ live in water (fresh or salt); some are
-found upon damp soil, stones, or tree-stems, and some live enclosed in
-other plants.</p>
-
-<p>The Class is divided into three families:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Protococcoideæ</span>: Volvocaceæ, Tetrasporaceæ, Chlorosphæraceæ,
-Pleurococcaceæ, Protococcaceæ, Hydrodictyaceæ.</p>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">Confervoideæ</span>: Ulvaceæ, Ulothricaceæ, Chætophoraceæ,
-Mycoideaceæ, Cylindrocapsaceæ, Œdogoniaceæ, Coleochætaceæ,
-Cladophoraceæ, Gomontiaceæ, Sphæropleaceæ.</p>
-
-<p>3. <span class="smcap">Siphoneæ</span>: Botrydiaceæ, Bryopsidaceæ, Derbesiaceæ,
-Vaucheriaceæ, Phyllosiphonaceæ, Caulerpaceæ, Codiaceæ, Valoniaceæ,
-Dasycladaceæ.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 1. <b>Protococcoideæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The Algæ which belong to this group are uni- or multicellular with
-the cells more or less firmly connected, sometimes in a definite,
-sometimes in an indefinite form (Fig. <a href="#fig47">47</a>). Colonies are formed either
-by division or by small unicellular individuals becoming united in a
-definite manner; the colonies formed in this latter way are termed
-<i>Cœnobia</i>. Apical cells and branching are absent. Multiplication
-by division; asexual reproduction by zoospores, rarely by akinetes.
-Sexual reproduction may be wanting, or it takes place by isogamous,
-rarely by oogamous fertilisation.</p>
-
-<p>Some are attached by means of a stalk to other objects
-(<i>Characium</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig49">49</a>), others occur as “Endophytes” in the
-tissues of certain Mosses or Phanerogams, <i>e.g. Chlorochytrium
-lemnæ</i>, in <i>Lemna trisulca</i>; <i>Endosphæra</i>, in the
-leaves of <i>Potamogeton</i>, <i>Mentha aquatica</i>, and <i>Peplis
-portula</i>; <i>Phyllobium</i>, in the leaves of <i>Lysimachia
-nummularia</i>, <i>Ajuga</i>, <i>Chlora</i>, and species of Grasses;
-<i>Scotinosphæra</i> in the leaves of <i>Hypnum</i> and <i>Lemna
-trisulca</i>; the majority, however, live free in water and in damp
-places. Many species which were formerly considered to belong to this
-family have been proved to be higher Algæ in stages of development.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Volvocaceæ.</b> The individuals in this order are either
-uni- or multicellular, and during the essential part of their life are
-free-swimming organisms. They are generally encased in a mucilaginous
-envelope, through which 2–6 cilia project from every<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span> cell. The
-vegetative reproduction takes place by the division of all, or a few,
-of the cells of the individual; in some a palmella-stage is found in
-addition. The sexual reproduction takes place by isogamous or oogamous
-fertilisation.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The Volvocaceæ may be considered to include the original forms
-of the Chlorophyceæ, because, among other reasons, the motile
-stage is here the most prominent; they also form the connecting
-link between the animal Flagellata, and forms intermediate to
-the <i>Syngeneticæ</i> may perhaps be found amongst them. Three
-series of green Algæ may be supposed to have taken their origin
-from the Volvocaceæ: <span class="smcap">Conjugateæ</span> (<i>Desmidiaceæ</i>)
-which have lost the swarming stage, but whose conjugation
-is the nearest to the fertilisation in <i>Chlamydomonas
-pulvisculus</i>: the <span class="smcap">Protococcaceæ</span> in which the
-vegetative divisions have disappeared, while the swarming
-stage continues to be present, though of shorter duration; and
-<span class="smcap">Tetrasporaceæ</span>, in which the vegetative divisions are
-more prominent, whilst the swarming stage is less so.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>A. <span class="smcap">Unicellular Individuals.</span> The principle genera are:
-<i>Chlamydomonas</i>, <i>Sphærella</i>, <i>Phacotus</i>.&mdash;<i>Sphærella
-nivalis</i> is the Alga which produces the phenomenon of “Red Snow,”
-well known on high mountains and on ice and snow fields in the polar
-regions. The red colouring matter which appears in this and other green
-Algæ, especially in the resting cells, is produced by the alteration of
-the chlorophyll.</p>
-
-<p><i>Phacotus lenticularis</i> has an outer covering incrusted with
-lime, which, at death, or after division, opens out into two halves.
-Species may be found among <i>Chlamydomonas</i>, in which conjugation
-takes place between gametes of similar size without cell-wall, but in
-<i>C. pulvisculus</i> conjugation takes place between male and female
-aplanogametes which are surrounded by a mucilaginous envelope.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig44" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig44.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.</span>&mdash;<i>Gonium pectorale.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig45" style="width: 700px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig45.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.</span>&mdash;<i>Pandorina morum.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>B. <span class="smcap">Multicellular Individuals.</span> The most important genera
-are <i>Gonium</i>, <i>Stephanosphæra</i>, <i>Pandorina</i>,
-<i>Eudorina</i>, <i>Volvox</i>.&mdash;<i>Gonium</i> has 4 or 16
-cells arranged in a definite pattern in a flat plate (Fig. <a href="#fig44">44</a>).
-<i>Pandorina</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig45">45</a>), has 16 cells arranged in a sphere (Fig. <a href="#fig45">45</a>
-<i>A</i>). The vegetative reproduction takes place in this way: each
-cell, after having rounded off, and after the withdrawal of the cilia,
-divides itself<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span> into 16 new ones (Fig. <a href="#fig45">45</a> <i>B</i>), each forming a
-new individual, which soon grows to the size of the mother-individual.
-It was in this Alga that the conjugation of self-motile gametes was
-first discovered by Pringsheim, 1869. When conjugation is about to take
-place, each cell divides into sixteen, as in vegetative reproduction,
-but the 16 × 16 cells all separate from one another (Fig. <a href="#fig45">45</a> <i>C</i>,
-female gametes, and <i>D</i>, male gametes), and swarm solitarily in
-the water. The male are, most frequently, smaller than the female, but
-otherwise they are exactly alike; they are more or less pear-shaped,
-with a colourless anterior end, 2 cilia, a red “eye-spot,” etc. After
-swarming for some time they approach each other, two and two, generally
-a large and a smaller one, and come into contact at their colourless
-end; in a few moments they coalesce and become one cell (Fig. <a href="#fig45">45</a>
-<i>E</i>, <i>F</i>), this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[50]</span> has at first a large colourless anterior
-end, 4 cilia, and 2 “eye-spots” (Fig. <a href="#fig45">45</a> <i>G</i>), but these soon
-disappear and the cell becomes uniformly dark-green and spherical, and
-surrounds itself with a thick cell-wall, losing at the same time its
-power of motion: the zygote (Fig. <a href="#fig45">45</a> <i>H</i>) is formed, and becomes
-later on a deep red colour. On the germination of the zygote, the
-protoplasmic cell-contents burst open the wall (Fig. <a href="#fig45">45</a> <i>J</i>), and
-emerge as a large swarmspore (Fig. <a href="#fig45">45</a> <i>K</i>) which divides into 16
-cells, and the first small individual is formed (Fig. <a href="#fig45">45</a> <i>L</i>,
-<i>M</i>).</p>
-
-<p><i>Eudorina</i> is like <i>Pandorina</i> in structure, but stands
-somewhat higher, since the contrast between the conjugating sexual
-cells is greater, the female one being a motionless oosphere.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig46" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig46.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span>&mdash;<i>Volvox globator</i>, sexual
-individual: <i>a</i> antheridia which have formed spermatozoids;
-<i>b</i> oogonia.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The highest stage of development is found in <i>Volvox</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig46">46</a>).
-The cells are here arranged on the circumference of a sphere, and
-enclose a cavity filled with mucilage. The number of these cells may
-vary from 200–22,000, of which the majority are vegetative and not
-reproductive, but some become large, motionless oospheres (Fig. <a href="#fig46">46</a>
-<i>b</i>); others, which may appear as solitary individuals, divide
-and form disc-shaped masses of from 8–256 small spermatozoids<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[51]</span> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig46">46</a> <i>a</i>). After the oosphere has been fertilised by these, the
-oospore surrounds itself by a thick, sometimes thorny cell-wall, and
-on germination becomes a new individual of few cells. A few cells
-conspicuous by their larger size may be found (1–9, but generally 8)
-in certain individuals, and these provide the vegetative reproduction,
-each forming by division a new individual.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Tetrasporaceæ</b> reproduce both by vegetative
-divisions and swarmspores, some have also gamete-conjugation.
-The principal genera are: <i>Tetraspora</i>, <i>Apiocystis</i>,
-<i>Dactylococcus</i>, <i>Dictyosphærium</i>, <i>Chlorangium</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Chlorosphæraceæ.</b> <i>Chlorosphæra.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Pleurococcaceæ.</b> In this order the swarm-stages and
-sexual reproduction are entirely absent. Vegetative reproduction
-by division. The principal genera are: <i>Pleurococcus</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig47">47</a>), <i>Scenedesmus</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig48">48</a>), <i>Raphidium</i>,
-<i>Oocystis</i>, <i>Schizochlamys</i>, <i>Crucigenia</i>,
-<i>Selenastrum</i>.&mdash;<i>Pleurococcus vulgaris</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig47">47</a>) is one of
-the most common Algæ throughout the world, occurring as green coverings
-on tree-stems, and damp walls, and it is one of the most common
-lichen-gonidia.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig47" style="width: 229px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig47.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span>&mdash;<i>Pleurococcus vulgaris.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig48" style="width: 289px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig48.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.</span>&mdash;<i>Scenedesmus quadricauda.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Protococcaceæ.</b> The cells are motionless, free or
-affixed on a stalk (<i>e.g. Characium</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig49">49</a>), either
-separate or loosely bound to one another; they never form multicellular
-individuals. Multiplication by division is nearly always wanting.
-Reproduction takes place by swarmspores, which have 1 or 2 cilia, and
-sexual reproduction in some by gamete-conjugation. The principal genera
-are: <i>Chlorococcum</i>, <i>Chlorochytrium</i>, <i>Chlorocystis</i>,
-<i>Scotinosphæra</i>, <i>Endosphæra</i>, <i>Phyllobium</i>,
-<i>Characium</i>, <i>Ophiocytium</i>, <i>Sciadium</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig49" style="width: 317px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig49.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.</span>&mdash;<i>Characium strictum. A</i>
-The cell-contents have divided into many swarmspores. <i>B</i>
-Swarmspores escaping.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Hydrodictyaceæ.</b> The individuals are unicellular but
-several unite after the zoospore-stage into definitely formed families
-(cœnobia). Ordinary vegetative division is wanting, but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[52]</span> asexual
-reproduction takes place by zoospores (or by motionless cells without
-cilia), which unite and form a family similar to the mother-family,
-inside the mother-cell, or in a mucilaginous envelope. Where sexual
-reproduction is found it takes place by gamete-conjugation. The
-principal genera are: <i>Pediastrum</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig50">50</a>), <i>Cœlastrum</i>,
-<i>Hydrodictyon</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig51">51</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig50" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig50.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5O.</span>&mdash;<i>Pediastrum asperum.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig51" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig51.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.</span>&mdash;<i>Hydrodictyou reticulatum.</i>
-<i>A</i> A cell where the zoospores are on the point of arranging
-themselves to form a net. <i>B</i> A cell with gametes swarming out.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The cœnobium of <i>Hydrodictyon reticulatum</i> (Water-net) is formed
-of a large number of cells which are cylindrical, and attached to one
-another by the ends (Fig. <a href="#fig51">51</a>). The asexual reproduction takes place by
-zoospores, which are formed in large numbers (7,000–20,000) in each
-mother-cell, within which they move about for a time, and then come to
-rest and arrange themselves into a new net (Fig. <a href="#fig51">51</a> <i>A</i>) which
-is set free by the dissolution of the wall of the mother-cell, grows,
-and becomes a new cœnobium. The sexual reproduction takes place by
-gamete-conjugation. The gametes are formed in the same manner as the
-zoospores, but in larger numbers (30,000–100,000), and swarm out of
-the mother-cell (Fig. <a href="#fig51">51</a> <i>B</i>). The zygote forms, on germination,
-2–5 large zoospores, each with one or two cilia, these generally
-swarm about for a time, and after a period of rest become irregular
-thorny bodies (polyhedra); their contents again divide into zoospores,
-the thorny external coating of the polyhedra is cast off, and the
-zoospores, surrounded by the dilated internal coating, unite to form a
-small family, which produces several others in the manner described.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 2. <b>Confervoideæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The individuals are always multicellular, the cells firmly bound
-together and united into unbranched or branched filaments, expansions,
-or masses of cells which grow by intercallary divisions or have
-apical growth. In the first seven orders the cells are uninuclear,
-but the cells of the remaining three orders contain several nuclei.
-Asexual reproduction by zoospores, akinetes or aplanospores. Sexual
-reproduction by isogamous or oogamous fertilisation.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The Confervoideæ, through the Ulvaceæ, are connected with the
-Tetrasporaceæ, and from the <i>Coleochætaceæ</i>, which is
-the most highly developed order, there are the best reasons
-for supposing that the Mosses have taken their origin.
-The <i>Cladophoraceæ</i> show the nearest approach to the
-<i>Siphoneæ</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Ulvaceæ.</b> The thallus consists of one or two layers
-of parenchymatous cells, connected together to form either a
-flat membrane (<i>Monostroma</i>, <i>Ulva</i>) or a hollow tube
-(<i>Enteromorpha</i>), and may be either simple, lobed, or branched.
-Reproduction takes place by detached portions of the thallus; or
-asexually by zoospores or akinetes. Gamete-conjugation is known to take
-place in some members of this order, the zygote germinating without any
-resting-stage. The majority are found in salt or brackish water.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig52" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig52.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.</span>&mdash;<i>Ulothrix zonata</i>: a portion
-of a filament with zoospores, which are formed two in each cell
-(zoosporangium); the dark spots are the red “eye-spots”; 1, 2, 3, 4,
-denote successive stages in the development of the zoospores; <i>b</i>
-a single zoospore, <i>v</i> the pulsating vacuole; <i>c</i> portion
-of a filament with gametes, sixteen are produced in each gametangium;
-<i>d</i> free gametes, solitary or in the act of conjugation; <i>e</i>
-the conjugation is completed, and the formed zygote has assumed the
-resting-stage.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Ulothricaceæ.</b> The thallus consists normally of a simple
-unbranched filament (sometimes a small expansion consisting of one
-layer of cells is formed, as in <i>Schizomeris</i> and <i>Prasiola</i>
-which were formerly described as separate genera). Asexual reproduction
-takes place by means of zoospores (with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span> 1, 2, or 4 cilia), akinetes or
-aplanospores; the last named may germinate immediately, or only after
-a period of rest. Sexual reproduction takes place by the conjugation
-of gametes of about the same size, each having two cilia (Fig. <a href="#fig52">52</a>
-<i>d</i>). The zygote of <i>Ulothrix</i>, on germination, produces a
-brood of zoospores which swarm for a time and then elongate to become
-<i>Ulothrix</i>-filaments (alternation of generations). The gametes
-may also germinate without conjugation in the same manner as the
-zoospores. The principal genera are: <i>Ulothrix</i>, <i>Hormidium</i>,
-<i>Conferva</i>, <i>Microspora</i>.&mdash;<i>Ulothrix zonata</i> is
-very common in running fresh water. Nearly all the species of
-<i>Hormidium</i> occur on damp soil, tree-stems and stones.</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Chætophoraceæ.</b> The thallus consists of a single,
-branched, erect or creeping filament of cells, often surrounded by
-mucilage. The cells have only one nucleus. Asexual reproduction
-by zoospores with 2 or 4 cilia, by akinetes, or aplanospores. In
-many, conjugation between gametes with 2 cilia may be found. They
-approach on one side, Ulothricaceæ, and on the other, Mycoideaceæ.
-The principal genera are: <i>Stigeoclonium</i>, <i>Draparnaldia</i>,
-<i>Chætophora</i>, <i>Entoderma</i>, <i>Aphanochæte</i>,
-<i>Herposteiron</i>, <i>Phæothamnion</i>, <i>Chlorotylium</i>,
-<i>Trichophilus</i>, <i>Gongrosira</i>, <i>Trentepohlia</i>. Most of
-the species of <i>Trentepohlia</i> are coloured red by the presence of
-a red colouring material, which occurs in addition to the chlorophyll.
-They are aerial Algæ which live on stones (<i>T. jolithus</i>, “violet
-stone,” so named on account of its violet-like odour in rainy weather),
-on bark and old wood (<i>T. umbrina</i>), or on damp rocks (<i>T.
-aurea</i>). <i>Trichophilus welckeri</i> lives in the hair of Bradypus.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Mycoideaceæ.</b> The thallus is discoid, consisting
-of one or more cell-layers, and is always attached. Asexual
-reproduction by zoospores with 2 or 4 cilia. Sexual reproduction
-in some species by the conjugation of gametes with 2 cilia. This
-order forms the connecting link between <i>Chætophoraceæ</i>
-and <i>Coleochætaceæ</i>. The species occur in fresh water
-(<i>Chætopeltis</i>) as well as in salt (<i>Pringsheimia</i>),
-on the carapace of tortoises (<i>Dermatophyton</i> =
-<i>Epiclemmydia</i>), or endophytic between the cuticle and the
-epidermal cells of the leaves of tropical plants, destroying the
-leaf-tissue (<i>Mycoidea</i>).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Cylindrocapsaceæ.</b> The thallus consists of a simple
-(rarely, in parts, formed of many rows) unbranched filament, attached
-in the young condition, which has short cells with a single nucleus,
-and is enveloped in a thick envelope with a laminated structure.
-Asexual reproduction by zoospores with 2 cilia, which are formed 1,
-2, or 4 in each vegetative cell. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span> antheridia are produced by a
-single cell, or a group of cells, in a filament, dividing several times
-without increasing in size. Two egg-shaped spermatozoids, each with 2
-cilia (Fig. <a href="#fig53">53</a> <i>D</i>), are formed in each antheridium, and escape
-through an aperture in the side; in the first stages they are enclosed
-in a bladder-like membrane (Fig. <a href="#fig53">53</a> <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>). Other cells
-of the filament swell out and form oogonia (Fig. <a href="#fig53">53</a> <i>A</i>), which
-resemble those of <i>Œdogonium</i>. After fertilisation, the oospore
-surrounds itself with a thick wall, and assumes a reddish colour. The
-germination is unknown. The unfertilised oospheres remain green, divide
-often into 2–4 daughter-cells, and grow into new filaments.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig53" style="width: 532px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig53.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.</span>&mdash;<i>Cylindrocopsa involuta.</i>
-<i>A</i> Oogonium with oosphere (<i>o</i>) surrounded by spermatozoids
-(<i>s</i>). <i>B</i> Two antheridia, each with two spermatozoids.
-<i>C</i> Spermatozoids surrounded by their bladder-like membrane.
-<i>D</i> Free spermatozoid.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>This order, which only includes one genus, <i>Cylindrocapsa</i>, forms
-the connecting link between <i>Ulothricaceæ</i> and <i>Œdogoniaceæ</i>.
-The few species (4) occur only in fresh water.</p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Œdogoniaceæ.</b> The thallus consists of branched
-(<i>Bulbochæte</i>) or unbranched (<i>Œdogonium</i>) filaments,
-attached in the early stages. The cells may be longer or shorter,
-and have one nucleus. Asexual reproduction by zoospores, which have
-a chaplet of cilia round the base of the colourless end (Fig. <a href="#fig6">6</a>
-<i>a</i>). Sexual reproduction takes place by oogamous fertilisation.
-On the germination of the oospore, 4 zoospores are formed (Fig. <a href="#fig54">54</a>
-<i>F</i>). They occur only in fresh or slightly brackish water. The
-division<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[56]</span> of the cells takes place in quite a peculiar and unusual
-manner. At the upper end of the cell which is about to divide, a
-ring-shaped thickening of soft cellulose is formed transversely round
-the wall; the cell-nucleus of the mother-cell and the protoplasm then
-divide by a transverse wall into two portions of similar size, and the
-cell-wall bursts transversely along the central line of the thickened
-ring. The cell-wall thus divides into two parts&mdash;the upper one short,
-the “cap,” and the lower one much longer, the “sheath.” The portions
-of the original cell-wall now separate from each other, the cellulose
-ring extending, and supplying an additional length of cell-wall between
-them. The cap and sheath will project a little in front of the piece
-thus inserted. The dividing wall between the two new cells is formed
-near to the uppermost edge of the sheath, and gradually becomes thicker
-and firmer. The inserted piece of wall forms the larger part of the
-wall of the upper cell: the remainder is formed by the cap. This mode
-of division is repeated exactly in the same way, and new caps are
-formed close below the first one, one for every division.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig54" style="width: 439px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig54.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.</span>&mdash;<i>A Œdogonium ciliatum.</i>
-<i>A</i> Female plant with three oogonia (<i>og</i>) and dwarf-males
-(<i>m</i>). <i>B</i> An oogonium with spermatozoid (<i>z</i>) seen
-entering the oosphere (<i>o</i>) having passed through an aperture
-near the summit of the oogonium; <i>m</i> dwarf-male. <i>C</i> Ripe
-oospore. <i>D Œdogonium gemelliparum. F</i> Portion of
-a male filament from which spermatozoids (<i>z</i>) are emerging.
-<i>E</i> Portion of filament of <i>Bulbochæte</i>; the upper oogonium
-still encloses the oospore, in the central one the oospore is escaping
-while the lower one is empty. <i>F</i> Four zoospores developed from an
-oospore. <i>G</i> Zoospore germinating.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span></p>
-
-<p>Fertilisation takes place in the following way. The oogonium is a
-large ellipsoidal, swollen cell (<i>og</i>, in Fig. <a href="#fig54">54</a> <i>A</i>),
-whose contents are rounded off into an oosphere with a colourless
-receptive-spot (see <i>B</i>); an aperture is formed in the wall of
-the oogonium, through which the spermatozoids are enabled to enter
-(<i>B</i>). The spermatozoids are produced either directly, as in
-<i>D</i> (in pairs), in basal cells of the filament, or indirectly.
-In the latter case a swarmspore (<i>androspore</i>) is formed which
-comes to rest, attaches itself to an oogonium, germinates, and gives
-rise to a filament of a very few cells&mdash;<i>dwarf-male</i> (<i>A</i>,
-<i>B</i>, <i>m</i>). The spermatozoids are formed in the upper cell
-of the dwarf-male (<i>m</i>), and are set free by the summit of the
-antheridium lifting off like a lid. On the germination of the oospore
-(<i>C</i>), which takes place in the following spring, 4 zoospores are
-produced (<i>F</i>) (<i>i.e.</i> the sexual generation); these swarm
-about for a time, and ultimately grow into new filaments.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig55" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig55.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.</span>&mdash;<i>Coleochæte pulvinata. A</i>
-A portion of a thallus with organs of reproduction; <i>a</i> oogonium
-before, <i>b</i> after fertilisation; <i>c</i> an antheridium, closed;
-<i>d</i> open, with emerging spermatozoid. <i>B</i> Ripe oogonium,
-with envelope. <i>C</i> Germination of the oospore. <i>D</i> Zoospore.
-<i>E</i> Spermatozoid.</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Coleochætaceæ.</b> The thallus is always attached, and of a
-disc- or cushion-shape, formed by the dichotomous branching of filaments
-of cells united in a pseudo-parenchymatous manner. Each cell has only
-one nucleus. Asexual reproduction by zoospores with 2 cilia (Fig. <a href="#fig55">55</a>
-<i>D</i>), which may arise in all the cells. Sexual reproduction by
-oogamous fertilisation. The spermatozoids resemble the swarmspores,
-but are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[58]</span> smaller (<i>E</i>), and originate singly (in the species
-figured) in small conical cells (<i>c</i>, <i>d</i> in <i>A</i>). The
-oogonia are developed at the extremities of certain branches: they are
-bottle-shaped cells with very long and thin necks (<i>trichogyne</i>),
-open at the end (<i>a</i> in <i>A</i>); at the base of each oogonium
-is a spherical oosphere. The spermatozoids reach the oosphere through
-the trichogyne, or through an aperture in the wall when the trichogyne
-is absent, and fertilisation having taken place, the oogonium becomes
-surrounded by a cell-layer (envelope), which grows out from the cells
-near its base (<i>b</i> in <i>A</i>), and in this way a kind of fruit
-is formed (<i>B</i>) (<i>spermocarp</i>, <i>cystocarp</i>).</p>
-
-<p>The oospore, next spring, divides and forms a parenchymatous
-tissue (homologous with the Moss-sporophyte); this bursts open the
-envelope (<i>C</i>), and a zoospore (homologous with the spores of
-the Moss-capsule) arises in each of the cells, and produces a new
-<i>Coleochæte</i>. We have then, in this case, a still more distinct
-alternation of generations than in <i>Œdogonium</i>. Only one genus,
-<i>Coleochæte</i>, is known, but it contains several species, all
-living in fresh water.</p>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Cladophoraceæ.</b> This order is probably derived from
-the Ulothricaceæ. The thallus consists of a single, unbranched or
-branched filament, generally with an apical cell. The cells have each
-2 or more nuclei. Asexual reproduction by zoospores with 2 or 4 cilia,
-and by akinetes. Conjugation of gametes with 2 cilia is found in some
-genera. They occur in salt as well as in fresh water. The principal
-genera are: <i>Urospora</i>, <i>Chætomorpha</i>, <i>Rhizoclonium</i>,
-<i>Cladophora</i>; of the last named genus the species <i>C. lanosa</i>
-and <i>C. rupestris</i> are common in salt water; <i>C. fracta</i> and
-<i>C. glomerata</i> in fresh water.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 9. <b>Gomontiaceæ.</b> <i>Gomontia polyrrhiza</i>, the
-only species hitherto known, is found on old calcareous shells
-of certain salt water Molluscs.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 10. <b>Sphæropleaceæ.</b> The thallus consists of free,
-unbranched filaments, with very elongated multinuclear cells. The
-vegetative cells form no zoospores. Sexual reproduction by oogamous
-fertilisation (see page <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, Fig. <a href="#fig10">10</a> <i>B</i>). The oospore has a thick
-wall (Fig. <a href="#fig10">10</a> <i>D</i>) studded with warts, and assumes a colour
-resembling red lead. It germinates only in the following spring, and
-produces 1–8 zoospores, each with 2 cilia (Fig. <a href="#fig10">10</a> <i>E</i>), which
-grow into new filaments. Only one species, <i>Sphæroplea annulina</i>,
-is known.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 3. <b>Siphoneæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The thallus has apical growth, and in the vegetative condition
-consists generally of one single (in the Valoniaceæ most frequently
-of more) multinuclear cell, which may be much branched, and whose
-separate parts in the higher forms (<i>e.g. Bryopsis</i>,
-Fig. <a href="#fig57">57</a>; <i>Caulerpa</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig59">59</a>, etc.) may be differentiated to
-perform the various physiological functions (as root, stem and leaf).
-Vegetative multiplication by detached portions of the thallus (gemmæ);
-asexual reproduction by zoospores, akinetes, or aplanospores. Sexual
-reproduction by gamete-conjugation, rarely by oogamous fertilisation.
-The zygote or oospore germinates as a rule without any resting-stage.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig56" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig56.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.</span>&mdash;<i>Botrydium granulatum</i>: <i>a</i>
-an entire plant forming swarmspores; <i>b</i> swamspores; <i>c</i>
-an individual with gametangia; <i>d</i>, gamete; <i>e</i>, <i>f</i>,
-<i>g</i> conjugation; <i>h</i> zygote seen from above; <i>i</i> the
-same in a lateral view.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Most of the Siphoneæ occur in salt water or on damp soil. Many
-(<i>e.g. Dasycladaceæ</i>) are very much incrusted with lime,
-and occur, in the fossilized condition, in the deposits from the
-Cretaceous period to the present time. The Siphoneæ are connected
-by their lowest forms (<i>Botrydiaceæ</i> or <i>Valonia</i>) with
-the Protococcaceæ, but show also, through the Valoniaceæ, points of
-relationship to the <i>Cladophoraceæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Botrydiaceæ.</b> The thallus in the vegetative condition
-is unicellular, club-shaped, with a small single (<i>Codiolum</i>)
-or repeatedly dichotomously branched system of colourless rhizoids
-(<i>Botrydium</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig56">56</a> <i>a</i>), by which it is attached to
-objects immersed in salt water (<i>Codiolum</i>) or to damp clay
-soil (<i>Botrydium</i>). Asexual reproduction by zoospores with one
-(<i>Botrydium</i>) or two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span> cilia, and by aplanospores. The sexual
-reproduction is only known in <i>Botrydium</i>, and takes place in the
-following manner: in the part of the thallus which is above ground
-and in an active vegetative condition, several round cells (Fig. <a href="#fig56">56</a>
-<i>c</i>) are formed, which may be green or red according as they
-grow under water, or exposed to the strong light of the sun. These
-cells must be considered as “gametangia” as they produce many gametes
-(<i>d</i>) provided with two cilia. The zygote (<i>h</i>, <i>i</i>)
-formed by the conjugation (<i>e</i>, <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>) may either
-germinate immediately, or become a thick-walled resting-cell of an
-irregular, angular form.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Bryopsidaceæ.</b> The thallus in the vegetative
-condition is unicellular, and consists at the lower extremity of
-branched rhizoids, while the upper portion is prolonged into a
-stem-like structure of unlimited growth, producing, acropetally,
-branches and leaf-like structures. The latter have limited
-growth, and are separated by a cross wall from the stem, and
-become gametangia, or drop off. The gametes have two cilia, and
-are of two kinds: the female, which are green and large and the
-male, which are of brownish colour and smaller. Zoospores or
-any other method of asexual reproduction are unknown. Only one
-genus, <i>Bryopsis</i>, living in salt water.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig57" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig57.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span>&mdash;<i>Bryopsis plumosa</i>. A the plant,
-natural size. B A portion (enlarged) which shows the growing point (v),
-and the leaves derived from it in acropetal succession.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Derbesiaceæ.</b> Only one genus, <i>Derbesia</i>,
-living in saltwater. The zoospores, which are formed in a few
-lateral, swollen zoosporangia, possess one nucleus which has
-arisen through the coalescence of several, and they resemble
-the zoospores of <i>Œdogonium</i> by having a circle of cilia
-attached at the base of the colourless spot.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Vaucheriaceæ.</b> The thallus consists, in the vegetative
-condition, of a single irregularly or dichotomously branched cell,
-without differentiation into stem or leaf; root-like organs of
-attachment may however occur. Asexual reproduction by zoospores, which
-are formed singly in the extremity of a branch cut off by a transverse
-wall. They contain many nuclei, and bear small cilia situated in pairs,
-which give the appearance of a fine “pile” covering the whole or a
-great part of the surface. Akinetes,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[61]</span> aplanospores, and phytoamœbæ
-(naked masses of protoplasm, without cilia, which creep like an amœba
-on a substratum) may occur under certain conditions.</p>
-
-<p>The sexual reproductive organs are formed on short lateral branches,
-and are separated from the vegetative cell (Fig. <a href="#fig58">58</a> <i>A</i>) by
-cell-walls. Numerous spermatozoids, each with two cilia, are developed
-in the coiled antheridium (<i>A</i>, <i>b</i>). The oogonium is a
-thick, egg-shaped, often oblique cell, with its protoplasm rounded into
-an oosphere, which has a hyaline “receptive-spot” (<i>A</i>, <i>a</i>)
-immediately beneath the aperture formed in the wall of the oogonium.
-A slimy mass, which serves to receive the spermatozoids, is formed
-in some species in this aperture. The spermatozoids when liberated
-swim towards and enter the oosphere, which then immediately surrounds
-itself with a thick cell-wall. The mature oospore (<i>B</i>) contains
-a large quantity of oil. At germination the outer cell-wall bursts and
-a new plant is formed. There is only one genus, <i>Vaucheria</i>, with
-species living in salt as well as in fresh water and on damp soil.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig58" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig58.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.</span>&mdash;<i>Vaucheria sessilis</i>. <i>A</i>
-Fertilisation; <i>b</i> the antheridia; <i>a</i> the oogonia; <i>a</i>
-the receptive spot. <i>B</i> Oospore.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Phyllosiphonaceæ</b> are parasites in the leaves and
-stalks of Flowering-plants.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Caulerpaceæ.</b> The thallus has distinct differentiation
-into root, stem and leaf-like members (Fig. <a href="#fig59">59</a>); it is unicellular.
-Within the cell, strong, branched threads of cellulose extend from one
-side to the other serving as stays to support the thallus. Reproduction
-takes place by detached portions of the thallus; no other modes of
-reproduction are known. This order may most approximately be classed
-with the <i>Bryopsidaceæ</i>. The genus <i>Caulerpa</i> consists of
-more than seventy species which inhabit the tropical seas.</p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Codiaceæ.</b> The thallus has various forms, but without<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span>
-distinct differentiation in stem- or leaf-structures, sometimes
-(<i>e.g. Halimeda</i>) it is very much incrusted with lime.
-In the early stages it is unicellular (later, often multicellular),
-very much branched, with the branches, at any rate partly, so
-united or grown in amongst one another (Fig. <a href="#fig60">60</a>) that an apparently
-parenchymatous cellular body is formed. Akinetes or aplanospores are
-wanting; zoospores (or gametes?) may be developed in some species,
-however, in special swollen sporangia. Fertilisation similar to that
-in <i>Bryopsis</i> occurs perhaps in <i>Codium</i>. They are all salt
-water forms.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Valoniaceæ.</b> The thallus is generally
-multicellular, without differentation into stem- or
-leaf-structures, but the cells are sometimes united together
-and form a leaf-like reticulate expansion (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Anadyomene</i>). Zoospores are known in some, and they
-are then formed directly in the vegetative cells. In others
-(<i>e.g. Valonia</i>), a mass of protoplasm, which
-maybe separated through the damaging of a cell, can surround
-itself with a cell-wall, and grow into a new plant. No other
-modes of reproduction are known. The most important genera
-are: <i>Valonia</i>, <i>Siphonocladus</i>, <i>Chamædoris</i>,
-<i>Struvea</i>, <i>Microdictyon</i>, <i>Anadyomene</i>. They are
-all salt water forms.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig59" style="width: 417px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig59.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.</span>&mdash;<i>Caulerpa prolifera</i> (natural size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>As already pointed out, the <i>Valoniaceæ</i> occupy a
-somewhat central position among the Siphoneæ, and present
-points of similarity and contrast with the <i>Botrydiaceæ</i>
-and the <i>Bryopsidaceæ</i> through <i>Valonia</i>, with the
-<i>Dasycladaceæ</i> through <i>Chamædoris</i>, and also with
-the <i>Cladophoraceæ</i> through <i>Siphonocladus</i>, and
-<i>Struvea</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 9. <b>Dasycladaceæ.</b> The thallus consists of an axile
-longitudinal cell, destitute of transverse walls, attached at the base
-by root-like organs of attachment, and producing acropetally whorls of
-united, single or branched, leaf-like structures with limited growth.
-Asexual reproduction is wanting. Sexual reproduction by conjugation
-of gametes which arise in separate, fertile leaves, either directly
-or from aplanospores, which develope into gametangia. The principal
-genera are: <i>Acetabularia</i>, <i>Dasycladus</i>, <i>Neomeris</i>,
-<i>Cymopolia</i>. All marine.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig60" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig60.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 60.</span>&mdash;<i>Halimeda opuntia.</i> Plant
-(natural size). <i>B</i> Part of a longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The curiously shaped <i>Acetabularia mediterranea</i> grows
-gregariously on limestone rocks, and shells of mussels in the
-Mediterranean; it resembles a minute umbrella with a small stem,
-sometimes as much as nine centimetres in height, and a shade which
-may be more than one centimetre in diameter. The cell-membrane is
-thick, and incrusted with carbonate and oxalate of lime. Only the
-lower, root-like part of the thallus, which penetrates the calcareous
-substratum survives the winter, and may grow up into a new plant. The
-sterile leaves, which drop off early, are dichotomously branched and
-formed of cylindrical cells separated from each other by cross-walls,
-but they are not grown together. The shade is formed by a circle of
-70–100 club-shaped rays (fertile leaves) grown together, in each
-ray 40–80 aplanospores are formed, which become liberated at the
-breaking of the shade, and later on are changed to gametangia (compare
-<i>Botrydium</i>) which open by a lid and allow a large number of
-egg-shaped gametes with two cilia to escape. Gametes from various<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span>
-gametangia conjugate with one another; the product of the conjugation
-swarms about for some time, rounds off, and then surrounds itself with
-a cell-wall. The zygote germinates after a period of rest and then
-produces a sexual plant. The aplanospores (gametangia) thus represent
-the sexual generation.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Class 7. <b>Characeæ.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The thallus has a stem with nodes and internodes; and whorls of leaves,
-on which may be developed the antheridia and oogonia, are borne at
-the nodes. Vegetative reproduction by bulbils and accessory shoots.
-Zoospores are wanting. The antheridia are spherical, and contain a
-number of filaments in which the spirally coiled spermatozoids, each
-with two cilia, are formed. The oogonium is situated terminally, and
-is at first naked, but becomes later on surrounded by an investment,
-and forms after fertilisation the so-called “fruit.” The oospore, after
-a period of rest, germinates by producing a “proembryo,” from which
-the young sexual plant arises as a lateral branch. The Characeæ are
-distinguished by the structure of their vegetative system as well as by
-the spirally-coiled spermatozoids, and stand as an isolated group among
-the Thallophytes, of which, however, the Siphoneæ appear to be their
-nearest relations. They were formerly, but wrongly, placed near the
-Mosses. The class contains only one order, the Characeæ.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Characeæ.</b> Algæ with a peculiar odour, often incrusted
-with lime, and of a brittle nature. They generally grow gregariously
-in large masses at the bottom of fresh and brackish water, and are
-from a few inches to more than a foot in height. The stem has long
-internodes which in <i>Nitella</i> are formed of one cylindrical cell;
-in <i>Chara</i> of a similar cell, but closely surrounded by a cortical
-layer of smaller ones. The protoplasm in contact with the cell-wall
-exhibits in a well-marked degree the movement of rotation (cyclosis),
-carrying the chlorophyll corpuscles along with it. The internodes are
-separated from each other by a layer of small cells (nodal cells)
-from which the leaves are produced. The leaves are borne in whorls of
-from 5–12 which regularly alternate with one another as in the higher
-verticillate plants; a branch is borne in the axil of the first formed
-leaf of each whorl (Fig. <a href="#fig61">61</a> <i>A</i>, <i>n</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig61" style="width: 632px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig61.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.</span>&mdash;<i>Chara fragilis. A</i>
-Portion of a plant, natural size. <i>B</i> Portion of a leaf <i>b</i>,
-with leaflets β′-β′′; <i>a</i> antheridium; <i>c</i> oogonium. <i>C</i>
-A shield.&mdash;<i>Nitella flexilis. D</i> Filament from antheridium
-with spermatozoids. <i>E</i> Free spermatozoids.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The leaves are constructed in the same manner as the stem; they are
-divided into a series of joints, but have only a limited<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span> power of
-growth; their terminal cell, too, is not enclosed by a cortex. Leaflets
-are borne at their nodes. The growth of the stem is unlimited, and
-proceeds by means of an apical cell (Fig. <a href="#fig62">62</a> <i>s</i>). The apical cell
-divides into a segment-cell and a new apical cell. The segment-cell
-then divides by a transverse wall into two cells, one lying above the
-other; the lower one, without any further division, becomes one of the
-long, cylindrical, internodal cells (Fig. <a href="#fig62">62</a> <i>in</i>), and the upper
-one (Fig. <a href="#fig62">62</a> <i>n</i>) divides by vertical walls to form the nodal
-cells. The cortical cells (Fig. <a href="#fig62">62</a> <i>r</i>) which surround the long
-internodal cells of <i>Chara</i>, are derived from the divisions of the
-nodal cells; the cells covering the upper portion of an internodal cell
-being derived from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span> node immediately above it, and those in the
-lower part of the internode from the node below it.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig62" style="width: 580px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig62.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.</span>&mdash;<i>Chara fragilis</i>: <i>s</i>
-apical cell; <i>n</i>, <i>n</i> nodal cells; <i>in</i> internodal
-cells; <i>bl</i>, <i>bl</i> leaves; <i>r</i>, <i>r</i> the cortical
-cells.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig63" style="width: 384px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig63.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.</span>&mdash;Oogonium of <i>Chara</i>: <i>k</i>
-“crown”; <i>u</i> receptive spot; <i>s</i> spermatozoids.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The organs of reproduction are very conspicuous by their colour and
-form. They are always situated on the leaves, the plants being very
-frequently monœcious. The antheridia (Fig. <a href="#fig61">61</a> <i>B</i>, <i>a</i>) are
-modified leaflets or the terminal cell of a leaf; they are spherical
-and become red when mature. Their wall consists of 8 “shields,”
-<i>i.e.</i> of plate-like cells, 4 of which cover the upper half, and
-are triangular; the 4 round the lower half, to which the stalk of the
-antheridia is attached, being quadrilateral, with sides of unequal
-length. The shields (Fig. <a href="#fig61">61</a> <i>C</i>) have dentated edges, with the
-teeth fitting into one another, and their faces ornamented with ridges.
-From the centre of the internal face of each shield (<i>C</i>) a
-cylindrical cell, the <i>manubrium</i>, projects nearly as far as the
-centre of the antheridium; at the inner end of each of the manubria a
-spherical cell, the <i>capitulum</i>, is situated. Each capitulum bears
-six secondary capitula, from each of which four long coiled filaments
-(<i>C</i>, <i>D</i>) project into the cavity of the antheridium. These
-filaments are divided by transverse walls into from 100–200 discoid
-cells, in each of which a biciliated, coiled spermatozoid is developed
-(<i>D</i>, <i>E</i>) from the nucleus. The spermatozoids escape from
-their mother-cell and are set free by the shields separating from one
-other.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span></p>
-
-<p>The female organ of reproduction (Fig. <a href="#fig61">61</a> <i>B</i>, 63) is a small
-modified shoot, whose apical cell functions as an oogonium, its
-protoplasm forming the oosphere, which has a colourless receptive-spot
-at the summit (Fig. <a href="#fig63">63</a> <i>u</i>). The oogonium is situated on a nodal
-cell, from which 5 cells grow out in a circle and coil round the
-oogonium, covering it with a close investment. These cells divide
-once or twice at the top, so that 5 or 10 small cells are cut off,
-which project above the oogonium and form the so-called “crown”
-(Fig. <a href="#fig63">63</a> <i>k</i>). The crown either drops off at fertilisation, or
-its cells separate to form a central canal for the passage of the
-spermatozoids. The wall of the oosphere<a id="FNanchor_9" href="#Footnote_9" class="fnanchor">[9]</a> above the receptive spot
-becomes mucilaginous, and allows the spermatozoid to fuse with the
-oosphere. The oospore, on germination (Fig. <a href="#fig64">64</a> <i>sp</i>), becomes a
-small filamentous plant of limited growth (Fig. <a href="#fig64">64</a> <i>i</i>, <i>d</i>,
-<i>q</i>, <i>pl</i>)&mdash;the proembryo&mdash;and from this, as a lateral
-outgrowth, the sexual generation is produced.</p>
-
-<p>The order is divided into two sub-orders:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>A. <span class="smcap">Nitelleæ.</span> The crown consists of 10 cells; cortex absent:
-<i>Nitella</i>, <i>Tolypella</i>.</p>
-
-<p>B. <span class="smcap">Chareæ.</span> The crown consists of 5 cells; cortex present:
-<i>Tolypellopsis</i>, <i>Lamprothamnus</i>, <i>Lychnothamnus</i>,
-<i>Chara</i>.</p>
-
-<p><i>Chara crinita</i> is parthenogenetic; in large districts of Europe
-only female plants are found, yet oospheres are formed capable of
-germination.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig64" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig64.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.</span>&mdash;<i>Chara fragilis.</i> Germinating
-oospore (<i>sp</i>); <i>i</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>pl</i>, form
-together the proembryo rhizoids (<i>w′</i>) are formed at <i>d</i>;
-<i>w′</i> the so-called tap-root; at <i>g</i> are the first leaves of
-the sexual plant, which appears as a lateral bud.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>About 40 species of fossilized <i>Chara</i>, determined by their
-carpogonia, are known in the geological formations from the Trias up to
-the present day.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Class 8. <b>Phæophyceæ (Olive-Brown Seaweeds).</b></h3>
-
-<p>The Phæophyceæ are Algæ, with chromatophores in which the chlorophyll
-is masked by a brown colour (phycophæin). The product of assimilation
-is a carbohydrate (fucosan), <i>never true starch</i>. In the highest
-forms (<i>Fucaceæ</i>), the thallus presents differentiation into
-stem, leaf, and root-like structures. The asexual reproduction takes
-place by means of zoospores. The sexual reproduction is effected by
-the coalescence of motile gametes, or by oogamous fertilisation. The
-swarm-cells are <i>monosymmetric</i>, each moved by two cilia which are
-true protoplasmic structures, and generally <i>attached laterally</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig65">65</a>). The Phæophyceæ are almost entirely saltwater forms; a few
-species of <i>Lithoderma</i> live in fresh water.</p>
-
-<p>The class is divided into two families:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Phæosporeæ</span>: 1 Sub-Family, Zoogonicæ; 2 Sub-Family, Acinetæ.</p>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">Cyclosporeæ</span>: Fucaceæ.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 1. <b>Phæosporeæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The family consists of multicellular plants, whose cells are firmly
-united together to form a thallus; this, in the simplest cases, may be
-a branched filament of cells (<i>Ectocarpus</i>), or, in the highest,
-may resemble a stem with leaves (<i>Laminariaceæ</i>), while all
-transitional forms may be found between these two. The thallus grows by
-intercalary divisions (<i>e.g. Ectocarpus</i>), or by an apical
-cell (<i>e.g. Sphacelaria</i>); pseudo-parenchymatous tissue may
-sometimes be formed by cells, which were originally distinct, becoming
-united together. The size of the thallus varies; in some species it is
-quite small&mdash;almost microscopical,&mdash;while in the largest it is many
-metres in length.</p>
-
-<p>The vegetative cells in the lower forms are nearly uniform, but
-in those which are more highly developed (<i>Laminariaceæ</i> and
-<i>Fucaceæ</i>), they are sometimes so highly differentiated that
-mechanical, assimilating, storing and conducting systems may be found;
-the last named systems are formed of long cells with perforated,
-transverse walls, which bear a strong resemblance to the sieve-tubes in
-the higher plants.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig65" style="width: 407px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig65.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 65.</span>&mdash;Swarmspore of <i>Cutleria
-multifida</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The colouring matter in the living cells (“phæophyl”) contains<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span>
-chlorophyll; but this is concealed by a brown (“phycophæin”), and a
-yellow (“phycoxanthin”) colouring material, and hence all these Algæ
-are a lighter or darker <i>yellow-brown</i>. Starch is not formed.
-Asexual reproduction takes place, (1) by zoospores which arise in
-unilocular zoosporangia, and are monosymmetric, with two cilia attached
-laterally at the base of the colourless anterior end (Fig. <a href="#fig65">65</a>), the
-longer one being directed forwards and the shorter backwards; or (2) by
-aplanospores (?).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig66" style="width: 357px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig66.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 66.</span>&mdash;<i>Ectocarpus siliculosus</i>. <i>I
-a-f</i> A female gamete in the various stages of coming to rest.
-<i>II</i> A motionless female gamete surrounded by male gametes. <i>III
-a-e</i> Stages in the coalescence of male and female gametes.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig67" style="width: 508px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig67.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.</span>&mdash;<i>Zanardinia collaris</i>. <i>A</i>
-Male gametangia (the smaller celled) and female gametangia (the larger
-celled). <i>C</i> Female gamete. <i>D</i> Male gamete. <i>B</i>,
-<i>E</i> Fertilisation. <i>F</i> Zygote. <i>G</i> Germinating zygote.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Sexual reproduction has only been discovered in a few cases, and takes
-place by means of gametes (oogamous fertilisation perhaps occurs in the
-Tilopteridæ). The gametes have the same structure as the zoospores,
-and arise in multilocular gametangia; these, like the zoosporangia,
-are outgrowths from the external surface, or arise as modifications
-from it. The conjugating gametes may be similar (<i>e.g. Ectocarpus
-pusillus</i>), or there may be a more or less pronounced difference of
-sex, an indication of which is found in <i>Ectocarpus siliculosus</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig66">66</a>). When the gametes in this species have swarmed for a time,
-some, which are generally larger,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[70]</span> are seen to attach themselves
-by one of the cilia, which by degrees is shortened to form a kind
-of stalk (compare the upper gamete in Fig. <a href="#fig66">66</a> <i>II</i>); these
-are the female gametes, which now become surrounded by a number of
-males endeavouring to conjugate with them, but only one succeeds in
-effecting fertilisation. The protoplasm of the two gametes coalesces
-(Fig. <a href="#fig66">66</a> <i>III</i>), and a zygote (<i>e</i>) is formed. The male
-gametes which do not conjugate may germinate, but the plants derived
-from them are much weaker than those produced by the zygotes. Strongly
-pronounced sexual differences are found in the Cutleriaceæ, in which
-order the male and female gametes arise in separate gametangia (Fig.
-<a href="#fig67">67</a> <i>A</i>). The male gametes (Fig. <a href="#fig67">67</a> <i>D</i>) are much smaller
-than the female gamete (Fig. <a href="#fig67">67</a> <i>C</i>); the latter, after swarming
-for a short time, withdraws the cilia, and is then ready to become
-fertilised (Fig. <a href="#fig67">67</a> <i>B</i>, <i>E</i>), thus we have here a distinct
-transition to the oogamous fertilisation which is found in the Fucaceæ.
-Alternation of generations is rarely found.</p>
-
-<p>1. Sub-Family. <b>Zoogonicæ.</b></p>
-
-<p class="smaller">Reproduction by means of gametes and zoospores.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Ectocarpaceæ.</b> The thallus consists of single or
-branched filaments with intercalary growth, extending vertically from a
-horizontal, branched filament or a disc, but sometimes it is reduced to
-this basal portion only. Zoosporangia and gametangia (for fertilisation
-see Fig. <a href="#fig66">66</a>) are either outgrowths or arise by the transformation of
-one or several of the ordinary cells. The most common genera are:
-<i>Ectocarpus</i> and <i>Pylaiella</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Choristocarpaceæ.</b> <i>Choristocarpus</i>,
-<i>Discosporangium</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Sphacelariaceæ.</b> The thallus consists of small,
-parenchymatous, more or less ramified shoots, presenting a feather-like
-appearance. In the shoots, which grow by means of an apical cell (Fig.
-<a href="#fig68">68</a> <i>S</i>), a cortical layer, surrounding a row of central cells, is
-present. Sporangia and gametangia are outgrowths from the main stem or
-its branches. <i>Sphacelaria</i>, <i>Chætopteris</i> are common forms.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig68" style="width: 378px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig68.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.</span>&mdash;Apex of the thallus of <i>Chætopteris
-plumosa</i>. <i>S</i> Apical cell.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Encoeliaceæ.</b> <i>Punctaria</i>,
-<i>Asperococcus</i>, <i>Phyllitis fascia</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Striariaceæ.</b> <i>Striaria</i>, <i>Phlœospora</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Dictyosiphonaceæ.</b> <i>Dictyosiphon.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Desmarestiaceæ.</b> <i>Desmarestia aculeata</i> is
-common.</p>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Myriotrichiaceæ.</b> <i>Myriotrichia.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 9. <b>Elachistaceæ.</b> <i>Elachista fucicola</i> is a
-common epiphyte on species of <i>Fucus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 10. <b>Chordariaceæ.</b> The shoot-systems are often
-surrounded by mucilage. <i>Chordaria</i>; <i>Leathesia
-difformis</i> occurs as rounded, brown-green masses of the size
-of a nut, generally attached to other Seaweeds.</p>
-
-<p>Order 11. <b>Stilophoraceæ.</b> <i>Stilophora rhizodes</i> is
-common.</p>
-
-<p>Order 12. <b>Spermatochnaceæ.</b> <i>Spermatochnus paradoxus</i>
-is common.</p>
-
-<p>Order 13. <b>Sporochnaceæ.</b> <i>Sporochnus.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 14. <b>Ralfsiaceæ.</b> <i>Ralfsia verrucosa</i> is common
-as a red-brown incrustation on stones and rocks at the water’s
-edge.</p>
-
-<p>Order 15. <b>Lithodermataceæ.</b> Some species of the genus
-<i>Lithoderma</i> occur in fresh water.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig69" style="width: 297px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig69.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.</span>&mdash;<i>Laminaria digitata</i> (much
-reduced in size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 16. <b>Laminariaceæ.</b> The thallus is more or less leathery,
-and has generally a root-like lower part (Fig. <a href="#fig69">69</a>) which serves to
-attach it, and a stalk or stem-like part, terminated by a large
-leaf-like expansion. Meristematic cells are situated at the base of
-the leaf, and from these the new leaves are derived. The older leaf
-thus pushed away by the intercalary formation of the younger ones, soon
-withers (Fig. <a href="#fig69">69</a>). Gametes are wanting. Zoosporangia are developed from
-the lower part of a simple, few-celled sporangiophore, which is an
-outgrowth from a surface-cell and has a large club-formed apical cell.
-The sporangia are aggregated into closely packed sori, which cover
-the lower part of the terminal leaf, or occur on special, smaller,
-lateral, fertile fronds (<i>Alaria</i>). Most of the species belonging
-to this order live in seas of moderate or cold temperature and occur
-in the most northern regions that have yet been explored, forming
-their organs of reproduction during the cold and darkness of the
-arctic night. <i>Laminaria</i> is destitute of a midrib and has only
-one terminal leaf.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span> <i>L. digitata</i> has a broad leaf, which, by the
-violence of the waves, is torn into a number of palmate strips (Fig.
-<a href="#fig69">69</a>). <i>L. saccharina</i> has a small, undivided leaf. <i>Alaria</i>
-has a midrib and special fertile fronds. <i>A. esculenta</i> occurs
-plentifully on the west coast of Norway and on the shores of Great
-Britain. <i>Chorda filum</i>, a common seaweed, is thick, unbranched,
-and attains a length of several metres, without any strong demarcation
-between stalk and leaf. Some attain quite a gigantic size, <i>e.g.
-Macrocystis pyrifera</i>, whose thallus is said sometimes to be more
-than 300 metres in length. The <i>Lessonia</i>-species, like the above,
-form submarine forests of seaweed on the south and south-west coasts
-of South America, the Cape, and other localities in the Southern
-Hemisphere.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> The large Laminarias, where they occur in great
-numbers, are, like the Fuci, used for various purposes, for
-example, in the production of iodine and soda, and as an article
-of food (<i>Laminaria saccharina</i>, <i>Alaria esculenta</i>,
-etc.). <i>Laminaria saccharina</i> contains a large quantity of
-sugar (mannit) and is in some districts used in the preparation
-of a kind of syrup; in surgical operations it is employed for
-the distension of apertures and passages, as for instance the
-ear-passage. It is by reason of the anatomical peculiarities
-and structure of the cell-walls, that they are employed for
-this purpose. The cell-walls are divided into two layers, an
-inner one which has very little power of swelling, and an
-outer one, well developed and almost gelatinous&mdash;the so-called
-“intercellular substance”&mdash;which shrivels up when dried, but can
-absorb water and swell to about five times its size. The stalks
-of <i>Laminaria clustoni</i> are officinal.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 17. <b>Cutleriaceæ.</b> The thallus is formed by the union of the
-originally free, band-shaped shoots. The growth is intercalary. Sexual
-reproduction by the conjugation of male and female gametes. An asexual
-generation of different appearance, which produces zoospores, arises
-from the germination of the zygote. <i>Cutleria</i>, <i>Zanardinia</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Sub-Family 2. <b>Acinetæ.</b></p>
-
-<p>Branched, simple cell-rows with intercalary growth. The organs
-of reproduction are partly uni-and partly multicellular; in the
-unicellular ones a cell without cilia is formed, which may be destitute
-of a cell-wall, but has one nucleus (oosphere?), or which has a
-cell-wall and contains several (generally four) nuclei (aplanospores?);
-in the multicellular, monosymmetric swarm-cells with two cilia
-(spermatozoids?) are formed. The fertilisation has not been observed.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Tilopteridaceæ.</b> <i>Haplospora</i>, <i>Tilopteris</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 2. <b>Cyclosporeæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The individuals are multicellular, with growth by an apical cell.
-The thallus&mdash;often bilateral&mdash;is differentiated into a root-like
-structure (attachment-disc), and stem, sometimes also into leaves
-(<i>Sargassum</i>). Sometimes a differentiation occurs into various
-tissue-systems, viz. an external assimilating tissue, a storing tissue,
-a mechanical tissue of thickened, longitudinal, parenchymatous,
-strengthening cells, and a conducting tissue of sieve-cells, or of
-short sieve-tubes with perforated walls. Colouring material, as in
-Phæosporeæ. Vegetative reproduction can only take place by means of
-detached portions of the thallus (<i>Sargassum</i>), which are kept
-floating by means of bladders (Fig. <a href="#fig70">70</a> <i>A</i>, <i>a</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig72">72</a>).
-Zoospores are wanting.</p>
-
-<p>The sexual reproduction takes place by oogamous fertilisation. The
-oogonia and antheridia are formed inside special organs (conceptacles),
-and are surrounded by paraphyses. The conceptacles (Fig. <a href="#fig70">70</a> <i>B</i>,
-Fig. <a href="#fig71">71</a> <i>b</i>) are small, pear-shaped or spherical depressions,
-produced by a special ingrowth of the surface cells of the thallus,
-and their mouths (<i>ostioles</i>) project like small warts; they are
-either situated near the end of the ordinary branches of the thallus
-(<i>Fucus serratus</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig71">71</a> <i>a</i>) which may be swollen on this
-account (<i>Fucus vesiculosus</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig70">70</a> <i>A</i>, <i>b</i>), or on
-special short branches (<i>Ascophyllum</i>, <i>Sargassum</i>). The
-vertical section of a conceptacle is seen in Fig. <a href="#fig70">70</a> <i>B</i> (see also
-Fig. <a href="#fig71">71</a> <i>b</i>) where, in addition to the paraphyses, oogonia only
-are seen (<i>F. vesiculosus</i> is diœcious&mdash;male plant, yellow-brown;
-female plant, olive-brown); but in some species antheridia, together
-with oogonia, are produced in the same conceptacle. The oogonia are
-large, almost spherical cells, situated on a short stalk, in each of
-which are formed from 1–8 (in <i>Fucus</i>, 8; in <i>Ascophyllum</i>,
-4; in <i>Halidrys</i>, 1; in <i>Pelvetia</i>, 2) rounded, immotile
-oospheres. The wall of the oogonium ruptures, and the oospheres,
-still enclosed in the inner membrane, are ejected through the mouth
-of the conceptacle, and float about in the water, being finally set
-free by the bursting of the inner membrane. The antheridia are oblong
-cells (Fig. <a href="#fig70">70</a> <i>C</i>, <i>a</i>), many of which are produced on
-the same branched antheridiophore (Fig. <a href="#fig70">70</a> <i>C</i>); the numerous
-spermatozoids are provided with 2 cilia and are very small (Fig.
-<a href="#fig70">70</a> <i>D</i>, two antheridia surrounded by spermatozoids, one being
-open). The spermatozoids, still enclosed by the inner membrane of the
-antheridium, are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span> similarly set free, and fertilisation takes place in
-the water, numerous spermatozoids collecting round the oosphere (Fig.
-<a href="#fig70">70</a> <i>E</i>), which is many times larger, and by their own motion
-causing it to rotate. After fertilisation, the oospore surrounds itself
-with a cell-wall and germinates immediately, attaching itself (Fig. <a href="#fig70">70</a>
-<i>F</i>) to some object, and by cell-division grows into a new plant.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig70" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig70.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.</span>&mdash;<i>Fucus vesiculosus. A</i>
-Portion of thallus with swimming bladders (<i>a</i>) and conceptacles
-(<i>b</i>). <i>B</i> Section of a female conceptacle; <i>h</i>
-the mouth; <i>p</i> the inner cavity; <i>s</i> oogonia. <i>C</i>
-Antheridiophore; <i>a</i> antheridium; <i>p</i> sterile cells. <i>D</i>
-Antheridia out of which the spermatozoids are escaping. <i>E</i>
-Fertilisation. <i>F</i> Germinating oospore.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig71" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig71.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span>&mdash;<i>Fucus serratus</i>. <i>a</i>
-Portion of a male plant which has been exposed to the action of the
-open air for some time; small orange-yellow masses, formed by the
-antheridia, are seen outside the mouths of the male conceptacles (nat.
-size). <i>b</i> Cross section through the end of a branch of a female
-plant, showing the female conceptacles (× 4).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig72" style="width: 218px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig72.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.</span>&mdash;<i>Sargassum bacciferum</i>. A
-portion of the thallus, natural size.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Fucaceæ.</b> The following species are common on our
-coasts: <i>Fucus vesiculosus</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig70">70</a>) has a thallus with an
-entire margin, and with bladders arranged in pairs; <i>F. serratus</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig71">71</a>) without bladders, but with serrated margin; <i>Ascophyllum
-nodosum</i> has strap-like shoots, which here and there are swollen
-to form bladders; <i>Halidrys siliquosa</i> has its swimming bladders
-divided by transverse walls; <i>Himanthalia lorea</i>, which is found
-on the west coast of Norway, and the south coast of England, has a
-small perennial, button-shaped part, from the centre of which proceeds
-the long and sparsely branched, strap-like, annual shoot, which bears
-the conceptacles. The Gulf-weed (<i>Sargassum bacciferum</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig72">72</a>)
-is well known historically from the voyage of Columbus; it is met with
-in large, floating, detached masses in all oceans, and is found most
-abundantly in the Atlantic, off the Canary Islands and the Azores,
-and towards the Bermudas. The stalked, spherical air-bladders are
-the characteristic feature of this genus. The thallus is more highly
-developed than in <i>Fucus</i>, and there is a contrast between the
-stem and leaf-like parts. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span> portions which are found floating are
-always barren, only those attached are fertile.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> The Fucaceæ, like the Laminariaceæ, are used
-as manure (the best kinds being <i>Fucus vesiculosus</i> and
-<i>Ascophyllum nodosum</i>), for burning to produce kelp, and
-as food for domestic animals (<i>Ascophyllum nodosum</i> is
-especially used for this purpose).</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h3>Class 9. <b>Dictyotales.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The plants in this class are multicellular, and brown, with apical
-growth, new cells being derived either from a flat apical cell, or from
-a border of apical cells. The thallus is flat, leaf- or strap-shaped,
-attached by haptera, which are either found only at the base, or
-on the whole of the lower expansion of the thallus. The cells are
-differentiated into the following systems of tissues: an external,
-small-celled layer of assimilating cells, generally one cell in
-thickness, and an internal, large-celled layer of one or only a few
-cells in thickness, forming the mechanical and conducting tissues.
-All the reproductive cells are motionless. Asexual reproduction by
-naked, motionless spores (tetraspores) which are formed 1–4 in each
-tetrasporangium, the latter being outgrowths from the surface cells
-of special, sexless individuals. Zoospores are wanting. The sexual
-organs are of two kinds, oogonia and antheridia, which are formed from
-the surface cells, either on the same or different individuals. The
-oogonia are spherical or oval, and are generally placed close together;
-each contains one oosphere, which on maturity is ejected into the
-surrounding water, and is then naked and motionless. The antheridia
-are formed of longitudinal cells, united in groups, whose contents
-by repeated divisions&mdash;transverse and longitudinal&mdash;are divided into
-a large number of small, colourless, motionless spermatia&mdash;round or
-elongated&mdash;which are set free by the dissolution of the wall of the
-antheridium. The process of fertilisation has not yet been observed.</p>
-
-<p>The Dictyotales, in having tetraspores and spermatia, deviate
-considerably from the Phæophyceæ, but may be classed near to the
-Tilopteridæ, in which there are asexual spores with 4 cell-nuclei,
-which may be considered as an indication of the formation of
-tetraspores.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Dictyotaceæ.</b> <i>Dictyota dichotoma</i> which has
-a thin, regularly dichotomously divided thallus, occurs on the
-coasts of the British Isles. <i>Padina</i> is found on the south
-coast.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[77]</span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Class 10. <b>Rhodophyceæ (Red Seaweeds).</b></h3>
-
-<p>The plants comprised in this class are multicellular; they are
-simple or branched filaments, or expansions consisting of 1 to
-several layers of cells; the thallus may be differentiated (as in
-many <i>Florideæ</i>), to resemble stem, root, and leaf. The cells
-contain a distinctly differentiated nucleus (sometimes several), and
-distinct chromatophores, coloured by rhodophyll. The chlorophyll of
-the chromatophores is generally masked by a red colouring matter
-(phycoerythrin), which may be extracted in cold, fresh water; or rarely
-by phycocyan. Pyrenoids occur in some. Starch is never formed in the
-chromatophores themselves, but a modification&mdash;Florideæ starch&mdash;may
-be found in the colourless protoplasm. Asexual reproduction by motile
-or motionless spores (tetraspores) which are devoid of cilia and of
-cell-wall. Swarmspores are never found.</p>
-
-<p>Sexual reproduction is wanting, or takes place by the coalescence of
-a spermatium and a more or less developed female cell. The spermatia
-are naked masses of protoplasm, devoid of cilia and chromatophores.
-The female cell (carpogonium) is enclosed by a cell-wall, and after
-fertilisation forms a number of spores, either with or without
-cell-walls (carpospores), which grow into new individuals.</p>
-
-<p>The Rhodophyceæ may be divided into two families:</p>
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Bangioideæ.</span></p>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">Florideæ.</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 1. <b>Bangioideæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The thallus consists of a branched or unbranched cell-filament, formed
-of a single row or of many rows of cells, or of an expansion, one or
-two layers of cells in thickness, but without conspicuous pores for the
-intercommunication of the cells. The growth of the thallus is chiefly
-intercalary. The star-like chromatophores contain chlorophyll and are
-coloured blue-green with phycocyan, or reddish with phycoerythrin;
-all these colouring matters are occasionally found in the same cell
-(<i>Bangia</i>-species). Asexual reproduction by tetraspores, without
-cilia, but capable of amœboid movements.</p>
-
-<p>Sexual reproduction is wanting, or takes place by the coalescence of a
-spermatium with a carpogonium, which is only slightly differentiated
-from the vegetative cells, and is devoid of a trichogyne.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span> The
-carpospores are destitute of cell-wall and arise directly by the
-division of the fertilised oosphere. The Bangioideæ occur chiefly in
-salt water.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Goniotrichaceæ.</b>&mdash;The thallus consists of a
-branched cell-filament without rhizoids. Tetraspores are
-formed directly from the entire contents of the mother-cell,
-without any preceding division. Fertilisation unknown.
-<i>Asterocystis</i>, <i>Goniotrichum</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>Goniotrichaceæ</i>, through the blue-green
-<i>Asterocystis</i>, are allied to the Myxophyceæ, and through
-<i>Goniotrichum</i> to the <i>Porphyraceæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Porphyraceæ.</b>&mdash;The thallus is formed of an
-expansion consisting of a layer of 1–2 cells, which, at the
-base, are attached to the substratum by means of a special
-form of haptera (<i>Porphyra</i>, <i>Diploderma</i>); or of
-unbranched (very rarely slightly branched) filaments, attached
-at the base by haptera (<i>Bangia</i>): or it extends from a
-prostrate cell-disc (various species of <i>Erythrotrichia</i>).
-Tetraspores are formed after one or more divisions of the
-mother-cell, either from the whole or only a part of its
-contents; they possess amœboid movements, or have a jerky,
-sliding-forward motion. The antheridia have the same appearance
-as the vegetative cells, but divide several times, and several
-spermatia are formed, either simultaneously from the whole
-contents (<i>Porphyra</i>, <i>Bangia</i>), or the spermatia
-are successively formed from a part of the contents of the
-antheridium (<i>Erythrotrichia</i>). The carpogonium is without
-a trichogyne, but the oosphere has a colourless spot which may
-sometimes rise a little above the surface of the thallus, and
-may be considered as an early stage in the development of the
-trichogyne. The spermatia form a canal through the membrane of
-the carpogonium, and their contents coalesce with the oosphere
-at its colourless spot. The fertilised oosphere divides on
-germination into a number of carpospores, which are set free as
-naked, motionless masses of protoplasm, which grow and give rise
-to new individuals (alternation of generations).</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 2. <b>Florideæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The thallus has one or more apical cells, grows principally by apical
-growth, and may be differentiated into root, stem, and leaf. The
-chromatophores vary in form, but have a red or brownish colour, due
-to chlorophyll and phycoerythrin. Asexual reproduction by motionless
-tetraspores, which generally arise by the division into four of the
-contents of the tetrasporangium. The carpogonium has a trichogyne,
-and the carpospores, which are formed indirectly from the fertilised
-oosphere, possess a cell-wall.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig73" style="width: 443px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig73.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.</span>&mdash;<i>Callithamnion elegans</i>:
-<i>a</i> a plant with tetraspores (× 20); <i>b</i> apex of a branch
-with tetraspores(× 250).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig74" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig74.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.</span>&mdash;<i>Polysiphonia variegata</i>:
-<i>a</i> a portion of a male plant with antheridia; <i>b</i> spermatia;
-<i>c</i> transverse section of thallus.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The thallus may assume very different forms. In the simplest
-species it is filamentous and formed of single, branched rows of
-cells (<i>Callithamnion</i>, etc., Fig. <a href="#fig73">73</a>). <i>Ceramium</i> has a
-filamentous thallus, generally dichotomously forked (Fig. <a href="#fig75">75</a>), or
-sometimes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span> pinnately branched, which, at the nodes, or throughout
-its entire length, is covered by a layer of small cortical cells.
-<i>Polysiphonia</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig74">74</a>) has a filamentous, much branched thallus,
-made up of a central cylindrical cell, surrounded by a layer of
-other cells, cortical cells, which in length and position correspond
-to the central ones. In many of the Red Algæ the vegetative organs
-are differentiated into stems and leaves, the former having, as in
-<i>Chara</i>, unlimited growth in length, whilst the latter soon attain
-their full development. <i>Chondrus</i> has a fleshy, gelatinous
-thallus, without nodes; it is repeatedly forked into flat branches
-of varying thickness. <i>Furcellaria</i> has a forked thallus with
-thick branches and without nodes. The thallus of <i>Delesseria</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig76">76</a>) consists of branches, often bearing leaf-like structures,
-with a midrib and lateral ribs springing from it. These ribs persist
-through the winter, and at the commencement of the succeeding period of
-vegetation the lateral ribs become the starting points for new leaves.
-In <i>Corallina</i> the thallus is pinnately branched, and divided
-into nodes and internodes. The name has been given to this genus from
-the fact that the thallus is incrusted with carbonate of lime to such
-a degree that it becomes very hard, and the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span> whole plant adopts a
-coral-like appearance. Other genera which are similarly incrusted, and
-have a leaf-like or even crustaceous thallus (such as <i>Melobesia</i>,
-<i>Lithothamnion</i>), are included in this family.</p>
-
-<p>In some instances the cells of the thallus may be found
-<i>differentiated</i> into more or less well defined tissues, so that
-it is possible to find special assimilating, mechanical, and conducting
-tissues, the last named in some cases having the double function of
-conducting and of serving as a reservoir in which starch is found as a
-reserve material. The cells of the Florideæ, which are formed by the
-division of a mother-cell into two daughter-cells of unequal size, have
-always larger or smaller pits in the cell-walls, and the thin cell-wall
-separating two pits from each other is perforated by a number of small
-holes. These pits are particularly developed in the conducting tissues,
-but sieve-tubes are very rarely to be found.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig75" style="width: 382px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig75.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.</span>&mdash;<i>Ceramium diaphanum</i> (nat.
-size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig76" style="width: 345px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig76.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.</span>&mdash;<i>Delesseria sanguinea</i> (about ⅓).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Tetraspores</i> may be wanting (<i>e.g. Lemanea</i>) or may
-often arise on special, non-sexual individuals. In some (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Batrachospermum</i>) only one tetraspore is formed in each
-tetrasporangium, but the number is generally four, which may be formed
-tetrahedrally (Fig. <a href="#fig73">73</a>) or by divisional walls perpendicular to each
-other, or even in a single row. The tetrasporangia in some species are
-free (Fig. <a href="#fig73">73</a>), but in the majority they are embedded in the thallus.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig77" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig77.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 77.</span>&mdash;<i>A Lejolisia
-mediterranea</i>: <i>r</i> haptera; <i>s</i> longitudinal section
-through a cystocarp; <i>p</i> the empty space left by the liberated
-spore (<i>t</i>). <i>B-E Nemalion multifidum</i>: <i>a</i>
-antheridia; <i>b</i> procarpium with trichogyne, to which two spermatia
-are adhering.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The sexual reproduction (discovered by Thuret and Bornet,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span> 1867)
-differs in the essential points from that of all other plants,
-and approaches most nearly to the sexual reproduction of the
-<i>Bangioideæ</i>. The sexual cells are developed from the
-terminal cells (never nodal cells) of the branched cell-filaments,
-which constitute the thallus. The mother-cells of the spermatia
-(<i>spermatangia</i>) are generally arranged in a group, in the
-so-called <i>antheridia</i> (Figs.<a href="#fig74"> 74</a>, <a href="#fig77">77</a> <i>A</i>, <i>a</i>). On
-becoming ripe the membrane of the spermatangium ruptures and the
-<i>spermatia</i> emerge as spherical or ovoid, naked (a little later
-they may possess a cell-wall) masses of protoplasm which are not
-endowed with the power of motion, and hence are carried passively by
-the current of the water in which they may happen to be, to the female
-cell. This latter is analogous with the oogonium of the Green Algæ. The
-female reproductive organ is termed the <i>procarpium</i>, and consists
-of two parts, a lower swollen portion&mdash;the <i>carpogonium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig77">77</a>
-<i>b</i> in <i>A</i> and <i>B</i>)&mdash;which contains the cell-nucleus,
-and an upper filamentous prolongation&mdash;the <i>trichogyne</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig77">77</a>
-<i>B</i>)&mdash;which is homologous with the colourless receptive spot of
-the oosphere of the Green Algæ, and the <i>Porphyraceæ</i>. In the
-sexual reproduction of the majority of the Florideæ, a very important
-part is played by certain special cells, rich in cell-contents&mdash;the
-<i>auxiliary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[82]</span> cells</i>. These are either dispersed in the interior of
-the thallus, or are arranged together in pairs with the cell-filament
-which bears the carpogonium, and are generally united with this to
-form an independent multicellular <i>procarpium</i>. The spermatia
-attach themselves firmly to the trichogyne and surround themselves
-with a cell-wall. The dividing wall at the point of contact is
-perforated, and the nucleus of the spermatium probably travels
-through the trichogyne to the swollen part of the procarpium&mdash;the
-<i>carpogonium</i>&mdash;and fuses with its nucleus. After fertilisation the
-trichogyne withers (Fig. <a href="#fig77">77</a> <i>C</i>), but the lower portion of the
-procarpium, constituting the <i>fertilised oosphere</i>, grows out and
-forms in various ways, first a tuft of spore-forming filaments known as
-<i>gonimoblasts</i>, and finally the <i>carpospores</i>. These latter
-form a new asexual generation (compare the germination of the oospore
-of <i>Œdogonium</i> and <i>Coleochæte</i>).</p>
-
-<p>The gonimoblasts may arise in three ways:&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>1. In the <i>Nemalionales</i>, branched filaments grow out from
-the oosphere and form an upright, compressed or expanded tuft of
-spore-forming filaments.</p>
-
-<p>2. In the <i>Cryptonemiales</i>, several branched or unbranched
-filaments (<i>ooblastema-filaments</i>) grow out from the
-oosphere, and conjugate in various ways with the auxiliary
-cells. The gonimoblasts are then formed from the single cells
-produced by the conjugation.</p>
-
-<p>3. In the <i>Gigartinales</i> and <i>Rhodymeniales</i> the
-oosphere conjugates with an auxiliary cell by means of a short
-ooblastema-filament, and from this auxiliary cell a gonimoblast
-is produced.</p>
-
-<p>The motionless <i>carpospores</i>, which sometimes in the early
-stages are naked, and afterwards invested with a cell-wall,
-are developed from the terminal cells (and perhaps also from
-some of the other cells) of the branches of the gonimoblast.
-The gonimoblasts constitute sharply defined parts of the
-plant in which the carpospores arise. These parts are called
-<i>cystocarps</i> and are either naked (Fig. <a href="#fig77">77</a> <i>E</i>),
-or surrounded by a covering (pericarp or involucre, Fig.
-<a href="#fig77">77</a> <i>A</i>) formed in different ways. On this account the
-Florideæ were formerly divided into <span class="smcap">Gymnosporeæ</span>
-(<i>Batrachospermum</i>, <i>Nemalion</i>, <i>Ceramium</i>, etc.)
-and <span class="smcap">Angiosporeæ</span> (<i>Farcellaria</i>, <i>Lejolisia</i>,
-<i>Delesseria</i>, <i>Melobesia</i>, etc.).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Florideæ are divided into four sub-families:&mdash;</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Sub-Family 1. <b>Nemalionales.</b> The fertilised oosphere
-produces directly the gonimoblast.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Lemaneaceæ.</b> Algæ of brownish colour and living
-in fresh water. They lack tetraspores, and the very sparingly
-branched fertile filaments, composed of many rows of cells, grow
-out from a proembryo, which consists of a single row of cells
-bearing branches. <i>Lemanea fluviatilis</i>, often found on
-rocks and stones in quickly flowing streams.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Helminthocladiaceæ.</b> Tetraspores are generally
-wanting (<i>e.g.</i> in <i>Nemalion</i>) or arise one in each
-tetrasporangium (<i>e.g. Batrachospermum</i>) and it
-is only in <i>Liagora</i> that four cruciate tetraspores are
-formed. <i>Chantransia corymbifera</i> consists of simple,
-branched cell-rows, and is an independent species. Several
-other <i>Chantransia-forms</i>, living in fresh water, are
-“proembryos” of species of the genus <i>Batrachospermum</i>.
-The germinating carpospore grows out into filaments and forms
-a so-called proembryo which, if not shaded, attains only a
-small size, but when growing in shady situations presents a
-much greater development. These highly developed proembryos
-have been described as species of <i>Chantransia</i>. The
-proembryo can reproduce by division, or by tetraspores which
-are developed singly in the sporangia; in <i>B. vagum</i> and
-<i>B. sporulans</i> which do not possess fully developed female
-reproductive organs, the proembryos serve almost entirely to
-reproduce the species. The young <i>Batrachospermum</i>-plant
-arises from the end of an upright filament of the proembryo.
-The proembryo is generally persistent, and continually produces
-new <i>Batrachospermums</i>. These latter bear the sexual
-reproductive organs and also whorls of branches: the central
-row of cells is enclosed by cells growing from the base of the
-whorls of branches, and from these cortical cells secondary
-proembryos are developed. In this alternation of shoots there is
-really no alternation of generations, since the proembryo and
-the shoots with the sexual reproductive organs are parts of the
-same thallus.</p>
-
-<p>Several species of <i>Batrachospermum</i> have a bluish green
-or verdigris colour. <i>Nemalion multifidum</i> has a brown-red
-thallus, slightly branched, which is attached to rocks near the
-water’s edge.</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Chætangiaceæ.</b> <i>Galaxaura</i> has a thallus
-thickly incrusted with lime.</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Gelidiaceæ.</b> <i>Naccaria, Gelidium.</i></p>
-
-<p>Sub-Family 2. <b>Gigartinales.</b> The fertilised auxiliary
-cell grows towards the thallus, to produce the gonimoblasts.
-Procarpia generally present.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Acrotylaceæ.</b> <i>Acrotylus.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Gigartinaceæ.</b> <i>Gigartina</i>,
-<i>Phyllophora</i>, <i>Ahnfeltia</i>; <i>Chondrus crispus</i>,
-with dark red, dichotomously branched thallus, is common on the
-coasts of Scandinavia and Great Britain.</p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Rhodophyllidaceæ.</b> <i>Rhodophyllis</i>,
-<i>Euthora</i>; <i>Cystoclonium purpurascens</i> is common,
-and sometimes the ends of its branches may be modified into
-tendril-like haptera.</p>
-
-<p>Sub-Family 3. <b>Rhodymeniales.</b> The fertilised auxiliary
-cell forms the gonimoblast on the side away from the thallus.
-Procarpia are abundantly produced.</p>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Sphærococcaceæ.</b> <i>Gracilaria.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 9. <b>Rhodymeniaceæ.</b> <i>Rhodymenia palmata</i> is
-a common species. <i>Lomentaria</i>, <i>Chylocladia</i>,
-<i>Plocamium</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 10. <b>Delesseriaceæ.</b> <i>Delesseria sanguinea</i>;
-<i>D. alata</i> and <i>D. sinuosa</i> are handsome forms which
-are not uncommon.</p>
-
-<p>Order 11. <b>Bonnemaisoniaceæ.</b> <i>Bonnemaisonia.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 12. <b>Rhodomelaceæ.</b> <i>Rhodomela</i>,
-<i>Odonthalia</i>; <i>Polysiphonia</i>, of which many species
-are to be found on the coasts of Great Britain, has a
-filamentous, richly branched thallus consisting of a central row
-of cells surrounded<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span> by a varying number of cortical cells of
-similar size&mdash;the so-called “siphons.”</p>
-
-<p>Order 13. <b>Ceramiaceæ.</b> Pretty Algæ, often branched
-dichotomously, or unilaterally pinnate. <i>Spermothamnion,
-Griffithsia, Callithamnion, Ceramium, Ptilota.</i></p>
-
-<p>Sub-Family 4. <b>Cryptonemiales.</b> The cells formed by the
-coalescence of the auxiliary cells and the ooblastema-filaments,
-produce the gonimoblasts. The <i>carpogonium-filaments</i> and
-the auxiliary cells are scattered singly in the thallus.</p>
-
-<p>Order 14. <b>Gloiosiphoniaceæ.</b> <i>Gloiopeltis.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 15. <b>Grateloupiaceæ.</b> <i>Halymenia, Cryptonemia.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 16. <b>Dumontiaceæ.</b> <i>Dumontia, Dudresnaya.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 17. <b>Nemastomaceæ.</b> <i>Furcellaria</i>, which has
-dichotomously branched, round shoots, is common on the coasts of
-Great Britain.</p>
-
-<p>Order 18. <b>Rhizophyllidaceæ.</b> <i>Polyides, Rhizophyllis.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 19. <b>Squamariaceæ.</b> The Algæ belonging to this order
-form crust-like coverings on stones, mussel-shells, and on other
-Algæ, but are not themselves incrustated: <i>Petrocelis</i>,
-<i>Cruoria</i>, <i>Peyssonellia</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 20. <b>Corallinaceæ.</b> Partly crustaceous, partly
-erect, branched Algæ, thickly incrusted with lime, so that a
-few species (<i>Lithothamnia</i>, also called <i>Nullipora</i>)
-occur in fossilized condition from Jurassic to Tertiary periods.
-<i>Melobesia, Lithophyllum, Lithothamnion, Corallina.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> “Carragen” is the thallus of <i>Chondrus crispus</i>
-(Irish Moss) and <i>Gigartina mamillosa</i>. It is a common article of
-food on the coasts of Ireland, and swells to a jelly when cooked. It
-is officinal. <i>Rhodymenia palmata</i> is generally eaten as food in
-Ireland and in some places on the west coast of Norway; it is also used
-as food for sheep and hence is termed “Sheep-seaweed.” Agar-Agar is the
-jelly obtained from species of <i>Gelidium</i> and <i>Gigartina</i>
-growing in China and Japan.</p>
-
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<h2 class="smaller">Sub-Division III. <b>FUNGI.</b></h2>
-</div>
-
-
-<p><b>Mode of Life.</b> The Fungi have no chlorophyll, and are thus
-unable in any stage of their existence to assimilate carbon; they
-must therefore live as <i>saprophytes</i> or <i>parasites</i>. There
-is, however, no strong line of demarcation between these; many Fungi
-commence as true parasites, but only attain their full development
-upon or in dead plants or animals (<i>Rhytisma</i>, <i>Empusa</i>).
-Many saprophytes may occasionally appear as parasites, and are then
-designated “<i>facultative parasites</i>” (<i>Nectria cinnabarina</i>,
-<i>Lophodermium pinastri</i>), in contradistinction to those which
-only<span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span> appear as parasites, “<i>obligate parasites</i>” (Mildew,
-Brand-and Rust-Fungi, <i>Cordyceps</i>).</p>
-
-<p>The parasites which live on the surface of the host-plant are termed
-<i>epiphytic</i> (Mildew, <i>Fusicladium</i>); and those living
-in its tissues are termed <i>endophytic</i> (<i>Ustilago</i>,
-<i>Peronospora</i>). <i>Epizoic</i> (<i>Oidium tonsurans</i>,
-<i>Laboulbenia</i>) and <i>endozoic</i> Fungi (<i>Cordyceps</i>,
-<i>Entomophthora</i>), are distinguished, in the same manner, as those
-which live on the surface or in the interior of animals. The Fungi
-designated <i>pathogenic</i> are especially those which produce disease
-in human beings and in animals.</p>
-
-<p>Most of the diseases of plants are attributed to the parasitic Fungi.
-These force their way into the host-plant by piercing the outer wall of
-the epidermis, as in the Potato-disease; or by growing in through the
-stomata, <i>e.g.</i> the summer generations of the Rust of Wheat; or
-they can only penetrate through a wound, <i>e.g. Nectria</i>.
-Some effect an entrance into the host-plant by the secretion of a
-poisonous matter or ferment, which softens and destroys the cell-walls
-(<i>Sclerotinia</i>). Some Yeast and Mould Fungi secrete ferments
-(enzymes), which, for example, convert cane-sugar into a sugar capable
-of fermentation.</p>
-
-<p>The relation of the parasitic Fungus to the host-plant is mainly of
-two kinds. In the one case, the cell-contents are destroyed, the
-protoplasm is killed, and the cellular tissue becomes discoloured and
-dies (<i>Peronospora</i>, <i>Armillaria mellea</i>, <i>Polyporus</i>);
-in the other case, the parasite has an irritating effect on the
-cellular tissue, whereby the affected organ grows more rapidly and
-becomes larger than normal, producing <i>hypertrophy</i>. Such
-malformations are termed <i>Fungi-galls</i> (Mycocecidia); in this
-manner “witches’ brooms” are produced by <i>Æcidium</i>, “pocket-plum”
-by <i>Taphrina</i>, and other deformities by <i>Exobasidium</i> and
-<i>Cystopus candidus</i>. This hypertrophy may either be produced by
-a vigorous cell-multiplication, which is most frequently the case,
-or by the enlargement of the individual cells (<i>Synchytrium</i>,
-<i>Calyptospora</i>). The relation between host and Fungus among the
-Lichens is of a very peculiar nature, termed “<i>symbiosis</i>.”</p>
-
-<p><b>Vegetative Organs.</b> The vegetative parts of a Fungus are
-termed its <i>mycelium</i>.<a id="FNanchor_10" href="#Footnote_10" class="fnanchor">[10]</a> This is formed of a mass of long,
-cylindrical, branched cells resembling threads (and hence termed
-<i>hyphæ</i>), which have a continued apical growth. The mycelium,
-in its early development, shows a well-marked difference between
-the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span> two main groups of true Fungi: in the <i>Phycomycetes</i>, or
-Algal Fungi, the mycelium has no transverse walls, and is therefore
-unicellular, while in the <i>Mesomycetes</i> and <i>Mycomycetes</i>
-it is provided with dividing walls, which gradually arise during
-growth, in the youngest hyphæ; intercalary transverse walls may also
-be formed at a later period. In the hyphæ of some of the Higher
-Fungi (<i>Hymenomycetes</i>), connections may be formed between two
-contiguous cells of the same hypha, by a protuberance growing out from
-an upper cell just above the transverse wall, and forming a junction
-with the cell below. These are known as <i>clamp-connections</i>; they
-appear to be of use in affording communication between the two cells.</p>
-
-<p>The hyphæ of Fungi, where they come in contact with one another, often
-grow together, so that <b>H</b>-formed combinations (fusions) are
-produced, which give rise to very compact felted tissue. When the hyphæ
-are not only closely interwoven, but also united and provided with
-many transverse walls, the mycelium assumes the appearance of a tissue
-with isodiametric cells, and is then termed <i>pseudo-parenchyma</i>.
-The hyphæ-walls are sometimes very much thickened, and composed of
-several layers, and the external layers, by the absorption of water,
-may often swell very much and become mucilaginous. In some instances
-the walls are colourless, in others coloured, the most frequent colour
-being brown. The cell-contents may also be coloured, and in that case
-are generally yellow; this colour is chiefly connected with the fat
-(oil) which may be found in abundance in the Fungi, whilst starch is
-invariably absent in all the true Fungi.</p>
-
-<p>The mycelium assumes many different forms; sometimes it appears
-as a thread-like, cobwebby, loose tissue, less frequently as firm
-strands, thin or thick membranes, horn-like plates or tuber-like
-bodies. The <i>thread-like</i> mycelium may, in the parasitic Fungi,
-be intercellular or intracellular, according as it only extends into
-the interstices between the cells or enters into the cells proper.
-In the first case there are generally found haustoria, or organs of
-suction (<i>e.g.</i> among the <i>Peronosporaceæ</i>; <i>Taphrina</i>,
-on the contrary, has no haustoria); but haustoria are also found
-among the epiphytic Fungi (<i>e.g.</i> Erysiphaceæ). Intracellular
-mycelia are found in the Rust-Fungi, in <i>Claviceps purpurea</i>,
-<i>Entomophthora</i>, etc. In spite of its delicate structure, this
-mycelium may live a long time, owing to the circumstance that it
-continues to grow peripherally, while the older parts gradually die off
-(“fairy rings”).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>String-like</i> mycelia may be found, for example, in
-<i>Phallus</i>, <i>Coprinus</i>, and are formed of hyphæ, which run
-more or less parallel to each other. <i>Membrane-like</i> mycelia
-are chiefly to be found in Fungi growing on tree-stems (Polyporaceæ
-and Agaricaceæ); they may have a thickness varying from that of the
-finest tissue-paper to that of thick leather, and may extend for
-several feet. The peculiar horny or leather-like strands and plates
-which, for instance, appear in <i>Armillaria mellea</i>, are known as
-<i>Rhizomorpha</i>; they may attain a length of more than fifty feet.
-The <i>tuber-like</i> mycelia or <i>sclerotia</i> play the part of
-resting mycelia, since a store of nourishment is accumulated in them,
-and after a period of rest they develope organs of reproduction. The
-sclerotia are hard, spherical, or irregular bodies, from the size
-of a cabbage seed to that of a hand, internally white or greyish,
-with a brown or black, pseudo-parenchymatous, external layer.
-Sclerotia only occur in the higher Fungi, and are found both in
-saprophytes, <i>e.g. Coprinus</i>, and in parasites, <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Claviceps</i> (Ergot), <i>Sclerotinia</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>Reproduction.</b> <span class="smcap">Sexual reproduction</span> is found only
-among the lower Fungi which stand near to the Algæ, the Algal-Fungi,
-and takes place by the same two methods as in the Algæ, namely by
-<i>conjugation</i> and by the <i>fertilisation</i> of the egg-cell in
-the oogonium.</p>
-
-<p>The majority of Fungi have only <span class="allsmcap">ASEXUAL</span> reproduction.
-The most important methods of this kind of reproduction are the
-<i>sporangio-fructification</i> and the <i>conidio-fructification</i>.</p>
-
-<p>In the <span class="allsmcap">SPORANGIO-FRUCTIFICATION</span> the <i>spores</i> (endospores)
-<i>arise inside</i> a mother-cell, the sporangium (Fig. <a href="#fig80">80</a>). Spores
-without a cell-wall, which move in water by means of cilia and hence
-are known as <i>swarmspores</i> or <i>zoospores</i>, are found among
-the Oomycetes, the sporangia in which these are produced being called
-swarm-sporangia or zoosporangia (Figs. <a href="#fig86">86</a>, <a href="#fig87">87</a>, <a href="#fig91">91</a>, <a href="#fig94">94</a>).</p>
-
-<p>In the <span class="allsmcap">CONIDIO-FRUCTIFICATION</span> the <i>conidia</i> (exospores)
-arise on special hyphæ (conidiophores), or directly from the
-mycelium. When conidiophores are present, the conidia are developed
-upon them terminally or laterally, either in a basipetal succession
-(in many Fungi, for example in <i>Penicillium</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig111">111</a>,
-<i>Erysiphe</i>, <i>Cystopus</i>), or acropetally (in which method
-the chains of conidia are often branched; examples, <i>Pleospora
-vulgaris</i>, <i>Hormodendron cladosporioides</i>). All conidia
-are at first unicellular, sometimes at a later stage they become
-two-celled or multicellular through the formation of partition-walls
-(<i>Piptocephalis</i>). The conidia with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span> thick, brown cell-walls,
-and contents rich in fats (<i>resting conidia</i>), can withstand
-unfavourable external conditions for a much longer period than conidia
-with thin walls and poor in contents.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">SPORANGIA</span> arise either from the ordinary cells of the
-mycelium (<i>Protomyces</i>), or are borne on special hyphæ. They are
-generally spherical (<i>Mucor</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig80">80</a>; Saprolegniaceæ), egg-,
-pear-, or club-shaped (Ascomycetes), more rarely they are cylindrical
-or spindle-shaped. While among the Phycomycetes the size, form, and
-number of spores are indefinite in each species, in the Ascomycetes
-the sporangia (<i>asci</i>) have a definite size, form, and number of
-spores. The spores of the Ascomycetes are known as ascospores.</p>
-
-<p>The sporangio-fructification is found under three main forms.</p>
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Free Sporangiophores</span> which are either single (<i>Mucor</i>,
-Fig. <a href="#fig78">78</a>), or branched (<i>Thamnidium</i>).</p>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">Sporangial-layers.</span> These are produced by a number of
-sessile or shortly-stalked sporangia, being formed close together like
-a palisade (<i>Taphrina</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig105">105</a>).</p>
-
-<p>3. <span class="smcap">Sporangiocarps.</span> These consist usually of many sporangia
-enclosed in a covering, they are found only in the Carpoasci, and
-are also known as <i>ascocarps</i>. The parts of an ascocarp are the
-<i>covering</i> (<i>peridium</i>), and the <i>hymenium</i>, which is
-in contact with the inner wall of the peridium, and is generally made
-up of asci, and sterile, slender hyphæ. The latter either penetrate
-between the asci and are branched and multicellular (<i>paraphyses</i>,
-Figs. <a href="#fig103">103</a> <i>d</i>, <a href="#fig123">123</a>, <a href="#fig125">125</a>, <a href="#fig129">129</a>), or clothe those parts of the inner
-wall which bear no asci (<i>periphyses</i>; among many peronocarpic
-Ascomycetes, <i>e.g. Chætomium</i>, <i>Sordaria</i>,
-<i>Stictosphæra hoffmanni</i>). The ascocarps are produced directly
-from the mycelium, or from a <i>stroma</i>, that is a vegetative body
-of various forms, in which they may be embedded (Figs. <a href="#fig116">116</a> <i>B</i>,
-<i>C</i>).</p>
-
-<p>Among the conidio-fructifications there are, in the same way, three
-divisions.</p>
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Free conidiophores</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig109">109</a>). The form of the
-conidiophores, the shape, and number of its spores are various. In the
-most highly developed Fungi, the Basidiomycetes, there are, however,
-special more highly developed conidiophores, the <i>basidia</i>, which
-have a definite form and spores of a definite shape and number. The
-conidia borne on basidia are called <i>basidiospores</i>.</p>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">Conidial-layers.</span> (<i>a</i>) The <span class="allsmcap">SIMPLEST</span>
-case of this is found when the conidiophores arise directly from
-the mycelium, parallel<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span> to one another, and form a flat body
-(<i>e.g. Exobasidium vaccinii</i>, <i>Hypochnus</i>; among the
-Phycomycetes, <i>Empusa muscæ</i> and <i>Cystopus</i>). (<i>b</i>)
-In a <span class="allsmcap">HIGHER</span> form the conidial-layers are thick, felted
-threads (<i>stroma</i>) inserted between the mycelium and the
-<i>hymenium</i> (<i>i.e.</i> the region of the conidiophores). Examples
-are found in a section of the Pyrenomycetes (Fig. <a href="#fig122">122</a>). (<i>c</i>)
-The <span class="allsmcap">HIGHEST</span> form has the <i>basidial-layer</i>, that is a
-conidial-layer with more highly developed conidiophores (basidia). The
-basidial-layer, with stroma, and the hymenium (region of the basidia),
-forms the basidio-fructification, which is branched in the Clavariaceæ,
-and hat-shaped in other Hymenomycetes (in these groups the hymenium is
-confined to the lower side of the pileus).</p>
-
-<p>The hymenium of the conidial-layer and basidial-layer is composed
-entirely of conidiophores, or of conidiophores and sterile hyphæ
-(<i>paraphyses</i>) which are probably always unicellular. Paraphyses
-are found in <i>Entomophthora radicans</i>, and in certain
-Basidiomycetes (<i>e.g. Corticium</i>).</p>
-
-<p>3. <span class="smcap">Conidiocarps</span> (<i>pycnidia</i>). A special covering
-surrounds the conidia-forming elements. The inner side of this covering
-(<i>peridium</i>) bears the hymenium, <i>i.e.</i> those elements
-from which the conidia are abstricted. The conidiocarps arise either
-immediately from the hyphæ or from a <i>stroma</i> in which they
-are generally embedded. Conidiocarps are entirely wanting in the
-Phycomycetes. On the other hand they are found among the Ascomycetes
-and Basidiomycetes, and in the latter group the conidiocarps contain
-more highly differentiated conidiophores (basidia) and are known
-as <i>basidiocarps</i>. Conidiocarps with simple conidiophores,
-are found only among the Basidiomycetes, in the Uredinaceæ, and in
-<i>Craterocolla cerasi</i>. In the Ascomycetes (Figs. <a href="#fig120">120</a> <i>d</i>,
-<i>e</i>; <a href="#fig117">117</a> <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>; <a href="#fig123">123</a> <i>a</i>; <a href="#fig124">124</a> <i>b</i>)
-the conidiocarps are visible, as points, to the naked eye, while
-the basidiocarps of the Basidiomycetes (Figs. <a href="#fig170">170</a>, <a href="#fig171">171</a>, <a href="#fig173">173–176</a>,
-<a href="#fig178">178–180</a>) vary from the size of a pea to that of a child’s head. The
-“spermogonia” of the Ascomycetes and Lichenes, are conidiocarps with
-small conidia (<i>microconidia</i>) which germinate sometimes more
-slowly than other conidia, and formerly were erroneously considered as
-male reproductive cells, and called spermatia.</p>
-
-<p>The conidia of the Fungi are not primitive structures. The comparison
-of the sporangia and conidia among the Zygomycetes, and among the
-species of the genus <i>Peronospora</i> shows, that the conidia
-are aberrant formations, and that they have arisen through<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[90]</span> the
-degeneration of the sporangium, which, by the reduction of its spores
-to one, has itself become a spore.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In the genera <i>Thamnidium</i> and <i>Chætocladium</i>
-the gradual diminution of the sporangia, and the reduction
-of the number of spores can be distinctly followed. In
-<i>Thamnidium</i> the number of spores is often reduced to one,
-which is <i>free</i> in the sporangium. In <i>Chætocladium</i>
-however the sporangia are typically <i>one-spored</i>, the
-spore is always united with the sporangium, and the two
-become a single body, the so-called <i>conidium</i>, which is
-in reality a closed sporangium. How close is the connection
-between the sporangia and conidia of <i>Thamnidium</i> and
-<i>Chætocladium</i>, is seen from the fact that, in the
-conidial stage of <i>Chætocladium</i> the same whorl-form of
-branching appears as in the sporangial stages of <i>Thamnidium
-chætocladioides</i>, and also, that the conidia of <i>Ch.
-fresenianum</i> throw off the former sporangium-wall
-(exosporium), while <i>Ch. jonesii</i> germinates without
-shedding its exosporium. The Phycomycetes have doubtless
-sprung from Water-Algæ and inherit the sporangia from them. On
-this supposition, as the Phycomycetes assumed a terrestrial
-mode of life, the sporangia would become adapted to the
-distribution of the spores by means of the air, the sporangia
-would become small, contain dust-like spores, and would
-eventually become closed-sporangia, <i>i.e.</i> conidia. The
-conidia are a terrestrial method for the multiplication of
-Fungi. In the Hemiasci and the Ascomycetes the sporangia are
-still preserved, but in every instance they are adapted to
-terrestrial spore-distribution, their spores being set free
-on the destruction of the sporangium-wall (generally shot
-out) and distributed through the air. For further examples of
-spore-distribution see below, p. <a href="#Page_91">91–93</a>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The reproduction of Fungi is accomplished not only by spores and
-conidia, but also sometimes by <i>chlamydospores</i>. These are
-fundaments<a id="FNanchor_11" href="#Footnote_11" class="fnanchor">[11]</a> of sporangiophores and conidiophores, which have
-taken on a resting condition in the form of a spore, and are able
-to germinate and produce carpophores. In the formation of the
-chlamydospores the hyphæ accumulate reserve materials at the expense
-of the neighbouring cells; in the undivided hyphæ of the Phycomycetes
-transverse walls are formed, and finally the chlamydospores are
-set free by the decay of the empty cells connecting them with the
-mycelium. One must distinguish between <i>oidia</i> and <i>true
-chlamydospores</i>. The former are more simple, the latter are a
-somewhat more differentiated form of carpophore fundaments, which serve
-for propagation in the same manner as spores. In <i>Chlamydomucor
-racemosus</i> the chlamydospores grow out into the air and form
-differentiated carpophores. In the Autobasidiomycetes they only
-germinate vegetatively, and not with the formation of fructifications.
-From <i>Chlamydomucor</i> up to the Autobasidiomycetes the successive
-development of the fructification,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span> which is interrupted by the
-formation of the chlamydospores, degenerates more and more. Among
-certain Ustilagineæ the chlamydospores (brand-spores) no longer
-germinate with the production of fructifications. In the Uredinaceæ,
-only one of the three chlamydospore-forms has the property of producing
-fructifications on germination; the other forms only germinate
-vegetatively, like ordinary spores, and in the same manner as the
-chlamydospores of the Autobasidiomycetes. In the Hemibasidii, and the
-Uredinaceæ, in <i>Protomyces</i>, the chlamydospores are the chief
-means of reproduction. They are found also among the Ascomycetes.</p>
-
-<p>The sporangia and the conidia of the Fungi have their common origin
-in the sporangia of the Phycomycetes. The asci (and the Ascomycetes
-which are characterised by these bodies) are descended from the
-sporangia-forming, lower Fungi; the basidia (and the Basidiomycetes)
-from those which bear conidia. <i>The sporangia of the Phycomycetes
-are the primitive form and the starting point for all the reproductive
-forms of the Fungi.</i> The chlamydospores appear besides in all
-classes of Fungi as supplementary forms of reproduction, and are of
-no importance in determining relationships. Although the expression
-“fruit” must essentially be applied to true Phanerogams, yet, through
-usage, the term “<i>fruit-forms</i>,” is employed to designate the
-forms or means of reproduction of Fungi, and the organs of reproduction
-are known as <i>organs of fructification</i>, the sporangiophores and
-conidiophores as <i>fruit-bearers</i> (<i>carpophores</i>), and the
-sporangiocarps, conidiocarps, and basidiocarps as “<i>fruit-bodies</i>.”</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The majority of Fungi have more than one method of reproduction,
-often on various hosts (Uredinaceæ). Species with one, two,
-or more than two methods of reproduction are spoken of as
-having monomorphic, dimorphic, or pleomorphic fructification.
-Monomorphic, <i>e.g.</i> the Tuberaceæ; dimorphic, <i>Mucor</i>,
-<i>Piptocephalis</i>, Saprolegniaceæ, <i>Penicillium
-crustaceum</i>; pleomorphic, <i>Puccinia graminis</i>,
-<i>Capnodium salicinum</i> (in the last species there are five
-methods of reproduction: yeast-like conidia, free conidiophores,
-conidiocarps with small and large conidia, and ascocarps).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>The liberation and distribution of the spores and conidia.</b> The
-spores and conidia, on account of their small size and lightness, are
-spread far and wide by currents in the air, but in addition to this
-method, insects and other animals frequently assist in disseminating
-them. The liberation of the conidia is occasionally effected by the
-complete shrinking away of the conidiophore, but more frequently by
-abstriction from the conidiophores, either by their gradually tapering
-to a point, or by the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[92]</span> dissolution of a cross-wall (generally of a
-mucilaginous nature). The individual links of conidia-chains are
-detached from one another in the same way, or often by means of small,
-intercalary cells, which are formed at the base of the individual
-links, and becoming slimy, dissolve upon the maturity of the spores.
-Special contrivances for ejecting the spores and conidia may often
-be found. In <i>Peronospora</i> the cylindrical fruit-hyphæ in the
-dry condition become strap-shaped and also twisted. These are very
-hygroscopic, and the changes of form take place so suddenly, that
-the spores are violently detached and shot away. In <i>Empusa</i> a
-peculiar squirting mechanism may be found (Fig. <a href="#fig85">85</a>). Each club-shaped
-hypha which projects from the body of the fly, bears a conidium at its
-apex; a vacuole, which grows gradually larger, is formed in the slimy
-contents of the hypha, and the pressure thereby eventually becomes so
-great that the hypha bursts at its apex, and the conidium is shot into
-the air. By a similar mechanism, the spores of many of the Agaricaceæ
-are cast away from the parent-plants. In the case of <i>Pilobolus</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig84">84</a>) the entire sporangium is thrown for some distance into the
-air by a similar contrivance, the basal region of the sporangium
-having, by the absorption of water, been transformed into a slimy layer
-which is readily detached. <i>Sphærobolus</i>, a Gasteromycete, has
-a small, spherical fruit-body (basidiocarp), the covering of which,
-when ripe, suddenly bursts, and the basidiospores contained in it are
-forcibly ejected.</p>
-
-<p><i>The spores which are enclosed in asci</i> are, in some instances,
-set free from the mother-cell (ascus) prior to their complete
-development (<i>Elaphomyces</i>, <i>Eurotium</i>). In the case of the
-majority of the Pyrenomycetes and Truffles, the asci swell by the
-absorption of water into a slimy mass, which gradually disappears,
-so that the spores lie free in the fruit-body; they either remain
-there till the fruit-body decays, as in those which have no aperture
-(Perisporiaceæ, Tuberaceæ), or the slimy mass, by its growth, is
-forced out through the aperture of the sporocarp, taking the spores
-with it (<i>Nectria</i>). The ejection of the spores by mechanical
-means takes place in a number of Ascomycetes, and should many spores
-be simultaneously ejected, a dust-cloud may be seen with the naked
-eye to arise in the air from the fruit-body. This is the case in the
-larger species of <i>Peziza</i>, <i>Helvella</i>, <i>Rhytisma</i>,
-when suddenly exposed to a damp current of air. A distinction is
-drawn between a simultaneous ejection of all the spores contained in
-the ascus, and an ejection at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span> intervals (successive), when only one
-spore at a time is thrown out. The first of these methods is the most
-frequent, and is brought about by the ascus being lined with a layer of
-protoplasm, which absorbs water to such a degree that the elastic walls
-are extended at times to double their original size. The spores are
-forced up against the free end of the ascus, a circular rupture is made
-at this point, and the elastic walls contract, so that the fluid with
-the spores is ejected. Special means may in some instances be found
-to keep the spores together, and compel their simultaneous ejection.
-Thus, a tough slime may surround all the spores (<i>Saccobolus</i>),
-or a chain-apparatus, similarly formed of tough slime; or there may
-be a hooked appendage from each end of the spores which hooks into
-the appendage of the next spore (<i>Sordaria</i>). The paraphyses
-occurring between the asci in many Ascomycetes, also play a part
-in the distribution of the spores, by reason of the pressure they
-exercise. The asci in some of the Pyrenomycetes, which are provided
-with jar-shaped fruit-bodies, elongate to such an extent that, without
-becoming detached from their bases, they reach the mouth of the
-fruit-body one at a time, burst and disperse their spores, and so make
-room for those succeeding. An ejection of the spores at intervals from
-the ascus is rarer. It takes place, for instance, in <i>Pleospora</i>,
-whose asci have a double wall. The external wall, by absorption of
-water, at last becomes ruptured, and the internal and more elastic
-membrane forces itself out in the course of a few seconds to one of two
-or three times greater length and thickness, so that one spore after
-another is forcibly ejected from a narrow aperture at the end of the
-ascus.</p>
-
-<p><b>Germination of spores</b> (conidia and chlamydospores). In many
-spores may be found one or more <i>germ-pores</i>, <i>i.e.</i> thinner
-places, either in the inner membrane (uredospores, <i>Sordaria</i>) or
-in the external membrane (teleutospores in Rust-Fungi), through which
-the germination takes place. Generally this does not occur till the
-spores have been set free: in some Ascomycetes germination commences
-inside the ascus (<i>Taphrina</i>, <i>Sclerotinia</i>). The different
-ways in which the spores germinate may be classified into three groups.</p>
-
-<p>I. <span class="smcap">The ordinary germination</span> occurs by the spore emitting a
-germ-tube, which immediately developes into a mycelium. In spores with
-a double wall it is only the inner membrane which forms the germ-tube.
-In swarmspores a single wall is formed after the withdrawal of the
-cilia, and this, by direct elongation,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[94]</span> becomes the germ-tube. The
-protoplasm accumulated in the spore enters the hypha, which, in pure
-water, can only grow as long as the reserve nourishment lasts.</p>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Germination with promycelium</span> differs only by the
-circumstance that the hypha developed from the germ-tube has a very
-limited growth, and hence it does not immediately develope into a
-mycelium, but produces conidia (Rust-and Brand-Fungi). This promycelium
-must only be regarded as an advanced development of a conidiophore or
-basidium.</p>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">The yeast-formation</span> of conidia consists in the
-production of outgrowths, very much constricted at their bases,
-from one or more places. Each of the conidia formed in this manner
-may again germinate in the same way. When sufficient nourishment
-is present, a branched chain of such conidia is formed, and these
-are finally detached from one another. Yeast-like buddings from the
-conidia are produced in various Fungi, <i>e.g. Ascoidea</i>,
-<i>Protomyces</i>, Ustilagineæ, Ascomycetes, Tremellaceæ, etc. In the
-Ustilagineæ these conidia are an important element in the development.
-The budding conidia of <i>Exobasidium</i> forms a “mould” on the
-nutritive solution. The yeast-like conidia are not to be confounded
-with the “Mucor-yeast” (comp. Mucoraceæ). For <i>Saccharomyces</i> see
-Appendix to the Fungi, page <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</p>
-
-<p>In a compound spore (<i>i.e.</i> when a mass of spores are associated
-together) each spore germinates on its own account. There are
-sometimes, however, certain among them which do not germinate, but
-yield their contents to those which do.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>length of time</i> for which conidia can retain their power
-of germination is shortest (being only a few weeks) in those having
-thin walls and containing a large supply of water (Peronosporaceæ,
-Uredinaceæ). In many spores a resting period is absolutely necessary
-before they are able to germinate (resting spores). It has been
-observed in some spores and conidia, that the faculty of germinating
-may be preserved for several years if the conditions necessary
-for germination remain absent (Ustilagineæ, <i>Eurotium</i>,
-<i>Penicillium</i>).</p>
-
-<p>The optimum, minimum and maximum temperatures required for the
-germination of the spores has been decided in the case of a good many
-Fungi. A large portion of the most common Fungi have their optimum at
-20°C., minimum at 1–2°C, maximum at 40°C. In the case of pathogenic
-Fungi the optimum is adapted to the temperature of the blood. Fungi
-living in manure, whose<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span> spores are often adapted to germinate in
-the alimentary canals of warm-blooded animals, have an optimum
-corresponding to the temperature of these animals, but with a little
-margin.</p>
-
-<p><b>Systematic Division.</b>&mdash;The lowest class of the Fungi is that
-of the <span class="smcap">Phycomycetes</span>, which have an unicellular mycelium,
-sexual and asexual reproduction, and have doubtless sprung from
-sporangia-bearing, lower Green Algæ. From the Phycomycetes (and
-certainly from the Zygomycetes) spring two well defined branches,
-each with numerous distinct species; to the one branch belong
-the <span class="smcap">Hemiasci</span> and the <span class="smcap">Ascomycetes</span>, to the other
-the <span class="smcap">Hemibasidii</span> and the BASIDIOMYCETES. Ascomycetes and
-Basidiomycetes may be united under the title of <span class="smcap">Mycomycetes</span> or
-<span class="smcap">Higher Fungi</span>. The Hemiasci and the Hemibasidii constitute the
-class of <span class="smcap">Mesomycetes</span>. The Hemiasci are an intermediate form
-between Zygomycetes and Ascomycetes; the Hemibasidii a similar group
-between the Zygomycetes and Basidiomycetes. Mesomycetes and Mycomycetes
-have only asexual reproduction; sexual reproduction is wanting. Their
-mycelium is multicellular.</p>
-
-<p>Up to the present time about 39,000 species have been described.</p>
-
-<p>Review of the divisions of the Fungi:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>Class I.&mdash;<b>Phycomycetes (Algal-Fungi).</b></p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Sub-Class 1. <b>Zygomycetes.</b></li>
-  <li>Sub-Class 2. <b>Oomycetes.</b></li>
-  <li class="i2">Family 1. <span class="smcap">Entomophthorales</span>.</li>
-  <li class="i2">Family 2. <span class="smcap">Chytridiales</span>.</li>
-  <li class="i2">Family 3. <span class="smcap">Mycosiphonales</span>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Class II. <b>Mesomycetes.</b></p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Sub-Class 1. <b>Hemiasci.</b></li>
-  <li>Sub-Class 2. <b>Hemibasidii (Brand-Fungi).</b></li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Class III.&mdash;<b>Mycomycetes (Higher Fungi).</b></p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Sub-Class 1. <b>Ascomycetes.</b></li>
-  <li class="i1">Series 1. <b>Exoasci.</b></li>
-  <li class="i1">Series 2. <b>Carpoasci.</b></li>
-  <li class="i2">Family 1. <span class="smcap">Gymnoascales</span>. }</li>
-  <li class="i2">Family 2. <span class="smcap">Perisporiales</span>.&emsp;}Angiocarpic Exoasci.</li>
-  <li class="i2">Family 3. <span class="smcap">Pyrenomycetes</span>. }</li>
-  <li class="i2">Family 4. <span class="smcap">Hysteriales</span>.&emsp;}</li>
-  <li class="i2">Family 5. <span class="smcap">Discomycetes</span>. } Hemiangiocarpic Exoasci.</li>
-  <li class="i2">Family 6. <span class="smcap">Helvellales</span>. Gymnocarpic (?) Exoasci.</li>
-  <li>Additional: <span class="smcap">Ascolichenes</span>. Lichen-forming Ascomycetes.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span></li>
-  <li>Sub-Class 2. <b>Basidiomycetes.</b></li>
-  <li class="hangingindent4">Series 1.&mdash;Protobasidiomycetes. Partly gymnocarpic, partly angiocarpic.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Series 2. Autobasidiomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i2">Family 1. <span class="smcap">Dacryomycetes</span>. Gymnocarpic.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent5">Family 2. <span class="smcap">Hymenomycetes</span>. Partly gymnocarpic, partly hemiangiocarpic.</li>
-  <li class="i2">Family 3. <span class="smcap">Phalloideæ</span>. Hemiangiocarpic.</li>
-  <li class="i2">Family 4. <span class="smcap">Gasteromycetes</span>. Angiocarpic.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">Additional: <span class="smcap">Basidiolichenes</span>. Lichen-forming Basidiomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">Additional to the Fungi: <span class="smcap">Fungi Imperfecti</span>. Incompletely known
-(<i>Saccharomyces</i>, <i>Oidium</i>-forms, etc.).</li>
-</ul>
-
-
-<h3>Class 1. <b>Phycomycetes (Algal-Fungi).</b><a id="FNanchor_12" href="#Footnote_12" class="fnanchor">[12]</a></h3>
-
-<p>This group resembles <i>Vaucheria</i> and the other Siphoneæ among the
-Algæ.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Organs of Nutrition.</span> The mycelium is formed of a single
-cell, often thread-like and abundantly branched (Fig. <a href="#fig78">78</a>). Vegetative
-propagation by chlamydospores and oidia. Asexual reproduction by
-endospores (sometimes <i>swarmspores</i>) and conidia. Sexual
-reproduction by conjugation of two hyphæ as in the Conjugatæ, or
-by fertilisation of an egg-cell in an oogonium. On this account
-the class of the Phycomycetes is divided into two sub-classes:
-<span class="smcap">Zygomycetes</span> and <span class="smcap">Oomycetes</span>.</p>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class I. <b>Zygomycetes.</b></h3>
-
-<p>Sexual reproduction takes place by zygospores, which function as
-resting-spores, and arise in consequence of <i>conjugation</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig81_82">81</a>); in the majority of species these are rarely found, and only
-under special conditions. The most common method of reproduction is
-by endospores, by acrogenous conidia, by chlamydospores, or by oidia.
-<i>Swarmspores are wanting.</i> Parasites and saprophytes (order 6
-and 7). The zygospores are generally produced when the formation
-of sporangia has ceased; <i>e.g.</i> by the suppression of the
-sporangial-hyphæ (<i>Mucor mucedo</i>), or by the diminution of oxygen;
-<i>Pilobolus crystallinus</i> forms zygospores, when the sporangia are
-infected with saprophytic <i>Piptocephalis</i> or <i>Pleotrachelus</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> Asexual reproduction only by sporangia.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Mucoraceæ.</b> The spherical sporangia contain many spores.
-The zygospore is formed between two unicellular branches (gametes).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span></p>
-
-<p>The unicellular mycelium (Fig. <a href="#fig78">78</a>) of the Mucoraceæ branches
-abundantly, and lives, generally, as a saprophyte on all sorts
-of dead organic remains. Some of these Fungi are known to be
-capable of producing <i>alcoholic fermentation</i>, in common with
-the Saccharomyces. This applies especially to <i>Chlamydomucor
-racemosus</i> (<i>Mucor racemosus</i>), when grown in a saccharine
-solution, and deprived of oxygen; the mycelium, under such conditions,
-becomes divided by transverse walls into a large number of small cells.
-Many of these swell out into spherical or club-shaped cells, and when
-detached from one another become chlamydospores, which abstrict new
-cells of similar nature (Fig. 79). These chlamydospores were formerly
-erroneously termed “mucor-yeast,” but they must not be confounded with
-the yeast-conidia (page 94). They are shortened hyphæ, and are not
-conidia of definite size, shape, and point of budding. Oidia are also
-found in <i>Chlamydomucor</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig78" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig78.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 78.</span>&mdash;<i>Mucor mucedo.</i> A mycelium
-which has sprung from one spore, whose position is marked by the *:
-<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i> are three sporangia in different stages of
-development; <i>a</i> is the youngest one, as yet only a short, thick,
-erect branch; <i>b</i> is commencing to form a sporangium which is
-larger in <i>c</i>, but not yet separated from its stalk.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[98]</span></p>
-
-<p>The Mucoraceæ, in addition to the chlamydospores and oidia, have a more
-normal and ordinary method of reproduction; viz., by <i>spores</i>
-which are formed without any sexual act. <i>Mucor</i> has round
-sporangia; from the mycelium one or more long branches, sometimes
-several centimetres in length, grow vertically into the air; the apex
-swells (Figs. <a href="#fig78">78</a>, <a href="#fig80">80</a>) into a sphere which soon becomes separated
-from its stalk by a transverse wall; in the interior of this sphere
-(sporangium) a number of spores are formed which eventually are set
-free by the rupture of the wall. The transverse wall protrudes into
-the sporangium and forms the well-known columella (Fig. <a href="#fig80">80</a> <i>d</i>,
-<i>e</i>). The formation of spores takes place in various ways among
-the different genera.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig79" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig79.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.</span>&mdash;Chlamydospores of <i>Chlamydomucor
-racemosus</i> (× 375 times.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig80" style="width: 700px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig80.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 80.</span>&mdash;<i>Mucor mucedo</i>: <i>a</i> a spore
-commencing to germinate (× 300 times); <i>b</i> a germinating spore
-which has formed a germ-tube from each end (× 300 times); <i>c</i>
-the apex of a young sporangium before the formation of spores has
-commenced; the stalk is protruded in the sporangium in the form of a
-column: on the wall of the sporangium is found a very fine incrustation
-of lime in the form of thorn-like projections; <i>d</i> a sporangium in
-which the formation of spores has commenced; <i>e</i> a sporangium, the
-wall of which is ruptured, leaving a remnant attached to the base of
-the columella as a small collar. A few spores are seen still adhering
-to the columella.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Sexual Reproduction</span> by conjugation takes place in the
-following manner. The ends of two hyphæ meet (Fig. <a href="#fig81_82">81</a>) and become
-more or less club-shaped; the ends of each of these are cut off by a
-cell-wall, and two new small cells (Fig. <a href="#fig81_82">81</a> <i>A</i>) are thus formed,
-these coalesce and give rise to a new cell which becomes the very
-thick-walled zygote (zygospore), and germinates after<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span> period of rest,
-producing a new hypha, which bears a sporangium (Fig. <a href="#fig81_82">81</a> <i>E</i>).</p>
-
-<p><i>Mucor mucedo</i>, Pin-mould, resembles somewhat in appearance
-<i>Penicillium crustaceum</i> and is found growing upon various organic
-materials (bread, jam, dung, etc.).</p>
-
-<p><i>Pilobolus</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig83">83</a>, <a href="#fig84">84</a>) grows on manure. Its sporangium (Fig.
-<a href="#fig84">84</a> <i>a″</i>) is formed during the night and by a peculiar mechanism
-(page <a href="#Page_92">92</a>) is shot away from the plant in the course of the day. This
-generally takes place in the summer, between eight and ten a.m. The
-sporangium is shot away to a height which may be 300 times greater than
-that of the plant itself, and by its stickiness it becomes attached to
-portions of plants, etc., which are in the vicinity. If these are eaten
-by animals, the spores pass into the alimentary canal and are later
-on, sometimes even in a germinating condition, passed out with the
-excrement, in which they form new mycelia.</p>
-
-<p><i>Phycomyces nitens</i> (“Oil-mould”) is the largest of the Mould
-Fungi; its sporangiophores may attain the height of 10–30 c.m.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Rhizopaceæ.</b> <i>Rhizopus nigricans</i> (<i>Mucor
-stolonifer</i>) which lives on decaying fruits containing sugar,
-on bread, etc., has, at the base of the sporangiophores, tufts of
-rhizoids, <i>i.e.</i> hyphæ, which function as organs of attachment.
-From these, “runners” are produced which in a similar manner develope
-sporangiophores and rhizoids.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig81_82" style="width: 418px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig81_82.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Figs. 81, 82.</span>&mdash;<i>Mucor mucedo</i>: <i>A-C</i>
-stages in the formation of the zygote; D zygote; E germination of
-zygote: the exospore has burst, and the endospore grown into a hypha
-bearing a sporangium.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Thamnidiaceæ.</b> On the same sporangiophore, in addition
-to a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span> large, terminal, many-spored sporangium, many smaller, lateral
-sporangia are formed with a few spores. Thamnidium.</p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> Asexual reproduction by sporangia and conidia.</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Choanephoraceæ.</b> <i>Choanephora</i> with creeping
-endophytic mycelium, and perpendicular sporangiophores.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Mortierellaceæ.</b> <i>Mortierella polycephala</i>
-produces on the same mycelium conidia and sporangiophores. <i>M.
-rostafinskii</i> has a long stalked sporangiophore, which is surrounded
-at its base by a covering of numerous felted hyphæ.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig83" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig83.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 83.</span>&mdash;<i>Pilobolus.</i> Mycelium (<i>a</i>,
-<i>a</i>), with a sporangiophore (<i>A</i>) and the fundament of
-another (<i>B</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig84" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig84.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 84.</span>&mdash;<i>Pilobolus.</i> Sporangium
-(<i>a″</i>) with stalk (<i>a-c</i>), which is covered by many small
-drops of water pressed out by turgescence.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>C.</b> Asexual reproduction only by conidia.</p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Chætocladiaceæ.</b> The conidia are abstricted singly and
-acrogenously. <i>Chætocladium</i> is a parasite on the larger Mucoraceæ.</p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Piptocephalidaceæ.</b> The conidia are formed acrogenously
-and in a series, by transverse divisions. The zygospore arises at the
-summit of the conjugating hyphæ, which are curved so as to resemble
-a pair of tongs. <i>Piptocephalis</i> and <i>Syncephalis</i> live
-parasitically on the larger Mucoraceæ.</p>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class 2. <b>Oomycetes.</b></h3>
-
-<p>Sexual reproduction is oogamous with the formation of brown,
-thick-walled <i>oospores</i> which germinate after a period of rest.
-Asexual reproduction by conidia and <i>swarmspores</i>. Parasites,
-seldom saprophytes.</p>
-
-<p>The oospores are large spores which are formed from the egg-cell
-(oosphere) of the <i>oogonium</i> (oosporangium, Fig. <a href="#fig89">89</a>, <a href="#fig95">95</a>). A branch
-of the mycelium attaches itself to the oogonium and forms at its apex
-the so-called “<i>antheridium</i>” (pollinodium<a id="FNanchor_13" href="#Footnote_13" class="fnanchor">[13]</a>): this sends one or
-more slender prolongations (fertilising tubes) through the wall of the
-oogonium to the egg-cell.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[101]</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig85" style="width: 507px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig85.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 85.</span>&mdash;<i>Empusa muscæ</i> (Fly-mould). I.
-A fly killed by the fungus, surrounded by a white layer of conidia.
-II. The conidiophores (<i>t</i>) projecting from the body of the fly.
-Some of the conidia, a few of which have developed secondary conidia,
-are attached to the hairs (mag. 80 times). III. A perfect hypha.
-IV. A hypha in the act of ejecting a conidium (<i>c</i>), enveloped
-in a sticky slime (<i>g</i>). V. A conidium which has developed a
-secondary conidium (<i>sc</i>). VI. A branched hypha produced by
-cultivation. VII. A secondary conidium which has produced a small
-mycelium (<i>m</i>). VIII. A conidium germinating on the fly’s body.
-IX. Mycelium. X. Conidia germinating like yeast in the fatty tissue of
-the fly. (III.-VII. and IX. magnified 300 times; VIII. and X. magnified
-500 times.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>A fertilisation, a passage of the contents of the antheridium to
-the egg-cell, has as yet only been observed in <i>Pythium</i>;
-in <i>Phytophthora</i> only one small mass of protoplasm
-passes through the fertilising tube to the egg-cell; in
-<i>Peronospora</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[102]</span> and the Saprolegniaceæ no protoplasm can be
-observed to pass through the fertilising tube, so that in these
-instances <i>parthenogenesis</i> takes place; <i>Saprolegnia
-thuretii</i>, etc., have generally even no antheridia, but
-nevertheless form normal oospores. Fertilisation of the egg-cell
-by means of self-motile <i>spermatozoids</i> is only found in
-<i>Monoblepharis sphærica</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> Asexual reproduction by conidia only.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 1. <b>Entomophthorales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The mycelium is richly branched. The family is a transitional step to
-the conidia-bearing Zygomycetes, since the oospores of many members of
-this family arise, and are formed, like zygospores.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Entomophthoraceæ.</b> Mycelium abundantly developed. This
-most frequently lives parasitically in living insects, causing their
-death. The conidiophores forming the conidial-layer project from the
-skin, and abstrict a proportionately large conidium which is ejected
-with considerable force, and by this means transferred to other
-insects. These become infected by the entrance of the germ-tube into
-their bodies. The spherical, brown resting-spores develope inside the
-bodies of insects and germinate by emitting a germ-tube.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Genera</span>: <i>Empusa</i> has a good many species which
-are parasitic on flies, moths, grasshoppers, plant-lice. The
-conidia emit a germ-tube which pierces the skin of the insect; a
-number of secondary conidia are then produced inside its body,
-by division or by gemmation similar to that taking place in
-yeast, each of which grows and becomes a long unbranched hypha,
-and these eventually fill up the body of the animal, causing
-distension and death. Each of these hyphæ projects through the
-skin, and abstricts a conidium, which is ejected by a squirting
-contrivance. The best known species is <i>E. muscæ</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig85">85</a>), which makes its appearance epidemically towards autumn on
-the common house-fly, and shows itself by the dead flies which
-are found on the windows and walls attached by their probosces,
-distended wings, and legs. They have swollen abdomen, broad
-white belts of hyphæ between the abdominal rings, and are
-surrounded by a circle of whitish dust formed by the ejected
-conidia.&mdash;<i>Entomophthora</i> sends out, at definite places,
-from the mycelium hidden in the insect’s body, bundles of hyphæ,
-which serve the purpose of holding fast the dead insects, the
-ramifications attaching themselves to the substratum: the
-conidiophores are branched, the conidia are ejected by the
-divisional walls between the hyphæ and the conidia dividing into
-two layers, those which terminate the hyphæ suddenly expanding
-and throwing the conidia into the air. <i>E. radicans</i> makes
-its appearance epidemically on caterpillars.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> Asexual reproduction by zoospores or conidia.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 2. <b>Chytridiales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>In this family the mycelium is very sparsely developed or is
-wanting. The entire plant consists principally or entirely of a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[103]</span>
-single zoosporangium whose zoospores have generally one cilium. The
-resting-spores arise either directly from the zoosporangium, which,
-instead of forming zoospores, surrounds itself by a thick cell-wall; or
-they are formed by the conjugation of two cells (in which case they are
-spoken of as oospores). Microscopic Fungi, parasitic on water plants
-(especially Algæ) or small aquatic animals, seldom on land plants.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Olpidiaceæ.</b> Without mycelium. Swarmspores and
-resting-spores.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In the <i>Olpidieæ</i>, the swarmspores, probably, most
-frequently form themselves into a plasmodium (naked mass of
-protoplasm) which may become a single zoosporangium or a resting
-sporangium. <i>Olpidium trifolii</i> occurs in <i>Trifolium
-repens</i>.&mdash;In the <i>Synchytrieæ</i> the plasmodium emerging
-from the swarmspores breaks up either at once, or after a
-period of rest, into smaller plasmodia, each of which will
-become a zoosporangium. <i>Synchytrium anemones</i> is found on
-<i>Anemone nemorosa</i>; <i>S. mercurialis</i> on <i>Mercurialis
-perennis</i>; <i>S. aureum</i> on many plants, particularly
-<i>Lysimachia nummularia</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig86" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig86.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 86.</span>&mdash;<i>Chytridium lagenula.</i>
-Zoosporangium <i>a</i> before, <i>b</i> after the liberation of the
-swarmspores.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig87" style="width: 377px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig87.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 87.</span>&mdash;<i>Obelidium mucronatum</i>: <i>m</i>
-mycelium; <i>s</i> swarmspores.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Rhizidiaceæ.</b> Mycelium present. Zoospores and
-resting-spores.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Chytridium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig86">86</a>). <i>Obelidium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig87">87</a>)
-is bicellular; the one cell is the mycelium, the other
-the zoosporangium; found on insects. The species of
-<i>Cladochytrium</i> are intercellular parasites on marsh
-plants. <i>Physoderma.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Zygochytriaceæ.</b> Mycelium present. Zoospores and
-oospores. The latter are the product of the conjugation of two cells
-(Fig. <a href="#fig88">88</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Polyphagus euglenæ</i> on <i>Euglena viridis</i>.
-<i>Urophlyctis pulposa</i> on species of <i>Chenopodium</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 3. <b>Mycosiphonales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The mycelium is bladder-like or branched. Zoospores. Sexual
-reproduction by oospores, which are produced in oogonia. The latter are
-fertilised, in some forms, by the antheridium.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Ancylistaceæ.</b> The entire bladder-like mycelium
-is used for the construction of zoosporangia, oogonia, or
-antheridia. <i>Lagenedium</i> is parasitic on <i>Spirogyra</i>,
-etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Peronosporaceæ.</b> Almost entirely <i>parasites</i>.
-The unicellular, often very long and abundantly branched mycelium
-lives in the intercellular spaces of living plants, especially in the
-green portions, and these are more or less destroyed and deformed
-in consequence. Special small branches (<i>suction-organs</i>,
-“<i>haustoria</i>”) are pushed into the cells in order to abstract
-nourishment from them. Both oospores and conidia germinate either
-immediately, or they develope into sporangia with swarmspores, having
-always two cilia. Only one oospore is formed in each oogonium; its
-contents (Fig. <a href="#fig89">89</a>) divide into a centrally placed egg-cell and the
-“periplasm” surrounding it; this is of a paler colour and on the
-maturity of the oospore forms its thick, brown, external covering.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig88" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig88.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 88.</span>&mdash;<i>Polyphagus euglenæ. A</i>
-with smooth, <i>B</i> with thorny oospores; <i>m</i> and <i>f</i> the
-two conjugating cells.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig89" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig89.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 89.</span>&mdash;<i>Peronospora alsinearum.</i>
-Mycelium with egg-cell and antheridium.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig90" style="width: 454px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig90.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 90.</span>&mdash;<i>Phytophthora infestans</i>
-(strongly magnified). Cross section through a small portion of a
-Potato-leaf (the under side turned upwards): <i>a</i> the mycelium;
-<i>b b</i> two conidiophores projecting through a stoma; <i>c</i>
-conidia; <i>e</i> the spongy tissue of the leaf; <i>g</i> the
-epidermis.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>The Potato-fungus</i> (<i>Phytophthora infestans</i>) is of great
-interest. Its thallus winters in the Potato-tuber; other organs for
-passing the winter, such as oospores, are not known. When the tuber
-germinates, the Fungus-hyphæ penetrate the young shoot and keep pace
-with the aerial growth and development of the plant. The conidiophores
-emerge through the stomata, especially on the under side of the leaves;
-they branch like a tree (Fig. <a href="#fig90">90</a>), and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[105]</span> appear to the naked eye as a
-fine mould on the surface of the plant. The disease soon makes itself
-known by the brown colouring of those parts of the plant which are
-attacked, and by their withering. An ovoid conidium arises at first
-by the formation of a dividing wall at the apex of each branch of
-the conidiophore<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[106]</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig90">90</a> <i>c c</i>), and immediately underneath
-it another is formed, which pushes the first to one side, and so on.
-These conidia sometimes germinate directly, and form a mycelium, but
-most frequently their protoplasm divides into many small masses, each
-of which becomes a pear-shaped zoospore provided with two cilia (Fig.
-<a href="#fig91">91</a>). Water is required for their germination, and when the ripe conidia
-are placed in a drop of water the swarm-cells are formed in the course
-of about five hours. They swarm about in rain and dewdrops in the
-Potato-fields, and are carried with the water to the Potato-plants
-and to the tubers in the soil. The wind also very easily conveys
-the conidia to healthy Potato-fields and infects them. The enormous
-quantity of conidia and swarm-cells that may be formed in the course of
-a summer explains the rapid spreading of the disease; and the preceding
-makes it clear why wet summers are favourable to its existence. When
-the swarm-cells germinate, they round off, and then surround themselves
-with a cell-wall which grows out into the germ-tube, and <i>pierces
-through the epidermis</i> of the host-plant (Fig. <a href="#fig92">92</a>). Having entered
-the host, a new mycelium is formed. The potato disease, since 1845, has
-been rampant in Europe; it has, no doubt, been introduced from America,
-which, it must be remembered, is the home of the Potato-plant.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig91" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig91.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 91.</span>&mdash;<i>Phytophthora infestans</i>:
-<i>a-c</i> conidia detached; in <i>c</i> the swarm-cells are leaving
-the mother-cell; <i>d</i> two free-swimming swarm-cells.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig92" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig92.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 92.</span>&mdash;<i>Phytophthora infestans.</i>
-Cross section through a portion of a Potato-stalk. Two germinating
-conidia (<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>) piercing the epidermis, and the mycelium
-penetrating the cells.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The conidia exhibit various characters which are employed
-for the separation of the genera. <i>Pythium</i> is the
-most simple form. The contents of the terminally-formed
-conidia emerge as a spherical mass and divide into
-swarmspores. <i>P. de Baryanum</i> lives in the seedlings
-of many different Flowering-plants, which it completely
-destroys.&mdash;<i>Phytophthora</i> is distinguished by the
-circumstance that the sparsely-branched conidiophores
-bear, sympodially, chains of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[107]</span> conidia. Besides the
-Potato-fungus (see above), <i>Ph. fagi</i> belongs to this
-group; it developes oospores very abundantly, and does
-great harm to seedlings of the Beech, Sycamore, and Pine
-trees.&mdash;<i>Peronospora</i> generally has conidiophores
-which are repeatedly forked, and bear a conidium on each
-of the most extreme ramifications. Many do great harm to
-their host-plants. <i>P. viticola</i>, on Vines, and <i>P.
-nivea</i>, on umbelliferous plants, have swarmspores, which
-are absent in the following species of this genus: <i>P.
-sparsa</i>, on Roses; <i>P. gangliformis</i>, on composites;
-<i>P. alsinearum</i>, on Stitchwort; <i>P. parasitica</i>,
-on cruciferous plants; <i>P. viciæ</i>, on Vetches and Peas;
-<i>P. schachtii</i>, on Beets; <i>P. violacea</i>, on the
-flowers of <i>Scabiosa</i>; <i>P. radii</i>, on the ray-florets
-of <i>Matricaria</i>.&mdash;<i>Cystopus</i> (<i>Albugo</i>) has
-the conidia developed in chains, which form a cohesive white
-layer underneath the epidermis of the host-plant. <i>Cystopus
-candidus</i>, on cruciferous plants, especially Shepherd’s
-Purse and <i>Brassica</i>; the germination commences on the
-cotyledons, and from this point the mycelium developes together
-with the host-plant; <i>C. cubicus</i>, on the leaves of
-Compositæ.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig93" style="width: 262px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig93.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 93.</span>&mdash;A fly overgrown with
-<i>Saprolegnia</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig94" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig94.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 94.</span>&mdash;Formation of swarmspores in a
-<i>Saprolegnia</i>: a germinating swarmspores.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Saprolegniaceæ</b>, <i>Water-Fungi</i> which live as
-saprophytes on organic remains lying in water, for instance, on dead
-flies (Fig. <a href="#fig93">93</a>), worms, remains of plants; but they may also make their
-appearance on living animals, being frequently found, for example, on
-the young trout in rearing establishments.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig95" style="width: 235px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig95.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 95.</span>&mdash;Oogonium with two antheridia,
-<i>Achlya racemosa</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The thallus is a single, long and branched cell. It has one portion
-which serves as root, and lives in the substratum, where it ramifies
-abundantly for the purpose of absorbing nourishment; and another
-portion projecting freely in the water, and sending out hyphæ on all
-sides (Fig. <a href="#fig93">93</a>). The asexual reproduction takes place by swarmspores
-(Fig. <a href="#fig94">94</a>), which are developed in large sporangia; these swarmspores
-generally possess two cilia, and on germination grow into new plants.
-The entire protoplasm<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span> in the oogonium is formed into one or more
-oospheres, without any surrounding “periplasm.” The oospheres may not
-be fertilised (p. <a href="#Page_100">100</a>), and then develope parthenogenetically.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Genera: <i>Saprolegnia</i>, whose swarmspores disperse
-immediately after having left the sporangium. <i>S. ferax</i>
-is the cause of a disease in fish (“Salmon disease”)
-and in the crayfish.&mdash;<i>Achlya</i>, whose swarmspores
-accumulate in a hollow ball before the mouth of the
-sporangium.&mdash;<i>Leptomitus</i> has strongly indented hyphæ,
-causing a “linked” appearance. <i>L. lacteus</i> is frequent in
-the waste matter from sugar factories.&mdash;<i>Monoblepharis</i>
-deviates from the others by the greater development of its
-fertilising process; the oosphere, situated in an open oogonium,
-becoming fertilised by self-motile spermatozoids, which are
-provided with a cilium at the posterior end.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h3>Class 2. <b>Mesomycetes.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The Mesomycetes are intermediate forms between the Phycomycetes and
-the Higher Fungi. In the vegetative organs, and in the multicellular
-hyphæ, they resemble the Higher Fungi; the methods of reproduction,
-however, show the characters of the Phycomycetes, namely sporangia
-and conidiophores of varying size and with varying number of spores;
-definite and typically formed asci and basidia are not present. Sexual
-reproduction is wanting. The <span class="smcap">Hemiasci</span> are transitional
-between the Phycomycetes and the Ascomycetes, the <span class="smcap">Hemibasidii</span>
-(Brand-Fungi) form the transition to the Basidiomycetes.</p>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class 1. <b>Hemiasci.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The Hemiasci are Fungi with <i>sporangia</i> which, <i>although
-resembling asci</i>, yet have <i>not</i>, however, <i>a definite form
-and a definite number of spores</i>. Besides endospores, conidia,
-chlamydospores and oidia are found.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Ascoideaceæ.</b> <i>Ascoidea rubescens</i> forms
-irregular, reddish-brown masses in the sap issuing from felled
-Beeches. It has <i>free sporangia</i>, which resemble asci in
-their structure, in the development and ejection, and in the
-definite shape and size of the spores. The formation of the
-sporangia takes place when the nutriment is nearly exhausted,
-and resembles that of the conidia, since they are developed
-from the end of a hypha which enlarges, and the swelling
-becomes separated by a transverse wall. Within the sporangia
-numerous spores of a cap-like form are developed, which
-are set free through an opening at the apex. Sporangia are
-formed successively at the apex of the same hypha, the second
-commencing to develope as the first is dehiscing. Conidia and
-sporangia are not formed simultaneously; the former may be
-considered as closed sporangia.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Protomycetaceæ.</b> <i>Protomyces pachydermus</i>
-causes hard swellings on the stems and leaf-stalks of the
-Cichorieæ (<i>Taraxacum</i>, etc.). These swellings<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span> consist
-of <i>chlamydospores</i> (resting-spores), which germinate and
-become free, ascus-like sporangia, with numerous small spores.
-In nutritive solutions the chlamydospores form conidia with
-yeast-like buddings. <i>P. macrosporus</i> on <i>Ægopodium</i>,
-and other Umbelliferæ.</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Thelebolaceæ.</b> <i>Thelebolus stercoreus</i>, is
-found on the dung of deer, hares, and rabbits, and has <i>closed
-sporangia</i>, which resemble asci in their shape and regular
-construction, and in the ejection of spores. The covering
-encloses only one sporangium, even where the sporangia arise
-close together.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>This order, by reason of the covering of the sporangia, forms the
-transition from the Hemiasci to the Carpoasci, while the two first
-supply an intermediate step to the Exoasci.</p>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class 2. <b>Hemibasidii, Brand-Fungi.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The Brand-Fungi (also known as <span class="smcap">Ustilagineæ</span>) are Fungi with
-<i>basidia-like conidiophores</i>, which, however, have not yet
-advanced to a definite form or number of conidia. They are true
-parasites, whose mycelium spreads itself in the intercellular spaces of
-Flowering plants. The mycelium is colourless, quickly perishable, has
-transverse walls at some distance from each other (Fig. <a href="#fig96">96</a>), and sends
-out haustoria into the cells of the host-plant.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig96" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig96.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 96.</span>&mdash;<i>Entyloma ranunculi.</i> 1. Cross
-section of a portion of a leaf of <i>Ficaria</i> permeated by the
-mycelium; a bundle of hyphæ with conidia emerging from a stoma; in one
-of the cells are found four brand-spores. 2. A brand-spore developed in
-the middle of a hypha.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>It most frequently happens that the germ-tube enters the host-plant at
-its most tender age, that is, during the germination of the seed; the
-mycelium then wanders about in the tissues of the shoot<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span> during its
-growth, until it reaches that part of the plant where the spores are to
-be formed. The spore-formation takes place in the same way in all those
-species whose brand-spores are developed in the floral parts of the
-host-plant. Many Brand-Fungi have, however, a more local occurrence,
-and the mycelium is restricted to a smaller area of the leaf or stem.
-Those organs of the host-plant in which the brand-spores are developed
-often become strongly hypertrophied. In perennial plants the mycelium
-winters very often in the rhizome.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig97" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig97.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 97.</span>&mdash;<i>Doassansia alismatis.</i> 1. A
-fruit-body, formed by a covering of oblong hyphæ, which encloses a mass
-of brand-spores, and is embedded in the leaf-tissue of the host-plant;
-20 times natural size. 2. A germinating brand-spore, 500 times natural
-size. 3. Three connected resting-spores, 400 times natural size. 4. Two
-conidia grown together, 600 times natural size.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The brand-spores are the winter resting-spores of the Brand-Fungi.
-They arise in the tissues of the host-plant, which is often destroyed,
-and become free through the rupture of the epidermis; they are
-thick-walled, generally brown or violet, and very often possess warts,
-spines, or reticulate markings. Fruit-bodies, that is enclosed organs
-of reproduction, are found in few genera (<i>Sphacelotheca</i>,
-<i>Graphiola</i>; <i>Doassansia</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig97">97</a>). In <i>Tolyposporium</i>,
-<i>Tuburcinia</i>, <i>Thecaphora</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig102">102</a>), etc., the
-brand-spores are united into a <i>ball of spores</i>. On germination
-the brand-spores behave as <i>chlamydospores</i>, namely, as the
-fundament of conidiophores, by emitting a short germ-tube, <i>i.e.</i>
-a conidiophore (“promycelium”). The <span class="smcap">Ustilaginaceæ</span> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig99">99</a>, 2) have a short <i>transversely divided</i> conidiophore,
-with <i>laterally</i> developed conidia (comp. the basidia of the
-Protobasidiomycetes). The conidiophores of the <span class="smcap">Tilletiaceæ</span> are
-undivided (unicellular promycelia), and bear the conidia terminally,
-and so resemble the basidia of the Autobasidiomycetes.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig98" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig98.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 98.</span>&mdash;<i>Tuburcinia.</i> 1. <i>T.
-trientalis.</i> Hyphæ, some of which bear conidia at the apex, forcing
-themselves out between the epidermal cells on the under side of the
-leaf; 320 times natural size. 2. <i>T. trientalis.</i> A ball of spores
-in which some of the individual brand-spores are about to germinate;
-520 times natural size. 3. <i>T. primulicola</i>: various forms of
-conidia (500 times natural size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In <i>Tilletia</i>, <i>Entyloma</i>, <i>Neovossia</i>,
-<i>Tuburcinia</i>, the brand-spores germinate and form
-basidia-like conidiophores with spindle-shaped conidia; their
-mycelium, on the other hand, produces later only single,
-sickle-shaped conidia, so that two kinds of conidia are found,
-as in a few Basidiomycetes. In some species, <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Ustilago hordei</i>, the brand-spores only germinate
-vegetatively and form a mycelium. In nutritive solutions
-(solutions of dung, etc.) where they live as <i>saprophytes</i>,
-the brand-spores of many species emit germ-tubes, and on these,
-<i>yeast-like conidia</i> are produced by repeated budding,
-which grow into mycelia only when the nutritive solution is
-exhausted. These conidia have not the power of producing
-alcoholic fermentation. The very numerous conidia, which are
-found in the dung of herbivorous animals, are probably the
-yeast-conidia of Brand-Fungi. The brand-spores, which are
-eaten by animals with the grain and hay, pass into the dung
-and without doubt give rise to a very rich multiplication of
-yeast-conidia.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig99" style="width: 557px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig99.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 99.</span>&mdash;<i>Ustilago.</i> 1. Formation of
-brand-spores. 2. Germinating brand-spore of <i>U. perennans</i>.
-3. Germinating brand-spore of <i>U. cardui</i> (after Brefeld). 4.
-<i>U. filiformis. a</i> A brand-spore with developed basidium;
-<i>b</i> another, with a conidium; <i>c</i> with two conidia; <i>d</i>
-with two conidia placed diametrically opposite to each other; <i>e</i>,
-detached conidia which are growing into hyphæ.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig100" style="width: 449px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig100.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 100.</span>&mdash;<i>Tilletia tritici</i>: <i>a</i>
-an ear of Wheat in which all the grains are attacked by Stinkbrand;
-<i>b</i> a blighted corn surrounded by the chaff; <i>c</i> a blighted
-corn grown together with a stamen; <i>d</i> the same cut across;
-<i>e</i> a brand-spore; <i>f</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>h</i> germinating
-brand-spores; <i>i</i> germinating conidia; <i>j</i> the mycelium;
-<i>k</i>-<i>k</i> brand-spore-forming mycelium-threads. (<i>c-h</i>
-magnified 400 times; <i>i-k</i> 300 times.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span></p><div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The conidia (also called “sporidia”) of many species unite
-generally into an H-form (Figs. <a href="#fig97">97</a>, 4; <a href="#fig100">100</a> h; <a href="#fig101">101</a>, 4). This
-union in pairs does not, however, take place with a view<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span> to
-germination, there is no fusion of nuclei, and therefore in this
-“fusion” there is no sexual act.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Ustilaginaceæ.</b> Conidiophores with transverse
-walls and lateral conidia.&mdash;<i>Ustilago</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig99">99</a>) generally
-developes its spores in the floral organs of its host-plant, the
-ovary or anthers, where they arise from hyphæ, and form a slimy
-mass which when mature becomes a black dust.</p>
-
-<p>To this order belong <i>U. avenæ</i>, parasitic on Oats,
-<i>U. hordei</i> and <i>U. nuda</i> (<i>U. jenseni</i>), on
-Barley; these are the usual cause of “Smut” on cereals. <i>U.
-hypodytes</i> on straw of <i>Elymus</i> and <i>Agropyrum</i>.
-<i>U. filiformis</i> in the leaves of <i>Glyceria</i>. <i>U.
-caricis</i> transforms the fruits of various species of
-<i>Carex</i> into black, dusty balls. <i>U. violacea</i>
-developes its violet spore-powder in the anthers of the
-Caryophyllaceæ. <i>U. tragopogonis</i>, transforms entire
-inflorescences of <i>Tragopogon</i> into a black-violet mass.
-Among the largest are <i>U. grandis</i>, which causes the large
-swollen nodes in the stem of <i>Phragmites</i>, and the Maize
-Blight, <i>U. maydis</i>, which produces outgrowths about the
-size of a hand on the spadix of the Maize.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Tilletiaceæ.</b> Conidiophores undivided, generally
-several conidia arise at their apices.&mdash;<i>Tilletia tritici</i>,
-the <i>Stinkbrand on Wheat</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig100">100</a>). The mycelium lives
-in Wheat-plants, producing its spores in the ovary after the
-whole interior of this body has been destroyed by the mycelium,
-with the exception of the external layer of the wall of the
-ovary, which remains essentially unaltered and encloses the
-closely packed, firm mass of spores (Fig. 100 <i>d</i>). The
-grains of Wheat thus attacked are shorter and thicker than the
-sound ones, and the ears show the presence of this Fungus by
-their erect position, and the wide separation of the chaff (Fig.
-<a href="#fig100">100</a> <i>a</i>). The unpleasant odour of the ovary prior to the
-ripening of the spores, has given the name “Stinkbrand,” and,
-in like manner, its hardness when it encloses the ripe spores,
-is the reason of its being also called “Stonebrand.” On account
-of this hardness, the diseased grains are readily harvested
-together with the healthy ones, which become infected by the
-spores at the threshing. <i>T. lævis</i> (<i>T. fœtens</i>) also
-occurs on Wheat and has smooth brand-spores.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig101" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig101.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 101.</span>&mdash;<i>Urocystis.</i> 1, <i>U.
-covalloides</i>. A spore-ball, magnified 450 times. 2–4, <i>U.
-anemones</i>: 2–3, brand-spores which are about to germinate (magnified
-450 times). 4, Conidia, the two in a state of fusion, a third with
-vacuoles and division-wall, magnified 500 times.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Entyloma</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig96">96</a>), a genus with numerous species,
-which appear in spots on the leaves of the host-plant, and
-<i>Tuburcinia</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig98">98</a>), which makes its appearance on the
-Primulaceæ, produce white conidia-spots on the surface of the
-host-plant. The first-named has single spores, the latter has
-its spores closely massed together.&mdash;<i>Urocystis</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig101">101</a>) has its spores surrounded by a number of small and lighter
-coloured barren spores. <i>U. occulta</i>, Rye-stem Blight,
-forms its spores in long streaks in the stems and leaves of
-the Rye, and does considerable damage. <i>U. cepulæ<span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[114]</span></i> on
-Onions. <i>U. violæ</i> forms large dark-violet swellings in the
-leaf-stalk and stems of Violets.&mdash;<i>Thecaphora</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig102">102</a>)
-appears in seedlings of <i>Convolvulus</i> and <i>Astragalus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>As a means of protection against the Smut-Fungi which make their
-appearance on the different cereals, a submersion of the grains
-in a solution of blue vitriol (½%) for twelve hours, or better
-still, submerging for five minutes in water heated to 53–55°
-<i>C</i> (Jensen’s method) is employed.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig102" style="width: 470px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig102.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 102.</span>&mdash;<i>Thecaphora.</i> 1, <i>T.
-convolvuli</i>, a ball of spores, one of the brand-spores has emitted a
-septate branched conidiophore (× 520). 2, <i>T. affinis</i>, a ball of
-spores (× 520).</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h3>Class 3. <b>Mycomycetes, Higher Fungi.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The <span class="smcap">Mycomycetes</span> are not entirely aquatic in habit; they have
-hyphæ with <i>transverse walls</i>, but <i>no sexual reproductive
-organs</i>. The asexual reproduction takes place in very different
-ways; by endospores (in asci), conidia, basidiospores, chlamydospores,
-and oidia. Swarmspores are never found.</p>
-
-<p>Two chief methods of reproduction may be distinguished, and
-hence the class may be divided into two large sub-classes:&mdash;the
-<span class="smcap">Ascomycetes</span> (with asci), and the <span class="smcap">Basidiomycetes</span> (with
-basidia).</p>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class 1. <b>Ascomycetes.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The main characteristic which distinguishes the Ascomycetes is the
-<i>ascus</i>; a name given to a sporangium of a definite shape and
-size, and containing a definite number of spores. The shape is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span>
-generally club-like or spherical, the number of spores 8 (in some 2, 4,
-16 or more), see Figs. <a href="#fig103">103</a>, <a href="#fig105">105</a>, <a href="#fig108">108</a>, <a href="#fig110">110</a>, <a href="#fig113">113</a>, <a href="#fig116">116</a>, <a href="#fig120">120</a>, <a href="#fig121">121</a>, <a href="#fig123">123</a>, <a href="#fig129">129</a>.</p>
-
-<p>In the lowest forms, the <span class="smcap">Exoasci</span>, the ascus springs directly
-from the mycelium without the formation of a fruit-body (<i>i.e.</i>
-ascocarp). In the higher forms, which contain many species, the
-<span class="smcap">Carpoasci</span>, the asci are united and form ascocarps which may
-be more or less enclosed (angiocarpic, hemiangiocarpic, and probably
-gymnocarpic).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig103" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig103.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 103.</span>&mdash;Endogenous formation of spores
-in <i>Peziza confluens</i>. In the youngest asci there is only one
-nucleus (<i>b</i>, <i>e</i>); this divides into two (<i>f</i>); and
-the division is repeated so that there are 4 nuclei in <i>c</i> and 8
-in <i>g</i>. These surround themselves with protoplasm and a cell-wall
-(<i>h</i>, <i>i</i>). The protoplasm of the mother-cell is not entirely
-used up.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The hyphæ of the <i>Mycelium</i> in some remain free, in others they
-are felted together and form thick strands or flat, cushion-like bodies
-(compare in particular the stromata of the Pyrenomycetes). Some species
-form <i>sclerotia</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig116">116</a>, <a href="#fig128">128</a>).</p>
-
-<p>Asexual reproduction by means of <i>conidia</i> is known in many
-species as the principal means of reproduction, and the one which
-affords the most rapid means of distribution. The conidia may be
-produced on conidiophores (Fig. <a href="#fig109">109</a>), in conidial-layers (Fig. <a href="#fig122">122</a>),
-and often in conidiocarps (pycnidia, Figs. <a href="#fig120">120</a> <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[116]</span>
-<a href="#fig123">123</a> <i>a</i>; <a href="#fig124">124</a> <i>b.</i>). These last occur partly as the so-called
-“spermogonia” (that is, pycnidia with microconidia). The conidiophores
-never approach the basidia.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In many species the ascospores germinate and form conidia
-immediately (<i>Nectria cinnabarina</i>, <i>Sclerotinia</i>,
-<i>Taphrina</i>, etc.), sometimes while they are still in
-the ascus and before their ejection (<i>Taphrina</i>, Fig.
-<a href="#fig105">105</a> <i>a</i>). In many instances the conidia by means of
-continued budding can, for a longer or shorter time, produce
-yeast-conidia, <i>e.g. Taphrina</i>. In many other cases
-the conidia arise from the germ-tubes of the ascospores, or at
-any part of the mycelium. The unripe asci of <i>Taphrina</i>,
-when placed in water, develop conidia at their apices. The
-<i>Sclerotinia</i>-species produce numerous conidia whose
-germination has never been observed. The formation of conidia
-and asci sometimes takes place on the same fruit-body. In
-<i>Heterosphæria patella</i> the conidia and asci are developed
-successively in the same fruit-body; in the ascocarps of
-<i>Dermatea frangula</i> and <i>Sclerotinia sclerotiorum</i> the
-formation of conidia may take place. The ascocarps frequently
-arise from the conidial-layers (<i>Nectria cinnabarina</i>,
-etc.). This relationship of the two forms of reproduction to
-each other may be explained by considering that both have
-descended phylogenetically from sporangia.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Sometimes <i>chlamydospores</i> and <i>oidia</i> also appear in
-the Ascomycetes; on germination, however, they do not, as in
-<i>Protomyces</i>, form sporangia, and on this account cannot be
-distinctly distinguished from conidia.</p>
-
-<p>The asci are morphologically the highest form of reproduction and
-are always found at the close of the development of these Fungi; the
-accessory forms of reproduction are first developed, but a well-defined
-alternation of generations does not occur.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In the Ascomycetes there are more than 11,000 described species,
-which can be classed as follows:&mdash;</p>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Series 1. <span class="smcap">Exoasci.</span> Only one order.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;2. <span class="smcap">Carpoasci.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">Family 1. <i>Gymnoascales</i>,  }</li>
-  <li class="i4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. <i>Perisporiales</i>,&ensp;&nbsp;} Angiocarpic Carpoasci.</li>
-  <li class="i4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;3. <i>Pyrenomycetes</i>, }</li>
-  <li>&emsp;&ensp;&emsp;</li>
-  <li class="i4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;4. <i>Hysteriales</i>,&ensp;&nbsp;}</li>
-  <li class="i4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;5. <i>Discomycetes</i>,} Hemiangiocarpic Carpoasci.</li>
-  <li class="i4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;6. <i>Helvellales</i>, Gymnocarpic (?) Carpoasci.</li>
-  <li>Additional <i>Ascolichenes</i>: Lichen-forming Ascomycetes.</li>
-</ul>
-</div>
-
-<h5>Series 1. <b>Exoasci.</b></h5>
-
-<p>Ascomycetes with <span class="allsmcap">FREE ASCI</span>; sometimes also conidia,
-chlamydospores and oidia. One order.</p>
-
-<p>Order. <b>Taphrinaceæ.</b> Of the genera belonging to this order,
-<i>Taphrina</i>, <i>Endomyces</i>, and <i>Ascocorticium</i>, the first
-is most important.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[117]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Endomyces decipiens</i> is a parasite in the fruit-body
-of <i>Armillaria mellea</i>; <i>E. magnusii</i> lives in the
-gelatinous, fermenting exudations of Oak-trees; <i>Ascocorticium
-albidum</i> is found under the bark of the Fir-tree.
-<i>Endomyces</i> has chlamydospores and oidia.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The species of <i>Taphrina</i> are parasites, whose free asci may
-be found in great numbers, generally closely pressed together,
-on the parts of plants which they have attacked. The asci are
-developed directly from the ascogenous cells of a fertile, generally
-sub-cuticular, hypha, which arises from the sterile mycelium. The
-latter arises from the germinating ascospore, and may hibernate in the
-tissues of its host, particularly in the winter buds, and then with
-the commencement of the next period of vegetation it continues its
-growth side by side with that of its host. The hyphæ ramify in the
-intercellular spaces or beneath the cuticle, but have no haustoria. The
-ascospores (Fig. <a href="#fig105">105</a> <i>A</i>) and unripe asci may produce conidia.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig104" style="width: 280px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig104.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 104.</span>&mdash;<i>Taphrina</i> (<i>Exoascus</i>)
-<i>pruni</i>. Yeast-like budding of a germinating spore (× 600).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig105" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig105.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 105.</span>&mdash;<i>Taphrina betulina</i>: <i>a</i>
-ascus filled with conidia; <i>b</i> germinating spores (× 600).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Very remarkable appearances, and swellings of the attacked
-tissues, are produced when the mycelium is perennial; for
-example, the “Witches’-brooms” and “Pockets.” The hard,
-hollow, stoneless plums, known as “Pocket” or “Bladder” Plums,
-are produced by considerable changes in the tissues of the
-fruit; these are caused particularly by <i>T. pruni</i> on
-several species of <i>Prunus</i>. The “Witches’-brooms,” on
-the contrary, are deformations of entire twigs or branches,
-and often attain a very large size. They occur on <i>Alnus
-incana</i>, caused by <i>T. epiphylla</i>; on <i>Carpinus
-betulus</i>, by <i>T. carpini</i>; on Cherry-trees, by <i>T.
-cerasi</i>; on Plum-trees, by <i>T. insititiæ</i>; on Birches,
-by <i>T. turgida</i> and <i>T. betulina</i>. <i>T. deformans</i>
-attacks the leaves of the Peach, and causes them to curl.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[118]</span></p>
-
-<p>When a perennial mycelium is wanting, the infection is confined
-as a rule to white or yellow spots on the leaves, <i>e.g.</i>
-the commonest, <i>T. sadebeckii</i>, on <i>Alnus glutinosa</i>,
-and <i>T. aurea</i> on species of <i>Populus</i>. <i>T. alni
-incanæ</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig106">106</a>) causes considerable hypertrophies on the
-pistillate catkins of the Alder, which may be compared to the
-“pockets” of <i>Prunus</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig106" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig106.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 106.</span>&mdash;<i>Taphrina alni incanæ</i> on the
-Alder (nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h5>Series 2. <b>Carpoasci.</b></h5>
-
-<p>The Carpoasci are Ascomycetes, whose asci are enclosed in fruit-bodies,
-<i>i.e. ascocarps</i>. The accessory means of reproduction are free
-conidiophores (Fig. <a href="#fig109">109</a>), conidial-layers (Fig. <a href="#fig122">122</a>), conidiocarps
-(Fig. <a href="#fig120">120</a> <i>D</i>, <i>E</i>, etc.), chlamydospores and oidia.</p>
-
-<p>For the different methods of distributing the ascospores, see p. <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p>
-
-<p>Of the six families of the Carpoasci, the first
-three&mdash;<i>Gymnoascales</i>, <i>Perisporiales</i>, and
-<i>Pyrenomycetes</i>&mdash;are <span class="allsmcap">ANGIOCARPIC</span> (that is, the ascocarp
-remains closed throughout its existence, and does not dehisce
-when ripe); the fourth and fifth families (<i>Hysteriales</i> and
-<i>Discomycetes</i>), on the other hand, are <span class="allsmcap">HEMIANGIOCARPIC</span>
-(the ascocarp, here also called an <i>apothecium</i>, is closed in the
-early stages, but opens at the commencement of ripening and exposes
-a hymenium of crowded asci); the family of <i>Helvellales</i> has
-probably <span class="allsmcap">GYMNOCARPIC</span> (or hemiangiocarpic) fruit-bodies.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 1. <b>Gymnoascales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The ascocarps are surrounded by a <i>spongy and incomplete
-envelope</i>. One order, poor in species.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[119]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order <b>Gymnoascaceæ</b>.&mdash;The ascocarps are borne sometimes
-solitarily, or sometimes coiled together. <i>Gymnoascus
-reessii</i> forms small bodies about 1 mm. in diameter on
-old horse-dung, which at first are white and afterwards
-orange-red.&mdash;<i>Ctenomyces serratus</i> lives on the old
-feathers in birds’ nests.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 2. <b>Perisporiales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The ascocarps are surrounded by a <i>complete envelope</i> without
-any opening: the fruit-bodies are cleistocarpic; the spores are only
-liberated after the disintegration of the fruit-bodies. Paraphyses
-are wanting. The two first orders have in addition the means of
-reproduction by conidia.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Erysiphaceæ, Mildews.</b> The Fungi belonging to this order
-are epiphytic parasites, whose mycelium, somewhat resembling a cobweb,
-may be seen on the leaves and other green portions of plants (see
-Figs. <a href="#fig107">107</a>, <a href="#fig108">108</a>). The hyphæ ramify in all directions upon the surface
-of their host, and emit haustoria which penetrate the epidermal cells,
-and thus derive the necessary nutriment. The Mildew-Fungi thus belong
-to the obligate parasites, and during their growth dwarf and destroy
-the portions of their host on which they live. The reproduction takes
-place in the first instance by abstriction of conidio-chains from the
-end of special branches (Fig. <a href="#fig108">108</a> <i>c</i>, a hypha is seen in the act
-of detaching a conidium). The conidia may germinate immediately, and
-thus quickly reproduce their species. When present in large numbers
-they appear as a white meal covering the surface of the plant on which
-the fungus is found. Later on appear the dark brown, spheroid ascocarps
-(Fig. <a href="#fig108">108</a> <i>a</i>) which, although small, are generally just visible
-to the naked eye as black specks.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig107" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig107.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 107.</span>&mdash;<i>Erysiphe cichoracearum</i>:
-<i>a</i> mycelium-threads; <i>b</i> sterile hypha (“pollinodium”);
-<i>c</i> fertile hypha (ascogone or archicarp); <i>d</i> and <i>e</i>
-young ascocarps.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>A characteristic feature of the Mildew-Fungi is the thin,
-pseudo-parenchymatous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span> covering of the ascocarp, enclosing <i>one</i>
-(<i>Podosphæra</i> and <i>Sphærotheca</i>; compare <i>Thelebolus</i>
-among the Hemiasci) or <i>a few</i> asci (Fig. <a href="#fig108">108</a> <i>c</i>),
-which do not form any hymenium, but are irregularly placed. The
-cells of the ascocarp-envelope are often prolonged into hair-like
-appendages. The ascocarps are developed from the mycelium at places
-where two hyphæ cross each other (Fig. <a href="#fig107">107</a>). At these places two
-short and erect hyphæ are produced side by side. The one from the
-lower hypha (Fig. <a href="#fig107">107</a> <i>c</i>) assumes an ellipsoidal shape, and is
-known as the <i>archicarp</i> or <i>ascogone</i>, while the other
-(“<i>pollinodium</i>”) arches over the ascogone. From the latter
-one ascus may be at once developed (<i>Sphærotheca</i>, etc.), or
-after its division several asci may be produced, each developed from
-one division. The sterile hypha (termed “pollinodium,” since it was
-formerly, but erroneously, supposed to fertilise the ascogone) produces
-a number of branches, and forms the pseudo-parenchymatous envelope of
-one cell in thickness, enclosing the asci.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig108" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig108.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 108.</span>&mdash;<i>Erysiphe communis.</i> A small
-portion of a leaf with this Fungus growing upon it (considerably
-magnified). The hyphæ b and d do not belong to this Fungus, but are
-reproductive organs of a pyrenomycetous Fungus parasitic upon it
-(<i>Cicinnobolus</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Many plants, both cultivated and wild, are attacked by various<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[121]</span> species
-of Mildew. A common means of prevention against their attacks is to
-dust the diseased parts with sulphur.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig109" style="width: 509px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig109.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 109.</span>&mdash;<i>Eurotium glaucum</i>: α portion
-of mycelium lying horizontally; β vertically-placed conidiophore;
-the mycelium gives rise to another branch near α; the conidia are
-abstricted from short flask-shaped cells; <i>b</i> a ripe conidium;
-<i>c</i>, <i>d</i> germinating conidia; <i>e</i> spirally-twisted
-hypha, commencement of an ascocarp; <i>f</i> a stage later; <i>g</i>
-still later, the hypha at the base of the coil has given off branches
-which are applied to it; <i>h</i>, <i>i</i> sections of young
-ascocarps.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Sphærotheca pannosa</i> occurs on the leaves of Roses, and
-on the fruit of Peaches and Apricots. <i>S. castagnei</i> on
-<i>Humulus</i>, <i>Cucumis</i>, etc.&mdash;<i>Erysiphe tuckeri</i>
-grows on the leaves and fruit of the Vine; it spins its
-hyphæ over the bunches of grapes, curtails their growth,
-and causes them to burst, and to become decayed and rotten
-(Grape-disease). The Fungus was first noticed in England
-in 1845, and later was found in all countries where grapes
-are grown. It is only known in the conidial form (“Oidium
-tuckeri”). Many other species of <i>Erysiphe</i> are found
-on herbaceous plants.&mdash;<i>Microsphæra</i> has appendages
-which are repeatedly forked at their extremities. <i>M.
-grossulariæ</i> on <i>Ribes grossularia</i>.&mdash;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span><i>Uncinula</i>
-has appendages with spirally-coiled extremities; on <i>Salix</i>
-and <i>Acer</i>.&mdash;<i>Phyllactinia</i> has a circle of
-bristle-like appendages with dilated bases. <i>P. guttata</i> on
-<i>Corylus</i>, <i>Fraxinus</i>, <i>Fagus</i>, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Perisporiaceæ</b>, Moulds and Mildews. A group of Fungi
-widely distributed and found in all situations. Usually they have a
-well-developed surface mycelium, and small, round, seldom conspicuous
-ascocarps, containing ovoid, pulley-like spores. They are partly
-saprophytic, partly parasitic, in the latter condition having a brown
-mycelium.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig110" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig110.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 110.</span>&mdash;<i>Eurotium glaucum</i>: <i>a</i>
-longitudinal section of a half-ripe ascocarp, bounded externally by
-a well-defined layer of cells, enclosing asci in various stages of
-development; <i>b</i> a semi-ripe, <i>c</i> an almost ripe ascus;
-<i>d</i> and <i>e</i> spores seen from the edge and side; <i>f</i>
-germinating spore twenty-two hours after been sown in plum juice.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Eurotium glaucum</i> (= <i>E. herbariorum</i>, Figs. <a href="#fig109">109</a>, <a href="#fig110">110</a>)
-and <i>E. repens</i> live on dead organic matter, preserved fruits,
-etc. The conidial forms of both species are known as “Moulds” (Fig.
-<a href="#fig109">109</a>), and formerly were described under the name “<i>Aspergillus
-glaucus</i>.” The conidia for some time remain attached to each other
-in chains (Fig. <a href="#fig109">109</a> <i>a</i>); they are abstricted from sterigmata
-arranged radially on the spherical, swollen end of the conidiophore.
-The small yellow or brownish ascocarps are frequently found in
-herbaria, especially when the specimens have been insufficiently dried.
-<i>Aspergillus fumigatus</i> and others are pathogenic, causing mycosis
-in warm-blooded animals.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig111" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig111.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 111.</span>&mdash;<i>Penicillium crustaceum</i>:
-<i>a</i> conidia (× 300); <i>b</i> germination of conidia; <i>c</i>
-small portion of mycelium, produced from a conidium at *, with five
-conidiophores; <i>d</i> young conidiophore (× 630), a flask-shaped cell
-is abstricting a conidium; <i>e</i> the same conidiophore after 9–10
-hours.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig112" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig112.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 112.</span>&mdash;<i>Penicillium crustaceum</i>:
-<i>a</i> two spirally-coiled hyphæ arise from the mycelium, from one
-of which (archicarp) the asci are produced; <i>b</i> a further step in
-the development of the ascocarp; the branching archicarp is surrounded
-by sterile hyphæ; <i>c</i> section of young ascocarp; the larger
-hyphæ in the centre are the ascogenous hyphæ; these are enclosed by a
-pseudo-parenchyma of sterile hyphæ (× 300); <i>d</i> series of ripe
-asci with spores; <i>e</i> four ascopores seen laterally; <i>f</i>
-germinating ascospores (× 800).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Penicillium crustaceum</i> (<i>P. glaucum</i>, Figs. <a href="#fig111">111</a>, <a href="#fig112">112</a>) is
-an exceedingly common “Mould.” Its mycelium appears very frequently on
-any organic matter which is permitted to remain untouched, and soon
-covers it with a dense mass of blue-green<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span> conidiophores. These branch
-at their summits and bear flask-shaped cells from which the conidia
-are abstricted. The ascocarps which, both in size and colour, resemble
-grains of sand, have only<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span> been obtained in luxuriant cultivation with
-a limited supply of oxygen.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Capnodium salicinum</i> (<i>Fumago salicina</i>,
-<i>Cladosporium fumago</i>), a common Mildew, forms dark
-overgrowths on the leaves and branches of various shrubs
-(Poplars, Elms, Willows) and on Hops. The conidia appear in
-various forms, as on conidiophores, in conidiocarps with
-large multicellular conidia, and in conidiocarps with small
-unicellular conidia; in nutritive solutions yeast-like conidia
-are also developed.&mdash;<i>Apiosporium pinophilum</i> produces
-mildew on the leaves of <i>Abies alba</i> and <i>Picea
-excelsa</i>. (The conidial-forms were formerly described as
-“<i>Antennaria pinophila</i>”).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Tuberaceæ, Truffles.</b> The Fungi belonging to this
-order are entirely subterranean. The mycelium is filamentous, and
-partly parasitic upon the roots of plants, especially trees, in its
-neighbourhood; it is then known as <i>Mycorhiza</i>. The fruit-body
-is relatively large, in some cases about the size of a hen’s egg.
-Internally it is traversed by a number of winding passages (Fig. <a href="#fig113">113</a>
-<i>a</i>), the walls of which are coated with the asci. The asci
-(<i>b</i>) contain only a small number of spores, and these are set
-free by the putrefaction of the fruit-body. Conidia are unknown.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig113" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig113.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 113.</span>&mdash;<i>Tuber melanosporum</i>: <i>a</i>
-fruit-body (nat. size), a portion having been removed to show the
-internal structure; <i>b</i> an ascus with ascospores.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Tuber melanosporum</i>, <i>T. brumale</i>, <i>T. æstivum</i>,
-and other species are edible. <i>Terfezia leonis</i> and
-<i>Choiromyces mæandriformis</i> are also edible. The Truffles
-are always found in woods and under trees, and disappear when
-these are destroyed. France and Italy produce the best and
-the largest number of Truffles, which are hunted by specially
-trained dogs and pigs.</p>
-
-<p>In <i>Elaphomyces</i> (Stag-Truffle) the fruit-body has a corky
-external layer, and is inedible. Some of the species are found
-in this country. <i>E. granulatus</i> is parasitic on the roots
-of the Fir.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[125]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 3. <b>Pyrenomycetes.</b></h4>
-
-<p>In this family the hymenium is enclosed in small fruit-bodies,
-<i>perithecia</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig120">120</a> <i>b</i>), which appear to the naked eye
-as small dots. In shape they resemble a globe or a flask with a narrow
-mouth, through which the spores are ejected (peronocarpic ascocarps).
-Different kinds of reproduction&mdash;conidia, pycnidia (chiefly with
-microconidia), chlamydospores, and perithecia&mdash;are found in the same
-species. The various stages in the life-history of these Fungi are so
-dissimilar, that formally they were considered to be different genera.
-Ergot furnishes a very good example.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig114" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig114.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 114.</span>&mdash;A small portion of an ovary attacked
-with <i>Claviceps purpurea</i> (<i>Sphacelia</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig115" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig115.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 115.</span>&mdash;An ovary with the conidial stage of
-<i>Claviceps purpurea</i> (<i>Sphacelia</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>This family may be subdivided into 3 sub-families.</p>
-
-
-<h4 class="smaller">Sub-Family 1. <b>Hypocreales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The perithecia are <i>pale, fleshy, brightly coloured</i>, and
-generally aggregated on a stroma. Conidia and chlamydospores occur very
-frequently. Only one order.</p>
-
-<p>Order. <b>Hypocreaceæ.</b> In this order the majority are parasites
-upon Flowering-plants (<i>Nectria</i>, <i>Polystigma</i>,
-<i>Epichloë</i>, <i>Claviceps</i>); but some are parasites upon
-Fungi (<i>Hypomyces</i>, <i>Melanospora</i>), or upon insects
-(<i>Cordyceps</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig116" style="width: 545px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig116.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 116.</span>&mdash;<i>Claviceps purpurea. A</i>
-Sclerotium with stromata (<i>cl</i>) (× by 2). <i>B</i> Stroma
-divided longitudinally to show the perithecia (<i>cp</i>). <i>C</i> A
-perithecium with the surrounding hyphæ (<i>hy</i>). <i>D</i> An ascus
-ruptured, with the eight filamentous ascospores emerging.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The most important member of this order is the <span class="smcap">Ergot</span>
-(<i>Claviceps purpurea</i>, Figs. <a href="#fig114">114</a>, <a href="#fig115">115</a>, <a href="#fig116">116</a>). This Fungus is
-found in the flowers of many species of Grasses, especially the
-Rye, attacking and destroying the ovaries. In the <span class="allsmcap">FIRST</span> or
-<span class="allsmcap">CONIDIAL STAGE</span> of the attack, the ovaries are found covered
-with a white, irregularly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span> folded mycelium (Fig. <a href="#fig114">114</a> <i>m</i>, Fig.
-<a href="#fig115">115</a>), formed of numerous hyphæ woven together and penetrating the wall
-of the ovary. From these a number of hyphæ (Fig. <a href="#fig114">114</a> <i>a</i>) project
-into the air and abstrict from their apices the conidia (<i>b</i>)
-which serve as reproductive organs. The mycelium also secretes a
-sticky, stinking fluid (honey-dew) in which the conidia are embedded
-in great numbers. The honey-dew exudes from the bases of the glumes,
-and is greedily sought by flies, which thus carry the conidia to
-other ovaries. In this manner fresh ears are infected, which might
-escape were the conidia only distributed by the wind. This stage
-formerly was regarded as an independent Fungus, known as <i>Sphacelia
-segetum</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig115">115</a>). On germination, the conidia produce either
-a new mycelium (Fig. <a href="#fig114">114</a> <i>d</i>, <i>c</i>), or new conidia. The
-<span class="allsmcap">SECOND</span> or <span class="allsmcap">SCLEROTIUM STAGE</span> is the one in which the
-Fungus passes the winter. The mycelium penetrates deeper and deeper
-into the attacked ovaries, their tissues are destroyed and replaced by
-the hyphæ, which gradually become more and more felted together.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[127]</span> A
-firm, pseudo-parenchymatous mass of hyphæ is thus formed at the base
-of the loosely-woven <i>Sphacelia</i>, which is in part transformed
-into the hard sclerotium, and the remainder thrown off. A dark, hard,
-poisonous body, longer than the natural grain, is thus formed; these
-bodies are known as Ergots, and were formerly considered to be a
-distinct species,&mdash;<i>Sclerotium clavus</i> (“Secale cornutum,” Ergot,
-Fig. <a href="#fig116">116</a> <i>A</i>, <i>c</i>). The <span class="allsmcap">THIRD STAGE</span>, described as
-<i>Claviceps purpurea</i>, is developed in the following spring from
-the germinating sclerotium, which produces dark-red stromata with short
-stalks. In the stroma numerous perithecia with asci and ascospores are
-produced. The latter may infect young flowers of the cereals, in which
-the disease is then developed as before.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig117" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig117.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 117.</span>&mdash;<i>Nectria cinnabarina</i>:
-<i>a</i> branch of <i>Acer pseudoplatanus</i>, with conidial-layers
-and perithecia (nat. size); <i>b</i> a conidial-layer (<i>Tuberculoria
-vulgaris</i>); <i>c</i>, a mass of perithecia. (<i>b</i> and <i>c</i> × 8.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Several species of the genus <i>Nectria</i>, with blood-red
-perithecia, are found as dangerous parasites, especially
-<i>N. ditissima</i>, which causes “Canker” in the Beech,
-Ash, and Apple, etc.; <i>N. cucurbitula</i>, which appears
-on Pine-trees, and <i>N. cinnabarina</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig117">117</a>),
-whose conidial form was formerly named <i>Tubercularia
-vulgaris</i>.&mdash;<i>Polystigma rubrum</i> forms shining red spots
-on the green leaves of <i>Prunus</i>-species.&mdash;<i>Epichloë
-typhina</i> is parasitic on the sheaths of Grasses, on which
-it first forms a white conidial-layer, later on a yellow layer
-of perithecia.&mdash;<i>Cordyceps</i> (Chrysalis Fungus, Figs. <a href="#fig118">118</a>,
-<a href="#fig119">119</a>) lives in and destroys insects, and after compassing their
-death produces the club-formed, generally yellow, stromata,
-one part of which bears conidia (<i>Isaria</i>) and another
-perithecia. <i>C. militaris</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig118">118</a>) on the chrysalides
-and caterpillars of moths, is the most common.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span></p>
-
-<p>The so-called <i>Botrytis bassiana</i>, which produces the
-disease known by the name of “Muscardine,” in silkworms, is
-probably a conidial form belonging to <i>Cordyceps</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig118" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig118.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 118.</span>&mdash;<i>Cordyceps militaris.</i> I
-Stromata with conidiophores (<i>Isaria farinosa</i>). II A larva, with
-stromata, bearing perithecia. III A spore.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig119" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig119.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 119.</span>&mdash;<i>Cordyceps robertii</i> on the
-larva of <i>Hepialus virescens</i>: <i>a</i> stalk of stroma; <i>b</i>
-perithecia.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4 class="smaller">Sub-Family 2. <b>Sphæriales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>To this sub-family belong the majority of the Pyrenomycetes. The
-perithecia are of a <i>firm consistence</i> (tough, leathery, woody or
-carbonaceous), and of a <i>dark</i> colour. Their <i>covering</i> is
-<i>quite distinct from the stroma</i> when this structure is present.
-The stromata are sometimes very large, and may be either cushion-like,
-crustaceous, upright and club-like, or branched bodies. In general,
-small, inconspicuous Fungi, living on dead vegetable matter, sometimes
-parasites. Free conidiophores and conidiocarps are known in many
-species, and in several, chlamydospore-like forms of reproduction.
-Orders 3–18 constitute the Sphæriaceæ of older systematists.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig120" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig120.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 120.</span>&mdash;<i>Strickeria obducens</i>: <i>a</i>
-a portion of an Ash-branch with the bark partly thrown off; on the wood
-are numerous black perithecia (× 20); <i>b</i> longitudinal section
-through a perithecium; <i>c</i> a spore; <i>d</i> longitudinal section
-through a pycnidium whose ascospores are being ejected; <i>e</i>
-portion of the same, with hyphæ and spores.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Sordariaceæ.</b>&mdash;Fungi living on dung with
-fragile perithecia, either aerial or buried in the substratum.
-The dark brown or black spores have either a mucilaginous
-envelope (<i>Sordaria</i>, etc.) or mucilaginous appendages
-(<i>Podospora</i>), by means of which their expulsion and
-distribution are promoted.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Chætomiaceæ.</b> Perithecia fragile, free, bearing
-on the summit a tuft of hairs. <i>Chætomium</i>, on decaying
-vegetable matter.</p>
-
-<p>Orders 3–7. <i>Perithecia scattered or aggregated, situated
-from the commencement on the surface of the substratum. Stroma
-wanting.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Trichosphæriaceæ.</b> <i>Trichosphæria
-parasitica</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig121">121</a>), on <i>Abies alba</i>; <i>Herpotrichia
-nigra</i> on <i>Picea excelsa</i> and <i>Pinus montana</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig121" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig121.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 121.</span>&mdash;<i>Trichosphæria parasitica</i>:
-<i>a</i> a twig of <i>Abies alba</i>, with epiphytic mycelium; <i>b</i>
-a leaf with mycelium and sporangia (magnified); <i>c</i> a sporangium
-(× 60); <i>d</i> an ascus with spores (× 550).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Melanommaceæ.</b> <i>Rosellinia quercina</i> lives
-in the roots of 1–3-year-old Oaks, and destroys the plants.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Ceratostomaceæ.</b></p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Amphisphæriaceæ.</b> <i>Strickeria obducens</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig120">120</a>) has brick-like spores, and lives aggregated on the
-hard branches of <i>Fraxinus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Lophiostomaceæ.</b></p>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Cucurbitariaceæ.</b> Perithecia tufted, <i>at first
-embedded, then breaking through</i>, often situated upon an
-indistinct <i>stroma</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Orders 9–13. <i>The perithecia remain embedded, and are only
-liberated by the casting off of the covering layers of the
-substratum. Stroma wanting.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 9. <b>Sphærellaceæ.</b> The species of <i>Sphærella</i>
-have colourless, bicellular spores. They live upon the leaves of
-many plants, and develope spherical perithecia upon the fallen
-leaves.</p>
-
-<p>Order 10. <b>Pleosporaceæ.</b> The conidial-forms of
-<i>Pleospora herbarum</i> and <i>P. vulgaris</i> form a black
-covering on various plants, known as “smuts.”&mdash;<i>Venturia
-ditricha</i> occurs on the underside of dry Birch leaves, and
-perhaps to this belongs the conidial-form, <i>Fusicladium
-pirinum</i>, which causes the “Rust spots” on Apples and Pears.</p>
-
-<p>Order 11. <b>Massariaceæ.</b></p>
-
-<p>Order 12. <b>Clypeosphæriaceæ.</b></p>
-
-<p>Order 13. <b>Gnomoniaceæ.</b> Perithecia, with peak-like
-aperture. <i>Gnomonia erythrostoma</i> in the leaves of
-<i>Prunus avium</i>, which turn brown and do not fall in autumn.</p>
-
-<p>Orders 14–18. <i>Stroma generally well developed. The perithecia
-are embedded in the stroma, but when this is rudimentary, in the
-substratum.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 14. <b>Valsaceæ.</b> <i>Valsa.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 15. <b>Diatrypaceæ.</b> <i>Diatrype.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 16. <b>Melanconidaceæ.</b></p>
-
-<p>Order 17. <b>Melogrammataceæ.</b></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 18. <b>Xylariaceæ.</b> This order is the most highly developed
-of the Sphæriales. The <i>stroma</i> arises on the <i>surface of the
-substratum</i>, which is generally dead or decorticated wood; it is
-well-developed, crustaceous, hemispherical or upright. In the younger
-conditions it is covered with a layer of conidia, and later on it bears
-the <i>perithecia</i>, arranged in a layer immediately <i>beneath its
-surface</i>. The ascospores are of a dark colour. Often also there are
-free conidiophores.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig122" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig122.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 122.</span>&mdash;<i>Xylaria hypoxylon</i> (nat. size)
-on a tree stump: <i>a</i> younger, <i>b</i> an older stroma, both of
-which, with the exception of the black lower portion, are covered with
-white conidia; <i>n</i>, spot where the perithecia are developed;
-<i>c</i> an old stroma with upper part fallen off; <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>
-large branched stromata; <i>k</i> conidia.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Hypoxylon</i> and <i>Ustulina</i> have a cushion-like
-or crustaceous stroma.&mdash;<i>Xylaria</i> has a club-shaped
-or branched stroma, often several centimetres high. <i>X.
-hypoxylon</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig122">122</a>) and <i>X. polymorpha</i> occur on old
-tree stumps.&mdash;<i>Poronia</i> grows on old horse dung, and has a
-conical stroma.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4 class="smaller">Sub-Family 3. <b>Dothideales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The <i>perithecia</i> are always embedded in a <i>black stroma</i>, and
-are <i>not distinctly separated</i> from it. The accessory forms of
-reproduction are: conidiophores, conidiocarps, and yeast-like conidia.
-The majority are parasites. One order.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order <b>Dothideaceæ</b>. <i>Phyllachora graminis</i>
-produces scab-like patches on the leaves of the
-Grasses.&mdash;<i>Scirrhia rimosa</i> grows on the leaf-sheathes of
-<i>Phragmites</i>.&mdash;<i>Rhopographus pteridis</i> on <i>Pteridium
-aquilinum</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 4. <b>Hysteriales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>This family, like the following, has hemiangiocarpic ascocarps
-(<i>apothecia</i>). These are closed in the early stages, but when
-ripe <i>open</i> in a <i>valvular manner</i> by a <i>longitudinal
-fissure</i>; they are black, oblong, and often twisted. Some species
-are parasites, especially upon the Coniferæ.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig123" style="width: 427px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig123.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 123.</span>&mdash;<i>Lophodermium (Hypoderma)
-nervisequium</i>: <i>a</i> two leaves of <i>Abies alba</i> seen from
-above with pycnidia; <i>b</i> a leaf seen from the underside with
-apothecia; <i>c</i> an ascus with ascospores. (× 500.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig124" style="width: 287px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig124.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 124.</span>&mdash;Three leaves of the Red-pine with
-<i>Lophodermium macrosporum</i>: <i>a</i> under side of the leaves with
-apothecia; <i>b</i> a leaf from upper side with pycnidia. (× about 2.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig125" style="width: 251px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig125.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 125.</span>&mdash;<i>Lophodermium pinastri</i>:
-<i>a</i> leaves of <i>Pinus sylvestris</i> with apothecia (nat. size);
-<i>b</i> two paraphyses and an ascus with filamentous spores.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Hysteriaceæ.</b> <i>Hysterium pulicare</i> upon the
-ruptured bark of many trees.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Hypodermaceæ.</b> The species of <i>Lophodermium</i>
-live upon the leaves of Conifers, and are the cause of their
-falling off (<i>blight</i>). <i>L. pinastri</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig125">125</a>), on
-the leaves of <i>Pinus</i> and <i>Picea</i>; the leaves become
-red-brown and fall off; at first conidiocarps are formed,
-and later apothecia; <i>L. nervisequium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig123">123</a>), on
-<i>Abies alba</i>; <i>L. macrosporum</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig124">124</a>), on <i>Picea
-excelsa</i>; <i>L. brachysporum</i>, on <i>Pinus strobus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Dichænaceæ.</b></p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Acrospermaceæ.</b></p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 5. <b>Discomycetes.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The ascocarps (<i>apothecia</i>) are at first closed, and <i>only
-open</i> at the time of their ripening, not valvularly, but more or
-less<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span> like a <i>saucer</i> or <i>cup</i>, so that the hymenium lies
-exposed on their upper surface. In the first three sub-families, and
-generally also in the fourth, the apothecia are formed inside the
-substratum. The apothecia are, in contrast to the Pyrenomycetes, light
-and brightly coloured, and their size varies very much, and may be
-several centimetres in diameter. Paraphyses are often present between
-the asci; they often contain colouring matter, and give to the disc its
-characteristic colour. The tissue on which the asci are borne is known
-as the <i>hypothecium</i>. The shape and colour of the spores is not so
-varied as in the Pyrenomycetes. The accessory forms of reproduction are
-conidia (sometimes of two forms), chlamydospores, and oidia. The family
-is divided into 5 sub-families.</p>
-
-
-<h4 class="smaller">Sub-Family 1. <b>Phacidiales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The apothecia are developed in the interior of the substratum, which
-they break through, and in general dehisce apically. The envelope is
-tough and black. Hypothecium inconspicuous; hymenium flat.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Euphacidiaceæ.</b> <i>Phacidium abietinum</i>, on
-the leaves of <i>Abies alba</i>.&mdash;<i>Rhytisma</i>; the pycnidia
-are found in the summer on the green leaves, while the apothecia
-are developed on the fallen leaves and dehisce in the following
-spring. <i>R. acerinum</i> causes black spots on the leaves of
-the Sycamore, and <i>R. salicinum</i> on Willows.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Pseudophacidiaceæ.</b></p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4 class="smaller">Sub-Family 2. <b>Stictidales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The apothecia when ripe break through the substratum which forms a
-border round them. Hymenium generally saucer-shaped.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Stictidaceæ.</b> <i>Stictis.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Ostropaceæ.</b> <i>Ostropa.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4 class="smaller">Sub-Family 3. <b>Tryblidiales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The apothecia are embedded in the substratum in the early stages, and
-then are raised high above it. Hypothecium thick. Hymenium cup-shaped.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Tryblidiaceæ.</b> <i>Tryblidium.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Heterosphæriaceæ.</b> <i>Heterosphæria patella</i>
-on the dead stalks of Umbellifers.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[134]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4 class="smaller">Sub-Family 4. <b>Dermateales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The apothecia in the early stages are embedded in the substratum and
-then break through it, or are from the first situated on the surface of
-the substratum. Hypothecium thick.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Cenangiaceæ.</b> <i>Cenangium.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Dermateaceæ.</b> <i>Dermatea.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Patellariaceæ.</b> <i>Patellea</i>,
-<i>Biatorella</i>, <i>Patellaria</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Caliciaceæ.</b> <i>Calicium</i>, <i>Coniocybe</i>,
-etc., on the bark of trees.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Arthoniaceæ.</b> <i>Arthonia</i> on the bark of
-several trees. <i>Celidium stictarum</i> on the apothecia of
-<i>Sticta pulmonaria</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Bulgariaceæ.</b> Apothecia gelatinous under moist
-conditions, and horny when dried.&mdash;<i>Calloria fusarioides</i>;
-the red apothecia break out in the spring on the dried
-stalks of <i>Urtica dioica</i>; a gelatinous reproductive
-form of the Fungus is found before the apothecia, which
-consists of oidia (formerly described as “<i>Dacryomyces
-urticæ</i>”).&mdash;<i>Bulgaria inquinans</i> on the living or fallen
-trucks of Oaks and Beeches.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig126" style="width: 345px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig126.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 126.</span>&mdash;<i>Botrytis cinerea</i>: <i>a</i>
-slightly magnified; <i>b</i> more highly magnified; <i>c</i>
-germinating conidium.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig127" style="width: 366px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig127.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 127.</span>&mdash;<i>Sclerotinia fuckeliania</i>:
-<i>a</i> sclerotium with conidiophores; <i>b</i> with apothecia;
-<i>c</i> section through sclerotium and apothecium; <i>d</i> ascus with
-eight ascospores. (× 390.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h4 class="smaller">Sub-Family 5. <b>Pezizales.</b></h4>
-
-<p><i>The apothecia are developed on the surface of the substratum and
-are waxy or fleshy</i>; at the commencement closed, and covered with a
-saucer- or cup-shaped, seldom flat, hymenium. The <i>hypothecium</i> is
-generally well developed. This sub-family is the richest in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[135]</span> species of
-the Discomycetes and contains forms of very different habit. They grow
-upon dead wood, upon the ground, and upon dung. A few are parasites.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Helotiaceæ.</b> Apothecia with waxy envelope of
-colourless, or yellowish prosenchymatous cells.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Chlorosplenium
-æruginosum</i> is found on decaying wood (particularly Oak and Birch),
-to which it gives a green colour. <i>Sclerotinia</i> has sclerotia
-which are developed upon the host-plant and from which, after a period
-of rest, the long, brown-stalked apothecia arise. <i>S. ciborioides</i>
-(<i>S. trifoliorum</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig128">128</a>) is parasitic on Clover; <i>S.
-sclerotiorum</i>, on <i>Daucus</i>-roots, <i>Phaseolus</i>, etc.;
-<i>S. baccarum</i>, on the berries of <i>Vaccinium myrtillus</i>;
-“<i>Botrytis cinerea</i>” is a common parasite and is probably the
-conidial form of <i>S. fuckeliania</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig127">127</a>).&mdash;<i>Helotium
-herbarum</i> lives on dry plant stems.&mdash;<i>Dasyscypha willkommii</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig129">129</a>) produces Larch-canker on the bark of the Larch.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig128" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig128.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 128.</span>&mdash;<i>Sclerotinia ciborioides</i>:
-<i>a</i> sclerotium with three apothecia slightly magnified; <i>b</i>
-ascus with eight ascospores; <i>c</i> germinating ascospore.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig129" style="width: 328px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig129.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 129.</span>&mdash;<i>Dasyscypha willkommii</i>:
-<i>a</i> portion of bark of <i>Larix decidua</i> with sessile,
-cup-shaped apothecia (nat. size); <i>b</i> two paraphyses on either
-side of an ascus with eight ascospores.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Mollisiaceæ.</b> <i>Mollisia cinerea</i>,
-principally on decaying wood.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Pezizaceæ.</b> This order contains the largest and
-morphologically the highest forms of the <i>Discomycetes</i>. Apothecia
-fleshy, and in the later conditions generally saucer-shaped.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Peziza</i>, with sessile apothecia, growing on the ground;
-<i>P. cochleata</i> is brown, and coiled like a snail-shell;
-<i>P. coccinea</i> is scarlet; <i>P. aurantia</i> occurs as an
-orange-coloured expansion on the ground.</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Ascobolaceæ.</b> Apothecia fleshy; in the later
-stages flat or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[136]</span> convex. The asci are, comparatively speaking,
-large, and often contain a great number of spores which escape
-by the casting off of a lid on the summit of the ascus.
-Generally living on dung.&mdash;<i>Ascobolus furfuraceus</i>, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 6. <b>Helvellales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>These Fungi have the appearance of clubs, bells, or mushrooms,
-consisting of an upright <i>stalk</i> bearing a <i>large and fleshy</i>
-head, on the <i>exterior surface</i> of which the <i>hymenium</i> is
-spread. The ascocarps are probably gymnocarpic from the beginning,
-and on this account these plants are placed in a separate family. The
-development of the ascocarps is unknown. The <i>Morchella</i> (Morell)
-grows on the ground; some species are edible. 1 order.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order. <b>Helvellaceæ.</b> <i>Spathulea</i> is
-yellow and club-shaped, and forms “fairy rings” in
-woods.&mdash;<i>Geoglossum</i> (Earth-tongue) projects above the
-ground as a black tongue, or as a club-shaped body. Several
-species are found in meadows and on heaths.&mdash;<i>Helvella</i> has
-a stalk, bearing an irregularly folded head, on the external
-surface of which is the hypothecium.&mdash;<i>Morchella</i> (Morell,
-Fig. <a href="#fig130">130</a>), the stalk bears on its summit the conical or
-spherical head, the external surface of which is reticulate and
-bears the asci.&mdash;<i>Mitrula. Verpa.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig130" style="width: 381px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig130.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 130.</span>&mdash;<i>Morchella esculenta</i>: <i>a</i>
-an entire specimen, about one half natural size; <i>b</i> longitudinal
-section through the head.</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<p class="smcap center p2">Appendix to the Ascomycetes:</p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 7. <b>Ascolichenes (Lichen-forming Ascomycetes).</b></h4>
-
-<p>The Lichens were formerly classed among the Thallophyta as a group
-quite distinct from the Algæ and Fungi. Investigations during the last
-twenty-five years, however, have conclusively proved that the Lichens
-are Fungi which reproduce in the same manner as the Ascomycetes, or,
-more rarely, the Basidiomycetes, and have entered into a peculiar
-<i>symbiotic relation with Algæ</i>, especially the Cyanophyceæ and
-Protococcoideæ, with which they associate, and without which they
-would be unable to exist. The Fungus forms the largest portion of the
-Lichen, enclosing the Alga with which it may be said to be commensal.
-The Fungus especially produces reproductive bodies and absorbs the
-inorganic nourishment through the rhizoids, whilst the Alga supplies
-it with the organic materials. In consequence of this the Lichens, in
-contradistinction<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span> to other Fungi, need light for the development of
-their nutritive organs, and are therefore, in any case internally, of
-a more or less greenish colour. The form and condition of the thallus
-is unusual among the Fungi, and they can grow upon rocks and in other
-places where no dead organic matter, such as would be required by other
-Fungi, is obtainable.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig131" style="width: 516px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig131.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 131.</span>&mdash;Transverse section through
-the thallus of <i>Sticta fuliginosa</i> (× 500): <i>r-r</i>
-rhizoid-strands, which arise from the under side; <i>g-g</i> gonidial
-layer; <i>m</i> medullary layer; <i>o</i> upper, <i>u</i> lower cortex.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Two cellular forms are therefore to be found in each Lichen:</p>
-
-<p>1. The cells which belong to the Fungus. These are generally septate,
-branched <i>hyphæ</i> without any trace of chlorophyll. In the thallus
-of the majority of Lichens there may be found a medullary layer (Fig.
-<a href="#fig131">131</a> <i>m</i>) of loosely-woven hyphæ, between which there are large air
-chambers; and an <i>external layer</i> (cortex) (Fig. <a href="#fig131">131</a> <i>o</i>,
-<i>u</i>) formed of closely-woven hyphæ without any intercellular
-spaces. In some Lichens (Collemaceæ) the hyphæ wind about in the
-thallus, being equally distributed throughout, without forming any
-decided strata. These Lichens moreover become<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[138]</span> gelatinous when exposed
-to moisture (Fig. <a href="#fig132">132</a>), on account of the swelling of the walls of
-the Algæ. The hyphæ contain protoplasm with drops of oil, but never
-starch; their walls easily swell when exposed to damp after having
-been dried, and in some (<i>e.g. Cetraria islandica</i>) they
-become gelatinous when cooked. Certain strata of hyphæ become blue on
-treatment with iodine alone, from which it is inferred that the wall is
-allied, in its chemical nature, to starch.</p>
-
-<p>2. The enclosed Algæ, termed “gonidia.” Some belonging to the
-Cyanophyceæ, Protococcoideæ, (especially <i>Pleurococcus</i>) and
-Chroococcaceæ, are spherical and are found isolated, or in irregular
-<i>groups</i> of cells (Fig. <a href="#fig131">131</a> <i>g</i>); some belonging to
-<i>Nostoc</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig132">132</a> <i>g</i>), Lyngbyaceæ, etc., are placed in
-cell-rows. Each Lichen, as a rule, has only one definite Algal-form for
-its gonidium.</p>
-
-<p>The gonidia either lie together in a certain stratum between the
-cortex and the medullary layer (Fig. <a href="#fig131">131</a> <i>g</i>), or are scattered
-irregularly throughout the entire thallus (Fig. <a href="#fig132">132</a>). The thallus is
-in the first instance termed “heteromerous,” in the second instance,
-“homoiomerous.” The Fungal-hyphæ embrace the gonidia and apply
-themselves closely to, or even penetrate them, and hence it has been
-difficult to decide whether the one cellular form does or does not
-develop from the other (Figs. <a href="#fig134">134</a>, <a href="#fig135">135</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig132" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig132.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 132.</span>&mdash;<i>Collema microphyllum.</i>
-Transverse section through the thallus; <i>g Nostoc</i>-chains;
-<i>h</i> hyphæ.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>This theory regarding the symbiosis of Fungi and Algæ to form
-a Lichen is termed the Schwendenerian theory, after the first
-scientist who advanced it with any weight. It had been already
-indicated by De Bary, and further arguments in its support have
-at a later time been adduced by Bornet, Stahl, Treub, Frank,
-Bonnier, Alfr. Möller and others.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig133" style="width: 300px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig133.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 133.</span>&mdash;<i>Ephebe pubescens.</i> The apex of
-a branch of the thallus with two lateral branches (<i>s</i>): <i>h</i>
-its hyphæ; <i>g</i> the apical gonidium of the main branch.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig134" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig134.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 134.</span>&mdash;<i>Nostoc lichenoides</i>,
-which is attached by a germinating thread (<i>h</i>) of <i>Collema
-glaucescens</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig135" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig135.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 135.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i> Germinating spore of
-<i>Physcia parietina</i> with <i>Protococcus viridis</i>. <i>B</i>
-<i>Synalissa symphorea</i> with <i>Glæocapsa</i>. <i>C Cladonia
-furcata</i> with <i>Protococcus</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The thallus of the Lichen appears mainly under three forms:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>1. The <span class="smcap">Crustaceous</span>, which adheres firmly to the substratum
-(bark, stone) throughout its entire surface, without being raised into
-any free patches or lobes. It has, in many instances, no definite
-outline, and hyphal-branches from it often penetrate<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[140]</span> deeply into the
-substratum. It grows at the circumference and sometimes dies away in
-the centre (Figs. <a href="#fig138">138</a>, <a href="#fig139">139</a>, <a href="#fig140">140</a>).</p>
-
-<p>2. The <span class="smcap">Foliaceous</span>. This also lies flat upon the substratum,
-but is not firmly attached to and has a definite outline. It grows at
-the margin, and raises itself a little by free outgrowths and lobes
-(Fig. <a href="#fig141">141</a>). The rhizoid-strands spring out from its whitish under
-surface (Fig. <a href="#fig131">131</a>, <i>r</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig136" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig136.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 136.</span>&mdash;Portion of a hymenium: <i>d</i> a
-thin stratum on which the asci (<i>s</i>) are situated.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig137" style="width: 466px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig137.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 137.</span>&mdash;Spores of, <i>a Cladonia</i>,
-<i>Lecanora</i> and <i>Pertusaria</i>; <i>b Bæomyces</i>;
-<i>c Sphinctrina</i>; <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>, <i>f</i> various
-species of <i>Parmelia</i>; <i>g</i>, <i>h Verrucaria</i>
-in its younger and older condition; <i>i</i>, <i>k</i> species of
-<i>Leptogium</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>3. The <span class="smcap">Fruticose</span>, which is attached to its substratum at a
-small point from which it projects freely, either erect or pendulous.
-It is more or less tufted, in the form of a bush (Figs. <a href="#fig142">142</a>, <a href="#fig143">143</a>).
-These three thallus-forms gradually pass over by many intermediate
-forms into one another.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig138" style="width: 384px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig138.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 138.</span>&mdash;<i>Lecanora subfusca</i>: <i>a</i>
-the bark on which it is situated; <i>l</i> the thallus; <i>s</i> the
-ascocarp; <i>s’</i> an ascocarp.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig139" style="width: 286px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig139.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 139.</span>&mdash;<i>Graphis</i> (two species).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig140" style="width: 278px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig140.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 140.</span>&mdash;<i>Pertusaria communis.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The Lichens, like other Ascomycetes, have very variously<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span> constructed
-ascospores (Fig. <a href="#fig137">137</a>), which are enclosed in asci (Fig. <a href="#fig136">136</a>), usually
-surrounded by paraphyses attached together. Furthermore they possess
-pycnidia (Fig. <a href="#fig141">141</a>) containing numerous microconidia. These were
-formerly considered as organs of fructification, and were termed
-“spermatia,” and the pycnidia, “spermogonia.” Alfr. Möller proved,
-in 1887, that the microconidia are able to germinate and produce a
-mycelium with new conidia, just as in other Ascomycetes.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Vegetative Reproduction</span> takes place by <i>soredia</i>,
-which to the naked eye appear as whitish powder on the surface of
-the thallus. They are small round bodies, formed by one or a group
-of gonidia, which are surrounded by a mass of felted hyphæ. After
-the rupture of the cortex they are set free, and readily carried by
-the wind to other places, where under favourable circumstances they
-establish a new thallus.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig141" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig141.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 141.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i> A portion of the thallus
-of <i>Parmelia parietina</i> with ascocarps (<i>a</i>) and pycnidia
-(<i>b</i>). <i>B</i> A portion of the thallus of <i>Cetraria
-islandica</i> with pycnidia at the end of small lobes. <i>C</i> A lobe
-with pycnidia and ejected microconidia. (Magnified).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Geographical Distribution.</span> The Lichens are the most hardy
-plants, and are the first to appear on hitherto bare rocks which they
-gradually disintegrate, and hence prepare the way for the growth of
-other plants. They are to be found from the Polar regions to the
-Equator; from the highest snow-free mountain-peaks down to the level of
-the sea; on the stems of trees; on rocks, soil, some even on inundated
-places; on stones in woodland streams, and on beaches; but they are
-never found upon rotten organic remains. Some grow gregariously in
-enormous masses, and form wide-stretching carpets, <i>e.g.</i> Reindeer
-Moss (<i>Cladonia rangiferina</i>), species of <i>Cetraria</i> and
-other fruticose Lichens.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> On account of the cell-wall being composed of
-Lichenstarch<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[142]</span> (Lichenin), the Iceland-Lichen and Manna-Lichen
-(<i>Lecanora esculenta</i>) are used as food; the latter grows on
-stones, in the deserts of Asia and North Africa, and is often torn
-loose in large masses and carried away by the wind. The Reindeer-Lichen
-is not only the principal food of the reindeer, but it is also used in
-the manufacture of Danish brandy. <i>Cetraria islandica</i> (Lichen
-islandicus) is <span class="allsmcap">OFFICINAL</span>. Colouring materials (lacmus,
-orseille, persio) are made from several species, especially from
-<i>Roccella tinctoria</i> (from the rocky coasts of the Mediterranean).
-<i>Parmelia saxatilis</i> and particularly <i>Lecanora tartarea</i> are
-used for colouring purposes in the Northern countries.</p>
-
-<p>About 2,000 species of Lichens have been described. If we disregard the
-Basidiolichenes, which will be considered on page <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, the remaining
-Lichens (Ascolichenes) may be divided into the two following orders
-according to the structure of the fruit-bodies:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Pyrenolichenes.</b> The ascocarps (apothecia) are
-spherical or flask-shaped, as in the Pyrenomycetes, more rarely linear
-(<i>Graphis</i>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>According to the nature of the thallus, these Lichens may be
-divided into:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><i>a.</i> Thallus homoiomerous, but not gelatinous, branching
-according to the mode of growth of the Algæ: <i>Ephebe</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig133">133</a>), with Algæ of the genus <i>Stigonema</i>.</p>
-
-<p><i>b.</i> Thallus homoiomerous, gelatinous: <i>Lichina</i>.</p>
-
-<p><i>c.</i> Thallus heteromerous, crustaceous: <i>Verrucaria</i>,
-<i>Pyrenula</i>; <i>Graphis</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig139">139</a>), which may be
-considered as Hysteriaceæ with gonidia; several species of
-<i>Graphis</i> are common on bark.</p>
-
-<p><i>d.</i> Thallus heteromerous, foliaceous: <i>Endocarpon</i>.</p>
-
-<p><i>e.</i> Thallus heteromerous, fruticose: <i>Sphærophorus</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Discolichenes.</b> These, as in the Discomycetes, have open
-apothecia, which, as a rule, are cupular, more rarely hemispherical
-(<i>Cladonia</i>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>According to the nature of the thallus, these Lichens may be
-divided into:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><i>a.</i> Thallus homoiomerous, but not gelatinous, branching
-according to the mode of growth of the Algæ: <i>Cœnogonium</i>.</p>
-
-<p><i>b.</i> Thallus homoiomerous, gelatinous: <i>Collema</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig132">132</a>), with Algæ of the genus <i>Nostoc</i>; <i>Leptogium</i>.</p>
-
-<p><i>c.</i> Thallus heteromerous, crustaceous: <i>Pertusaria</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig140">140</a>), <i>Lecidea</i>, with apothecia open from the
-beginning; <i>Lecanora</i>, with apothecia, which in the
-beginning are closed, later on open, but with a rim formed by
-the thallus (Fig. <a href="#fig138">138</a>); <i>Bæomyces</i>, whose apothecia are
-borne on a stem formed by the thallus.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>d.</i> Thallus heteromerous, foliaceous: <i>Parmelia</i>
-(<i>P. saxatilis</i>; <i>P. parietina</i>, Wall-Lichen, Fig.
-<a href="#fig141">141</a>, is yellow, very frequent on tree-stems, stone-walls,
-tiles); <i>Physcia</i> (<i>P. ciliaris</i>, frequent on
-tree-stems); <i>Sticta</i> (<i>S. pulmonacea</i>, Lung-Lichen,
-on tree-stems); <i>Peltigera</i>, especially on the Moss among
-trees; <i>Umbilicaria</i>, on rocks.</p>
-
-<p><i>e.</i> Thallus heteromerous, fruticose: <i>Cetraria</i>
-(<i>C. islandica</i>), “Iceland Moss,” with an olive-brown,
-flat, furrowed, fringed thallus, on heaths; <i>C. nivalis</i>,
-white, in the Polar regions; <i>Evernia</i>, <i>Ramalina</i>,
-<i>Usnea</i> (<i>U. barbata</i>, Beard-Lichen, Fig. <a href="#fig143">143</a>);
-<i>Roccella</i>, <i>Stereocaulon</i>, <i>Cladonia</i>, of which
-the genus <i>C. rangiferina</i>, Reindeer-Moss (Fig. <a href="#fig142">142</a>) is
-important; <i>Cladonia</i> has two kinds of thallus, one scaly
-and leaf-like, the other erect, which bears the apothecia and
-may be fruticose (Fig. <a href="#fig142">142</a>), or cupular (Fig. <a href="#fig144">144</a>); they grow in
-soil in forests and on heaths.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig142" style="width: 637px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig142.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 142.</span>&mdash;<i>Cladonia rangiferina</i>:
-<i>s</i> ascocarp.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig143" style="width: 512px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig143.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 143.</span>&mdash;<i>Usnea barbata</i>: <i>s</i>
-ascocarp. (Slightly magnified.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig144" style="width: 443px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig144.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 144.</span>&mdash;<i>Cladonia pyxidata.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span></p>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class 2. <b>Basidiomycetes.</b></h3>
-
-<p>This sub-class embraces the most highly developed Fungi, with large
-“fruit-bodies,” which in ordinary language we shortly term Funguses,
-Toadstools, or Mushrooms.</p>
-
-<p>They have no sporangia, but reproduce only by means of basidiospores,
-conidia, chlamydospores and oidia. The chief characteristic of
-this sub-class is the <i>basidium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig145">145</a>), <i>i.e.</i> the
-conidiophore, which has a distinctive form, and bears a definite number
-(generally 4) of characteristically shaped conidia (basidiospores, Fig.
-<a href="#fig145">145</a> <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig145" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig145.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 145.</span>&mdash;Development of spores in
-<i>Corticium</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The summit of each basidium is produced generally into four conical
-points (<i>sterigmata</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig145">145</a> <i>b</i>), from each of which a
-basidiospore is abstricted. The basidia may be classified into three
-principal groups, each of which accompanies a distinctive conidiophore:
-1, the long, filamentous, <i>transversely divided</i> basidia, with
-lateral sterigmata and spores, found in the Uredinaceæ (Figs. <a href="#fig146">146</a>
-<i>D</i>, <a href="#fig153">153</a>), Auriculariaceæ (Fig. <a href="#fig10">160</a> <i>B</i>), and Pilacraceæ; 2,
-the spherical, <i>longitudinally divided</i> basidia of the Tremellaceæ
-(Figs. <a href="#fig160">160</a> <i>C d</i>; <a href="#fig160">161</a> iii. iv.); and 3, the ovoid, or
-cylindrical, <i>undivided</i> basidia of the Autobasidiomycetes (Figs.
-<a href="#fig145">145</a>, <a href="#fig163">163</a>, etc.); the two last have apical sterigmata and spores.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The first two groups are the septate basidia
-(<i>protobasidia</i>), of the <i>Protobasidiomycetes</i>;
-while the unseptate basidia (autobasidia) of the
-<i>Autobasidiomycetes</i> are the third group. On the formation
-of the basidiospores, the nucleus<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span> of the basidium divides into
-four nuclei, each of which is transferred to a spore.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In addition to the basidia, <i>simple conidiophores</i> are also
-found. In the Protobasidiomycetes, the simple conidia are very
-generally found as accessory methods of reproduction in conjunction
-with the basidiospores; but less frequently in the Autobasidiomycetes,
-<i>e.g.</i> among the Dacryomycetes, Tomentellaceæ, <i>Heterobasidion
-annosum</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The simple conidiophores vary in size, and in the number and
-shape of the conidia; they, however, resemble the basidia,
-and are doubtless an early stage in the development of the
-definitely formed basidia.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Finally, well-defined <i>chlamydospores</i>, formed in various ways,
-appear in the Basidiomycetes as supplementary reproductive bodies
-(compare p. <a href="#Page_90">90</a>). Among the Protobasidiomycetes, chlamydospores are at
-present only found among the Uredinaceæ, but in various forms; in the
-majority of families of the Autobasidiomycetes <i>oidia</i> frequently
-occur (Fig. <a href="#fig162">162</a>), but genuine chlamydospores seldom.</p>
-
-<p>In the same species several of the known forms of reproduction may be
-distinguished.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>mycelium</i> is generally composed of white, branched strands,
-consisting of numerous felted hyphæ; in some, sclerotia are found.&mdash;The
-great majority are saprophytes; some (particularly all the Uredinaceæ),
-are parasites.</p>
-
-<p class="smcap center sm p2">Divisions of the Basidiomycetes.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li class="hangingindent">Series 1. <span class="smcap">Protobasidiomycetes</span>: partly gymnocarpic, partly angiocarpic.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;2. <span class="smcap">Autobasidiomycetes.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">Family 1. <span class="smcap">Dacryomycetes</span>: gymnocarpic.</li>
-  <li class="i4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;2. <span class="smcap">Hymenomycetes</span>: partly gymnocarpic, partly hemiangiocarpic.</li>
-  <li class="i4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;3. <span class="smcap">Phalloideæ</span>: hemiangiocarpic.</li>
-  <li class="i4">&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;4. <span class="smcap">Gasteromycetes</span>: angiocarpic.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">Appended. <span class="smcap">Basidiolichenes</span>: Lichen-forming basidiomycetes.</li>
-</ul>
-
-
-
-<h5>Series I. <b>Protobasidiomycetes.</b></h5>
-
-<p>To this series belong the lowest of the Basidiomycetes. The
-<i>basidia</i> appear in two principal forms (1 and 2 on page <a href="#Page_144">144</a>)
-and are <i>divided</i> into four cells, either transversely or
-longitudinally, each division forming a sterigma which abstricts a
-basidiospore. The first three orders, Uredinaceæ, Auriculariaceæ, and
-Tremellaceæ<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span> have <i>gymnocarpic</i> fruit-bodies, while those of the
-Pilacraceæ, on the contrary, are <i>angiocarpic</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Uredinaceæ (Rusts).</b> All the Rust-Fungi are parasites,
-their mycelium living in the interior of the stems and leaves of their
-hosts, causing red, brown, or black spots&mdash;hence their name&mdash;and
-malformations, sometimes of considerable size.</p>
-
-<p>The Rust-Fungi are gymnocarpic and destitute of a hymenium; for these
-reasons they are regarded as the simplest order of the Basidiomycetes.
-They are entirely parasitic, and their filamentous, branched mycelium
-ramifies in the intercellular spaces of its host, and often protrudes
-haustoria into the cells. The mycelium is perennial should it enter
-a woody tissue; it may also hibernate in the rhizomes of perennial
-herbs and permeate the shoots springing from them, but in the majority
-of the Rust-Fungi the mycelium has a very limited growth. The chief
-means of reproduction of the Rust-Fungi are the <i>chlamydospores</i>,
-which in the more highly developed species occur in three forms,
-namely, the teleuto-, æcidio-, and uredo-spores. The spores, in the
-host, are formed immediately beneath its epidermis, which is ruptured
-on the ripening of the spores, with the production of “rust,” brown,
-red, or black spots. Those chlamydospores which produce basidia
-are termed <i>teleutospores</i>. The spore on germination produces
-a <i>transversely divided basidium</i>, “promycelium,” on which
-basidiospores, “sporidia,” generally four in number, are produced on
-lateral sterigmata. This basidio-fructification is <i>gymnocarpic</i>;
-the basidia neither form a hymenium nor a fruit-body (only
-<i>Cronartium</i> and <i>Gymnosporangium</i> have a slight indication
-of a basidio-fructification).</p>
-
-<p>Many Rust-Fungi, in addition to basidiospores, have small,
-<i>unicellular conidia</i>, “spermatia,” which are borne in
-conidiocarps, “<i>spermogonia</i>.”</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="smaller">TELEUTOSPORES</span> (<i>Winter-spores</i>) may be either
-unicellular or multicellular; in the majority of cases they are
-enclosed in a hard outer cell-wall, the exospore, which in some cases
-is very strongly developed; they have also a long or short stalk, the
-remains of the spore-bearing hypha. Each cell of the teleutospore has
-<i>one germ-pore</i> (a thin portion of the wall, for the protrusion of
-the germ-tube; in <i>Phragmidium</i> and <i>Gymnosporangium</i> there
-are, however, several germ-pores). The colour of the teleutospores is
-generally much darker than that of the uredospores, and it is by these
-that the majority of the Rust-Fungi <i>hibernate</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In <i>Gymnosporangium</i>, two kinds of teleutospores are found
-(distinguished by their size and thickness of exospore). In many
-species of <i>Puccinia</i>, the form of the teleutospores varies
-very much, so that in the same layer spores have been observed
-with the characteristic form of other, allied genera.&mdash;The
-teleutospores of <i>Endophyllum</i> resemble æcidiospores, since
-they are united in chains, whose cells are easily separated, and
-are produced in the interior of a “peridium.” The multicellular
-teleutospores of <i>Coleosporium</i> function as basidia,
-and from each cell immediately produce basidiospores.&mdash;The
-teleutospores of <i>Coleosporium</i> and <i>Chrysomyxa</i>,
-differ from other teleutospores in the absence of exospore and
-germ-pore.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">ÆCIDOSPORES</span> (<i>Spring-spores</i>) are produced in chains
-which are generally enclosed in an <i>envelope</i> of hyphæ, the
-<i>peridium</i>; the <i>peridium</i> enclosing the spores being termed
-the <i>æcidium</i>. The æcidiospores are unicellular, and generally of
-an orange colour; they are often separated by intermediate cells which
-wither and so assist in the distribution of the spores. The exospore is
-made up of minute, radially arranged rods. <i>Generally germination</i>
-proceeds <i>immediately</i>, the æcidiospore producing a germ-tube,
-which developes into a mycelium bearing either uredo- or teleutospores.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The æcidia of many Rust-Fungi were formerly considered
-as distinct genera. The æcidia of <i>Phragmidium</i>,
-<i>Triphragmium</i>, and <i>Melampsora</i>, in which the
-<i>peridium is wanting</i>, were in part considered as
-<i>Cæoma</i>. The æcidia with fimbriate edge, or those
-of <i>Gymnosporangium</i> with longitudinal lattice-like
-splits, were considered as “<i>Rœstelia</i>” (Lattice-Rust);
-large, sac-shaped æcidia on the Coniferæ were known as
-<i>Peridermium</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <span class="smaller">UREDOSPORES</span> (<i>Summer-spores</i>) are unicellular and arise
-singly, seldom in chains (<i>Coleosporium</i>). Their colourless, warty
-exospore bears, <i>in the equatorial plane</i>, 2–8 <i>germ-pores</i>.
-In the majority, <i>germination</i> proceeds <i>immediately</i>, and
-a mycelium is produced which at first gives rise to uredospores and
-afterwards to teleutospores.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The uredospore-formations of <i>Melampsorella</i> and
-<i>Cronartium</i> are enclosed in an <i>envelope</i>, and hence
-resemble æcidia.&mdash;Between the uredospores sterile, unicellular
-hyphæ (paraphyses) may be found.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <i>spermogonia</i> are spherical or pear-shaped
-<i>conidiocarps</i>, generally embedded in the substratum, and
-are produced before the æcidia, before or simultaneously with the
-uredospores, or before the teleutospores. The conidia, as far as
-observations go, do not generally germinate under ordinary conditions.</p>
-
-<p>Among the Rust-Fungi some species are found which only form
-basidiospores and teleutospores (<i>Puccinia malvacearum</i>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span>
-<i>Chrysomyxa abietis</i>). Other species have in addition uredospores;
-others spermogonia and uredospores; others spermogonia and æcidia;
-others spermogonia, uredospores and æcidia. Those species in which all
-the methods of reproduction are not developed must not be considered as
-incomplete forms.</p>
-
-<p>As a rule the mycelium, which is produced from the basidiospores,
-developes æcidia; in the species, however, without æcidia, it
-developes the uredo-form, and when the uredospores are also absent,
-the teleutospore-form. It has been established in some species of
-<i>Puccinia</i> and <i>Uromyces</i> that the formation of æcidia can be
-suppressed, and it is not a necessary part of the cycle of development
-of the species.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The majority of Rust-Fungi hibernate in the teleutospore-form.
-Many species are able to hibernate in the uredospore-form
-(<i>Coleosporium senecionis</i>). Others pass the winter in
-the æcidio-form, and develope æcidia on new hosts (<i>Uromyces
-pisi</i>, on <i>Euphorbia cyparissias</i>; <i>Phragmidium
-subcorticium</i>, on <i>Rosa</i>; <i>Æcidium elatinum</i>, on
-<i>Abies alba</i>). In <i>Chrysomyxa abietis</i>, the mycelium,
-developed from the basidiospores, survives the winter.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Among the Rust-Fungi, with several forms of reproduction, there
-are about sixty whose development can only be completed by an
-<i>alternation of hosts</i>, that is, on one host only uredo-and
-teleutospores are produced, while the further development of the
-germinating basidiospores, and the formation of the æcidia and
-spermogonia from its mycelium, can only take place on a second quite
-distinct and definite host (<i>heterœcious</i> or <i>metoxenous</i>
-Fungi). Those Fungi which have all their forms of reproduction on the
-same host are termed <i>autœcious</i> or <i>autoxenous</i>. It is
-not, however, always necessary that the heterœcious Rust-Fungi should
-regularly change their hosts; for example, <i>Puccinia graminis</i> can
-hibernate in the uredo-form on the wild Grasses, and in the spring can
-distribute itself again in the same form.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>As a consequence of the alternation of hosts the various
-forms of development were considered as independent genera
-(<i>Uredo</i>, <i>Æcidium</i>, <i>Rœstelia</i>, <i>Cæoma</i>,
-<i>Peridermium</i>), until De Bary and Oersted established,
-about the same time (1865), the mutual connection of some forms,
-and paved the way for the right conception of these Fungi.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig146" style="width: 307px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig146.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 146.</span>&mdash;<i>Puccinia graminis</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>As an example of one of the most highly developed species, <i>Puccinia
-graminis</i>, the “Rust of Wheat,” holds a prominent position. Its
-uredospores and teleutospores are produced (Fig. <a href="#fig146">146</a>) on Grasses
-(on cereals, especially Wheat, Rye, Oats, and many wild Grasses),
-while the æcidia and spermogonia are confined to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[149]</span> the Berberidaceæ.
-The teleutospores, developed on the Grasses, hibernate on the dried
-portions of their host, and in the succeeding year each of the two
-cells of the teleutospore may develop a <i>basidium</i> with four
-basidiospores (Fig. <a href="#fig146">146</a> <i>D</i>, <i>c</i>). The basidiospores
-are distributed by the wind, germinate quickly, and only proceed
-to further development on <i>Berberis</i> or <i>Mahonia</i>. The
-germ-tube <i>bores through the epidermis</i> of the Barberry-leaf,
-and forms a mycelium in its interior, its presence being indicated by
-reddish-yellow spots on the leaf. After 6–10 days the flask-shaped
-<i>spermogonia</i> appear (Fig. <a href="#fig147">147</a> <i>B</i>; <i>C</i>, <i>a</i>;
-conidia in Fig. <a href="#fig147">147</a> <i>D</i>) and a few days later the cup-shaped
-<i>æcidia</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig147">147</a> <i>A</i>; <i>C</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>,
-<i>e</i>). The former are generally on the <i>upper</i>, and the latter
-on the <i>under side</i> of the leaf. The orange-coloured æcidiospores
-scatter like dust, and germinate only on Grasses; the germination takes
-place in about two days when placed on any green part of a Grass.
-The germ-tube enters the Grass-leaf through a stoma; a mycelium is
-developed in the leaf, giving rise to a small, oval, rust-coloured spot
-(Fig. <a href="#fig146">146</a> <i>A</i>); in about 6–9 days the epidermis is ruptured over
-the red spot, and numerous reddish-yellow <i>uredospores</i>, formed
-on the mycelium, are set free. The uredospores (Fig. <a href="#fig146">146</a> <i>B</i>) are
-scattered by the wind, and can<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span> germinate should they fall on the green
-portions of other Grasses: they then emit 2–4 germ-tubes through the
-equatorially-placed germ-pores. The germ-tubes enter a leaf through
-a stoma, a new mycelium is then developed, and in about eight days a
-fresh production of uredospores takes place, which germinate as before.
-The uredospore-mycelium very soon produces, in addition, the brown
-<i>teleutospores</i>, which give a brown colour to the rust-coloured
-spots, the familiar uredospores on the cereals being quite suppressed
-towards the close of the summer (Fig. <a href="#fig146">146</a> <i>C, D</i>). The “Rust of
-Wheat” hibernates on some wild Grasses in the uredospore-form.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig147" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig147.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 147.</span>&mdash;<i>Æcidium berberidis</i>. <i>A</i>
-Portion of lower surface of leaf of Barberry, with cluster-cups
-(æcidia). <i>B</i> A small portion of leaf, with spermogonia, from
-above. <i>C</i> Transverse section of leaf on the upper side, in
-the palisade parenchyma are three spermogonia (<i>a b</i>); on the
-lower side an unripe æcidium (<i>c d</i>) and two ripe æcidia (<i>d,
-e, f</i>); <i>f</i> chain of æcidiospores. <i>D</i> Hyphæ, forming
-conidia.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Genera</span>. <i>Puccinia</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig146">146</a>, <a href="#fig147">147</a>) has bicellular
-teleutospores, each having a germ-pore, and the æcidia
-when present have an indented peridium; some species, as
-exceptions, have 1–3-celled teleutospores. Many species are
-<span class="allsmcap">HETERŒCIOUS</span>, for example, <i>P. graminis</i>, described
-above; <i>P. rubigo</i>, which also infests various Grasses,
-but whose æcidia appear on <i>Anchusa</i>; the masses of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[151]</span>
-teleutospores are small; they contain paraphyses, and are for a
-long time covered by the epidermis. <i>P. coronata</i>, on Oats
-and Rye Grass; its æcidia on <i>Rhamnus</i>; the teleutospores
-are surmounted by a crown&mdash;“coronate processes.” <i>P.
-phragmitis</i>, on Reeds; æcidia on species of <i>Rumex</i> and
-<i>Rheum</i>. <i>P. moliniæ</i>, on <i>Molinia cœrulea</i>;
-the æcidia on Orchids. <i>P. poarum</i>, on Meadow-Grass;
-æcidia on <i>Tussilago</i>. Various Puccinias growing on
-species of <i>Carex</i> have their æcidia on <i>Urtica</i>,
-<i>Lysimachia</i>, <i>Cirsium</i>, <i>Pedicularis</i>, etc.&mdash;Of
-those <span class="allsmcap">AUTŒCIOUS</span> species, which have all their
-generations on the same host, may be noted:&mdash;<i>P. galii</i>,
-<i>P. menthæ</i>, <i>P. violæ</i>, <i>P. epilobii</i>, <i>P.
-asparagi</i>, which grow on the hosts from which they have
-taken their specific names.&mdash;As representative of a group
-which have spermogonia, uredo-and teleutospores on the same
-host, but on different individuals, <i>P. suaveolens</i>, on
-the Field-Thistle, may be mentioned. The spermogonia have a
-strong odour.&mdash;A peculiar group (<i>Leptopuccinia</i>) has
-only teleutospores, which germinate immediately, and whilst
-still attached to their living host. To this group belong
-<i>P. arenariæ</i>, on a number of Caryophyllaceæ; and <i>P.
-malvacearum</i>, on various Malvaceæ, introduced in 1873 from
-South America to Europe, where it soon proved very destructive
-to Hollyhocks.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Uromyces</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig149">149</a>) differs only from <i>Puccinia</i> in
-always having unicellular teleutospores. Among this genus both
-heterœcious and autœcious species are found. To the first group
-belong <i>U. pisi</i>, whose æcidia are found on <i>Euphorbia
-cyparissias</i>, and <i>U. dactylidis</i>, whose æcidia appear
-on <i>Ranunculus</i>; to the second group belong <i>U. betæ</i>,
-<i>U. phaseoli</i>, <i>U. trifolii</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Triphragmium</i> has teleutospores with three cells (one
-below and two above), on <i>Spiræa ulmaria</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Phragmidium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig150">150</a>) has teleutospores consisting of
-a row of cells (3–10) arranged in a straight line; the upper
-cell has one germ-pore and the others four germ-pores placed
-equatorially. Both this and the preceding genus have large,
-irregular æcidia without peridia, but often with bent, club-like
-paraphyses (150 <i>b</i> and <i>c</i>); they are all autœcious,
-and are only found on the Rosaceæ.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig148" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig148.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 148.</span>&mdash;<i>Gymnosporangium sabinæ</i>. A
-small portion of the epidermis of a Pear-leaf (<i>a</i>) pierced at
-<i>b</i> by the germinating basidiospore (<i>c</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig149" style="width: 380px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig149.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 149.</span>&mdash;<i>Uromyces genisteæ</i>; <i>a</i>
-uredospore; <i>b</i> teleutospore.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Endophyllum</i> (see above, under teleutospores, p. <a href="#Page_147">147</a>) on
-species of <i>Sempervivum</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Gymnosporangium</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig152">152</a>, <a href="#fig154">154</a>) has bicellular
-teleutospores collected in large, gelatinous masses formed
-by the swelling of the long spore-stalks; in each cell 2–4
-germ-pores are found. Uredospores are wanting. All the species
-are heterœcious; the teleutospores appear on <i>Juniperus</i>,
-the æcidia (<i>Rœstelia</i>) on the Pomaceæ. <i>G. sabinæ</i>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[152]</span>
-on <i>Juniperus sabina</i>, <i>J. virginiana</i>, etc., has the
-æcidia (“<i>Rœstelia cancellata</i>”) on <i>Pyrus communis</i>
-(Figs. <a href="#fig152">152</a>, <a href="#fig148">148</a>); <i>G. juniperinum</i>, on <i>Juniperus
-communis</i> with “<i>Rœstelia cornuta</i>” (Fig. <a href="#fig154">154</a>
-<i>a</i>) on <i>Sorbus aucuparia</i>, <i>Aria nivea</i> (<i>S.
-aria</i>) and <i>Malus communis</i>; <i>G. clavariæforme</i>
-on <i>Juniperus communis</i>, the æcidium belonging to it
-(“<i>Rœstelia lacerata</i>”) on <i>Cratægus oxyacantha</i>.</p>
-
-<p><i>Melampsora</i> has prismatic teleutospores placed parallel
-to each other and forming a crustaceous layer; in many species
-they are divided longitudinally into several cells (Fig.
-<a href="#fig151">151</a>). The æcidia, without peridium, belonged to the old genus
-<i>Cæoma</i>. <i>M. caprearum</i>, on Willows, has the æcidia
-(<i>Cæoma euonymi</i>) on <i>Euonymus</i>. <i>M. hartigii</i>,
-on Osiers; the æcidium on <i>Ribes</i>. <i>M. mixta</i>, on
-<i>Salix repens</i> and Orchids. <i>M. pinitorqua</i>, on leaves
-of the Aspen, æcidia on Pine branches (Pine shoot fungus); <i>M.
-populina</i> on <i>Populus monilifera</i> and <i>nigra</i>;
-<i>M. betulina</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig153">153</a>), on Birch leaves; <i>M. padi</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig151">151</a>), on leaves of <i>Prunus padus</i>, developes
-teleutospores in the epidermal cells; <i>M. lini</i> is the
-cause of injury to the Flax; <i>M. agrimoniæ</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig150" style="width: 458px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig150.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 150.</span>&mdash;<i>Phragmidium gracile</i>: <i>a</i>
-an uredospore; <i>b</i> and <i>c</i> two paraphyses; <i>d</i> a
-young teleutospore; <i>e</i> a teleutospore with a basidium and two
-basidiospores (<i>s</i>); <i>f</i> two series of æcidiospores (<i>Ph.
-rosæ</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Calyptospora gœppertiana</i>; teleutospores on <i>Vaccinium
-vitis idæa</i>; spermogonia and æcidia on <i>Abies alba</i>
-(Firneedle-Rust).</p>
-
-<p><i>Coleosporium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig155">155</a>) forms its uredospores in
-reddish-yellow chains; for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[153]</span> the teleutospores, see page
-<a href="#Page_147">147</a>. <i>C. senecionis</i>, on the Groundsel; its æcidium
-(<i>Peridermium wolffii</i>) on Pine-leaves (Fig. <a href="#fig155">155</a> a). Other
-species on <i>Sonchus</i>, <i>Petasites</i>, <i>Campanula</i>,
-<i>Rhinanthaceæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p><i>Chrysomyxa</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig156">156</a>) has bright red, branched
-teleutospore-chains; each spore developes a 4-celled basidium.
-<i>C. ledi</i>, on <i>Ledum palustre</i>; its æcidia on the
-leaves of the Fir. <i>C. abietis</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig156">156</a>), without
-uredo-and æcidiospores; teleutospores on the leaves of the Fir.
-In the first summer, yellow bands are formed on the leaves, and
-in the following spring the red cushions of spores.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig151" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig151.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 151.</span>&mdash;<i>Melampsora padi</i>: <i>a</i> and
-<i>b</i> uredospores; <i>c-f</i> teleutospores, seen from different sides.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig152" style="width: 332px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig152.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 152.</span>&mdash;Pear-leaf, seen from the under
-side, with “<i>Rœstelia cancellata</i>”: in different ages (<i>a</i>
-youngest, <i>d</i> oldest).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig153" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig153.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 153.</span>&mdash;<i>Melampsora betulina</i>: <i>a</i>
-uredospores; <i>b</i> three contiguous teleutospores, one of which has
-developed a basidium with three basidiospores. (× 400.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig154" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig154.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 154.</span>&mdash;<i>Gymnosporanginum juniperinum</i>:
-<i>a</i> a small leaf with three clusters of æcidia (nat. size);
-<i>b</i> three conidia; <i>c</i> two æcidiospores on one of which are
-seen the germ-pores; <i>d</i> a portion of the wall of an æcidium;
-<i>e</i>, <i>f</i> two teleutospores.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig155" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig155.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 155.</span>&mdash;<i>Coleosporium senecionis</i>:
-<i>a</i> Pine-leaves with æcidia (<i>Peridermium wolffii</i>) nat.
-size; <i>b</i> an æcidiospore; <i>c</i> a germinating æcidiospore;
-<i>d</i> a chain of uredospores; <i>e</i> a chain of teleutospores
-of which the terminal one has germinated and produced a basidiospore (<i>s</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[154]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Cronartium</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig157">157</a>, <a href="#fig159">159</a>) has unicellular teleutospores
-united in numbers to form erect threads or columns; the
-uredospores are enclosed in a “peridium”; <i>C. ribicola</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig157">157</a>), on leaves of Ribes (especially Black Currants); its
-æcidia (<i>Peridermium strobi</i>, or <i>P. klebahni</i>) on
-the stems and branches of <i>Pinus strobus</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[155]</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig159">159</a>),
-on which it causes great damage; <i>C. asclepiadeum</i>, on
-<i>Vincetoxicum officinale</i>; its æcidia (<i>Peridermium
-cornui</i>) on the stems and branches of <i>Pinus silvestris</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig156" style="width: 306px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig156.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 156.</span>&mdash;<i>Chrysomyxa abietis</i>: <i>a</i>
-leaf of the Fir, with 5 clusters of basidiospores (× 4); <i>b</i>
-branched rows of teleutospores springing from the mycelium (<i>m</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig157" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig157.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 157.</span>&mdash;<i>Cronartium ribicola</i>: <i>a</i>
-mass of uredospores (× 50); <i>b</i> an uredospore; <i>c</i> a column
-of teleutospores (× 60); <i>d</i> a small portion of the same more
-highly magnified, with a basidium and two basidiospores (<i>s</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>To the Fungi of which the æcidium is known, whilst the remaining
-forms are still undetermined, but which are without doubt
-heterœcious, belong <i>Æcidium elatinum</i>, which produces
-the enormous “witches’ brooms” and barrel-shaped swellings
-on stems and branches of <i>Abies alba</i>; and <i>Æcidium
-strobilinum</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig158">158</a>), which attacks Fir-cones, causing all
-the scales to become covered with clusters of æcidia opening
-by a lid. <i>Hemileia vastatrix</i> destroyed the coffee
-plantations in Asia.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig158" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig158.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 158.</span>&mdash;<i>Æcidium strobilinum</i>: <i>a</i>
-scale of cone of <i>Picea excelsa</i>, with numerous æcidia; <i>b</i>
-æcidiospores arranged in a series; <i>c</i> a cell of the peridium.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Auriculariaceæ.</b> The <i>long, transversely divided</i>
-basidia bear laterally 4 <i>long sterigmata</i> with basidiospores
-(Fig. <a href="#fig160">160</a> <i>B</i>) and are united to form an <i>hymenium</i> on the
-surface of the fruit-body. Parasites or saprophytes.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[156]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Auricularia sambucina</i> (<i>Auricula judæ</i>), Judas’-ear,
-has large fruit-bodies, which may attain the size of several
-inches, resembling an ear or a mussel shell. In the moist
-condition they are flesh-coloured, tough and gelatinous, but
-when dried, become hard, grey and wrinkled; the exterior is
-covered with short hairs; while the internal surface bears
-the hymenium. Habitat: stems and branches of old Elder-trees
-(<i>Sambucus</i>).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Tremellaceæ.</b> The <i>round, pear-shaped, longitudinally
-divided basidia</i> bear 4 <i>elongated sterigmata</i>, situated
-apically, and 4 basidiospores (Fig. <a href="#fig160">160</a> <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>), and are
-united into the <i>hymenium</i> on the surface of the fruit-body.
-The fruit-bodies are frequently gelatinous and quivering; similar
-fruit-bodies are also found in the Dacryomycetaceæ and Hydnaceæ. Simple
-conidiophores, which appear not infrequently in the basidiocarps,
-before the basidia, are known in many species. Saprophytes.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig159" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig159.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 159.</span>&mdash;<i>Peridermium strobi</i>: æcidia of
-<i>Cronartium ribicola</i> (nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig160" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig160.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 160.</span>&mdash;<i>B Auricularia
-sambucina</i>: <i>a-d</i> basidia in various stages of development;
-<i>e</i> a sterigma bearing a spore.&mdash;<i>C Tremella
-lutescens</i>: <i>a-d</i> basidia seen from various sides (<i>b</i>
-from above) and in various stages of development; <i>e</i> sterigma
-with basidiospore (× 400). <i>D Exidia glandulosa</i>:
-<i>a-c</i> various stages in the development of a basidium; <i>d</i>
-sterigma with basidiospore (× 350).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Exidia</i> has kidney-shaped, oblong basidiospores,
-and small, hook-like conidia; <i>E. glandulosa</i>, <i>E.
-albida</i>, etc., on wood.&mdash;<i>Craterocolla</i> has
-conidiocarps; <i>C. cerasi</i> on Cherry-wood.&mdash;<i>Sebacina
-incrustans</i>; the yellow, fleshy, or cartilaginous
-fruit-bodies are found in autumn covering the ground in
-moist woods.&mdash;<i>Tremella</i> has round basidiospores;
-<i>T. mesenterica</i> has irregularly-folded,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[157]</span> quivering,
-orange fruit-bodies, about one inch in breadth; <i>T.
-lutescens</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig161">161</a>) has orange-yellow conidial-and yellow
-basidial-layers; <i>T. frondosa</i> has fruit-bodies upwards of
-a foot in breadth.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Pilacraceæ.</b> The <i>transversely divided basidia</i>
-have <i>no sterigmata</i>, but sessile basidiospores, and fill up the
-cavity of a <i>closed</i> (<i>angiocarpic</i>) <i>fruit-body</i> as a
-gleba without a regular arrangement (hymenium wanting).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Pilacre fagi</i> on the old stems of the Copper-Beech; <i>P.
-petersii</i>, on dried branches of the Hornbeam, has stalked,
-capitate fruit-bodies.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig161" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig161.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 161.</span>&mdash;<i>Tremella lutescens</i>: I and II
-fruit-bodies (nat. size); III vertical section through a fruit-body;
-<i>b</i> basidia; <i>c</i> conidia; IV-VI basidia; VII basidiospore
-with a second spore; VIII a basidiospore with yeast-like budding
-(cultivated); IX a conidiophore. (III-IX about 400.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h5>Series 2. <b>Autobasidiomycetes.</b></h5>
-
-<p>This second and larger part of the Basidiomycetes is characterised
-by its more highly differentiated, <i>undivided</i>, club-shaped,
-or cylindrical basidia, which generally bear 4 (seldom 2, 6, 8)
-apically-placed sterigmata and basidiospores (Fig. <a href="#fig145">145</a>). The
-fruit-bodies are partly <i>gymnocarpic</i> (in the first 3 orders and
-in some Agaricaceæ), partly <i>hemiangiocarpic</i> (in orders 3–6 of
-the Hymenomycetes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[158]</span> and in the Phalloideæ, the fruit-bodies in these
-orders are in the young conditions more or less angiocarpic, but later
-on generally open below and bear the hymenium on the under surface of
-the fruit-body), partly also <i>angiocarpic</i> (in the Gasteromycetes).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig162" style="width: 683px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig162.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 162.</span>&mdash;<i>Dacryomyces deliquescens</i>: I
-fruit-body (nat. size); II vertical section through the hymenium; III
-germinating basidiospore; IV a portion of mycelium with conidia; V a
-germinating conidium; VI and VII chains of oidia more or less strongly
-magnified; VIII basidiospore of <i>D. longisporus</i>; IX germinating
-basidiospore of <i>D. ovisporus</i>; X and XI <i>Calocera viscosa</i>;
-X fruit-body (nat. size); XI basidia with basidiospores (highly
-magnified); XII <i>Dacryomitra glossoides</i> (nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[159]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 1. <b>Dacryomycetes.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The <i>long, club-shaped basidia</i> bear <i>two tapering
-sterigmata</i>, which develope remarkably large basidiospores (Fig. <a href="#fig162">162</a>
-II, XI) and form <i>gymnocarpic</i> fruit-bodies with hymenium. 1 order:</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Dacryomycetaceæ.</b> This order comprises 4 genera of
-which the first two develope the hymenium on the whole surface of the
-fruit-body, but the two last only on its apex.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Dacryomyces</i>: the folded, gelatinous, <i>Tremella</i>-like
-fruit-bodies break out in winter on dried wood (hedges) in the
-form of red or yellow drops. <i>D. deliquescens</i> is very
-common (Fig. <a href="#fig121">121</a>). The following genera have cartilaginous
-fruit-bodies.&mdash;<i>Calocera</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig162">162</a>), with club-like,
-simple, or branched, <i>Clavaria</i>-like, fruit-bodies;
-the orange coloured fruit-bodies of <i>C. viscosa</i> grow
-aggregated together on the wood of Conifers.&mdash;<i>Guepinia</i>
-resembles a <i>Peziza</i>, and has the hymenium only on
-the hollow upper surface.&mdash;<i>Dacryomitra</i> resembles a
-<i>Mitrula</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig162">162</a>).</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 2. <b>Hymenomycetes.</b></h4>
-
-<p>This family is very rich in species (more than 8000 have been
-described), and to it belong all the “Mushrooms” and “Toadstools.” The
-<i>fruit-bodies</i> present very various forms; they are generally
-fleshy, very perishable, seldom leathery or corky, in the last case
-often perennial. The <i>basidia</i> are more or less <i>cylindrical</i>
-and bear <i>generally</i> 4 (seldom 2, 6 or 8) <i>sterigmata and
-basidiospores</i>. The hymenium in the fully-formed fruit-bodies lies
-free on the surface: in orders 1 and 2 and a portion of order 6 it is
-from the commencement exposed, fruit-bodies <i>gymnocarpic</i>; orders
-3–6 have <i>hemiangiocarpic</i> fruit-bodies (p. <a href="#Page_157">157</a>). In the first
-order the basidia (or the hymenium) are developed immediately from
-the mycelium (Fig. <a href="#fig163">163</a>); the fruit-bodies of orders 2 and 3 present a
-higher grade of development, and have between the mycelium and hymenium
-a special hyphal-tissue, a <i>stroma</i>, which is crustaceous,
-club-like, or coralloid, etc., and in general bears the hymenium
-on the largest part of the free, smooth surface. In the forms most
-highly developed (orders 4–6) a new tissue&mdash;the <i>hymenophore</i>&mdash;is
-introduced between the stroma and hymenium, which appears on the under
-side of the fruit-body in the form of warts, projections, tubes,
-folds or lamellæ (Figs. <a href="#fig166">166</a>, <a href="#fig167">167</a>, <a href="#fig174">174</a> <i>bc</i>). <i>Paraphyses</i>
-are frequently found in the hymenium, among the basidia. In the
-Hymenomycetes few examples of <i>conidia</i> can be recognised at
-first. More frequently <i>chlamydospores</i> are found, particularly
-<i>oidia</i>. The <i>mycelium</i> is richly branched, generally
-colourless, often perennial; it lives in humus or decaying wood, and
-is seldom parasitic.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[160]</span> The hyphæ generally have clamp-connections and
-unite, sometimes, to form a rhizomorpha (Fig. <a href="#fig177">177</a>) or sclerotia with
-coloured, pseudo-parenchymatous covering.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig163" style="width: 581px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig163.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 163.</span>&mdash;<i>Exobasidium vaccinii.</i> I
-Hypertrophied stem of <i>Vaccinium vitis idæa</i>; II leaf with
-gall-like swelling; III section of II; IV transverse section: <i>m</i>
-mycelium between the parenchymatous cells; <i>p</i> hypodermal cells;
-<i>e</i> epidermis with basidia in various stages of development; V
-epidermis with germinating spores; VI and VII spores germinating in
-water (IV-VII × 620).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[161]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Tomentellaceæ.</b> To this order belong the simplest of
-the Hymenomycetes. The basidia (Fig. <a href="#fig145">145</a>) arise free and irregularly
-from the mycelium; a <i>hymenium</i> is <i>entirely absent</i> or
-<i>very slightly formed</i> (in <i>Corticium</i> it attains its highest
-development); <i>fruit-bodies</i> are <i>also wanting</i>.&mdash;In general
-they form flaky, membranous or leathery coverings on bark and wood.
-Some are parasites.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Hypochnus</i> without conidia.&mdash;<i>Tomentella</i> with
-conidiophores; growing on wood or earth.&mdash;<i>Exobasidium
-vaccinii</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig163">163</a>), a parasite on <i>Vaccinium</i>,
-<i>Andromeda</i>, <i>Arctostaphylos</i>, and
-<i>Rhododendron</i>, forms flaky-powdery, white or red coverings
-and may cause hypertrophy of the parts attacked. <i>E.
-warmingii</i> is parasitic on <i>Saxifraga</i>; <i>E. lauri</i>
-causes outgrowths on the stem of <i>Laurus canariensis</i>
-as long as a finger, which formerly were regarded as aerial
-roots.&mdash;<i>Corticium</i> forms membranous to leathery layers or
-crusts; <i>C. quercinum</i> on wood and bark, particularly Oak,
-is flesh-coloured; <i>C. cæruleum</i> has a blue hymenium; <i>C.
-giganteum</i> on the bark of fallen Pine-trees.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Clavariaceæ.</b> The hymenium is situated on a stroma, and
-either completely <i>covers the smooth surface</i> of the more or less
-fleshy <i>gymnocarpic fruit-body</i>, or is confined to a tolerably
-well defined <i>upper portion</i> of it (<i>Typhula</i>). Paraphyses
-absent. The vertical, white, yellow, or red fruit-bodies are roundish
-or club-like, undivided or richly branched (Fig. <a href="#fig125">125</a>). Generally on the
-ground in woods, seldom on tree-stems, etc.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig164" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig164.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 164.</span>&mdash;<i>Clavaria coralloides</i> (nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Genera</span>: <i>Clavaria</i>, generally large Fungi with
-thick, round branches. <i>C. botrytis</i> has a very thick,
-tubercular stem with numerous short, flesh-coloured branches:
-it has an agreeable taste. <i>C. coralloides</i> has a brittle,
-richly-branched fruit-body (Fig. <a href="#fig164">164</a>); basidia with two large
-spores. <i>C. pistillaris</i> consists of a single, undivided
-club of a yellowish-white colour.&mdash;<i>Sparassis</i> has
-compressed, leaf-like, curled branches; <i>S. crispa</i> has
-fruit-bodies as large as a white cabbage-head, with an agreeable
-taste.&mdash;<i>Typhula</i> and <i>Pistillaria</i> are small Fungi
-with filamentous stalks, terminating in a small club. The
-fruit-bodies of the former often arise from a small, spheroid
-sclerotium; the latter is distinguished by the basidia bearing
-only two spores.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[162]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Thelephoraceæ.</b> The hymenium is placed on a stroma and
-<i>covers the smooth surface</i> of the leathery <i>hemiangiocarpic
-fruit-body</i>, generally <i>on its under side</i>. The edge of the
-stroma, which bounds the hymenium, is sometimes especially developed
-(<i>Stereum</i>). Saprophytes.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Genera</span>: <i>Thelephora</i>. The fruit-bodies in this
-genus are brown, very irregularly shaped, and often lobed. The
-spores too are brown, but in the other genera colourless. The
-species are found growing on barren soil. <i>T. laciniata</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig165">165</a>) has imbricate, semicircular, dark-brown pileus,
-which is jagged at the edge and upper surface. The fruit-bodies
-are very often raised above the ground, and although this
-species is not a parasite, yet it destroys young seedlings
-by growing above and smothering them.&mdash;<i>Stereum</i> has a
-stiffer fruit-body, with a distinct, fibrous, intermediate
-layer. It grows on bark and wood, projecting like a series of
-imbricate brackets. <i>S. hirsutum</i> is yellow; its free edge
-is provided with a number of stiff hairs, the upper surface
-being divided into a number of zones. <i>S. purpureum</i> has
-a red-violet hymenium which distinguishes it from the previous
-species.&mdash;<i>Cyphella</i> has a membranous cup- or bell-shaped
-fruit-body, often borne on a stalk, the concave surface being
-covered with the hymenium. They are small, white Fungi, growing
-on Moss and dead stems.&mdash;<i>Solenia</i> is closely related to
-<i>Cyphella</i>; its fruit-bodies are smaller and hairy; they
-are found clustered together forming a crust-like covering
-on dead wood.&mdash;<i>Craterellus</i> has a large, funnel-shaped
-fruit-body, the hymenium covering the external surface. <i>C.
-cornucopioides</i> is shaped like a trumpet or a “horn of
-plenty.” It is dark-grey, several inches in height, and grows
-gregariously on the ground in forests. It is distinguished by
-the basidia bearing only two sterigmata.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig165" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig165.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 165.</span>&mdash;<i>Thelephora laciniata</i> (nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Hydnaceæ.</b> The fruit-body is most frequently fleshy, and
-varies considerably in shape, the simplest forms being resupinate,<a id="FNanchor_14" href="#Footnote_14" class="fnanchor">[14]</a>
-the higher ones umbrella-like. The <i>hymenophore</i> is found on the
-free or downward-turned surface, and always takes the <i>form of soft
-emergences</i> hanging vertically downwards. The emergencies may be
-thorn-, awl-, or wart-like. The species are found growing on the soil
-and on dead wood.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Genera</span>: <i>Hydnum</i> has subulate, distinct
-emergences. <i>H. repandum</i> is yellow, the stalk being
-placed in the centre of the pileus. It is an edible<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[163]</span> species,
-and often forms “fairy rings” in woods. <i>H. auriscalpium</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig166">166</a>) is dark-brown, with stalk placed at the edge of
-the pileus. It grows on old Fir-cones. <i>H. erinaceus</i>
-grows on old tree-trunks. The fruit-body is yellow and very
-large&mdash;as big as a human head&mdash;with emergences as much as
-an inch in length.&mdash;<i>Irpex</i> has a leathery fruit-body,
-partly resupinate, partly with free, projecting edge; the
-under side bears tooth-like emergences which are arranged
-in rows, and <i>Irpex</i> thus forms a transition to the
-Agaricaceæ.&mdash;<i>Phlebia</i> is entirely resupinate, with
-radially-arranged folds on the free side, and pectinate border.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig166" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig166.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 166.</span>&mdash;<i>Hydnum auriscalpium</i>, upon a
-Fir-cone, in different stages of development.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Polyporaceæ (Pore-Fungi).</b> An order very rich in
-species (about 2000 species are described). The fruit-body is of very
-different forms&mdash;resupinate, projecting like a bracket, hoof-like, or
-umbrella-shaped. In some it is fleshy and edible, in others leathery
-or corky, persisting for several years. The hymenophore is situated
-on the under side of the fruit-body, and consists of wide or narrow
-<i>tubes</i> or <i>pores</i>, whose inner surface is clothed with the
-hymenium (Fig. <a href="#fig167">167</a>). In some fruit-bodies large cavities are to be
-found, which have arisen as interstices between the labyrinthine curved
-and reticulate folds. Chlamydospores are known in some species. Conidia
-occur very rarely. Many species work considerable damage: some as
-parasites on trees, others by destroying timber.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig167" style="width: 512px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig167.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 167.</span>&mdash;<i>Polyporus igniarius.</i> Section
-through the under side of the Fungus: <i>h-h</i> is hyphal-tissue
-between the tubes, formed by irregularly felted hyphæ, many of which
-are seen cut across; <i>s</i> is the hymenium which covers the walls of
-the tubes, and from which the basidia with the spores protrude.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Genera.</span> <i>Polyporus</i> (Pore-Fungus). The tubes are
-narrow, accurately fitted together, and forming a thick layer
-on the under side of the fruit-body, appearing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[164]</span> as a number of
-fine holes. The fruit-body most frequently resembles a bracket,
-or is hoof-shaped, with one side growing from a tree-trunk; it
-is very often perennial, and a new layer of tubes arises in
-each succeeding period of vegetation. Strata, corresponding to
-the periodically interrupted growth, are thus formed in storeys
-one above the other, and are visible on the upper surface of
-the fruit-body, as well as in the interior, as a series of
-concentric belts, sometimes as many as half a score or more
-in number. <i>P. fomentarius</i> (Touchwood) attacks trees,
-especially the Beech. The spores germinate on wounds from broken
-branches, and the hyphæ, following the course of the medullary
-rays, find their way into the interior of the tree, from whence
-the mycelium spreads upwards, downwards, and peripherally, so
-that the wood becomes rotten (“white-rot”) and thick felts of
-mycelium are formed in radial and tangential directions. A dark
-line, caused by the youngest parts of the hyphæ containing a
-brown juice, marks the boundary between the rotten and the
-unattacked parts of the stem (Fig. <a href="#fig168">168</a>); at places where the
-mycelium extends to the bark, the cambium becomes destroyed and
-further growth is arrested, so that longitudinal furrows arise
-on the stem. It is at these places, too, that the hoof-shaped,
-ash-coloured fruit-bodies are developed, which may attain
-a circumference of upwards of 7 feet. The interior of the
-fruit-body consists of a dried-up, loosely felted, red-brown
-mass of hyphæ, which has been used for tinder and as a styptic
-(“Fungus chirurgorum”). <i>P. igniarius</i> has a harder,
-dark-brown, more rounded fruit-body; it grows in a similar
-manner, but especially attacks Oaks, Poplars, and Plum-trees,
-the wood of which becomes rotten, and is called touchwood. <i>P.
-pini</i> (<i>Trametes pini</i>), (Fig. <a href="#fig170">170</a>), a parasite on the
-stems of <i>Pinus</i>, causes a kind of “red-rot” in the stem.
-<i>P. sulphureus</i> has a soft, cheesy, yellow fruit-body; it
-produces “rot” in Oaks and Apple-trees. <i>P. officinalis</i>,
-Larch-fungus (“Fungus Laricis” in Pharmocopœia), grows on
-Larch-trees in the south-east of Europe. <i>P. versicolor</i>
-has thin, semicircular<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[165]</span> fruit-bodies, with zones of various
-colours on the upper side; it is one of the most frequent
-species on tree-stems. <i>P. frondosus</i> grows on soil in
-woods, and consists of numerous aggregated fruit-bodies, which
-become very large and fleshy. This species is edible. <i>P.
-perennis</i> also grows on the soil in woods; it is very
-leathery, with central stalk, and has concentric zones on the
-upper surface of the fruit-body. <i>P. vaporarius</i> destroys
-the wood of living Pines (<i>Pinus silvestris</i>) and Firs
-(<i>Picea excelsa</i>), causing it to become red-brown; in
-timber this Fungus causes “red-strip” followed by a “dry-rot.”
-<i>P. squamosus</i> destroys many Walnut-trees, and is also
-very destructive to Limes and Elms. <i>P. fulvus</i> causes a
-“white-rot” in <i>Abies alba</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig168" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig168.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 168.</span>&mdash;Section of stem of a Beech attacked
-by <i>P. fomentarius</i>: <i>a</i> non-attacked parts of the stem;
-<i>b</i> the furrows where the mycelium has reached the bark, and where
-the thick mycelium-strands reach the exterior (⅙th of the nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig169" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig169.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 169.</span>&mdash;Base of a Fir-tree, with a number of
-fruit-bodies of <i>Heterobasidion annosum</i> just beneath the surface
-of the soil, indicated by the dotted line (¼th nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig170" style="width: 473px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig170.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 170.</span>&mdash;A fully developed fruit-body of
-<i>Polyporus pini</i> (<i>Trametes pini</i>), lateral view (nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Heterobasidion annosum</i> (<i>Polyporus annosus</i>,
-<i>Trametes radiciperda</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig169">169</a>) is characterized by its
-<i>Aspergillus</i>-like conidiophores. It is a parasite on
-the Pine, Fir, Birch, Beech, etc.,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[166]</span> and is the chief cause of
-a root-disease (red-rot) in Pines and Firs; the fruit-bodies
-develope a large number of basidiospores; they may be very large
-and are found just beneath the surface of the soil (on living or
-dead roots), and exposed to the air (on felled stems and roots,
-in Scandinavia).</p>
-
-<p><i>Ptychogaster</i> has cushion-like fruit-bodies, which
-consist chiefly of chlamydospore-chains, formed of ellipsoidal
-spores, which alternate with short hyphæ having transverse
-septa and clamp-connections. The hymenial portion is limited
-to a small group of tubes. <i>Pt. albus</i> (<i>Oligorus
-ustilaginoides</i>) grows on stumps of Conifers and forms
-irregular cushions, at first white and later on brown, which
-consist almost entirely of chlamydospores.</p>
-
-<p><i>Boletus</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig171">171</a>) has a fleshy fruit-body resembling
-a common Mushroom, with central stalk. The layer of tubes is
-easily detached from the pileus, and the tubes are easily
-separable from one another. They grow on the ground in woods.
-Edible species are: <i>B. edulis</i>, with thick, reticulate
-stalk; <i>B. scaber</i>, with thin stalk and rough pileus;
-<i>B. luteus</i>, with a ring on the stalk. <i>B. luridus</i>
-is poisonous, its tubes have red openings, and the flesh turns
-quickly blue when broken and exposed to the air.</p>
-
-<p><i>Fistulina hepatica</i> (Beef-steak Fungus), has a red,
-fleshy, edible fruit-body, with red juice. The tubes are
-individually distinct; conidia are also developed. Grows on old
-Oaks.</p>
-
-<p><i>Merulius lacrymans</i> (“Dry-rot”) has a resupinate
-fruit-body with white, cotton-like border, and the remaining
-portions covered by reticulate, ramified veins of a rust-brown
-colour. In favourable vegetative conditions it is fleshy and
-exudes large drops of water&mdash;hence its specific name and also
-the name “Tear Fungus.” The mycelium is at first colourless,
-and then yellow-brown; when dry it is tough and leathery. It
-destroys the timber in damp houses, extends far and wide over
-boards and beams and even over the masonry, giving rise to a
-disagreeable smell in the rooms in which it lodges. In woods
-the Fungus lives on Pine-stems. It is brought from the forest
-on the logs of timber, and is distributed from log to log by
-the mycelium and the basidiospores. The living mycelium can be
-recognised by the clamp-connections shooting out branches. The
-basidiospores are often ejected a distance of a metre; they are
-elliptical (10–11µ long and 5–6µ broad), and germinate easily
-on damp wood, or in fruit-juice which has been neutralized with
-urine or alkaline carbonates.</p>
-
-<p><i>Dædalea</i> (Labyrinth Fungus), has bracket-like, corky
-fruit-bodies with irregularly-folded plates or discs on the
-under side. It forms a transition to the Agaricaceæ. <i>D.
-quercina</i> is frequent on Oak-stumps.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig171" style="width: 300px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig171.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 171.</span>&mdash;<i>Boletus edulis</i> (about ¼th):
-<i>b</i> longitudinal section of a portion of the pileus.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Agaricaceæ</b> (<b>Mushrooms</b>, <b>Toadstools</b>).
-<i>The hymenophore consists</i> of knife-like plates (<i>lamellæ</i>,
-<i>gills</i>), which are situated on the under side of the
-umbrella-like pileus of the fruit-body,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[167]</span> and radiate from the central
-stalk. Those which are first formed extend from the edge of the pileus
-to the stalk; those formed later reach only a longer or shorter portion
-of this distance, according to their age. In structure the lamellæ
-(Fig. <a href="#fig174">174</a>) consist of a central mass of hyphæ, the <i>trama</i>,
-continuous with the hyphæ of the pileus; these terminate in a layer of
-shorter cells, the <i>subhymenial layer</i>, immediately beneath the
-hymenium which is composed of basidia and paraphyses. In a few species,
-but not in the majority, the lamellæ are branched, and in some they
-are decurrent. A few have the stalk placed excentrically, or it may be
-entirely absent.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig172" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig172.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 172.</span>&mdash;Development of <i>Psalliota
-campestris</i>: <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i> show the
-various stages of the development of the fruit-bodies and the mycelium
-(<i>m</i>) (nat. size); <i>e</i> the fruit-body in a somewhat later
-stage, slightly magnified; <i>f</i> longitudinal section of <i>e</i>;
-<i>n</i> first formation of the hymenium; <i>g</i> longitudinal section
-of a more advanced fruit-body (nat. size); <i>n</i> the hymenium;
-<i>o</i> velum partiale (see Fig. <a href="#fig133">133</a>.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>In the early stages of its development the fruit-body is more or less
-enclosed in a hyphal tissue&mdash;the “veil” (<i>velum universale</i>,
-or <i>volva</i>). The veil at first completely encloses the young
-fruit-body, but is afterwards ruptured as the latter grows, part
-remaining at the base of the stalk as the “sheath” (<i>annulus
-inferus</i>), and part on the pileus as scales or warts. In the “Fly
-Mushroom” (<i>Amanita muscaria</i>) the remains of the veil are
-especially conspicuous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[168]</span> as white patches on the bright red ground of
-the upper surface of the pileus, and as a sheath at the base of the
-stalk (Fig. <a href="#fig178">178</a> <i>v.</i>). Another veil&mdash;the <i>velum partiale</i>&mdash;a
-hyphal tissue (Figs. <a href="#fig178">178</a> <i>a</i>; <a href="#fig173">173</a>) stretches from the edge of the
-pileus to the stalk, and encloses the lamellæ. This veil is ruptured
-as the pileus expands, a portion attached to the stalk remaining as
-the “upper ring” (<i>annulus superus</i>) (Figs. <a href="#fig173">173</a>, <a href="#fig178">178</a> <i>a</i>),
-or a part attached to the pileus hanging down as a fringe round its
-edge.&mdash;Some genera have no veil, the under side of the pileus being
-exposed from the first (<i>gymnocarpic</i> Agaricaceæ). Those which
-have a veil (<i>hemiangiocarpic</i> A.) afford a transition to the
-angiocarpic Gasteromycetes.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig173" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig173.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 173.</span>&mdash;The cultivated Mushroom
-(<i>Psalliota campestris</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The mycelium mostly grows in soils rich in humus or dung, on decaying
-trees and similar objects. Many species, <i>e.g. Tricholoma
-personatum</i> and <i>Marasmius oreades</i>, form the so-called “fairy
-rings.” The fruit-bodies in these species are confined to a larger or
-smaller surface on which they are very regularly arranged in a ring.
-The reason for this is found in the radial growth of the mycelium,
-so that the oldest portion, or the starting point, is found at the
-centre of the ring, and the younger ones, on which the fruit-bodies are
-formed, at the circumference. The older hyphæ gradually die, and at
-the same time, the radial growth continuing, the ring of fruit-bodies
-becomes larger and larger. The “fairy-rings” are marked<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[169]</span> not only by
-the fruit-bodies, but also by the more vigorous growth and darker
-colour of the grass upon these spots.</p>
-
-<p>Some species are <i>parasites</i>. An example is presented by
-<i>Armillaria mellea</i>, a remarkable and very destructive Fungus in
-woods and forests (Figs. <a href="#fig176">176</a>, <a href="#fig177">177</a>). <span class="smaller">In addition to the filamentous,
-white mycelium, it has also black, or black-brown, horny, root-like
-mycelium-strands (rhizomorpha) which were formerly considered
-to belong to a special genus of Fungi described under the name
-“<i>Rhizomorpha</i>.” The mycelium lives parasitically on the Conifers
-and other trees, forcing its hyphæ into the bark and between the bark
-and wood, and thence penetrating into the wood so that the tree is very
-severely attacked. It may also live saprophytically, and clusters of
-fruit-bodies are often found on old stumps and stems, on old timber,
-and in the rich soil of woods. The rhizomorpha, living underground, can
-extend for considerable distances and infect the roots of neighbouring
-trees, and spreads in this way the diseases known as “Harzsticken” and
-“Bark-Canker,” which are very destructive to young trees.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig174" style="width: 392px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig174.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 174.</span>&mdash;<i>Psalliota campestris.</i>
-<i>A</i> Tangential section of pileus showing lamellæ (<i>l</i>).
-<i>B</i> Portion of gill more highly magnified; <i>t</i> trama;
-<i>hy</i> hymenium with basidia and basidiospores; <i>sh</i>,
-subhymenial layer. <i>C</i> A portion of the same more highly
-magnified; <i>s′ s′′ s′′′ s′′′′</i> various stages
-in the development of basidiospores; <i>q</i> paraphyses.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The chief characteristics by which the numerous genera are separated
-are the presence or the absence of the two kinds of veils, the nature
-of the fruit-body, the form, branching of the lamellæ, and their
-position and relation with respect to the stem, the shape of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[170]</span>
-pileus, the colour of the spores, etc., etc. A knowledge of the colour
-may be obtained by placing the pileus with the lamellæ turned downwards
-on a piece of white or coloured paper, so that the spores, as they fall
-off, are collected on the paper, and the arrangement of the lamellæ can
-then be clearly seen.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig175" style="width: 342px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig175.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 175.</span>&mdash;<i>Cantharellus cibarius</i> (reduced).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig176" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig176.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 176.</span>&mdash;<i>Armillaria mellea.</i> (½ nat.
-size): <i>a</i> root of a Fir; <i>b</i> rhizomorpha-strands; <i>c-f</i>
-fruit-bodies in four different stages of development.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig177" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig177.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 177.</span>&mdash;The mycelium of <i>Armillaria
-mellea</i> (“<i>Rhizomorpha</i>”) (nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[171]</span></p>
-
-<p>About 4,600 species belonging to this order have been described.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>On account of the large number of species the order is divided
-into several sections:</p>
-
-<p>1. <b>Agaricinei</b>; fruit-body fleshy; lamellæ membranous,
-knife-like, with sharp edge; basidia crowded together. The
-<span class="allsmcap">FOLLOWING HAVE WHITE SPORES</span>:&mdash;<i>Amanita</i> (Fly
-Mushroom), with volva, and generally also the upper ring on
-the stalk; many are poisonous, such as <i>A. muscaria</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig178">178</a>) which has bright red pileus with white spots, <i>A.
-pantherina</i> and <i>A. phalloides</i>; <i>A. cæsarea</i> is
-edible.&mdash;<i>Lepiota procera</i> (Parasol Fungus) is one of the
-largest Mushrooms; it has a scaly pileus and moveable ring
-(edible).&mdash;<i>Armillaria mellea</i> has been mentioned above
-(Figs. <a href="#fig176">176</a>, <a href="#fig177">177</a>).&mdash;<i>Tricholoma</i>, lamellæ indented near
-the stalk; <i>T. gambosum</i> (Pomona Fungus) belongs to the
-best of edible Fungi; <i>T. personatum</i> often forms fairy
-rings (see above).&mdash;<i>Clitocybe</i>, lamella decurrent; <i>C.
-nebularis</i> is edible.&mdash;<i>Pleurotus</i>, stalk eccentric;
-<i>P. ostreatus</i> (Oyster Mushroom) grows in clusters on
-tree-stems (edible).&mdash;<i>Collybia</i> and <i>Mycena</i>, species
-numerous, small.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Spores rose-red</span>: <i>Volvaria</i> and
-<i>Hyporhodius</i>.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Spores Brown</span>: <i>Cortinarius</i>,
-with cobweb-like veil; <i>Pholiota</i>, membranous veil
-and ring; <i>P. squarrosa</i> in clusters on tree-stems;
-<i>P. mutabilis</i>, on tree-stumps (edible).&mdash;<span class="smcap">Spores
-Violet-purple</span>: <i>Hypholoma</i>, <i>Psalliota</i>; to this
-section the common edible Mushroom (Fig. <a href="#fig172">172–174</a>) belongs,
-with annulus and chocolate-coloured lamellæ; it is cultivated
-for the sake of the fine flavour.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Spores Black</span>:
-<i>Coprinarius</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig178" style="width: 302px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig178.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 178.</span>&mdash;Fly Mushroom (<i>Amanita
-muscaria</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>2. <b>Marasmiei.</b> Fruit-body tough, almost leathery,
-and persistent; spores white. <i>Marasmius oreades</i>
-forms large, regular fairy-rings on pastures and commons;
-it is used as seasoning in food.&mdash;<i>Panus stipticus</i>
-with eccentrically-placed stalk, in clusters on
-tree-stumps.&mdash;<i>Schizophyllum</i> has the edge of the
-lamellæ divided longitudinally, and the split portions
-revolute.&mdash;<i>Lentinus</i> affords a transition to
-<i>Dædalea</i> among the Polyporaceæ.</p>
-
-<p>3. <b>Russulei.</b> Fruit-body fleshy and fragile, in which two
-different systems of hyphæ may be distinguished; spores thorny,
-white, or pale-yellow. Many are poisonous.&mdash;<i>Russula</i> has
-generally fragile and thick lamellæ reaching from stalk to
-edge of pileus; pileus frequently red.&mdash;<i>Lactarius</i> has
-white or yellow<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[172]</span> milky juice, which often is very acid. <i>L.
-deliciosus</i> has red-yellow milky juice, and is of a pleasant
-flavour. <i>L. torminosus</i> is poisonous.</p>
-
-<p>4. <b>Hygrophorei.</b> Lamellæ thick and waxy, widely separated;
-spores white. Many species of <i>Hygrophorus</i> have
-brightly-coloured pileus and grow among the grass on moors and
-commons.&mdash;<i>Nyctalis</i> is parasitic on larger Toadstools.
-It is remarkable for its abundant formation of chlamydospores,
-whilst the basidiospores are little developed.</p>
-
-<p>5. <b>Coprinei.</b> Fruit-bodies very soft, quickly perishable;
-lamellæ membranous and deliquescent. The basidia are separated
-from each other by paraphyses. <i>Coprinus</i> has coal-black
-spores, grows on manure, and sometimes developes sclerotia.</p>
-
-<p>6. <b>Paxillei.</b> Fruit-body fleshy; lamellæ easily detached
-from the pileus and reticulately-joined near the stalk. They
-form a connecting link between the Agaricaceæ and <i>Boletus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>7. <b>Cantharellei.</b> Lamellæ reduced to dichotomously-divided
-folds, decurrent on the stalk. <i>Cantharellus cibarius</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig175">175</a>) is yolk-yellow, and grows on the ground in woods
-(edible). It is allied to <i>Craterellus</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 3. <b>Phalloideæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The fruit-bodies before they are ripe are spherical or ovoid,
-and enclosed by a <i>fleshy covering</i>, the peridium, which is
-<i>perforated at maturity</i> and remains as a sheath (Fig. <a href="#fig179">179</a>); the
-fruit-bodies are <i>hemiangiocarpic</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Phallaceæ</b> (<b>Stink-horns</b>). The peridium has a
-complicated structure and is composed of three layers, the intermediate
-one being thick and gelatinous. The gleba (the tissue which bears the
-hymenium) is situated upon a peculiar receptacle which expands into
-a porous stalk and by its sudden distension, rupturing the peridium,
-elevates the gleba and hymenium above the peridium, which remains
-as a sheath. <i>The gleba becomes gelatinous and dissolves away as
-drops.</i> To this order belong many peculiar and often brightly
-coloured forms, which are natives of the Southern Hemisphere.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Phallus impudicus</i> (Stink-horn) (Fig. <a href="#fig179">179</a>), has a
-fruit-body which at first is white, heavy, and soft, and
-resembles a hen’s egg in shape and size. The peridium is divided
-into three layers (Fig. <a href="#fig179">179</a> <i>e</i>, <i>g</i>, <i>f</i>)
-of which the external and internal are membranous, and the
-middle one very thick and gelatinous; each of these has again
-a laminated structure. The peridium when ruptured remains as a
-sheath (<i>k</i>) at the base of the stalk. The receptacle at
-first is strongly compressed (<i>h</i>) but afterwards expands
-into a long stalk (<i>l</i>) which bears the conical gleba
-(<i>m</i>). Prior to the rupture of the peridium the gleba
-consists of a greenish mass (<i>i</i>) which, when exposed,
-emits a carrion-like stench serving to attract flies, by
-whose agency the spores are distributed. It is found commonly
-in hedgerows and in woods, growing on the ground. The much<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[173]</span>
-smaller and less common <i>P. caninus</i> is found on rotten
-tree-stumps.&mdash;In <i>Clathrus cancellatus</i> the receptacle
-expands into a bright red, reticulate structure. A native of the
-South of Europe. <i>Colus</i>, <i>Aseroë</i>, <i>Mitromyces</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Sphærobolaceæ.</b> An intermediate layer of the
-<i>peridium</i> swells when ripe, becomes convex, and <i>ejects
-the remaining</i> spherical <i>portion of the fruit-body</i>
-which contains the spores. <i>Sphærobolus carpobolus</i> has
-small, spherical fruit-bodies which open in the form of a star.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig179" style="width: 349px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig179.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 179.</span>&mdash;<i>Phallus impudicus</i>
-(Stink-horn), somewhat diminished. Fruit-bodies in all stages of
-development (<i>b</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>d</i> and <i>k-m</i>) are seen
-arising from a root-like mycelium (<i>a</i>); <i>d</i> longitudinal
-sections through a fruit-body before the covering has ruptured.</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 4. <b>Gasteromycetes.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The fruit-body is <i>angiocarpic</i>, fleshy at first, and later
-generally more or less <i>hard</i> and <i>continues closed after
-the</i> spores <i>are ripe</i>. The tissue lying immediately inside the
-<i>peridium</i> is termed the <i>gleba</i>; it is porous, containing
-a larger or smaller number of chambers lined with the hymenium, which
-is either a continuous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[174]</span> layer of basidia or else it fills up the
-entire cavity. The basidia as a rule bear four spores, sometimes eight
-(<i>Geaster</i>), or two (<i>Hymenogaster</i>). The tissue of the walls
-(<i>trama</i>) consists often (<i>Lycoperdaceæ</i>) of two kinds of
-hyphæ, some thin and rich in protoplasm, divided by transverse septa
-and bearing the basidia; others thicker and thick-walled which do not
-dissolve like the former on the ripening of the spores, but continue to
-grow and form a woolly, elastic mass, the <i>capillitium</i>, which may
-be regarded as highly developed paraphyses. The peridium may be either
-single or double, and presents many variations in its structure and
-dehiscence. The mycelium is generally a number of string-like strands,
-living in soils rich in humus.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Tylostomaceæ.</b> Capillitium present. After the
-rupture of the peridium the remaining part of the fruit-body is
-elevated on a long <i>stalk</i>. <i>Tylostoma mammosum</i>, on
-heaths.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Lycoperdaceæ.</b> The fruit-body has a double peridium;
-the external one at length breaks into fragments (<i>Lycoperdon</i>,
-<i>Bovista</i>), or it has a compound structure of several layers
-(<i>Geaster</i>) and detaches itself as a continuous envelope from
-the inner layer, which is membranous and opens at its apex. The
-interior of the fruit-body consists either solely of the fertile gleba
-(<i>Bovista</i>, <i>Geaster</i>), or, in addition, of a sterile tissue
-at the base (<i>Lycoperdon</i>). A capillitium is also present.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig180" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig180.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 180.</span>&mdash;<i>Lycoperdon gemmatum</i> (½ nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Lycoperdon</i> (Puff-ball) has a sterile part at the base of
-the fruit-body which often forms a thick stalk. The surface of
-the peridium is generally covered with warts or projections.
-When young this Fungus is edible, but when ripe it is dry,
-and used for stopping the flow of blood. <i>L. giganteum</i>,
-which is often found growing in meadows, attains a considerable
-size, its diameter reaching as much as eighteen inches. <i>L.
-gemmatum</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig180">180</a>) is covered with pyramidal warts; in
-woods.&mdash;<i>Bovista</i> has no sterile basal part; the external
-peridium is smooth, and falls away in irregular patches. <i>B.
-plumbea</i>, on links near the sea.&mdash;<i>Geaster</i> (Earth-star)
-has an external peridium composed of several layers, which when
-the fruit-body opens, split into several stellate segments.
-These segments are very hygroscopic, and in dry weather bend
-backwards and so raise the inner peridium into the air. The
-inner peridium contains the spores<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[175]</span> and capillitia. <i>G.
-coliformis</i> has several apertures in the inner peridium. The
-other species have only one regular aperture at the apex. <i>G.
-striatus</i> has a pedicellate inner peridium, with conical,
-striped peristome. <i>G. fornicatus</i> has an external peridium
-split into four segments. This last and several other species
-produce “mycorhiza” on the roots of Conifers.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig181" style="width: 580px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig181.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 181.</span>&mdash;I <i>Hymenogaster citrinus</i>
-(nat. size); II longitudinal section through <i>H. tener</i> (× 5);
-III portion of a section of <i>H. calosporus</i>; <i>g</i> a chamber;
-<i>h</i> hymenium; <i>sp.</i> spores; <i>t</i> trama (× 178); IV
-<i>Rhizopogon luteolus</i> (nat. size); V <i>Scleroderma vulgare</i>,
-VI section of V; VII basidia with spores belonging to the same Fungus.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Sclerodermataceæ.</b> <i>Capillitium</i> wanting. The
-peridium is simple and thick, gleba with round, closed chambers, which
-are filled with basidia.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Scleroderma</i> has a corky peridium. The fruit-bodies
-commence their development under ground. <i>S. vulgare</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig181">181</a> V-VII), has a hard, slaty-black gleba.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[176]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Nidulariaceæ</b> (<b>Nest-Fungi</b>). Small Fungi of which
-the fruit-body at first is spherical or cylindrical but upon maturity
-it becomes cupular or vase-like, and contains several lenticular
-“peridiola” lying like eggs in a nest. The peridiola are the chambers
-which contain the hymenium, covered by a thin layer of the gleba, all
-the remaining portion of the gleba becoming dissolved. On decaying wood.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Nidularia</i> has spherical fruit-bodies containing a
-large number of lenticular peridiola, embedded in a slimy
-mass.&mdash;<i>Crucibulum</i> has fruit-bodies resembling crucibles
-with discoid peridiola, each with a spirally-twisted
-stalk.&mdash;<i>Cyathus</i> has a fruit-body, which when open is
-campanulate, with stratified peridium, and long-stalked,
-lense-shaped peridiola.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Hymenogastraceæ.</b> Fruit-bodies tubercular, globose and
-subterranean, resembling very closely the Truffles, from which they
-can only be distinguished with certainty by microscopic means. The
-peridium is simple, capillitium wanting, and the gleba encloses a
-system of labyrinthine passages covered with a continuous hymenium. The
-fruit-bodies persist for some time, and form a fleshy mass, the spores
-being only set free by the decay of the fruit-body, or when it is eaten
-by animals. The majority are South European. <i>Hymenogaster</i>,
-<i>Melanogaster</i>, <i>Rhizopogon</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig181">181</a> I-IV).</p>
-
-
-<p class="smcap center sm p2">Appendix to the Basidiomycetes:</p>
-
-<p class="center"><b>Basidiolichenes (Lichen-forming Basidiomycetes).</b></p>
-
-<p>Several Fungi belonging to the Basidiomycetes have a symbiotic
-relationship with Algæ exactly similar to that enjoyed by certain
-Ascomycetes, and these are therefore included under the term Lichens
-(p. <a href="#Page_136">136</a>). They are chiefly tropical.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Hymenolichenes.</b> To this order belong some gymnocarpic
-forms: <i>Cora</i>, <i>Dictyonema</i>, <i>Laudatea</i>.<a id="FNanchor_15" href="#Footnote_15" class="fnanchor">[15]</a></p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Gasterolichenes.</b> To this belong some angiocarpic forms:
-<i>Emericella</i>, <i>Trichocoma</i>.</p>
-
-
-<p class="smcap center sm p2">Appendix to the Fungi.</p>
-
-<p class="center"><b>Fungi imperfecti (Incompletely known Fungi).</b></p>
-
-<p>1. The <b>Saccharomyces-forms</b> are Fungi which are only known in
-their yeast-conidial form. They are <i>conidia of higher<span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[177]</span> Fungi</i>
-which can multiply to an unlimited extent by budding in nutritive
-solutions, and in this way maintain their <i>definite</i> size and
-shape. The budding takes place <i>only at the ends</i> of the conidia.
-The wall of the conidium forms at one or at both ends a small wart-like
-outgrowth, which gradually becomes larger, and is finally separated
-from its mother-cell as an independent cell, surrounded by a closed
-cell-wall (Fig. <a href="#fig182">182</a> <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig182" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig182.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 182.</span>&mdash;Beer-yeast (<i>Saccharomyces
-cerevisiæ</i>): <i>a-b</i> (× 400); <i>c-f</i> (× 750); <i>c</i> a
-cell in the process of forming spores; <i>d</i> a cell with four
-ripe spores; <i>e</i> the spores liberated by the dissolution of the
-cell-wall; <i>f</i> three germinating spores; <i>g</i> mycelium-like
-cell-chains. (× 1000: after Em. Chr. Hansen.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Under very favourable conditions multiplication occurs so rapidly that
-the daughter-cells themselves commence to form buds, before they have
-separated from their mother-cell, with the result that pearl-like
-chains of cells are produced. When the yeast-cells have only limited
-nutriment, with an abundant supply<span class="pagenum" id="Page_178">[178]</span> of air, at a suitable temperature,
-an endogenous formation of <i>spores</i> takes place. The protoplasm
-of the cells divides into 1–4 (rarely a greater number) masses (Fig.
-<a href="#fig182">182</a> <i>c</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>e</i>) which surround themselves with a
-thick cell-wall, and in this state can withstand adverse conditions and
-periods of dryness lasting for several months.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>sporangia are not asci</i> since they have no definite form,
-and a definite number, form and size of spores is not found. The
-spores in the different species and kinds occupy varying periods for
-their development, although exposed to the same temperature, a fact of
-importance in determining one from another. On germination the wall
-of the mother-cell is destroyed, and each spore gives rise to a new
-cell, multiplication taking place by budding (Fig. <a href="#fig182">182</a> <i>f</i>). The
-majority of Yeast-Fungi are able to produce alcoholic fermentation in
-saccharine fluids.</p>
-
-<p>The most important of these Fungi is the Beer-yeast (<i>Saccharomyces
-cerevisiæ</i>) with ovate, ellipsoidal or spherical cells (Fig.
-<a href="#fig182">182</a>). It is a plant which has been cultivated from time immemorial,
-on account of its property of producing alcoholic fermentation in
-sugar-containing extracts (wort), derived from germinating barley
-(malt). Carbonic acid is also set free during this process. The
-“surface-yeast” (Fig. <a href="#fig182">182</a> <i>a</i>), which produces ordinary beer
-when the brewing takes place at higher temperatures, has cell-chains;
-“sedimentary yeast” (Fig. <a href="#fig182">182</a> <i>b</i>), used in the brewing of
-Bavarian beer, has spherical cells, solitary, or united in pairs. Both
-these and the following Yeast-Fungi include, according to Hansen,
-several species and kinds.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig183" style="width: 491px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig183.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 183.</span>&mdash;<i>Saccharomyces mycoderma.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The “Ferment of Wine” (<i>Saccharomyces ellipsoideus</i>) produces wine
-in the juice of grapes. Uncultivated yeast-cells are always present
-on grapes; an addition of this species to the “must” is not necessary
-to secure fermentation. A large number of other “uncultivated”
-yeast-cells appear in breweries mixed with the cultivated ones, and
-cause different tastes to the beer (<i>S. pastorianus</i>, etc.). <i>S.
-ludwigii</i>, found, for instance, on the slimy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_179">[179]</span> discharge from Oaks,
-produces abundant cell-chains on cultivation. <i>S. apiculatus</i>
-is very frequently met with on all kinds of sweet fruits, it has
-orange-like cells. <i>S. mycoderma</i> has cylindrical cells, often
-united together in chains (Fig. <a href="#fig183">183</a>): it forms a whitish-gray mass
-(“fleur de vin”) on wine, beer, fruit-juice, etc., standing in bottles
-uncorked or not entirely filled. It is thought that this Fungus causes
-decomposition and oxydises the fluid in which it is found, but it
-cannot produce alcoholic fermentation in saccharine liquids, and it
-does not form endospores; hence it is uncertain whether it is true
-<i>Saccharomyces</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig184" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig184.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 184.</span>&mdash;<i>Oidium lactis</i>: <i>a</i>
-branched hypha commonly met with; <i>b</i> a hypha lying in milk and
-producing aerial hyphæ which give rise to oidia; <i>c</i> a branch
-giving rise to oidia, the oldest (outermost) oidia are becoming
-detached from one another; <i>d</i> a chain of divided cells; <i>e</i>
-germinating oidia in different stages (slightly more magnified than the
-other figures).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The “Dry-yeast” used in baking white bread is “surface-yeast.” In
-<i>leaven</i>, a kneaded mixture of meal, barm and water, which is
-used for the manufacture of black bread, <i>Saccharomyces minor</i> is
-present, and a species allied to this produces alcoholic fermentation
-in dough with the evolution of carbonic acid, which causes the dough to
-“rise.”</p>
-
-<p>2. <b>Oidium-forms.</b> Of many Fungi only the Oidium-forms are known,
-which multiply in endless series without employing any higher form
-of reproduction. <i>Oidium lactis</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig184">184</a>) is an imperfectly
-developed form which frequently appears on sour<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[180]</span> milk and cheese. It
-can produce a feeble alcoholic fermentation in saccharine liquids.
-Thrush or aphthæ (<i>O. albicans</i>) appears as white spots in the
-mouths of children. Several similar <i>Oidium-forms</i> are parasites
-on the skin and hair of human beings, and produce skin diseases, such
-as scurvy (<i>O. schoenleinii</i>) and ringworm (<i>O. tonsurans</i>).</p>
-
-<p>3. <b>Mycorhiza.</b> These Fungi, which have been found on the roots
-of many trees and heath-plants, particularly Cupuliferæ and Ericaceæ,
-consist of septate hyphæ, and belong partly to the Hymenomycetes,
-partly to the Gasteromycetes. It has been shown that the Mycorhiza
-enters into a symbiotic relationship with the roots of higher plants.</p>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[181]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="smaller">DIVISION II.<br />
-<span class="subhed">MUSCINEÆ (MOSSES).</span></h2></div>
-
-<p>In this Division a well-marked alternation of generations is
-to be found. The development of the first or sexual generation
-(<i>gametophyte</i>),<a id="FNanchor_16" href="#Footnote_16" class="fnanchor">[16]</a> which bears the sexual organs, antheridia
-and archegonia, commences with the germination of the spore, and
-consists, in the Liverworts, of a thallus, but in the true Mosses of a
-filamentous protonema, from which the Moss-plant arises as a lateral
-bud. The second or asexual generation (<i>sporophyte</i>), developed
-from the fertilised oosphere, consists of a sporangium and stalk.</p>
-
-<p><b>The sexual generation, the gametophyte.</b> The protonema in
-the Liverworts is very insignificant, and not always very sharply
-demarcated from the more highly developed parts of the nutritive
-system. In the true Mosses the protonema is well-developed, and
-consists of a branched, alga-like filament of cells, the dividing
-cell-walls being always placed obliquely. In the parts exposed to the
-light it is green, but colourless or brownish in those parts which are
-underground (Fig. <a href="#fig186">186</a>). The protonema is considered to be a lower form
-of the stem, and grows in the same manner by means of an apical cell;
-at its apex it may directly develope into a leaf-bearing stem, or these
-arise from it as lateral branches (Fig. <a href="#fig186">186</a> <i>k</i>).</p>
-
-<p>The more highly differentiated part of the vegetative system, the
-“Moss-plant,” which is thus developed from the protonema, is in the
-“thalloid” Liverworts generally a dichotomously-branched thallus
-without any trace of leaf-structures (Fig. <a href="#fig194">194</a>); in <i>Marchantia</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig197">197</a>) and others, scale-like leaves (<i>amphigastria</i>) are
-found on the under surface. The higher Liverworts and the Leafy-Mosses
-are differentiated into a filamentous, ramified stem with distinct
-leaves arranged in a definite manner, resembling the stem and leaves of
-the higher plants (Figs. <a href="#fig186">186</a>, <a href="#fig195">195</a>, <a href="#fig200">200</a>).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[182]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>True roots are wanting</i>, but are biologically replaced by
-<i>rhizoids</i>. These are developed on the stems or thallus: in the
-Liverworts they are unicellular, but in the Leafy-Mosses generally
-multicellular and branched. In the latter group they are considered
-identical with the protonema, and may become true protonema, and new
-plants may be developed from them (Fig. <a href="#fig186">186</a> <i>b</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig186" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig186.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 186.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i> Lower portion of a
-Moss-plant with rhizoids (<i>r</i>), one of which bears a reproductive
-bud (<i>b</i>). The dotted line indicates the surface of the ground;
-the portions projecting above this become green protonema (<i>p</i>);
-<i>k</i> is a young Moss-plant formed on one of these. <i>B</i>
-Germinating spore of <i>Funaria hygrometrica</i>, with exospore still
-attached. <i>C</i>, <i>D</i> Older stages of the protonema.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The internal structure of the sexual generation is very simple. The
-leaves in nearly all cases are formed of a single-layered plate of
-cells; in the Leafy-Mosses, however, a midrib is very often formed, and
-sometimes, also, marginal veins; and along these lines the leaves are
-several layers of cells in thickness. The stem is constructed of cells
-longitudinally elongated, the external ones of which are narrower and
-sometimes have thicker walls than the more central ones. <i>Vessels are
-not found</i>, but in several Mosses there is in the centre of the stem
-a conducting strand of narrow, longitudinal cells, which represents
-the vascular bundle in its first<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[183]</span> stage of development. This strand
-contains elements for conveying water as well as sieve-tubes. Stomata
-are entirely wanting in the sexual generation of the Leafy-Mosses; they
-are found in a few Liverworts (<i>Marchantia</i>), but their structure
-is not the same as in the higher plants.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Vegetative reproduction</span> takes place by gemmæ or buds which
-arise on the protenema, the rhizoids, the thallus, or the shoots,
-and become detached from the mother-plant; or else the protonema and
-the older parts of the plant simply die off, and their branches thus
-become independent plants. This well-developed vegetative reproduction
-explains why so many Mosses grow gregariously. In certain Marchantiaceæ
-special cupules, in which gemmæ are developed, are found on the surface
-of the thallus (Fig. <a href="#fig197">197</a> <i>A</i>, <i>s-s</i>). Again, protonema may
-also arise from the leaves, and thus the leaves may act as reproductive
-bodies. Certain Mosses nearly always reproduce vegetatively, and in
-these species the oospheres are seldom fertilised.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig187" style="width: 256px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig187.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 187.</span>&mdash;<i>Marchantia polymorpha</i>:
-<i>a</i> mature antheridium.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig188" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig188.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 188.</span>&mdash;Spermatozoids.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The first generation bears the <span class="allsmcap">SEXUAL ORGANS</span>; both kinds are
-found either on the same plant (monœcious), or on separate plants
-(diœcious). In the thalloid Liverworts they are often situated on the
-apex of small stems (<i>gametophores</i>), springing from the surface
-of the thallus. In the Leafy-Liverworts and true Mosses the leaves
-which enclose the sexual organs often assume a peculiar shape, and
-are arranged more closely than the other leaves to form the so-called
-“Moss-flower.” The male sexual organs are called <i>antheridia</i>.
-They are stalked, spheroid, club- or egg-shaped bodies whose walls are
-formed of one layer of cells (Fig. <a href="#fig187">187</a>), enclosing a mass of minute
-cubical cells, each one of which is a mother-cell of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[184]</span> a spermatozoid.
-The spermatozoids are self-motile; they are slightly twisted, with
-two cilia placed anteriorly (Fig. <a href="#fig188">188</a>), while posteriorly they are
-generally a trifle club-shaped, and often bear at that part the remains
-of the cytoplasm, the spermatozoid itself being <i>formed from the
-nucleus</i>. In the presence of water the ripe antheridium bursts, and
-its contents are ejected; the spermatozoids, being liberated from their
-mother-cells, swarm about in the water in order to effect fertilisation.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig189" style="width: 493px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig189.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 189.</span>&mdash;<i>Marchantia polymorpha.</i>
-<i>A</i> A young, and <i>B</i> a ripe archegonium with open neck.
-<i>C</i> An unripe sporangium enclosed by the archegonium <i>a</i>:
-<i>st</i> the stalk; <i>f</i> the wall of the sporangium. Elaters are
-seen between the rows of spores.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The female sexual organs are termed <i>archegonia</i>. They
-are flask-shaped bodies (Fig. <a href="#fig189">189</a>), the lower, swollen portion
-(<i>venter</i>) having a wall, in most cases from 1–2 cells thick,
-enclosing the oosphere (Fig. <a href="#fig189">189</a> <i>B</i>, <i>k</i>): the long neck is
-formed of tiers of 4–6 cells, enclosing a central row of cells&mdash;<i>the
-neck-canal-cells</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig189">189</a> <i>A</i>). When the archegonium is fully
-developed, the walls of the neck-canal-cells become mucilaginous and
-force open the neck of the archegonium. The mucilage thus escapes, and,
-remaining at the mouth of the archegonium, acts in a somewhat similar
-manner to the stigma and conducting tissue of a carpel, by catching
-and conducting the spermatozoids to the oosphere (Fig. <a href="#fig189">189</a> <i>B</i>,
-<i>m</i>), with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[185]</span> whose cell-nucleus they coalesce. With regard to the
-formation of the oosphere, it may further be remarked that the lower
-part of the archegonium originally encloses the so-called “central
-cell”; but shortly before the archegonium is ripe, this cuts off a
-small portion, <i>the ventral-canal-cell</i>, which lies immediately
-beneath the neck, and the larger, lower portion becomes the oosphere.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The organs mentioned here, antheridia and archegonia, are
-present in the Cryptogams (Pteridophyta) and the Gymnosperms.
-They have always the same fundamental structure, but with slight
-modifications of detail. These plants are therefore known as the
-<span class="smcap">Archegoniata</span>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The fertilisation of the Mosses cannot be effected without water. Rain
-and dew therefore play a very important part in this process, and for
-this end various modifications of structure are found.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig190" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig190.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 190.</span>&mdash;<i>Andreæa rupestris.</i>
-Longitudinal section through a sporangium at the time when the
-mother-cells of the spores are dividing: <i>p</i> pseudopodium;
-<i>f</i> foot; <i>v</i> vaginula; <i>h</i> neck; <i>c</i> columella;
-<i>w</i> wall of the sporangium; <i>e</i> external row of cells;
-<i>s</i> the spore-sac; <i>t</i> the spore-mother-cells; <i>r</i> the
-calyptra with the neck of archegonium (<i>z</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig191" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig191.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 191.</span>&mdash;<i>Andreæa rupestris.</i> Transverse
-section through a ripe sporangium. In the middle is seen the four-sided
-columella, surrounded by the numerous spores, drawn diagrammatically.
-Surrounding them is seen the wall of the sporangium, whose outer layer
-of cells is thickened and coloured. The layer of cells is unthickened
-in four places (<i>x</i>), indicating the position of the clefts (see
-Fig. <a href="#fig193">193</a>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[186]</span></p>
-
-<p>Among the sexual organs, paraphyses&mdash;filamentous or club-shaped
-bodies&mdash;are to be found.</p>
-
-<p><b>The asexual generation, the sporophyte</b> (Moss-fruit or
-sporogonium). As the result of fertilisation the oosphere surrounds
-itself with a cell-wall, and then commences to divide in accordance
-with definite laws.<a id="FNanchor_17" href="#Footnote_17" class="fnanchor">[17]</a> The embryo (Fig. <a href="#fig189">189</a> <i>C</i>) produced
-by these divisions remains inside the wall <i>a-a</i> of the
-archegonium (Figs. <a href="#fig190">190</a>, <a href="#fig199">199</a> <i>D</i>, <i>E</i>), and developes into
-the <i>sporogonium</i>, which remains attached to the mother-plant,
-often nourished by it, as if the two were one organism. The lower
-extremity of the sporogonium, <i>the foot</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig190">190</a> <i>f</i>; <a href="#fig199">199</a>
-<i>D</i>), very often forces its way deep down into the tissue of the
-mother-plant, but without an actual union taking place. The central
-portion of the sporogonium becomes a shorter or longer <i>stalk</i>
-(<i>seta</i>), while the sporangium itself is developed at the summit.
-At a later stage, during the formation of the spores, the sporangium
-very often assumes the form of a <i>capsule</i>, and dehisces in
-several ways characteristic of the various genera (Figs. <a href="#fig192">192</a>, <a href="#fig193">193</a>, <a href="#fig194">194</a>,
-<a href="#fig195">195</a>, <a href="#fig200">200</a>). The basal portion of the archegonium grows for a longer
-or shorter period, forming a sheath, the <i>calyptra</i>, in which
-the capsule is developed, but eventually it ceases to enlarge, and
-is then ruptured in different ways, but quite characteristically, in
-each group. Anatomically, the asexual generation is often more highly
-differentiated than the sexual; thus, for instance, stomata are present
-on the sporangia of the true Mosses, but are absent in the sexual
-generation.</p>
-
-<p>As the capsule developes, an external layer of cells&mdash;the
-<i>amphithecium</i>&mdash;and an internal mass&mdash;the <i>endothecium</i>&mdash;are
-differentiated. As a rule the former becomes the wall of the capsule
-while the latter gives rise to the spores. In this Division, as in
-the Pteridophyta, the name <i>archesporium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig190">190</a> <i>t</i>) is
-given to the group of cells inside the sporangium which gives rise
-to the mother-cells of the spores. The archesporium is in general a
-unicellular layer; in <i>Sphagnum</i> and <i>Anthoceros</i> it is
-derived from the most internal layer of the amphithecium, but with
-these exceptions it arises from the endothecium, usually from its
-most external layer. In the true Mosses and in <i>Riccia</i> only
-spore-mother-cells are produced from the archesporium, but in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[187]</span>
-majority of the Liverworts some of these cells are sterile and become
-elaters (cells with spirally thickened walls, Figs. <a href="#fig196">196</a>, <a href="#fig189">189</a>), or serve
-as “nurse-cells” for the spore-mother-cells, which gradually absorb the
-nutriment which has been accumulated in them. In <i>Anthoceros</i>,
-and almost all the Leafy-Mosses, a certain mass of cells in the centre
-of the sporangium (derived from the endothecium) does not take part in
-the formation of the archesporium, but forms the so called “column” or
-“columella” (Figs. <a href="#fig190">190</a>, <a href="#fig191">191</a>).</p>
-
-<p>The <i>spores</i> arise in <i>tetrads</i>, <i>i.e.</i> four in each
-mother-cell, and are arranged at the corners of a tetrahedron, each
-tetrahedron assuming the form of a sphere or a triangular pyramid. The
-mature spore is a nucleated mass of protoplasm, with starch or oil as
-reserve material. The wall is divided into two layers: the external
-coat (exospore) which is cuticularized and in most cases coloured
-(brown, yellowish), and the internal coat (endospore), which is
-colourless and not cuticularized. On germination the exospore is thrown
-off, the endospore protrudes, and cell-division commences and continues
-with the growth of the protonema (Fig. <a href="#fig186">186</a>, <i>B-D</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig192" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig192.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 192.</span>&mdash;<i>Andreæa petrophila.</i> A ripe
-sporogonium: <i>a</i> an archegonium which has been raised with the
-pseudopodium; <i>p</i> the foot; <i>b</i> the neck; <i>d-e</i> the
-dark-coloured portion of the sporangium, whose outer cell-walls are
-considerably thickened; <i>c</i>-<i>c</i> the thin-walled portions
-where the dehiscence occurs; <i>o</i> the lower extremity of the
-spore-sac; <i>f</i> calyptra; <i>g</i> the apex of the sporangium.
-(Mag. 25 times.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig193" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig193.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 193.</span>&mdash;<i>Andreæa petrophila.</i> An empty
-capsule; the calyptra has fallen off. (Mag. 25 times.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The morphological explanation which Celakovsky has given of
-the sporogonium, and which is not at all improbable, is, that
-it is homologous with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_188">[188]</span> an embryo consisting of a very small
-stem-portion and a terminal spore-producing leaf. This will be
-further explained in the introduction to the Flowering-plants
-(p. <a href="#Page_236">236</a>).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>In the Liverworts the young sporogonium lives like a parasite, being
-nourished by the sexual generation (only in <i>Anthoceros</i> has it a
-slight power of assimilation). In the Leafy-Mosses, on the other hand,
-with regard to the power of assimilation, all transitions are found
-from abundant assimilation (<i>Funaria</i>, <i>Physcomitrium</i>) to
-almost complete “parasitism” (<i>Sphagnum</i>, <i>Andreæa</i>). In the
-majority of the operculate Mosses the sporogonium has a more or less
-perfect system of assimilation, and is able itself to form a large
-portion of the material necessary for the development of the spores,
-so that it chiefly receives from the sexual generation the inorganic
-substances which must be obtained from the soil. The more highly
-developed the assimilative system of the sporogonium, the more stomata
-are present.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Apospory.</span> In some operculate Mosses it has been
-possible to obtain a protonema with small Moss-plants from the
-seta, when severed from its Moss-plant, and grown on damp sand.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Mosses are the lowest plants which are provided with stem and
-leaf. They are assigned a lower place when compared with the higher
-Cryptogams, partly because there are still found within the Division
-so many forms with a mere thallus, partly because typical roots are
-wanting and the anatomical structure is so extremely simple, and partly
-also because of the relation between the two generations. The highest
-Mosses terminate the Division, the Muscineæ and Pteridophyta having had
-a common origin in the Algæ-like Thallophyta.</p>
-
-<p>They are divided into two classes:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Hepaticæ</span>, or Liverworts.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Musci frondosi.</span> True Mosses or Leafy-Mosses.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Class 1. <b>Hepaticæ</b> (<b>Liverworts</b>).</h3>
-
-<p>The protonema is only slightly developed. The remaining part of the
-vegetative body is either a prostrate, often dichotomously-branched
-thallus, pressed to the substratum (thalloid Liverworts), with
-or without scales on the under side (Figs. <a href="#fig194">194</a>, <a href="#fig197">197</a>); or a thin,
-prostrate, creeping stem, with distinctly-developed leaves, which
-are borne in two or three rows (Figs. <a href="#fig195">195</a>, <a href="#fig198">198</a>), viz., two on the
-upper and, in most cases, one on the under side. The leaves situated
-on the ventral side (amphigastria) are differently shaped from the
-others (Fig. <a href="#fig198">198</a> <i>a</i>), and are sometimes entirely absent.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_189">[189]</span>
-In contradistinction to the Leafy-Mosses, stress must be laid on
-the <i>well-marked dorsiventrality</i> of the vegetative organs;
-<i>i.e.</i> the very distinct contrast between the dorsal side exposed
-to the light and the ventral side turned to the ground. Veins are never
-found in the leaves.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>ventral part of the archegonium</i> (calyptra) continues to grow
-for some time, and encloses the growing embryo, but when the spores are
-ripe it is finally ruptured by the sporangium, and remains situated
-like a sheath (<i>vaginula</i>) around its base. The sporangium opens,
-longitudinally, by <i>valves</i> or <i>teeth</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig194">194</a>, <a href="#fig195">195</a>,
-<a href="#fig197">197</a> <i>b</i>), very rarely by a lid, or sometimes not at all. <i>A
-columella is wanting</i> (except in <i>Anthoceros</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig194">194</a>); but
-on the other hand, a few of the cells lying between the spores are
-developed into <i>elaters</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig196">196</a>), <i>i.e.</i> spindle-shaped
-cells with spirally-twisted thickenings, which are hygroscopic, and
-thus serve to distribute the spores. (They are seen in Fig. <a href="#fig189">189</a>
-<i>C</i>, not yet fully developed, as long cells radiating from the
-base of the sporangium. They are wanting in <i>Riccia</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig194" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig194.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 194.</span>&mdash;<i>Anthoceros lævis</i> (nat. size):
-<i>K</i>-<i>K</i> capsules.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig195" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig195.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 195.</span>&mdash;<i>Plagiochila asplenioides</i>:
-<i>a</i> unripe, and <i>b</i> an open capsule; <i>p</i> involucre. The
-ventral edge of each leaf is higher than its dorsal edge, and covered
-by the dorsal edge of the next one.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig196" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig196.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 196.</span>&mdash;An elater with two spores.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Round the entire archegonium, (or group of archegonia, when
-several are developed on the same receptacle) a sheath&mdash;the
-<i>involucre</i>&mdash;is often formed, which persists, and
-encloses the base of the stalk of the sporangium, together
-with the sheath of the archegonium (Fig. <a href="#fig195">195</a> <i>p</i>). In
-the Marchantiaceæ each archegonium is enclosed in a loose
-investment, the perigynium, which is developed as an outgrowth
-from the cells of its stalk.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_190">[190]</span></p>
-
-<p>The majority of the Liverworts are found in damp and shady places,
-pressed to the substratum; a few are found floating in fresh water.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 1. <b>Marchantieæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>This embraces only forms with a thallus, which is more or less
-distinctly dichotomously branched, in some, one or two rows of thin
-leaves are situated on its under surface. On the upper surface of the
-thallus are found large air-chambers.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Ricciaceæ.</b> The sporogonia are, with the exception of a
-few genera, situated singly on the surface of the thallus, and consist
-only of a capsule without foot or stalk. They always remain enclosed
-by the wall of the archegonium (calyptra), and open only by its
-dissolution. Elaters are not developed. Some genera are found floating
-like Duckweed.&mdash;<i>Riccia glauca</i> grows on damp clay soil. <i>R.
-fluitans</i> and <i>R. natans</i> float in stagnant waters.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig197" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig197.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 197.</span>&mdash;<i>Marchantia polymorpha.</i>
-<i>A</i> Female plant (nat. size): <i>a</i> and <i>b</i> are
-archegoniophores in various stages of development; <i>s</i> cupules
-with gemmæ (see page <a href="#Page_183">183</a>). <i>B</i> An archegoniophore seen from
-below, the short-stalked sporangia are seen placed in 8–10 double
-rows. <i>C</i> Male plant, with a young and an older antheridiophore.
-<i>D</i> Antheridiophore halved vertically to show the antheridia
-(<i>h</i>); <i>m</i> the aperture of the pits in which they are
-sunk&mdash;the older ones to the left, the younger to the right.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Corsiniaceæ.</b> (Not native). Intermediate forms
-between the preceding and the following order. In internal
-and external structure mainly resembling the Marchantiaceæ.
-<i>Corsinia</i>; <i>Boschia</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Marchantiaceæ</b>, are large, fleshy forms. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_191">[191]</span> surface
-of the thallus is divided into small rhombic areas, in the centre of
-each of which is found a large, peculiarly constructed stoma (Fig. <a href="#fig197">197</a>
-<i>A</i>); beneath each of these a large air-cavity is to be found.
-From the floor of the air-cavity a number of alga-like cells project
-into it; these contain chlorophyll and are therefore the assimilating
-cells. The antheridia and archegonia are each found aggregated on
-specially formed branches (somewhat resembling Mushrooms) projecting
-from the surface of the thallus. The antheridia are developed on the
-upper surface (Fig. <a href="#fig197">197</a> <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>) and the archegonia on the
-lower (Fig. <a href="#fig197">197</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>), near the centrally-placed stalk.</p>
-
-<p><i>Marchantia polymorpha</i> is diœcious (Fig. <a href="#fig197">197</a>), and very common
-on damp places. <i>Lunularia</i> (South Europe), frequently found on
-flower-pots in conservatories; <i>Preissia</i>, <i>Fegatella</i>,
-<i>Reboulia</i>, <i>Targionia</i>.</p>
-
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<h4>Family 2. <b>Anthoceroteæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>These have an entirely leafless, fleshy, flat, and
-irregularly-shaped thallus. In its intercellular chambers
-Nostoc-colonies are often found, which have forced their way
-through the stomata situated on the under side. The antheridia
-and archegonia arise from the cells lying inside the thallus.
-The capsule resembles a long, thin pod; it has two valves and
-a columella. <i>Anthoceros</i> (<i>A. lævis</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig194">194</a>, and
-<i>punctatus</i>).</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 3. <b>Jungermannieæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>Some forms in this family have a thallus in which leaf-like
-structures are found (<i>Blasia</i>), while in others (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Metzgeria</i>, <i>Pellia</i>, <i>Aneura</i>) they are entirely
-absent. The majority, however, have round, thick stems, bearing
-dorsally two rows of leaves, and one row ventrally. Some of these have
-the leaves “underlying” (Fig. <a href="#fig195">195</a>), while in others (Fig. <a href="#fig198">198</a>) they are
-“overlying.” (See Figs. <a href="#fig195">195</a>, <a href="#fig198">198</a>, with explanation).</p>
-
-<p>The sporangia are spherical, stalked, and situated singly on the apex
-of the branches, and open by four valves (in <i>Sphærocarpus</i> they
-are indehiscent).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig198" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig198.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 198.</span>&mdash;<i>Frullania dilatata.</i> Portion
-of a branch seen from the under side: <i>r</i> and <i>b</i> are the
-anterior and posterior edges of the same dorsal leaf; <i>a</i> ventral
-leaves (amphigastria). The dorsal leaves are “overlying,” <i>i.e.</i>
-the anterior edge of the leaf overlaps the posterior edge of the
-preceding one.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>All the species in this family were formerly reckoned as belonging to
-one genus, <i>Jungermannia</i>, but now they are divided into several,
-arranged as follows:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_192">[192]</span></p>
-
-<p>I. <span class="smcap">Anacrogynæ.</span> The archegonia are situated on the upper side
-of the thallus or stem, <i>placed laterally</i>, and covered by an
-“involucre,” formed by the calyptra together with the tissue of the
-stem or thallus.</p>
-
-<p>a. <span class="smcap">Anelatereæ.</span> Without any elaters: <i>Sphærocarpus</i>,
-<i>Riella</i>.</p>
-
-<p>b. <span class="smcap">Elatereæ.</span> α. Thalloid: <i>Aneura pinguis</i>, in
-damp situations; <i>Metzgeria furcata</i>, on trees; <i>Pellia
-epiphylla</i>, in damp situations; <i>Blasia pusilla</i>, on damp clay
-soil, in the shade (scales are present on the thallus). β. Foliose and
-not dorsiventral: <i>Haplomitrium hookeri</i>.</p>
-
-<p>II. <span class="smcap">Acrogynæ.</span> The apex of the stem or of certain branches is
-adapted for the formation of female shoots. The archegonia are most
-frequently aggregated on the apex of the shoots, and are encircled
-by their leaves (perichætium). Between these and the archegonia,
-enclosing the latter, a peculiar cup-shaped organ (the involucre) is
-formed. This group only includes leaf-bearing genera: <i>Frullania</i>,
-<i>Radula</i>, <i>Madotheca</i>, <i>Ptilidium</i>, <i>Calypogeia</i>,
-<i>Lepidozia</i>, <i>Mastigobryum</i>, <i>Lophocolea</i>,
-<i>Jungermannia</i>, <i>Scapania</i>, <i>Plagiochila</i>.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Class 2. <b>Musci frondosi or veri (True Mosses).</b></h3>
-
-<p>In this class the protonema is well developed, and resembles a branched
-filamentous Alga, from which it can be easily distinguished by its
-oblique septa (in <i>Sphagnum</i> it is a cellular expansion). The
-Moss-plant, which is developed directly from the protonema, generally
-has an erect, thick, cylindrical stem similarly constructed on all
-sides. The leaves are arranged spirally, the most frequent divergence
-being 2/5 or 3/8 (Fig. <a href="#fig200">200</a> <i>A</i>). A midrib is often present
-and also marginal veins formed by longitudinally elongated cells;
-at these veins the leaf is more than one layer in thickness. In
-<i>Leucobryum</i> the leaves are generally constructed of more than one
-layer.</p>
-
-<p>The stem grows by means of a three-sided, pyramidal, apical cell which
-gives rise to three rows of segments, each segment forming a leaf. The
-lateral branches arise from the lower portions of the segments, the
-upper portion of which does not take any part in the construction of
-the leaf. From their mode of origin the branches are not axillary, and
-differ in this respect from the Flowering-plants.</p>
-
-<p>The ventral portion of the archegonium is very early ruptured<span class="pagenum" id="Page_193">[193]</span> <i>at
-its base</i> by the growing sporogonium, upon which it remains,
-and it is thus raised into the air, forming a “hood,” the calyptra
-(Figs. <a href="#fig192">192</a>; <a href="#fig200">200</a> <i>B</i>). In the Sphagnaceæ the hood is not present;
-in this order, as in the Liverworts, the archegonium remains at
-the base of the sporogonium. The sporangium opens by circumsessile
-dehiscence, the upper portion (<i>operculum</i>) being separated along
-a specially constructed ring of cells, and falls off like a “lid”
-(Fig. <a href="#fig200">200</a>). Only in a few forms (families 2 and 3) does any variation
-of this take place. Elaters are never found, but (with the exception
-of <i>Archidium</i>) there is always present in the sporangium a
-central mass of cells, the <i>columella</i>, which take no part in the
-formation of the spores. The columella, in some, does not reach quite
-to the operculum and in these cases the spore-sac is bell-shaped and
-covers the columella (<i>Andreæa</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig190">190</a>; <i>Sphagnum</i>, Fig.
-<a href="#fig199">199</a> <i>D</i>); but in the majority of Mosses the columella extends
-to the lid, so that the space containing the spores becomes a hollow
-cylinder.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>sporangium</i> is generally raised on a long stalk; in the great
-majority this stalk is formed from the lower half of the oospore and
-belongs to the asexual generation&mdash;it is then known as the <i>seta</i>.
-In <i>Andreæa</i> and <i>Sphagnum</i> the seta is very short, and
-the sporangia are raised upon a long stalk (<i>pseudopodium</i>)
-developed from the summit of the sexual generation (Figs. <a href="#fig190">190</a>, <a href="#fig192">192</a>).
-In the latter figure an archegonium (<i>a</i>) is seen attached to the
-pseudopodium, having been carried up with this during the course of its
-development. The summit of the pseudopodium is enlarged to embrace the
-foot of the sporogonium (Figs. <a href="#fig192">192</a>, <a href="#fig199">199</a> <i>D</i>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>A. The sporangium is supported on a pseudopodium; the columella
-does not extend to the operculum.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig199" style="width: 418px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig199.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 199.</span>&mdash;<i>Sphagnum
-acutifolium.</i>&mdash;<i>A</i> The upper portion of a plant: <i>a</i>
-branches with antheridia; <i>ch</i> branches with terminal archegonia
-and perichætia; <i>b</i> the upper stemleaves. <i>B</i> A male branch
-whose leaves are partly taken off in order to show the antheridia.
-<i>C</i> Group of three archegonia: the central one (<i>a</i>) is
-formed from the apical cell. <i>D</i> Sporogonium in longitudinal
-section: the broad foot (<i>sg’</i>) is sunk in the vaginula, <i>v</i>;
-<i>c</i> calyptra; <i>ar</i> neck of the archegonium; <i>ps</i>
-pseudopodium. <i>E</i> ripe sporangium with operculum, and the remains
-of the archegonium situated on the pseudopodium which is still
-surrounded by the perichætium; to the left is a barren branch. <i>F</i>
-Portion of a foliage-leaf seen from above: <i>l</i> perforations;
-<i>b</i> chlorophyll-containing cells; <i>s</i> spiral thickenings.</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 1. <b>Sphagneæ (Bog-Mosses).</b></h4>
-
-<p>The protonema has been already described. The stem is regularly
-branched owing to the fact that a branch, or collection of branches,
-arises at every fourth leaf. These branches are closely covered with
-leaves, some are erect, while others hang down and surround the stem.
-No rhizoids are developed. These Mosses are of a whitish-green colour,
-and when water is present are always saturated with it like a sponge,
-the reason for this being found in the construction of the stem and
-leaves. The stems are covered by an external layer of large clear
-cells, without chlorophyll, but with annular or spiral thickenings
-on the walls, which are also<span class="pagenum" id="Page_194">[194]</span> perforated by large holes. By means of
-capillary attraction, water is thus raised to the summit of the stem.
-Similarly constructed cells are also found in the leaves, but they are
-surrounded by a net of very narrow, chlorophyll-containing cells (Fig.
-<a href="#fig199">199</a> <i>F</i>), whose colour is thus to a great extent lost amongst
-those which are colourless. This anatomical structure is an essential
-condition for the formation of peat. The Bog-Mosses grow by preference
-on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_195">[195]</span> moors, which they cover with a thick carpet saturated with water.
-The lower extremities of the plants perish very rapidly, and gradually
-become converted into peat, and the branches thus separated from each
-other become independent plants. The sporangia (Fig. <a href="#fig199">199</a> <i>D</i>,
-<i>E</i>) are spherical, but with a very short stalk. They open by a
-<i>lid</i>, but have no <i>annulus</i>. The <i>archegonium</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig199">199</a> <i>C</i>) persists at the <i>base of the sporogonium</i> as in the
-Liverworts. Only one genus, <i>Sphagnum</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<h4>Family 2. <b>Schizocarpeæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The Mosses which constitute this family are of a brownish-black
-colour and are found living on rocks. The sporangium resembles
-that of the Liverworts inasmuch as it opens by four valves, but
-these continue attached to each other at the apex as well as at
-the base (Fig. <a href="#fig193">193</a>).&mdash;There is only one genus: <i>Andreæa</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> The stalk is formed from the lower portion of the
-sporogonium. The columella is continued to the summit of
-the sporangium and united with it (<i>Archidium</i> has no
-columella.)</p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 3. <b>Cleistocarpeæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The fruit does not dehisce in the regular way, but the spores
-are liberated by decay. They are small Mosses which remain
-in connection with their protonema until the sporangium is
-mature. The archegonium remains sessile at the base of the
-short capsule-stalk, and is not raised into the air (compare
-Hepaticæ).&mdash;<i>Phascum, Ephemerum, Archidium, Pleuridium.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 4. <b>Stegocarpeæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>To this belong the majority of the Mosses, about 3,000 species.</p>
-
-<p>The capsule opens as in <i>Sphagnum</i> by means of a <i>lid</i>
-(<i>operculum</i>), which is often prolonged into a beak. Round the
-mouth of the opened capsule, a number of peculiar yellow or red
-teeth are to be found. These constitute the <i>peristome</i>; their
-number is four, or a multiple of four (8, 16, 32 or 64). The form and
-thickenings of these teeth are widely different, and on this account
-are used by Systematists for the purposes of classification. In some
-Mosses (Fig. <a href="#fig200">200</a> <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>) there is a double row of teeth.
-Except in <i>Tetraphis</i> they are not formed from entire cells, but
-from the strongly thickened portions of the wall of certain layers of
-cells belonging to the lid, and persist when this falls off. They are
-strongly hygroscopic, and assist greatly in the ejection of the lid, in
-which operation they are considerably aided by a ring of elastic cells
-with thickened walls, situated in the wall of the lid near the base of
-the teeth. This ring is known as the <i>annulus</i>. The archegonium is
-raised into the air like a hood, the calyptra, which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_196">[196]</span> either covers the
-sporangium on all sides (having the shape of a bell), or is split on
-one side (Fig. <a href="#fig200">200</a> <i>B</i>, <i>h</i>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Among peculiar forms may be mentioned: <i>Splachnum</i>, which
-is especially remarkable for the collar-like expansion at the
-base of the capsule. <i>Fissidens</i> deviates in having a flat
-stem and leaves arranged in two rows. The leaves are boat-shaped
-and half embrace the stem.&mdash;<i>Schistostega</i> has two kinds of
-stems. The barren ones resemble Fern-leaves; they have two rows
-of leaves, which are attached together vertically, are decurrent
-and coalesce at their bases. The fertile ones have an ordinary
-appearance.&mdash;<i>Tetraphis</i>: the peristome is composed of four
-teeth, which are formed from entire cells. <i>T. pellucida</i>
-has peculiar gemmæ.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The family is divided into two groups: the Musci acrocarpi, the growth
-of whose main axis is limited and terminated by the formation of the
-sexual organs; and the Musci pleurocarpi, whose sporogonia are situated
-on special lateral shoots, while the growth of the main axis is
-unlimited.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig200" style="width: 318px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig200.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 200.</span>&mdash;<i>A Hypnum populeum</i>.
-<i>B</i> and <i>C</i> Sporangia, with hood (<i>h</i>), and operculum
-(<i>l’</i>), and without these (<i>C</i>), showing the peristome
-(<i>p</i>). <i>D</i> The mouth of the capsule of <i>Fontinalis
-antipyretica</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h5>A. <b>Acrocarpi.</b></h5>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Weisiaceæ.</b> Peristome, with 16 teeth arranged in
-one series, rarely wanting. Leaf with midrib. <i>Campylopus</i>,
-<i>Dicranum</i> (<i>D. scoparium</i>, common in forests),
-<i>Dicranella</i>, <i>Cynodontium</i>.&mdash;<i>Weisia</i>,
-<i>Gymnostomum</i> (no peristome), <i>Systegium</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Leucobryaceæ.</b> Peristome with 16 teeth. Leaves
-with three or more layers of cells, of which the external ones
-are air-conducting and perforated (as in the Sphagneæ), the
-middle one containing chlorophyll. <i>Leucobryum.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Fissidentaceæ.</b> Peristome as in the preceding
-ones. The leaves are arranged in two rows on the plagiotropic
-shoots; in <i>Fissidens</i> the midrib of the leaf bears
-wing-shaped outgrowths. <i>Conomitrium, Fissidens.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Seligeriaceæ.</b> Peristome with 16 undivided teeth.
-Very small Rock-mosses. <i>Seligeria.&mdash;Blindia.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Pottiaceæ.</b> Peristome with 16 teeth, which
-are divided almost to the base, or with 32 teeth. Calyptra
-hood-like.&mdash;<i>Barbula (B. muralis, B. ruralis), Trichostomum,
-Leptotrichum.&mdash;Ceratodon purpureus.&mdash;Distichium.&mdash;Pottia.</i></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_197">[197]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Grimmiaceæ.</b> The leaf-cells are often
-papillose; in the upper portion of the leaf, small, and of
-roundish shape. The calyptra is most frequently hood-like
-or conical. <i>Eucalypta.</i>&mdash;<i>Orthotrichum</i>,
-often with short-stalked capsule, is found on
-trees.&mdash;<i>Coscinodon.</i>&mdash;<i>Hedwigia.</i>&mdash;<i>Grimmia</i>,
-<i>Racomitrium</i>.&mdash;<i>Cinclidotus.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Schistostegaceæ.</b> The stems are of two kinds (see
-above); <i>Schistostega osmundacea</i>, in caves, has a bright
-emerald protonema.</p>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Splachnaceæ.</b> The capsule has a large,
-collar-like neck (see above). <i>Splachnum</i> (especially on
-manure).</p>
-
-<p>Order 9. <b>Funariaceæ.</b> Capsule pear-shaped. <i>Funaria</i>
-(<i>F. hygrometrica</i> has a very hygroscopic seta,
-becoming twisted when dry, and straightening with moisture);
-<i>Physcomitrium</i>; <i>Discelium</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 10. <b>Bryaceæ.</b> The capsule is thicker towards
-the apex; most frequently pendulous. <i>Philonotis</i>,
-<i>Bartramia</i>.&mdash;<i>Aulacomnium.</i>&mdash;<i>Paludella
-Meesea.</i>&mdash;<i>Mnium.</i>&mdash;<i>Bryum</i>, <i>Webera</i>,
-<i>Leptobryum</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 11. <b>Polytrichaceæ.</b> Single peristome, formed by
-16, 32, or 64 teeth. Leaves with longitudinal lamellæ on
-upper surface.&mdash;<i>Polytrichum</i> has long, hairy calyptra.
-<i>Catharinea</i> (<i>C. undulata</i>, in forests).</p>
-
-<p>Order 12. <b>Georgiaceæ.</b> Peristome with 4 teeth (see above).
-<i>Tetraphis</i> (<i>T. pellucida</i> has gemmæ).</p>
-
-<p>Order 13. <b>Buxbaumiaceæ.</b> Capsule asymmetrical; double
-peristome: the interior one conical, with 16 or 32 longitudinal
-folds.&mdash;<i>Buxbaumia</i> (<i>B. aphylla</i>); <i>Diphyscium</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h5>B. <b>Pleurocarpi.</b></h5>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 14. <b>Fontinalaceæ.</b> Long, floating Water-Mosses.
-<i>Fontinalis</i> (<i>F. antipyretica</i> is found in streams).
-<i>Dichelyma.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 15. <b>Hookeriaceæ.</b> <i>Pterygophyllum.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 16. <b>Leskeaceæ.</b> Dull-looking Mosses, with papillose
-or warted leaves.&mdash;<i>Thuidium</i>, <i>Thuja</i>-like with
-regularly arranged 1–3 doubly pinnate stems; <i>Anomodon</i>,
-<i>Leskea</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 17. <b>Pterogoniaceæ.</b> <i>Pterigynandrum filiforme</i>,
-etc.</p>
-
-<p>Order 18. <b>Fabroniaceæ.</b> <i>Anacamptodon.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 19. <b>Neckeraceæ.</b> Stems most frequently with flat,
-leafy branches. The leaves are smooth, never with longitudinal
-folds.&mdash;<i>Neckera.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 20. <b>Hypnaceæ.</b> The leaves are smooth
-with square, often bladder-like, cells at the edge.
-<i>Hylocomium</i> (<i>H. splendens</i>, <i>H.
-triquetrum</i>); <i>Hypnum</i>; <i>Brachythecium</i>;
-<i>Plagiothecium</i>.&mdash;<i>Eurhynchium.</i>&mdash;<i>Homalothecium</i>,
-<i>Isothecium</i>, <i>Orthothiecium</i>,
-<i>Homalia</i>.&mdash;<i>Climacium</i>, <i>Lescuræa</i>,
-<i>Leucodon</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The Mosses occur all over the globe. Many are found in great
-numbers, and growing thickly massed together, they form an
-important feature in landscapes (for example <i>Sphagnum</i> and
-<i>Polytrichum</i> in the Arctic Tundra). In the Northern and
-Arctic regions the Mosses are very plentiful, and often form a
-considerable part of the vegetation, while in the Tropics they
-are insignificant.</p>
-
-<p>Species of <i>Hypnum</i> and <i>Polytrichum</i>, like
-<i>Sphagnum</i>, play an important part in the formation of peat.</p>
-</div>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_198">[198]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="smaller">DIVISION III.<br />
-<span class="subhed">PTERIDOPHYTA (VASCULAR CRYPTOGAMS).</span></h2></div>
-
-<p>The alternation of generations is as distinct in this Division as
-in the Mosses, but the sexual generation consists of only a small
-thallus, the prothallium, which bears directly the sexual organs,
-<i>antheridia</i> and <i>archegonia</i>; and the asexual generation,
-which arises from the fertilisation of the oosphere, is no longer
-a single short-lived sporangium, but a highly developed, generally
-perennial, plant provided with stem, leaves and <i>true roots</i>
-(Ferns, Horsetails, etc.), the sporangia being borne on the leaves. In
-this latter generation the tissues are differentiated into epidermis,
-ground tissue and vascular tissue; in the last named the bundles are
-closed, and in the majority of cases concentric.</p>
-
-<p>The <b>sexual generation</b>, <b>gametophyte</b>, or
-<b>prothallium</b>, is <i>always a thallus</i>, although not always
-green and leaf-like (Figs. <a href="#fig205">205</a>, <a href="#fig215">215</a>, <a href="#fig222">222</a>, <a href="#fig229">229</a>, <a href="#fig235">235</a>, etc.) It is very
-small, even in cases where it attains the greatest development, and
-consists only of parenchymatous cells. The prothallium is nourished by
-hair-like roots (rhizoids) and has only a transitory existence, dying
-soon after the fertilisation of its oosphere.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">ANTHERIDIA</span> exhibit great variations in structure which,
-however, must be considered as modifications of the fundamental type
-which is found in the Mosses. These modifications will be mentioned
-under the various families. The <i>spermatozoids</i> are always
-spirally-coiled, self-motile, protoplasmic bodies, with most frequently
-a large number of fine cilia on the anterior end (Figs. <a href="#fig206">206</a>, <a href="#fig223">223</a>, <a href="#fig234">234</a>).
-They are formed principally from the nucleus of the mother-cell, and
-portions of the cytoplasm often remain for a time attached to their
-posterior end.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">ARCHEGONIA</span> are more uniform throughout the entire
-Division, and more closely resemble those of the Mosses. They are, as
-in the previous Division, principally flask-shaped; but the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_199">[199]</span> central
-portion, which encloses the oosphere, is always embedded in the tissue
-of the prothallium, so that the neck, which is formed of 4 rows of
-cells, projects above the surface (Figs. <a href="#fig201">201</a> <sup>3</sup>, <a href="#fig222">222</a> <i>h</i>). The
-development of the archegonium in a Fern is seen in the accompanying
-figure (Fig. <a href="#fig201">201</a>). The archegonium is developed from a surface cell,
-which divides into three cells by two walls in a direction parallel
-to the surface of the prothallium (Fig. <a href="#fig201">201</a>). The most internal cell
-becomes the ventral portion of the archegonium. The external one
-(<i>b</i>) divides perpendicularly to the surface of the prothallium
-into four cells, which again divide parallel to the surface and form
-the neck (<i>b</i>, in 2 and 3). The intermediate cell projects upwards
-into the neck and divides into two, the lower one, after the separation
-of the ventral canal-cell, becoming the <i>oosphere</i>, and the upper
-one the <i>neck-canal-cell</i> (<i>c</i>, in 2 and 3).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig201" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig201.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 201.</span>&mdash;<i>Pteris serrulata.</i> Development
-of archegonia.]</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>As in the Mosses, the divisional walls of the neck-canal-cells become
-mucilaginous, causing the rupture of the neck of the archegonium.
-Fertilisation takes place as in the Mosses, and the passage of the
-spermatozoids, along the neck, to the oosphere, has been observed.
-Water (rain or dew) is similarly necessary for the movements of the
-spermatozoids, and hence for fertilisation. The other classes of the
-Division chiefly deviate from the Ferns in having the archegonium sunk
-deeper into the prothallium, and the neck reduced in length (compare
-Fig. <a href="#fig201">201</a> with Figs. <a href="#fig216">216</a>, <a href="#fig222">222</a>, <a href="#fig235">235</a>, <a href="#fig236">236</a>).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_200">[200]</span></p>
-
-<p>According to the nature of the spores, the three classes of the
-Vascular Cryptogams are each divided into isosporous and heterosporous
-groups.</p>
-
-<p>I. The <b>isosporous</b> Vascular Cryptogams have <i>only one kind
-of spore</i>. The prothallium developed from this is in some cases
-monœcious, bearing both antheridia and archegonia; but in others there
-is a distinct tendency for each prothallium to bear only antheridia or
-archegonia (diœcious)&mdash;true Ferns and <i>Lycopodium</i>.</p>
-
-<p>In <i>Equisetum</i> there is only one kind of spore, but two kinds of
-prothallia are developed, one of which bears only antheridia (male),
-the other only archegonia (female); but the one that bears antheridia
-may be transformed into the one that bears archegonia and vice versa.</p>
-
-<p>II. In the higher group, <b>heterosporous</b> Vascular Cryptogams
-(<i>Selaginella</i> and <i>Isoëtes</i>, etc.), there are two distinct
-kinds of spores, the <i>small</i>, microspores, and the <i>large</i>,
-macrospores. The <i>microspores</i> are male, and produce prothallia
-which bear only antheridia. The <i>macrospores</i> are female, and
-produce prothallia which bear only archegonia.</p>
-
-<p>Corresponding to this difference in the spores, there is also found
-a difference in the development of the prothallium. In the Isosporeæ
-the prothallium is large, and either green, leaf-like, and provided
-with rhizoids (most of the Ferns, Horsetails, etc.), or subterranean,
-pale-coloured, and globular (<i>Ophioglossum</i>, <i>Lycopodium</i>).
-It lives vegetatively for a fairly long time, and generally produces a
-large and varying number of archegonia and antheridia. The prothallium
-in the Heterosporeæ is gradually more and more reduced, its independent
-and vegetative life becomes of less and less importance, it becomes
-more dependent on the mother-plant, and projects from the spore very
-slightly, or not at all. The antheridia and archegonia become reduced
-in number to one, and also degenerate in point of development.</p>
-
-<p>It may here be remarked that the gradual development of the asexual
-generation, the development of the two kinds of spores, and the
-progressive reduction of the prothallium and sexual organs which
-is found in this Division, is continued to the Gymnosperms and
-Angiosperms. The microspores are in these called pollen-grains, and
-the male prothallium is very rudimentary. The macrospores are termed
-embryo-sacs, and the female prothallium, the endosperm.</p>
-
-<p>The <b>asexual generation</b>, <b>sporophyte</b>. When the oosphere,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_201">[201]</span>
-which in this case as in all others is a primordial cell, is
-fertilised, it surrounds itself with a cell-wall and commences to
-divide into a number of cells, to form the embryo.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The first dividing wall (basal wall) is nearly horizontal, and
-in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the archegonium.
-The next wall is vertical, and the next perpendicular to the
-other two. The oosphere, therefore, is now divided into eight
-octants by these three walls. The basal wall divides the
-embryo into a hypobasal and an epibasal half. From the first
-one, by continued divisions, the first root is developed; from
-the latter, the stem and leaves. After the formation of the
-octants the development proceeds in somewhat different ways in
-the various classes. In addition to the stem, leaf, and root,
-a “foot” is developed from the hypobasal half which remains
-enclosed in the prothallium, and conveys nourishment from the
-prothallium to the young plant until it is able to sustain
-itself (Fig. <a href="#fig202">202</a>). The formation of these members in the embryo
-depends on the position of the oosphere in the archegonium and
-prothallium, and is independent of gravity.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig202" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig202.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 202.</span>&mdash;<i>Adiantum capillus veneris.</i>
-Vertical section through a prothallium (<i>f f</i>), with a
-young plant attached on its under side (mag. about 10 times); <i>r</i>
-the first root, and <i>b</i> the first leaf of the young Fern-plant;
-<i>m</i> the foot. In the angle between <i>m</i> and <i>b</i> lies the
-apex of the stem: <i>h</i> the rhizoids of the prothallium; <i>æ</i>
-<i>æ</i> unfertilised archegonia.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>In the Mosses the asexual generation is the sporogonium, which is
-limited in its development and in a great measure dependent upon the
-sexual generation, upon which it is situated; but in the Pteridophyta
-this generation is an independent and highly developed plant, provided
-with stem, leaf, and true roots, and has in many instances an unlimited
-development. The Pteridophyta are the lowest Division with <i>true
-roots</i>. The root which is first formed is very similar in nature
-to the primary root of the Monocotyledons; it very soon dies and is
-replaced by others which are more permanent, and developed upon the
-stem (adventitious roots); roots are wanting in <i>Salvinia</i>,
-<i>Psilotum</i>, and some Hymenophyllaceæ. The differentiation is,
-however, not so complete as in the Flowering-plants, and so many
-leafy forms are not found. The various members of these plants are
-anatomically much higher than in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_202">[202]</span> Mosses, having an epidermis,
-a ground tissue with variously differentiated cells, and a highly
-developed vascular system. The vascular bundles, like those in the
-Monocotyledons, are without cambium, and closed; they are therefore
-incapable of any increase in thickness. In general the bundles are
-concentric, with the bast round the wood (Fig. <a href="#fig203">203</a>). The wood is almost
-entirely made up of scalariform tracheides.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In <i>Isoëtes</i> a secondary thickening takes place by a
-cambium, which is formed inside the cortex, constructing
-secondary cortex to the exterior, and secondary wood towards
-the interior.&mdash;<i>Botrychium</i> has also a thickening growth.
-Collateral vascular bundles occur in <i>Osmundaceæ</i>,
-<i>Equisetaceæ</i>, and the leaves of many <i>Polypodiaceæ</i>,
-etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig203" style="width: 367px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig203.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 203.</span>&mdash;Portion of the stem of a Fern. Above
-is seen the transverse section, with vascular bundles of different form
-and size. The rhombic figures on the side of the stem are leaf-scars.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>It is a point of special interest, that the gigantic forms of Ferns,
-Equisetums, and Club-Mosses (which flourished in earlier geological
-periods, when these classes attained their highest development)
-possessed some means of increasing in thickness.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>sporangia</i> are in all cases <i>capsule-like</i>, and
-burst open when ripe to eject the spores. They are nearly always
-situated on the leaves (in <i>Lycopodiaceæ</i>, in the axils of the
-leaves, or above these, on the stems themselves). In some forms
-(<span class="smcap">Leptosporangiatæ</span>), the sporangia are developed from a single
-epidermal cell; in others (<span class="smcap">Eusporangiatæ</span>), from a group of
-epidermal cells, or from cells which lie beneath the epidermis. In the
-first group a primitive mother-cell (archesporium) is formed, which
-divides commonly into sixteen special mother-cells. In the latter
-group, on the other hand, a number of primitive spore-mother-cells are
-developed. In each sporangium three different tissues are generally
-developed; an innermost <i>sporogenous</i> one (<i>s</i> in Fig.
-<a href="#fig204">204</a> <i>A</i>), which arises from the archesporangium; an outermost
-one, which forms the <i>wall</i> (<i>a</i>),<span class="pagenum" id="Page_203">[203]</span> and may be one or,
-more rarely, several layers in thickness; and an intermediate one,
-the <i>tapetum</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig204">204</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>, <i>b t</i>),
-which is rich in protoplasm, and whose cells are dissolved so that
-the spores float freely in the fluid thus provided. The spores arise
-as in the Mosses (in tetrads), by the cross-division of the special
-mother-cells, and according to the manner in which they are arranged
-in the mother-cell have either a tetrahedral form, with a large base
-resembling a segment of a ball, or are oblong (bilateral spores). Their
-construction is the same as in the Mosses (p. <a href="#Page_187">187</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig204" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig204.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 204.</span>&mdash;<i>Selaginella inæqualifolia.</i>
-<i>A</i> A young sporangium, which may develope either into a macro-,
-or a microsporangium. <i>B</i> A microsporangium.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The spore-formation in its earliest commencement takes place in the
-same way in the Isosporous and the Heterosporous Vascular Cryptogams;
-but from a certain point, after the tetrahedral division, a difference
-occurs with regard to the macrosporangia. All the spores formed in the
-microsporangium may complete their development; but those which are
-formed in the macrosporangium are generally aborted, with the exception
-of one or four, and these consequently attain a much larger size (see
-Fig. <a href="#fig239">239</a>.&mdash;The series to the left are microsporangia; those to the
-right, macrosporangia).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Apogamy.</span> In some Ferns (<i>Pteris cretica</i>;
-<i>Aspidium filix mas</i>, var. <i>cristatum</i>; <i>A.
-falcatum</i>; <i>Todea africana</i>) the young plant is not
-developed as a consequence of fertilisation, but as a bud from
-the prothallium. This is known as apogamy, or loss of the power
-of sexual reproduction. The antheridia are generally more or
-less developed; archegonia are entirely wanting in <i>Asp. filix
-mas</i>, var.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_204">[204]</span> <i>cristatum</i>. This variety has probably
-only become apogamous through cultivation. Many specimens of
-<i>Isoëtes lacustris</i>, in a lake in the Vosges mountains,
-produce in the place where the sporangia are usually found,
-a vegetative shoot which grows into a new plant, so that the
-sexual generation is wanting in this case. Some specimens have
-sporangia on some leaves, and shoots on others.</p>
-
-<p>Apospory, or the formation of prothallia instead of sporangia
-and spores on the leaves, is found in <i>Athyrium filix
-femina</i>, var. <i>clarissimum</i>. In this case the
-development of the sporangia proceeds only to a certain point,
-and from these arrested sporangia the prothallia are produced.
-Normal sporangia are entirely wanting in this variety, and in
-<i>Aspidium angulare</i>, var. <i>pulcherrimum</i>, sporangia
-are completely wanting. Compare the Mosses (page 188).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Vascular Cryptogams are divided into <i>three large classes</i>,
-in each of which a progressive development can be traced from the
-isosporous to the heterosporous forms, but some of these are now only
-known as fossils.</p>
-
-<p>Class 1. <b>Filicinæ</b> (<b>Ferns</b>).&mdash;The stem is small in
-comparison with the leaves, and branches only seldom, and then by
-lateral shoots. The leaves are scattered, large, often deeply divided,
-and of various highly developed forms. The undeveloped leaves are
-rolled up in the bud, having what is termed circinate venation. The
-sporangia are situated on the edge or on the lower side of the leaves,
-those on which the sporangia are borne (<i>sporophylls</i>) being often
-the ordinary foliage-leaves; but in a few cases the fertile differ from
-the barren ones (a higher stage in development). The fertile leaves
-are not confined to definite parts of the shoot, and do not limit its
-growth. The archesporium is most frequently unicellular.</p>
-
-<p><i>A</i>. <b>Isosporous</b>: Sub-Class 1. Filices (True Ferns).</p>
-
-<p><i>B</i>. <b>Heterosporous</b>: Sub-Class 2. Hydropterideæ (Water
-Ferns).</p>
-
-<p>Class 2. <b>Equisetinæ</b> (<b>Horsetails</b>), in its widest
-meaning.&mdash;The leaves in this class are small in comparison with the
-stem. They are arranged in whorls, and unite to form a sheath. The
-sporangia are situated on specially modified, shield-like leaves,
-which are closely packed together and form a “cone.” The cone is
-borne terminally, and limits the growth of the shoot. The sporangia
-are developed from a large group of epidermal cells, the archesporium
-being unicellular. The branches are arranged in whorls, and develope
-acropetally.</p>
-
-<p><i>A</i>. <b>Isosporous</b>: Sub-Class 1. Equisetaceæ. Existing forms.</p>
-
-<p><i>B</i>. <b>Heterosporous</b>: Sub-Class 2. Extinct forms.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_205">[205]</span></p>
-
-<p>Class 3. <b>Lycopodinæ</b> (<b>Club-Mosses</b>).&mdash;Roots generally
-branching dichotomously. The leaves are scattered or opposite, and in
-proportion to the stem very small, undivided, and simple. They are
-scale-like and triangular, tapering from a broad base to a point. The
-sporangia are situated singly (except in <i>Psilotaceæ</i>), and almost
-in every case on the upper side of the leaf or in the axil of a leaf;
-but in some cases they are borne on the stem, just above the leaf-axil.
-The sporangia arise from groups of epidermal cells. The sporophylls
-are often modified, and differ from the foliage-leaves; they are then
-arranged in cones placed terminally on branches, thus limiting their
-growth.</p>
-
-<p><i>A</i>. <b>Isosporous</b>: Sub-Class 1. Lycopodieæ.</p>
-
-<p><i>B.</i> <b>Heterosporous</b>: Sub-Class 2. Selaginelleæ.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Class 1. <b>Filicinæ</b> (<b>Ferns</b>).</h3>
-
-<p>The characteristics of this class have already been given on page <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</p>
-
-<p>The class is divided into two sub-classes:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>1. The <span class="smcap">True Ferns</span>, <span class="smcap">Filices</span>, have one kind of
-spore which generally developes monœcious prothallia, relatively
-large and green. The sporangia are most frequently situated in
-groups (<i>sori</i>), which are often covered but not enclosed by an
-<i>indusium</i>.</p>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">Water Ferns</span>, <span class="smcap">Hydropteridæ</span>, have microsporangia
-with many (4 × 16) microspores, and <i>macrosporangia, each with one
-macrospore</i>. The prothallium is small, and projects but slightly
-from the germinating spore. The sporangia are situated in groups
-(<i>sori</i>), which are either enclosed by an indusium, or enveloped
-in a portion of a leaf, to form “fruits” termed <i>sporocarps</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The old name for the Hydropterideæ, “Rhizocarpeæ,” <i>i.e.</i>
-the “root-fruited,” originated from the erroneous supposition
-that the sporocarps were borne on the roots.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class 1. <b>Filices</b> (<b>the True Ferns</b>).</h3>
-
-<p>Of the eight orders (with about 4,000 species) comprised in this
-sub-class, the Polypodiaceæ is the largest (having about 2,800 species)
-and the most familiar; for this reason it will be taken as typical.</p>
-
-<p><b>The sexual generation.</b> When the spore germinates, the external
-covering (exospore) is ruptured, as in the Mosses. The internal
-cell-wall (endospore) grows out as a filament, which soon divides and
-gives rise to the prothallium, a flat, cellular expansion resembling
-the thallus of a Liverwort. In its fully developed state<span class="pagenum" id="Page_206">[206]</span> the
-prothallium is generally heart-shaped, dark green, and provided with
-root-hairs, and it attains a diameter of about one centimetre (Fig.
-<a href="#fig205">205</a>). It is formed of one layer of cells, except along the central
-line near the anterior depression, where it becomes several layers
-of cells in thickness, forming the “cushion,” on the lower side of
-which the archegonia are developed. The antheridia are first formed;
-they are thus found on the oldest parts of the prothallium, on its
-edge, or among the root-hairs. The archegonia are developed later,
-and are therefore found near the apex. Several tropical Ferns have
-prothallia<a id="FNanchor_18" href="#Footnote_18" class="fnanchor">[18]</a> deviating from this typical form; <i>Trichomanes</i>
-(Order <i>Hymenophyllaceæ</i>) has filamentous, branched prothallia,
-which resemble the protonema of a Moss. Others, again, have
-strap-shaped prothallia, which resemble the thallus of certain
-Liverworts.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig205" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig205.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 205.</span>&mdash;Prothallium (<i>p p</i>)
-of Maiden hair (<i>Adiantum capillus veneris</i>) with a young plant
-attached: <i>b</i> first leaf; <i>w′</i> primary root; <i>w″</i>
-adventitious roots; <i>h h</i> root-hairs of the prothallium (×
-abt. 30).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig206" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig206.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 206.</span>&mdash;Antheridia of Maiden-hair (× 550).
-<i>A</i> Unripe; <i>B</i> ripe, but unopened; <i>C</i> open and
-ejecting the spermatozoids (<i>s</i>). Those which have been last
-ejected are still lying enclosed in their mother-cells, the others
-are coiled up and drag with them the cytoplasmic remains (<i>b</i>);
-<i>f</i> cells of the prothallium.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_207">[207]</span></p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">ARCHEGONIA</span> have been already mentioned (p. <a href="#Page_199">199</a>, Fig. <a href="#fig201">201</a>).
-The <span class="allsmcap">ANTHERIDIA</span> are hemispherical or slightly conical bodies
-(Fig. <a href="#fig206">206</a>). They consist, as in the Mosses, of a wall formed by one
-layer of cells, which encloses a number of spermatozoid-mother-cells
-(<i>A</i> and <i>B</i>). The antheridia when ripe absorb water, and are
-ruptured, and the spirally-coiled spermatozoids liberated (Fig. <a href="#fig206">206</a>
-<i>S</i>). The spermatozoids have been observed to pass down the neck
-of the archegonium, and to fuse with the oosphere.</p>
-
-<p><b>The asexual generation.</b> The first leaf, the “cotyledon,” of the
-embryo developed from the oospore (Figs. <a href="#fig202">202</a>, <a href="#fig205">205</a>) is always small,
-and has a very simple shape. The leaves which occur later become more
-perfect, stage by stage, until the permanent form of leaf has been
-attained.&mdash;The <span class="allsmcap">STEM</span> is most frequently a subterranean or a
-semi-aerial rhizome; it is only in the tropical, palm-like Tree-Ferns,
-that the stem raises itself high in the air and resembles that of a
-tree, with leaf-scars or with the remains of leaves attached (Figs.
-<a href="#fig207">207</a>, <a href="#fig203">203</a>); in certain species the stem is encased in a thick mat
-of aerial roots (<i>Dicksonia antarctica</i>). When the rhizome is
-horizontal the internodes are frequently elongated, and the leaves
-are arranged in two rows, as in <i>Polypodium vulgare</i> and in the
-Bracken-Fern (<i>Pteridium aquilinum</i>), etc.; it is also generally
-<i>dorsiventral</i>, having a dorsal side on which the leaves are
-situated, and a ventral side, different from the former, on which the
-roots are borne. When the stem ascends in an oblique direction, or is
-nearly vertical, its internodes are extremely short, and the leaves are
-arranged in a spiral line with a complicated phyllotaxis, <i>e.g.</i>
-in <i>Athyrium filix-fœmina</i>, <i>Aspidium filix-mas</i>, etc. The
-<span class="allsmcap">BRANCHING</span> upon the whole is extremely slight, and is generally
-confined to the petiole (<i>e.g. Aspid. filix-mas</i>), or to
-the stem near the insertion of the leaves. Several species normally
-form buds on different parts of the lamina. The buds which are formed
-on the stem are not confined to the leaf-axil as in the higher plants.
-The Tree-Ferns, generally, do not branch at all.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">VASCULAR BUNDLES</span> are <i>concentric</i>, with the wood
-surrounded by the soft bast. In transverse section they are seen
-as circles or irregularly-shaped figures (Fig. <a href="#fig203">203</a>), the name
-of “King Charles and the Oak” (Bracken-Fern) having originated
-from the appearance which the bundles present in oblique section.
-In <i>Osmunda</i> they are collateral and resemble those of the
-Flowering-plants. Round each individual bundle is often a sheath of
-thick-walled, hard, brown, sclerenchymatous cells, which act as a
-mechanical<span class="pagenum" id="Page_208">[208]</span> tissue; similar strands are also found in other parts of
-the stem.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig207" style="width: 493px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig207.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 207.</span>&mdash;Various Ferns (1, 2, 3, 4).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">LEAVES</span> in nearly all species are only foliage-leaves,
-borne in a spiral. They have an apical growth which continues for
-a long time, and some require several years for their complete
-development. In the buds they are rolled up (<i>circinate</i>); not
-only the midrib, but also all the lateral veins, and even the terminal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_209">[209]</span>
-portions of a leaf are sometimes rolled up together, the tissues of
-the leaf being already fully developed and only waiting to expand.
-The leaves are often excessively divided and compound, with pinnate
-branches, and have an epidermis with stomata and a well-developed
-system of venation. Stipules are only found in <i>Marattiaceæ</i> and
-<i>Ophioglossaceæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Very often peculiar hairs or scales (<i>paleæ</i>, <i>ramenta</i>),
-dry, brown, flat and broad, are found on stem and leaf.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">SPORANGIA</span> are small, round capsules, which, in a very
-large number of Ferns, are formed on the back, but more rarely on the
-edge of the ordinary foliage-leaves. It is very seldom that there
-is any difference in form between the barren foliage-leaves and the
-fertile leaves, as is found for example in <i>Blechnum spicant</i>
-or <i>Struthiopteris</i>; or that the fertile part of the leaf is
-differently constructed from the barren portion of the same leaf, as in
-the Royal-Fern (<i>Osmunda</i>). In such instances the mesophyll of the
-fertile parts is poorly developed.</p>
-
-<p>The sporangia in the <i>Polypodiaceæ</i> are lens-shaped, with long
-stalk (Fig. <a href="#fig211">211</a> <i>D</i>): their wall consists of one cell-layer on
-which a single row of cells, passing vertically over the top (that
-is along the edge of the sporangium), is developed into the “ring”
-(annulus). The cells of the annulus are very much thickened on the
-inner and side walls, and are yellowish-brown. The thickened cells,
-however, do not entirely encircle the sporangium, and on one side, near
-the stalk, they pass over into large, flat, thin-walled cells. These
-form a weak point in the wall, and it is here that the sporangium is
-opened diagonally by the elongation of the annulus. The sporangium of
-the Polypodiaceæ opens as it dries. The cells of the annulus are very
-hygroscopic, and in straightening, the annulus bends back with a jerk,
-thus ejecting the spores to considerable distances. The cells of the
-annulus absorb water with great readiness. [The sporangium arises as
-a single epidermal cell, from which a basal stalk-cell is cut off.
-Three oblique cell-walls, intersecting near the base, are next formed
-in the upper cell, and a fourth between these and parallel to the free
-surface; an inner tetrahedral cell enclosed by four others is thus
-formed, the outer cells become the wall of the sporangium, while the
-inner cell, by a series of walls, parallel to its sides, cuts off a
-layer of cells which eventually form the tapetum, the remaining central
-cell constituting the archesporium.]</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">SPORES</span> are either oblong and bilateral, or they are
-tetrahedric<span class="pagenum" id="Page_210">[210]</span> with curved sides, depending upon the way in which the
-tetrad division has taken place.</p>
-
-<p>The sporangia are almost always situated on the nerves and gathered
-into groups, <i>sori</i>, which differ in form in the various genera.
-The sori, in many genera, may be covered by a scale-like structure, the
-<i>indusium</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig211">211</a> <i>B</i>, <a href="#fig212">212</a>).</p>
-
-<p>In the majority of cases, each sorus is situated on a small papilla
-(<i>placenta</i>, or <i>receptacle</i>), which is supplied by a small
-vascular bundle. Between the sporangia, hairs (<i>paraphyses</i>) are
-often situated, which spring either from the placenta or from the
-stalks of the sporangia.</p>
-
-<p><b>Systematic Division.</b> The Ferns may be divided into two groups,
-characterized by the structure and development of the sporangia. The
-sporangia in the <span class="smcap">Eusporangiatæ</span> take their origin from a group
-of epidermal cells, and their walls are formed by several layers of
-cells. The archesporium is the (not tetrahedric) hypodermal terminal
-cell of the axial row of cells which give rise to the sporangium. In
-the <span class="smcap">Leptosporangiatæ</span> the sporangia are developed from single
-epidermal cells, and their walls are uni-layered. The archesporium is a
-central, often tetrahedric cell, from which sixteen spore-mother-cells
-are developed.<a id="FNanchor_19" href="#Footnote_19" class="fnanchor">[19]</a> It is difficult to say which form is the oldest
-(according to Prantl, those which have the sori on the nerve-endings);
-however, the Eusporangiatæ would seem to have made their appearance
-long before the others, and also well defined Marattiaceæ and
-Ophioglossaceæ occur in the Kulm and Coal period, before the true
-Polypodiaceæ.</p>
-
-<p>About 4,000 species of Ferns are now existing, and they are found
-especially in tropical and sub-tropical forests.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 1. <b>Eusporangiatæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Ophioglossaceæ.</b> The prothallium differs from that
-of all other Ferns in being <i>subterranean</i>, <i>free from
-chlorophyll</i>, <i>pale</i> and <i>tuberous</i>. The stem is extremely
-short, with short internodes, most frequently unbranched, vertical,
-and entirely buried in the ground (Fig. <a href="#fig208">208</a> <i>st</i>). In several
-species (among which are the native ones) one leaf is produced every
-year, which has taken three to four years for its development. In
-<i>Botrychium</i> a closed, sheath-like basal part of each leaf covers
-the subsequent leaves during their development. In <i>Ophioglossum</i>
-and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_211">[211]</span> others each leaf has at its base an intrapetiolar, cap-like
-sheath, which protects the succeeding leaf. The leaves are of two
-kinds: (<i>a</i>) foliage, which in <i>Ophioglossum vulgatum</i> are
-lanceolate and entire, but in <i>Botrychium</i> however, are pinnate
-(<i>b</i> in Fig. <a href="#fig208">208</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>); and (<i>b</i>) fertile,
-which are found facing the upper side of the foliage-leaves. These
-latter in <i>Ophioglossum</i> are undivided and spike-like (Fig. <a href="#fig209">209</a>
-<i>A</i>), but pinnate in <i>Botrychium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig208">208</a> <i>B</i>). Each
-foliage and fertile leaf are branches from the same petiole. The large
-sporangia are placed laterally, and open by two valves. No annulus is
-formed (Fig. <a href="#fig209">209</a>).&mdash;<i>Ophioglossum</i> reproduces vegetatively by
-adventitious buds on the roots.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig208" style="width: 466px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig208.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 208.</span>&mdash;<i>A Ophioglossum
-vulgatum</i> (Adder’s-tongue); <i>B Botrychium lunaria</i>
-(Moonwort), both natural size; <i>r-r</i> roots; <i>bs</i> leaf-stalk;
-<i>st</i> stem; <i>b</i> foliage-leaf; <i>f</i> fertile leaf.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig209" style="width: 150px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig209.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 209.</span>&mdash;Fertile leaf of
-<i>Ophioglossum</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_212">[212]</span></p>
-
-<p>Three genera with about twelve species.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Marattiaceæ</b> are tropical Ferns, whose gigantic leaves
-resemble those of the Polypodiaceæ, but have stipules in addition.
-The sporangia are grouped in sori, situated on the lower side of the
-leaves, the sporangia in each sorus being arranged either in two
-rows or in a ring. In <i>Angiopteris</i> they are isolated (Fig. <a href="#fig210">210</a>
-<i>A</i>), but in the other species (<i>Kaulfussia</i>, <i>Danæa</i>,
-<i>Marattia</i>), they are united, and form “synangia” divided into
-a number of chambers corresponding to the sporangia. These open by
-clefts or pores. <i>Marattia</i> presents the highest development,
-as its sporangia are completely united in a capsule-like synangium,
-which is closed until maturity, and then opens by two valves. In each
-valve there is a row of three to eleven sporangia, each opening by a
-slit towards the inside (Fig. <a href="#fig210">210</a> <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>). An indusium
-encloses the sorus, except in <i>Kaulfussia</i>; it is formed of flat
-and lobed hairs, which resemble the hairs of the other portions of the
-leaves. In <i>Angiopteris</i> and <i>Marattia</i> the indusium is very
-rudimentary; in <i>Danæa</i> it forms a kind of cupule.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The numerous fossil Marattiaceæ (15 genera, with 98 species)
-present similar differences to those now living, but more
-various forms are found, for example, with solitary free
-sporangia. Those now living are the last small remnant (4 genera
-with only 23 species) of a once dominant family, which existed
-from very early times, and whose culminating point was reached
-in the Kulm and Coal periods.</p>
-
-<p>The Ophioglossaceæ appear also in the Kulm and Coal periods,
-and were about as numerous as at the present time (presumably 2
-genera, with 19 species). Leptosporangiate Ferns appear however
-to have occurred first of all in the Trias-formation.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig210" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig210.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 210.</span>&mdash;Sporangia of the Marattiaceæ:
-<i>A Angiopteris</i>; <i>B</i> and <i>C Marattia</i>;
-<i>C</i> is a half sorus with nine sporangia, each of which has opened
-by a longitudinal cleft.</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 2. <b>Leptosporangiatæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Polypodiaceæ.</b> Sporangia on the lower side of the
-leaves, <i>stalked</i> and provided with a <i>vertical</i>, incomplete
-annulus; dehiscing by a transverse cleft (Fig. <a href="#fig211">211</a> <i>D</i>).&mdash;The
-genera are distinguished by the form of the indusium and the position
-of the sori, etc.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_213">[213]</span></p>
-
-<p>1. The sporangia cover the entire lower surface of the leaf (Tropical
-America and Asia). <i>Acrostichum</i>, <i>Platycerium.</i></p>
-
-<p>2. Sori without indusia, circular or oval. <i>Polypodium</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig211">211</a> <i>A</i>). The leaves are most frequently situated in two rows
-on the dorsal side of the creeping rhizome, and fall off leaving a
-smooth scar behind.&mdash;<i>P. vulgare</i>, common in woods, on stones.
-(<i>Phegopteris</i> also has no indusium; see page <a href="#Page_214">214</a>).</p>
-
-<p>3. The sporangia are situated in continuous lines just inside the
-margin of the leaf.&mdash;<i>Pteris</i><a id="FNanchor_20" href="#Footnote_20" class="fnanchor">[20]</a>: the sporangia form a continuous
-line along the entire margin of the leaf (Fig. <a href="#fig211">211</a> <i>C</i>), which
-bends over and covers the sporangia, forming a “false-indusium.”
-<i>Pteridium</i> has linear sori situated on a marginal vascular
-bundle, covered by two linear basal indusia, of which the outer is bent
-over like the edge of a leaf.&mdash;<i>P. aquilinum</i> (Bracken) has a
-wide-spreading rhizome with large alternate leaves, placed on opposite
-sides, at some distance apart. Only one leaf is developed from each
-branch every year.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig211" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig211.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 211.</span>&mdash;Portions of leaves with sori.
-<i>A Polypodium</i>. <i>B Aspidium</i>. <i>C</i>
-<i>Pteridium</i>. <i>D</i> A sporangium of one of the Polypodiaceæ:
-<i>r</i> the annulus; <i>s</i> spores.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Adiantum</i> (Maiden-hair): sori on the underside of
-small portions of the edge of the leaf, which are bent over
-(false indusium). <i>Cryptogramme</i> (<i>Allosorus</i>),
-<i>Cheilanthes</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>4. The sori are oval or linear, situated on one side of the vascular
-bundle.&mdash;<i>Asplenium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig212">212</a> <i>A</i>): sori linear;
-indusium with one of its edges attached at the external side.
-<i>A. ruta muraria</i> (Wall-Rue); <i>A. septentrionale</i>; <i>A.
-trichomanes</i>.&mdash;<i>Athyrium</i>: sori linear or curved; <i>A.
-filix-fœmina</i> (Lady-Fern).&mdash;<i>Scolopendrium</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_214">[214]</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig212">212</a>
-<i>B</i>): sori as in <i>Asplenium</i>, but situated in pairs across
-the lanceolate, entire leaves. Each sorus is covered on the external
-side by an indusium, whose free edges are parallel and approach each
-other. <i>S. vulgare</i> (Hart’s-tongue).&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Blechnum</i> (<i>B. spicant</i>, Hard Fern; the fertile leaves
-differ from the barren, the pinnæ being narrower, while the underside
-is almost entirely covered with sori, and hence they are of a much
-darker brownish hue than the barren ones).&mdash;<i>Ceterach</i>: indusium
-rudimentary or absent.</span></p>
-
-<p>5. Sori circular and covered by a shield-like, or reniform
-indusium.&mdash;<i>Aspidium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig211">211</a> <i>B</i>); the leaves wither away
-and leave no scar upon the root-stock. <i>A. filix-mas</i> (Male-Fern);
-<i>A. spinulosum</i>.&mdash;<i>Phegopteris</i> has no indusium, the withered
-bases of the leaf-stalks are persistent; <i>P. dryopteris</i> and <i>P.
-polypodioides</i>.</p>
-
-<p>6. The indusium is situated below the sori, and has the shape of a
-one-sided scale (<i>Cystopteris</i>, <i>Struthiopteris</i>), or of a
-cup or cupule, which in <i>Woodsia</i> is sometimes fimbriate (Fig. <a href="#fig212">212</a>
-<i>C</i>, <i>D</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig212" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig212.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 212.&mdash;<i>A Asplenium</i>. <i>B</i>
-<i>Scolopendrium</i>. <i>C Woodsia</i>; <i>D</i> single sorus of
-the same. <i>E Cyathea</i>: the sporangia have fallen off in the
-upper sori. (All magnified.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>7. The sori are situated on the margin of the leaf, and
-at the end of a vascular bundle. Indusium, semi-cupular.
-<i>Davallia.</i> Principally tropical species. 1 in S. Europe.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>This order is the greatest, comprising about 2,800 species, the
-majority being perennial plants. A few are large, and known as
-Tree-Ferns.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>As plants in conservatories and rooms the following are
-cultivated: species of <i>Gymnogramme</i> (tropical America),
-<i>Lomaria</i>, <i>Nephrolepis</i>, <i>Pteris</i> (<i>P.
-serrulata</i>, <i>cretica</i>).</p>
-
-<p>Officinal. <i>Aspidium filix-mas</i>, rhizome and the withered
-petioles.&mdash;Species of <i>Alsophila</i> and <i>Cibotium</i> give
-Penghawar Djambi. The rhizome of <i>Pteridium aquilinum</i>,
-var. <i>esculentum</i>, contains so much starch that it is used
-as food.</p>
-
-<p>The other orders of true Ferns deviate from the Polypodiaceæ,
-especially in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_215">[215]</span> the formation of the annulus, the bursting of the
-sporangium and its mode of attachment and development, and in
-the differences in the formation of the prothallium, etc. The
-principal are:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Hymenophyllaceæ.</b> To this order belong the lowest
-and most Moss-like Ferns; the leaves, with the exception of
-the veins, are most frequently formed of <i>only one layer of
-cells</i>, and consequently stomata are wanting; the formation
-of the prothallium also somewhat resembles the Mosses. Sori
-marginal, on the <i>extremities of the vascular bundles</i>,
-and surrounded by a <i>cupular indusium</i>. The sporangia
-are sessile, with equatorial annulus. <i>Hymenophyllum</i>
-(<i>H. tunbridgense</i>, European). <i>Trichomanes</i> (<i>T.
-speciosum</i>, European). Species about 200, which live
-especially on rocks and trees in damp and shady tropical
-forests. Some have no roots.</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Cyatheaceæ.</b> Annulus <i>complete</i> and oblique.
-To this order belong, principally, the tree-like Ferns with
-palm-like habit. The number of species is about 200, they are
-all tropical and form forests in some regions of Australia.
-<i>Cibotium</i> and <i>Dicksonia</i> have marginal sori, with
-cupular, basal indusium. (The stem of <i>D. antarctica</i> is
-covered with aerial roots.) <i>Alsophila</i> (without indusium);
-<i>Cyathea</i> with cupular, inferior indusium (Fig. <a href="#fig212">212</a>
-<i>E</i>).</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig213" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig213.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 213.</span>&mdash;<i>Gleichenia</i>: <i>A</i> part of
-a leaf with sori; <i>B</i> a single sorus.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Gleicheniaceæ.</b> Sporangia with equatorial
-annulus, and longitudinal dehiscence, most frequently groups of
-3–4 in sori without indusium (Fig. <a href="#fig213">213</a>). <i>Gleichenia</i>: the
-apical growth of the leaves continues for a long time.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Schizæaceæ.</b> Annulus apical. To this order
-belongs <i>Aneimia</i>, which is so commonly cultivated in
-conservatories. The two lowest pinnæ are metamorphosed,
-having no leaf parenchyma and being covered with sporangia.
-<i>Schizæa. Mohria. Lygodium</i>, a climber, whose
-leaves have unlimited growth and attain a length of several
-metres. About 70 species. Tropical.</p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Osmundaceæ.</b> The sporangia have at the apex a
-lateral group of strongly thickened cells, which gradually
-pass over into the ordinary cells. The sporangia open by a
-longitudinal cleft. Indusium wanting. <i>Osmunda</i> bears the
-sporangia upon peculiar, branched pinnæ, without parenchyma (the
-uppermost in the leaf). <i>O. regalis</i> (Royal-Fern): European.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class 2. <b>Hydropterideæ</b> (formerly Rhizocarpeæ), <b>Water
-Ferns</b>.</h3>
-
-<p>The following further characteristics must be added to those given on
-page 205:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_216">[216]</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig214" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig214.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 214.</span>&mdash;<i>Salvinia natans</i>: <i>A</i>
-microsporangium with germinating microspores and protruding prothallia
-(<i>s</i>); <i>B</i> a prothallium with the bicellular antheridium
-(<i>s</i>) growing out of the microsporangium; <i>C</i> the two
-cells of the antheridium have opened by transverse clefts; beneath
-is seen the microspores enclosed by the hardened mucilage; <i>D</i>
-spermatozoids still enclosed in the mother-cells.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig215" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig215.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 215.</span>&mdash;<i>Salvinia natans. A</i>,
-<i>B</i> Female prothallia, <i>f-f</i>, protruding from the macrospore
-which is still enclosed in the macrosporangium; <i>œ</i> archegonia.
-<i>C</i> An embryo (× 16) still in connection with the spore
-(<i>s</i>): <i>a</i> the scutiform leaf; <i>b-e</i> the subsequent
-foliage-leaves, of which <i>b</i> and <i>c</i> stand singly,
-<i>d-e-v</i> in a whorl; <i>v</i> the submerged-leaf; <i>f-f</i>
-wing-like lobes of the prothallium: <i>m</i> the foot.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>Sexual generation.</b> The <span class="allsmcap">MICROSPORES</span> produce an extremely
-rudimentary prothallium, formed of only a single cell, and having
-also a very much reduced bicellular antheridium with a small number
-of spermatozoid mother-cells in each cell (in <i>Salvinia</i> 4, in
-<i>Marsilia</i> and <i>Pilularia</i> 16). In <i>Salvinia</i> the
-microspores remain embedded in a hard mucilaginous mass (at first
-frothy) which fills up the cavity of the sporangium. The prothallium
-must therefore<span class="pagenum" id="Page_217">[217]</span> grow out through this slime and also through the wall
-of the sporangium (Fig. <a href="#fig214">214</a>), and it thus terminates in a relatively
-long cell.</p>
-
-<p>In <i>Marsilia</i> the microspores are set free from the
-microsporangium, and the prothallia, with the antheridia, remain
-in them until the spermatozoids are liberated. The latter are
-spirally-twisted threads.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">MACROSPORES</span>, on germination, give rise to a very reduced
-prothallium, which in <i>Salvinia</i> bears 3 archegonia; but, if these
-are not fertilised, the prothallium may continue to grow and become a
-fairly large, green body with several archegonia (Fig. <a href="#fig215">215</a> <i>A</i>,
-<i>B</i>). In <i>Marsilia</i> the prothallium is still more reduced,
-it is enclosed in the macrospore, and only bears one archegonium. The
-archegonia are similar in structure to those of the Ferns, but are
-smaller, and sunk more deeply in the tissue of the prothallium.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig216" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig216.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 216.</span>&mdash;<i>Salvinia natans. A</i>
-An archegonium, unripe, seen in longitudinal section: <i>h</i> the
-neck-cells; <i>k</i> the neck-canal-cells; <i>c</i> the central cell.
-<i>B</i> An open archegonium of which the neck-cells have separated
-off. <i>C</i> An open, old archegonium seen from the top.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>The asexual generation</b> is developed from the fertilised
-egg-cell. It is a dorsiventral, horizontal shoot. In <i>Salvinia</i>
-it bears at first a shield-like leaf, the scutiform leaf (Fig. <a href="#fig215">215</a>
-<i>C</i>, <i>a</i>), which is succeeded by the ordinary foliage-leaves.
-The young plants of <i>Marsilia</i>, likewise, have less perfect leaves
-in the very early stage.</p>
-
-<p>The formation of the sporangium is the same as in the Leptosporangiate
-Ferns. (The 16 spore-mother-cells originate from one central,
-tetrahedric archesporium.)</p>
-
-<p>The Hydropterideæ are divided into 2 orders, the chief differences
-between them being found in the asexual generation.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_218">[218]</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig217" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig217.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 217.</span>&mdash;<i>Salvinia natans</i> (natural
-size): <i>A</i> seen from above, floating on the water; <i>B</i> a
-portion seen from the side in its natural position in the water.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig218" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig218.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 218.</span>&mdash;Sori of <i>Salvinia</i> in
-longitudinal section: <i>h</i> microsporangia; <i>m</i> macrosporangia. (× 10.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Salviniaceæ.</b> This order more nearly approaches the true
-Ferns, especially so on account of the form of the indusium. Only one
-species is found in Europe, <i>Salvinia natans</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig217">217</a>). This
-is a small, floating, annual, aquatic plant, entirely <i>destitute
-of roots</i>. The dorsiventral, horizontal stem bears two kinds of
-leaves, which are arranged in whorls of three. Two of these which turn
-upwards are oval, entire, “<i>aerial foliage-leaves</i>” (Fig. <a href="#fig217">217</a> B,
-<i>b<sup>2</sup></i>-<i>b<sup>3</sup></i>); the third, the “<i>water-leaf</i>” (<i>b<sup>1</sup></i>)
-is submerged and divided into a number of hair-like segments, similar
-to the submerged leaves in many aquatic plants, for instance,
-Water-buttercup (see also Fig. <a href="#fig215">215</a> <i>C</i>). The whorls of leaves
-alternate with each other; there are thus 4 rows of dorsally-placed
-aerial leaves, and two rows of ventrally-placed submerged leaves. The
-sporangia are situated in sori, each sorus being borne on a small
-column (receptacle or placenta) and enveloped by a <i>cupular</i>, but
-<i>entirely closed indusium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig218">218</a>). <i>The sori are situated
-on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_219">[219]</span> the submerged leaves</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig217">217</a> <i>B</i>, <i>s-s</i>) <i>and are
-unisexual</i>, <i>i.e.</i> each sorus contains microsporangia only, or
-macrosporangia.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Azolla</i> belongs to this order. It is a very small,
-floating, tropical water-plant (America and East India), with
-horizontal, root-bearing stem. The stem branches profusely by
-lateral buds, and bears the two rows of leaves on its dorsal
-side, the roots on the ventral side. Each leaf is bifid, and
-divided into an upper dorsal, and a lower ventral portion.
-The upper segments float on the surface of the water and
-are arranged like tiles on a roof, each one overlapping its
-neighbour. In each floating segment a large cavity is found, in
-which <i>Anabæna</i> is always present. The lower segments are
-submerged.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Marsiliaceæ.</b> The characteristic feature of this
-order, and one not possessed by other Fern-like plants, is that the
-sori (2–many) are enveloped <i>in leaf-segments</i> which <i>close
-round them</i> and form a “sporocarp,” just in the same manner as the
-carpels, in the Angiospermous Flowering-plants, close round the ovules
-and form ovaries. The sori contain both micro-and macrosporangia. When
-the spores are ripe, the sporocarp opens in order to disperse the
-spores (Fig. <a href="#fig220">220</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig219" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig219.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 219.</span>&mdash;<i>Marsilia salvatrix</i> (natural
-size): <i>K</i> terminal bud; <i>b</i> leaves; <i>f</i> sporocarps;
-<i>x</i> point of branching of petiole.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The two genera (with 57 species, Temperate, Tropics) are land-and
-marsh-plants, whose dorsiventral, creeping stem bears roots on the
-under surface, and the leaves in two rows on the upper side (Figs.
-<a href="#fig219">219</a>, <a href="#fig221">221</a>). The leaves of <i>Marsilia</i> are compound, and divided
-into four small leaflets springing from the apex of the petiole (Fig.
-<a href="#fig219">219</a>), and resemble the leaves of <i>Oxalis</i>. In the bud the leaves
-are circinate (Fig. <a href="#fig219">219</a> <i>b</i>), and at night they exhibit the
-well-known sleep-movements. The sporocarps are borne on the petioles
-of the fertile leaves, near their bases (Fig. <a href="#fig219">219</a> <i>f</i>); they
-are oblong and resemble small beans, the outer cells being hard and
-sclerenchymatous, while the inner ones are divided into a number of
-loculi arranged in two rows. On<span class="pagenum" id="Page_220">[220]</span> germination, water is absorbed, the
-two sides separate slightly, as valves (Fig. <a href="#fig220">220</a> <i>A</i>), and a
-long vermiform mass of gelatinous, parenchymatous cells (Fig. <a href="#fig220">220</a>),
-swollen by the water, emerges, bearing a large number of sori arranged
-pinnately. Each sorus (<i>sr</i>) is covered by a thin indusium. (The
-thin covering may be considered an indusium physiologically, though not
-morphologically).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig220" style="width: 321px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig220.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 220.</span>&mdash;<i>Marsilia salvatrix</i>: <i>A</i>
-the sporocarp commencing to germinate; <i>B</i> a more advanced stage
-of germination.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig221" style="width: 268px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig221.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 221.</span>&mdash;<i>Pilularia globulifera</i>
-(natural size): <i>s</i> sporocarps; <i>b</i> leaves; <i>k</i> the
-growing point; <i>r</i> roots.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Marsilia quadrifolia</i>, in Europe. Many species are found
-in Australia. The nutritious sporocarps of <i>M. salvatrix</i>
-were the means of saving the Burke expedition in the interior of
-Australia, and hence this species has earned its specific name.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><i>Pilularia</i> has linear leaves, without lamina. The sporocarps are
-spheroid (Fig. <a href="#fig221">221</a>), brown and hard, and situated near the base of the
-leaves. They are 2–4 chambered and open by a corresponding number of
-valves.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_221">[221]</span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Class 2. <b>Equisetinæ (Horsetails.)</b></h3>
-
-<p>The characteristics of this class have been described on page <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</p>
-
-<p>It is divided into two sub-classes:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">The isosporous Equisetinæ.</span> To this sub-class belong, with
-certainty, only the <span class="smcap">Equisetaceæ</span> now existent, which are
-represented by only one genus, <i>Equisetum</i>.</p>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">The heterosporous Equisetinæ.</span> Forms which are now extinct.</p>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class 1. <b>Isosporous Equisetinæ.</b></h3>
-
-<p>Order. <b>Equisetaceæ (Horsetails).</b></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig222" style="width: 524px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig222.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 222.</span>&mdash;<i>Equisetum arvense.</i> The
-prothallium highly magnified. <i>A</i> Male; <i>s, s</i> antheridia.
-<i>B</i> Portion of a female, cut through vertically; <i>œ œ</i>
-archegonia, the central one is fertilised; <i>h h</i> root-hairs.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig223" style="width: 247px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig223.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 223.</span>&mdash;<i>Equisetum maximum.</i>
-Spermatozoids: <i>a</i> shows them still enveloped by the mother-cell.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>The sexual generation.</b> The prothallium is green and leaf-like,
-as in the majority of Ferns, but irregularly branched and curled. It
-is often unisexual. The male prothallia bear antheridia only, and
-are smaller and less branched (Fig. <a href="#fig222">222</a> <i>A</i>) than the female;
-the latter may attain a diameter of ½ an inch, and bear archegonia
-only (Fig. <a href="#fig222">222</a> <i>B</i>). The antheridia and the archegonia resemble
-those of the Ferns, but the spermatozoids (Fig. <a href="#fig223">223</a>) are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_222">[222]</span> larger and
-less twisted. On the last curve is situated a more or less elongated
-appendage of cytoplasm (Fig. <a href="#fig223">223</a> <i>c</i>).</p>
-
-<p><b>The asexual generation.</b> The embryo is similar to that of the
-Ferns. The fully developed <i>Equisetum</i> is a perennial herb, with
-widely creeping (in some species tuberous) rhizome, from which extend
-erect, aerial, most frequently annual shoots.</p>
-
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig224" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig224.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 224.</span>&mdash;<i>Equisetum arvense</i>: <i>a</i>
-fertile branch with cone; <i>b</i> vegetative shoot; <i>c</i> cone;
-<i>d</i> sporophylls.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The vegetative aerial <span class="allsmcap">STEMS</span> are divided into a number of
-internodes by the whorls of leaves (Fig. <a href="#fig224">224</a>). The internodes are
-hollow, the cavities being separated from each other by the transverse
-partitions of the solid nodes. The lower portion of the internode,
-which is encased by the leaves, has much thinner and softer cell-walls,
-so that the stem is easily separated into segments just above the
-nodes. Each internode has a large number of ridges and furrows,
-and bears at its apex a whorl of leaves whose number and position
-correspond to the ridges of the internode. As in the case of other
-verticillate plants, the whorls are placed alternately, one above
-the other; the same arrangement is also found in the ridges on two
-successive internodes. In addition to the large air-cavity in the
-centre of each internode (the central cavity), a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_223">[223]</span> whorl of tubular
-air-passages is found in the cortex of the stems, opposite the furrows
-(vallecular canals). There is also a similar air-passage (carinal
-canals) in each of the vascular bundles, which are placed in a ring,
-one opposite each ridge, and therefore alternating with the vallecular
-canals. The vascular bundles are <i>collateral</i> as in the majority
-of Flowering-plants, but poorly developed. The xylem of each bundle
-consists of two groups of annular or spiral vessels, close to the outer
-border of the carinal canal, and two groups of scalariform tracheides,
-each placed on a radius passing through a group of spiral vessels.
-The phloëm is placed between these four groups, each of which has
-only a few vessels. The stiffness of the stems is mainly due to the
-large amount of silica in the cell-walls of the epidermis, and to the
-sclerenchymatous cells of the ridges.</p>
-
-<p>All <span class="allsmcap">LEAVES</span> are situated in <i>whorls</i>. The
-<span class="allsmcap">VEGETATIVE</span> are simple, undivided, 1-nerved, and are united
-into toothed sheaths (Fig. <a href="#fig224">224</a> <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>). The branching
-of the stems in some species (<i>E. arvense</i>) is very abundant.
-The branches break through the base of the leaf-sheaths (Fig. <a href="#fig224">224</a>
-<i>b</i>), and generally <i>alternate with the teeth</i> (leaves).</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">FERTILE LEAVES</span> (<i>sporophylls</i>) are different from
-the barren ones. They are <i>free, shield-like</i>, each one having a
-short stalk bearing usually an hexagonal plate (Fig. <a href="#fig224">224</a> <i>d</i>),
-and closely compressed into an ear or cone (Fig. <a href="#fig224">224</a> <i>a</i>,
-<i>c</i>). The <i>Equisetums</i> thus present an advance in development
-distinctly beyond that of the Ferns, which is further emphasized by
-the circumstance that a transition from the sheath-leaves to the
-fertile-leaves is found in the involucre or annulus, a “collar” of
-specially modified leaves situated at the base of the cone (Fig.
-<a href="#fig224">224</a> <i>a</i> and <i>c</i>). The cone may be considered as a very
-rudimentary flower, and the annulus may be regarded as a very early
-stage in the formation of a flower (perianth). See page <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">SPORANGIA</span> are situated on the underside of the
-sporophylls, one at each angle; they are sac-like, and open inwardly
-by a longitudinal cleft (Fig. <a href="#fig224">224</a> <i>d</i>). An annulus is wanting;
-but in the wall of the sporangium, as in the pollen-sacs of the
-Flowering-plants, a layer of cells, with annular or spiral thickenings,
-is developed, which assists in the dehiscence of the sporangium.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">SPORES</span> are green; the walls composed of four distinct
-layers, of which the outer is gradually separated, except at one point,
-and becomes split into four long bands (<i>elaters</i>) (Fig. <a href="#fig225">225</a>).<span class="pagenum" id="Page_224">[224]</span>
-The elaters are extremely hygroscopic, coiling round the spore when
-moistened, and expanding as soon as dry, presenting a most lively
-object under the microscope when breathed upon and allowed to dry. The
-second layer, when germination commences, becomes detached from the
-inner wall, which is formed of the exospore and endospore.</p>
-
-<p>The order has become much reduced, and at the present time includes
-only one genus, <i>Equisetum</i>, with about twenty-five species,
-which are distributed over the entire globe, particularly in damp
-situations. In <span class="allsmcap">SOME SPECIES</span> the barren shoots are green and
-very much branched, but the fertile ones are unbranched, pale brown,
-and possess no chlorophyll (<i>E. arvense</i>, Field-Horsetail, Fig.
-<a href="#fig224">224</a>, and <i>E. maximum</i>). <span class="smcap">In others</span> the fertile and barren
-shoots are alike green, and either both unbranched (<i>E. hiemale</i>),
-or branched (<i>E. palustre</i>, <i>E. limosum</i>, etc). The fertile
-shoots of <i>E. silvaticum</i>, up to maturity, resemble those without
-chylorophyll of <i>E. arvense</i>, but after that period they produce
-green branches, and thus resemble the barren ones.</p>
-
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig225" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig225.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 225.</span>&mdash;Spores of <i>Equisetum</i>: <i>A</i>
-damp, with elaters (<i>e</i>) coiled round the spore; <i>B</i> dry,
-with elaters expanded.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Extinct isosporous Equisetinæ.</span> In addition to several
-true species of fossilized <i>Equisetums</i>, the order of
-the <span class="smcap">Calamites</span>, which no doubt is closely allied to
-the Equisetinæ, is also found in the fossil state. These were
-gigantic forms, attaining about twenty times the size of
-those of the present day, and stems of nearly 10–12 metres in
-height are known. They reached the culminating point of their
-development in the Carboniferous period, and died out towards
-the close of the Palæozoic. The stems had hollow internodes and
-alternating grooves, similar to their relatives of the present
-day. The leaves must either have been absent or very perishable,
-since they have not been identified with certainty. If the
-determinations of certain remains of cones which of late have
-been discovered are correct, they were heterosporous and had
-two kinds of sporangia as in the following sub-class. A cambium
-formation and an increase in thickness has been found in the
-stems.</p>
-
-<p>Their <span class="allsmcap">USES</span> are very limited. A few species, such as
-<i>E. hiemale</i> are used for polishing on account of the hard
-siliceous cell-walls of the epidermis, found in all species of
-<i>Equisetum</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_225">[225]</span></p>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class 2. <b>Heterosporous Equisetinæ.</b></h3>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The two orders which come under this head are united by the
-characteristics, that the verticillate leaves are not united
-into sheaths (Fig. <a href="#fig226">226</a>), and that between each whorl of fertile
-leaves there is also a whorl of barren ones. The fertile whorls
-in <span class="smcap">Annulariæ</span> are situated about midway between the
-barren ones (Fig. <a href="#fig227">227</a>), but in <span class="smcap">Asterophylliteæ</span> they
-occur immediately above a barren whorl (Fig. <a href="#fig228">228</a>) and contain
-only half as many members as the latter. The lower whorls bear
-macrosporangia with one macrospore, the upper, microsporangia
-with many microspores.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig226" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig226.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 226.</span>&mdash;A. fragment of <i>Annularia</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig227" style="width: 284px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig227.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 227.</span>&mdash;Fragment of <i>Annularia
-longifolia</i>, with sporangia; the leaves have partly fallen off: a
-barren whorls; <i>s</i> fertile whorls.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig228" style="width: 235px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig228.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 228.</span>&mdash;Fragment of cone of
-<i>Asterophyllites</i> (<i>Volkmannia elongata</i>): <i>a</i> and
-<i>s</i> as in Fig. <a href="#fig227">227</a>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The <span class="smcap">Annulariæ</span> were distichous (Fig. <a href="#fig226">226</a>), and
-presumably floating plants. The <span class="smcap">Asterophylliteæ</span>
-had verticellate branches. These also died out after the
-Carboniferous period, at the close of the Palæozoic.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_226">[226]</span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Class 3. <b>Lycopodinæ</b> (<b>Club-Mosses</b>).</h3>
-
-<p>The characteristics of this class have been given on page <a href="#Page_205">205</a>. It
-consists of two sub-classes, one embracing isosporous, the other
-heterosporous forms.</p>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class 1. <b>Lycopodieæ</b> (<span class="smcap">Isosporous</span> Lycopodinæ).</h3>
-
-<p>One kind of spore. Prothallium large, partly green. Leaves without
-ligule.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig229" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig229.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 229.</span>&mdash;<i>Lycopodium annotinum</i>:
-<i>A</i> embryo (nat. size), with prothallium (<i>pr</i>), one embryo
-is broken off; <i>B</i> the prothallium (slightly magnified); <i>C</i>
-section through the prothallium and embryo in the direction <i>a-b</i>
-of <i>A</i>, and vertically in the plane of the paper.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig230" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig230.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 230.</span>&mdash;<i>Lycopodium clavatum</i>: portion
-of a stem, bearing cones (<i>a</i>); <i>s</i> a spore; <i>h</i>
-sporangium in the axil of a leaf, <i>s</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Lycopodiaceæ.</b> The <span class="allsmcap">PROTHALLIUM</span> is only known in
-a few species at present, but in these it is more or less tubercular,
-and bears both antheridia and archegonia.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In <i>L. annotinum</i> the prothallium is a relatively large
-mass of cells, without chlorophyll, and subterranean, in which
-the antheridia and archegonia are embedded (Fig. <a href="#fig229">229</a>). In the
-widely distributed tropical species, <i>L. cernuum</i>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_227">[227]</span> and in
-<i>L. inundatum</i>, it is a small tubercular body which has a
-subterranean portion, with either little or no chlorophyll; and
-an aerial green portion. The prothallia of <i>L. phlegmaria</i>
-and others live saprophytically in the crevices of the bark of
-trees; they are partly filamentous, branched, and possess no
-chlorophyll.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <b>asexual generation</b>. <span class="smcap">Perennial plants.</span> The stem
-branches monopodially (often apparently dichotomously), and is thickly
-covered by small, simple, triangular or scale-like leaves. The leaves
-are spirally arranged in some species (Figs. <a href="#fig229">229</a>, <a href="#fig230">230</a>), and in others,
-whose stem is compressed with unequal sides, opposite (Fig. <a href="#fig231">231</a>). The
-roots of <i>Lycopodium</i> are dichotomously branched.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">SPORANGIA</span> in <i>Lycopodium</i> are situated singly at
-the base of the leaves, almost in their axils; they are reniform,
-unilocular and open like a mussel-shell by two valves (Fig. <a href="#fig230">230</a>
-<i>h</i>). The sporangia are developed from a group of surface cells.
-The archesporium is formed from one hypodermal cell (or perhaps a
-cell-row).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig231" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig231.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 231.</span>&mdash;<i>Lycopodium complanatum</i>:
-<i>a</i> leaves on the edges of the stem; <i>d</i> leaves on the sides.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig232" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig232.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 232.</span>&mdash;<i>Lycopodium clavatum.</i> A
-tetrahedral spore seen from above, where the three borders join; and a
-tetrad of bilateral spores, still lying in the mother-cell.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The fertile leaves are collected upon definite regions of the stem.
-They are either similar to the barren ones, and then the fertile
-portions of the stem pass gradually, without any break, into the barren
-portion (<i>L. selago</i>); or they differ from the barren leaves, and
-are then collected into special apical cones (Fig. <a href="#fig230">230</a> <i>a</i>). The
-<span class="allsmcap">SPORES</span> are tetrahedral or bilateral (Fig. <a href="#fig232">232</a>).</p>
-
-<p>About 100 species, chiefly tropical.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Five species of <i>Lycopodium</i> are found in Great
-Britain. <i>L. clavatum</i> and <i>L. selago</i> are common
-in mountainous districts. <i>L. annotinum</i> is common in
-the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_228">[228]</span> Highlands of Scotland. The other genus of the order is
-<i>Phylloglossum</i>, with one species, <i>P. drummondi</i>
-(Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand), a small plant only a
-few centimetres high, with two tubers, and about eleven linear
-leaves at the base of the stem which is terminated by a cone of
-sporophylls.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Fossil</span> Lycopodiaceæ in the Carboniferous
-period.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: “Lycopodium,” the spores of <i>L.
-clavatum</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Family 2. <b>Psilotaceæ</b>. The sporangia are placed on the
-apex of short, two-leaved stems, as 2–3, seldom four, small
-capsules. Small herbs, with angular stems; leaves small, simple,
-and one nerved. Only four species.&mdash;<i>Psilotum</i> (Madagascar,
-Moluccas, Sandwich Islands, etc.) is destitute of roots, their
-place being supplied by special underground stems which bear
-a few modified leaves, very much reduced, especially when
-buried deeply in the soil. Three species.&mdash;<i>Tmesipteris</i>
-(Australia), one species.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class 2. <b>Selaginelleæ</b> (<span class="smcap">Heterosporous</span> Lycopodinæ).</h3>
-
-<p>Micro-and macrospores. The prothallia are very much reduced, especially
-the male; the female does not leave the spore. The leaves are ligulate.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig233" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig233.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 233.</span>&mdash;Germination of the microspores of
-<i>Selaginella</i>: <i>A</i> the spore rendered transparent, seen
-from above. In the interior is seen the prothallium (<i>f</i>),
-and the first divisions of the antheridium (<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>,
-<i>c</i>, <i>d</i>); in <i>B</i> the spore-wall is removed and all
-the spermatozoid-mother-cells formed; in <i>C</i>, the microspore
-has opened and the spermatozoids and the mother-cells are escaping
-together.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>The sexual generation.</b> In the <span class="smaller">MICROSPORES</span> are formed: (1)
-a very small “vegetative” cell, representing the vegetative part of the
-prothallium (<i>f</i> in Fig. <a href="#fig233">233</a> <i>A, B</i>), and (2) a cell many
-times larger and which divides into a number (4–8) of primordial cells,
-each of which divides into four spermatozoid-mother-cells, though all
-of these may not develope spermatozoids. On germination, when the
-spore-wall is ruptured, the spermatozoids and spermatozoid-mother-cells
-are ejected into the water.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="smaller">SPERMATOZOIDS</span> in <i>Selaginella</i> are elongated and
-club-shaped, with two cilia (Fig. <a href="#fig234">234</a>); but in <i>Isoëtes lacustris</i>
-they are spirally-twisted threads which differ from all other
-spermatozoids by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_229">[229]</span> having a bunch of cilia <i>at each end</i>; the other
-species of <i>Isoëtes</i> have cilia only at the anterior end.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">MACROSPORES</span>. Shortly after the macrospores have been set
-free, or in <i>Selaginella</i>, while still enclosed in the sporangium
-of the mother-plant, they germinate and soon become filled with the
-cellular tissue of the prothallium, and even in <i>Selaginella</i>
-the archegonium begins to be formed before the rupture of the
-spore-cell-wall has commenced (Fig. <a href="#fig235">235</a> <i>A</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig234" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig234.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 234.</span>&mdash;Spermatozoids of <i>Selaginella</i>:
-<i>b</i> with a remnant of cytoplasm.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig235" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig235.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 235.</span>&mdash;Macrospore of <i>Selaginella</i>:
-<i>A</i> longitudinal section, before the rupture of the wall, six
-weeks after being sown. The endosperm (<i>e</i>) has not yet filled the
-entire chamber. Cell-formation is still proceeding in the lower part of
-the spore. The endosperm and prothallium (<i>f f</i>) are separated by
-a distinct line (diaphragm). <i>B</i> Germinating macrospore seen from
-outside: <i>s</i> wall of the spore; <i>æ</i> archegonia.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig236" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig236.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 236.</span>&mdash;Archegonia of <i>Selaginella</i>:
-<i>A</i> unripe, in longitudinal section; <i>c</i> the central cell;
-<i>k</i> neck-canal-cell, which is wedged in between the two-storied
-neck-cells; <i>B</i> ripe; <i>u</i> ventral canal-cell; <i>C</i> seen
-from above, open. It will be noticed that the neck is formed of two
-tiers of four cells each.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">ARCHEGONIA</span> are constructed on the same plan as those of
-the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_230">[230]</span> other Archegoniatæ, but are quite embedded in the prothallium
-(Figs. <a href="#fig235">235</a> <i>æ</i>, <a href="#fig236">236</a>).</p>
-
-<p><b>The asexual generation</b> varies very much in the different orders.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig237" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig237.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 237.</span>&mdash;<i>Isoëtes lacustris</i> (slightly
-diminished): <i>st</i> the stem; <i>r</i> roots; <i>b</i> leaves.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig238" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig238.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 238.</span>&mdash;<i>Isoëtes lacustris</i>.
-Longitudinal section through the base of the leaf with a
-microsporangium. The edge of the groove, in which the microspangium is
-placed, is continued as a thin covering which envelopes the sporangium.
-The inferior edge of the ligular groove (<i>L</i>) forms a lip
-(<i>J</i>); <i>t</i> sterile cell-rows (trabeculæ) which divide the
-sporangium into compartments; <i>l</i> vascular bundle.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig239" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig239.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 239.</span>&mdash;<i>Selaginella inæqualifolia</i>.
-Cone in longitudinal section; microsporangia are seen on the left
-side, macrosporangia on the right (most frequently each with four
-macrospores).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Isoëtaceæ (Quill-worts).</b> The only known genus,
-<i>Isoëtes</i> (Quill-wort), has an extremely short, tuberous,
-<i>unbranched</i> stem with very short internodes (Fig. <a href="#fig237">237</a>).
-The <span class="allsmcap">STEM</span> is remarkable as being the only one among the
-Vascular Cryptogams which increases in thickness (see page <a href="#Page_202">202</a>).
-The meristematic cells are situated round the axial cylinder, and
-form, especially, parenchymatous tissue in two or three directions,
-giving rise to 2–3 grooves in which the dichotomously-branched
-<span class="allsmcap">ROOTS</span> are produced. The <span class="allsmcap">LEAVES</span> are arranged spirally
-in a close rosette.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_231">[231]</span> They are awl-shaped and have at the base a
-semi-amplexicaul sheath, with a groove (<i>fovea</i>), in which a
-sporangium is situated (Fig. <a href="#fig238">238</a>). The ligule is a foliar outgrowth
-from the upper edge of the groove.&mdash;The <span class="allsmcap">MACROSPORANGIA</span> (each
-with a number of macrospores), are situated on the outer leaves, the
-<span class="allsmcap">MICROSPORANGIA</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig238">238</a>), on the inner ones. Between each
-cycle of fertile leaves there are a number of imperfect or barren ones
-as in the case of the female plant of <i>Cycas</i>. The spores are
-liberated by the decay of the sporangium. The two kinds of sporangia
-develope at the commencement in the same way. The archesporium is, at
-first, a hypodermal layer of cells which grow out in the direction
-perpendicular to the surface of the leaf, and divide by a number
-of walls parallel to this direction, forming a sporogenous mass of
-cells. Some of the cell-rows of this sporogenous mass lose their
-rich protoplasmic contents, and are arrested in their growth; thus
-incomplete divisional walls of sterile cells, “<i>trabeculæ</i>”
-arise in the sporangium, dividing it into a number of compartments
-one above the other (Fig. <a href="#fig238">238</a> <i>t</i>). (The trabeculæ, according to
-Goebel, play the same part as the nutritive cells of the sporangium
-of <i>Riella</i>; the tapetal cells, as in the Ferns, are in a great
-measure dissolved at a later period.) The sporogenous cell-rows, in
-the microsporangia, give rise to a large number of spore-mother-cells,
-but in the macrosporangia only one spore-mother-cell, with tapetum, is
-developed from each fertile archesporial cell.</p>
-
-<p>The two native species, and several others, are aquatic plants, the
-remaining species are land plants, or are amphibious. About 50 species.
-In temperate and tropical regions.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Fossil</span> species in the
-Tertiary period.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Selaginellaceæ.</b> This order contains only one genus,
-<i>Selaginella</i>. The <span class="allsmcap">STEM</span>, in the majority of species, is
-dorsiventral, long and slender, and apparently branches dichotomously,
-but in reality <i>monopodially</i>, with well developed lateral shoots.
-The <span class="allsmcap">LEAVES</span> are small, round, or ovate, in the majority of
-species arranged in whorls of two leaves each; these whorls, however,
-are not decussate, but are considerably inclined towards each other,
-an arrangement by which four rows of leaves are produced, each whorl
-having one large and one small leaf. The two leaves in each whorl are
-of unequal size, the smaller one being placed on the upper surface and
-the larger on the lower surface of the stem (Fig. <a href="#fig240">240</a>). Some species
-have spirally-arranged leaves, more resembling the arrangement in the
-<i>Lycopodiums</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_232">[232]</span></p>
-
-<p>The <span class="smaller">FERTILE LEAVES</span> most frequently differ from the barren
-ones, and are collected into spike-like cones (a kind of flower;
-Fig. <a href="#fig239">239</a>). Micro-and macrosporangia are found in the same cone (Fig.
-<a href="#fig239">239</a>). Each sporangium arises from a group of superficial cells of
-the stem, directly over the leaf on which it will be situated later
-on. Each sporangium has a hypodermal, unicellular archesporium, and
-contains a layer of tapetal cells; these are dissolved later, when
-the spores are ripe, and not before as in the Ferns. In the very
-early stages of their development, the micro-and macrosporangia are
-precisely similar, and the differences between them arise later on.
-In the microsporangium all the spore-mother-cells divide, and each
-forms four tetrahedrically-arranged microspores (Fig. <a href="#fig204">204</a>); but in the
-macrosporangium only four macrospores are formed, by the division of
-a <i>single mother-cell</i>, while the remaining spore-mother-cells
-are aborted. It is rarely that the macrosporangia contain 2 or 8
-macrospores.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig240" style="width: 307px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig240.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 240.</span>&mdash;<i>Selaginella martensii</i>:
-<i>s</i> lower leaves; <i>r</i> upper leaves.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>For the <span class="smaller">GERMINATION OF THE SPORES</span>, see pages <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>.
-The prothallium arises in the macrospore (<i>f-f</i>, in Fig.
-<a href="#fig235">235</a> <i>A</i>), probably by division of the meniscus-shaped
-protoplasmic mass, which is marked off at the apex of the spore;
-primordial cells are thus formed which later on are surrounded
-by a cell-wall. In six to seven weeks after sowing, the
-spore-wall is ruptured by the growing prothallium, which already
-has developed archegonia (Fig. <a href="#fig235">235</a> <i>œ-œ</i>). The prothallium
-so formed does not occupy the entire cavity of the spore, but
-four to five weeks after sowing, the large-celled parenchyma
-is developed in the lower portion of the spore by free
-cell-formation; this has been termed by Pfeffer, “endosperm,”
-since it is similar to the endosperm of Flowering-plants.
-Goebel, however, has termed it “secondary prothallium,” as the
-homology with the endosperm of the Angiosperms is very doubtful.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The <span class="smaller">FERTILISED OOSPHERE</span> divides into an upper (hypobasal)
-and a lower (epibasal) cell; from the latter alone the embryo is
-developed with its root, stem, foot, and two <i>cotyledons</i>, and
-the former gives rise to an organ which appears in this instance for
-the first time, but which occurs in all Flowering-plants, viz. the
-<i>suspensor</i>. This forces the embryo down into the “endosperm,”
-which is entirely or partially absorbed by the embryo. In the case of
-the Flowering-plants the embryo is developed with its longitudinal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_233">[233]</span>
-axis in the elongation of the suspensor, but in <i>Selaginella</i> the
-embryo is situated <i>transversely</i> to it.</p>
-
-<p><i>Selaginella</i> (300–400 species), is essentially tropical, only one
-species living in the North (<i>S. spinulosa</i>), but others grow in
-Central and South Europe.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Lepidodendraceæ</b> are extinct, tree-like
-Lycopods, which are found especially in the Lower and Middle
-Carboniferous. Vegetatively they are most nearly related to
-<i>Lycopodium</i>, but the stem attained much larger proportions
-(about eleven metres in height and one metre in thickness),
-and had a cambium by which it increased in thickness. It was
-regularly dichotomous, and closely studded with spirally-placed
-leaves, which left behind them peculiar rhombic scars. The large
-cones resemble Pine-cones, and bore sporangia much larger than
-any which are now produced (the male ones as much as 2 cm.’s in
-length). The macrosporangia were situated at the base, and the
-microsporangia at the apex.</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Sigillariaceæ.</b> These are, presumably, another
-group of extinct tree-like Lycopods (especially in the Middle
-Carboniferous). The name has been derived from the seal-like
-scars, which the fallen leaves have left behind in longitudinal
-rows on the grooved stem. The rhizomes of these plants were
-formerly termed <i>Stigmaria</i>, and placed in a separate genus.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Sphenophyllaceæ</b> form an entirely extinct
-group. They do not definitely belong to any of the three large
-classes of Vascular Cryptogams, but it is perhaps best to
-place them in juxtaposition to these. They were herbaceous
-plants with verticillate, wedge-shaped leaves, with nerves
-branching dichotomously into equally strong branches. Micro-and
-macrosporangia were formed in the same cone; and were situated
-in the axils of the leaves, as in the Lycopods.</p>
-</div>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_234">[234]</span></p>
-
-<h3 class="smaller"><b>The Transition from the Cryptogams to the Phanerogams.</b></h3>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>All the plants considered in the preceding chapters are included
-in the term <span class="smcap">Cryptogams</span>; all in the following chapters
-under the head of <span class="smcap">Phanerogams</span> (see page <a href="#Page_3">3</a>). Hofmeister’s
-pioneer works (1851, <i>Vergleichende Untersuchungen der höheren
-Kryptogamen</i>, etc.) and the numerous researches published later
-by other investigators, have closed the gap which was formerly
-thought to exist between these plants; so that we now, in the series:
-Bryophyta&mdash;Pteridophyta&mdash;Gymnospermæ&mdash;Angiospermæ see the expression of
-a single line of development in accordance with a definite plan. The
-forms through which this gradual development has taken place have in
-course of time, however, to a great extent died out, and only single
-links of the chain connecting the lowest to the highest still remain.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The alternation of generations</span>, which we found indicated in
-certain Thallophytes, can be proved with the greatest clearness in
-all the higher Cryptogams, from the Mosses upwards; it is also found
-in the Phanerogams, but not in such a pronounced degree, because one
-of the generations is so far reduced that it has almost given up its
-independence. For the sake of greater clearness, we will begin with the
-comparison of the sporophyte, asexual (second) generation.</p>
-
-
-<p class="center p1"><b>The asexual (2nd) generation of the Cormophytes.</b></p>
-
-<p>The asexual generation which follows from the further development of
-the fertilised oosphere, is, in the <i>Mosses</i>, only the sporogonium
-(according to one theory it is perhaps homologous with a spore-bearing
-leaf, situated upon a short stem, see p. <a href="#Page_187">187</a>); in <i>Filicinæ</i>,
-<i>Equisetinæ</i>, and <i>Lycopodinæ</i>, on the other hand, it is a
-highly developed plant differentiated into stem, leaf, and true root,
-and bearing the sporangia on its leaves. The <span class="smaller">MODIFICATION OF THE
-SHOOT</span> is very slight in <i>Filicinæ</i>. The first leaves of the
-embryo are very simple in form (Fig. <a href="#fig205">205</a>), but after a certain age all
-the leaves which arise are essentially alike. The fertile leaves do
-not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_235">[235]</span> differ from the barren ones, and are found associated with them,
-and their formation does not limit the growth in length of the stem. It
-is only in a few of the true Ferns, and in the Hydropterideæ, that the
-fertile leaves differ considerably from the barren ones. A division of
-labour in which certain leaves are set apart for nutrition, and others
-for reproduction, is found more pronouncedly in the <i>Equisetinæ</i>
-and <i>Lycopodinæ</i>, for in these groups, with a few exceptions, the
-fertile and barren leaves are very dissimilar; the former are collected
-in special ear-like <i>cones</i>, which <i>terminate the further
-growth</i> of the short stems on which they are borne. In connection
-with the cone, leaves are sometimes developed which form a transition
-from the barren to the fertile ones (the “annulus” in Equisetaceæ),
-and in these cases the first indication of a flower with perianth
-or floral-leaves is to be traced. Among the Cryptogams the highest
-division of labour is found in <i>Selaginella</i> and <i>Isoëtes</i>,
-which have the two kinds of sporangia borne on <i>different</i>
-leaves. The division of labour (modification) is, however, still
-more pronounced in the <i>Phanerogams</i>: the leaves which bear the
-microsporangia (“pollen-sacs”) have quite different forms from those
-which bear macrosporangia (the “nucellus” in the ovule), the former
-are termed <i>stamens</i>, the latter <i>carpels</i>; in certain
-instances, too, there is even a contrast between the “male plants”
-and the “female plants.” Moreover, a division of labour, in a much
-greater degree, takes place in the leaves which do not directly take
-part in reproduction, and it is thus possible in many plants to draw
-a sharp line not only between stamens and carpels, but also between
-four or five distinct kinds of leaves, which differ in <i>form</i>,
-<i>structure</i>, and corresponding <i>functions</i>, and which appear
-in regular sequence on the shoot: namely, between “scale-leaves” and
-“foliage-leaves,”<a id="FNanchor_21" href="#Footnote_21" class="fnanchor">[21]</a> both of which occur in the Cryptogams, and the
-“floral-leaves,” including the bracts and leaves of the “perianth,”
-which latter often differ from each other in form and colour,
-and are then separated into <i>sepals</i> and <i>petals</i>. The
-<i>leaves</i>&mdash;stamens and carpels&mdash;<i>which bear the sporangia</i>
-are termed sporophylls, and the shoot, or extremity of a shoot, whose
-leaves are modified into sporophylls, is <i>terminated in its further
-growth by their production, and is known as a flower</i>. The flower
-which is most<span class="pagenum" id="Page_236">[236]</span> completely furnished has calyx, corolla, stamens,
-and carpels arranged in this order. If the only sporophylls present
-are stamens, then it is said to be a <i>male</i> (<i>staminate</i>)
-flower, and if only carpels, then a <i>female</i> (<i>pistillate</i>)
-flower, and in both these cases the flowers are <i>unisexual</i>, or
-diclinous. If stamens and carpels are both present in the same flower,
-it is termed <i>hermaphrodite</i>. Diclinous plants in which the female
-flowers are situated on one plant, and the male flowers on another, are
-termed <i>diœcious</i>; and those in which the same plant bears the two
-kinds of flowers are termed <i>monœcious</i>. When the male, female,
-and hermaphrodite flowers are found in the same species, the plant is
-said to be <i>polygamous</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>The sporangia-bearing leaves&mdash;Sporophylls.</b> In the Mosses the
-asexual generation is only represented by the sporogonium, and if the
-theory is correct which considers the sporogonium to be an embryo
-consisting of a rudimentary stem and terminal leaf, then the spores are
-produced on the leaves in these plants. The sporangia in the Filicinæ
-are situated in groups (sori) on the back or on the edge of the leaves.
-The number of sporangia in the sorus diminishes very greatly in the
-Marattiaceæ and Gleicheniaceæ (three to four in the latter, Fig. <a href="#fig213">213</a>).
-In the Equisetinæ the sporangia are situated in a small number on the
-underside of shield-like leaves, and in Lycopodinæ, singly, in the
-axils of the fertile leaves, which are alike and bear either micro- or
-macrosporangia. In the Phanerogams there is a great difference between
-the stamens and carpels.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig241" style="width: 299px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig241.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 241.</span>&mdash;<i>Cycas</i>: <i>a</i> stamen (nat.
-size) seen from the under side; <i>b</i> four pollen-sacs, not yet
-open, forming a “sorus”; <i>c</i> three open pollen-sacs; <i>d</i> a
-pollen-grain.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig242" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig242.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 242.</span>&mdash;Stamens of <i>Araucaria</i>
-(pollen-sacs long and pendulous).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig243" style="width: 322px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig243.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 243.</span>&mdash;Male flower of <i>Taxus</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig244" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig244.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 244.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i> Cross section through a
-quadrilocular anther in different stages of development: <i>s</i>
-the seam where it bursts open; <i>vf</i> vascular bundle; <i>k</i>
-connective. <i>B</i> A stamen. <i>C</i> Another stamen seen from the
-front (<i>f</i>) and from the back (<i>b</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>Stamens.</b> In the lowest Phanerogams (<i>Cycadeæ</i>) there
-are many indications of relationship to the Ferns. The stamens
-are flat and broad, and have <i>on the back many pollen-sacs</i>
-(<i>microsporangia</i>) arranged in small groups (true <i>sori</i>),
-which even have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_237">[237]</span> a small “placenta,” similar to the one possessed
-by the Ferns, and open towards the inside by a longitudinal cleft
-(Fig. <a href="#fig241">241</a>, compare Fig. <a href="#fig213">213</a>). A section of the <i>Coniferæ</i> agree
-more closely with the Equisetaceæ, in having a few (three to eight)
-pollen-sacs arranged on the underside of more or less shield-like
-leaves (Figs. <a href="#fig242">242</a>, <a href="#fig243">243</a>, compare with Fig. <a href="#fig224">224</a> <i>a</i>, <i>c</i>,
-<i>d</i>). In the Abietaceæ the number of sporangia is diminished
-to two, which are placed also on the lower side (Fig. <a href="#fig267">267</a>) of a
-stamen. The number of <i>pollen-sacs</i> (microsporangia) in the
-<i>Angiosperms</i> is nearly always four to each stamen; they are
-longitudinal projections which are placed in pairs on each side
-of the central line of the stamen, two on the edge, and the other
-two generally on the side which is turned inwards; the pollen-sacs
-generally dehisce longitudinally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_238">[238]</span> (quadrilocular anthers, Fig. <a href="#fig244">244</a>).
-A few, for instance Orchidaceæ and Asclepiadaceæ, have only two
-pollen-sacs (bilocular anthers); and in others, such as <i>Solanum</i>
-and the Ericaceæ, they open by pores; in Lauraceæ and Berberidaceæ, by
-valves. The part of the stamen which bears the pollen-sacs is termed
-the <i>anther</i>. Most frequently this is supported by a stalk known
-as the <i>filament</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig245" style="width: 220px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig245.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 245.</span>&mdash;A carpel of <i>Cycas revoluta</i>
-with 5 ovules (<i>s</i>), at half to one-third nat. size.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig246" style="width: 291px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig246.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 246.</span>&mdash;Carpel with 2 ovules of
-<i>Ceratozamia robusta</i> (1/1).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>Carpels.</b> The simplest forms of carpels are found in
-<i>Cycas</i>. In this genus both the foliage and fertile leaves
-are pinnate, and hence present great similarity; the ovules
-(macrosporangia) are situated on the margin of the central portion,
-just as the sporangia are placed on the edge of the fertile leaf of
-<i>Ophioglossum</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig245">245</a>, compare with Fig. <a href="#fig209">209</a>). The carpels of
-the other Cycadeæ present greater divergence from the foliage-leaves,
-being peltate, for instance, in <i>Zamia</i> and <i>Ceratozamia</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig246">246</a>). The ovules in the Coniferæ are situated on the upper
-side and near the base of the ovuliferous scales, almost in the same
-position as the sporangia in the Lycopodinæ (Figs. <a href="#fig269">269</a>, <a href="#fig272">272</a>, <a href="#fig273">273</a>
-<i>H</i>, compare Figs. <a href="#fig230">230</a>, <a href="#fig239">239</a>). In <i>Taxus</i> the uninclosed
-ovule is placed on the apex of a shoot (Fig. <a href="#fig264">264</a>). In all these plants
-the ovules are <i>not enclosed</i> by the carpels, that is, they are
-not enclosed in chambers formed by the turning in of the walls of the
-carpel, and hence the name<span class="pagenum" id="Page_239">[239]</span> <i>Gymnospermæ</i> is given to them. In
-the higher Flowering-plants, the <i>Angiospermæ</i>, the ovules are
-distinctly situated on the edge, the upper surface, or base of the
-carpel; but the carpel closes round the ovules which are therefore
-enclosed in a chamber&mdash;the <i>ovary</i>. In a few cases, for example
-in the Polygonaceæ, an ovule is situated apparently on the apex of the
-stem itself, as in the Yew; in other cases, as in the Primulaceæ, many
-ovules are apparently developed on the apex of the stem, which seems
-to have been specially adapted as a placenta, but it is also possible
-and correct in these cases to suppose that the ovules are in reality
-developed on the carpels.<a id="FNanchor_22" href="#Footnote_22" class="fnanchor">[22]</a> A single fully-developed carpel or a
-collection of carpels joined together is termed the <i>pistil</i>. The
-extremity of the carpel, which is specially developed to catch the
-pollen-grains and form a suitable nidus on which they may germinate,
-is called the <i>stigma</i>. The united edges of a carpel which bear
-the ovules are termed the <i>ventral suture</i>. The back of the carpel
-forms the <i>dorsal suture</i>. The Marsiliaceæ take a position among
-the Hydropterideæ analogous to that occupied by the Angiosperms; the
-sporangia are in a corresponding manner enveloped in a closed leaf.</p>
-
-<p>The collection of stamens in a flower is termed the <i>andrœcium</i>,
-and all the carpels, whether individually free or united into one
-pistil, the <i>gynœceum</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The <b>Sporangia</b>. The asexual generation of the <i>Mosses</i>
-is the sporogonium, in which the spores arise in tetrads from the
-mother-cells. The sporangia in the <i>Filicinæ</i> take their origin
-either from a single cell (Leptosporangiatæ) or, what probably
-may be regarded as an older stand-point, from a group of cells
-(Eusporangiatæ). In both cases there may be distinguished in a
-mature sporangium three tissues, which have different significance
-(Fig. <a href="#fig204">204</a>): (1) an external layer, the <i>sporangium-wall</i>,
-most frequently composed of one layer of cells made up of cells of
-dissimilar structure, so that on desiccation the wall is ruptured and
-the sporangium opens in a definite manner; (2) an internal group of
-cells, consisting of the <i>spore-mother-cells</i>, developed from
-an archesporium, and which by division into four gives rise to the
-<i>spores</i>; (3) a layer of cells lying between the two already
-mentioned, which is dissolved before maturity. The intermediate
-cellular layer, which directly surrounds the spore-forming cells,
-is in form and contents more worthy of note than the others, and is
-termed the <i>tapetum</i>. The construction<span class="pagenum" id="Page_240">[240]</span> of the sporangium in the
-<i>Equisetinæ</i> and <i>Lycopodinæ</i> is in the main the same.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig247" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig247.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 247.</span>&mdash;Development of an anther. <i>A</i>
-Transverse section of a young anther of <i>Doronicum macrophyllum</i>.
-The formation of the 4 pollen-sacs commences by divisions of the
-hypodermal cells (at <i>m</i>, for instance). These cells divide
-by periclinal walls into external cells which only take part in
-forming the anther-wall; and internal cells, which correspond to
-the Archesporium, and from which the spores are derived. These
-spore-forming cells are drawn with thicker walls in <i>B-E</i>. The
-commencement of the vascular bundle is seen in the centre. <i>B</i> An
-older stage; the pollen-sacs already project considerably. It is the
-cells in the hypodermal layer which are active and in which tangential
-divisions particularly occur; <i>fv</i> vascular bundle. <i>C</i> A
-corresponding longitudinal section. <i>D</i> Transverse section through
-an older anther, the thickness of the wall outside the mother-cells of
-the pollen-grains is already increased, and it becomes still thicker
-by the division of the hypodermal cells: its most external layer of
-cells but one, becomes transformed into the “fibrous cells.” <i>E</i>
-Transverse section of a still older pollen-sac of <i>Menyanthes</i>;
-<i>sm</i> are the mother-cells of the pollen-grains surrounded by
-the tapetum (<i>t</i>), external to the tapetum is the anther-wall,
-which is still far from being fully developed. The sub-epidermal layer
-becomes “fibrous,” and the cells lying inside it become dissolved,
-together with the tapetum.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>In the <span class="smcap">Phanerogams</span> the <b>Microsporangia</b> are termed
-<b>Pollen-sacs</b>. They take their origin from a large group of cells,
-which, in the Angiosperms, lie immediately beneath the epidermal
-cells of the anther. In the developed, but not yet mature, sporangium
-(pollen-sac) there are to be found: (as in the Vascular Cryptogams)
-(1) an internal group of mother-cells which give rise to the
-<i>pollen-grains</i> (<i>microspores</i>), in this case also formed in
-tetrads; (2) a group of cells surrounding these, of which the internal
-ones form a <i>tapetal layer</i>, similar to that in the Vascular
-Cryptogams; the tapetum<span class="pagenum" id="Page_241">[241]</span> and some of the cells surrounding it in this
-group, become dissolved before maturity; the more external ones, on
-the other hand, are provided with peculiar thickenings, and form the
-“fibrous” layer by the aid of which the dehiscence of the anther takes
-place; (3) an external layer, the epidermis, enclosing all the other
-layers (Fig. <a href="#fig247">247</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In some Coniferæ (<i>Cupressus</i>, <i>Thuja</i>, and several
-species of <i>Juniperus</i>) the microsporangia (pollen-sacs),
-which are situated on the under side of the stamen, are covered
-by a thin structure which seems to be a continuation of the
-lamina and which is supposed to be homologous with the indusium
-of the Ferns.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig248" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig248.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 248.</span>&mdash;Development of the ovule in the Red
-Currant, <i>Ribes rubrum</i>, arranged alphabetically in the order
-of development. <i>A</i> Is the youngest stage, <i>E</i> the oldest.
-<i>ii</i> Inner integument; <i>ie</i> outer integument; <i>nc</i>
-nucellus; <i>m</i> archespore (mother-cell of the embryo-sac).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>The Ovule</b> in the Phanerogams arises most frequently on a
-projecting portion of the carpel, termed the <i>placenta</i>. The
-ovules (compare the sporangium of the Eusporangiatæ and especially
-the pollen-sac) take their origin from a <i>group of cells which
-lies beneath the epidermis</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig248">248</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>). First
-of all a small papilla is formed, which is later on provided with a
-<i>vascular bundle</i> and becomes the <i>funicle</i>; this probably
-has the same value as the projections (“placenta”) on which the sori
-in the Ferns are attached. Only <i>one</i> <b>macrosporangium</b>
-(<i>nucellus</i>; Fig. <a href="#fig248">248</a> <i>nc</i>) is developed at the apex of
-the funicle. This arises by a process of cell-division exactly
-corresponding to that by which the pollen-sacs<span class="pagenum" id="Page_242">[242]</span> are formed (Fig.
-<a href="#fig248">248</a> <i>C-E</i>), with this difference only, that while a great
-<i>many</i> cells may be distinguished in each pollen-sac, which forms
-pollen-grains by tetrad-division, only a few are found in the ovule,
-and all these moreover are <i>suppressed, with one single exception</i>
-which developes into the <b>macrospore</b> (<b>embryo-sac</b>) without
-undergoing a division into tetrads. The wall of the embryo-sac, in
-the Gymnosperms, may be thick and divided into two layers and partly
-cuticularized, as in the spores of the Cryptogams which are to be set
-free. In the Angiosperms, on the other hand, the wall is extremely thin.</p>
-
-<p>The pollen-sac thus stands in the same relation to the nucellus as the
-microsporangium does to the macrosporangium: in the pollen-sacs and
-microsporangia a <i>number</i> of spores arise by the tetrad-division
-of several mother-cells; in the nucellus and macrosporangium,
-a reduction of the cells already formed takes place to such an
-extent that the number of macrospores becomes one (<i>Salvinia</i>,
-<i>Marsilia</i>, Phanerogams) or four (<i>Selaginella</i>), or rarely a
-large number as in <i>Isoëtes</i>.</p>
-
-<p>In the Ferns, as stated on page <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, etc., <i>indusia</i> covering the
-sori very often occur. Horsetails and Club-Mosses have no indusium; but
-in all Phanerogams cupular or sac-like structures (<i>integuments</i>)
-are found which envelop the nucellus. These develope from the upper
-end of the funicle (<i>ii</i> and <i>ie</i>, in Fig. <a href="#fig248">248</a>; <i>y</i>
-and <i>i</i>, in Fig. <a href="#fig249">249</a>) and enclose the nucellus on all sides as
-a sac, leaving only a small channel at the apex of the nucellus&mdash;the
-<i>micropyle</i>&mdash;(Fig. <a href="#fig249">249</a>) through which the pollen-tube proceeds to
-the embryo-sac. The ovules of the Gymnosperms have only one integument
-(Figs. <a href="#fig251">251</a>, <a href="#fig264">264</a>, <a href="#fig269">269</a>, <a href="#fig274">274</a>) and the same is the case with the majority
-of the Sympetalæ and a few Choripetalæ; but the Monocotyledons and most
-of the Choripetalæ have two integuments (Fig. <a href="#fig249">249</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig249" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig249.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 249.</span>&mdash;Various forms of ovules:
-<i>A</i> an erect ovule (<i>orthotropous</i>); <i>B</i> reversed
-(<i>anatropous</i>); <i>C</i> curved (<i>campylotropous</i>): <i>k</i>
-the nucellus (shaded in all the figures); <i>s</i> the embryo-sac;
-<i>ch</i> the base of the ovule (chalaza); <i>y</i> and <i>i</i> the
-external and internal integuments, the dotted line denotes the place
-where the scar (<i>hilum</i>) will form when the seed is detached from
-the funicle.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>In shape the integuments resemble very closely the cupular<span class="pagenum" id="Page_243">[243]</span> indusium
-of the Hymenophyllaceæ, certain Cyatheaceæ (Fig. <a href="#fig212">212</a> <i>E</i>), and
-<i>Salvinia</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig218">218</a>); that they are really homologous with
-these is probable, but is not proven. Some authorities regard them as
-structures found only in the Phanerogams.</p>
-
-<p>The ovule is thus a “<i>monangic</i>” (<i>i.e.</i> reduced to 1
-sporangium, the <i>nucellus</i>) <i>sorus</i>, situated on a funicle,
-and enclosed by one or two cupular <i>indusia</i>, the integuments.
-Some of the ovules are <i>erect</i> (<i>orthotropous</i>), others
-<i>curved</i> (<i>campylotropous</i>), the majority <i>reversed</i>
-(<i>anatropous</i>) (Fig. <a href="#fig249">249</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>[Goebel (1884 and earlier) with Strasburger considered the
-entire ovule of the Phanerogams as homologous with the
-macrosporangium, the integuments however as new structures in
-contradistinction to the Ferns: the funicle then corresponds
-to the stalk of the sporangium. The integuments of the ovule
-(according to Goebel, 1882) differ from the indusium of the
-Fern-like plants in being developed from the basal portion of
-the nucellus and are not, as in the Ferns and <i>Isoëtes</i>,
-a portion (outgrowth) of the leaf which bears the sporangia
-(<i>K</i>).]</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The nucellus is the only macrosporangium which never opens; <i>the
-macrospore remains enclosed in it</i>, and <i>the macrosporangium
-remains attached to the mother-plant</i>. It is therefore essential
-that the <i>method of fertilisation</i> which is employed should be
-very different from that of the Cryptogams. <i>The pollen-grains must
-be transferred to the ovule</i>, and retained either by a drop of
-mucilage at the micropyle (Gymnosperms) or by the stigma on the carpels
-(Angiosperms). Fertilisation by spermatozoids, which are freely motile
-in water, is abandoned in the Phanerogams.</p>
-
-<p>Many other modifications, unknown in plants of more simple structure,
-take place, for instance, in the shoots which bear the fertile leaves;
-especially in the form of the stem or <i>thalamus</i> (hypogynous,
-perigynous, epigynous); in the development of the perianth which stands
-in intimate connection with the special means employed to effect
-fertilisation; with respect to the different grades of union found
-in the leaves; in the union of the flowers into aggregations of a
-higher order (inflorescences), and at the same time the production of
-“floral-leaves” (page 235).</p>
-
-
-<p class="center p1"><b>The sexual generation. The Fertilisation.</b></p>
-
-<p>The sexual generation in the <i>Mosses</i> is relatively well
-developed, because not only the protonema, but all the other vegetative
-parts of the Moss-plant, in addition to the archegonia and antheridia,
-belong to it. In the groups which follow, a gradual but increasing
-reduction of the sexual generation takes place, and at the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_244">[244]</span> same
-time an indication of sex is found in the prothallia, which finds
-expression in the forms of the spores themselves. In the majority of
-cases among the <i>isosporous</i> Vascular Cryptogams, the sexual
-generation&mdash;prothallium&mdash;is a green, leafy expansion which can sustain
-itself by the assimilation of carbonic acid, and by the absorption
-of nutriment from the soil by means of root-hairs. In some plants
-(<i>Ophioglossaceæ</i>, <i>Lycopodium annotinum</i>) the prothallium
-is a subterranean, pale, tubercular body, but in these instances it is
-relatively large. In the <i>heterosporous</i> Vascular Cryptogams and
-in the <i>Phanerogams</i>, the prothallium is much more reduced, both
-as regards its size, and also with respect to the number and structure
-of the antheridia and archegonia.</p>
-
-<p>1. <b>The Microspores.</b> The <span class="allsmcap">PROTHALLIUM</span> in all Vascular
-Cryptogams which have unequal spores, consists of a single, vegetative
-(barren) cell, which plays a very unimportant part in the life of the
-prothallium (Fig. <a href="#fig233">233</a> <i>A</i>). In <i>Salvinia</i> it is somewhat
-elongated and tubular, because it must break through the sporangium
-(Fig. <a href="#fig214">214</a>); but in other cases it is very small and lenticular. In
-all these plants only one antheridium is formed. In <i>Salvinia</i>
-it consists of 2 cells whose walls are ruptured in order that the
-spermatozoids may be liberated (Fig. <a href="#fig214">214</a> <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>). In
-<i>Marsilia</i>, <i>Isoëtes</i>, and <i>Selaginella</i> the prothallium
-does not leave the spore, and consists for the most part of primordial
-spermatozoid-mother-cells <i>without cell-wall</i>, which on
-germination are ejected so that the spermatozoids are set free.</p>
-
-<p>In the Phanerogams, the microspores have from olden times been termed
-<i>pollen-grains</i>.</p>
-
-<p>In the <span class="allsmcap">GYMNOSPERMS</span> the prothallium is reduced to 1, 2 or 3
-small cells, placed on one side of the mature pollen-grain (at the
-top in Fig. <a href="#fig250">250</a> <i>I</i>, <i>II</i>, and in Fig. <a href="#fig267">267</a> <i>N</i>) and
-which do not play any part in the germination of the pollen-grain. The
-antheridium is represented by the remaining portions of the interior of
-the pollen-grain, that is, it consists of a large cell with a nucleus
-which does not even go so far as the antheridium of <i>Selaginella</i>
-and become divided into spermatozoid-mother-cells without cell-wall,
-for even these cells are not formed. The unicellular antheridium
-grows, on the germination of the pollen-grain, into a tubular body
-known as the <i>pollen-tube</i>, formed from the inner wall of the
-pollen-grain (Fig. <a href="#fig250">250</a>), which works its way down the micropyle to
-the oosphere. The fertilisation takes place by diosmosis through the
-cell-wall, and consists here also of the coalescence of the nucleus<span class="pagenum" id="Page_245">[245]</span> of
-the pollen-tube (the sperm-nucleus, male pronucleus) with that of the
-oosphere.</p>
-
-<p>In the <span class="allsmcap">ANGIOSPERMS</span> the reductions proceed still further.
-The barren cell, which represents the prothallium, was in the last
-group separated from the antheridium by a true cell-wall, but in the
-Angiosperms a membrane at most, but no firm cell-wall, is formed. The
-pollen-grain contains two cells, a vegetative and a free generative
-cell. Both these pass into the pollen-tube, but the vegetative
-cell disappears about the time the pollen-tube reaches the ovule;
-while the generative cell divides into two: one, the sperm-nucleus
-coalescing with the nucleus of the oosphere, the other being absorbed
-(<i>Lilium</i>, after Guinard).</p>
-
-<p>The Gymnosperms prove in yet another point that they are more
-closely related to the Cryptogams than are the Angiosperms. When the
-pollen-grain begins to germinate the external wall ruptures as in the
-Cryptogams (Fig. <a href="#fig250">250</a>), but in the Angiosperms special germ-pores are
-formed in the cell-wall for the emergence of the pollen-tube.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig250" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig250.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 250.</span>&mdash;<i>I</i> Pollen-grains of
-<i>Cupressus</i>; at the top is seen one prothallium-cell. <i>II</i>
-Germinating; <i>c</i> pollen-tube; <i>a</i> the extine; <i>b</i> the
-intine.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>2. <b>The Macrospores.</b> The prothallium in <i>Salvinia</i> and
-<i>Marsilia</i> is still rather large, green, and capable of the
-independent assimilation of carbon. It projects more or less from the
-macrospore and bears (in <i>Marsilia</i> only one, in <i>Salvinia</i>
-several) archegonia, which however are embedded to a greater degree in
-the prothallium, and are more reduced than the archegonia of the true
-Ferns and Horsetails (Figs. <a href="#fig215">215</a>, <a href="#fig216">216</a>). The prothallium is still more
-reduced in <i>Isoëtes</i> and <i>Selaginella</i>; <i>partly</i> because
-it is smaller and is in a higher degree enclosed in the spore, it also
-contains less chlorophyll, or is entirely without chlorophyll, and
-in consequence incapable of independent existence, whilst the number
-of archegonia is less; and <i>partly</i> because the archegonia are
-themselves reduced, the cells of the neck are fewer and embedded to
-the level of the surface of the prothallium without any, or with only
-a very slight projection (Figs. <a href="#fig235">235</a>, <a href="#fig236">236</a>).&mdash;Finally, the prothallium
-with its archegonia begins to develope in <i>Selaginella</i> while the
-macrospore is still within its sporangium, and before it is set free
-from the mother-plant.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_246">[246]</span> After the spores are set free and germination
-has commenced, the spore-wall ruptures and the prothallium is exposed.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig251" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig251.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 251.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal section of ovule of
-<i>Abies canadensis</i>. Inside the integument (<i>i</i>) is seen the
-nucellus, <i>n</i>; <i>m</i> the micropyle. In the interior of the
-nucellus is seen an oval mass of cells, the endosperm, and at its
-top two archegonia, <i>c</i>. The ovule is turned in such a way that
-the micropyle points upwards, but usually it turns downward in the
-<i>Abietineæ</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig252" style="width: 360px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig252.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 252.</span>&mdash;The apex of the nucellus (<i>n</i>)
-of an ovule of <i>Abies</i>: <i>l</i> long-shaped cells which guide the
-pollen-tube; <i>s</i> the wall of the macrospore (embryo-sac); <i>h</i>
-the neck-cells of the archegonium; <i>k</i> the ventral canal-cell; and
-<i>c</i> the central cell (oosphere). The archegonia of the Cryptogams
-should be compared with this (see pages <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">GYMNOSPERMS</span> go still further. The macrospore (embryo-sac)
-germinates and forms internally a cellular tissue, designated in
-former times by the name of <i>albumen</i> (endosperm), which is
-<i>homologous with the prothallium</i>. It always <i>remains enclosed
-in the embryo-sac</i>, and is a parenchymatous mass containing a large
-supply of nourishment. In the upper part of the endosperm a number of
-archegonia are developed which are in the main constructed in the same
-manner as those in the Cryptogams, but are still more reduced, the
-neck consisting only of 4, 2, or 1 cell (Figs. <a href="#fig251">251</a>, <a href="#fig252">252</a>). The ventral
-canal-cell is also formed, in the majority, as a small portion cut off
-from the large central cell just beneath the neck; the larger remaining
-portion becomes the oosphere. When the pollen-tube has passed down
-to the oosphere (Fig. <a href="#fig253">253</a>) and fertilisation has been effected, the
-oospore commences a cell-formation, the final result of which is the
-formation of <i>an embryo</i> (<i>the asexual generation</i>) which is
-provided with a thinner, lower end, termed the suspensor. The embryo
-is forced more or less into the endosperm<span class="pagenum" id="Page_247">[247]</span> in which it may rest for a
-longer or shorter time, and generally is developed to such an extent
-that it has a distinct primary-root (radicle) and stem (plumule) with
-one or more embryo-leaves (cotyledons).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>When the oosphere has been fertilised its nucleus sinks down
-to its lower end, and by repeated division into two, forms
-four cells lying in one plane (Fig. <a href="#fig253">253</a>, see base of the left
-archegonium). Three tiers of cells are now formed by transverse
-division of these four. It is the intermediate one of these
-which elongates and forms the suspensor, or four suspensors, if
-they separate from each other, which push the lowermost four
-cells deep down into the endosperm. It is from these four lower
-cells that the embryo (or four embryos when the suspensors
-separate) is developed, but never more than one embryo attains
-full development. As several archegonia are contained in one and
-the same ovule, all of which are capable of forming embryos,
-there is the possibility that several embryos may be developed
-in a seed (polyembryony), but usually only one embryo attains
-perfect development.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig253" style="width: 417px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig253.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 253.</span>&mdash;The apex of the nucellus (<i>n</i>)
-of <i>Abies</i> in longitudinal section: <i>c</i>, <i>c</i> the
-oospheres of the two archegonia; the embryo-formation has commenced at
-the bottom of the left archegonium; <i>s</i> wall of the macrospore;
-<i>p</i> pollen-grains; <i>r</i> pollen-tubes.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig254" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig254.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 254.</span>&mdash;Embryo-sac of <i>Carex præcox</i>:
-<i>syn</i> synergidæ; <i>kb</i> the oosphere; <i>c</i> the central
-nucleus; <i>ant</i> the antipodal cells.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>At the same time that the embryo is being developed, other changes are
-taking place in the ovule, especially in the integument which becomes
-the shell of the seed (<i>testa</i>). The endosperm grows, and the
-embryo-sac supplants the cells of the nucellus. The <i>seed</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_248">[248]</span> is now
-formed, and it consists in its most complete development, as in this
-instance, of three parts:</p>
-
-<p>(1) The <i>testa of the seed</i>, formed by the enveloping integuments,
-with the remainder of the tissue of the nucellus lying outside the
-embryo-sac (the macrosporangium).</p>
-
-<p>(2) The <i>endosperm</i> or prothallium.</p>
-
-<p>(3) The <i>embryo</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig255" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig255.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 255.</span>&mdash;Diagrammatic longitudinal section
-through an anatropous ovule shortly after fertilisation; <i>a</i> and
-<i>i</i> are the two integuments; <i>f</i> the funicle; <i>k</i> the
-nucellus; <i>S</i> the embryo-sac, with the incipient formation of
-nutritive-tissue; <i>E</i> the embryo; <i>P</i> the pollen-tube passing
-through the micropyle (<i>n</i>) to the oosphere.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The reduction in the <span class="smcap">Angiosperms</span> is carried to the extreme
-limit. In the embryo-sac (the macrospore) the nucleus by continued
-division produces a prothallium consisting of primordial cells (Fig.
-<a href="#fig254">254</a>). In the upper end of the embryo-sac (which is nearest the
-micropyle) are three cells, two of which are termed the “co-operating
-cells” (<i>synergidæ</i>) and the third is the <i>oosphere</i>.
-Three others are placed at the opposite end of the embryo-sac and
-are therefore termed the “antipodal cells.” Finally, a large cell
-is also formed, which occupies the space between the two groups and
-whose cell-nucleus, the central definitive nucleus, lies in the centre
-of the embryo-sac. These primordial cells are the slight remnant of
-the prothallium. The entire structure of the archegonium, with its
-neck and canal-cells, has disappeared, and nothing is left but the
-indispensable <i>oosphere</i>. When the oosphere has been fertilised,
-and has commenced the cellular divisions which lead to the formation of
-the embryo (Fig. <a href="#fig255">255</a>), the synergidæ and antipodal cells are absorbed,
-and a cell-formation begins by a new process which emanates from the
-definitive nucleus and by which a parenchymatous cell-tissue, the
-nutritive-tissue, arises which may perhaps be considered as homologous
-with the endosperm of the Gymnosperms. The difference is that the
-nutritive-tissue of the Angiosperms is formed in two parts with an
-intervening interruption; the primary nutritive-tissue is first formed,
-and after fertilisation is absorbed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_249">[249]</span> with the exception of one cell,
-which continues the development and gives rise to the nutritive-tissue
-proper, which is formed in the first instance of primordial cells,
-and later on of a cellular tissue; this nutritive-tissue formed in
-the embryo-sac is termed “endosperm”; in a few instances<a id="FNanchor_23" href="#Footnote_23" class="fnanchor">[23]</a> a tissue
-which is derived from the nucellus functions as nutritive-tissue, and
-is termed “perisperm.” In many plants the seeds, when ripe, contain a
-very rich nutritive-tissue, in addition to the embryo, for the purpose
-of its nourishment during germination. These are termed albuminous
-(endospermous) seeds, in distinction to the ex-albuminous, or those in
-which the nutritive-tissue is stored in the embryo itself, before it is
-completely developed, and used for its sustenance.</p>
-
-<p>In addition to the changes which fertilisation produces in the ovule
-itself, it also gives the impetus to a series of changes in the
-entire shoot which bears the ovule. The perianth, stamens, and style,
-generally wither, because the part they play is at an end; the wall
-of the ovary grows and becomes the wall of the fruit (pericarp).
-The entire gynœcium of a flower, transformed as a consequence of
-fertilisation, is termed a <i>fruit</i>. It consists of two parts, the
-<i>pericarp</i> and the <i>seeds</i>, and according to the nature of
-the pericarp, the fruit is termed a capsule, nut, berry, or drupe.</p>
-
-<p>The chief characteristic of the Phanerogams does not lie in the
-formation of the flower (although they may quite properly be termed
-“Flowering-plants”), because Equisetums and Lycopods have reproductive
-shoots as highly differentiated as those of certain Gymnosperms and
-other Phanerogams. As regards the <span class="allsmcap">SEXUAL GENERATION</span> the
-characteristics are found:&mdash;(1) in its great reduction; (2) in the
-transmission of the microspore (pollen-grain) to the macrosporangium,
-and its germination, with the formation of a <i>pollen-tube</i>
-(antheridium), the protoplasm of which is not differentiated into
-spermatozoids; (3) in the fact that the macrospore (embryo-sac) never
-leaves its sporangium (nucellus); and further in the Angiosperms, (4)
-in the peculiar development of the nutritive-tissue in two parts; and
-(5) in the great reduction of the archegonium.</p>
-
-<p>As regards the <span class="allsmcap">ASEXUAL GENERATION</span> the characteristic feature
-is that this generation is formed whilst the sporangium is still
-attached to the mother-plant, and for a long time is nourished by
-it; and that after the sporangium has become detached from the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_250">[250]</span>
-mother-plant, it spends a longer or shorter resting period as the
-embryo in the seed (enveloped by the testa), and does not make its
-appearance until the “germination” of the seed. In addition the shoot
-which bears sporangia undergoes greater modification than in the case
-of the Flowerless-plants.</p>
-
-<p>The Phanerogams are separated into two Divisions as follows:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>Division 4. <b>Gymnospermæ.</b> The ovules, as well as the seeds,
-are borne <i>naked</i> on the surface of <i>open carpels</i>, or on
-the apex of a stem (ovary wanting). The pollen-grains are conveyed
-by the wind to the ovules, and caught by drops of mucilage, secreted
-by the micropyle. A “stigma” is <i>wanting</i>. The entire <i>female
-prothallium</i> (<i>the endosperm</i>), which serves for the
-nourishment of the embryo, is <i>formed before fertilisation</i>. The
-archegonia are <i>embedded in the upper part of the prothallium. The
-pollen-grains are “multicellular,” i.e.</i> there is always in their
-interior a distinct prothallium, formed by 1–3 cells, and a larger cell
-which gives rise to the pollen-tube.</p>
-
-<p>Division 5. <b>Angiospermæ.</b> The carpels surround the ovules and
-form an entirely closed chamber (<i>ovary</i>), in which the ovules
-mature and ripen into seeds. The surface of a portion of the apex of
-the carpel is transformed into the “stigma,” which, by a sticky fluid
-and also by hair-structures, is capable of retaining the pollen-grains
-conveyed to it by the wind, or more frequently by insects. The
-pollen-tube grows from the stigma, through the “conducting cellular
-tissue” (<i>style</i>), to the ovules. The pollen-grains contain two
-cells, a vegetative and a free generative cell. The latter passes
-into the pollen-tube and there divides into two, one of which is the
-sperm-nucleus. The female prothallium, which is intended to serve as
-nutritive-tissue, is formed <i>after fertilisation</i>. Archegonia are
-wanting.</p>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_251">[251]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="smaller">DIVISION IV.<br />
-<span class="subhed">GYMNOSPERMÆ.</span></h2></div>
-
-<p>The following characters should be added to those already given on page
-<a href="#Page_2">2</a>:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>The Gymnosperms comprise only trees or shrubs. The flowers are always
-<i>unisexual</i> and destitute of perianth (except <i>Gnetaceæ</i>);
-the female plant of <i>Cycas</i> is the only one which has no flower.
-The <span class="allsmcap">MALE FLOWERS</span> are constructed on the same type as the
-cones of the Horsetails and Club-Mosses, and are <i>most frequently
-long shoots</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig243">243</a>, <a href="#fig258">258</a>, <a href="#fig260">260</a> <i>A</i>, <a href="#fig267">267</a> <i>J</i>) bearing a
-number of spiral or verticillate stamens. The <span class="allsmcap">FEMALE FLOWERS</span>
-are of a more varied structure (see the orders). The <span class="allsmcap">OVULE</span>
-<i>is orthotropous</i> (except <i>Podocarpus</i> which is anatropous)
-and projects from the carpel uprightly, inverted, or horizontally;
-it has usually <i>only one integument</i> (compare however Taxaceæ)
-which proceeds from the upper part of the nucellus, so that the
-embryo-sac in part is placed below the integuments (Figs. <a href="#fig251">251</a>, <a href="#fig264">264</a>).
-The drop of mucilage which catches the pollen-grains dries up and
-draws the pollen-grain through the micropyle to a space just above the
-nucellus&mdash;<i>the pollen-chamber</i>&mdash;in which the germination of the
-pollen-grain commences.</p>
-
-<p>In each seed, only one of the many embryos which are formed proceeds
-to its full development. The seed is always <i>endospermous</i>, and
-the embryo has one, two, or a whorl of several cotyledons. A vigorous
-primary root is developed on germination. <span class="smcap">The vascular bundles</span>
-in the stem are arranged in a ring, and <i>increase in thickness</i>
-takes place by a closed cambium-ring which forms bast (<i>phlœem</i>)
-externally, and wood (<i>xylem</i>) internally with distinct annual
-rings, <i>as in the Dicotyledons</i>. Only certain of the Cycadeæ
-deviate from this arrangement. The <i>secondary wood</i> is very
-uniform, as it is almost exclusively <i>formed of tracheides</i> with
-bordered pits, but <i>true vessels are wanting</i>; this also indicates
-a relationship with the Pteridophyta (see page <a href="#Page_202">202</a>).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_252">[252]</span></p>
-
-<p>The Gymnosperms are biologically lower than the Angiosperms; they are
-wind-fertilised, and without extra floral-nectaries.</p>
-
-<p>This Division embraces three classes: <span class="smcap">Cycadeæ</span>,
-<span class="smcap">Coniferæ</span>, And <span class="smcap">Gneteæ</span>. It is no doubt monophyletic,
-and has taken its origin from heterosporous Ferns, now extinct, most
-nearly related to the Ophioglossaceæ and Marattiaceæ. The Cycadeæ
-appear to be the oldest class. The Coniferæ are related to these
-through Ginkgo. The Gnetaceæ are more isolated. The Division is not
-continued into the higher Flowering-plants; it has evidently attained
-its highest development, and is now in a retrograde condition. The
-similarity which has often been pointed out between certain Coniferæ
-and Lycopodinæ is only in analogous resemblances, and does not entitle
-one to suppose that there is a nearer relationship, or that the former
-take their origin from the latter.</p>
-
-
-<h3>Class 1. <b>Cycadeæ.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The stem is very <i>rarely ramified</i>. The leaves are <i>large</i>,
-<i>pinnate</i>, and arranged spirally. The flowers are <i>diœcious,
-without perianth</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig256" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig256.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 256.</span>&mdash;<i>Cycas circinalis</i> (female
-plant). The carpels are seen hanging from the top of the stem. Three
-leaves with the leaflets still rolled up project almost vertically into
-the air, from the centre of the crown.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>There is only one order, the <b>Cycadaceæ</b>.&mdash;In habit they resemble
-the Ferns, especially the Tree-Ferns (compare Figs. <a href="#fig207">207</a> and <a href="#fig256">256</a>). The
-stem is tubercular (Fig. <a href="#fig258">258</a>), or cylindrical (Fig. <a href="#fig256">256</a>), but not
-very tall (as much as about 12 metres), and very rarely ramified. [In
-Ceylon, unbranched specimens of <i>Cycas</i> are rarely met with in the
-wild state. The stems of <i>C. circinalis</i> occasionally branch in
-greenhouses.]</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_253">[253]</span></p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">LEAVES</span> are arranged spirally, and so closely together
-that no free stem-surface is left between them, and have only a slight
-sheath (which is not amplexicaul, as in the Palms). They are compound
-(most frequently pinnate; in <i>Bowenia</i>, bipinnate); in some genera
-the leaves are rolled up in various ways, resembling the vernation in
-Ferns (Fig. <a href="#fig257">257</a>); they are leathery and perennial. In some, stipules
-are present, as in the Marattiaceæ. Groups of scale-leaves alternate in
-the majority with groups of foliage-leaves.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig257" style="width: 188px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig257.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 257.</span>&mdash;<i>Cycas circinalis.</i> Part of a
-young leaf with circinate leaflets.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig258" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig258.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 258.</span>&mdash;A male plant of <i>Stangeria
-paradoxa</i> (about 1/15 nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig259" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig259.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 259.</span>&mdash;Female cone of <i>Zamia
-integrifolia</i> (½-⅓ nat. size). The male cone is very similar
-externally.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">FLOWERS</span> are without perianth. The <span class="allsmcap">MALE FLOWER</span> is
-sometimes an enormous collection of stamens (Fig. <a href="#fig258">258</a>), which are flat
-in some (<i>Cycas</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig241">241</a>), shield-like in others (<i>Zamia</i>,
-<i>Ceratozamia</i>) like the sporophylls in Horsetail (Fig. <a href="#fig259">259</a>); but
-in all, the pollen-sacs are situated in large and varying numbers
-on the back of the stamens, and arranged in groups of 2–5, like the
-sporangia in the sori of the Ferns (Fig. <a href="#fig241">241</a> <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>).
-<span class="smcap">Female flowers</span> <i>are wanting</i> in <i>Cycas</i>, because the
-carpels do not terminate the apical growth of the stem. After a group
-of foliage-and of scale-leaves, a group of carpels is developed, which
-are pinnate and resemble the foliage-leaves, bearing on their edges
-a number of ovules (most frequently<span class="pagenum" id="Page_254">[254]</span> 5–6) (Figs. <a href="#fig245">245</a>, <a href="#fig256">256</a>); the same
-stem produces successively scale-leaves, foliage-leaves, and carpels.
-The differentiation is not much more advanced than in certain Ferns
-(<i>Struthiopteris</i>, <i>Blechnum</i>), where barren and fertile
-leaves of different form regularly alternate. <i>The other genera have
-female flowers</i>; the carpels are shield-like in <i>Zamia</i> and
-<i>Ceratozamia</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig246">246</a>), and collected into cone-like flowers,
-which terminate the growth of the stem (Fig. <a href="#fig259">259</a>). The number of ovules
-in these instances is two to each carpel.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">SEEDS</span> are large (most frequently 2–6 centimetres long)
-and plum-like; the external layer of the testa is fleshy, while the
-internal one is hard and horny. There are two systems of vascular
-bundles in the testa, one outside, the other inside the stone. The
-embryo is straight, attached to the end of the suspensor, which is
-often long, filamentous, and rolled up; it has one or two cotyledons.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The embryo in <i>Ceratozamia</i> and others is very slightly
-developed, at the time when the ripe seed is detached from
-the carpel; and it is not until after sowing that its further
-development and germination proceed. This calls to mind the
-Cryptogams, especially <i>Selaginella</i>, whose macrospores
-are thrown off filled with endosperm; but the oosphere is not
-fertilised till after the separation of the macrospore from the
-parent-plant, while in the Cycadeæ fertilisation is effected
-before the separation. In <i>Cycas</i> the testa may rupture,
-and the endosperm grow and become green in the light, even
-though no embryo has been formed. This also is an indication of
-its prothalloid nature.</p>
-
-<p>Gum-passages are present in all organs. Collateral vascular
-bundles, with spiral and scalariform tracheides, are found;
-and normal thickening takes place by means of a cambium.
-An exceptional mode of growth is found in <i>Cycas</i> and
-<i>Encephalartos</i>, the cambium ceases to divide after a time
-and is replaced by a new cambium which arises in the cortical
-parenchyma just outside the bast, and which forms a new ring
-of xylem and phlœem. This may be repeated so that a number of
-concentric rings are produced. In <i>Ceratozamia</i>, structures
-resembling corals extend from the roots in a vertical direction
-and appear on the surface of the soil; these are peculiar roots,
-in which a symbiotic Alga (<i>Anabæna</i>) is found.</p>
-
-<p>The Cycadeæ were formerly (from the Coal period to the Later
-Cretaceous) far more numerous than at the present day. They
-appear to have been most numerous in the Trias and Jurassic.
-The remnant (75 species) which have persisted to the present
-time are found in all tropical countries. <i>Cycas</i> (Trop.
-and Sub-trop., Eastern Hemisphere); <i>Dioon</i> (Mexico);
-<i>Macrozamia</i> (Australia); <i>Encephalartos</i> (Trop. and
-S. Africa); <i>Stangeria</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig258">258</a>, Sub-trop. South and East
-Africa); <i>Bowenia</i> (Trop. Australia); <i>Ceratozamia</i>
-(Mexico, New Granada, Western Brazil); <i>Microcycas</i> (Cuba);
-<i>Zamia</i> (Trop. and Sub-trop. N. America.)</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> Sago is made from the starch-containing pith of
-<i>Cycas revoluta</i> and <i>circinalis</i>. The leaves are
-often used at funerals and church festivals, under the name of
-“palm-branches.”</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_255">[255]</span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Class 2. <b>Coniferæ</b> (<b>Pine-trees</b>).</h3>
-
-<p>The stem <i>branches freely</i>. The leaves are <i>entire</i>,
-relatively small, linear or reduced to scales. The flowers are without
-perianth. The ovules naked. It is seldom that the female flower is
-reduced to only one carpel.</p>
-
-<p>Whilst the Cycadeæ principally resemble the Ferns, the Conifers
-partly resemble the Lycopods, and partly the Equisetums&mdash;the former
-especially in the <i>needle- or scale-like</i>, leathery, simple, and
-often perennial leaves (“evergreen plants”), which <i>never possess
-stipules</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig263">263</a>, <a href="#fig270">270</a>, <a href="#fig272">272</a>). <i>Ginkgo</i> deviates from this,
-being no doubt the oldest, and the Conifer which stands nearest to the
-Cycadeæ (Fig. <a href="#fig260">260</a>). The resemblance to the Equisetums is especially
-owing to the fact that the stem ramifies abundantly, and often very
-regularly, forming a pyramid with verticillate branches. In addition
-to the foliage-leaves, scale-leaves (bud-scales) are present in the
-majority of species.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">FLOWERS</span> are monœcious or more rarely diœcious. <i>Perianth
-is wanting.</i> The stamens of the <i>catkin-like male flowers</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig267">267</a>, <i>J</i>) are of different forms, but as a rule more or
-less shield-like. As in the Cycadeæ, the pollen-sacs are in all cases
-situated <i>on the underside</i>. There are, as a rule, two pollen-sacs
-(the Abietaceæ, Fig. <a href="#fig267">267</a>), or 3–5, (the Cupressaceæ and Taxaceæ, Fig.
-<a href="#fig243">243</a>); a few have more, <i>e.g. Araucaria</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig242">242</a>); they
-dehisce by clefts.</p>
-
-<p>If, in commencing our consideration of the <i>female flower</i>, we
-begin with that of <i>Ginkgo</i>, we shall observe in the corner of a
-scale- or foliage-leaf a small flower, which consists of two carpels,
-each bearing one ovule, and reduced almost to the ovule itself (Fig.
-<a href="#fig260">260</a> <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>). The flower in <i>Podocarpus</i> is still
-further reduced, viz. to a single carpel with one ovule, which is
-anatropous and has two integuments. This ovule is situated in the
-axil of a cover-scale (<i>c</i>, in Fig. <a href="#fig262">262</a> <i>D</i>), and several
-female flowers of this description are collected in a small cone,
-the stalk and bracts of which become fleshy (Fig. <a href="#fig262">262</a> <i>C</i>). The
-external integument also becomes fleshy (an aril). <i>Dacrydium</i>,
-which is clearly related to <i>Podocarpus</i>, has an external
-integument which developes more independently as a fleshy aril (Fig.
-<a href="#fig262">262</a> <i>B</i>, <i>B’</i>). <i>Microcachrys</i> also is clearly allied
-to these: the bracts are more fleshy, and the ovule (<i>i.e.</i> the
-female flower) is protruded beyond the bract (Fig. <a href="#fig262">262</a> <i>A</i>,
-<i>A’</i>). <i>Taxus</i> stands in a more isolated position: a flower
-which has been reduced to an ovule is situated, in this instance, on
-the apex of a secondary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_256">[256]</span> branch which is studded with floral-leaves
-(Figs. <a href="#fig263">263</a>, <a href="#fig264">264</a>); an external integument is developed on all sides and
-surrounds the seed as a scarlet aril. According to this conception
-<i>the aril corresponds to an external integument</i>, and the Taxoideæ
-thus possess a partly dichlamydeous ovule. Only <i>Ginkgo</i> and
-<i>Cephalotaxus</i> appear to deviate from this, as in these there is
-only one integument (unless the small outgrowth indicated by <i>ar</i>,
-in Fig. <a href="#fig260">260</a> <i>D</i>, really is a rudimentary, external integument);
-in <span class="smcap">Cycadeæ</span>, to which <i>Ginkgo</i> is most closely related,
-there is likewise only one integument. But in these genera the testa is
-differentiated into two layers, and the seed resembles a drupe; like
-the Cycadeæ there is an external fleshy covering and an internal hard
-one, and these two layers may probably be considered homologous with
-the two integuments. This theory is also borne out by the arrangement
-of the vascular bundles in <i>Cephalotaxus</i> and <i>Podocarpus</i>,
-which present the xylem in the fleshy external layer to the
-<i>outside</i> of the testa, which is therefore the upper side of the
-integument (Celakovsky).</p>
-
-<p>The coalescence of the integuments into one is only slight in
-<i>Torreya</i>, more pronounced in <i>Podocarpus</i> and strongest in
-<i>Cephalotaxus</i> and <i>Ginkgo</i>. Celakovsky terms these ovules
-“holochlamydeous.”</p>
-
-<p>If we pass from these to the order <span class="smcap">Pinoideæ</span>, we find the
-female flowers collected into catkin-like cones, which have been
-considered from various points of view to be sometimes single
-flowers, at other times compound inflorescences. The structure in
-<span class="smcap">Abietaceæ</span> is as follows: a number of spirally arranged,
-scale-like leaves, <i>cover-scales</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig267">267</a>, <a href="#fig268">268</a>), are situated
-on a long axis. In the axil of each cover-scale a larger leaf-like
-projection, <i>the ovuliferous scale</i>, is borne, which turns the
-upper side towards its cover-scale (which is shown by the fact that
-the wood of its vascular bundles is turned downwards and towards
-the wood in the bundles of the cover-scale: Fig. <a href="#fig269">269</a>). Two ovules,
-with micropyles turned towards the central axis, and with apparently
-only one integument (Fig. <a href="#fig268">268</a>), are situated on the dorsal side of
-each ovuliferous scale, <i>i.e.</i> the side turned away from the
-cover-scale. The ovuliferous scales grow after fertilisation, into the
-woody or leathery “cone-scales,” which are usually much larger than
-the cover-scales. This ovuliferous scale with its axis may, according
-to Celakovsky, be considered as a dwarf-branch which is situated in
-the axil of the cover-scale, and bears two ovules (in the same way as
-in <i>Ginkgo</i>, one long-stalked flower, reduced to two ovules, is
-situated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_257">[257]</span> in the axil of a leaf), and <i>in this case the external
-integument of the ovules</i> is expanded into leaf-like bodies,
-which have united to form one “<i>symphyllodium</i>” (<i>ovuliferous
-scale</i>) which is inverted so that its dorsal side is turned upwards
-and bears the nucellus and the other integument (“hemichlamydeous”
-ovules). The carpel itself is therefore in this instance extremely
-reduced. The keel, or (in <i>Pinus</i>) “mucro” (Fig. <a href="#fig268">268</a> <i>B</i>),
-which is found in several genera, represents then a third carpel,
-which is sterile. In the other orders of the Pinoideæ the cover-scales
-and ovuliferous scales grow more and more together and finally form
-one structure, which also is termed a “cone-scale,” although from
-its development it cannot be homologous with the cone-scales of the
-Abietaceæ. This connation is least in the <span class="smcap">Taxodiaceæ</span> and
-<span class="smcap">Araucariaceæ</span> and may be traced on the upper surface of
-the “cone-scale” by the presence of a stronger or slighter ridge
-or pad, the free portion of the ovuliferous scale (Figs. <a href="#fig256">256</a>, <a href="#fig265_266">266</a>,
-<a href="#fig269">269</a>). It is most strongly pronounced in the <span class="smcap">Cupressaceæ</span>, in
-which the two scales form one single structure, the cone-scale (Fig.
-<a href="#fig274">274</a>). The vascular bundles in the under portion corresponding to the
-cover-scale, have the xylem towards the upper side as usual in leaves,
-whilst the bundles present in the upper side of the cone-scale, which
-thus represents the ovuliferous scale, turn their xylem downwards.
-The hemichlamydeous ovules are then situated on the upper side of
-this cone-scale. According to this theory the <span class="smcap">Cupressaceæ</span>
-appear to be the youngest type, a view which corresponds with their
-vegetative structure. If there is only one ovule in these orders as
-in <i>Agathis</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig265_266">265</a>) and <i>Araucaria</i>, then the flower
-is reduced to a single carpel and one ovule, as in the case of
-<i>Dacrydium</i> and <i>Microcachrys</i>. If two or more ovules are
-present, then the same number of carpels may be supposed to exist, the
-external integuments of their ovules being developed into leaf-like
-structures which collaterally coalesce to form a “symphyllodium,” or
-are suppressed.</p>
-
-<p>According to this theory, which is based on the researches of
-Celakovsky, the female flowers of the Coniferæ may be classed thus:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>1. In all cases situated in the axil of a bract and collected
-into cones, with numerous flowers or with few or one flower. In
-<i>Ginkgo</i> only, are they situated in the axil of foliage- or
-scale-leaves.</p>
-
-<p>2. It is only in <i>Taxus</i> that bracteoles are present.</p>
-
-<p>3. They are formed only from rudimentary carpels, in which the stem
-takes no part.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_258">[258]</span></p>
-
-<p>4. The number of carpels in each flower varies from one to many, most
-frequently three, of which the central one remains sterile.</p>
-
-<p>5. Each carpel bears only one ovule. The flower which is formed of only
-one carpel appears to consist of only one ovule.</p>
-
-<p>6. The ovule has in Taxaceæ either a double integument (Podocarpeæ,
-Taxeæ), of which the external is the “aril,” or, as in the Cycadeæ, a
-single one, which is homologous with the two united together.</p>
-
-<p>7. The external integument in the Pinoideæ is expanded to form a
-leaf-like structure&mdash;the ovuliferous scale&mdash;and bears on its dorsal
-side the ovules, which are thus only provided with one, and that the
-inner, integument.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>This later interpretation of the female cones in the Coniferæ is
-more probably correct than the older ones; that, however, which
-appeared in the former issues of this book, may also be stated.
-It was to the effect that each catkin-like female cone is in
-reality a single flower; the cone-scales in the Cupressaceæ
-were single leaves, namely carpels, which bore the ovules on
-the side which is turned upwards; the division into two parts
-which makes its appearance in the other orders, and becomes
-most prominent in the Abietaceæ, was compared with the division
-of a leaf into a barren and a fertile portion, which is found
-especially in Ophioglossaceæ and Marsiliaceæ, or with the ligule
-in <i>Isoëtes</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination</span> is accomplished by means of the wind. At the
-period of pollination the leaves are always so widely separated from
-one another, that the ovules can catch the pollen-grains carried to
-them by the wind; this is often effected by the mucilaginous drops
-which appear at the micropyle, and by the evaporation of which the
-pollen-grains are brought in contact with the nucellus. The entire cone
-grows considerably as soon as fertilisation has taken place, and the
-cone-scales in Pinoideæ close together so that the seeds while maturing
-are enclosed, and it is not until the seeds are ready for distribution
-that the cone-scales again become separated. In the Pinoideæ, the fully
-developed ovuliferous scales are hard and woody; and in this condition
-the collection of female flowers is termed a <i>cone</i>. In the
-Taxoideæ, true cones are the exception. 2–15 cotyledons are present,
-arranged in a whorl.</p>
-
-<p>The characteristic feature of this class is the abundance of
-<i>resin</i>, which is to be found in isolated cells (especially in
-the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_259">[259]</span> cortex), partly in intercellular glands or passages (both in the
-cortex and wood). <i>Taxus</i> is the only genus which has no resin.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>There are about 350 species, mostly from the Northern Temperate
-zone (especially North America and Siberia), where they grow
-gregariously and form the most northern forests. The Juniper,
-Scotch Fir, and Yew are natives of Great Britain.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>This class may be divided into two families:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>1. <b>Taxoideæ.</b> The ovules have either one integument, the external
-part of which is fleshy, and the internal hard and stone-like; or two
-integuments, of which the external is the fleshy and coloured “aril.”
-“Ovuliferous scales” are wanting. The cones are never woody, but are
-generally succulent, the bracts become fleshy, or cones usually are not
-developed. The seeds project more or less freely beyond the bracts.</p>
-
-<p>2. <b>Pinoideæ.</b> The ovules have two integuments, the external one
-of which is leaf-like and becomes developed as the “ovuliferous scale”;
-if there are several of these in each flower they unite and form a
-“symphyllodium.” This may remain free or unite with the bract. The
-cones are most frequently woody, rarely succulent. The seeds are hidden
-among the cone-scales.</p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 1. <b>Taxoideæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>This family, considered to be most nearly related to the Cycadeæ, also
-made its appearance at a very early period. There is only one order.</p>
-
-<p>Order. <b>Taxaceæ.</b> The characters have been given above.</p>
-
-<p><i>A.</i> <span class="smcap">Cephalotaxeæ</span> is the oldest group, presumably the
-connecting link between the Cycadeæ and the other Coniferæ. The flower
-consists normally of two ovules. Aril wanting. One integument. Seeds
-drupaceous.&mdash;The flowers in <i>Ginkgo biloba</i> (<i>Salisburia</i>)
-are situated in the axil of foliage- or scale-leaves. The stamens
-bear only two pollen-sacs (Fig. <a href="#fig260">260</a> <i>A</i>). The female flower
-has two ovules, placed together at the end of a long, bare axis
-(Fig. <a href="#fig260">260</a> <i>C</i>). Round the base of the ovule a small collar
-(<i>ar</i>, in Fig. <a href="#fig260">260</a> <i>D</i>) is found, which may probably be
-considered homologous with the collar-like outgrowth which surrounds
-the base of the <i>Cycas</i>-ovule. The seed resembles a Plum, and
-has a fleshy external coat, surrounding a hard internal layer. The
-embryo is developed after the seed has fallen off. The Ginkgo-tree
-has long-stalked, fan-shaped leaves, more or less indented, with
-dichotomous veins<span class="pagenum" id="Page_260">[260]</span> resembling certain Ferns&mdash;the Adiantums. It is a
-native of East Asia, and the only surviving species of a genus which in
-earlier times was very rich in species, and distributed over the entire
-Northern Hemisphere. <i>Cephalotaxus</i> (Eastern Asia) is related to
-it.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig260" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig260.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 260.</span>&mdash;<i>Ginkgo</i> (nat. size): <i>A</i>
-a branch with a small flowering dwarf-branch (male flower); <i>B</i>
-a leaf; <i>C</i> a flower with two ovules; <i>D</i> a ripe seed;
-<i>ar</i> collar.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig261" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig261.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 261.</span>&mdash;<i>Phyllocladus glaucus</i>: a
-branch with female flowers (nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>B.</i> <span class="smcap">Podocarpeæ.</span> The female flower is reduced to one
-ovule, placed in the axil of a bract, or a little forward upon it.
-The ovule has an aril (2 integuments).&mdash;<i>Phyllocladus</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig261">261</a>), from New Zealand and Tasmania, has obtained its name from its
-flat, <i>leaf-like branches</i>, the leaves proper being scale-like
-(<i>f</i>). The ovules stand <i>erect</i> in the axil of the scale-like
-leaves (<i>c</i>), and several are collected at the end of short
-branches.&mdash;<i>Microcachrys tetragona</i> (Tasmania) has a small
-female catkin with several spirally-placed, fleshy bracts, at the end
-of which the inward and downward turned ovule is attached (Fig. <a href="#fig262">262</a>
-<i>A</i>, <i>A’</i>). The ripe cones are red, succulent, and resemble
-Strawberries.&mdash;In <i>Dacrydium</i> (Tasmania, New Zealand, Malaysia)
-the female cone has most frequently only 1–2 (–6) bracts, which
-resemble<span class="pagenum" id="Page_261">[261]</span> the vegetative leaves; they have also a fleshy aril (Fig.
-<a href="#fig262">262</a> <i>B</i>, <i>B’</i>).&mdash;<i>Podocarpus</i> (40 species, East Asia,
-S. Temp.); the bracts of the female flowers become fleshy, and unite
-together; only 1 or 2 are of use in supporting the flowers. The ovules
-project high above the apex of the bract, and are <i>anatropous</i>,
-the micropyle being turned downwards (Fig. <a href="#fig262">262</a> <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>).
-An aril commences to develope in the flowering period as an external
-coating, and later on it becomes fleshy and coloured.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig262" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig262.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 262.</span>&mdash;<i>A Microcachrys</i>:
-female cone (2/1). <i>A’</i> A single carpel with its ovule. <i>B</i>
-<i>Dacrydium</i>: branch with female flower (3/1). <i>B’</i> The
-flower; <i>cp</i> the bract; <i>ar</i> the aril; <i>ov</i> ovule.
-<i>C Podocarpus</i>: female flower with 2 ovules. <i>D</i>
-Another female flower with 1 ovule, in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig263" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig263.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 263.</span>&mdash;<i>Taxus baccata</i>: branch with
-two ripe seeds (nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>C.</i> <span class="smcap">Taxeæ.</span> The female flower is reduced to one ovule,
-which is situated <i>terminally</i> on an axis which bears 2–3 pairs of
-opposite, scale-like bracteoles; on this account the Taxeæ form a very
-isolated group among the Coniferæ.&mdash;<i>Taxus</i> (<i>T. baccata</i>,
-the Yew-tree). <i>Diœcious</i>. <i>The female flower consists of
-only one ovule</i>, placed <i>at the end</i> of a short secondary
-branch (Fig. <a href="#fig264">264</a>), which is studded with scale-like leaves. The aril
-when ripe is thick, fleshy, and scarlet (sometimes yellow), and only
-loosely envelopes the seed (Fig. <a href="#fig263">263</a>). The leaves are scattered, flat,
-linear, and pointed (Fig. <a href="#fig263">263</a>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_262">[262]</span> <a href="#fig264">264</a>). The short male flowers have 5–8
-pollen-sacs, pendent from the stamens, and are surrounded at their
-bases by scale-like bracteoles (Fig. <a href="#fig243">243</a>). <i>Torreya</i> (4 species,
-N. America and Japan) is closely allied to <i>Taxus</i>. The aril
-ultimately fuses with the woody inner integument, and hence the ovule
-becomes drupaceous, as in Cephalotaxaceæ.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig264" style="width: 509px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig264.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 264.</span>&mdash;<i>Taxus baccata</i>: <i>A</i> shoot
-of <i>Taxus</i> with female flowers at the time when the ovules are
-ready for pollination. <i>B</i> Leaf with flower in its axil (nat.
-size). <i>C</i> Longitudinal median section through a female shoot;
-<i>v</i> growing point of primary shoot; <i>a</i> commencement of aril;
-<i>i</i> integument; <i>n</i> nucellus; <i>m</i> micropyle.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> <i>Taxus baccata</i> is usually planted in
-gardens, especially in hedges. Its wood is very hard and is used
-for wood-carving. The shoots are poisonous, but not the aril,
-which is often eaten by children and by birds.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 2. <b>Pinoideæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The four orders differ from one another partly in the arrangement of
-the leaves (<i>Cupressaceæ</i> have opposite or verticillately<span class="pagenum" id="Page_263">[263]</span> placed
-leaves, flowers, and inflorescences; in the others they are placed
-spirally), but chiefly in the greater or less degree of union which
-takes place between the female flower (the leaf-like “symphyllodium”)
-and its supporting cover-scale, and in the position of the ovules (the
-micropyle being turned upwards or downwards). The “cone-scales” in
-<i>Abietaceæ</i> are formed by “symphyllodia” alone, in the others by
-their union with the cover-scale.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Araucariaceæ.</b> This order most frequently has
-<i>solitary</i> ovules, <i>turned downwards</i> and attached <i>to the
-centre</i> of the cone-scales. In <i>Agathis</i> (<i>Dammara</i>) the
-arrangement is the most simple, a winged seed (Fig. <a href="#fig265_266">265</a>), which hangs
-<i>freely</i> downwards, being borne in the centre of the undivided
-cone-scale. In <i>Araucaria</i>, the stamens with the <i>free,
-pendulous</i> pollen-sacs have been represented in Fig. <a href="#fig242">242</a>; the
-ovuliferous scale is united for nearly its whole length with the bract,
-and projects from its apex in the shape of a sheath-like, dentate
-scale, resembling the ligule in <i>Isoëtes</i>, and may therefore be
-termed a “ligule.” <i>Araucaria</i> (S. America, Australia) has often
-rather broad leaves (<i>A. brasiliensis</i>). The ovuliferous scale
-in <i>Cunninghamia</i> is more distinct, and stretches transversely
-over the entire cover-scale; it bears three inverted ovules (Fig. <a href="#fig265_266">266</a>)
-(Eastern Asia).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig265_266" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig265_266.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 265.</span>&mdash;<i>Agathis (Dammara) australis.</i>
-Cone-scale with the seed. <i>A</i> Longitudinal section; <i>A’</i> from
-within; <i>fv</i>, <i>fv’</i> vascular bundles; <i>v</i> wing.</p>
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. <a href="#fig265_266">266</a>.</span>&mdash;<i>Cunninghamia sinensis.</i>
-Cone-scale with three ovules, interior view: <i>d</i> cover-scale;
-<i>f</i> ovuliferous scale.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig267" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig267.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 267.</span>&mdash;<i>A-G Pseudotsuga
-douglasii</i>: <i>A</i> cone, <i>B</i> cone-scale, with the inner side
-turned forward; the points of the cover-scale are seen behind it;
-<i>C-G</i> transitions from the acicular leaf to the cover scale, from
-the base of a ♀ cone. <i>H Pinus montana.</i> Young ovuliferous scale,
-with the inner side turned forward; the ovules are now in the stage for
-pollination. <i>J-M Abies alba</i>: <i>J</i> male cone; <i>b</i>
-bud-scale; <i>a</i> anthers; <i>K L M</i> individual anthers.&mdash;<i>Pinus
-montana</i>: <i>N</i> pollen-grain; the two lateral expansions are
-the air-bladders; in the upper part of the interior of the grain a
-vegetative cell may be seen, and in the centre the large cell-nucleus.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Dammara-resin, which is used for varnish, is obtained from
-<i>Agathis</i> (<i>Dammara</i>) species (New Zealand, Philippine
-Islands).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Abietaceæ (Pine and Fir Trees).</b> The leaves are spirally
-arranged and needle-like. The flowers are <i>monœcious</i>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_264">[264]</span> The male
-flowers are long, and catkin-like, with numerous stamens, each bearing
-two <i>oblong pollen-sacs</i>. The pollen-grains are most frequently
-tri-lobed, having two bladder-like appendages, formed as outgrowths of
-the exospore, to assist in their distribution by the wind (Fig. <a href="#fig267">267</a>
-<i>N</i>). The bracts are arranged spirally. The union between the
-bract and the ovuliferous scale, which is found in the preceding order,
-is not in this instance so complete; these scales make their appearance
-as two free parts, and are attached only at their bases (Fig. <a href="#fig268">268</a>);
-the lower portion, that is the cover-scale, in most instances remains
-quite small (Fir, Red Pine, and others), it is only in the “Noble
-Pine” (<i>Abies</i>) and <i>Pseudotsuga douglasii</i>, that it attains
-a greater length than the ovuliferous scale (Fig. <a href="#fig267">267</a>, <i>B-G</i>).
-On the other hand the upper part, <i>the ovuliferous scale</i> (the
-vascular bundles of which have the bast turned upwards), grows strongly
-and elongates, especially after fertilisation, becoming woody or
-leathery; it is commonly termed the “<i>cone-scale</i>,” but is in
-reality only homologous with a part of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_265">[265]</span> the “cone-scale” in the other
-order of Pinoideæ. On the side of the ovuliferous scale, turned towards
-the axis, are situated <i>two ovules</i> with micropyles <i>directed
-inwards</i>. The seeds are most frequently provided with <i>a false
-wing</i> (a tissue-like part of the surface of the ovuliferous scale).
-Cotyledons, <i>more than</i> 2, <i>verticillate</i>. <i>Fertilisation
-does not take place until some time after pollination.</i> In
-<i>Pinus</i>, for instance, the pollen-tube only penetrates the
-nucellus for a short distance during the year of pollination, and then
-ceases its further growth, fertilisation not taking place until after
-the middle of the next year; whilst the seeds ripen about a year and a
-half after pollination. In the Larch and others, the seeds are mature
-in the autumn succeeding pollination.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig268" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig268.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 268.</span>&mdash;<i>A Abies</i>: <i>c</i> the
-cover-scale; <i>s</i> ovuliferous scale, or “cone-scale”; <i>sk</i>
-ovules in a young condition. <i>B Pinus</i>: ovuliferous scale
-with two ovules (<i>s</i>); <i>m</i> the two-lobed micropyle; <i>c</i>
-“mucro”; <i>b</i> the cover-scale behind. <i>C Abies</i>: ripe
-“cone-scale” with two seeds (<i>sa</i>); <i>f</i> wing of seed.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Abies</i> (Fir). The leaves are often (<i>e.g. Ab.
-pectinata</i>) displaced into 2 rows, flat and indented at the
-apex, with 2 white (wax-covered) lines on the under surface, in
-which the stomata are situated. The leaf-scars are nearly circular
-and do not project. The cones are erect. <i>The cover-scales and
-the ovuliferous scales separate from the axis</i>, to which they
-remain attached in other genera.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Tsuga</i>
-has leaves like <i>Abies</i>, but by the slightly projecting
-leaf-scars, and cones with persistent scales, it forms the transition
-to <i>Picea</i>.&mdash;<i>Pseudotsuga</i> has leaves similar to those
-of <i>Abies</i> and persistent carpels as in <i>Picea</i>, but the
-cover-scales grow as in <i>Abies</i> and project beyond the ovuliferous
-scales (<i>P. douglasii</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig267">267</a>). These two genera are considered
-as sub-genera of <i>Abies</i>.</span>&mdash;<i>Picea</i>. The leaves project
-on all sides, square and pointed; the leaf-scars are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_266">[266]</span> rhombic, on
-projecting leaf-cushions. The cones are pendulous. The cover-scales are
-much shorter than the leathery, persisting ovuliferous scales.&mdash;The
-genus <i>Larix</i> (Larch) differs from all the others in having
-deciduous leaves (the three preceding have leaves which persist for
-eleven to twelve years). It has <i>long-branches</i> with linear
-foliage-leaves and short, thick, <i>perennial dwarf-branches</i>, which
-each year form a new rosette of foliage-leaves, similar to those on the
-long-branches. The male flowers and the erect cones resemble those of
-<i>Picea</i>, and are borne on dwarf-branches.&mdash;<i>Cedrus</i> (Cedar)
-resembles <i>Larix</i> to some extent, but has persistent leaves (<i>C.
-libani</i>, <i>C. deodara</i>).&mdash;<i>Pinus</i> (Pine) has long-branches
-and dwarf-branches. The leaves of the long-branches are scale-like and
-not green; the dwarf-branches have very limited growth, and persist
-for three years; they arise in the axils of the scales borne on the
-long-branches of the self-same year, and each bears 2–5 foliage-leaves,
-they are also surrounded at the base by a number of membranous
-bud-scales. The cone-scales have a <i>thick, rhomboid extremity</i>
-(the “shield”).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The buds which develope into long-branches arise at the apex of
-other long-branches, and being very close together, form false
-whorls. The female cones occupy the position of long-branches,
-and take about two years for their development. The male flowers
-arise close together, and form a spike-like inflorescence at
-the base of a long-branch of the same year. The male flowers
-occupy the position of dwarf-branches, so that a female cone
-may be considered to be a modified long-branch, and a male cone
-a modified dwarf-branch. The main axis of the seedling has
-needle-like leaves, similar to those found on the older parts,
-and on dwarf-branches; it is not until some time later that
-the dwarf-branches are developed and the permanent arrangement
-attained.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> Several species are commonly cultivated in this
-country, partly on heaths and moors, and partly in plantations
-and as ornamental trees, such as Mountain Pine (<i>Pinus
-montana</i>, Cen. Eur.); Austrian Pine (<i>P. laricio</i>,
-Eur.); Scotch Fir (<i>P. silvestris</i>, Eur.); Weymouth
-Pine (<i>P. strobus</i>, N. Am.); common Red Pine (<i>Picea
-excelsa</i>, Cen. and N. Eur.); White Pine (<i>P. alba</i>, N.
-Am.); <i>Abies pectinata</i> (Common Fir, S. and Cen. Eur);
-<i>A. nordmanniana</i> (Crimea, Caucasus); <i>A. balsamea</i>
-(N. Am.); <i>Tsuga canadensis</i> (N. Am.); <i>Pseudotsuga
-douglasii</i> (N.W. Am.); Larch (<i>Larix europæa</i>, Alps,
-Carpathians); <i>L. sibirica</i> (N.E. Russia, Siberia).&mdash;The
-wood of many species, especially Pine, on account of its
-lightness and because it is so easily worked, is very well
-adapted for many useful purposes. The wood of the Yew-tree
-is very hard and is used for ornamental turning. Resin and
-Turpentine (<i>i.e.</i> Resin with essential oils, the name
-being derived from the Terebinth-tree, from which formerly a
-similar material was obtained) are extracted from <i>Pinus
-laricio</i> and <i>P. pinaster</i>. Oil of Turpentine is
-obtained by distillation of turpentine with water; Tar by
-dry distillation of Pine-wood. Canada-balsam is from North<span class="pagenum" id="Page_267">[267]</span>
-American <i>Abies</i>-species (<i>A. balsamea</i> and
-<i>Fraseri</i>). The officinal Turpentine is mainly obtained
-from <i>Pinus pinaster</i> (South of France), <i>P. tæda</i>,
-<i>australis</i>, <i>strobus</i> (Weymouth Pine) and other North
-American species; more recently also from <i>P. silvestris</i>
-(Scotch Fir), <i>maritima</i>, <i>laricio</i>, <i>Picea
-excelsa</i>, and others; Venetian Turpentine, from Larch (S.
-Eur.) Amber is resin from a Tertiary plant (<i>Pityoxylon
-succiniferum</i>), closely related to the Pine, which grew
-especially in the countries round the South-East coast of the
-Baltic. <i>Pinus pinea</i> (the Pine, S. Eur.) has edible seeds
-and also <i>P. cembra</i> (in Cen. Eur. and Siberia).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Taxodiaceæ.</b> The vegetative leaves and cone-scales are
-arranged spirally. The ovules (2–9) are situated either at the base
-of the ovuliferous scales, in which case they are erect; or at their
-centre, when they are generally more or less inverted. The ovuliferous
-scale is more or less united with the cover-scale, and projects
-beyond the surface of the cone-scale, like a comb (Fig. <a href="#fig269">269</a>). The
-vascular bundles, which extend into the cover-scale, have the usual
-leaf-arrangement, viz. the wood placed above the bast; while those
-bundles which enter the ovuliferous scale have this arrangement of the
-bundles reversed.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig269" style="width: 331px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig269.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 269.</span>&mdash;<i>Cryptomeria japonica.</i> Portion
-of longitudinal section through female flower. <i>d</i> cover-scale;
-<i>f</i> ovuliferous scale; <i>ov</i> ovules; <i>fv</i> and <i>fv’</i>
-vascular bundles; the xylem is indicated by a wavy line, and the phlœm
-by a straight line.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Taxodium distichum</i> (the North American “Swamp Cypress”)
-has annual dwarf-branches, with distichous leaves, and cone-like
-“pneumathodia.” In the Tertiary period it was very common in
-the Polar regions. <i>Sequoia (Wellingtonia) gigantea</i>
-is the famous Californian Giant-Fir, or Mammoth-Tree, which
-attains a height of 300 feet, a diameter of 36 feet, and is
-said to live for 1,500 years. <i>Cryptomeria japonica</i>
-(Japan, China) has the least adnate ovuliferous scales;
-<i>Glyptostrobus</i> (China); <i>Arthrotaxis</i> (Tasmania);
-<i>Sciadopitys verticillata</i> (the only species in Japan) has,
-like <i>Pinus</i>, scale-like leaves on the long-branches, of
-which those which are situated at the apex of the annual shoots
-support “double needles,” <i>i.e. dwarf-branches</i>
-similar to the two-leaved dwarf-branches in <i>Pinus</i>, but
-without bud-scales, and with the two leaves fused together at
-the edges into one needle, which turns its upper surface away
-from the long-branch.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Cupressaceæ</b> (<b>Cypresses</b>). <i>The leaves are
-opposite or verticillate</i>, sometimes acicular, but most frequently
-scale-like (Fig. <a href="#fig270">270</a>). In the species with scale-like leaves, the
-seedlings often commence with acicular leaves (Fig. <a href="#fig272">272</a>), and
-branches are sometimes found on the older plants which revert to this
-form, seeming to indicate that the acicular leaf was the original<span class="pagenum" id="Page_268">[268]</span>
-form (atavism). The so-called “<i>Retinospora</i>” species are
-seedling-forms of <i>Biota</i>, <i>Thuja</i>, <i>Chamæcyparis</i>,
-which have been propagated by cuttings, and retain the seedling-form.
-The flowers are monœcious or diœcious. The male flowers are short, and
-have shield-like stamens, bearing most frequently several pollen-sacs.
-The cover-scales and ovuliferous scales are entirely fused together and
-form <i>undivided</i> cone-scales, <i>opposite or whorled</i>; <i>the
-ovuliferous scales</i> have slight projections near <i>the base</i> on
-which 1–2–several <i>erect ovules</i> are developed (Fig. <a href="#fig274">274</a>). Most
-frequently 2 cotyledons.&mdash;<i>Evergreen</i> trees and shrubs.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig270" style="width: 268px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig270.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 270.</span>&mdash;<i>Cupressus goveniana.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig271" style="width: 212px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig271.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 271.</span>&mdash;Portion of a branch of <i>Thuja
-orientalis</i> (magnified). The leaf at the base on the right has a
-branch in its axil.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig272" style="width: 220px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig272.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 272.</span>&mdash;Seedling of <i>Thuja
-occidentalis</i>. The branch (<i>g</i>) is borne in the axil of the
-leaf <i>s</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Juniperus</i> (Juniper). <i>Diœcious.</i> The cone-scales become
-fleshy and fuse together to form most frequently a 1–3 seeded
-“berry-cone.” <span class="smaller"><i>J. communis</i> (Common Juniper) has acicular
-leaves, borne in whorls of three, and the “berry-cone” is formed by
-a trimerous whorl of cone-scales (Fig. <a href="#fig273">273</a>). <i>J. sabina</i> and
-<i>J. virginiana</i> have “berry-cones” formed from several dimerous
-whorls of cone-scales; the leaves are connate and opposite, needle-and
-scale-like leaves are found on the same plant.</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Cupressus</i> (Cypress). <i>Monœcious.</i> The cones are spherical;
-the cone-scales shield-like, generally five-cornered and woody (Fig.
-<a href="#fig270">270</a>), each having many seeds. The leaves are scale-like.&mdash;<i>Thuja.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_269">[269]</span>
-Monœcious.</i> Cones oblong. The cone-scales are dry, as in the
-Cypress, but leathery and imbricate, and not shield-like; each
-cone-scale bears 2–3 seeds. The leaves are most frequently dimorphic;
-those leaves which are situated on the edges of the flat branches are
-compressed, and only these bear buds, which are developed with great
-regularity, generally alternately, on both sides of the branch; those
-which are situated on the flattened surfaces are pressed flat and
-broad, and never bear branches (Fig. <a href="#fig271">271</a>). Along the central line of
-each leaf there is a resin-canal (Fig. <a href="#fig271">271</a>).&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Chamæcyparis</i>,
-<i>Callitris</i>, <i>Libocedrus</i>, <i>Thujopsis</i> (1 species: <i>T.
-dolabrata</i>; in Japan).</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig273" style="width: 265px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig273.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 273.</span>&mdash;Branch of Juniper with
-“berry-cones.”</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig274" style="width: 253px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig274.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 274.</span>&mdash;<i>Cupressus lawsoniana.</i>
-Longitudinal section through female cone. Two ovules (<i>ov</i>) are
-bisected; <i>f</i> ovuliferous scales.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Officinal.</span> <i>Juniperus sabina</i> from Central and
-South of Europe (the young branches yield an essential oil).
-The wood of <i>J. communis</i> is used in the production of
-an essential oil, and <i>J. oxycedrus</i> in the production
-of empyreumatic oil. The “berry-cone” of <i>J. communis</i>
-is officinal, and is also used for gin.&mdash;The wood of <i>J.
-virginiana</i> (N. Am.) is known as red cedar, and is used for
-lead-pencils. Sandarack resin is obtained from <i>Callitris
-quadrivalvis</i> (N.W. Africa).</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The following are cultivated in gardens</span>:&mdash;<i>Thuja
-occidentalis</i> (Arbor vitæ) (N. Am.), and <i>orientalis</i>
-(China, Japan); <i>Juniperus sabina</i> and <i>virginiana</i>;
-<i>Thujopsis dolabrata</i> (Japan); <i>Cupressus lawsoniana</i>
-(California), <i>C. sempervirens</i> (S. Eur., W. Asia),
-and other species, are grown especially in conservatories,
-and in Southern Europe particularly in cemeteries.&mdash;The
-<i>Retinospora</i> species which are so often planted, do not
-belong to an independent genus, but are obtained from cuttings,
-taken from seedling-plants with acicular leaves (see page <a href="#Page_267">267</a>).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_270">[270]</span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Class III. <b>Gneteæ.</b></h3>
-
-<p>This class, independent of extinct forms, comprises the most highly
-developed of the Gymnosperms, partly from the circumstance that a
-perianth of 2–4 members encloses the <i>terminally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_271">[271]</span> placed ovule</i>,
-which is provided with one, or (in <i>Gnetum</i>) two, integuments, and
-partly owing to the fact that the wood has true vessels. There is only
-one order.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig275" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig275.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 275.</span>&mdash;<i>Welwitschia mirabilis</i>
-(considerably reduced). The horizontal lines indicate the surface of
-the soil.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order. <b>Gnetaceæ.</b> The three known genera differ very much
-in appearance. <i>Welwitschia mirabilis</i> (from the deserts
-of South Western Africa) is the oldest (?) genus now living.
-It resembles a giant radish, in that the hypocotyl is the only
-part of the main axis of the stem which becomes developed.
-It attains a circumference of upwards of four metres with a
-length of 1/2½-⅔ of a metre. It bears <i>only</i> two oblong,
-leathery leaves (Fig. <a href="#fig275">275</a>) which are torn into segments at the
-apex and lie on the surface of the soil; these are the two
-first foliage-leaves which succeed the cotyledons, and they are
-remarkable for their enormous length (upwards of two metres) as
-well as for their long duration, living as long as the plant
-itself. In their axils are situated the 4-rowed, spike-like male
-and scarlet-coloured female cones, upon dichotomous branches.
-The perianth consists in the ♂ of 2 alternating pairs of leaves,
-the inner ones of which are slightly united. The andrœcium
-likewise consists of 2 whorls: the external (transverse)
-with 2, the internal with 4 stamens; the lower halves of
-the 6 filaments uniting to form a cup. Each of the terminal
-anthers corresponds to a sorus of 3 sporangia, the sporangia
-being fused together, and opening at the top by <i>one</i>
-three-rayed cleft. In the centre of the ♂-flower there is
-a sterile ovule. In the ♀-flower a perianth of two connate
-leaves is present.&mdash;<i>Ephedra</i> (desert plants, especially
-in the Mediterranean and W. Asia) at first sight resembles an
-<i>Equisetum</i>; the stems are thin, long-jointed, and the
-leaves opposite, small, and united into a bidentate sheath;
-♂-perianth of two connate leaves (median leaves); 2–8 stamens
-united into a column. Each anther is formed of 2 sporangia
-(is bilocular). ♀ mainly, as in <i>Welwitschia</i>. The seeds
-are surrounded by the perianth which finally becomes red and
-fleshy. There are 30 species.&mdash;<i>Gnetum</i> has opposite,
-lanceolate, pinnately-veined, leathery leaves. They are mostly
-climbers (Lianas) from Tropical Asia and America. The ♂-flowers
-have a tubular perianth, (formed from two median leaves) which
-surrounds a centrally-placed filament, bearing 2 anthers. In
-the ♀-flower there is a similar perianth, surrounding an ovule
-provided with 2 integuments. The perianth becomes fleshy and
-envelops the hard seed. 20 species.</p>
-
-<p>From the circumstance of <i>Welwitschia</i> having ♂ flowers
-which, besides stamens, possess also a rudiment of an ovule,
-Celakovsky draws the inference that the earliest Gymnosperms
-had hermaphrodite flowers which from this structure became
-differentiated entirely into ♂-and ♀-flowers, with the exception
-of <i>Welwitschia</i> only, in which this differentiation was
-only carried out in the ♀-flower. This theory has so far been
-scarcely proved.</p>
-
-
-<p class="center p1"><b>Fossil Gymnosperms.</b></p>
-
-<p>The earliest continental plants which are known belong to the
-<span class="smcap">Cordaitaceæ</span>, a group of plants which existed as early
-as the Silurian period; they were Gymnosperms, but it has not
-yet been determined whether they were Cycads or Conifers. The
-<span class="smcap">Cycads</span>, even in the Coal period, were scarce; they
-attained their fullest development in Jurassic and Cretaceous
-periods, during which they were rich in species and genera,
-and extended as far as the Polar regions. In addition<span class="pagenum" id="Page_272">[272]</span> to
-these, Taxaceæ, Abietaceæ, and Taxodiaceæ appeared in the
-Carboniferous period. The <span class="smcap">Taxaceæ</span> appear to have
-attained their culmination in the Jurassic and Cretaceous
-periods; <i>Ginkgo</i> appears in the Rhætic; <i>Torreya</i>,
-in the Cretaceous; <i>Taxus</i> and <i>Podocarpus</i> in the
-Tertiary periods. The <span class="smcap">Abietaceæ</span> also appear in the
-Carboniferous; <i>Pinus</i> was first known with certainty
-in the English Weald and in the Cretaceous; almost all other
-contemporary genera are represented in this latter period. The
-<span class="smcap">Araucariaceæ</span> first appear, with certainty, in the
-Jurassic. The <span class="smcap">Taxodiaceæ</span> may be traced back as far as
-the Carboniferous (?); <i>Sequoia</i> is first found in the
-lowest Cretaceous, at that period it spread throughout the
-entire Arctic zone, and being represented by a large number of
-species, formed an essential part of the forest vegetation.
-<i>Sequoia</i> played a similar part in the Tertiary period.
-The <span class="smcap">Cupressaceæ</span> are first known with certainty in the
-Jurassic, but they appeared more frequently and numerously in
-the Tertiary period, in which most of the present living genera
-were to be found. The <span class="smcap">Gnetaceæ</span>, according to a theory
-advanced by Renault were represented in the Coal period by the
-genus <i>Stephanospermum</i>, which had four ovules enclosed by
-an envelope.</p>
-</div>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_273">[273]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="smaller">DIVISION V.<br />
-<span class="subhed">ANGIOSPERMÆ.</span></h2></div>
-
-<p>See pages <a href="#Page_3">3</a> and <a href="#Page_224">224</a>. To this Division belong the majority of the
-Flowering-plants. They are divided into two parallel classes, the
-Monocotyledons and the Dicotyledons, which differ from each other not
-only in the number of cotyledons, which, with a few exceptions, is one
-in the former, two in the latter, but also in the internal structure
-of the stem, the venation of the leaves, the number of the parts of
-the flower, etc. <span class="smaller">Assuming that these two
-classes have sprang from a common origin, it is amongst the Helobieæ
-in the first, and amongst the Polycarpicæ in the second class that
-we might expect to find closely allied forms, which might reasonably
-be supposed to have varied less from this original type. As for the
-rest, they seem to stand quite parallel, without exhibiting any close
-relationship. It is scarcely proved that the Monocotyledons are the
-older class.</span></p>
-
-<p>[Our knowledge of the forms included under the Angiosperms has
-recently been considerably increased by Treub (<i>Ann. d. Jar. Bot.
-d. Buitenzorg</i>, 1891), who has shown that the Casuarinas differ
-in many important points from the typical Angiosperms. Among other
-characters the pollen-tube is found to enter the ovule near the chalaza
-and therefore at the opposite end to the micropyle, and Treub therefore
-suggests that these plants should be placed in a subdivision termed
-Chalazogams.</p>
-
-<p>According to this view the principal divisions of the Angiosperms would
-be represented thus:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p class="center p1 smaller"><b>Angiospermæ.</b></p>
-
-<table summary="divisions" class="smaller">
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr">Sub-division.</td>
-    <td class="ctr">Sub-division.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr smcap">Chalazogames.</td>
-    <td class="ctr smcap">Porogames.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr">Class.</td>
-    <td class="ctr">Classes.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr">Chalazogames.</td>
-    <td class="ctr">Monocotyledones, Dicotyledones.</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<p>More recently Nawaschin (<i>Bull. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Petersb.</i>,
-ser. iii., xxxv.) has shown that <i>Betula</i>, and Miss Benson
-(<i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i>, 1894) that <i>Alnus</i>, <i>Corylus</i>, and
-<i>Carpinus</i> also belong to the Chalazogams.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_274">[274]</span></p>
-
-<p>Our knowledge, however, is still so incomplete that one would hesitate
-to accord the full systematic value which Dr. Treub attaches to his
-discovery until the limits of the Chalazogamic group are better
-defined; and it would hardly be justifiable to include the Casuarinas
-and the above-noted genera in one family.]</p>
-
-
-<h3>Class 1. <b>Monocotyledones.</b></h3>
-
-<p><i>The embryo has only one cotyledon; the leaves are as a rule
-scattered, with parallel venation; the vascular bundles of the stem
-are closed, there is no increase of thickness. The flower is typically
-constructed of five 3-merous whorls, placed alternately.</i></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The embryo</span> is generally small in proportion to the abundant
-endosperm (exceptions, see <i>Helobieæ</i>), and its single cotyledon
-is often sheath-like, and very large. On the germination of the seed
-either the entire cotyledon, or its apex only, most generally remains
-in the seed and absorbs the nutritive-tissue, while the lower portion
-elongates and pushes out the plumule and radicle, which then proceed
-with their further growth. The primary root in most cases soon ceases
-to grow, but at the same time, however, numerous lateral roots break
-out from the stem, and become as vigorous as the primary root, or even
-more so. Increase in thickness does not take place in these roots; they
-branch very little or not at all, and generally die after a longer or
-shorter time.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The stem</span> is frequently a corm, bulb, or other variety of
-underground stem, as the majority of the Monocotyledons are perennial,
-herbaceous plants; it has scattered, closed vascular bundles (Fig.
-<a href="#fig276">276</a>), and no cambium by which a continuous thickening may take
-place. The stem of the Palms, however, attains a very considerable
-thickness, which is due to the meristem of its growing-point
-continually increasing in diameter for a lengthened period (often for
-many years), until it has reached a certain size. In this condition
-the growing-point has the form of an inverted cone, and it is only
-when this cone has attained its requisite size that the formation of
-a vertical cylindrical stem commences. Certain tree-like Liliaceæ,
-as <i>Dracæna</i>, <i>Aloe</i>, etc., have a continuous increase in
-thickness; this is due to a meristematic layer, which arises in the
-cortex, outside the original vascular bundles, which were formed at the
-growing-point of the stem. This meristem continues to form thick-walled
-parenchyma and new, scattered vascular bundles. The primary vascular
-bundles, in the Palms and others, run in a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_275">[275]</span> curved line from their
-entrance into the stem at the base of the leaf, towards the centre of
-the stem, and then bend outwards and proceed downwards in a direction
-more parallel to the sides of the stem (Fig. <a href="#fig277">277</a>). The bundles formed
-later, in those stems which increase in thickness, are not continued
-into the leaves.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The branching</span> as a rule is very slight, the axillary buds of
-the majority of the leaves never attaining development, <i>e.g.</i> in
-the Palms, bulbous plants and others. As the cotyledon arises singly,
-the succeeding leaves also must be scattered, but they are frequently
-arranged in two rows (Grasses, Iris, etc). <i>The first leaf borne
-on a branch</i> (the “Fore-leaf,”<a id="FNanchor_24" href="#Footnote_24" class="fnanchor">[24]</a>&mdash;the bracteole, if on a floral
-shoot) has generally, in the Monocotyledons, a characteristic form and
-position, being situated on the posterior side of its own shoot, and
-hence turned towards the main axis; it is sometimes provided with two
-laterally-placed keels (Figs. <a href="#fig279">279</a> <i>f</i>, <a href="#fig290">290</a> <i>øi</i>), but the
-midrib is often absent. It arises in some cases from two primordia,
-which at the beginning are quite distinct, and thus has been regarded
-as formed by two leaves. It is, however, only one leaf, a fact which is
-evident from several circumstances, one being that it never supports
-more than one shoot, and this stands in the median plane (Fig. <a href="#fig279">279</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig276" style="width: 392px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig276.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 276.</span>&mdash;Transverse section of the stem of a
-Palm: <i>v v</i> is the wood portion, <i>b b</i> the bast
-portion of the vascular bundled.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig277" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig277.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 277.</span>&mdash;Diagrammatic representation of the
-course of the vascular bundles, from the stem into the leaves in a
-Monocotyledon.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The leaves</span> are <i>amplexicaul</i>, and have a large sheath
-but no stipules; the blade is most frequently long, ligulate, or
-linear, entire, with parallel venation, the veins being straight or
-curved<span class="pagenum" id="Page_276">[276]</span> (Figs. <a href="#fig300">300</a>, <a href="#fig309">309</a>). Connecting the large number of veins which
-run longitudinally, there are as a rule only weak transverse ones. It
-is very rarely that other forms of leaves are found, such as cordate
-(Figs. <a href="#fig302">302</a>, <a href="#fig312">312</a>), or that the blade is branched, or the venation is,
-for example, pinnate or palmate (Figs. <a href="#fig225">225</a>, <a href="#fig298">298</a>); these deviations are
-especially found in the Araceæ, the Palms, the Scitamineæ (Fig. <a href="#fig308">308</a>),
-the Dioscoreaceæ, and in several aquatic plants. The incisions in the
-Palm-leaf are derived by the splitting of an originally entire leaf.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The structure of the flower</span> is generally as follows: Pr3 +
-3, A3 + 3, G3, rarely S3 + P3 with the other members unchanged.<a id="FNanchor_25" href="#Footnote_25" class="fnanchor">[25]</a>
-Instead of 3, the numbers 2 and 4 may occur; rarely others. In all
-these instances there are 5 whorls, which regularly alternate with one
-another, most frequently in the 3-merous flower, as in the diagram
-(Fig. <a href="#fig278">278</a>). This diagram is found in the following orders: Liliaceæ,
-Convallariaceæ, Juncaceæ, Bromeliaceæ, Amaryllidaceæ, Dioscoreaceæ,
-Palmæ, some Araceæ, and in some small orders, and may be considered as
-the typical structure and also the starting point for the exceptional
-orders. The ovary in many Monocotyledons has many ovules, and the fruit
-becomes a many-seeded berry or capsule; this form is no doubt the
-oldest. In others the number of seeds becomes reduced to 1, and the
-fruit then becomes a cypsela, or a drupe (<i>e.g. Gramineæ</i>,
-<i>Cyperaceæ</i>, <i>Palmæ</i>, etc).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig278" style="width: 245px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig278.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 278.</span>&mdash;Diagram of the ordinary, regular
-flower in the Monocotyledons: <i>s</i> is the bract.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig279" style="width: 235px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig279.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 279.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Iris</i>: <i>f</i> the
-bracteole; in its axil is a shoot with its bracteole.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig280" style="width: 242px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig280.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 280.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Orchis</i>: <i>l</i>
-the lip; σ σ the two staminodes.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Deviations from this typical floral structure in some instances<span class="pagenum" id="Page_277">[277]</span> may
-be traced to <i>suppression</i>, very rarely to a <i>splitting</i> of
-certain members, the typical relative positions not being changed.
-Thus, the Iridaceæ, the Cyperaceæ, most of the Gramineæ and some
-Juncaceæ deviate in having only 3 stamens (Fig. <a href="#fig279">279</a>), the inner whorl
-(indicated by *) not becoming developed. The Musaceæ differ in the
-posterior stamen not being developed; <i>Zingiberaceæ</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig314">314</a>),
-<i>Marantaceæ</i>, and <i>Cannaceæ</i>, in the fact that only 1 of
-all the stamens bears an anther, and the others are either suppressed
-or developed into petaloid staminodes, with some perhaps cleft in
-addition. The Orchideæ deviate in having, generally, only the anterior
-stamen of all the 6 developed (Fig. <a href="#fig280">280</a>). In this, as in other
-instances, the suppression of certain parts of the flower is often
-connected with <i>zygomorphy</i> (<i>i.e.</i> symmetry in <i>one</i>
-plane), chiefly in the inner perianth-whorl, but also in the other
-whorls. In the Orchids, the perianth-leaf (the labellum, Fig. <a href="#fig280">280</a>
-<i>l</i>) which is directly opposite the fertile stamen, is larger and
-altogether different from the others. The perianth-leaves may also be
-suppressed; see, for example, the two diagrams of the Cyperaceæ (Fig.
-<a href="#fig284">284</a>). In some orders the suppression of these leaves, which form the
-basis of the diagram, is so complete that it is hard to reduce the
-actual structure of the flower to the theoretical type, <i>e.g.</i> the
-Grasses (Fig. <a href="#fig290">290</a>) and <i>Lemna</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig303">303</a>). In the first family,
-which especially comprises water-plants, a somewhat different structure
-is found; thus Fig. <a href="#fig282">282</a> differs somewhat from the ordinary type, and
-other flowers much more so; but the floral diagrams which occur in this
-family may perhaps be considered as the most probable representatives
-of an older type, from which the ordinary pentacyclic forms have taken
-their origin. In favour of this theory we have the larger number of
-whorls, the spiral arrangement of some of these in the flower, with
-a large and indefinite number of stamens and carpels, the perfectly
-apocarpous gynœceum which sometimes occurs, etc., etc.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The Monocotyledons are divided into 7 Families:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Helobieæ.</span> This family forms a group complete in
-itself. It commences with hypogynous, perfect flowers, whose
-gynœcium is apocarpous and terminates in epigynous and more or
-less reduced forms.</p>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">Glumifloræ.</span> These have as a starting point the
-same diagram as the following families, but otherwise develope
-independently.</p>
-
-<p>3. <span class="smcap">Spadicifloræ.</span> Also an independent branch, or perhaps
-two different ones which terminate in much reduced forms.</p>
-
-<p>4. <span class="smcap">Enantioblastæ.</span> These ought perhaps to be amalgamated
-with the following family.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_278">[278]</span></p>
-
-<p>5. <span class="smcap">Liliifloræ.</span> These advance from forms with the
-typical diagram and hypogynous flower, to epigynous and reduced
-forms.</p>
-
-<p>6. <span class="smcap">Scitamineæ</span> and</p>
-
-<p>7. <span class="smcap">Gynandræ.</span> Two isolated families, which probably have
-taken their origin from Liliifloræ, and have epigynous, mostly
-zygomorphic, and much reduced forms.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 1. <b>Helobieæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>To this family belong <i>only water- or marsh-plants</i>; <i>the
-endosperm is wanting</i>, and they possess an embryo with a very
-<i>large hypocotyl</i> prolonged downwards and often club-like. The
-perianth is often differentiated into calyx and corolla; the flower
-is regular, and in the first orders to be considered, may be reduced
-to the ordinary Monocotyledonous type; there are, however, <i>usually
-found two</i> 3-<i>merous whorls of carpels</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig282">282</a>), and thus in
-all 6 whorls, or again, the <i>number of carpels may be indefinite</i>;
-the number of stamens also may be increased, either by the division
-of the members of a whorl, or by the development of additional
-whorls. <i>Syncarps</i>,<a id="FNanchor_26" href="#Footnote_26" class="fnanchor">[26]</a> with nut or follicular fruitlets, are
-<i>very common</i>, for example, in the first orders; in the last
-(Hydrocharitaceæ) the carpels are not only united, but the ovary is
-even inferior.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The primitive type appears to be a hypogynous flower, similar
-to that of the Juncaginaceæ or Alismaceæ, with several 3-merous
-whorls, and free carpels, each with many ovules; the green
-perianth in this instance being no doubt older than the coloured
-ones. If we take a flower with this structure as the starting
-point, then the family developes partly into epigynous forms,
-partly into others which are so strongly reduced and exceptional
-that it is scarcely possible to refer them to the ordinary
-type. The family, through the peculiar <i>Zostereæ</i>, appears
-to approach the Araceæ, in which <i>Potamogetonaceæ</i> and
-<i>Najadaceæ</i> are included by some authorities. However, the
-inclusion of <i>Potamogeton</i>, and with it <i>Ruppia</i> and
-<i>Zannichellia</i>, in the Juncaginaceæ appears quite correct.
-It would scarcely be right to separate <i>Zostereæ</i> from
-these. Great stress has often been laid upon the similarity with
-the Ranunculaceæ which is found in the Alismaceæ, but it is
-scarcely more than an analogous resemblance.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Juncaginaceæ.</b> The ☿, regular, <i>hypogynous</i>
-flowers have the <i>perianth</i> 3 + 3, <i>sepaloid</i>, stamens 3
-+ 3 (with extrorse anthers), and carpels 3 + 3 (free or united), of
-which last, however, one whorl may be suppressed (in <i>Triglochin
-maritima</i> all 6 carpels are developed, in <i>T. palustris</i>
-the inner whorl is unfertile). Inflorescence long spikes.
-Embryo <i>straight</i>.&mdash;Marsh-plants with radical, rush-like
-leaves, arranged in two rows, and often sheathing and ligulate
-(“squamulæ intravaginales”); the inflorescence is a spike or
-raceme.&mdash;<i>Scheuchzeria.</i> Carpels almost free; in each at least<span class="pagenum" id="Page_279">[279]</span>
-two ovules. Follicles.&mdash;<i>Triglochin</i> has long, fine racemes
-without bracts or bracteoles; one ovule in each carpel. The carpels
-in the two native species are united, but separate when ripe as a
-schizocarp, loosening from below; they open along the ventral suture or
-remain closed; a linear central column remains. <span class="smaller">The most reduced is
-Lilæa (1–2 sp. Am.)&mdash;Protogynous. About 10 species. Temp. Fossils in
-Tertiary.</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Potamogetonaceæ.</b> The aquatic plants belonging to this
-order are perennial, living entirely submerged, or with floating
-leaves, and preferring still water. The leaves are alternate, in some
-linear and grass-like, in others there is an elliptical floating blade,
-supported by a linear submerged petiole. Axillary scales. The fruit is
-generally a syncarp with <i>nuts</i> or <i>drupes</i>; the <i>embryo is
-curved</i>, of very various forms.</p>
-
-<p><i>Potamogeton</i> (Pond-weed). The rhizome is creeping, sympodial
-(with two internodes in each shoot-generation); the inflorescence
-is a terminal, many-flowered spike, without floral-leaves; below it
-are found 2 foliage-leaves placed nearly at the same height, from
-whose axils the branching is continued cymosely. The flowers are
-☿, 4-<i>merous</i>, naked, and consist only of 4 <i>stamens</i>,
-with the <i>connectives, broadly developed</i> at the back of the
-anthers, <i>resembling a perianth</i>, and of 4 <i>free, sessile
-carpels</i>. They are common plants in fresh water. <span class="smaller">The spike,
-during the flowering, is raised above the water. Wind-pollinated and
-protogynous.&mdash;Closely allied is <i>Ruppia</i> (Tassel Pond-weed), in
-salt or brackish water. The spike has only two naked flowers, each
-consisting of 2 stamens and 4 carpels. The stalks of the individual
-carpels are considerably prolonged.&mdash;<i>Zannichellia</i> (Horned
-Pond-weed) is monœcious; the ♀-flower consists of 4 (2–9) carpels, with
-membranous, bell-shaped perianth; long styles; the ♂-flower has 1 (-2)
-stamens. <i>Althenia.</i></span></p>
-
-<p><i>Zostera</i> (Grass-wrack) is an entirely submerged, marine plant
-with creeping rhizome (with displacement of buds) and strap-shaped
-leaves. The flowering shoots are sympodia with displacement of the
-axes (Fig. <a href="#fig281">281</a>). The inflorescence is a peculiar, flatly-compressed
-spike, on <i>one</i> side of which the flowers are borne (Fig. <a href="#fig281">281</a>).
-<span class="smaller">This inflorescence may be considered, no doubt correctly, to be
-derived from the symmetrical spike of <i>Potamogeton</i> by strongly
-dorsiventral development, and by a strong suppression of the floral
-parts taking place simultaneously. Two rows of flowers are developed,
-but of these one is so pressed into the other that apparently only one
-is present.</span> Each flower consists of only 1 stamen and 1 carpel
-situated at the same height (Fig. <a href="#fig281">281</a>); the unilocular ovary encloses
-1 pendulous ovule and bears a bifid style. As regards the perianth
-(?) one leaf may be present (<i>Z. nana</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig281">281</a> <i>D</i>). The
-pollen-grains are filamentous. Pollination takes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_280">[280]</span> place under water.
-<span class="smaller"><i>Posidonia</i> and <i>Cymodocea</i> are allied to these. About 70
-species.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig281" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig281.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 281.</span>&mdash;<i>Zostera.</i> A Diagram of
-the branching of the floral shoots: <i>I</i>, <i>II</i> ... are
-the successive shoot-generations, every other one being shaded;
-<i>g<sub>1</sub> g<sub>2</sub></i> ... fore-leaves; <i>sp<sub>1</sub> sp<sub>2</sub></i>
-... spathes for the successive spikes. Each shoot is united for
-some distance with the parent axis (indicated by the half-shaded
-internodes). Each shoot commences with a fore-leaf turning towards the
-parent axis, <i>g</i>; succeeding this is the spathe, <i>sp</i>; and
-then the inflorescence. The fore-leaf supports a new lateral shoot.
-<i>B</i> Diagram of a shoot, <i>II</i>, which is borne laterally
-in the axil of the fore-leaf <i>g<sub>1</sub></i>, on the shoot <i>I</i>,
-<i>g<sub>2</sub></i> its fore-leaf; <i>sp<sub>2</sub></i> its spathe; <i>sti</i>
-squamulæ intravaginales. <i>II</i> Is the spadix with stamens and
-carpels; <i>b</i> a perianth-leaf (or connective expansion, similar to
-those which occur in <i>Potamogeton</i>). <i>C</i> The upper portion of
-a young spadix with development of flowers. <i>D</i> Part of a spadix
-with 2 flowers; the parts which theoretically belong to one another are
-connected by a dotted line.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_281">[281]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Aponogetonaceæ.</b> Aquatic plants with tuberous
-stem. They have a single, petaloid perianth (3–2–1–leaved),
-most frequently 6 stamens and 3(-6) carpels. Straight
-embryo.&mdash;About 15 species (Africa, Madagascar, Tropical
-Asia and Australia).&mdash;<i>Aponogeton distachyos</i> and
-<i>A.</i> (<i>Ouvirandra</i>) <i>fenestralis</i> are grown in
-conservatories; the latter has lattice-like, perforated leaves.</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Najadaceæ.</b> Only one genus <i>Najas</i> (about
-10 species); annual fresh water plants with leaves in pairs
-and solitary, unisexual flowers. The ♂ flower is remarkable in
-having a terminal stamen, which has either 4 longitudinal loculi
-or 1 central one; on this account the stamen of <i>Najas</i>
-is considered by some authorities to be a stem and not a
-leaf-structure. The unilocular gynœceum and the single, erect,
-anatropous ovule are also terminal. Pollination takes place
-under the water.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Alismaceæ.</b> The regular, <i>hypogynous</i> flowers
-are in some species unisexual by the suppression of either andrœcium
-or gynœceum; they have a 6-merous perianth, <i>generally</i>
-differentiated into 3 sepals and 3 petals; generally 6 <i>stamens
-in the outer whorl</i> (by the division of the 3; Fig. <a href="#fig282">282</a>) and
-often several 3-merous whorls inside these, and 6–∞ <i>free</i>
-carpels arranged cyclically or spirally. Fruit a syncarp.&mdash;Marsh- or
-water-plants with radical leaves and long-stalked inflorescences.</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <i>Butomeæ. Follicles with many seeds, which are borne
-on nearly the whole of the inner surface of the cyclic carpels</i> (as
-in Nymphæaceæ). Embryo <i>straight</i>.&mdash;<i>Butomus</i> (Flowering
-Rush, Fig. <a href="#fig282">282</a>), has an umbel (generally composed of 3 helicoid cymes).
-<i>S</i> 3, <i>P</i> 3, stamens 9 (6 + 3, <i>i.e.</i> the outer whorl
-doubled), <i>G</i> 3 + 3. <span class="smaller"><i>B. umbellatus</i>; creeping rhizome
-with triangular Iris-like leaves.&mdash;<i>Hydrocleis. Limnocharis.</i></span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig282" style="width: 300px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig282.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 282.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Butomus</i>: <i>f</i>
-bracteole.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <i>Alismeæ.</i> Fruit achenes. Latex common (in the
-intercellular spaces). The flowers are arranged most frequently
-in single or compound whorls. Embryo <i>curved</i>, horse-shoe
-shaped.&mdash;<i>Alisma</i> has <i>S</i> 3, <i>P</i> 3, <i>A</i> 6 (in 1
-whorl, grouped in pairs, <i>i.e.</i> doubled in front of the sepals),
-and 1 <i>whorl</i> of 1-seeded achenes on a flat receptacle. The
-leaves are most frequently radicle, long-stalked; the lamina have
-curved longitudinal veins, and a richly branched venation. <i>A.
-plantago.</i>&mdash;<i>Elisma</i> (<i>E. natans</i>) has epitropous (turned
-inwards) ovules, whilst the ovules of <i>Alisma</i>, <i>Sagittaria</i>
-and others are apotropous (turned outwards).&mdash;<i>Echinodorus</i> (<i>E.
-ranunculoides</i>)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_282">[282]</span> has a convex receptacle, carpels many, united
-and capitate. <i>Damasonium</i>.&mdash;<i>Sagittaria</i> (Arrow-head)
-has <i>monœcious</i> flowers, several whorls of stamens and
-<i>spirally-arranged achenes</i> on a very convex receptacle. <span class="smaller"><i>S.
-sagittifolia</i> reproduces by tuberous buds formed at the end of long,
-submerged branches. The leaves, in deep and rapidly running water, are
-long and strap-shaped, but in the air arrow-shaped.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Honey is secreted in the flower and pollination effected
-by insects. <i>Alisma plantago</i> has 12 nectaries. The
-submerged flowers of <i>Elisma natans</i> remain closed and
-are self-pollinated. <i>Butomus</i> has protandrous flowers.
-There are about 50 species, which mostly grow outside the
-Tropics.&mdash;Uses insignificant. The rhizome of some is farinaceous.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Hydrocharitaceæ.</b> This order differs chiefly from
-the preceding in its <i>epigynous</i> flowers. These are in general
-unisexual (<i>diœcious</i>), and surrounded by a 2-leaved or bipartite
-<i>spathe</i>; they are 3-merous in all whorls, but the number of
-whorls is generally greater than 5, sometimes even indefinite. The
-perianth is divided into <i>calyx</i> and <i>corolla</i>. The ovary
-is <i>unilocular</i> with parietal placentation, or more or less
-incompletely plurilocular. The fruit is berry-like, but usually
-ruptures irregularly when ripe. Embryo straight.&mdash;Most often submerged
-water-plants, leaves seldom floating on the surface. Axillary scales
-(<i>squamulæ intravaginales</i>).</p>
-
-<p><i>Hydrocharis.</i> Floating water-plants with round cordate leaves;
-S3, P3 (folded in the bud); ♂-flowers: 3 (-more) flowers inside each
-spathe; stamens 9–15, the most internal sterile. ♀-flowers solitary;
-three staminodes; ovary 6-locular, with many ovules attached to
-the septa; styles 6, short, bifid. [The petals of the ♀-flowers
-bear nectaries at the base. In this and the following genus the
-pollination is without doubt effected by insects.] <span class="smaller"><i>H. morsus
-ranæ</i> (Frog-bit) has runners; it hibernates by means of special
-winter-buds.</span>&mdash;<i>Stratiotes</i>; floating plants with a rosette of
-linear, thick, stiff leaves with spiny margin, springing from a short
-stem, from which numerous roots descend into the mud. Inflorescence,
-perianth, and ovary nearly the same as in <i>Hydrocharis</i>, but
-the ♂-flower has 12 stamens in 3 whorls, of which the outer 6 are
-in 1 whorl (dédoublement), and inside the perianth in both flowers
-there are numerous (15–30) nectaries (staminodes?). <i>S. aloides</i>
-(Water-soldier); in N. Eur. only ♀-plants.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Vallisneria
-spiralis</i> is a tropical or sub-tropical plant, growing gregariously
-on the mud in fresh water. The leaves are grass-like, and the plants
-diœcious; the ♂-flowers are detached from the plant, and rise to
-the surface of the water, where they pollinate the ♀-flowers. These
-are borne on long, spirally-twisted peduncles which contract after
-pollination, so that the ♀-flower is again drawn under the water, and
-the fruits ripen deeply submerged.&mdash;<i>Elodea canadensis</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_283">[283]</span> is also
-an entirely submerged plant. The leaves are arranged in whorls on a
-well-developed stem. Only ♀-plants in Europe (introduced about 1836
-from N. Am). This plant spreads with great rapidity throughout the
-country, the reproduction being entirely vegetative. <i>Hydrilla</i>,
-<i>Halophila</i>, <i>Thalassia</i>, <i>Enhalus</i>.&mdash;In many of these
-genera the number of whorls in the flower is remarkably reduced; for
-example, in <i>Vallisneria</i>, in the ♂-flowers to 2: Pr 3, A (1-) 3,
-in the ♀ to 3: Pr 3, Staminodes 3, G 3.&mdash;About 40 species; Temp. and
-Trop.</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 2. <b>Glumifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The <i>hypogynous</i> flowers in the Juncaceæ are completely developed
-on the <i>pentacyclic, trimerous</i> type, with <i>dry, scarious
-perianth</i>. Even in these the interior whorl of stamens becomes
-suppressed, and the ovary, which in <i>Juncus</i> is trilocular with
-many ovules, becomes in <i>Luzula</i> almost unilocular, but still
-with 3 ovules. The perianth in the Cyperaceæ and Gramineæ is reduced
-from hairs, in the first of these, to nothing, the flowers at the same
-time collecting more closely on the inflorescence (spike) supported
-by <i>dry</i> bracts (<i>chaff</i>); the number of stamens is almost
-constantly 3; stigmas linear; the ovary has only 1 loculus with 1
-ovule, and the fruit, which is a capsule in the Juncaceæ, becomes a
-nut or caryopsis.&mdash;The endosperm is large and floury, the embryo being
-placed at its lower extremity (Figs. <a href="#fig286">286</a> <i>B</i>, <a href="#fig291">291</a>).&mdash;The plants
-belonging to this order, with the exception of a few tropical species,
-are annual or perennial herbs. The stems above ground are thin, and for
-the most part have long internodes, with linear, parallel-veined leaves
-which have long <i>sheaths</i>, and often a <i>ligule</i>, <i>i.e.</i>
-a membranous projection, arising transversely from the leaf at the
-junction of the sheath and blade. The underground stems are short or
-creeping rhizomes. The flowers are small and insignificant. Wind- or
-self-pollination.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Juncaceæ</b> (<b>Rushes</b>). The regular, hermaphrodite,
-hypogynous flowers have 3 + 3 brown, dry, free perianth-leaves
-projecting like a star during the opening of the flower; stamens 3 +
-3 (seldom 3 + 0) and 3 carpels united into one gynœceum (Fig. <a href="#fig283">283</a>);
-the ovary is 3- or 1-locular; there is as a rule 1 style, which becomes
-divided at the summit into 3 stigmas, often bearing branches twisted
-to the right (Fig. <a href="#fig283">283</a>). <i>Fruit a capsule</i> with loculicidal
-dehiscence. The embryo is an extremely small, ellipsoidal, cellular
-mass, without differentiation into the external organs.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig283" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig283.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 283.</span>&mdash;Flower of <i>Luzula</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_284">[284]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Juncus</i> (Rush) has glabrous foliage-leaves, generally
-cylindrical, rarely flat; the edges of the leaf-sheath are free
-(“<i>open</i>” leaf-sheaths) and cover one another. The capsule, 1- or
-3-locular, with <i>many</i> seeds&mdash;<i>Luzula</i> (Wood-Rush) has flat,
-grass-like leaves with ciliated edges; the edges of the leaf-sheath
-are united (“<i>closed</i>” leaf-sheath). The capsule unilocular
-and <i>3-seeded</i>.&mdash;<i>Prionium</i>: S. Africa; resembling a
-<i>Tacona</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The <i>interior</i> whorl of stamens, in some species,
-disappears partially or entirely (<i>J. supinus</i>,
-<i>capitatus</i>, <i>conglomerates</i>, etc.)</p>
-
-<p>Some of the numerous <i>Juncus</i>-species (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>J. effusus</i>, <i>glaucus</i>, <i>conglomeratus</i>,
-etc.), have false, lateral inflorescences, the axis of the
-inflorescence being pushed to one side by its subtending
-leaf, which apparently forms a direct continuation of
-the stem, and resembles it both in external and internal
-structure. The foliage-leaves of this genus were formerly
-described as “unfertile stems,” because they are cylindrical,
-erect, and resemble stems, and consequently the stem was
-said to be “leafless”: <i>J. effusus</i>, <i>glaucus</i>,
-<i>conglomeratus</i>. Stellate parenchynatous cells are found
-in the pith of these stems and in the leaves. Other species
-have distinct terminal inflorescences and grooved leaves;
-<i>J. bufonius</i> (Toad-rush), <i>compressus</i>, and others.
-The <i>inflorescences</i> most often present the peculiarity
-of having the lateral axes protruding above the main axis.
-Their composition is as follows:&mdash;The flowers have either no
-bracteoles, and the inflorescences are then capitulate; or
-they have 1–several bracteoles. Each branch has then, first,
-a 2-keeled fore-leaf placed posteriorly (“basal-leaf”), and
-succeeding this are generally several leaves borne alternately
-and in the same plane as the basal-leaf, the two uppermost
-(the “spathe-leaves”) being always barren; those which lie
-between the basal-leaves and the spathe-leaves are termed
-“intermediate-leaves.” If only branches occur in the axils
-of the basal-leaves, then the succeeding branches are always
-borne on the posterior side of the axis, and form a fan<a href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a>;
-if the basal-leaf is barren, and if there is only one fertile
-intermediate-leaf, then the lateral axes are always on the upper
-side, and a sickle<a id="FNanchor_27" href="#Footnote_27" class="fnanchor">[27]</a>-like inflorescence occurs; if there are 2
-fertile intermediate-leaves, then a dichasium is formed, and in
-the case of there being several, then a raceme, or spike.</p>
-
-<p><i>Juncaceæ</i> are, by several authors, classed among the
-Liliifloræ, but there are so many morphological and partly
-anatomical features agreeing with the two following orders, that
-they may, no doubt, most properly be regarded as the starting
-point of these, especially of the <i>Cyperaceæ</i>, which they
-resemble in the type of flowers, the inflorescence, the type of
-mechanical system, and the stomata.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination</span> by means of the wind. Cross-pollination
-is often established by protogyny. <i>J. bufonius</i> has
-partly triandrous and cleistogamic, partly hexandrous, open
-flowers.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Distribution.</span> The 200 species are spread
-over the entire globe, but especially in cold and temperate
-countries; they are seldom found in the Tropics.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Uses.</span>
-Very slight; plaiting, for instance.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Cyperaceæ.</b> The majority are <i>perennial</i> (seldom<span class="pagenum" id="Page_285">[285]</span>
-annual) <i>herbs</i> living in damp situations, with a sympodial
-rhizome and grass-like appearance. The stems are seldom hollow, or
-have swollen nodes, but generally <i>triangular</i>, with the upper
-internode just below the inflorescence generally very long. The leaves
-are often arranged in 3 <i>rows</i>, the leaf-sheath is <i>closed</i>
-(very seldom split), and the ligule is absent or insignificant. The
-flowers are arranged in <i>spikes</i> (<i>spikelets</i>) which may be
-united into other forms of inflorescences (chiefly spikes or racemes).
-The flowers are supported by a bract, but have <i>no bracteoles</i>.
-In some genera the perianth is distinctly represented by six bristles
-corresponding to six leaves (Figs. <a href="#fig284">284</a> <i>A</i>, <a href="#fig286">286</a> <i>A</i>); in
-others it is represented by an indefinite number of hairs (Fig. <a href="#fig284">284</a>
-<i>B</i>), and very frequently it is altogether wanting. <i>The inner
-whorl of stamens is absent</i>, and the flower has therefore 3 stamens
-(rarely more or less than 3), the anthers <i>are attached by their
-bases to the filament</i> (innate) and are not bifid (Figs. <a href="#fig286">286</a>).
-Gynœceum simple, formed of 3 or 2 carpels; 1 style, which is divided at
-the extremity, as in the Juncaceæ, into 3 or 2 arms; the single loculus
-of the ovary contains one basal, erect, anatropous ovule; the stigmas
-are not feather-like. <i>Fruit a nut</i>, whose seed is generally not
-united with the pericarp. The embryo is small, and lies at the <i>base
-of the seed in the central line</i>, surrounded on the inner side by
-the endosperm (Fig. <a href="#fig286">286</a> <i>B</i>). On germination the cotyledon <i>does
-not remain</i> in the seed.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig284" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig284.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 284.</span>&mdash;Diagram of structure of: <i>A</i>
-<i>Scirpus silvaticus</i>; <i>B Eriophorum angustifolium</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>A regular perianth, with 6 scale-like perianth-leaves in
-2 whorls, is found in <i>Oreobolus</i>. In <i>Scirpus
-littoralis</i> the perianth-leaves are spreading at the apex,
-and divided pinnately.</p>
-
-<p>The branching of the inflorescence is often the same as in the
-Juncaceæ, and supports the theory that these two orders are
-related. In <i>Rhynchospora</i> and others, the “spikelets” are
-really only “spike-like” and to some extent compound.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Scirpeæ. Hermaphrodite Flowers.</span></p>
-
-<p>1. Spikelets cylindrical, the bracts arranged spirally (in many
-rows). The lower ones are often barren, each of the others supports a
-flower.&mdash;<i>Scirpus</i> (Club-rush). The spikelets are many-flowered;
-the perianth is bristle-like or absent, and does not continue to grow
-during the ripening of the fruit (Fig. <a href="#fig286">286</a> <i>A</i>). Closely allied to
-this is <i>Heleocharis</i>, with terminal spikes.&mdash;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_286">[286]</span><i>Eriophorum</i>
-(Cotton-grass) differs chiefly in having the perianth-hairs prolonged,
-and forming a bunch of white, woolly hairs (Fig. <a href="#fig284">284</a> <i>B</i>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Cladium</i> and <i>Rhynchospora</i> (Beak-rush) differs
-especially in the <i>few</i>-flowered, compound spikelets which
-are collected into small bunches; the latter has received its
-name from the fact that the lowermost portion of the style
-remains attached to the fruit as a beak.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>2. Spikelets compressed, the bracts arranged only in <i>two rows</i>;
-the other characters as in the first-mentioned. <i>Cyperus</i>
-(spikelets many-flowered); <i>Schœnus</i> (Bog-rush); spikelets
-few-flowered; <i>S. nigricans</i> has an open sheath.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig285" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig285.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 285.</span>&mdash;<i>Carex</i>: <i>A</i> diagram of
-a male flower; <i>B</i> of a female flower with 3 stigmas; <i>C</i>
-of a female flower with 2 stigmas; <i>D</i> diagrammatic figure of a
-female flower; <i>E</i> similar one of the androgynous (false) spikelet
-of <i>Elyna</i>. The ♂ is here represented placed laterally; it is
-terminal, according to Pax.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig286" style="width: 408px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig286.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 286.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i> Flower of <i>Scirpus
-lacustris</i>. <i>B</i> Seed of <i>Carex</i> in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Cariceæ. Unisexual Flowers.</span></p>
-
-<p>In the ♂-flowers there is no trace of a carpel, and in the ♀ no trace
-of a stamen. Floral-leaves in many rows. In some (<i>Scleria</i>,
-certain <i>Carex</i>-species), ♂-and ♀-flowers are borne in the same
-spikelet, the latter at the base or the reverse; in the majority each
-spikelet is unisexual.</p>
-
-<p><i>Carex</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig285">285</a>) has <i>naked</i>, most frequently monœcious
-flowers. The ♂-<i>spikes</i>, which are generally placed at the summit
-of the whole compound inflorescence, are <i>not compound</i>; in the
-axil of each floral-leaf (bract) <i>a flower is borne, consisting
-only</i> of a short axis with three stamens (Fig. <a href="#fig285">285</a> <i>A</i>). The
-♀-<i>spikes are compound</i>; in the axil of each floral-leaf is borne
-a very small branch (Fig. <a href="#fig285">285</a> <i>D</i>, <i>a</i>) which <i>bears only
-one leaf</i>, namely, a <i>2-keeled fore-leaf</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_287">[287]</span> (<i>utriculus</i>,
-<i>utr.</i> in the figures) which is turned posteriorly (as the
-fore-leaves of the other Monocotyledons), and being obliquely
-sheath-like, envelopes the branch (in the same manner as the sheath of
-the vegetative leaves), and forms a pitcher-like body. In the axil of
-<i>this</i> leaf the ♀-flower is situated as a branch of the 3rd order,
-bearing only the 2–3 carpels, which are united into one gynœceum. The
-style protrudes through the mouth of the utriculus. <span class="smaller">The axis of
-the 2nd order (<i>a</i> in Fig. <a href="#fig285">285</a> <i>D</i>) may sometimes elongate
-as a bristle-like projection (normally in <i>Uncinia</i>, in which
-it ends as a hook, hence the name); this projection is in most
-cases barren, but it sometimes bears 1–several bracts which support
-male-flowers; this is normal in <i>Elyna</i> (or <i>Kobresia</i>) and
-<i>Schœnoxiphium</i>; the axis (<i>a</i> in 285 <i>E</i>) bears at
-its base a female-flower supported by the utriculus, and above it a
-male-flower supported by its bract.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination</span> by means of the wind. Protogynous.
-Sometimes self-pollinated. The order embraces nearly
-3,000 species, found all over the world. <i>Carex</i> and
-<i>Scirpus</i> are most numerous in cold and temperate climates,
-and become less numerous towards the equator. The reverse is
-the case with <i>Cyperus</i> and other tropical genera. They
-generally confine themselves to sour, swampy districts; some,
-on the other hand, are characteristic of sand-dunes, such as
-Sand-star (<i>Carex arenaria</i>). There are about 70 native
-species of <i>Carex</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> In spite of their large number, the Cyperaceæ
-are of no importance as fodder-grasses, as they are dry and
-contain a large amount of silica; hence the edges of many of the
-triangular stems or leaves are exceedingly sharp and cutting.
-<i>Cyperus esculentus</i> has tuberous rhizomes, which contain
-a large amount of fatty oil and are edible (earth-almonds); it
-has its home in the countries of the Mediterranean, where it is
-cultivated.</p>
-
-<p><i>Cyperus papyrus</i> (W. Asia, Egypt, Sicily) attains a
-height of several metres, and has stems of the thickness of an
-arm which were used by the ancient Egyptians for making paper
-(papyrus). Some serve for plaiting, mats, etc. (<i>Scirpus
-lacustris</i>, etc.). <i>Isolepis</i> is an ornamental plant.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig287" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig287.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 287.</span>&mdash;<i>Triticum</i>: <i>A</i> axis
-(rachis) of ear showing the notches where the spikelets were inserted;
-<i>B</i> an entire spikelet; <i>C</i> a flower with the pales; <i>D</i>
-a flower without the pales, showing the lodicules at the base; <i>E</i>
-glume; <i>F</i> outer pale; <i>G</i> inner pale; <i>H</i> fruit;
-<i>I</i> longitudinal section of fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Gramineæ</b> (<b>Grasses</b>). The stems are cylindrical,
-generally <i>hollow</i> with <i>swollen nodes</i>, that is, a swelling
-is found at the base of each leaf which apparently belongs to the
-stem, but in reality it is the swollen base of the leaf. The leaves
-are <i>exactly alternate</i>; the sheath is <i>split</i> (excep.
-<i>Bromus</i>-species, <i>Poa pratensis</i>, <i>P. trivialis</i>,
-<i>Melica</i>, <i>Dactylis</i>, etc., in which the sheath is not
-split), and the edges overlap alternately, the right over the left,
-and <i>vice versâ</i>; the <i>ligule</i> is nearly always well
-developed. In general, the flowers are hermaphrodite; they are borne in
-<i>spikelets</i> with <i>alternate floral-leaves</i>, and the spikelets
-themselves are borne in either <i>spikes</i> or <i>panicles</i>. The
-two (seldom more) <i>lowest floral-leaves</i> in each spikelet (Fig.
-<a href="#fig289">289</a> <i>øY</i>, <i>nY</i>) are <i>barren</i> (as the covering-leaves
-in many umbels and capitula); these are termed the <i>glumes</i>.
-The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_288">[288]</span> succeeding floral-leaves, each of which supports one flower
-as its bract, are called the <i>outer pales</i> (<i>nI</i>); these
-sometimes each bear an “awn” (a bristle-like body which projects in
-the median line either from the apex or the back); sometimes the upper
-ones are barren. Each flower has a <i>bracteole</i>, which is placed
-on the inside opposite the main axis; it is thin, <i>binerved</i> or
-<i>two-keeled</i>, and never has an awn; it is known as the <i>inner
-pale</i> (<i>øI</i>). Immediately succeeding the bracteole are:
-(<i>a</i>) some <i>small, delicate scales</i> (<i>lodicules</i>,
-Figs. <a href="#fig287">287</a> <i>D</i>, <a href="#fig288">288</a> <i>C</i>, <a href="#fig290">290</a> <i>L</i>); (<i>b</i>) <i>three
-stamens</i> with anthers <i>versatile</i>, so as to be easily moved,
-and usually notched at each end (Fig. <a href="#fig287">287</a> <i>C</i>); and (<i>c</i>)
-a simple gynœceum formed of <i>one carpel</i> with <i>two styles</i>
-having generally <i>spirally-branched stigmas</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig287">287</a>
-<i>D</i>, <a href="#fig288">288</a> <i>C</i>). The ovary is <i>unilocular</i>, and contains
-one ascending or pendulous, anatropous ovule. <i>Fruit a nut</i>,
-whose seed is always <i>firmly united with the thin pericarp</i>
-(“caryopsis”). The embryo is larger than in the Cyperaceæ and is placed
-at the base of the seed, but on the <i>outer convex surface</i> of
-the pericarp (Figs. <a href="#fig287">287</a> <i>I</i>, <a href="#fig288">288</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_289">[289]</span> <a href="#fig288">288</a> <i>D</i>, <a href="#fig291">291</a>), <i>outside
-the endosperm</i>; plumule large with several leaf-primordia. On
-germination the cotyledon remains in the seed.</p>
-
-<p>The majority of Grasses are annual or perennial herbs; tree-like forms
-being only found in the Tropics, for example, the Bamboos; they branch
-(in tufts), especially from the axils of the basal-leaves, while those
-which are borne higher on the stem are separated by longer internodes
-and have no vegetative branches in their axils, though a few forms,
-like <i>Bambusa</i> and <i>Calamagrostis lanceolata</i>, produce
-branches in these axils.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig288" style="width: 347px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig288.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 288.</span>&mdash;<i>Bromus mollis</i>: <i>A</i>
-inflorescence; <i>B</i> the uppermost flower of a spikelet, with
-its axis turned forward; in front is seen the two-keeled inner pale
-(bracteole) and the stamens protrude between this and the outer pale
-(bract); <i>C</i> an ovary with the 2 stigmas on its anterior side, the
-2 lodicules, and the 3 stamens; <i>D</i> the fruit seen from the dorsal
-side; <i>E</i> the same from the ventral side.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig289" style="width: 420px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig289.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 289.</span>&mdash;Diagrammatic outline of a spikelet:
-<i>n Y</i> lower glume; <i>ø Y</i> upper glume; <i>n I</i> upper pale;
-<i>ø I</i> the inner pale; <i>l</i>-<i>l</i> lodicules; <i>st</i>
-stamens; <i>I</i>-<i>I</i> main axes; <i>II</i> lateral axes.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig290" style="width: 289px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig290.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 290.</span>&mdash;Diagram of the Grass-flower:
-<i>ni</i> outer pale; <i>øi</i> inner pale; <i>l</i>-<i>l</i> lodicules.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig291" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig291.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 291.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal section of an
-Oat-grain: <i>a</i> the skin (pericarp and testa); <i>b</i> the
-endosperm; <i>c</i> the cotyledon; <i>d</i> the plumule.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Only a few Grasses have a <i>solid stem</i>, such as Maize,
-Sugar-cane, and <i>Andropogon</i>. The <i>blade</i> is
-flat in the meadow-grasses, but the Grasses which live on
-dry places (“prairie-grass”) exposed to the sun, often
-have the blade tightly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_290">[290]</span> rolled up and almost filiform
-or bristle-like, with anomalous anatomical structure. A
-<i>closed</i> tubular <i>sheath</i> is found in <i>Melica
-uniflora</i>, <i>Bromus</i>-species, <i>Poa pratensis</i> and
-<i>trivialis</i>, <i>Briza</i> and some <i>Glyceria</i>-species.
-The sheath is developed for the purpose of supporting the young
-internodes while their growth is proceeding at the base. The
-“nodes” (the swollen joints which are seen on stems of Grasses)
-are not really part of the stem but are formed by the base
-of the leaf-sheath. They play a part in assisting the haulms
-to regain a vertical position when laid prostrate by wind or
-rain. The <i>awn</i> on the pale is homologous with the blade
-of the Grass-leaf, and the pale itself is the sheath. The
-arrangement of the leaves in the <i>spikelet</i> is similar to
-that in <i>Cyperus</i> and other Cyperaceæ, their floral-leaves
-being borne in several rows in <i>Streptochæta</i>. More
-than two barren “glumes” are found in <i>Streptochæta</i>,
-several Phalarideæ and others. The spikelets, too, are again
-arranged in two rows in the axils of suppressed floral-leaves.
-The inflorescence becomes a “compound spike” (ear) when the
-spikelets are sessile. In the majority of instances the
-spikelets are borne on long stalks; when these branch, then
-the secondary branches, and similarly all branches of higher
-order, are placed so far down upon the mother-axis that they
-all appear to be of equal value and to arise in a semicircle
-from the mother-axis itself, though in reality they arise from
-each other (<i>Panicle</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig288">288</a> <i>A</i>). Sometimes the
-main axis and branches of different orders unite together as
-in <i>Alopecurus</i>, <i>Phleum</i>, and some other Grasses,
-and hence the single (short-stalked) spikelets appear to arise
-singly and spirally, or without any definite order, directly
-from the main axis, with the production of a <i>cylindrical</i>
-inflorescence bearing “spikes” <i>on all sides</i>, that
-is, a “<i>spike-like panicle</i>.”&mdash;Many inflorescences are
-somewhat dorsiventral. The <i>flower</i> is rarely unisexual
-(<i>Zea mais</i>) or barren. Considerable difficulty is
-experienced in reducing the Grass-flower<span class="pagenum" id="Page_291">[291]</span> to the ordinary
-3-merous Monocotyledonous type. Some authorities consider the
-<i>lodicules</i>, which are present in all Grasses but absent
-in the Cyperaceæ, to be homologous with a perianth. According
-to a more recent theory they are bracteoles, and hence the
-Gramineæ, like many of the Juncaceæ, have 2–3 bracteoles placed
-in two rows in the median plane. If this theory be correct, the
-<i>flower is naked</i>. The lodicules expand quickly and cause
-the opening of the flower (<i>i.e.</i> the two pales become
-separated from each other). Generally only 3 <i>stamens</i>
-belonging to the outer whorl are present (Fig. <a href="#fig290">290</a>), as in
-<i>Iris</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig279">279</a>), certain Juncaceæ and Cyperaceæ (Fig.
-<a href="#fig284">284</a>), but in some, such as the Rice and certain species of
-Bamboos, all 6 are found. <i>Pariana</i> has more than 6. Only
-1 of the <i>carpels</i> is present, namely, the anterior (of
-those in Fig. <a href="#fig284">284</a>), so that the ventral suture and the place
-of attachment of the ovule are situated at the back of the
-ovary. The number of styles does not correspond with the number
-of carpels, and the styles may therefore be supposed to arise
-from the edges of the leaf to the right and left&mdash;a position
-which is not without analogy. In addition, a stylar projection
-is sometimes found on the anterior side and in the median line
-(<i>e.g.</i> in <i>Phragmites</i>), and the solitary style in
-<i>Nardus</i> has exactly this position; a similar arrangement
-is found in some species of <i>Bambusa</i> which have only one
-style; other species of <i>Bambusa</i> have three styles. A
-tripartite style is found in <i>Pharus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>[The Grass-flower may be reduced to the ordinary
-Monocotyledonous type thus:&mdash;The outer pale is the bract of the
-flower since it bears in its axil the floral shoot; the inner
-pale occupies the customary position of the bracteole. The fact
-that it is binerved can be explained by its having been pressed
-against the main-axis during development. Similar binerved
-bracteoles are found in <i>Iris</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig279">279</a>). These bracteoles
-in both Grass and Iris arise from single primordia, and are not
-produced by the coalescence of two leaves. The lodicules are the
-only parts of the perianth remaining, the outer whorl having
-been suppressed, and also the posterior leaf of the inner whorl;
-a posterior lodicule, however, is found in the Rice and some
-species of Bamboo. The outer whorl of stamens is usually absent,
-though this again is present in the Rice and Bamboo. The three
-carpels are reduced to one with two or sometimes three stigmas.]</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The Flowering.</span> In the panicles the flowers open in
-basipetal order; the flowers in the spikes situated somewhat
-above the middle, commence to open first, and the flowering
-proceeds upwards and downwards. A few Grass-flowers never open
-(cleistogamic); <i>Leersia oryzoides</i>, <i>Stipa</i>-species,
-and <i>e.g.</i> Wheat and Rye in cold damp weather; some open
-their pales so wide that the anthers and stigmas may protrude
-at the top; most frequently the lodicules expand and force
-the pales suddenly and widely apart. The filaments elongate
-considerably, so that the anthers are pendulous and the stigmas
-unfold. In some Grasses <i>e.g.</i> Wheat, the blooming of
-each flower only lasts a short time. <span class="smcap">Pollination</span>
-is generally effected by the wind. The <i>Rye</i> separates
-the pales very widely in the morning, and allows the anthers
-and stigmas to appear; it is almost entirely sterile when
-self-pollinated. The <i>Wheat</i> flowers at any time of the
-day, each flower lasting only a quarter of an hour. The pales
-open suddenly, but only half way, and the anthers scatter
-one-third of the pollen in their own flower and two-thirds
-outside. Self-pollination is effectual, but crossing gives
-better results. In <i>Hordeum vulgare</i> (all flowers ☿)
-the flowers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_292">[292]</span> of the 4 outer rows behave as in the Wheat,
-but those in the two central rows always remain closed. The
-☿-flowers in the two central rows of <i>H. distichum</i> remain
-closed and fertilise themselves; they open exceptionally, and
-may be pollinated by the ♂-flowers in the 4 lateral rows.
-<i>H. hexastichum</i> is cleistogamic. <i>Oats</i> pollinate
-themselves.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig292" style="width: 384px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig292.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 292.</span>&mdash;Barley grain: <i>A</i> section
-through the skin (<i>a-d</i>) and the most external part of the
-endosperm; <i>Gl</i> the “aleurone layer”; <i>st</i> starch-containing
-cells; <i>B</i> starch grains.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig293" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig293.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 293.</span>&mdash;Wheat-grain germinating: <i>g</i>
-the plumule; <i>b</i> the first leaf succeeding the cotyledon;
-<i>r<sup>1</sup></i> the primary root; <i>r<sup>2</sup></i> lateral root.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig294" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig294.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 294.</span>&mdash;Older seedling of the Wheat:
-<i>s</i> the second sheathing-leaf; <i>l</i> first foliage-leaf.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>The ripe Grass-fruit</i>, in some species of Bamboo, is a
-berry; in some other Grasses a nut with <i>loosely</i> lying
-seed, in some even a capsule, but otherwise a “caryopsis.” In
-some instances it is loosely enveloped by the pales (Oat),
-in others firmly attached to these (Barley), and finally, in
-others, “naked,” <i>i.e.</i> it is entirely free from the pales
-(Wheat and Rye). On the ventral side there is a groove (Fig. <a href="#fig288">288</a>
-<i>E</i>); on the anterior side (dorsal suture), which is turned
-towards the inner pale, it is convex, and at the base on this
-side, inside the testa, lies the embryo (Fig. <a href="#fig288">288</a> <i>D</i>). The
-apex of the fruit is often hairy (Fig. <a href="#fig293">293</a>). The <i>skin</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig291">291</a>, <i>a</i>) is formed by the pericarp and testa, and
-in some cases (Barley) the pales also form the outer portion.
-The endosperm (<i>b</i>) is large, and formed of parenchymatous,
-starch-containing cells: aleurone (proteid) grains may also be
-found among them. When the starch-grains and the aleurone-grains
-adhere together the endosperm becomes “horny,” but is “floury”
-when the starch-grains lie loosely with air between them. In
-the most external region, just beneath the skin, 1–several
-layers of nearly cubical cells (filled principally with
-aleurone-grains and fat) are found, the <i>aleurone</i>-layer
-(Fig. <a href="#fig292">292</a>). The embryo (Fig. <a href="#fig291">291</a> <i>c-d</i>) contains large
-quantities of fatty oil; the large shield-like structure,
-attached to the embryo and turned inwards towards the endosperm
-(<i>c</i>), is the cotyledon (scutellum); it remains enclosed
-in the seed during germination, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_293">[293]</span> dissolves the endosperm by
-means of the peculiar epithelial cells developed on the dorsal
-surface. The radicle, on germination, is obliged to perforate
-a mass of cells derived from the suspensor and which form the
-“root-sheath” (coleorhiza, Fig. <a href="#fig293">293</a>) round its base. In addition
-to the tap-root, lateral roots are frequently developed before
-germination; these quickly break through, and later on are
-followed by others which appear at the base of the leaf (Figs.
-<a href="#fig293">293</a>, <a href="#fig294">294</a>).</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">DISTRIBUTION OF THE FRUIT</span> is most frequently
-effected by the wind. The spirally-twisted and hygroscopic awn
-which persists on the fruits of some species (<i>Avena</i>,
-<i>Stipa</i>, etc.) assists in their dissemination, and even
-helps to bury them in the ground.</p>
-
-<p>The two preceding orders are more closely related to each other
-than they are to the Gramineæ.</p>
-
-<p>The generic differences are chiefly founded on the form of
-the inflorescence, the number and sex of the flowers in the
-spikelets, the shape and relative length of the pales, awns,
-etc. In addition to these the structure of the fruit and
-seed presents a great many differences; some have compound
-starch-grains, while in others they are single; some have 1
-layer of aleurone-cells, others have several (Fig. <a href="#fig292">292</a>), etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Bambuseæ.</span> Tall Grasses with woody, very siliceous
-stems which bear many branches in the axils of the leaves. 6 stamens.
-<i>Bambusa</i> (Bamboo).</p>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Oryzeæ.</span> <i>Oryza sativa</i> (Rice) is a herbaceous
-marsh-plant, with panicle and small, 1-flowered spikelets, with two
-small glumes and two large, boat-shaped, strongly siliceous pales. 6
-stamens.&mdash;<i>Leersia. Lygeum. Pharus. Zizania
-aquatica.</i></p>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Maydeæ.</span> <i>Zea mais</i> (Indian-corn, Maize); the
-spikelets are unisexual; the ♂-spikelets in a terminal panicle; the
-♀-spikelets closely crowded and arranged in many rows in a thick,
-axillary spike, enclosed by large sheathing-leaves. The ♀-spikelets are
-1-(2-) flowered; the ovary bears one, long, filamentous style, with
-bifid stigma.&mdash;<i>Euchlæna</i>; <i>Coix</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>4.</b> <span class="smcap">Andropogoneæ.</span> <i>Saccharum</i> (Sugar-cane); the
-spikelets are exceptionally small, 1-flowered, and borne in pairs in
-many-flowered, long-haired panicles. Tall grasses with solid, sappy
-stem.&mdash;<i>Andropogon.</i></p>
-
-<p><b>5.</b> <span class="smcap">Festuceæ.</span> Grasses with panicle (or spike-like
-panicle) and 2–several-flowered spikelets. Glumes small, in each case
-shorter than the spikelet.&mdash;<i>Festuca</i> (Fescue) and <i>Bromus</i>
-(Brome, Fig. <a href="#fig288">288</a>) have the awn placed at the <i>apex</i> of the pale,
-or slightly below it. <i>Festuca</i> has perennial species, with
-only a sparsely-branched panicle with branches solitary or in pairs,
-and round spikelets; the leaf-sheath is widely open. <i>Bromus</i>
-has the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_294">[294]</span> branches borne in half whorls, and the leaf-sheath scarcely
-half open. <i>Brachypodium</i> has very short-stalked spikelets in
-a raceme.&mdash;<i>Poa</i> (Meadow-grass), <i>Briza</i> (Quaking-grass)
-and <i>Glyceria</i> have awnless spikelets; these in <i>Poa</i> are
-ovoid, compressed, and with sharply-keeled glumes; in <i>Briza</i>
-they are broad, cordate and drooping, with boat-shaped glumes; in
-<i>Glyceria</i> round, long, many-flowered, linear or lanceolate; some
-species of <i>Glyceria</i> have closed leaf-sheaths.&mdash;<i>Dactylis</i>
-(Cock’s-foot) differs from all others in the somewhat crowded and
-unilateral (subsecund) spikelets, which are compressed and oblique
-(<i>i.e.</i> one side more convex than the other).&mdash;<i>Phragmites</i>
-(<i>P. communis</i>, Reed); the lowermost flowers of the spikelet are
-♂; its axis is covered with long, silky hairs; pales without awns,
-but acuminate. Perennial marsh-plants.&mdash;<i>Melica</i>; panicle small,
-sparsely-branched with round, awnless, few-flowered, usually drooping
-spikelets. The upper pales, with arrested flowers, are generally
-united into a club-like mass.&mdash;<i>Molinia</i>, <i>Eragrostis</i>,
-<i>Koeleria</i>, <i>Catabrosa</i>.&mdash;<i>Cynosurus</i> (Dog’s-tail)
-has a small, spicate panicle with unilateral spikelets, some of
-which are fertile, some barren, each supported by a pectinate scale.
-<i>Arundo. Sesleria. Gynerium. Triodia.</i></p>
-
-<p><b>6.</b> <span class="smcap">Aveneæ.</span> Panicles with 2–many-flowered
-spikelets; at least one of the glumes is quite as long as the
-entire spikelet.&mdash;<i>Avena</i> (Oat). The pale is boat-shaped,
-often bifid, and at about the middle of the back has a twisted,
-bent awn.&mdash;<i>Aira</i> (Hair-grass) has a long-branched panicle
-with small, 2-flowered spikelets; the pale has a dentate
-apex and bears an awn on the posterior side close to the
-base.&mdash;<i>Weingærtneria.</i>&mdash;<i>Holcus</i> (Yorkshire-fog); a soft,
-hairy Grass with an open panicle, keeled glumes; 2 flowers in the
-spikelet, of which the lower one is ☿, the upper ♂; the pale which
-supports the ☿-flower has no awn, but that which supports the ♂-flower,
-on the contrary, is awned.</p>
-
-<p><b>7.</b> <span class="smcap">Agrostideæ.</span> Panicles or spike-like panicles with
-1-flowered spikelets. Generally 2 glumes and only 1 pale.&mdash;The
-following have <span class="allsmcap">PANICLES</span>: <i>Milium</i> with square
-panicle-branches and round spikelets; <i>Agrostis</i> (Fiorin), with
-compressed, glabrous spikelets, whose glumes are longer than the pales.
-<i>Calamagrostis</i> differs in having a chaplet of long hairs at the
-base of the pale.&mdash;<i>Stipa</i> (Feather-grass) has a long, twisted
-awn.&mdash;The following have <span class="allsmcap">SPIKELIKE PANICLES</span>: <i>Phleum</i>
-(Cat’s-tail, Timothy-grass) has sharply pointed, entirely free glumes,
-which are much longer than the awnless pales. <i>Alopecurus</i>
-(Fox-tail); glumes united below; pale<span class="pagenum" id="Page_295">[295]</span> with awn. <i>Ammophila</i>
-(<i>Psamma</i>). <i>A. arundinacea</i>; pales hairy at base; perennial,
-stiff-leaved, glaucous sand-grass with creeping rhizome. <i>Aristida.
-Sporobolus.</i></p>
-
-<p><b>8.</b> <span class="smcap">Phalarideæ.</span> Panicles and spike-like panicles.
-The spikelet has in the upper part a single fertile flower; below
-it are placed 4 pales, of which the upper 1–2 sometimes support
-♂-flowers. On the whole, 6 floral-leaves of the first order are
-present.&mdash;<i>Phalaris</i> (<i>P. canariensis</i>, Canary-grass)
-has an ovate, spike-like panicle, the spikelets are compressed,
-convex on the outer side, concave on the inner. The large glumes are
-winged on the back.&mdash;<i>Digraphis</i> (<i>D. arundinacea</i>) is
-closely allied to <i>Phalaris</i>, but the keel of the glumes is not
-winged.&mdash;<i>Anthoxanthum</i> (<i>A. odoratum</i>, Sweet-vernal) has a
-small, lanceolate, open, spike-like panicle; the spikelets have below 2
-barren flowers, and above these an ☿-flower with 2 stamens. The upper
-glume is longer than the flower.&mdash;<i>Hierochloa.</i></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>9.</b> <span class="smcap">Chlorideæ.</span> The spikelets are
-arranged in the form of a spike in two rows on one side
-of an often flatly-compressed axis; they are mostly
-1-flowered.&mdash;<i>Chloris</i>; <i>Ctenium</i>; <i>Cynodon</i>;
-<i>Eleusine</i>; <i>Microchloa</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>10.</b> <span class="smcap">Paniceæ.</span> The spikelets are borne in panicles
-or spikes, which may be arranged like fingers or in a raceme.
-There is a centrally-placed ☿-flower; below it is sometimes a
-♂-flower.&mdash;<i>Panicum</i>; <i>Paspalum</i>; <i>Oplismenus</i>;
-<i>Setaria</i> has an almost cylindrical spike-like panicle
-with several barren branchlets, which project as stiff, rough
-bristles.&mdash;<i>Cenchrus</i>; <i>Pennisetum</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>11.</b> <span class="smcap">Hordeæ.</span> Spikes compound; spikelets sessile in the
-notches of a toothed axis.</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> Spikelets solitary.&mdash;<i>Triticum</i> (Wheat, Fig. <a href="#fig287">287</a>) has in
-each tooth of the main axis, a several-flowered spikelet which turns
-its <i>flat side</i> towards the central axis. The cultivated species
-(true Wheat) are 1-2-annual, the wild ones (<i>T. repens</i>, Couch,
-also as an independent genus, <i>Agropyrum</i>) are perennial, with
-creeping rhizome and lanceolate glumes.&mdash;<i>Lolium</i> (Rye-grass) has
-in each tooth of the main axis a many-flowered, compressed spikelet,
-which is placed <i>edgewise</i> towards it and (with the exception
-of <i>L. perenne</i>) has only one outwardly-turned glume (<i>L.
-temulentum</i> has a rudiment of the inwardly-turned lower glume); the
-terminal spikelet has two glumes.&mdash;<i>Secale</i> (Rye). A two-flowered
-spikelet in each tooth; small, lanceolate, acuminate glumes.
-<i>Nardus</i> and <i>Lepturus</i> have very narrow spikes, the former
-with unilateral spikelets.</p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> In each notch of the axis 2 or more spikelets are placed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_296">[296]</span>
-close together.&mdash;<i>Hordeum</i> (Barley). In each tooth three
-1-flowered spikelets. <i>H. hexastichum</i> (6-rowed Barley), has
-6 rows of fruits, since all the spikelets are fertile, and <i>H.
-distichum</i> (2-rowed Barley) 2 rows, since the lateral spikelets are
-(♂, and barren (p. <a href="#Page_292">292</a>).&mdash;<i>Elymus</i> has 2–6 many-flowered spikelets
-in each joint of the main axis. <i>Ægilops</i> has awns upon the glumes.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Distribution.</span> 315 genera with 3,500 species. The order
-is distributed over the whole world, and as regards number of
-individuals is perhaps the richest. In the Tropics, large,
-broad-leaved, tree-like forms are found (<i>Bambuseæ</i>,
-<i>Olyreæ</i>, <i>Andropogoneæ</i>, etc.; in S. Europe,
-<i>Arundo donax</i>); in England, next to the Compositæ, it is
-the order most rich in species (about 134).&mdash;The origin of some
-of the cultivated Grasses is lost in obscurity. The Maize, no
-doubt, was indigenous to America, where its nearest relatives
-are found, and where it has also been discovered in ancient
-Indian graves; Durra or Guinea-corn, Millet and Sugar-cane are
-South Asiatic plants, and our own cereals no doubt have sprung
-primarily from Western Asia and South-Eastern Europe (Barley
-from Armenia and Persia, where a very closely related wild
-species is found; Wheat from the same districts; Rye from the
-perennial species <i>S. montanum</i>). <i>Panicum altissimum</i>
-and Rice have come from Africa.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> The Grasses play a very important part as
-cereals and fodder plants. The following are the most important
-of the cultivated ones: <i>Triticum vulgare</i> (common
-Wheat), <i>turgidum</i>, <i>amyleum</i>, <i>polonicum</i>,
-<i>spelta</i>, <i>durum</i>, etc.; <i>Secale cereale</i> (Rye);
-Barley (<i>Hordeum</i>-species, see under the genus); Maize;
-Oats (<i>Avena sativa</i>, <i>orientalis</i>, <i>nuda</i>);
-Millet (<i>Panicum miliaceum</i>); Durra (Turkish Millet,
-or Guinea-corn, <i>Sorghum vulgare</i>, <i>cernuum</i> and
-<i>saccharatum</i>); Manna-grass (<i>Glyceria fluitans</i>). As
-fodder-plants especially: Rye-grass (<i>Lolium perenne</i>);
-Oat-grass (<i>Avena elatior</i>); Timothy (<i>Phleum
-pratense</i>); Fox-tail (<i>Alopecurus pratensis</i>); Cock’s
-foot (<i>Dactylis glomerata</i>); Dog’s tail (<i>Cynosurus
-cristatus</i>); Sweet-vernal (<i>Anthoxanthum odoratum</i>);
-Soft grass, or Yorkshire-fog (<i>Holcus lanatus</i> and
-<i>mollis</i>); Quaking-grass (<i>Briza media</i>); species of
-Meadow-grass (<i>Poa</i>); Fescue (<i>Festuca</i>) and Brome
-(<i>Bromus</i>).&mdash;Several cultivated species of Grass are also
-used in the preparation of <i>fermented liquors</i>, the starch
-in the seeds being transformed to <i>sugar</i> (beer from
-“Malt,” <i>i.e.</i> the germinated Barley; arrack from Rice);
-or the stem becomes specially saccharine before flowering: the
-Sugar-cane, <i>Sorghum saccharatum</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Officinal.</span> The rhizome of <i>Triticum repens</i>,
-Oat-grain, flour of Barley, and the starch of Wheat, also sugar.</p>
-
-<p>The seeds of <i>Lolium temulentum</i> are considered
-<i>poisonous</i>.&mdash;The stems of many species (including
-our common grains) are used in the manufacture of paper,
-especially “Esparto grass” (<i>Stipa tenacissima</i>) from
-Spain and N. Africa, and the sheathing-leaves of the ♀-spike
-of <i>Maize</i>. Sand Lyme-grass (<i>Elymus arenarius</i>),
-and especially <i>Psamma arenaria</i>, are important.&mdash;But
-few Grass-species are <i>sweet-scented</i>: <i>Anthoxanthum
-odoratum</i> and <i>Hierochloa odorata</i> contain coumarin;
-<i>Andropogon</i>-species have essential oils (“Citronella
-oil”).&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ornamental plants</span> are: the “Ribbon-grass” (a
-variety of <i>Digraphis arundinacea</i>), <i>Stipa pennata</i>
-(whose awn is exceedingly long and feathery), <i>Gynerium
-argenteum</i> (Pampas-grass), <i>Lagurus ovatus</i>, <i>Hordeum
-jubatum</i>, <i>Bromus briziformis</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_297">[297]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 3. <b>Spadicifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The primitive form resembles that of the preceding family. In it
-we find the typical, perfectly developed, Monocotyledonous flower,
-sometimes even with free carpels and with a dry or somewhat fleshy,
-but never petaloid perianth; and this passes over into very different
-forms by the suppression of the floral-leaves, perianth and sporophylls
-(unisexual flowers are common), and by the close aggregation of the
-flowers in the inflorescence. The flower is <i>hypogynous</i> in every
-case. The inflorescence is a <i>spike</i> which may be either single or
-branched, and has often a thick and fleshy axis (a <i>spadix</i>). In
-Palms and Araceæ it is enveloped, at any rate prior to the opening of
-the flowers, by a very large floral-leaf, <i>the spathe</i>, which may
-be petaloid (Figs. <a href="#fig297">297</a>, <a href="#fig301">301</a>).</p>
-
-<p>The fruit is most frequently fleshy (<i>berry</i>, <i>drupe</i>) or a
-<i>nut</i>, never a capsule. The embryo is small, with large, fleshy
-endosperm (Fig. <a href="#fig299">299</a> <i>C</i>); very rarely the endosperm is wanting.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig295" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig295.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 295.</span>&mdash;Piassava (<i>Attalea funifera</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig296" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig296.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 296.</span>&mdash;A portion of the stem of <i>Attalea
-funifera</i> with persistent leaf-bases.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The numerous plants belonging to this family are large, herbaceous or
-tree-like, and the leaves seldom have the usual Monocotyledonous form,
-<i>i.e.</i> linear with parallel venation, but most frequently have
-pinnate or palmate venation.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Palmæ (Palms).</b> The majority are trees with an
-<i>unbranched</i>, cylindrical <i>stem</i>, having short internodes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_298">[298]</span>
-and covered with leaf-scars or the bases of the leaf-stalks (Fig.
-<a href="#fig296">296</a>), and at the summit a rosette of large leaves closely packed
-together (Fig. <a href="#fig295">295</a>). An exception to this is found in <i>Calamus</i>
-(Cane, “Rotang”), whose thin, creeping or climbing stems have long
-internodes; sparsely<a id="FNanchor_28" href="#Footnote_28" class="fnanchor">[28]</a> branched is, <i>e.g.</i> the African Doum-palm
-(<i>Hyphæne</i>). Notwithstanding their often enormous stems the
-Palms have fibrous roots, like the bulbous Monocotyledons. The leaves
-are pinnate (Feather-palms, Fig. <a href="#fig298">298</a>) or palmate (Fan-palms, Fig.
-<a href="#fig295">295</a>) and often very large; they have a well-developed petiole with
-an <i>amplexicaul sheath</i>, which is often more or less separated
-into a large number of fibres. <i>In the bud the blade is entire
-but folded</i>, as the leaf expands the lines of folding are torn,
-either those which are turned upwards (thus ∨ ∨ ∨ ∨, <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Pritchardia</i>, <i>Livistona</i>, <i>Phœnix</i>, <i>Chamærops</i>)
-or those turned downwards (thus ∧ ∧ ∧ ∧, <i>e.g. Cocos</i>,
-<i>Chamædorea</i>, <i>Calamus</i>). The inflorescence is usually
-lateral; when, as in Sago-palm (<i>Metroxylon rumphii</i>) or Talipot
-(<i>Corypha umbraculifera</i>) it is terminal, the plant is monocarpic,
-and dies after flowering; it is often a very <i>large</i> and
-<i>branched spadix</i> with numerous flowers either borne externally
-or embedded in it, and enclosed either in one woody, boat-shaped
-<i>spathe</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig297">297</a>) or several spathes, in the latter case one
-for each branch. The flowers are sessile or even embedded, regular,
-generally <i>unisexual</i> (monœcious or diœcious) with the usual
-diagram (Fig. <a href="#fig278">278</a>); the perianth is inconspicuous, green or yellow,
-persistent, and more or less leathery or fleshy. 6, rarely 3 or many
-stamens. The 3 carpels remain either <i>distinct</i> or form one,
-generally 3-locular, ovary. The style is short. There is <i>one ovule
-in each carpel</i>. Often during ripening 2 carpels with their ovules
-are aborted. The fruit is a <i>berry</i>, <i>drupe</i> or <i>nut</i>,
-generally one-seeded, with a large horny or bony endosperm with hard
-thick-walled cells (<i>e.g.</i> Date-palm). In some (<i>e.g.</i>
-Cocoanut) it is thin-walled, soft, and oily; in several “ruminate.”</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>When <i>germination</i> commences in the Cocoanut, Date, etc.,
-the apex of the cotyledon remains in the seed and developes
-into a spongy mass to withdraw the endosperm; in the Cocoanut
-it attains a considerable size (Fig. <a href="#fig299">299</a> <i>C</i>) and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_299">[299]</span> assumes
-the form of the fruit. The endosperm in the Cocoanut is hollow
-and the interior is filled with “milk.” In the Date-palm and the
-Vegetable-ivory (<i>Phytelephas</i>) the cell-walls of the hard
-endosperm serve as reserve material.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Phœniceæ.</span> <i>Phœnix</i> (Date-palm) has pinnate
-leaves with channeled leaflets and diœcious flowers with 8 free
-carpels, of which usually only one developes into a berry with
-membranous endocarp; the large seed has a deep furrow on the inner
-side, and horny endosperm.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig297" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig297.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 297.</span>&mdash;Inflorescence of a Palm with spathe.
-At the top ♂-, at the base ♀-flowers.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig298" style="width: 373px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig298.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 298.</span>&mdash;<i>Livistona australis.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Sabaleæ.</span> These have fan-like leaves with channeled
-segments;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_300">[300]</span> flowers ☿ or polygamous, rarely diœcious, with 3 separate
-or only slightly united carpels, all of which are sometimes developed
-into fruits (berry or drupe, with thin stone).&mdash;<i>Chamærops</i>,
-the Dwarf-palm. The pericarp is externally fleshy, internally more
-fibrous, and provided with a membranous inner layer. The endosperm is
-ruminate (that is, the testa is several times deeply folded into the
-endosperm).&mdash;<i>Sabal</i>, <i>Copernicia</i>, <i>Livistona</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig298">298</a>), <i>Thrinax</i>, <i>Corypha</i>, <i>Brahea</i>, and others.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig299" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig299.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 299.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i> Longitudinal section of
-a Cocoanut (diminished), the inner layer only (the stone) not being
-divided <i>B</i> End view of the stone, showing the sutures for the 3
-carpels (<i>a</i>), and the 3 germ-pores; the embryo emerges from the
-lowest one when germination begins. <i>C</i> Germinating; inside the
-stone is seen the hollow endosperm and the enlarging cotyledon.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Cocoineæ.</span> With pinnate leaves. Monœcious
-inflorescence. The carpels are united into a 3-locular ovary. The
-fruit is most frequently 1-locular, only 1 of the loculi becoming
-developed, rarely 3-locular; it is a drupe with a large, fibrous,
-external layer (<i>mesocarp</i>) and most frequently a very hard inner
-layer (<i>endocarp</i>, stone) which has 3 germ-pores, the 2 of these,
-however, which correspond to the suppressed loculi are closed; internal
-to the third lies the small embryo (Fig. <a href="#fig299">299</a>). Endosperm containing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_301">[301]</span>
-abundance of oil. <i>Cocos</i> (the Cocoanut-palm), <i>Attalea</i>,
-<i>Elæis</i>, <i>Acrocomia</i>, <i>Bactris</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>4.</b> <span class="smcap">Lepidocaryinæ.</span> The floral-leaves and flowers
-are borne in 2 rows on the spadix. The carpels are united into one
-3-locular ovary; the fruit is coated by a layer of hard, shining,
-imbricate scales. The majority of the species are thorny, and climb
-by means of the thorny leaves. Some have fan-like (<i>Mauritia</i>),
-others pinnate leaves (<i>Raphia</i>, <i>Calamus</i>,
-<i>Eugeissonia</i>, <i>Metroxylon</i>; the stems of the latter die
-after the first flowering).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>5.</b> <span class="smcap">Borassinæ.</span> Large Fan-palms without thorns,
-with 3-locular ovary. Drupe with separate stones. <i>Latania</i>
-and <i>Lodoicea</i> have many stamens; <i>Hyphæne</i>;
-<i>Borassus</i> (Palmyra-palm).</p>
-
-<p><b>6.</b> <span class="smcap">Arecineæ.</span> The most numerous group.
-Feather-palms. Berry. <i>Areca</i>, <i>Euterpe</i>,
-<i>Oreodoxa</i>, <i>Ceroxylon</i>, <i>Chamædorea</i>,
-<i>Geonoma</i>, <i>Caryota</i> with bipinnate leaves.</p>
-
-<p><b>7.</b> <span class="smcap">Phytelephantinæ.</span> Flowers with rudimentary
-perianth united in close capitula. <i>Phytelephas</i>
-(Vegetable-ivory). <i>Nipa.</i></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Distribution.</span> About 1,100 species are known. In
-Europe only the Dwarf-palm (<i>Chamærops humilis</i>) is
-wild (Western Mediterranean). The Date palm (<i>Phœnix
-dactylifera</i>) belongs to North Africa and West Asia. Other
-African genera are <i>Hyphæne</i> (Doum-palm) and <i>Elæis</i>
-(<i>E. guineensis</i>, Oil-palm). A large majority of the
-genera are found in South America and in the East Indies.
-The following are <span class="smcap">American</span>:&mdash;<i>Mauritia</i>,
-<i>Acrocomia</i>, <i>Bactris</i>, <i>Chamædorea</i>,
-<i>Oreodoxa</i>, <i>Euterpe</i>, <i>Attalea</i>, etc.
-<span class="smcap">Asiatic</span>:&mdash;<i>Metroxylon</i>, <i>Calamus</i>,
-<i>Areca</i>, <i>Borassus</i>, <i>Lodoicea</i>
-(“Double-cocoanuts,” Seychelles) and others. The Cocoanut-palm
-has perhaps an American origin; all the other species of the
-same genus being endemic in America; it is the only Palm found
-on the coral islands of the Pacific Ocean, and is also the only
-one which is common to both hemispheres.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> Palms belong to the most useful plants; they
-contain no poison, and are of little medicinal interest,
-but are largely employed in the arts and manufactures, the
-hard timber being adapted for many purposes on account of
-the hard tissue in which the vascular bundles are embedded.
-“Cane” is the stem of <i>Calamus</i>-species (from India).
-<span class="smcap">Sago</span> is obtained from the pith of <i>Metroxylon
-rumphii</i> (Sago-palm, Sunda-Is., Moluccas), <i>Mauritia
-flexuosa</i>, etc. Sugar-containing sap (“palm wine”) is
-obtained from the American <i>Mauritia vinifera</i> and
-<i>flexuosa</i>, <i>Borassus flabelliformis</i> (Asiatic
-Palmyra-palm), <i>Arenga saccharifera</i>, etc., by cutting off
-the young inflorescences, or by perforating the stem before the
-flowering (<i>arrack</i> is distilled from this). <i>Vascular
-strands</i> for the manufacture of mats and brushes, etc., are
-obtained from the outer covering (mesocarp) of the Cocoanut,
-and from the detached leaf-sheaths of <i>Attalea funifera</i>
-(Brazil) (Fig. <a href="#fig296">296</a>). <span class="smcap">Wax</span> is yielded by the leaves
-of <i>Copernicia cerifera</i> (carnaueba-wax, Amazon region),
-and by the stem of <i>Ceroxylon andicola</i> (palm-wax,
-Andes); East Indian <i>Dragon’s blood</i> is from the fruit of
-<i>Calamus draco</i>; the young buds of many species, especially
-<i>Euterpe</i>, <i>Cocos</i>, <i>Attalea</i>, etc., are used
-as “cabbage.” Palm-oil is obtained from the oily mesocarp<span class="pagenum" id="Page_302">[302]</span> of
-the plum-like fruits of <i>Elæis guineensis</i> (W. Africa),
-and from the seeds, when it is largely used in the manufacture
-of soap. <span class="smcap">Edible Fruits</span> from the Date-palm (<i>Phœnix
-dactylifera</i>, Arabia, Egypt, W. Africa), and the endosperm of
-the Cocoanut (<i>Cocos nucifera</i>). The seeds and the unripe
-fruits of the Areca-palm (<i>Areca catechu</i>) are chewed with
-the leaves of the Betelpeper, principally in Asia. <span class="smcap">Vegetable
-Ivory</span> from the hard endosperm of <i>Phytelephas
-macrocarpa</i> (S. America.)&mdash;Many species are cultivated in
-the tropics as ornamental plants, but in this country only
-<i>Chamærops humilis</i>, <i>Livistona australis</i> and
-<i>chinensis</i> are generally grown. In addition to the few
-just mentioned, many others are of importance, but these are
-much the most useful.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Cyclanthaceæ.</b> This is a small order related to
-the Palms (44 species from Tropical America), with fan-like,
-folded leaves. The flowers are unisexual and arranged in whorls
-or close spirals on an unbranched spadix. Ovary unilocular,
-ovules numerous. To this belongs <i>Carludovica palmata</i>,
-whose leaves are used for Panama hats.</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Pandanaceæ</b> (Screw-pines) is another small order,
-forming a transition to the Araceæ. The woody, (apparently)
-dichotomous stem is supported by a large number of aerial roots,
-which sometimes entirely support it when the lower portion of
-the stem has decayed. The leaves are closely crowded together,
-and arranged on the branches in three rows, which are often
-obliquely displaced, with the formation of three spiral lines;
-they are, as in the Bromeliaceæ, amplexicaul, long, linear,
-the edge and lower midrib often provided with thorns. The
-♂-flowers are borne in branched, the ♀ in unbranched spadices or
-capitula, which resemble those of <i>Sparganium</i>, but have no
-floral-leaves. Perianth absent. The drupes or berries unite into
-multiple fruits.&mdash;About 80 species in the islands of the Indian
-Ocean.&mdash;<i>Pandanus</i>, <i>Freycinetia</i>.&mdash;Fossils perhaps in
-the chalk of the Harz.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Typhaceæ.</b> The flowers are unisexual, monœcious, and
-borne on a cylindrical spike or globose capitulum; ♂ inflorescences
-above, the ♀ below. The perianth consists of a definite number
-of scales (<i>Sparganium</i>), or in its place numerous
-irregularly-arranged hairs are found (<i>Typha</i>); in the ♂-flower
-there are generally three stamens; the gynœceum is formed of 1–2
-carpels with 1 prolonged style; 1 pendulous ovule. The seeds are
-furnished with a seed-cover, which is cast off on germination.&mdash;The few
-species (about 20) which belong to this order are marsh plants with
-creeping rhizome (and hence grow in clusters); the leaves on the aerial
-shoots are borne in two rows, entire, very long and linear.</p>
-
-<p><i>Sparganium</i> (Bur-reed). The flowers are borne in globose
-capitula; the perianth distinct, generally consisting of 3 small
-scales; pistil bicarpellate. Drupe, dry and woody. <span class="smaller">The stalk
-of the lower ♀ capitula is sometimes united with the main axis,
-and consequently the capitula are situated high above their
-subtending-leaf.</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_303">[303]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Typha</i> (Bulrush, Reed-mace) has a long, cylindrical, brown
-spike, the lower portion bearing ♀-flowers, and the upper ♂-flowers,
-which is divided into joints by alternate leaves. The ♀-flowers have
-1 carpel. The perianth is wanting, represented by a number of fine,
-irregularly-placed hairs; pistil unicarpellate. Fruit a nut.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The two genera, according to some, are related to the 2nd
-order. In both genera native species are found. The pollination
-is effected by the wind, and consequently the anthers project
-considerably, and the stigma is large and hairy. <i>Typha</i>
-is protandrous, <i>Sparganium</i> protogynous. The small,
-fine hairs surrounding the nut of <i>Typha</i> assist in its
-distribution by the wind.&mdash;Fossil <i>Typhas</i> in the Tertiary.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Araceæ</b> (<b>Arums</b>). The flowers are small,
-and always borne <i>without bracts or bracteoles</i> on <i>an
-unbranched</i>, often very fleshy spike, which is enclosed by a spathe,
-often petaloid and coloured (Fig. <a href="#fig301">301</a>). The fruit is a <i>berry</i>.
-Outer integument of the seed fleshy.&mdash;The leaves have generally sheath,
-stalk, and blade with distinctly <i>reticulate</i> venation; they are
-chiefly cordate or sagittate (Fig. <a href="#fig302">302</a>), seldom long with parallel
-venation as in the other Monocotyledons (<i>Acorus</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig300">300</a>). The
-Araceæ are quite <i>glabrous</i>, generally <i>perennial herbs</i>
-with tubers or rhizomes. Many have latex.&mdash;For the rest the structure
-of these plants varies; for example, while some have a perianth, in
-others it is wanting; in some the perianth-leaves are free, in others
-united; some have hermaphrodite flowers, but the majority unisexual
-(monœcious); some have free, others united stamens; the ovules are
-orthotropous, anatropous, or campylotropous, erect or pendulous;
-the ovary is 1–many-locular; some have seeds with endosperm, others
-without. <span class="smaller"><i>In habit</i> there are great differences. While some,
-<i>e.g. Colocasia</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig302">302</a>), have a thick, more or less
-upright stem, with leaf-scars, but not woody, others are climbers,
-epiphytic, and maintain themselves firmly by means of adventitious
-roots, on the stems and branches of trees, or even on steep rocks,
-<i>e.g. Philodendron</i>; the cordate, penninerved leaf is the
-most common (Fig. <a href="#fig302">302</a>), but various branched forms appear; the pedate
-leaves of <i>Helicophyllum</i>, <i>Dracunculus</i>, etc., are cymosely
-branched; the leaves of <i>Monstera deliciosa</i>, perforated by
-tearing, should be noticed (the vascular bundles while in the bud grow
-faster than the tissue between them, causing the latter to be torn,
-and the leaf perforated). With regard to the anatomical structure,
-the presence or absence of latex, raphides, resin-passages, groups of
-mucilage-cells should be noted. Engler makes use of these anatomical
-peculiarities for a scientific arrangement of the order.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Orontieæ, Calamus-group.</span> ☿, hypogynous flowers of
-a completely formed monocotyledonous type (number in the whorls 2, 3,
-or 4).&mdash;<i>Acorus</i> (<i>A. calamus</i>, Sweet-flag) has a regular,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_304">[304]</span>
-3-merous, pentacyclic flower (Fig. <a href="#fig300">300</a> <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>). They
-are marsh-plants, with creeping rhizome, triangular stem, and long,
-sword-like leaves (Fig. <a href="#fig300">300</a> <i>A</i>); the inflorescence is terminal,
-apparently lateral, being pushed to one side by the upright, sword-like
-spathe (Fig. <a href="#fig300">300</a> <i>B</i>).&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Anthurium</i> (Pr2+2, A2+2, G2);
-<i>Pothos</i>; <i>Orontium</i> (unilocular ovary with one ovule),
-etc.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig300" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig300.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 300.</span>&mdash;<i>Acorus calamus</i>: <i>A</i>
-habit (much reduced); <i>B</i> inflorescence; <i>C</i> a flower;
-<i>D</i> diagram; <i>E</i> longitudinal section of an ovary; <i>F</i> an ovule.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig301" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig301.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 301.</span>&mdash;<i>Arum maculatum.</i> The spathe
-(<i>h</i>) in <i>B</i> is longitudinally divided.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_305">[305]</span></p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Calleæ.</span> Flowers hypogynous, naked, ☿.&mdash;<i>Calla</i>
-(<i>C. palustris</i>). All flowers in the spike are fertile, or
-the upper ones are ♂; 6–9 stamens; ovary unilocular with many
-basal ovules. Marsh-plants with creeping rhizome and cordate
-leaves.&mdash;<i>Monstera</i>, <i>Rhaphidophora</i>, etc.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig302" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig302.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 302.</span>&mdash;<i>Colocasia Boryi.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>C.</b> <span class="smcap">Arineæ.</span> Flowers monœcious, naked, ♂-flowers on the
-upper, ♀ on the lower part of the spadix.&mdash;<i>Arum</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig301">301</a>).
-The spadix terminates in a naked, club-like portion (<i>k</i>); below
-this is a number of sessile bodies (rudimentary flowers), with broad
-bases and prolonged, pointed tips (<i>b</i>); underneath these are the
-♂-flowers (<i>m</i>), each consisting only of 3–4 short stamens, which
-eject vermiform pollen-masses through the terminal pores; then follow,
-last of all, ♀-flowers (<i>f</i>), each of which consists of one
-unilocular ovary, with several ovules. Perennial herbs, tuberous, with
-cordate leaves.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Dracunculus</i>; <i>Biarum</i>; <i>Arisarum</i>;
-<i>Pinellia (Atherurus) ternata</i> with leaves bearing 1–2 buds.
-<i>Zantedeschia æthiopica</i> (<i>Richardia</i>, Nile-lily); ♂, 2–3
-stamens; ♀ with 3 staminodes, 1–5-locular ovary (S. Africa.)&mdash;In some
-genera sterile flowers are present between the ♂ and ♀ portions of
-the spadix (<i>e.g.</i> in <i>Philodendron</i>); in <i>Ambrosinia</i>
-a lateral, wing-like broadening of the axis of the spadix divides
-the cavity of the spathe into two chambers, the anterior<span class="pagenum" id="Page_306">[306]</span> containing
-one ♀, and the posterior 8–10 ♂-flowers in two series; in some
-the stamens in the single ♂-flowers unite and form a columnar
-“synandrium” (<i>e.g.</i> in <i>Dieffenbachia</i>, <i>Colocasia</i>,
-<i>Alocasia</i>, <i>Caladium</i>, <i>Taccarum</i>, <i>Syngonium</i>).
-A remarkable spadix is found in <i>Spathicarpa</i>; it is united for
-its entire length, on one side, with the spathe, and the flowers are
-arranged upon it in rows, the ♀ to the outside, and the ♂ in the middle
-(<i>Zostera</i> has a similar one).&mdash;<i>Pistia</i> similarly deviates
-considerably, it is a floating water-plant, with hairy, round rosettes
-of leaves; in it also the spathe and spadix are united; at the base a
-♀-flower is borne, which consists of one unilocular ovary, and above
-several ♂-flowers, each composed of two united stamens.</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smaller"><span class="smcap">Biology.</span> The inflorescences are adapted for
-<i>insect-pollination</i>; they are protogynous, since the viscous,
-almost sessile stigmas come to maturity and wither before the pollen,
-which is generally dehisced by apical pores, is shed; some pollinate
-themselves freely by the pollen from the higher ♂-flowers falling
-upon the ♀-flowers below them, and in some it is conjectured that the
-pollination is effected by snails. The coloured spathe, and the naked
-end of the spadix (often coloured) of certain genera function as the
-coloured perianth in other orders; during flowering a very powerful
-smell is often emitted. <i>Arum maculatum</i> is worthy of notice;
-small flies and midges creep down into the spathe, between the sterile
-flowers (Fig. <a href="#fig301">301</a> <i>b</i>), which are situated where the spathe is
-constricted, and pointing obliquely downwards prevent the escape of the
-insects; in the meantime, the stigmas are in a condition to receive any
-pollen they may have brought with them; after pollination the stigmas
-wither, and exude small drops of honey as a compensation to the flies
-for their imprisonment; after this the anthers (<i>m</i>) open and shed
-their pollen, the sterile flowers wither, and the insects are then able
-to escape, and enter and pollinate other inflorescences.&mdash;In many, a
-<i>rise of temperature</i> and evolution of carbonic acid takes place
-during flowering; a spadix may be raised as much as 30°C. above the
-temperature of the surrounding air.&mdash;Again, under certain conditions,
-many species absorb such large quantities of water by their roots that
-water is forced out in drops from the tip of the leaf; this may often
-be observed in <i>Zantedeschia</i>.</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smaller">About 900 species in 100 genera. Home, the Tropics, especially S.
-America, India, and the Indian Islands, preferably in shady, damp
-forests growing as epiphytes upon trees, and on the banks of streams.
-Outside the Tropics few are found. <i>Acorus calamus</i> was introduced
-into Europe from Asia about 300 years ago; it, however, never sets any
-fruit, as the pollen is unfertile. In England <i>Arum maculatum</i>
-is a very common plant; this and <i>A. italicum</i> are the only
-native species. <i>Colocasia antiquorum</i> comes from Polynesia and
-the Indian Islands, and also <i>Alocasia macrorrhiza</i>. Fossils in
-Cretaceous and Tertiary.</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smaller"><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> Many species have pungent, and even <i>poisonous
-properties</i> (<i>e.g. Dieffenbachia</i>, <i>Lagenandra</i>,
-<i>Arum</i>), which are easily removed by boiling or roasting; the
-<i>rhizomes</i> of many species of <i>Caladium</i>, <i>Colocasia</i>
-(<i>C. antiquorum</i>, <i>esculenta</i>, etc.), are very rich in
-starch, and in the Tropics form an important source of food. An
-uncommon occurrence in the order is the highly aromatic rhizome
-of <i>Acorus calamus</i>; this contains calamus-oil and acorin
-which are used in perfumery. Many are ornamental plants, <i>e.g.
-Zantedeschia æthiopica</i> (South<span class="pagenum" id="Page_307">[307]</span> Africa), generally known as “Calla,”
-and <i>Monstera deliciosa</i>; many other species are grown in
-greenhouses.</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Lemnaceæ (Duck-weeds).</b> These are the most reduced
-form of the Spadicifloræ. They are very small, free-swimming
-water-plants. The vegetative system resembles a small, leaf-like
-body (Fig. <a href="#fig303">303</a> <i>f-f</i>), from which roots hang downwards; this
-branches by producing a new, similar leaf-like body, which springs
-from a pocket-like hollow (indicated by a dotted line in the figure)
-on each side of the older one, at its base (or only on one side).
-<span class="smaller">The branching is thus dichasial or helicoid (Fig. <a href="#fig303">303</a> <i>A</i>,
-where <i>f, f′, f″, f″′</i> indicate shoots of 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th
-generations respectively). The leaf-like bodies are, according to
-Hegelmaier, leaf-like stems, and thus <i>Lemna</i> has no other leaves
-than the spathe and the sporophylls; according to the investigations
-of Engler they are stems whose upper portion (above the “pocket”) is a
-leaf, which is not sharply separated from the underlying stem-portion.
-The inflorescence is a very much reduced Araceous-spadix, consisting
-in <i>Lemna</i> of 1 or 2 stamens of unequal length (1-stamened
-♂-flowers), 1 unilocular carpel (♀-flower), and 1 thin spathe
-(<i>B</i>). [The same is found in <i>Spirodela polyrrhiza</i>, etc.,
-whose daughter-shoots begin in addition with 1 basal-leaf. <i>Wolffia
-arrhiza</i>, etc., have no roots, no spathe, and only 1 ♂-flower in
-the inflorescence (Engler).]&mdash;On the germination of the seed a portion
-of the testa is thrown off as a lid, so that an exit is opened for
-the radicle.&mdash;19 species. In stagnant fresh water, both Temp. and
-Tropical.&mdash;In Europe the species are <i>Lemna minor, trisulca, gibba;
-Spirodela polyrrhiza</i>, and <i>Wolffia arrhiza</i>, the smallest
-Flowering-plant.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig303" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig303.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 303.</span>&mdash;<i>Lemna</i>: <i>A</i> vegetative
-system; <i>B</i> portion of a plant with flowers; one stamen and tip
-of the carpel project; the remaining portions being indicated by the
-dotted line.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_308">[308]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 4. <b>Enantioblastæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flowers in this family are <i>hypogynous</i> and have in part
-the general monocotyledonous type with 5 trimerous whorls completely
-developed in a regular hermaphrodite flower, and in part the flowers
-so much reduced that the type is very difficult to trace. On the one
-hand the family is well developed and has capitate inflorescences
-(<i>Eriocaulaceæ</i>) and on the other hand it is distinctly reduced
-(<i>Centrolepidaceceæ</i>). This family has taken its name from the
-fact that the ovule is not, as in the Liliifloræ and nearly all other
-Monocotyledons, anatropous, but <i>orthotropous</i>, so that the
-embryo (βλάστη) becomes placed <i>at the end of the seed opposite</i>
-(ἐναντίος) <i>to the hilum</i>. Large, mealy endosperm.&mdash;The orders
-belonging to this family are by certain authors grouped with the
-<i>Bromeliaceæ</i> and <i>Pontederiaceæ</i>, etc., into one family,
-<span class="smcap">Farinoseæ</span>, so named on account of the mealy endosperm,
-the distinguishing character of the Liliifloræ then being that the
-endosperm is fleshy and horny.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Commelinaceæ.</b> The complete Liliaceous structure
-without great reductions in the number of whorls, but with
-generally few ovules in each loculus of the ovary, is found in
-the Commelinaceæ, an almost exclusively tropical order with
-about 317 species; herbs, some of which are introduced into
-our gardens and greenhouses. The stems are nodose; the leaves
-often <i>clasping</i>; the flowers are arranged in unipared
-scorpioid cymes, often so that they form a zig-zag series
-falling in the median line of the bracts, and after flowering
-they bend regularly to the right or left, outwards or inwards.
-They are more or less <i>zygomorphic</i>, particularly in the
-stamens, which in the same flower are of different forms or
-partially suppressed. The outer series of the <i>perianth</i>
-is sepaloid, the inner petaloid, generally violet or blue; the
-filaments are sometimes clothed with hairs formed of rows of
-bead-like cells (well known for showing protoplasmic movements).
-Fruit a trilocular <i>capsule</i> with loculicidal dehiscence
-(generally few-seeded); in some a nut. The radicle is covered
-by an external, warty, projecting covering which is cast off on
-germination.&mdash;The abundant raphides lie in elongated cells whose
-transverse walls they perforate.&mdash;<i>Commelina, Tradescantia,
-Tinantia, Cyanotis, Dichorisandra</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Mayacaceæ.</b> This order is closely allied to the
-Commelinaceæ. 7 species. American marsh- or water-plants.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In many of the following orders of this family the flowers are
-united into compound inflorescences, with which is accompanied a
-reduction in the flower.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Xyridaceæ</b> (50 species). Marsh-plants with
-radical, often equitant leaves arranged in 2 rows, and short
-spikes on long (twisted) stalks. The flowers, as in the
-Commelinaceæ, have sepals (which however are more chaffy) and
-petals, but the outer series of stamens is wanting. Capsule
-(generally many-seeded).</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Rapateaceæ.</b> Marsh-plants with radical leaves,
-usually in two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_309">[309]</span> rows, and several spikelets on the summit of the
-main axis, clustered into a capitulum or unilateral spike. Each
-spikelet has numerous imbricate floral-leaves and one flower. 24
-species. South America.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Eriocaulaceæ.</b> The “Compositæ among
-Monocotyledons,” a tropical order. The flowers are borne in
-a <i>capitulum</i> surrounded by an <i>involucre</i>, very
-similar to that of the Compositæ. The flowers are very small,
-unisexual, ♂ and ♀ often mixed indiscriminately in the same
-capitulum; they have the usual pentacyclic structure; the leaves
-of the inner perianth are often connate and more membranous
-than the outer; in some the outer series of stamens are
-suppressed; in each of the 3 loculi is one pendulous ovule.
-Capsule. The leaves are generally radical and grass-like.&mdash;335
-species; <i>Eriocaulon</i>, <i>Paepalanthus</i>, etc., <i>E.
-septangulare</i> on the west coast of Scotland, and Ireland, and
-in North America.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Restiaceæ.</b> A small, especially S. African and
-S. Australian, xerophilous order (about 235 species), which is
-quite similar in habit to the Juncaceæ and Cyperaceæ. The leaves
-are often reduced to sheaths. The flowers are diœcious, the
-perianth as in <i>Juncus</i>, but the outer series of stamens
-suppressed. The ovary and fruit as in Eriocaulaceæ; the ovary,
-however, may be unilocular, and the fruit a nut. <i>Restio</i>,
-etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Centrolepidaceæ.</b> These are the most reduced
-plants in the family; small grass- or rush-like herbs. The
-flowers are very small, naked. Stamens 1–2, carpels 1–∞. 32
-species. Australia.&mdash;<i>Centrolepis</i> (flowers generally ☿
-with 1 stamen and 2–∞ carpels).</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 5. <b>Liliifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flower is constructed on the general monocotyledonous type, with 5
-alternating, 3-merous whorls (Fig. <a href="#fig278">278</a>), but exceptions are found as in
-the Iridaceæ (Fig. <a href="#fig279">279</a>) by the suppression of the <i>inner</i> whorl of
-stamens; in a few the position in relation to the bract differs from
-that represented in Fig. <a href="#fig278">278</a>, and in some instead of the trimerous,
-di- or tetramerous flowers are found (<i>e.g. Majanthemum</i>,
-<i>Paris</i>). Flowers generally <i>regular, hermaphrodite</i>, with
-simple, <i>petaloid</i>, coloured perianth (except, for example,
-Bromeliaceæ); ovary trilocular, generally with 2 ovules or 2 rows
-of ovules in the inner angle of each loculus (Fig. <a href="#fig304">304</a> <i>C</i>,
-<i>D</i>). <i>Endosperm</i> always present.&mdash;A very natural family,
-of which some divisions in part overlap each other. The habit varies;
-the leaves are however long, entire, with parallel venation, except in
-Dioscoreaceæ (Fig. <a href="#fig313">313</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In the first orders of this family the flowers are hypogynous,
-and in the first of all the styles are free, and the capsule
-dehisces septicidally; in the following the flowers are
-epigynous and in some reduced in number or unisexual; capsule
-with loculicidal dehiscence, or a berry.</p>
-</div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Hypogynous</span> flowers: Colchicaceæ, Liliaceæ,
-Convallariaceæ, Bromeliaceæ (in part).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_310">[310]</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Epigynous</span> flowers: Amaryllidaceæ, Iridaceæ, Bromeliaceæ
-(in part), Dioscoreaceæ.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Colchicaceæ.</b> The flower (Fig. <a href="#fig304">304</a> <i>A</i>) is
-☿, regular, <i>hypogynous</i>, trimerous in all five whorls (6
-<i>stamens</i>); anthers usually <i>extrorse</i>. Gynœceum with 3
-<i>free styles</i> (<i>A, D</i>); fruit a <i>capsule with septicidal
-dehiscence</i> (<i>E</i>); embryo very small (<i>F</i>). The
-underground stem is generally a corm or rhizome, seldom a bulb.</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Veratreæ</span>.&mdash;<i>Veratrum</i>; perennial herbs,
-stem tall with long internodes and broad, folded leaves; the
-flowers andromonœcious, with free, widely opening perianth-leaves
-(Fig. <a href="#fig304">304</a> <i>A</i>), and globular anthers; inflorescence a
-panicle.&mdash;<i>Zygadenus, Melanthium, Schœnocaulon, Uvularia,
-Tricyrtis</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Tofieldieæ</span>.&mdash;<i>Narthecium</i> and <i>Tofieldia</i>
-have leaves alternate (arranged in two rows), sword-like and borne
-in rosettes; racemes or spikes. <i>Narthecium</i> forms an exception
-to the order by having a simple style and fruit with loculicidal
-dehiscence; <i>Tofieldia</i> by the introrse anthers. In this they are
-related to the Liliaceæ. <i>Narthecium</i> has poisonous properties,
-like many other Colchicaceæ.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig304" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig304.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 304.</span>&mdash;<i>Veratrum</i>: <i>A</i> flower;
-<i>B</i> stamen; <i>C</i> transverse section of ovary; <i>D</i>
-gynœceum, with one carpel bisected longitudinally, and the third
-removed; <i>E</i> fruit after dehiscence; <i>F</i> longitudinal section
-of a seed.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>C.</b> <span class="smcap">Colchiceæ</span>.&mdash;<i>Colchicum</i> (Autumn Crocus);
-perennial herbs, with a long, <i>funnel-shaped, gamophyllous
-perianth</i>, and introrse anthers. The flowers of <i>C. autumnale</i>
-spring up immediately from the underground stem, which is in reality
-a <i>corm</i> formed of one internode. <span class="smaller"><i>Colchicum autumnale</i>
-flowers in autumn without leaves; in spring the radical foliage-leaves
-appear simultaneously with the fruit. The flower is protogynous, and
-is pollinated by insects (humble-bees, etc.) which seek the honey
-secreted by the free part of the stamen a little way down the tube.
-The length of the tube protects the fruit, and not, as in other cases,
-the nectary.&mdash;<i>Bulbocodium</i> and <i>Merendera</i> have unguiculate
-perianth-leaves, free, but closing together like a tube.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>175 species; chiefly in North America and South Africa.
-<i>Tofieldia</i> is an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_311">[311]</span> Arctic plant. The order is rich in
-pungent, poisonous alkaloids (veratrin, colchicin, etc.).
-<span class="smcap">Officinal</span>; the seeds of <i>Colchicum autumnale</i>
-(Europe) and <i>Schœnocaulon officinale</i> (Mexico), and the
-rhizome of <i>Veratrum album</i> (mountains of Central Europe).</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig305" style="width: 443px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig305.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 305.</span>&mdash;<i>Colchicum autumnale. A</i>
-Corm seen from the front: <i>k</i> corm; <i>s′ s″</i> scale-leaves
-embracing the flower-stalk; <i>wh</i> base of flower-stalk with roots
-(<i>w</i>). <i>B</i> Longitudinal section of corm and flower-stalk:
-<i>hh</i> brown membrane surrounding the underground portion of the
-plant; <i>st</i> flower-and leaf-stalk of previous year, the swollen
-basal portion forming the reservoir of reserve material. The new plant
-is a lateral shoot from the base of the corm (<i>k</i>) and has the
-following parts: the base bearing the roots (<i>w</i>), the central
-part (<i>k’</i>) which becomes the corm in the next year, the axis
-bearing the scale-leaves (<i>s’, s″</i>), the foliage-leaves (<i>l,
-l′″</i>), and the flowers (<i>b, b’</i>) which are borne in the axils
-of the uppermost foliage-leaves.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Liliaceæ (Lilies).</b> Flowers as in the Colchicaceæ but
-with <i>introrse</i> anthers; <i>ovary free, 3-locular, with single
-style; capsule</i> 3-locular with <i>loculicidal</i> dehiscence.&mdash;The
-majority are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_312">[312]</span> herbs with <i>bulbs</i>; the inflorescence is
-<i>terminal</i>. In many species reproduction takes place by means
-of bulbils (small bulbs) formed in the axils of the foliage-leaves
-(<i>e.g. Lilium bulbiferum</i>, <i>lancifolium</i>, etc.,
-<i>Gagea lancifolia</i>, etc.), or in the bracts of the inflorescence
-(many species of <i>Allium</i>); in many species several buds are
-developed as bulbs in the axils of the bulb-scales themselves
-(accessory buds arising close together), and in some the formation of
-buds is common on the leaves.</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Tulipeæ, Tulip Group.</span> Bulbs. The aerial, elongated
-stem bears the foliage-leaves. Flowers few but generally large,
-with free perianth-leaves. <i>Tulipa</i>; style absent, no honey;
-flowers generally solitary, erect.&mdash;<i>Fritillaria</i> perianth
-campanulate with a round or oblong nectary at the base of each
-perianth-leaf.&mdash;<i>Lilium</i>; perianth widely open, generally turned
-back with a covered nectary-groove in the centre of each segment.
-Anthers versatile.&mdash;<i>Lloydia; Erythronium.</i></p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Hyacintheæ, Hyacinth Group.</span> Bulbs. Leaves
-radical; aerial stem leafless with raceme or spike. In some
-the perianth-segments are free, in others united. Honey is
-produced often in glands or in the septa of the ovary (septal
-glands).&mdash;<i>Ornithogalum</i> has a leafy stem; <i>Scilla</i>;
-<i>Eucomis</i> has a tuft of floral-leaves above the raceme;
-<i>Agraphis</i>; <i>Hyacinthus</i>; <i>Puschkinia</i>;
-<i>Chionodoxa</i>; <i>Muscari</i>; <i>Veltheimia</i>; <i>Urginea</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>C.</b> <span class="smcap">Allieæ, Onion Group.</span> Generally bulbs. Leaves
-radical. Stem leafless with a compound umbellate or capitate
-inflorescence of unipared helicoid cymes, which before flowering
-are surrounded by two broad involucral leaves.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Allium.</i>
-Filaments often petaloid and bidentate; in many species bulbils are
-found in the inflorescence.&mdash;Some species have flat leaves: <i>A.
-sativum</i>, Garlic; <i>A. porrum</i>, Leek; <i>A. ursinum</i>;
-others have round, hollow leaves: <i>A. cepa</i>, Onion; <i>A.
-fistulosum</i>, Winter Onion; <i>A. ascalonicum</i>, Eschalot;
-<i>A. schænoprasum</i>, Chive.</span>&mdash;<i>Gagea</i>; honey is secreted
-at the base of the perianth, no special nectary; inflorescence
-few-flowered.&mdash;<i>Agapanthus; Triteleia.</i></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>D.</b> <span class="smcap">Anthericeæ.</span> Rhizome; raceme; the leaves
-not fleshy and thick.&mdash;<i>Anthericum</i>; <i>Asphodelus</i>;
-<i>Bulbine</i>; <i>Chlorophytum</i>; <i>Bowiea</i> has an almost
-leafless stem with curved, climbing branches.</p>
-
-<p><b>E.</b> <span class="smcap">Aloineæ, Aloes.</span> Stem generally aerial
-and tree-like, bearing on its summit thick, fleshy leaves,
-often with a thorny edge (Fig. <a href="#fig306">306</a>). Raceme branched or
-unbranched.&mdash;<i>Aloë</i>; <i>Gasteria</i>; <i>Yucca</i> (has
-secondary thickening, p. <a href="#Page_274">274</a>).</p>
-
-<p><b>F.</b> <span class="smcap">Hemerocallideæ.</span> <i>Phormium</i>, (<i>Ph.
-tenax.</i> New Zealand Flax); <i>Funckia</i> (<i>Hosta</i>);
-<i>Hemerocallis</i>.</p>
-
-<p>At this point the following are best placed: <i>Aphyllanthes</i>
-(<i>A. monspeliensis</i>); <i>Xanthorrhæa</i> (Black-boy);
-<i>Xerotes</i>; <i>Lomandra</i>; <i>Kingia</i>; the very
-membranous, dry perianth of the last resembles that of the
-Juncaceæ, and also there are only 1–few ovules in the loculi.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_313">[313]</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination</span> by insects. Honey in some is produced
-on the perianth (see Tulipeæ), in others by glands on the
-carpels (in the septa and parietal placentæ, septal glands):
-<i>Hyacinthus</i>, <i>Allium</i>, <i>Anthericum</i>,
-<i>Asphodelus</i>, <i>Yucca</i>, <i>Funckia</i>,
-<i>Hemerocallis</i>, etc. Some <i>Allium</i>-species are
-protandrous. <i>Fritillaria</i> is visited by bees, <i>Lilium
-martagon</i> by moths, <i>L. bulbiferum</i> by butterflies,
-<i>Phormium</i> (New Zealand) by honey-birds.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig306" style="width: 363px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig306.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 306.</span>&mdash;Aloë.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>About 1,580 species; rare in cold climates; their home is in
-sunny plains with firm, hard soil, and warm or mild climate,
-particularly in the Old World (S. Africa; As. Steppes;
-Mediterranean); at the commencement of spring the flowers
-appear in great profusion, and after the course of a few weeks
-disappear; during the hot season their life lies dormant in the
-bulb, hidden underground.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_314">[314]</span> The woody species are tropical.&mdash;The
-majority of the <i>introduced</i> Liliaceæ (<i>Fritillaria
-imperialis</i>, Crown-imperial; <i>Lilium candidum</i>;
-<i>Tulipa gesneriana</i>; Hyacinth; <i>Muscari</i>-species;
-<i>Scilla</i>-species; <i>Ornithogalum nutans</i>;
-<i>Hemerocallis fulva</i> and <i>flava</i>; <i>Asphodelus
-luteus</i> and <i>albus</i>) come from the Mediterranean and
-W. Asia; <i>Funckia</i> from China and Japan; several Lilies
-from Japan and the Himalayas; <i>Agapanthus</i> from the Cape;
-<i>Allium sativum</i> is a native of the Kerghis-Steppes; <i>A.
-cepa</i> from Persia (?); <i>A. ascalonicum</i> is not known
-wild (according to others a native of Asia Minor), perhaps a
-form of <i>A. cepa</i>; <i>A. schænoprasum</i> from the N. temp.
-region.</p>
-
-<p>Many bulbs have pungent properties; many Onions are used as
-culinary plants. The bast fibres of <i>Phormium tenax</i> (New
-Zealand Flax) are used technically. Dyes are obtained from the
-<i>Aloe</i>; gum for varnish from the stem of <i>Xanthorrhæa
-hostile</i> and <i>australe</i>. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>; “Aloes,”
-the dried sap of S. African species of <i>Aloe</i> (<i>A.
-Africana</i>, <i>A. ferox</i>, etc.); the bulb known as
-“Squills” from <i>Urginea</i> (<i>Scilla</i>) <i>maritima</i>
-(Mediterranean).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Convallariaceæ.</b> This order differs from the Liliaceæ
-in having the <i>fruit a berry</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig308">308</a>) and <i>in never being
-bulbous</i>; the seeds are less numerous.</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Convallarieæ, Lily of the Valley Group.</span> Rhizome
-(Fig. <a href="#fig307">307</a>) and normal foliage-leaves.&mdash;<i>Polygonatum</i>: rhizome
-creeping; aerial shoot leafy, bearing the flowers in racemes in the
-axils of the foliage-leaves; perianth tubular. <i>P. multiflorum</i>
-(Solomon’s seal), <i>P. officinale</i>, etc.&mdash;<i>Majanthemum</i>:
-flower 2-merous; perianth almost polyphyllous, spreading.
-<i>Smilacina. Streptopus</i> (<i>S. amplexifolius</i>;
-the flowers or inflorescence unite with the entire succeeding
-internode).&mdash;<i>Convallaria</i> (1 species <i>C. majalis</i>, Lily
-of the valley); flowers in terminal racemes; 2 basal foliage-leaves;
-perianth globose, bell-shaped. <i>Reineckea carnea</i> (Japan, China)
-in gardens.&mdash;<i>Paris</i> (<i>P. quadrifolia</i>, Herb-Paris); flowers
-solitary, terminal, 4-merous, polyphyllous; styles 4, free (approaching
-the Colchicaceæ; it is also poisonous); a whorl of 4 (-more) 3-nerved,
-reticulate leaves on each shoot.&mdash;Ornamental plants: species of
-<i>Trillium</i>, <i>Aspidistra elatior</i> (Japan).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig307" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig307.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 307.</span>&mdash;Rhizome of <i>Polygonatum
-multiflorum</i>: <i>a</i> bud; <i>b</i> shoot; <i>c d</i> scars
-left by shoots of previous years.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig308" style="width: 456px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig308.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 308.</span>&mdash;<i>Smilax pseudosyphilitica</i>:
-<i>A</i> shoot of male plant; <i>C</i> ♂-flower; <i>D</i> berry, almost
-ripe; <i>E</i> the same in longitudinal section. <i>B Smilax
-syphilitica</i>: portion of branch with base of leaf and tendrils.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Asparageæ, Asparagus Group.</span> Scale-like leaves and
-green assimilating branches.&mdash;<i>Asparagus</i>: horizontal rhizome. The
-aerial shoots are very richly branched; the numerous needle-like bodies
-upon the plant are <i>leafless shoots</i>, which are crowded together
-in double scorpioid cymes in the axils of the scale-leaves; the two
-first<span class="pagenum" id="Page_315">[315]</span> lateral axes, placed outside to the left and right, generally
-bear<span class="pagenum" id="Page_316">[316]</span> flowers. Polygamous.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Ruscus</i> (Butcher’s broom) is a S.
-European <i>shrub</i> with <i>leaf-like</i>, ovoid or elliptical shoots
-(phylloclades) which are borne in the axils of scale-like leaves, and
-bear flowers on the central line. Diœcious. Stamens 3, united, anthers
-extrorse. <i>Semele androgyna</i> bears its flowers on the edge of the
-flat shoot.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>C.</b> <span class="smcap">Smilaceæ.</span> <i>Smilax</i> (Sarsaparilla) (Fig. <a href="#fig308">308</a>);
-<i>climbing</i> shrubs with the leaf-sheath produced into tendrils.
-The leaves have 3–5 strong nerves proceeding from the base, and are
-reticulate. Orthotropous or semi-anatropous ovules. Diœcious (Fig. <a href="#fig308">308</a>
-<i>C</i>, <i>E</i>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>D.</b> <span class="smcap">Dracæneæ.</span> Fruit in some a berry, in others
-a capsule. The stem of <span class="smcap">Dracæna</span>, when old, has the
-appearance of being dichotomously branched; it has the power
-of increase in thickness, and may become enormously thick. The
-Dragon-tree of Teneriffe, measured by Humboldt, attained a
-circumference of 14 m. and a height of 22 m.; the leaves are
-large, linear or linear-lanceolate.&mdash;<i>Cordyline</i> (East
-Asia), various species in gardens and greenhouses (<i>Yucca</i>
-is closely allied). <i>Astelia.</i></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> <i>Paris quadrifolia</i> and
-<i>Convallaria majalis</i> have no honey, and are chiefly
-visited by pollen-collecting bees (in the absence of insect
-visits self-pollination takes place); <i>Polygonatum
-multiflorum</i> has honey secreted by septal glands and
-protected by the base of the tubular perianth; it is pollinated
-by humble-bees, etc. <i>Asparagus officinalis</i> has small,
-polygamous, greenish, honey-bearing flowers; the ♂-flower is
-almost twice as large as the ♀; both have rudiments of the
-opposite sex.</p>
-
-<p>About 555 species; especially from N. America, Europe, and
-Central Asia.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: “Dragons’-blood,” a red resinous juice
-from the stem of <i>Dracæna</i> and the roots of some Central
-American species of <i>Smilax</i>. The tuberous stems of
-the Eastern Asiatic <i>Smilax glabra</i> are officinal. The
-flowers of <i>Convallaria majalis</i> have been lately used
-as a substitute for <i>Digitalis</i>. Pungent, poisonous
-properties are possessed by <i>Paris</i>. None of the species
-are used as food, except the young annual shoots of <i>Asparagus
-officinalis</i>, a shore-plant which is used as a vegetable.</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Pontederiaceæ.</b> Flowers generally zygomorphic,
-hypogynous, ☿, with handsome, white or violet, petaloid perianth
-which forms a tube at its base. The stamens are inserted at
-different heights in the perianth-tube, and are reduced to
-three (in <i>Heteranthera</i> seldom to one). In some the ovary
-is trilocular with ∞ ovules (<i>Eichhornia</i>), in others
-reduced to one loculus with one ovule (<i>Pontederia</i>).
-Fruit a capsule or nut. Embryo as long as the abundant, mealy
-endosperm.&mdash;Tropical water-plants (22 species) with peculiar
-sympodial branching, nearly the same as in <i>Zostera</i>.
-Spikes without floral-leaves. Many intercellular spaces in the
-stem and leaf.&mdash;In greenhouses: <i>Eichhornia azurea</i>, <i>E.
-crassipes</i> (both from tropical and sub-tropical S. America);
-the latter has swollen petioles which serve as floats and
-enable it to float freely on the water, sending down its roots
-into the mud. <i>Heteranthera reniformis, H. zosterifolia.</i>
-<i>Pontederia cordata.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Amaryllidaceæ (Narcissi).</b> The flower is
-<i>epigynous</i>, otherwise exactly the same as in the Liliaceæ (6
-stamens).<span class="pagenum" id="Page_317">[317]</span> The majority, like these, are also <i>perennial</i> herbs
-with bulbs and scapes. The fruit and the other characters as in the
-Liliaceæ. The external appearance is, however, very different.</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Amarylleæ</span> have bulbs and the leaves generally
-arranged in two rows; the flowers are borne singly or in umbel-like
-inflorescences on lateral scapes, while the main axis of the bulb is
-unlimited. Beneath the inflorescence is an <i>involucre</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig309">309</a>).&mdash;<i>Galanthus</i>, Snowdrop, has a polyphyllous perianth without
-corona; the three inner perianth-leaves are emarginate and shorter than
-the outer; the anthers dehisce apically. <span class="smaller"><i>Leucojum</i> differs in
-having the perianth-leaves equal in length.&mdash;<i>Amaryllis</i> has a
-funnel-shaped perianth, entirely or nearly polyphyllous, but somewhat
-zygomorphic. <i>Crinum; Hæmanthus; Clivia.</i></span>&mdash;<i>Narcissus</i>
-has a tubular <i>corona</i>, a ligular structure arising from the
-perianth-tube exterior to the outer stamens. <span class="smaller">In <i>Pancratium</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig309">309</a>) the corona is united with the filaments which appear to
-spring from its edge. <i>Eucharis amazonica.</i></span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig309" style="width: 537px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig309.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 309.</span>&mdash;<i>Pancratium caribæum.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Hypoxideæ.</span> The leaves, which are grass-like,
-dry, folded, and in some hairy, spring from a rhizome, generally
-with a divergence of 1/3. Flowers small, perianth polyphyllous,
-persistent, on which account perhaps the Hypoxideæ may<span class="pagenum" id="Page_318">[318]</span> be
-considered as the least altered type. The chief characteristic
-is that the embryo is separated from the hilum. <i>Hypoxis</i>;
-<i>Curculigo</i> (<i>C. recurvata</i>, a favourite ornamental
-plant; S.E. Asia).</p>
-
-<p><b>C.</b> <span class="smcap">Alstrœmerieæ.</span> (<i>Alstrœmeria</i>,
-<i>Bomarea</i>); stems long, leafy, often climbing.</p>
-
-<p><b>D.</b> <span class="smcap">Vellosieæ</span> (<i>Vellosia</i>,
-<i>Barbacenia</i>); stem woody, usually dichotomously branched,
-with terminal, single flowers; it bears numerous aerial roots
-which pierce the leaves and surround the stem. Stamens often (by
-splitting) 6–18. High table-lands of S. America and S. Africa.</p>
-
-<p><b>E.</b> <span class="smcap">Agaveæ.</span> Very similar to the Bromeliaceæ both
-in their distribution (nearly all American) and in external
-appearance. They appear as gigantic bulbous plants with
-perennial, aerial, generally short stem, and perennial, large,
-lanceolate or linear, stiff, thick, and often thorny leaves,
-which form a large rosette; after the course of several (8–20)
-years the terminal inflorescence is developed, which is 10–12 m.
-high, paniculate, and freely branched. Before the inflorescence
-expands, a large quantity of sugar-containing sap is collected
-from <i>A. americana</i> by removing the terminal bud; this on
-distillation yields “pulque,” the national drink of Mexico.
-After flowering the entire shoot dies, but the subterranean
-lateral shoots survive and reproduce the plant.&mdash;<i>Agave
-americana</i>, etc.; <i>Fourcroya</i>; <i>Polianthes
-tuberosa</i> (Tuberose; Central America).</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Distribution.</span> The 650 species are chiefly natives of
-S. Africa and S. America. <i>Clivia</i>, <i>Hæmanthus</i>,
-<i>Amaryllis</i> are from the Cape; <i>Narcissus</i> from
-S. Europe, whence many species have been introduced;
-<i>Galanthus</i> and <i>Leucojum</i> are especially from S. and
-Central Europe, and from the Caucasus.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses</span>, few, except as ornamental plants: <i>Galanthus
-nivalis</i>; <i>Leucojum</i>; <i>Narcissus pseudonarcissus</i>,
-<i>N. poeticus</i>, <i>N. jonquilla</i>, <i>N. tazetta</i>,
-etc.; <i>Amaryllis</i>, <i>Alstrœmeria</i>, <i>Eucharis</i>,
-<i>Crinum</i>, <i>Vallota</i>, etc. The vascular bundles of
-the various species of <i>Agave</i> (<i>Agave rigida</i>, var.
-<i>sisalana</i>, sisal hemp,) are used for cordage, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Bromeliaceæ.</b> The flowers are hypogynous, epigynous
-or semi-epigynous; the perianth is divided into <i>calyx</i> and
-<i>corolla</i>; stamens 6. The fruit is a capsule or berry with many
-seeds. Endosperm <i>mealy</i>, embryo small, at the edge of the
-endosperm, but not enclosed by it.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig310" style="width: 482px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig310.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 310.</span>&mdash;<i>Aechmea miniata.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig311" style="width: 280px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig311.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 311.</span>&mdash;Multiple-fruit of <i>Ananassa
-sativa</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Perennial herbs with a very <i>characteristic appearance</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig310">310</a>); the stem is most often short, thick, and crowned by a
-<i>rosette</i> of many leaves, which are long, often very narrow,
-<i>leathery</i>, stiff, and with a <i>spiny</i> edge; they are
-usually channeled, completely closing round each other, with their
-edges forming a tightly closed hollow, in which generally water is
-collected (this among other things insulates the inflorescence and thus
-prevents the access of creeping insects, such as ants). The presence
-of numerous stellate, water-containing hairs often gives the leaves a
-grey appearance, and the layers of cells beneath the upper epidermis
-of the lamina form an “aqueous tissue,” which serves as a protection
-against the rays of the sun and regulates the evaporation. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_319">[319]</span> stomata
-are often situated in furrows on the underside of the leaf, and hence
-cause a striped appearance. They <i>are all American</i> (525 species),
-especially from S. America, where they live partly as epiphytes <i>on
-trees</i>, partly in the <i>clefts of rocks</i>, often on the steepest
-slopes, to which they firmly attach themselves by aerial roots; some
-are terrestrial. The stem is seldom tree-like or many metres in
-height (<i>Puya</i>, in Chili; <i>Hechtia</i>, in Mexico). <i>The
-inflorescence</i> is a terminal spike, raceme, or panicle, often with
-large and brightly-coloured floral-leaves. The flowers are without
-scent.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_320">[320]</span> The seeds, in the species whose fruit is a capsule, are often
-provided with wings (hairs, expansions, etc).&mdash;<i>Ananassa sativa</i>,
-Pine-apple (W. Indies, Central America) is cultivated for the sake of
-its juicy, aromatic fruits, which coalesce with their fleshy bracts
-and form a large spike-like fruit-cluster (multiple-fruits,<a id="FNanchor_29" href="#Footnote_29" class="fnanchor">[29]</a> Fig.
-<a href="#fig311">311</a>) bearing on its apex a leafy shoot, which may be used as a cutting.
-Seeds very rarely developed.&mdash;<i>Tillandsia</i> (<i>T. usneoides</i>
-is a filamentous, richly branched, rootless epiphyte hanging in
-masses from trees; Trop. Am.), <i>Aechmea</i>, <i>Billbergia</i>,
-<i>Pitcairnia</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> The leaves of the Pine-apple, in its native
-country, are used for the manufacture of cloth.</p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Hæmodoraceæ.</b> 120 species; in all parts of the
-world except Europe; perennial, often tomentose and resembling
-the Bromeliaceæ, Iridaceæ and Amaryllidaceæ. <i>Hæmodorum</i>
-(Australia).&mdash;To this order belong <i>Ophiopogon</i>,
-<i>Peliosanthes</i>, <i>Sanseviera</i>, and others.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 8. The <b>Iridaceæ</b> have <i>epigynous</i>, hermaphrodite
-flowers with petaloid perianth as in the Amaryllidaceæ, but the
-<i>interior whorl of stamens is entirely suppressed</i>, and the 3
-developed <i>outer</i> stamens have <i>extrorse</i> anthers (Fig.
-<a href="#fig279">279</a>); there is 1 style with 3 large, generally <i>more or less
-leaf-like branches bearing the stigmas</i>. Ovary and capsule as
-in the Amaryllidaceæ and Liliaceæ.&mdash;Perennial herbs; <i>bulbs are
-rarely found</i>, but horizontal rhizomes, corms, etc., take their
-place. The leaves are (except <i>Crocus</i>) as in the <i>Iris</i>,
-<i>two-rowed</i>, <i>equitant</i> and <i>sword-like</i>. Flowers or
-inflorescences terminal.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>Iris</i> (Flag) has a horizontal rhizome. The flowers are
-borne in the leaf-axils in fan-like inflorescences (rhipidium). The
-branches of the style are large and <i>petaloid</i>; on their under
-surface may be seen a small projecting shelf (Fig. <a href="#fig312">312</a> <i>a</i>)
-having on its upper surface the stigmatic hairs. Beneath the branches
-of the style are 3 well protected stamens, and immediately outside
-these the external perianth-leaves. <span class="smaller">The honey is secreted in the
-perianth-tube, and the insects, endeavouring to obtain it through the
-narrow passages at the base of the stamens, settle upon the outer
-perianth-leaves, which are bent backwards and often very hairy along
-their central line. The insects then rub their backs on the anthers
-just above them, beneath the branches of the style; they readily
-deposit the pollen on the stigma of another flower as they enter it,
-but cannot do so in withdrawing, since the stigma is pushed back, and
-self-fertilisation is thus avoided. The stylar branches lie close to
-the outer perianth-leaves, which are just beneath them, or separated
-by a distance of only 6–10 mm.; the first form of flower is adapted
-for <i>Rhingia rostrata</i>, the latter for bees</span>.&mdash;<i>Crocus</i>
-has vertical, <i>tuberous</i>, underground stems<span class="pagenum" id="Page_321">[321]</span> surrounded by the
-leaf-sheaths (corms), and terminal flowers; the linear leaves <i>are
-not equitant</i>, but have two longitudinal furrows on the under
-side. The perianth is gamophyllous and funnel-shaped. The stylar
-branches (stigmas) are fleshy, <i>rolled together in the shape of a
-horn</i>, and split along the edge.&mdash;<i>Gladiolus</i> has corms like
-the <i>Crocus</i>; spikes with slightly zygomorphic, almost bilabiate
-flowers, most frequently turning to one side. Position of the leaves as
-in the Iris.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Diplarrhena</i> has 2 fertile and 1 barren stamen;
-<i>Hermodactylus</i> has a unilocular ovary with 3 parietal placentæ.
-<i>Cypella</i> and <i>Tigridia</i> have bulbs.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig312" style="width: 428px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig312.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 312.</span>&mdash;<i>Iris pseudacorus.</i>
-One external and two internal perianth-leaves, and one of the
-stylar-branches have been removed, <i>y</i> The outer, <i>i</i> the
-inner perianth-leaves; <i>g</i> stylar-branch; <i>a</i> stigma;
-<i>s</i> anther. The ovary is seen in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>770 species; chiefly in the countries round the Mediterranean,
-and in Africa, especially the Cape (<i>Gladiolus</i>,
-<i>Ferraria</i>, <i>Moræa</i>, <i>Galaxia</i>, <i>Sparaxis</i>,
-<i>Antholyza</i>, <i>Tritonia</i>, <i>Ixia</i>, etc.), Australia
-and Tropical America (<i>Sisyrinchium</i>, <i>Tigridia</i>,
-<i>Cipura</i>, <i>Cypella</i>, etc). A great number are
-ornamental plants: the cultivated <i>Crocus</i>-species are from
-the South of Europe and Asia; <i>Gladiolus communis</i> from S.
-Europe; the other species principally from S. Africa. The native
-species of <i>Iris</i> are <i>I. pseudacorus</i> (yellow) and
-<i>I. fœtidissima</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: the stigmas of <i>Crocus sativus</i>
-(Oriental, cultivated in France, Spain, Italy, and Austria),
-used as a colouring matter, saffron; the rhizomes of the
-S. European <i>Iris florentina</i>, <i>pallida</i>, and
-<i>germanica</i> (“Orris-root”).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_322">[322]</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig313" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig313.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 313.</span>&mdash;<i>Dioscorea batatas</i>: <i>A</i>
-♂-plant; <i>B</i> ♂-flower; <i>C</i> ♀-plant (nat. size); <i>D</i>,
-<i>E</i> ♀-flowers (mag.); <i>F</i> seed; <i>G</i> embryo.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 9. <b>Dioscoreaceæ.</b> Perennial herbs with fleshy, often very
-large <i>tuberous rhizomes</i> (or roots); <i>twining</i> stems;
-leaves stalked, often arrow- or heart-shaped, lobed, <i>palminerved</i>
-and <i>finely reticulate</i> as in the Dicotyledons (Fig. <a href="#fig313">313</a>). The
-flower is <i>diclinous</i> (most frequently <i>diœcious</i>), regular,
-<i>epigynous</i>, <i>small</i>, and of a <i>greenish colour</i>, but
-otherwise typical (Pr3 + 3, and A3 + 3, or G3); in most instances
-2 ovules are placed one above the other in each loculus. The
-inflorescence is a <i>spike</i> or <i>raceme</i>, sometimes richly
-branched and paniculate.&mdash;The order approaches most nearly to the
-Amaryllidaceæ.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_323">[323]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Tamus</i> (Bryony) has a berry, <i>Dioscorea</i> (Yam) a
-thin-walled, 3-edged or 3-winged capsule (Fig. <a href="#fig313">313</a>). Both have
-subterranean or aerial tubers; the Yam very often also developes
-tubers in the axils of the foliage-leaves; tuberous roots are said to
-occur in <i>D. batatas</i>. The tubers of many species of Yams (<i>D.
-batatas</i> from China and Japan, <i>D. alata</i>, South Sea Islands
-and India, <i>D. bulbifera</i>) are a very important source of food
-in the Tropics, especially the first-named.&mdash;<i>Testudinaria</i>;
-<i>Rajania</i>.&mdash;<span class="smaller">The tuberous stem of <i>Tamus communis</i> and
-<i>Testudinaria elephantipes</i>, and some species of <i>Dioscorea</i>
-is formed from one single internode (epicotyl), and the aerial shoots
-are developed from adventitious buds; in <i>T. elephantipes</i> the
-stem is aerial, and covered with thick scales of cork, regularly
-arranged, and separated by grooves.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Tropical order (167 species); 2 species (<i>Tamus communis</i>
-and <i>Borderea pyrenaica</i>) in Europe.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h5>Family 6. <b>Scitamineæ.</b></h5>
-
-<p>The flowers belong to the ordinary monocotyledonous type. They are
-hermaphrodite, <i>epigynous</i>, and have either a petaloid perianth,
-or calyx and corolla; they are, however, <i>zygomorphic</i> or
-<i>unsymmetrical</i>, and of the stamens most frequently only one is
-<i>completely developed</i>, the others being generally represented
-by petaloid staminodes. The ovary has 3 loculi, more rarely it is
-unilocular with the suppression of 2 loculi. Endosperm is absent
-(except <i>Zingiberaceæ</i>); but, on the other hand, there is a
-<i>large perisperm</i>. To this family belong large, glabrous,
-especially <i>perennial herbs</i> with rhizomes; leaves large,
-distinctly divided into sheath, stalk, and blade, the latter being more
-or less elliptical or lanceolate, entire, with pinnate venation, and
-always with a very <i>well-pronounced midrib</i>, gradually tapering
-towards the apex, and giving off numerous branches, which run outwards,
-towards the margin, at a larger or smaller angle; these <i>lateral
-veins</i> are closely packed, and parallel, but with only weak,
-connecting branches between them; the leaves, therefore, are easily
-torn pinnately (Figs. <a href="#fig314">314</a>, <a href="#fig317">317</a>). The leaf-sheaths close tightly round
-each other and form a false stem.</p>
-
-<p>This very natural family comprises orders closely connected with each
-other, but is not itself nearly allied to any other family. First in
-the series stands:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Musaceæ.</b> The <i>petaloid</i> perianth is strongly
-zygomorphic, the anterior leaf being very large (a kind of “labellum”),
-the posterior one small; only the posterior stamen is wanting, or is
-rudimentary, the other five are developed, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_324">[324]</span> have quadrilocular
-anthers; ovary, 3-locular. Seed with straight embryo in mealy perisperm.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig314" style="width: 452px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig314.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 314.</span>&mdash;Two <i>Musa</i>-species.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The best-known genus is <i>Musa</i>, the Banana (Fig. <a href="#fig314">314</a>). From the
-short rhizome arise enormously large, spirally-placed leaves, whose
-sheaths envelope one another, and form an apparently aerial stem,
-several metres in height. The inflorescence is a terminal <i>spike</i>
-with floral-leaves placed spirally, and sometimes magnificently
-coloured; in the axils of each of these several flowers are situated
-in two transverse rows (accessory buds); the lowest flowers in the
-inflorescence are ♀, the central ones ☿, the upper<span class="pagenum" id="Page_325">[325]</span> ones ♂, so that
-fruits are only found in the lower region of the inflorescence, the
-remaining portion persisting as a naked axis after the floral-leaves
-and flowers have fallen off; the inflorescence terminates in an ovoid
-bud formed by the flowers which have not yet opened (Fig. <a href="#fig314">314</a>, the
-left-hand figure). The perianth-leaves are united (except the posterior
-one). The fruit (known as a “Banana”) is a <i>berry</i>, having the
-form of a smooth, short, three-cornered Cucumber (as much as 30 cm.
-in length); inside the tough skin is found a farinaceous, aromatic
-pulp. No seed is developed in the cultivated species.&mdash;<span class="smaller">Several
-<i>Musa</i>-species are cultivated in the Tropics for the sake of
-the fruit (<i>M. paradisiaca</i>, <i>M. sapientum</i>); for the
-fibrovascular bundles, <i>M. textilis</i> (Manilla Hemp).&mdash;Their home
-is, no doubt, the Tropics of the Old World; they were introduced into
-America before the arrival of Europeans. <i>Musa ensete</i> has dry,
-leathery fruits; an ornamental plant.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>In <i>Musa</i> the barren, posterior stamen belongs to the inner
-whorl; and also in <i>Strelitzia</i> and <i>Ravenala</i>; the
-latter may have all 6 stamens developed. In <i>Heliconia</i>, on
-the contrary, it belongs to the outer whorl; in <i>Heliconia</i>
-the perianth-leaves are differently arranged, and there is only
-one ovule in each loculus. The three latter genera have dry
-fruits and leaves arranged in two rows. In the “Travellers’
-Palm” (<i>Ravenala madagascariensis</i>) the foliage-leaves form
-an enormous fan.&mdash;Tropical; about 50 species.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The order may be divided as follows:&mdash;1. Museæ: <i>Musa</i>,
-<i>Ravenala</i>, <i>Strelitzia</i> in the Old World. 2. Heliconiæ:
-<i>Heliconia</i> in the New World.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig315" style="width: 300px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig315.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 315.</span>&mdash;Diagram of a <i>Zingiberaceous</i>
-flower (<i>Kæmpferia ovalifolia</i>): <i>b</i> bract; <i>v</i>
-bracteole; <i>k</i> calyx; <i>p<sup>1</sup></i>, <i>p<sup>2</sup></i>, <i>p<sup>3</sup></i> the
-petals; <i>sst</i>, lateral staminodes (“wings”); <i>lab</i> labellum
-(formed of two staminodes); <i>st</i> the fertile stamen; * position of
-suppressed stamen. The ovary is in the centre of the diagram.]</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Zingiberaceæ.</b> Perianth most frequently divided into
-<i>calyx</i> and <i>corolla</i>. Calyx gamosepalous. Only 1 <i>fertile
-stamen</i> (the posterior, Fig. <a href="#fig315">315</a>, belonging to the inner whorl)
-with quadrilocular anther, which encloses the style in a furrow; the
-2 stamens in the outer whorl are staminodes, the median one (the
-anterior) is wanting. The 2 lateral staminodes of the inner whorl form
-the “labellum” (Fig. <a href="#fig315">315</a> <i>lab</i>), which usually is the largest
-segment of the flower, and is often bilobed. Ovules many. The fruit in
-some is a leathery, 3-valved capsule,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_326">[326]</span> with loculicidal dehiscence; in
-others it is more or less berry-like and indehiscent, or irregularly
-dehiscent. Straight embryo.&mdash;The aerial stem is seldom developed to
-any extent, and the inflorescences, which are (compound) spikes or
-racemes, often with coloured floral-leaves, spring in some (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Zingiber officinale</i>) directly from the rhizome. The leaves are
-arranged in two rows.&mdash;The ovary in a few instances (<i>Globba</i> and
-others) is unilocular, with 3 parietal placentæ.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>They are perennial herbs with fleshy and tuberous rhizomes,
-which are used as condiments and in medicine on account of
-their pungent and aromatic properties and also for starch,
-dyes, etc. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: <i>rhizomes</i> of <i>Zingiber
-officinale</i> (Ginger, unknown wild, but cultivated generally
-in the Tropics), of <i>Curcuma longa</i> (Turmeric, a dye, E.
-India) and <i>C. zedoaria</i>, of <i>C. angustifolia</i> and
-others (as E. India Arrowroot), of <i>Alpinia officinarum</i>,
-China (galangal). “Preserved Ginger” from <i>Alpinia
-galanga</i>. Similar aromatic materials (volatile oils) are
-present also, for example, in <i>the fruits</i>; Cardamom fruits
-and seeds (from <i>Elettaria cardamomum</i>, China, seldom from
-<i>E. major</i>).</p>
-
-<p>315 species; Tropics, preponderating in the Eastern Hemisphere,
-India, and especially S. Asia, whence all the aromatic species
-originate; they are now commonly cultivated in the Tropics.
-Some are ornamental plants in greenhouses, <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Hedychium</i>, <i>Costus</i>, etc. <i>Globba</i> (with
-axillary buds in the inflorescence, as in <i>Ficaria</i>),
-<i>Renealmia</i>, <i>Kæmpferia</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig316" style="width: 247px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig316.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 316.</span>&mdash;Flower of <i>Canna</i>: <i>f</i>
-ovary; <i>pa</i> calyx; <i>pi</i> corolla; <i>l</i> labellum; <i>st</i>
-stamens; <i>an</i> anther; <i>g</i> stigma; α and β staminodes.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Cannaceæ.</b> American herbs without aromatic properties.
-Flowers asymmetric (Fig. <a href="#fig316">316</a>). Calyx polysepalous. The stamens are
-<i>petaloid</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig316">316</a> <i>st</i>) and barren with the exception of
-one (the posterior), which bears on one of its <i>edges</i> a bilocular
-anther; another, which is especially large and coloured, is termed the
-<i>labellum</i>. The style is compressed and leaf-like, with a small
-stigma at the apex. Ovules numerous in the 3 loculi. The capsule is
-furnished with warts or soft prickles. <i>Embryo straight.</i></p>
-
-<p><i>Canna</i> (30 species; Trop. Am.). The inflorescence is a terminal
-spike with 2-flowered unipared scorpioid cymes in the axils of the
-floral-leaves. Ornamental plants: <i>Canna indica</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<p>The diagram of the andrœcium of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_327">[327]</span> the Cannaceæ and Marantaceæ may be
-represented in the following manner (calyx, corolla and gynœceum being
-omitted):&mdash;</p>
-
-<table summary="plants" class="smaller">
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr smcap">Cannaceæ.</td>
-    <td class="ctr2 smcap">Marantaceæ.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr"><i>w</i>&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<i>w</i></td>
-    <td class="ctr2"><i>w</i>&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<i>w</i></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr"><i>st</i></td>
-    <td class="ctr2"><i>st</i></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr"><i>w</i>&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<i>lab</i></td>
-    <td class="ctr2"><i>wi</i>&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;<i>c</i></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="ctr">*</td>
-    <td class="ctr2">*</td>
-  </tr>
- </table>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p class="sm"><i>w</i> The lateral staminodes, “wings;” <i>st</i> fertile stamen;
-* the suppressed stamen; <i>lab</i> labellum; <i>c</i> hood; <i>wi</i>
-inner-wing.</p>
-
-<p>The labellum of the Cannaceæ corresponds with the hood of the
-Marantaceæ and not with the labellum of the Zingiberaceæ.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig317" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig317.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 317.</span>&mdash;<i>Calathea zebrina.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Marantaceæ.</b> The flower is asymmetrical. Only 1 or
-2 of the 3 stamens in the outer whorl are present as staminodes;
-in the inner whorl 2 are petaloid and of the sixth stamen one-half
-is developed as a staminode and the other half bears a bilocular
-anther. One ovule only in each loculus. The style is strongly
-curved and at first enclosed in one of the staminodes (hood) of
-the inner whorl; later on it springs elastically forward towards
-the other staminode (inner-wing) of the same whorl. The stigma is
-very oblique or 2-lipped. Two of the three loculi of the ovary,
-in some (<i>Maranta</i>, <i>Thalia</i>) become small and empty.
-Embryo <i>curved</i>. Leaves in two rows, with sheath, stalk, and
-blade (Fig. <a href="#fig317">317</a>); at the base of the last is a <i>characteristic
-swelling</i> (<i>articulus</i>).&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Phrynium</i>, <i>Calathea</i>,
-<i>Stromanthe</i>, <i>Ctenanthe</i>, <i>Saranthe</i>, etc. About 150
-species; tropical, especially America. The starch of the rhizome
-of <i>Maranta arundinacea</i> is <span class="allsmcap">OFFICINAL</span>, “West Indian
-Arrowroot.”</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_328">[328]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 7. <b>Gynandræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flowers are hermaphrodite and constructed on the ordinary 3-merous,
-pentacyclic type with petaloid, <i>epigynous, strongly zygomorphic</i>
-perianth, and generally <i>one-stamened</i> by the suppression of the
-other 5 stamens. The family has derived its name from the fact that the
-stamen is united with the style into a “<i>stylar column</i>” (except
-<i>Burmanniaceæ</i>). All are herbs; many grow as epiphytes on other
-plants.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>This family and the Scitamineæ occupy correspondingly high
-positions among the Monocotyledons; these two families may
-therefore be placed close together, although one cannot be
-derived from the other. The first of the two orders is very
-small, but the second is very rich in species. The Apostasieæ
-are best classed with the Orchidaceæ and have no independent
-place.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Burmanniaceæ.</b> This order forms a transitional
-link between the Gynandræ and the epigynous Liliifloræ
-(<i>Amaryllidaceæ</i>), in having a 6-leaved perianth, and 6–8
-stamens; but some have a labiate perianth (the median perianth-leaf
-of the <i>outer</i> whorl being very large). The ovary is most
-frequently unilocular with three parietal placentæ; but in some
-it is 3-locular with axile placentation. Capsule. Seeds ∞, small,
-with <i>endosperm</i>. The relationship to the Orchidaceæ is shown
-especially in the very imperfectly developed embryo and in the ovary.
-Small, tropical herbs (59 species); some are saprophytes.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig318" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig318.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 318.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i> Diagram of an
-Orchid-flower. <i>B</i>, <i>Cephalanthera</i>. Stylar-column: <i>a</i>
-anther; <i>s</i> stigma; at the foot are seen scars indicating the
-position of the parts which have been removed.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Orchidaceæ.</b> The epigynous, petaloid perianth is
-strongly zygomorphic in having the <i>posterior</i> leaf of the
-interior whorl, the <i>lip</i> (labellum), differing from all the
-other leaves in form, size, and colour (except <i>Apostasieæ</i>); the
-position of the labellum is very frequently reversed, being turned
-<i>forwards and downwards</i> by the twisting of the ovary (Fig. <a href="#fig318">318</a>
-<i>A</i>). <i>Only</i> 1 of the stamens&mdash;the anterior of the external
-whorl&mdash;is developed and bears an anther (by the twisting of the ovary
-it is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_329">[329]</span> turned posteriorly and upwards); the others are entirely wanting
-(indicated by * in Fig. <a href="#fig318">318</a> <i>A</i>) or present as staminodes (Fig.
-<a href="#fig318">318</a> <i>A</i>, δ δ) (except <i>Apostasieæ</i>, <i>Cypripedileæ</i>);
-the filaments are united with the style to form a column (Fig. <a href="#fig318">318</a>
-<i>B</i>), the <i>stylar-column</i><a id="FNanchor_30" href="#Footnote_30" class="fnanchor">[30]</a> (<i>gynostemium</i>), and the
-anther (<i>a</i>) is thus placed on its apex and exactly behind or
-over the stigma (<i>s</i>). The anther is 4-locular; the pollen-grains
-do not separate (except <i>Apostasieæ</i>, <i>Cypripedileæ</i>) but
-remain united either in tetrads or in masses, which correspond to a
-pollen-mother-cell (Fig. <a href="#fig320">320</a> <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>, <i>E</i>); or the
-pollen-grains, formed in each of the two anther-halves, remain united
-and form one or a few wax-like masses (pollen-masses, pollinia). The 3
-carpels form a <i>unilocular ovary</i> with 3 parietal, deeply bifid
-placentæ (except <i>Apostasieæ</i>, <i>Selenipedilum</i>). Only the
-two lateral carpels are prolonged and developed into the stigma (Fig.
-<a href="#fig318">318</a> <i>B</i>, <i>s</i>), while the one lying in the median line, which
-is situated just within the anther (Fig. <a href="#fig318">318</a> <i>A</i>), becomes either
-rudimentary or developed into the “<i>rostellum</i>” (“a small beak”),
-on which the sticky bodies (<i>glandulæ</i>) arise; by aid of these the
-heavy, connected pollen-masses may be glued to the insects which visit
-the flower, and pollination is thus secured (in <i>Apostasieæ</i> and
-<i>Cypripedileæ</i> the 3 carpels each contribute to the formation of
-the stigma). The fruit is a <i>capsule</i> which most often dehisces
-<i>by 6 valves</i>, 3 of which are broader and bear the placentæ, and 3
-alternating with them are narrower and barren (except <i>Vanilla</i>).
-The very numerous and exceedingly small seeds have <i>no endosperm</i>,
-and have a somewhat <i>spherical embryo without any trace of external
-organs</i>. The testa is membranous and loose.</p>
-
-<p>The Orchids are <i>all perennial herbs</i> with diverse habits and
-varying morphological structure (see the genera); the leaves are
-scattered, of the usual Liliaceous form, and the inflorescences in
-all cases are <i>racemes or spikes</i> (sometimes branched), with
-subtending bracts, but without bracteoles.</p>
-
-<p>The forms which are the least modified are described first.</p>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Apostasieæ.</span> The perianth-leaves are almost alike
-and free. The column is straight, with 3 equally-developed stigmas.
-<i>Neuwiedia</i> has 3 perfect stamens (1 median of the outer whorl,
-and 2 lateral of the inner whorl); <i>Apostasia</i> has only 2 perfect
-(inner lateral) and one barren (the median of the outer whorl), which
-however<span class="pagenum" id="Page_330">[330]</span> may be entirely wanting. The 3 <i>posterior</i> stamens are
-entirely suppressed. The pollen is powdery. The ovary is 3-locular with
-axile placenta. 7 species (Tropical East India, Australia).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig319" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig319.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 319.</span>&mdash;<i>Cypripedilum calceolus</i>: 1
-front view of the flower; 2 lateral view, after the removal of all
-the perianth-leaves with the exception of the labellum, which has
-been divided longitudinally; 3 the stylar-column; <i>ov</i> ovary;
-<i>s</i>-<i>s</i> exterior, <i>p</i> interior perianth; <i>p’</i> the
-labellum; <i>a</i> the two fertile stamens; <i>a’</i> the staminode;
-<i>st</i> the stigma; <i>i</i> entrance for the insects; <i>ex</i>
-exit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Cypripedileæ.</span><a id="FNanchor_31" href="#Footnote_31" class="fnanchor">[31]</a> The flower is strongly zygomorphic
-with a large boat-shaped labellum. There are two perfect stamens
-belonging to the <i>inner</i> whorl, and the median anterior (later
-on the posterior) stamen of the outer whorl is transformed into a
-large, barren, shield-shaped body (Fig. <a href="#fig319">319</a>). <i>Selenipedilum</i> has
-a 3-locular ovary, but <i>Cypripedilum</i> (Ladies’-slipper) has a
-unilocular ovary with 3 parietal placentæ&mdash;the typical structure for
-the Orchids. The pollen-grains are <i>separate</i> (not in tetrads)
-and all the 3 lobes of the stigma are constructed to receive them.
-This group is therefore, next to the Apostasieæ, the least modified
-among the Orchids; in all the following groups, one of the lobes of
-the stigma is differently developed from the others, and there is
-only one stamen.&mdash;Terrestial Orchids.&mdash;<span class="smaller">The pollination of <i>C.
-calceolus</i> is effected by the forcible entrance of insects into the
-boat-shaped labellum (Fig. <a href="#fig319">319</a> <i>p’</i>) at <i>i</i>, and their escape
-at <i>ex</i> (in 2) where the anthers are situated; in this way the
-stigmas will first be touched and then the anthers. The pollen-grains
-are surrounded by a sticky mass in order that they may adhere to the
-insects.</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_331">[331]</span></p>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Neottieæ.</span> The majority are terrestrial Orchids
-with creeping, sympodial rhizomes; the blades of the leaves are not
-detached from the stem at joints, and have convolute vernation. The
-anthers do not drop off, but persist in the withered condition; their
-<i>apex</i> is brought in contact with the rostellum (acrotonous
-Orchids). The pollen-grains are united in <i>tetrads</i>, which,
-however, often hang loosely together in pollinia, attached to a sticky
-part of the rostellum (“adhesive disc”), so that they adhere to the
-insects, and are by them transferred to the stigmas. <i>Spiranthes.</i>
-<i>Listera</i>; <i>Neottia</i>. <span class="smaller"><i>N. nidus-avis</i>
-(Bird’s-nest) is brown (it has little chlorophyll) in colour, has
-no foliage-leaves, and lives mainly as a saprophyte; the rhizome is
-studded with unbranched, fleshy roots which may form buds at their
-extremities.</span>&mdash;<i>Vanilla</i> climbs by aerial roots. The fruit is
-fleshy and hardly opens, or does so irregularly.&mdash;<i>Epipactis</i>,
-<i>Cephalanthera</i>.&mdash;<i>Epipogon</i> and <i>Limodorum</i> are
-saprophytes without chlorophyll.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig320" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig320.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 320.</span>&mdash;A Flower of <i>Orchis maculata</i>
-(front view): a stamen; <i>b</i> the cup; <i>n</i> the stigmas;
-<i>x</i> staminodes; <i>sp</i> the spur; <i>spe</i> the entrance to it;
-<i>sm</i>-<i>sl</i>-<i>sl</i> exterior perianth-leaves; <i>pm</i> the
-labellum, and <i>pl</i>-<i>pl</i> the other 2 interior perianth-leaves.
-<i>B-E Orchis mascula</i>: <i>B</i> lateral view of the column;
-<i>C</i> a pollinium with massulæ (<i>p</i>), caudicle (<i>c</i>) and
-adhesive disc (<i>d</i>); <i>D</i> caudicles with the cup (<i>r</i>),
-front view; the latter is depressed so that the adhesive disc is seen
-lying inside it; <i>E</i> a pollinium, more highly magnified; some
-massulæ are removed. <i>F Ophrys aranifera</i>: rostellum and
-the base of the anther-loculus; an adhesive disc is seen on the right.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>4.</b> <span class="smcap">Ophrydeæ.</span> Anthers 2-locular, not falling off,
-on a very short column. The anther is united at <i>its base</i>
-with the rostellum (<i>basitonous</i> Orchids, Fig. <a href="#fig320">320</a> <i>A</i>,
-<i>B</i>), while in all other Orchids it is connected at the apex
-(acrotonous Orchids). The pollen-grains in each loculus are united
-into small “masses” (massulæ), each of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_332">[332]</span> which corresponds to a
-pollen-mother-cell in the anther, and which hang together by elastic
-threads (Fig. <a href="#fig320">320</a> <i>C</i>, <i>E</i>). Each pollinium is attached at
-the base by a stalk (caudicle) to an adhesive disc, formed by the
-modified stigma (rostellum), and is easily liberated from it (Fig.
-<a href="#fig320">320</a> <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>, <i>F</i>). The pollinium, which is formed in
-an anther-loculus, together with its caudicle and adhesive disc, is
-termed “pollinarium” (Fig. <a href="#fig320">320</a> <i>C</i>).&mdash;All Ophrydeæ are terrestrial
-with <i>tuberous roots</i>, two of which are present in the flowering
-period, an older one (from the preceding year) containing the
-nourishment for the flowering-shoot of the year, and a young one which
-is intended to contain the reserve material for the following year.
-Inflorescence terminal.</p>
-
-<p><i>Orchis.</i> The lip has a spur; each of the club-like
-pollinia is attached to its own adhesive disc, the discs being
-enclosed in a common pouch formed by the rostellum (Fig.
-<a href="#fig320">320</a> <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>). <span class="smaller">Tubers ovate, undivided: <i>O.
-morio</i>, <i>mascula</i>; tubers palmate: <i>O. incarnata</i>,
-<i>maculata</i>, <i>majalis</i>.</span>&mdash;<i>Ophrys</i>; no spur, the
-two adhesive discs are each enclosed in a separate pouch (Fig. <a href="#fig320">320</a>
-<i>F</i>).&mdash;<i>Anacamptis</i> and <i>Serapias</i> have one adhesive
-disc.&mdash;<i>Habenaria</i>, <i>Gymnadenia</i>, <i>Platanthera</i>,
-<i>Herminium</i>, <i>Nigritella</i>, <i>Cœloglossum</i>, etc., have
-naked adhesive discs (no rostellum).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>5.</b> <span class="smcap">Epidendreæ.</span> Acrotonous Orchids with deciduous
-anthers (except <i>Malaxis</i>); 2-8 wax-like pollinia,
-with or without caudicles; generally no adhesive discs.
-<i>Malaxis</i> (the flower is twisted through a complete circle,
-causing the labellum to be turned upwards), <i>Sturmia</i>
-and <i>Corallorhiza</i><a id="FNanchor_32" href="#Footnote_32" class="fnanchor">[32]</a> (Coral-root); the latter has a
-creeping, coral-like rhizome <i>without roots, and is destitute
-of chlorophyll</i> except in the ovary. The other two somewhat
-resemble the tropical Orchids in having the lower internodes
-of the axis of the inflorescence tuberous. <i>Liparis</i>;
-<i>Calypso</i>. Most of the genera are tropical epiphytes
-and many have aerial, green tubers formed from one or more
-stem-internodes; <i>Dendrobium</i>, <i>Eria</i>, <i>Phaius</i>,
-<i>Bletia</i>, <i>Epidendrum</i>, <i>Cattleya</i>, <i>Lælia</i>,
-<i>Pleurothallis</i>, <i>Restrepia</i>, <i>Masdevallia</i>,
-<i>Bulbophyllum</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<p><b>6.</b> <span class="smcap">Vandeæ.</span> These resemble the preceding but have
-only 2 wax-like pollinia in each anther, which are attached by
-a caudicle to the adhesive disc of the rostellum. Nearly all
-are tropical epiphytes. <i>Stanhopea</i>, <i>Catasetum</i>,
-<i>Maxillaria</i>, <i>Oncidium</i>, <i>Vanda</i>,
-<i>Polystachya</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<p>6,000 (10,000?) species. The majority live in the Tropics and
-occur, especially, as epiphytes on trees or in the crevices
-of rocks, to which they are attached by aerial roots. These
-<i>aerial roots</i>, like those of Araceæ, are covered by
-several layers of spirally-thickened cells (tracheides) which
-contain air and form the velamen&mdash;an apparatus to absorb
-moisture from the air. The roots have a white appearance when
-the cells are filled with air, which changes to a greenish hue
-when they are filled with water, the chlorophyll then shining
-through. They generally have horizontal rhizomes; the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_333">[333]</span> ascending
-shoots, which bear the foliage-leaves, may vary, but they very
-often swell and assume the form of a tuber, which persists for
-several years fresh and green after the leaves have fallen off
-(Fig. <a href="#fig321">321</a>). <i>Vanilla</i> is an exception (see above). Our
-Orchids are all terrestrial (or marsh-plants); the largest
-number of species is found in calcareous soils.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination</span> takes place principally by means of
-insects, but self-pollination occurs in some. The lip serves as
-a landing-stage for the insect visitors, which, on sucking the
-honey, cause the adhesive discs, with the pollinia attached to
-them, to adhere to their bodies (generally to the probosces)
-and so carry them away to other flowers. In some species parts
-of the flower are sensitive or irritable, which has some
-connection with the pollination. Without doubt there are a great
-many biological differences which are closely connected with
-the infinite multiplicity of forms; Darwin (1862) has already
-shown an enormous variety, never even dreamt of before, in
-the European species. The genus <i>Catasetum</i> has ♂-♀-and
-☿-plants with flowers of such different appearances that
-they have been classed in various genera (<i>Myanthus</i>,
-<i>Monacanthus</i>). <i>Platanthera</i> is pollinated by
-hawk-moths; <i>Ophrys</i>, by flies; <i>Epipactis latifolia</i>,
-by wasps; <i>Orchis</i>, by bees, especially humble-bees, etc.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig321" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig321.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 321.</span>&mdash;<i>Chysis bractescens.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">DISTRIBUTION OF SEEDS</span> is effected by the wind,
-the seeds being so exceedingly small and light. Many species
-moreover have peculiar, elater-like, fine, hygroscopic hairs
-in the ovary, which eject the seeds in a manner similar to the
-elaters of the Liverworts.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">USES</span> are few, mostly as ornamental plants in
-conservatories. The tubers of several <i>Orchis</i>-species are
-<span class="allsmcap">OFFICINAL</span>; they contain starch and mucilage and are
-used us “salep.” The fruits of <i>Vanilla planifolia</i> are
-used as condiments and differ from other <i>Orchid</i>-fruits in
-being rather fleshy and in dehiscing irregularly; the seeds are
-very small, shining and black.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_334">[334]</span></p>
-
-
-<h3>Class II. <b>Dicotyledones.</b></h3>
-
-<p>In this class <span class="allsmcap">THE EMBRYO</span> has 2 seed-leaves, a rule from which
-there are few exceptions (<i>e.g. Ficaria</i>, <i>Cyclamen</i>,
-<i>Pinguicula</i>, certain species of <i>Corydalis</i>, with only
-1; and a few, mostly parasitic forms, <i>e.g. Monotropa</i>,
-<i>Orobanche</i>, <i>Pyrola</i>, entirely without cotyledons). On
-germination the cotyledons nearly always raise themselves above the
-ground as green, assimilating leaves and are then termed aerial or
-epigean, in contradistinction to the underground or hypogean which
-are always buried. The structure of the seed varies (endospermous
-or exendospermous); the embryo may be straight or curved. In many
-instances the primary root grows as a vigorous tap-root, with weaker
-branches arising acropetally (in annuals, biennials, many perennials,
-especially woody plants); but in a large number of herbaceous
-perennials, which have rhizomes, the root behaves very much as in the
-Monocotyledons. The roots generally increase in thickness by means of a
-cambium.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The stem</span>, when seen in transverse section, has its vascular
-bundles arranged in a ring; in reality, however, they form a kind
-of cylindrical network in the stem; the bundles are open, and
-thickening takes place by means of a cambium; annual rings are formed
-in the perennial stems. There is a rich and very varied form of
-<i>branching</i>. The two first leaves of a shoot (fore-leaves) are
-placed nearly always to the right and to the left; the same arrangement
-is found in the two first leaves developed on the flower-stalk, and
-these are, as a rule, the only two; they are found below the calyx and
-are usually termed the “<i>bracteoles</i>.” It has become customary
-to indicate the bracteoles by the letters α and β, according to their
-sequence of growth, and in that sense these letters will be employed in
-the following diagrams.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The arrangement of the leaves</span> varies very much; there is
-also a great variety of shapes in the leaves and their venation,
-but the linear leaves, with parallel venation, so frequent in the
-Monocotyledons, are seldom met with, as also the large sheaths (though
-the sheath is well developed in the Umbelliferous plants); stipules
-occur much more frequently.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The flower</span> is most commonly cyclic, but acyclic or hemicyclic
-forms also occur. The type which may be taken as a basis consists in
-the majority of instances, as in the Monocotyledons, of 5 whorls, of
-which the 4 outer ones (calyx, corolla, and the 2<span class="pagenum" id="Page_335">[335]</span> whorls of stamens)
-are most frequently 4 or 5 in number and placed in regular alternation,
-whilst the innermost one (the carpels) has generally fewer members,
-probably on account of space (Figs. <a href="#fig360">360</a>, <a href="#fig361">361</a>, <a href="#fig421">421</a>, <a href="#fig429">429</a>, <a href="#fig487">487</a>, etc.).
-Trimerous (Figs. <a href="#fig384">384</a>, <a href="#fig387">387</a>, etc.) flowers, or those in which the members
-of the flower are in threes or a multiple of three, also occur, as well
-as dimerous flowers; other numbers are rare. It is of the greatest
-importance in connection with the relative position of the members of
-the flower to the axis and bract (orientation), whether the bracteoles
-are typically present (even though they may not be developed), or
-are typically absent. If there are 2 bracteoles present, then their
-position in a pentamerous flower is often as follows: the first sepal
-turns obliquely forward, the second is posterior and median, the
-third obliquely forward, the fourth and fifth obliquely backward;
-quincuncial æstivation is often found in these buds (Figs. <a href="#fig360">360</a>, <a href="#fig429">429</a>,
-<a href="#fig471">471</a>, <a href="#fig475">475</a>, <a href="#fig584">584</a>). The first and third leaves, in the following chapters,
-are most frequently alluded to as the “anterior,” the fourth and fifth
-as the “lateral” leaves. The <i>reversed</i> arrangement, with the
-median sepal in the front, occurs for instance in <i>Papilionaceæ</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig511">511</a>), <i>Lobeliaceæ</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig594">594</a>), <i>Rhodoracecæ</i>. If any
-bracteoles are present below a tetramerous flower, the relation is
-generally that 2 sepals (the first ones) stand in the median plane,
-the two next ones transversely (Fig. <a href="#fig393">393</a>), and the corolla then adopts
-a diagonal position (Fig. <a href="#fig397">397</a>); but a diagonal position of the calyx
-generally shows that the flower is not, strictly speaking, tetramerous,
-as in <i>Plantago</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig567">567</a>), <i>Veronica</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig599">559</a> <i>C</i>)
-and others.</p>
-
-<p>If the bracteoles are <i>not</i> typically present, then the position
-of the sepals is changed accordingly, and the two outer sepals
-endeavour to assume the position which the bracteoles would otherwise
-have occupied, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Primula</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig547">547</a>). Other
-positions are also found when the number of bracteoles is more or less
-than two.</p>
-
-<p>The leaves which follow the sepals occupy definite positions with
-regard to them, which we may consider later. An arrangement must,
-however, be mentioned here; when the flower is “<i>diplostemonous</i>”
-that is, has two whorls of stamens (thus, Sn, Pn, An + n), these may be
-arranged in two ways. <i>Either</i> the first-formed whorl of stamens,
-which are termed the “calyx-stamens,” stands directly in front of the
-sepals (that is “episepalous”), and is the <i>outermost</i> whorl,
-and in this case a regular alternation takes place between sepals,
-petals and the two whorls of stamens,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_336">[336]</span> which is also continued into
-the carpels if their number is the same as that of the other whorls:
-the carpels are then placed opposite the sepals (Fig. <a href="#fig278">278</a>) and the
-flower is <i>isomerous</i> and Gn should be added to the formula
-above. <i>Or</i>, the calyx-stamens form the <i>innermost</i> whorl,
-and the corolla-stamens, which are subsequently formed (“epipetalous”
-stamens), stand <i>outside</i> these (Figs. <a href="#fig360">360</a>, <a href="#fig429">429</a>); if the number
-of carpels is the same as that of the preceding whorls, they are often
-placed <i>right in front</i> of the petals and the corolla-stamens.
-The first-mentioned arrangement is termed <i>Diplostemonous</i>, and
-the second <i>Obdiplostemonous</i>. <span class="smaller">Both arrangements may be found
-in one and the same order, <i>e.g.</i> Caryophyllaceæ. The size and
-relation of the members of the flowers, and also the contact with other
-members in the early stages of their development, play an important
-part in determining the arrangement.</span></p>
-
-<p>The great number of structural arrangements found in this enormously
-large class, may, as is the case in the Monocotyledons, be further
-varied by <i>suppression and division</i> of certain leaves (especially
-the stamens). Instances of this will occur in the following (Figs. <a href="#fig559">559</a>,
-<a href="#fig568">568</a>.&mdash;<a href="#fig426">426</a>, <a href="#fig441">441</a>, <a href="#fig445">445</a>, etc.).</p>
-
-<p>The Dicotyledons were formerly divided into 3 sub-classes: Apetalæ
-(those without corolla), Sympetalæ or Gamopetalæ (those with the petals
-united), and Choripetalæ or Polypetalæ (the petals not united). This
-division has now been abandoned because it has been proved that the
-Apetalæ were merely reduced or incomplete forms of the Choripetalæ, and
-they have therefore been distributed among the various families of the
-latter sub-class.</p>
-
-<p>With regard to the Sympetalæ (or Gamopetalæ) it may be stated that
-they form to a very great extent a closely connected and natural
-group, having in common not only the character that the corolla is
-gamopetalous and the stamens united with it (this being also found in
-the Choripetalæ), but also a great many others (such as persistent
-calyx, cyclic flowers with the formula S5, P5, A5 and as a rule G2,
-the two carpels being united to form the ovary; seeds with a thick
-integument and a very small nucellus). They are therefore considered
-as an independent sub-class, and must be placed at the close of the
-system of classification as the forms which presumably have arisen the
-latest. In the future systems of classification this arrangement will
-very probably be changed, and the first families of the Sympetalæ, the
-Bicornes and others will for instance be to a certain extent united
-with the families or orders of the Choripetalæ. The Sympetalæ may
-certainly be considered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_337">[337]</span> as the youngest types, the strongly pronounced
-metamorphosis supporting this theory, as also the formation of the
-integument of the ovule, the one thick integument being undoubtedly
-derived from the coalescence of two&mdash;a holochlamydeous ovule, etc.</p>
-
-<p>The Apetalæ and Choripetalæ are united into one sub-class. The leaves
-of the perianth in this case are, as a rule, free from each other, the
-structure of the flowers presents many differences, and the ovules have
-as a rule 2 integuments and a large nucellus. Considerable uncertainty
-still prevails regarding the arrangement and the relationship of the
-individual families of the Choripetalæ, and some of the following
-families are hardly quite natural; but the best arrangement arrived at
-so far has been adopted here.</p>
-
-<p>At the beginning of the book a review of the orders of the Dicotyledons
-will be found.</p>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class 1. <b>Choripetalæ. Petals free.</b></h3>
-
-
-<h4>Family 1. <b>Salicifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>Trees and shrubs, which, in the structure of the vegetative shoot
-and the catkin-like inflorescences, resemble the Quercifloræ, but
-the structure of the flower differs so much from them, that the only
-order brought under this heading&mdash;<i>Salicaceæ</i>&mdash;well deserves to
-be separated and to form a family of its own, the nearest relatives
-of which are still doubtful. <span class="smaller">As Juglandaceæ and Myricaceæ also
-deserve to be placed in a special family, the name <i>Amentaceæ</i>
-(<i>Catkin-bearers</i>), hitherto applied to all of these plants,
-cannot be retained as the name of a family.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig322" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig322.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 322.</span>&mdash;Male and female catkins of <i>Salix
-caprea</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>There is only one order.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_338">[338]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order. <b>Salicaceæ</b> (<b>Willows</b>). Trees with simple, scattered,
-<i>stipulate leaves</i>. <i>Diœcious</i>. The flowers are arranged
-in <i>simple inflorescences</i> (spikes or racemes) which are termed
-catkins, and which fall off as a whole after flowering (♂) or after
-the ripening of the fruit (♀) (Fig. <a href="#fig322">322</a>). The perianth is very
-imperfect<a id="FNanchor_33" href="#Footnote_33" class="fnanchor">[33]</a> or wanting, particularly in <i>Salix</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig323">323</a>
-<i>o</i>); the ♂-flower with 2–several stamens and without any trace
-of a carpel (<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i>): the ♀-flower has a free
-bicarpellate ovary, <i>unilocular</i>, and formed from 2 lateral
-carpels with 2 <i>parietal</i> (<i>median</i>) <i>placentæ</i> and
-generally ∞ ovules; the style divides into two stigmas (<i>d</i>,
-<i>e</i>, <i>f</i>). The fruit is a two-valved <i>capsule</i> and the
-very small seeds bear a <i>tuft of hairs</i> at the base. <i>Endosperm
-absent.</i>&mdash;<span class="smaller">The catkins are situated on dwarf-branches, which in
-some species often develop before the leaves and bear at their base
-only scale-leaves; in others foliage-leaves are borne beneath the
-catkins. The vegetative bud commences with 2 bud-scales which are
-united on the anterior side into a scale. The capsule opens by the
-dorsal suture. The seed-hairs spring from the funicle.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig323" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig323.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 323.</span>&mdash;<i>Salix</i>: male flowers of <i>S.
-pentandra</i> (<i>a</i>), <i>S. aurita</i> (<i>b</i>), <i>S. rubra</i>
-(<i>c</i>), female flowers of <i>S. aurita</i> (<i>d</i>), <i>S.
-nigricans</i> (<i>e</i>), <i>S. mollissima</i> (<i>f</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Salix</i> (Willow) has short-stalked, most frequently lanceolate
-leaves and erect catkins with undivided bracts (Fig. <a href="#fig322">322</a>). The flowers
-are naked; 1 (<i>o</i> in <i>a-f</i>) or 2 yellowish glands situated
-in the median line. In the ♂-flower generally two stamens, situated
-laterally like the carpels in the ♀-flower. <span class="smaller">Various forms are seen
-in Fig. <a href="#fig323">323</a>.&mdash;The terminal bud of the branches often aborts regularly,
-the uppermost lateral bud taking its place.</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Populus</i> (Aspen, Poplar) has long-stalked, more or less round or
-cordate leaves with drawn-out apex; catkin pendulous; lobed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_339">[339]</span> bracts;
-perianth cup-like with oblique edge; stamens usually numerous; stigmas
-often divided.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>P. tremula</i> (Aspen) has received its name from
-the tremor of the leaves: <i>cf.</i> “to shake like an aspen leaf.”</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> The Poplars are wind-pollinated. The
-Willows have sticky pollen and are pollinated by insects. The
-catkins of the Willows, especially the ♂, are more conspicuous,
-from the numerous, closely-packed, yellow flowers, rich in honey
-and pollen. The catkins often appear before the foliage and so
-are much more easily seen, whilst at this time of the year the
-number of competing honey-flowers is smaller, and the insect
-visits consequently more numerous. On many catkins of the Willow
-the flowers open earliest on the side which is turned towards
-the sun and in descending order, <i>i.e.</i> the upper flowers
-develop before the lower ones. Hybrids frequently appear.</p>
-
-<p>There are about 180 species existing in the northern, cold and
-temperate latitudes. Some in the Polar regions are scarcely more
-than an inch in height, and have a creeping rhizome (<i>Salix
-herbacea</i>, <i>polaris</i>, <i>reticulata</i>). Fossil
-forms are found in the Tertiary and perhaps also in the Upper
-Cretaceous.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> Principally for ornamental trees, as they grow
-very quickly and are easily propagated by cuttings, <i>S.
-babylonica</i>, Weeping Willow; <i>S. purpurea</i>; <i>Populus
-alba</i>, Silver Poplar; <i>P. pyramidalis</i>, Pyramid
-Poplar&mdash;a form of <i>P. nigra</i>; <i>P. monilifera</i>,
-Canadian Poplar. The wood is very poor and little used; the
-branches of many Willows are cultivated for basket-making,
-etc. The wood of the Aspen is used for matches. The bark
-contains tannin and, in many Willows, a very bitter extract,
-<i>Salicin</i> (<i>S. pentandra</i>, <i>fragilis</i>). Salicylic
-acid (officinal) is obtained from <i>Salix</i>. Balsam is
-extracted from the buds of many Poplars, especially when the
-leaves are shooting.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 2. <b>Casuarinifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>Trees with verticillate, scale-like leaves forming sheaths at the
-nodes. Monœcious. Flowers unisexual. ♂-flowers in catkins; ♀ in short
-spikes. <i>Pollen-tube entering the ovule at the chalaza</i>, and not
-through the micropyle. Ovary 1-seeded, unilocular. Carpels uniting into
-a multiple fruit. Only one order.</p>
-
-<p>Order. <b>Casuarinaceæ.</b> Trees (30 species), from Australia and
-certain parts of S.E. Asia, with peculiar, equisetum-like appearance.
-The leaves are verticillate, scale-like and united into sheaths. The
-internodes are furrowed. Branching verticillate. The unisexual flowers
-are situated in catkins or short spikes. The ♂-flower has a central
-stamen, surrounded by 2 median, scale-like perianth-leaves and 2
-lateral bracteoles. The ♀-flower has a 1-chambered ovary (2 ascending,
-orthotropous ovules), no perianth, but 2 large, lateral bracteoles
-which finally become woody and form two valves, between which the
-nut-like fruit is situated. The multiple-fruits therefore resemble
-small cones.&mdash;<i>Casuarina equisetifolia</i>, cultivated, gives
-“iron-wood.”</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_340">[340]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>[The Casuarinas differ from the ordinary Dicotyledons in many
-important respects which may be briefly summarised thus:&mdash;The
-bicarpellate ♀-flower has a well-pronounced stylar-cylinder
-terminated by two stigmas, but the cavity of the ovary closes
-very soon after its formation, and in it are developed two
-parietal ovules; these are united by a bridge of cellulose to
-the stylar-cylinder or summit of the ovary, and hence the ovules
-are connected with the walls of the ovary by the bridge (above),
-as well as by the funicle (below). The archespore is developed
-from the hypodermal cells at the summit of the nucellus,
-two primordial mother-cells are first formed and from these
-by tangential divisions a central cylindrical mass of cells
-(sporogenous-tissue) is produced which is surrounded by tapetal
-cells. The cells of the sporogenous tissue correspond to the
-mother-cells of the embryo-sac of other Angiosperms; they divide
-transversely and from 16–20 macrospores are formed together with
-inactive cells which are not crushed together as in the case
-of other Phanerogams. The sexual apparatus is developed from a
-single cell, but the number of cells composing this apparatus
-is subject to variation, the oosphere being accompanied by one
-or two neighbouring cells which resemble canal-cells rather
-than synergidæ. The sexual apparatus is found in the majority
-of the macrospores, but in most of these it remains as a number
-of naked cells; while in the fertile macrospores the cells
-are invested by walls of cellulose (usually only one fertile
-macrospore is found in each ovule). Antipodal cells are never
-developed. The macrospores elongate considerably towards the
-chalaza, into which some penetrate. The pollen-tube traverses
-the stylar-cylinder and enters the ovules at the chalaza, its
-passage through the tissue of the nucellus being assisted by
-the prolongation of the macrospores. About the centre of the
-nucellus the pollen-tube is ruptured; the apical portion which
-alone takes part in the fertilisation being firmly attached to
-the macrospore. Although the actual impregnation has not been
-observed, Treub considers that the endosperm begins to be formed
-before fertilisation.]</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 3. <b>Quercifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p><i>Trees</i> and <i>shrubs</i> with small, unisexual, <i>monœcious</i>
-flowers, having no perianth or a simple inconspicuous one. The ♂
-and ♀ flowers are very different and generally placed in separate
-inflorescences. The ♂-flowers are most often adnate to the bracts.
-The stamens are placed <i>opposite the perianth-leaves</i>, when
-they are present in equal numbers. The ♀-flower is <i>naked</i>,
-or has a <i>superior</i> perianth. The ovary at the base is 2- or
-3-(-6) locular with 1 or 2 pendulous ovules in each loculus, only
-one of which is developed; the fruit is a one-seeded <i>nut</i>;
-<i>endosperm absent</i>; embryo straight. The inflorescences, which
-are either compound and mixed (small dichasia in spikes) or simple,
-are here also termed <i>catkins</i>; but, strictly speaking, this
-term is applied to the ♂-inflorescences only. In all Quercifloræ the
-leaves are <i>scattered</i> (usually in 2 rows) <i>simple</i>, and
-<i>penninerved</i>, and with <i>deciduous stipules</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_341">[341]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>It is worthy of remark that in <i>Betulaceæ</i>,
-<i>Corylaceæ</i> and <i>Quercus</i> the ovules, and to some
-extent the loculi of the ovary are not developed till after
-pollination, so that the development of the pollen-tube proceeds
-very slowly. The smallness of the flowers, the absence of
-honey, the dryness and lightness of the pollen, the size of the
-stigma and the abundance of hairs found on many stigmas are all
-adaptations for wind-pollination. It is also an advantage that
-the flowers are generally pollinated before the foliage-leaves
-are developed, thus preventing the pollen being entangled by the
-leaves.</p>
-
-<p>The two orders <i>Betulaceæ</i> and <i>Corylaceæ</i> mentioned
-here are by other authors united into one order. [It is doubtful
-whether these two should be retained in the family Quercifloræ,
-as recent researches (p. <a href="#Page_273">273</a>) have shown that they differ from
-the Cupuliferæ in many important points, and agree with the
-Casuarinas in the fact that the pollen-tube enters the ovule
-through the chalaza.]</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Betulaceæ</b> (<b>Birches</b>). Monœcious, with thick,
-cylindrical, <i>compound</i> ♂ and ♀ inflorescences (2- or 3-flowered
-dichasia in a spike with spirally-placed floral-leaves) (Figs. <a href="#fig324">324</a>,
-<a href="#fig326">326</a>, <a href="#fig328">328</a>). When the perianth in the ♂-flower is completely developed,
-it is composed of 4 somewhat united leaves, which are placed
-opposite the 4 stamens (Figs. <a href="#fig325">325</a>, <a href="#fig326">326</a> <i>A</i>). The female flowers
-are <i>naked</i>; the ovary is bilocular, with two styles and one
-<i>pendulous</i> ovule in each loculus. The subtending floral-leaves
-unite with the bracteoles and form a 3–5-lobed cover-scale, which is
-not attached to the fruit (Figs. <a href="#fig325">325</a> <i>D</i>, <a href="#fig326">326</a> <i>B</i>). Fruit a
-<i>nut without cupule</i> (see <i>Corylaceæ</i> and <i>Cupuliferæ</i>).
-<span class="smaller">In the bud the leaves are flat. The stipules are deciduous. On
-germination the cotyledons are raised above the ground. Terminal buds
-are only found on old Alder trees; the Birch has sympodial branches.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig324" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig324.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 324.</span>&mdash;<i>Alnus glutinosus.</i> Branch
-of Alder with ♂-(<i>n</i>) and ♀-(<i>m</i>) catkins: <i>k</i> bud;
-<i>b</i> fruit-bearing catkin (“cone.”)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Alnus</i> (Alder) (Figs. <a href="#fig324">324–326</a>). In the majority of species the
-♂-and ♀-catkins are both developed in the year previous to their
-flowering, and pass the winter naked and bloom before the leaves
-expand. ♂-flower: 4 stamens. ♀-flower: the 5-lobed cover-scales of
-the ♀-catkin are woody and remain attached to the axis, so that the
-entire catkin when ripe resembles a small cone (Fig.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_342">[342]</span> <a href="#fig324">324</a> <i>b</i>).
-Each cover-scale supports two winged or wingless nuts. <span class="smaller">In the
-native species of Alder the buds are stalked (Fig. <a href="#fig324">324</a> <i>k</i>). The
-bud-scales are formed by the stipules of the lowest leaves.</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Betula</i> (Birch). The ♂-catkins, in the native species, appear
-in autumn, the ♀-catkins in the flowering year on leaf-bearing,
-short-lived shoots. ♂-flowers: 2 stamens, divided (Fig. <a href="#fig328">328</a> <i>A</i>).
-The 3-lobed cover-scales (Fig. <a href="#fig327">327</a> <i>a</i>) of the ♀-catkin are
-detached from the axis; each cover-scale supports 3 broadly winged nuts
-(<i>b</i>). <span class="smaller">The stem has cork with annual rings. The young twigs and
-leaves have aromatic resin glands.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig325" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig325.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 325.</span>&mdash;<i>Alnus glutinosa</i>: <i>A</i>
-dichasium of ♂-flowers seen from the front; <i>B</i> the same from
-inside; <i>C</i> the same from the back; <i>D</i> dichasium of
-♀-flowers with subtending-leaf and four bracteoles. The letters
-<i>b</i>, α, β, β′, β are the same as in Fig. <a href="#fig326">326</a> <i>A</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig326" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig326.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 326.</span>&mdash;<i>Alnus glutinosa</i>: diagram
-of dichasia of ♂ (<i>A</i>) and ♀ (<i>C</i>) catkins; <i>B</i> a
-cone-scale. All the bracteoles in <i>A</i> and <i>C</i> are slightly
-pressed from their normal position.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The Inflorescences of the Alder.</span>&mdash;In the axil of
-each cover-scale [<i>b</i> in the Figs] is situated, in the
-♂-catkins (Figs. <a href="#fig326">326</a> <i>A</i>, <a href="#fig325">325</a> <i>A-C</i>) a 3-flowered
-dichasium, the flowers of which have a 4-partite perianth, the
-posterior perianth-segments being sometimes almost suppressed,
-and 4 stamens with undivided filaments. In the ♀-catkin (Figs.
-<a href="#fig325">325</a> <i>D</i>, <a href="#fig326">326</a> <i>C</i>) a 2-flowered dichasium is found,
-the middle flower being suppressed (indicated by a star in
-<i>C</i>). In both instances the inflorescences have two
-bracteoles (α-β) and the flowers borne in their axils have each
-one bracteole (β′), the other one (α′) being suppressed and
-therefore in 326 <i>A</i> and <i>C</i> only represented by a
-dotted line; these four bracteoles unite with the cover-scale
-(<i>b</i>) which supports the entire dichasium, to form the
-5-lobed “cone-scale” (Fig. <a href="#fig326">326</a> <i>B</i>) which in the ♀-catkin
-eventually becomes woody.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The Inflorescences of the Birch.</span>&mdash;A 3-flowered
-dichasium is situated in the axil of the cover-scale in both
-♂-and ♀-catkins (Fig. <a href="#fig328">328</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>); only the central
-flower has bracteoles (α-β) (the lateral flowers having no
-bracteoles), and these bracteoles unite, as in the Alder, with
-the supporting cover-scale (<i>b</i>), and form a three-lobed
-cone-scale (Fig. <a href="#fig327">327</a> <i>a</i>).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_343">[343]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>While the ♀-flower exactly resembles that of the Alder, the
-reduction of the ♂-flower, already described in the Alder, is
-carried further, so that often only the 2 median perianth-leaves
-are developed (Fig. <a href="#fig328">328</a> <i>A</i>); there are also <i>only</i>
-2 stamens, these being deeply cleft, while the other 2 are
-suppressed.</p>
-
-<p>About 50 species; N. Temp.&mdash;Fossil-forms certainly occur in the
-Oligocene. During the Glacial period the Dwarf-birch (<i>B.
-nana</i>) extended over Europe; at the present time it is
-confined to the moors and mountains of N. Europe and N. America
-and Asia. Wind-pollinated.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span>&mdash;Important forest trees. The bark contains tannic
-acid. The tar of the Birch is used in the preparation of Russia
-leather; whilst its spring sap is very saccharine, and is used
-in some places for making a fermented drink. Its external bark
-is used for roofing, for baskets, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig327" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig327.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 327.</span>&mdash;<i>Betula verrucosa</i>: <i>a</i>
-cone-scale; <i>b</i> fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig328" style="width: 307px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig328.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 328.</span>&mdash;Diagrams of dichasia in the
-♂-(<i>A</i>) and ♀-(<i>B</i>) catkins of Birch.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Corylaceæ</b> (<b>Hazel-nuts</b>). Monœcious. The ♂-catkins
-are long and cylindrical; the ♂-flowers are placed singly in the axil
-of the subtending-leaf (cover-scale); they are <i>naked</i> and formed
-of a number of <i>divided</i> stamens, which are partly united with
-the cover-scale, 4 in the Hazel, apparently 8 (Figs. <a href="#fig330">330</a> <i>A</i>,
-<a href="#fig329">329</a> <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>), more on the Hornbeam. The ♀-flowers have a
-very small, <i>superior</i> perianth; in the axil of each cover-scale
-a 2-flowered dichasium (Fig. <a href="#fig329">329</a> <i>D</i>) is present, of which the
-central flower (* in Fig. <a href="#fig330">330</a> <i>B</i>) is suppressed. The gynœceum
-is bicarpellary as in the Birches; the ovary is bilocular, with two
-long styles (Fig. <a href="#fig329">329</a> <i>D-F</i>); the loculi have 1 (-2) ovules (Fig.
-<a href="#fig330">330</a> <i>B</i>). Each single ♀-flower and fruit is surrounded by a
-<i>leaf-like covering</i>, the <i>cupule</i> (husk), which is <i>formed
-of three floral-leaves</i> (namely, the bract of a lateral flower,
-and its own bracteoles; thus in Fig. <a href="#fig330">330</a> <i>B</i>, α, α′, β’ form the
-cupule for the left-hand flower, and β, α<sub>1</sub>, β<sub>1</sub>, the cupule
-for the right-hand).</p>
-
-<p><i>Corylus</i> (Hazel-nut, Fig. <a href="#fig329">329</a>). The long, cylindrical ♂-catkins
-pass the winter naked, 2–3 together, on short branches. The very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_344">[344]</span> small
-♀-catkins are enclosed in buds, in which they pass the winter; these
-buds are situated in the axils of the fallen foliage-leaves, and it
-is only by their larger size that they may be distinguished from the
-ordinary foliage-buds. In spring the ♀-catkins are easily recognised
-by their red, projecting stigmas (Fig. <a href="#fig329">329</a> <i>A</i>). The cupule&mdash;the
-“husk”&mdash;is tubular, fringed, and envelopes the nut. <span class="smaller">The leaves
-are alternate and unsymmetrical, the external side being larger than
-the internal; this is connected with the vernation, the blade being
-conduplicate in the bud; the stipules are deciduous. The bud-scales are
-formed of stipules, the most internal having a leaf-blade attached to
-them which is suppressed in the external ones. The cotyledons remain
-underground on germination.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig329" style="width: 442px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig329.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 329.</span>&mdash;<i>Corylus avellana</i>: <i>A</i>
-branch at the time of flowering with ♂-and ♀-catkins; <i>B</i> ♂-flower
-with subtending-leaf (bract) and two bracteoles; <i>C</i> the same
-without the anthers; <i>D</i> view of interior of ♀-dichasium shortly
-after fertilisation; <i>E</i> young fruit with cupule; <i>F</i> similar
-one with the cupule opened; <i>G</i> mature ♀-fruits; <i>H</i> nut.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Carpinus</i> (<i>C. betulus</i>, Hornbeam). The ♂-and ♀-catkins do
-not appear till the leaves are shooting. The ♀-catkin in this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_345">[345]</span> instance
-is also long and cylindrical. The cupule in <i>C. betulus</i> is
-3-lobed, and to a slight extent only embraces the base of the ribbed
-nut (Fig. <a href="#fig331">331</a>); each lobe corresponds to a floral-leaf. <span class="smaller">Whilst the
-carpels are placed medianly in <i>Corylus</i>, in <i>Carpinus</i>,
-on the other hand, they are situated transversely, as in the case of
-the <i>Betulaceæ</i>. The lamina of the leaf is not conduplicate in
-the bud, but flat, and folded only along the lateral veins, which are
-also indicated in the form of the fully-developed leaf; otherwise the
-vegetative characters are essentially the same as in the Hazel. The
-cotyledons are aerial.&mdash;<i>Ostrya</i> resembles the Hornbeam, but the
-cupule completely envelopes the nut, as a sac open at the apex (Eur.,
-N. Am., Japan).</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>N. Am., Asia, and Europe; 25 species.&mdash;Fossil forms in
-the Oligocene. Wind-pollinated. <span class="smcap">Uses.</span> As timber
-(<i>Carpinus betulus</i>) and firewood. The fruits of <i>C.
-avellana</i> (ordinary Hazel-nut), <i>C. tubulosa</i> (Lambert’s
-nut) and <i>C. colurna</i> (Turkish Filbert) are edible.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig330" style="width: 229px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig330.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 330.</span>&mdash;Diagrams of the ♂-flower (<i>A</i>)
-of <i>Corylus</i> and the dichasium of the ♀-flowers (<i>B</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig331" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig331.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 331.</span>&mdash;Nut of the Hornbeam with cupule.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Cupuliferæ.</b> Monœcious. The inflorescences make their
-appearance with the leaves, arising in the axils of the leaves of the
-same year. <i>A woody cupule</i> furnished externally with scales or
-spines is <i>common</i>, and surrounds 1-several flowers (the cupule
-in the Corylaceæ never encloses more than a <i>single</i> flower or
-fruit). The ♂-flower has a united perianth, which is, however, 4–6
-partite, and encloses an indefinite number of undivided stamens. The
-♀-flower has a <i>superior, 6-merous</i> perianth (3 + 3, compare Figs.
-<a href="#fig332">332</a> <i>D</i>, <a href="#fig334">334</a>); the gynœceum is formed of 3 (or in <i>Castanea</i>
-4–6) carpels with a corresponding number of stigmas (Figs. <a href="#fig332">332</a>
-<i>D</i>, <i>H</i>; <a href="#fig334">334</a>, <a href="#fig335">335</a>); and the ovary has at the base 3 (-6)
-loculi (Fig. <a href="#fig333">333</a>), each of which has 2 pendulous anatropous ovules; the
-fruit is a one-seeded nut (Figs. <a href="#fig332">332</a> <i>H</i>, <a href="#fig336">336</a>).</p>
-
-<p>The cupule of the Cupuliferæ, according to the opinion of Eichler, is
-formed by united bracteoles, (compare Fig. <a href="#fig333">333</a>, where<span class="pagenum" id="Page_346">[346]</span> the four valves
-in the cupule of Castanea are considered as bracteoles of the lateral
-flowers of the dichasium); according to another view (see Prantl, in
-Engler’s <i>Bot. Jahrb.</i>, viii., 1889), it is a ring-like axial
-outgrowth independent of the bracteoles of the flower, whose scales
-and spines are floral-leaves. The cupule in the Oak only encloses the
-base of the fruit, but in the Eating-chestnut and Beech the fruit is
-completely enclosed, and consequently the cupule must divide into a
-number of valves (generally 4) to allow the fruit to escape. In the
-3-flowered dichasia of <i>Pasania</i>, Sect. Eupasania (Trop. Ind.),
-each individual flower has its own cupule of the same structure and
-development as in <i>Quercus</i>; and, moreover, each group of flowers
-has externally the typical six bracteoles.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig332" style="width: 601px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig332.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 332.</span>&mdash;<i>Castanea vesca</i>: <i>A</i>
-branch with inflorescences; <i>B</i> ♂-flower; <i>C</i> young
-cupule with three ♀-flowers; <i>D</i> ♀-flower; <i>E</i> the same
-in longitudinal section; <i>F</i> cupule with 3 nuts (diminished);
-<i>G</i>, <i>H</i> nuts (<i>G</i> in longitudinal section to show
-embryo).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Castanea</i> (Eating-chestnut, Fig. <a href="#fig332">332</a>). The catkins are erect<span class="pagenum" id="Page_347">[347]</span>
-(<i>A</i>), cylindrical, with the ♀ at the base and the ♂ at the
-top, or some are entirely ♂ and <i>composed of small dichasia</i>.
-The <i>cupule</i> (<i>C</i>, <i>F</i>) is 4-<i>valved</i>, provided
-with spines, and entirely envelops the 3 <i>nuts</i>; it is already
-developed at the time of flowering.&mdash;<span class="smaller">♂-flowers are most frequently
-borne in 7-flowered dichasia, and have a well developed perianth, most
-frequently consisting of 6 leaves in two whorls (Fig. <a href="#fig332">332</a> <i>B</i>),
-and a large number of stamens. ♀-flowers are most frequently borne in
-3-flowered dichasia (Figs. <a href="#fig332">332</a> <i>C</i>, <a href="#fig333">333</a>); the letters in Fig.
-<a href="#fig333">333</a> indicate the older theory, according to which the 4 bracteoles
-(α′-β′) of the two lateral flowers are thick and united into a single
-4-valved, <i>woody cupule</i>, which surrounds the 3 nuts, and is
-furnished externally with spines; the spines are well developed
-hair-structures.&mdash;6 carpels in two whorls.&mdash;The leaves in the vertical
-shoots have a divergence of 2/5, 3/8, 5/13; on the horizontal
-shoots they are alternate. The cotyledons remain underground on
-germination.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig333" style="width: 300px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig333.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 333.</span>&mdash;Diagram of the cupule of
-<i>Castanea</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig334" style="width: 315px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig334.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 334.</span>&mdash;Female flower of <i>Fagus</i> (mag.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Fagus</i> (Beech). The ♂-catkins are pendulous, capitate; the
-♂-flowers have an obliquely bell-shaped, fringed perianth, with 6–20
-stamens. ♀-catkins erect, 2-flowered, borne singly in the axil of
-foliage-leaves of the same year; the ♀-flower has a gynœceum formed of
-3 carpels, bearing an epigynous, 6-leaved perianth (Fig. <a href="#fig334">334</a>). In this
-genus <i>the dichasium has only 2 flowers</i>, the central one being
-suppressed. <i>The cupule contains</i>, therefore, only 2 triangular
-nuts (“mast”). <span class="smaller">All the shoots have the leaves arranged in two rows;
-the rows are on the underside, being only about 90° distant from each
-other; the buds on the other hand approach each other towards the upper
-side. The bud-scales are stipules without laminæ; in vernation the
-laminæ are folded along the lateral ribs, the upper lateral portion
-being the largest (as in Hornbeam and Chestnut). The cotyledons are
-folded, and at germination are aerial, large, and reniform. 4 species
-(Europe, Japan, N. Am.)&mdash;<i>Nothofagus</i> (S. Am., New Zealand, S.
-Austr.)</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Quercus</i> (Oak, Fig. <a href="#fig335">335</a>). Catkins simple. ♂-catkins long,
-thin, <i>pendulous</i>, few-flowered. ♀-catkins erect; the cupule is
-<i>cup-like</i>, <i>entire</i>, and encloses only the base of the
-solitary nut (“acorn”).&mdash;<span class="smaller">The ♂-flower has a similar construction
-to that of the Chestnut. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_348">[348]</span> ♀-catkin has not more than 5 flowers
-(single-flowered dichasia, in which <i>only the central flower is
-developed</i>). The scales on the cupules are no doubt leaf-structures
-in this case also. According to another theory, the scales are
-hair-structures; they arise on the internal face of the young cupule
-apparently in descending, but really in ascending order. The rim of
-the cupule gradually expands. In the ♀-flower (Fig. <a href="#fig335">335</a>) the
-loculi of the gynœceum, together with the ovules, are not developed
-until <i>after</i> pollination.&mdash;The leaves in all cases have a
-divergence of 2/5; the lowermost leaves on the shoots are reduced
-to stipules which serve as the bud-scales (5 rows). The laminæ are
-conduplicate, as in <i>Corylus</i>, and the external side is the
-broadest. The cotyledons are fleshy and remain underground. 200
-species.&mdash;<i>Pasania</i> (100 species).</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig335" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig335.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 335.</span>&mdash;<i>Quercus</i>: <i>A</i>
-♀-flower in its cupule (mag.); <i>B</i> longitudinal section
-through <i>A</i>, showing cupule, perianth, and inferior ovary.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig336" style="width: 225px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig336.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 336.</span>&mdash;Fruit of <i>Quercus</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="smaller">368 species, in temperate climates, especially in Europe and N.
-America. Authenticated forests have been found in the Oligocene.
-The Beech has one species, <i>Fagus sylvatica</i>, in Europe; it is
-a most important forest tree (in Denmark the most important) and
-reaches its most northern limit near Alvesund in Norway (60° N.L.),
-its northern boundary line passing from Alvesund in a zig-zag line
-through Ludwigsort, south of Königsberg, in Prussia, towards the
-Crimea. According to Steenstrup and Vaupell, the Beech did not make
-its appearance in Denmark until a comparatively recent time, the Oak
-then being partially supplanted. Other species of Beech are found
-in N. America and Japan. Several species of <i>Nothofagus</i> occur
-in the South West of S. America, and in the colder regions of the
-southern hemisphere. The Oaks grow especially in temperate regions,
-<i>e.g.</i> in Western Asia, N. America, and the mountains of Mexico.
-Evergreen species are found in Tropical Asia, Himalaya, Japan and
-the Mediterranean region. In this country there is one species of
-Oak (<i>Q. robur</i>), of which there are three varieties (<i>Q.
-pedunculata, intermedia, sessiliflora</i>). The Eating-chestnut is
-found in the South of Europe, but is cultivated in the midland and
-southern counties of England.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Uses.</span> The wood of these
-trees is very useful as timber. The wood of <i>Q. tinctoria</i> has
-a yellow colouring matter (Quercitron-wood). The bark of the Oak
-contains a large quantity of tannic acid, and is used for tanning; for
-this purpose also the cupules of <i>Q. vallonea</i>, <i>ægilops</i>,
-<i>græca</i>, and others from the Eastern Mediterranean, are used under
-the name of “Valloons.” The Cork-oak (<i>Q. suber</i>; S.W. Europe) is
-the most important tree from which cork is obtained,</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_349">[349]</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smaller">its bark being very largely developed and stripped for cork.
-Gall-nuts are found on many species; those of <i>Q. lusitanica</i>,
-var. <i>infectoria</i> (Eastern Mediterranean) are officinal, and
-likewise the fruits (acorns) and the bark of <i>Quercus pedunculata</i>
-and <i>sessiliflora</i>. Oil is obtained from the Beech “mast.” The
-nuts of the Chestnut tree are edible.</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 4. <b>Juglandifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>This family resembles the Quercifloræ in the catkin-like
-inflorescences, the imperfect, <i>unisexual</i> flowers, the epigynous
-perianth and the woody shoots with scattered leaves, etc., though
-it is in other respects very dissimilar; one point of difference
-is the presence of <i>aromatic</i> compounds, but a more important
-divergence is found in the structure of the gynœceum, which is formed
-of two carpels with <i>one loculus</i> and has one <i>basal</i>,
-<i>orthotropous and erect</i> ovule, which, as in the Quercifloræ, does
-not become developed until after pollination; the fruit too is very
-different, being generally a <i>drupe</i>. <i>Endosperm absent.</i></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig337" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig337.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 337.</span>&mdash;<i>Juglans regia</i>: <i>A</i>
-♂-flower seen from below with bract (cover-scale) (<i>b</i>),
-bracteoles (α and β), perianth-leaves (<i>p</i>); <i>B</i> the same
-from the front; <i>C</i> lateral view of the same; <i>D</i> diagram
-of <i>A</i>; <i>E</i> ♀-flower with bract, the bracteoles are united
-with the ovary, their edge being visible as an indented line below the
-perianth; <i>F</i> 2 ♀-flowers at the end of a foliage-shoot; <i>G</i>
-fruit (without the fleshy covering) in longitudinal section; <i>H</i>
-transverse section of the same.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Juglandaceæ (Walnuts).</b> Leaves <i>scattered</i>,
-<i>imparipinnate</i>, rich in <i>aromatic</i> compounds. <i>Stipules
-absent.</i> Flowers unisexual. <i>Monœcious.</i> The ♂-catkins
-are lateral, generally on naked branches of the previous year,
-cylindrical, pendulous, many-flowered; the two bracteoles and the
-2–4-leaved perianth of the ♂-flower unite with the subtending bract;
-the ♂-flower has indefinite stamens (6–20 in <i>Juglans</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig337">337</a>
-<i>A-D</i>). The ♀-catkins are terminal, generally on branches of
-the same year, few-flowered (Fig. <a href="#fig337">337</a> <i>F</i>); the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_350">[350]</span> ♀-flowers have
-a <i>superior</i>, 4-leaved perianth, a bicarpellate gynœceum, two
-styles with stigmas on the internal surface. The ovary, bracteoles and
-bract all unite together (Fig. <a href="#fig337">337</a> <i>E</i>). The fruit is generally a
-green or black <i>drupe</i>,<a id="FNanchor_34" href="#Footnote_34" class="fnanchor">[34]</a> whose flesh (outer soft portion) in
-<i>Carya</i> and <i>Juglans</i> ruptures more or less irregularly, and
-frees the stone (“Walnut”).&mdash;<span class="smaller">The stone in <i>Juglans</i> is divided
-internally by one true (Fig. <a href="#fig337">337</a> <i>H</i>) and by several false, low
-partition walls into several <i>incomplete</i> compartments, so that
-the two large <i>cotyledons</i> become lobed and incised to fit like
-a cast into the irregularities of the inner surface of the stone; the
-embryo is exendospermous and covered with a thin testa.&mdash;<span class="smcap">The leaf
-scars</span> are large and cordate with 3 groups of vascular bundles.
-The <span class="allsmcap">PITH</span> in <i>Juglans</i> and <i>Pterocarya</i> is divided
-into chambers. The stone ruptures, on germination, along the dorsal
-suture into 2 valves; the cotyledons remain underground. In <i>Juglans
-regia</i> a long row of accessory buds is found on the lowest
-internode (epicotyl) above the axils of the cotyledons. <i>Pollination
-by the wind.</i> Both protogynous and protandrous examples of
-<i>Juglans regia</i> occur.&mdash;33 species, mostly in temperate North
-America.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Uses.</span> Walnuts are obtained from <i>J. nigra</i> and
-<i>regia</i>; Hickory from North American species of <i>Carya</i>. The
-oil-containing seeds of several species are edible. <i>Pterocarya</i>
-and others are cultivated as ornamental plants.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig338" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig338.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 338.</span>&mdash;<i>Myrica gale</i>: <i>a</i> young
-fruit; × the bracteoles with numerous glands; <i>b</i> longitudinal
-section of fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Myricaceæ</b>. To this order belong shrubs or trees which
-have penninerved, simple, at most lobed or pinnatifid leaves, with or
-without stipules, and with yellow, aromatic, resin glands (Fig. <a href="#fig338">338</a>
-<i>a</i>). The flowers, situated in catkin-like spikes, are unisexual
-and <i>naked</i>, and supported by scale-like floral-leaves. ♂-flower:
-4–6 (–16) stamens with short filaments; ♀: generally situated singly.
-The gynœceum has a short style with 2 long stigmas, and unites with
-the bracteoles, which form wing-like outgrowths on the ripe drupe as
-in <i>Pterocarya</i> in the Juglandaceæ (Fig. <a href="#fig338">338</a>). Cotyledons fleshy
-(Fig. <a href="#fig338">338</a> <i>b</i>).&mdash;<i>Myrica</i>; <i>Comptonia</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_351">[351]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>40 species; Temperate.&mdash;<i>Myrica gale</i> (Sweet-gale,
-Bog-myrtle) has been used in the preparation of beer
-(Sweet-willow beer) on account of its resinous essential oil.
-<i>M. cerifera</i> (N. America) and species from the Cape, <i>M.
-quercifolia</i> and others, form wax on the fruit which is used
-in the preparation of candles.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 5. <b>Urticifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flowers are regular, <i>hypogynous</i>, nearly always
-unisexual, <i>small</i> and insignificant, with <i>single</i>,
-green perianth of 4–5 leaves. Stamens 4–5, <i>placed opposite</i>
-the leaves of the perianth. Ovary formed of 1 or 2 carpels, most
-frequently <i>unilocular</i>, with one ovule (Fig. <a href="#fig340">340</a>). The fruit
-is a <i>nut</i>, more rarely a drupe, with one seed, <i>generally
-endospermous</i>. <span class="smaller">The Nettles are the sole order in the family
-which has only one carpel (1 stigma); this turns the posterior side
-to the front (Fig. <a href="#fig340">340</a>). The others have two carpels (2 stigmas) but
-the anterior only is fertile (Fig. <a href="#fig346">346</a>) except in a few Ulmaceæ and
-Moraceæ.</span></p>
-
-<p>The majority are trees or shrubs with petiolated leaves,
-<i>stipulate</i>; <i>rough hairs</i> are very frequently developed
-upon the leaves. The flowers are very often crowded together in the
-inflorescence, which is rarely catkin-like. Peculiar aggregations of
-fruits are found in some orders. <i>Latex</i> and tough <i>bast</i>,
-which is used technically, are also frequently found. Cystoliths are
-found in the epidermis of many species of <i>Ficus</i>, <i>Urtica</i>,
-and others. <span class="smaller"><i>Wind-</i> or <i>self-pollination</i> is most common,
-as in the Quercifloræ and Juglandifloræ.</span> In <span class="smaller">the Urticaceæ,
-<i>Morus</i> and some others, the stamens lie incurved in the bud, and
-when ripe straighten themselves suddenly and elastically, and thus
-small clouds of pollen-grains are ejected with considerable violence on
-to the stigmas, which are often provided with brush-like hairs (Fig.
-<a href="#fig341">341</a>). The formation of honey does not take place.</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Ulmaceæ</b> (<b>Elms</b>).&mdash;Trees or shrubs without latex.
-Leaves simple, arranged in two rows (divergence 1/2), oblique (the
-inner side, nearer the axis, being the larger), strongly penninerved,
-dentate, hispid; stipules deciduous. In opposition to the other
-Nettle-like plants the flowers are often ☿ with a united cup- or
-saucer-like, generally 4–(5)–6-divided perianth, and a corresponding
-or larger number of opposite <i>erect</i> stamens. The gynœceum has
-two carpels (2 stigmas), generally one loculus with one pendulous,
-anatropous or amphitropous ovule,<a id="FNanchor_35" href="#Footnote_35" class="fnanchor">[35]</a> seldom two loculi and 2 ovules.
-Fruit one-seeded (nut or drupe). Embryo without endosperm.</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Ulmeæ.</span> The fruit is a <i>winged nut</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig339">339</a>),
-the embryo straight, without endosperm. Anthers extrorse.&mdash;<i>Ulmus</i>
-(Elm).<span class="pagenum" id="Page_352">[352]</span> The flowers are situated in inflorescences which develop from
-the lower buds of the shoot of the preceding year. <span class="smaller">The lowermost
-bud-scales are empty, the uppermost support either solitary flowers,
-or small, dichasial or unipared scorpioid inflorescences. The terminal
-bud on the vegetative shoot quickly falls off, and the upper lateral
-bud continues the growth sympodially. Flowering takes place before the
-leaf-buds open. The flowers are wind-pollinated and have no honey.
-Fossil species have been found in the Oligocene.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>20 species; North Temp. (2 species in this country). Important
-as timber. The Cork-elm (<i>U. suberosa</i>) has a rather thick
-cork, which, however, is of no technical use. The bast is used
-as Lime-bast.</p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Celtideæ.</span> The fruit is a drupe, the embryo
-curved, with folded or rolled up cotyledons, with or without
-endosperm. The anthers are introrse. The flowers are borne
-on a shoot of the same year. <i>Planera</i> (N. America);
-<i>Zelkova</i>.&mdash;About 114 species; especially N. Temp., Trop.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig339" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig339.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 339.</span>&mdash;<i>A Ulmus campestris</i>,
-flower with exceptionally aborted gynœceum; <i>B</i>, <i>U. effusa</i>,
-flower with 8 stamens; <i>C</i>, <i>U. campestris</i>, fruit opened
-in front to show the seed pendulous from the apex of the loculus; one
-loculus is aborted.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Urticaceæ</b> (<b>Nettles</b>).&mdash;The majority of
-species are herbs with simple, stipulate leaves; they have <i>no
-latex</i>; <i>stinging hairs</i> abundant. The flowers (Fig. <a href="#fig340">340</a>) are
-<i>unisexual</i>, generally 2-merous and arranged <i>in clusters</i>,
-which are united into catkin-like inflorescences. The perianth is
-composed very often of 4 (2 + 2) free, or in the ♀-flowers generally
-united, green leaves; the 4 (2 + 2) stamens are opposite the
-perianth-leaves, the filaments are <i>bent inwards</i> in the bud
-and throw themselves elastically towards the outside. The gynœceum
-has <i>one style</i> and <i>one stigma</i> (capitate or brush-like,
-Fig. <a href="#fig341">341</a>); the ovary is unilocular, with <i>one orthotropous</i>,
-<i>erect</i> ovule (all other orders of this family have inverted or
-curved ovules). Fruit, a nut or drupe. <i>Endosperm present</i> (in
-<i>Urtica</i> very little), oily. Embryo straight. <span class="smaller">The <span class="allsmcap">STINGING
-HAIRS</span> are club-shaped, very turgid, and provided with a siliceous,
-brittle apex, which breaks off in an oblique direction and allows the
-poisonous cell-sap to be forced out. In many tropical Nettles this is
-so strong that it may produce partial paralysis. There is no rudiment
-of an ovary in the ♂-flowers (Fig. <a href="#fig340">340</a> A). The <span class="allsmcap">PERIANTH</span> in the
-♀-flower differs from that of the ♂ in having the two<span class="pagenum" id="Page_353">[353]</span> internal leaves
-generally much larger and enveloping the fruit (Fig. <a href="#fig340">340</a> <i>B</i>);
-it often happens that all the perianth-leaves are united to form a
-gamophyllous envelope. ☿-flowers may occur among the others.&mdash;<span class="smcap">The
-inflorescences</span> among our native species are dichasia, which become
-transformed into unilateral scorpioid cymes by the development of the
-bud of the 2nd bracteole. In <i>Parietaria</i> they are more pressed
-together, and the floral-leaves at the same time are also raised on
-their axillary shoots to just beneath the flower. As a rule, not only
-in this order but also in those related to it, a small vegetative
-branch is situated in the axil of the foliage-leaf, and this bears an
-inflorescence on each side at its base.</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Urtica</i> (Nettle) has opposite leaves with distinct stipules and
-stinging hairs. The perianth-leaves of the ♀-flower are free (Fig.
-<a href="#fig340">340</a>).&mdash;<i>Parietaria</i> (Pellitory) has scattered leaves without large
-stipules, and stinging hairs are absent. The ♀-perianth is 4-toothed,
-flask- or bell-shaped.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Pilea</i> is a tropical genus with
-trimerous, zygomorphic ♀-flowers, the posterior perianth-leaf being
-much larger than the two others, and more or less hood shaped.&mdash;The
-flower of <i>Forskohlea</i> is the most reduced; the ♂-flower has only
-one stamen, and the ♀-as well as the ♂-flowers have a one-sided, tongue
-like perianth (?). <i>Pouzolzia.</i></span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig340" style="width: 521px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig340.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 340.</span>&mdash;Diagram of ♂-and ♀-flowers of
-<i>Urtica dioica</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig341" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig341.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 341.</span>&mdash;<i>Parietaria diffusa</i>;
-hermaphrodite flower: <i>a</i> in the female, <i>b</i> at the
-commencement of the male stage; the stigma has fallen off, but the
-anthers have not yet dehisced.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Wind-Pollinated.</span> The pollen is shot out of the anthers,
-when they spring forward, and is caught by long stigmatic hairs.
-<i>Parietaria diffusa</i> is protogynous (Fig. <a href="#fig341">341</a>).</p>
-
-<p>500 species; chiefly in the Tropics, although the few species
-which occur in Europe are represented by a much larger number
-of individuals.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Uses.</span> The bast of the native species
-<i>Urtica dioica</i> and <i>urens</i>, of <i>U. cannabina</i>
-(Siberia), etc.; of <i>Boehmeria nivea</i> “Ramié” and
-“China-grass” (from Sunda Is., China), and others, is used in
-the manufacture of muslin.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Moraceæ</b> (<b>Mulberries</b>). Nearly all trees or
-shrubs, seldom herbs, generally with latex. The leaves are scattered,
-and not infrequently lobed. The flowers are <i>unisexual</i> (monœcious
-or diœcious) and arranged in catkin- or capitulum-like, compound
-inflorescences. Perianth-leaves 2–6, generally 4, with an equal number
-of stamens opposite to them, as in the Nettles. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_354">[354]</span> ovary is 1–seldom
-2-locular, and has 2 stigmas (it is thus formed from 2 carpels) seldom
-only one style with one stigma. One ovule in each loculus, more or
-less curved, and <i>pendulous</i>; micropyle directed upwards. Fruit
-usually a drupe. The embryo is generally curved inside the <i>fleshy
-endosperm</i>, or it is exendospermous.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig342" style="width: 326px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig342.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 342.</span>&mdash;<i>Morus alba</i> ♂ flower (6/1).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig343" style="width: 316px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig343.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 343.</span>-<i>Morus alba</i> ♀ inflorescence.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig344" style="width: 320px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig344.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 344.</span>&mdash;<i>Morus nigra</i> fruits.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Moreæ.</span> The filaments are incurved in the bud.
-Leaves folded in the bud&mdash;<i>Morus</i> (Mulberry) (Figs. <a href="#fig342">342–344</a>).
-Monœcious. The inflorescences are catkin-like in appearance, but in
-reality composed of many small dichasia. The flowers are similar to
-those of the Nettle, but with 2 carpels: in the ♂ with perianth 2 + 2,
-and stamens 2 + 2 (Fig. <a href="#fig342">342</a>), in the ♀, perianth 2 + 2, and 2 carpels
-in regular alternation. The small drupes are enveloped by <i>the
-perianth, which eventually becomes fleshy</i>, and as all the flowers
-on the axis very accurately fit together, the collection of fruits is
-formed, which we call a Mulberry (Fig. <a href="#fig344">344</a>). The leaves are folded
-in the buds, and have small stipules. <span class="smaller">The following are allied to
-<i>Morus</i>:&mdash;<i>Maclura</i>, <i>Broussonetia</i> (the Paper-mulberry
-tree) which has spheroid ♀ inflorescences (made up of dichasia),
-etc.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Dorstenia</i> presents an interesting transitional form
-to the Fig in its flat, open, and, in some instances, lobed
-inflorescence on which the ♂ and ♀ flowers are sunk in grooves.
-Indications of a somewhat similar structure are found in certain
-Nettles, the sympodial axes of the dichasia becoming flatly
-expanded. The fruits are 1-seeded, but, nevertheless, spring
-open and eject their seeds.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Artocarpeæ.</span> Filaments straight in the bud;
-foliage-leaves with convolute vernation. An interpetiolar leaf-sheath
-(ocrea) formed in the axil of each leaf by the connate stipules, covers
-the younger leaves as a hood. It falls off as the leaf expands, and
-leaves a ring-like scar on the stem.&mdash;<i>Ficus</i> (the Fig). The
-inflorescence (the so-called syconus) has a pear-shaped,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_355">[355]</span> fleshy, but
-hollow axis, on the interior surface of which the flowers are situated
-(Fig. <a href="#fig345">345</a>). It is a kind of capitulum, with a hollow receptacle,
-whose “involucral” leaves close over the entrance to the interior;
-it is not, however, a simple capitulum, but a coalescence of cymose
-inflorescences. The edible parts are the fleshy stem-portion and
-perianth-leaves. The ♂-flower has a 2–6 divided perianth, 1–2 (–6)
-stamens; the ♀-flower has an oblique ovary. The fruits are drupes,
-with thin flesh.&mdash;<span class="smaller">Many species have aerial roots, and some live
-as epiphytes on trees. <span class="smcap">Pollination</span>, in the edible Fig, is
-effected by a small Gall-wasp (<i>Cynips psenes</i> L.), which lays
-its eggs in the Fig, and hence carries the pollen away. Even in very
-ancient times it was customary to hang infected wild Figs on the
-branches of cultivated ones, so that the young Gall-wasps, as they
-emerged, could immediately effect the pollination (caprification).
-<i>Ficus carica</i>, and other species, have two kinds of ♀-flowers,
-besides the ♂-flowers. One kind has a short style and no stigmatic
-hairs, and it is only in the ovaries of these that the wasps lay their
-eggs (gall-flowers); the other kind has a long style and well-developed
-stigmatic-hairs, but the wasps cannot reach their ovaries&mdash;these are
-“seed-flowers.” There are, moreover, two kinds of plants of <i>Ficus
-carica</i>; ♀-plants, which have only seed-flowers, and bear the edible
-Figs, and ♂-plants (called “Caprificus”), which bear inedible fruits,
-and have ♂-flowers at the upper part of the Fig, but gall-flowers at
-the base. [The Caprificus, at Naples, bears three crops of inedible
-Figs each year, viz. <i>Mamme</i> (April), <i>Profichi</i> (June),
-<i>Mamnoni</i> (August). The ♂-flowers are produced especially in
-June, the first Figs being almost entirely ♀, and the last having but
-few ♂-flowers. Each crop produces a new generation of Fig-wasps. The
-female wasp enters the Figs on the Caprificus, and lays one egg in
-each flower, with the result that the flower developes into a kind of
-gall. The mother-wasp dies within the Fig. The male wasp is wingless;
-it bites a small passage into the ovaries containing the female wasps,
-and impregnates them; the female wasps then escape from the Fig, those
-in the <i>Profichi</i> carrying pollen away with them as they pass
-out. They then enter another Fig, lay their eggs, and die. The edible
-Fig-tree similarly has three crops in the year, <i>Fiori di fico</i>,
-<i>Pedagnuoli</i>, <i>Cimaruoli</i>. The wasps, entering these Figs,
-are unable to lay their eggs in the ovary, but, nevertheless, they
-effect cross-pollination on entering the <i>Pedagnuoli</i>, which bear
-fertile seeds.]</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig345" style="width: 233px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig345.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 345.</span>&mdash;A Fig in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_356">[356]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The flowers of <i>Brosimum</i> are the most reduced. The
-perianth is wanting, and the ♂-flower has only 1 stamen.
-<i>Cecropia</i> (Trumpet-tree), in S. Am., has its pith divided
-into chambers; these are inhabited by ants, which feed upon
-small food-bodies formed on the swollen base of the petioles.
-The leaves are petiolated, often shield-like, fringed or lobed,
-and sometimes with white felted hairs. They serve as food for
-<i>Bradypus</i> (the Sloth). <i>Sorocea</i>; <i>Castilloa</i>.</p>
-
-<p>About 300 species exclusively in the warmer climates. The
-white Mulberry (<i>M. alba</i>, from China, India, Mongolia)
-is cultivated for the sake of its leaves, which are the
-indispensable food for silkworms. The black Mulberry (<i>M.
-nigra</i>, W. Asia) is cultivated for its fruits, which are
-used for the officinal Mulberry juice. The ordinary Fig-tree
-(<i>Ficus carica</i>) is from the Mediterranean. The fruit
-of the well-known Oriental Sycamore (<i>F. sycomorus</i>) is
-edible. The Bread-fruit tree (<i>Artocarpus incisa</i>) and
-the Jack (<i>A. integrifolia</i>) have their home in the South
-Sea Islands, and are cultivated in tropical countries. The
-Bread-fruit is morphologically the same as the Mulberry. It
-has a very large, spheroid inflorescence, whose floral-leaves
-and perianth become fleshy and united into one nutritious
-mass, together with the axis, which is also fleshy. The milky
-juice of the India-rubber tree (<i>Ficus elastica</i>, East
-Indies, a common house-plant), and of <i>Castilloa elastica</i>
-(Am.) is the raw material of India-rubber. The milky juice of
-<i>Galactodendron utile</i> (Cow-tree, S. Am.) is saccharine and
-nutritious, but in <i>Antiaris toxicaria</i> (the Upas-tree,
-of Java) it is a strong poison. The bast of the Paper-Mulberry
-tree (<i>Br. papyrifera</i>, Eastern Asia); is used in Japan for
-paper. Shellac is obtained from a small, hemipterous insect
-(<i>Coccus lacca</i>), which lives upon <i>Ficus laccifera</i>
-and <i>F. religiosa</i> (the Bo-tree, sacred to Buddha), E.
-India. The wood of <i>Maclura aurantica</i> (Am.) has a yellow
-colour, and is known as yellow Brazilian wood.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Cannabaceæ.</b> The plants which belong to this order
-are <i>aromatic herbs</i>, either annuals or perennials, <i>without
-latex</i>. Leaves <i>palminerved</i>, and more or less divided, hispid,
-and with free, persistent stipules. Flowers always <i>diœcious</i>;
-♂-flowers in panicles, formed of dichasia, passing over into uniparous
-scorpioid cymes. They differ from the Nettles, particularly in the
-5-leaved perianth of the ♂-flower, the 5 stamens (Fig. <a href="#fig346">346–351</a>) with
-filaments <i>erect</i> in the bud, and in the ♀-flower by the small,
-entire, cup-like perianth, which surrounds the base of the ovary (Fig.
-<a href="#fig346">346</a>, p. <a href="#Page_352">352</a>). The ovary has two styles, or one divided into two, with
-two stigmas and a pendulous, curved ovule (Fig. <a href="#fig346">346</a> <i>B</i>, <a href="#fig352">352</a>
-<i>B</i>); the fruit is a nut; the <i>embryo</i> is <i>curved</i>
-(Hemp, Fig. <a href="#fig353">353</a>), or rolled (Hop, Fig. <a href="#fig349">349</a>), <i>without endosperm</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig346" style="width: 511px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig346.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 346.</span>&mdash;Diagram of male and female flowers
-of the Hop and Hemp: <i>b</i> the bract, <i>p</i> the perianth. The
-position of the embryo is indicated.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_357">[357]</span></p>
-
-<p>Only 2 genera with 3 species (Asiatic), of which two are
-cultivated.&mdash;<i>Humulus lupulus</i> (Hop, Figs. <a href="#fig347">347–349</a>) is a twining,
-perennial plant, twisting to the right, with opposite, palmilobed,
-rough leaves, and large, interpetiolar stipules. The ♀-flowers are
-situated in closely-flowered, cone-like, compound inflorescences, with
-ultimately large, thin, imbricate floral-leaves (Fig. <a href="#fig348">348</a>) which bear
-the yellow, glandular hairs, containing lupulin. <span class="smaller">This inflorescence
-is made up as follows:&mdash;The most external floral-leaves are situated in
-pairs, and are the persistent stipules of a leaf, the blade of which
-has become suppressed, or in any case is rudimentary. Such a pair of
-stipules supports 4 (2–6) flowers in a double uniparous cyme, whose
-central axis does not develope into a flower. The bracts of these
-flowers (bracteoles of the partial inflorescence) become, at maturity,
-very large, spathe-like, and, together with the stipules, produce a
-cone-like appearance.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig347" style="width: 248px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig347.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig348" style="width: 299px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig348.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 347–348.</span>&mdash;<i>Humulus lupulus</i>: 347,
-twining stem; 348, branch with strobiles.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Cannabis sativa</i> (Hemp, Figs. <a href="#fig350">350–353</a>) is an East Indian herb,
-with palmilobed leaves, and differs from the Hop in being annual,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_358">[358]</span>
-erect, and in having its leaves opposite at the base and scattered
-above. The ♀-inflorescence is not cone-like as in the Hop, but the
-flowers are similar in construction. <span class="smaller">The main difference is to be
-found in the axillary shoot, which was suppressed in the Hop, and is in
-the Hemp developed into a leaf-bearing shoot which on each side bears
-only one ♀-flower, and in the fact that the bracts are not so strongly
-developed.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The “Hops” (the female inflorescences) are used in brewing,
-and medicinally on account of the yellow glands which contain
-lupulin. The Indian variety of <i>Cannabis sativa</i> contains
-an abundance of glandular hairs and resin. The withered
-inflorescences are used in medicine and are officinal. The bast
-of the stems of the Hemp is also used and the fat oil of the
-seeds. In Oriental countries the entire plant is used in the
-preparation of an intoxicating drink (haschisch), the narcotic
-material being found in the glandular hairs.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig349" style="width: 288px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig349.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 349.</span>&mdash;<i>Humulus lupulus</i>: fruit in
-longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig350">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig350.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig351">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig351.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig352">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig352.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig353">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig353.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Figs. 350–353.</span>&mdash;<i>Cannabis sativa</i>: 350,
-♂-plant; 351, ♂-flower; 352, ♀-flower, entire and in longitudinal
-section; 353, fruit in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 6. <b>Polygonifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>This family is on one side closely allied to the <i>Urticaceæ</i>
-by its solitary, <i>basal</i>, <i>vertical</i>, and <i>straight</i>
-ovule, and by the conical ocrea which envelopes the younger leaves
-in the bud, similar characters<span class="pagenum" id="Page_359">[359]</span> being present in the Urticaceæ. On
-the other side it is related to the Curvembryæ. The flowers are
-small, often <i>trimerous</i>, regular and slightly perigynous (<span class="smaller">in
-<i>Chloranthaceæ</i>, if they properly belong to this family, and
-<i>Houttuynia</i>, more or less epigynous</span>). Syncarps are present in
-some Piperaceæ, but the fruit is generally a single fruit, one-seeded
-berry, nut or drupe. The leaves are generally scattered.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Polygonaceæ.</b> The majority are herbaceous plants with
-round, often jointed stems, scattered leaves and <i>ocrea</i>, that
-is a membranous, tubular, ligular or stipular structure <i>inside</i>
-the base of the leaf, which clasps the stem and axillary bud; the
-edges of the lamina are rolled backwards in the bud. The flowers are
-regular, small, generally ☿, slightly perigynous, with inconspicuous,
-simple, green or white perianth of 5–6 free segments; stamens 5–9 (Fig.
-<a href="#fig354">354</a>) sometimes arranged in two series; gynœceum 2–3 carpels, ovary
-<i>unilocular</i> with <i>one basal</i>, <i>straight</i> (orthotropous)
-<i>ovule</i>, 2–3 <i>free styles</i>. The fruit is a 2–3-angular nut;
-the embryo, with mealy endosperm, is straight or curved (Fig. <a href="#fig355">355</a>
-<i>H</i>), often unsymmetrical.&mdash;<span class="smaller">The inflorescences are compound,
-and generally branch from the axils of the bracteoles, so that the last
-partial-inflorescences become coiled, uniparous scorpioid cymes; in
-<i>Polygonum</i> the two bracteoles unite into a membranous tube; in
-<i>Rheum</i> and <i>Rumex</i> there is only one bracteole.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig354" style="width: 622px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig354.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 354.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i> Diagram of <i>Rheum</i>;
-<i>B</i> of <i>Rumex</i>; <i>C</i> of <i>Polygonum fagopyrum</i>;
-<i>D</i> of <i>P. lapathifolium</i>. The ovules are indicated inside
-the ovaries; bracts and bracteoles are not shown.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Rheum</i> (Rhubarb, Fig. <a href="#fig354">354</a> <i>A</i>) has a 6-leaved,
-<i>petaloid</i> perianth (Pn 3 + 3) and 9 stamens (A 3<sup>2</sup> + 3). The
-<i>3-winged</i> nut is <i>not</i> enclosed by the perianth.</p>
-
-<p><i>Rumex</i> (Dock, Fig. <a href="#fig354">354</a> <i>B</i>) has 6 stamens (A 3<sup>2</sup> + 0); the
-perianth is 6-leaved (Pr 3 + 3), green or red, and the triangular nut
-is enveloped by the 3 interior perianth-leaves, which point upwards
-and continue to grow after flowering. These perianth-leaves often have
-warts on their outer surface. <span class="smaller">The following are monœcious: <i>R.
-acetosa</i> and <i>R. acetosella</i>.</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Polygonum</i> (Knot-grass, Figs. <a href="#fig354">354</a> <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>; 355). The
-<i>petaloid</i> perianth is most frequently 5-merous (2/5 spiral); 5–8
-stamens. The nut is triangular (Fig. <a href="#fig354">354</a> <i>C</i>, 355), or lenticular
-(Fig. <a href="#fig354">354</a> <i>D</i>).<span class="pagenum" id="Page_360">[360]</span> <span class="smaller">There are two whorls of stamens, the external
-with introrse, and the internal with extrorse anthers. The gynœceum is
-often bicarpellate (Fig. <a href="#fig354">354</a> <i>D</i>).</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The flowers may be considered as constructed upon the
-monocotyledonous type. <i>Pterostegia</i> has a perfectly
-monocotyledonous flower with 5 trimerous whorls. <i>Rheum</i>
-likewise, but here the external staminal whorl is doubled (Fig.
-<a href="#fig254">254</a> <i>A</i>). <i>Oxyria</i> has a dimerous <i>Rheum</i>-flower
-(4-leaved perianth, 6 stamens, 2 stigmas). <i>Rumex</i> has a
-<i>Rheum</i>-flower with the suppression of the internal whorl
-of stamens (Fig. <a href="#fig354">354</a> <i>B</i>); <i>Emex</i> is a dimerous
-<i>Rumex</i>. <i>Polygonum</i>, to which <i>Coccoloba</i>,
-<i>Muehlenbeckia</i> and others are related, differs from
-<i>Rheum</i> chiefly in having one of the leaves, which in the
-latter takes part in the formation of the perianth, developed
-in this case into a bracteole (so that the perianth is reduced
-to five members), and several or all the stamens in the inner
-whorl become suppressed.&mdash;The perianth in <i>Coccoloba</i> and
-<i>Muehlenbeckia</i> is more or less perigynous and becomes
-fleshy, enclosing the fruit. <i>Muehlenbeckia platyclada</i> has
-flat branches with rudimentary leaves; sometimes branches with
-normal, arrow-shaped leaves are found. <i>Atraphaxis.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig355" style="width: 619px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig355.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 355.</span>&mdash;<i>Polygonum fagopyrum</i>: <i>A</i>
-branch with flower and fruits (nat. size); <i>B</i> flower; <i>C</i>
-the same in longitudinal section; <i>D</i> anterior and posterior view
-of stamen; <i>E</i> gynœceum; <i>F</i> fruit (mag.); <i>G</i> fruit in
-longitudinal section; <i>H</i> transverse section, showing the curved
-cotyledons embedded in the endosperm; <i>I</i> the embryo.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_361">[361]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> <i>Rumex</i> is wind-pollinated, the
-stigmas are therefore large and brush-like (indicated in
-Fig. <a href="#fig354">354</a> <i>B</i>). <i>Rheum</i> and <i>Polygonum</i> are
-insect-pollinated and have therefore capitate stigmas, etc.;
-honey-glands are situated at the base of the stamens (<i>d</i>,
-in Fig. <a href="#fig354">354</a> <i>C</i>, and <i>n</i> in Fig. <a href="#fig356">356</a>); a few
-small-flowered <i>Polygonum</i> species are self-pollinated;
-Buckwheat (<i>P. fagopyrum</i>) is dimorphic and has long-styled
-and short-styled flowers (Fig. <a href="#fig356">356</a>). <i>Pol. bistorta</i> is
-protandrous and homostyled.</p>
-
-<p>About 750 species, most of which are found in the temperate
-regions of the Northern Hemisphere, some reaching as far as
-the snow line or into the Arctic regions (<i>Oxyria</i>,
-<i>Kœnigia</i>). Trees and shrubs are found in the Tropics:
-<i>Coccoloba</i>, <i>Triplaris</i>. <i>Rheum</i> is Central
-Asiatic.&mdash;The thick rhizomes of <i>R. officinale</i>
-(<i>Rhubarb</i>) are <i>officinal</i>. The rhizomes of the
-ordinarily cultivated species, <i>R. undulatum</i> and
-<i>rhaponticum</i>, are used in veterinary medicine. The
-following are cultivated as culinary plants for the sake
-of their leaves:&mdash;<i>Rumex acetosa</i> (Sorrel), <i>R.
-patientia</i>, <i>R. scutatus</i>, and <i>Rheum undulatum</i>
-(petioles). Several species of <i>Polygonum</i> (<i>P.
-hydropiper</i> and others) have a sharp, pungent taste.
-“Buckwheat” is the mealy fruit of <i>Polygonum fagopyrum</i>
-(Central Asia) and is of value as a farinaceous food. <i>P.
-cuspidatum</i> (<i>P. sieboldi</i>, Japan) is an ornamental
-plant.&mdash;<i>Calligonum</i> in sandy and stony deserts.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig356" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig356.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 356.</span>&mdash;Flower of <i>Polygonum fagopyrum</i>
-in longitudinal section: 1, long-styled; 2, short-styled; <i>a</i> the
-anthers; <i>st</i> the stigmas; <i>n</i> nectary.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Piperaceæ (Peppers).</b> Shrubs or herbs, often with
-nodose, jointed stem; leaves simple, entire, often with curved veins;
-stipules wanting (<i>Peperomia</i>) or intrapetiolar and cap-like,
-often enclosing the terminal buds (<i>Piper</i>). The flowers in the
-group <i>Pipereæ</i> (<i>Piper</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig357">357</a>, and <i>Peperomia</i>) are
-borne in spikes with fleshy axes (<i>club-like</i>), seldom in racemes,
-the outer ones are crowded and are ☿ or unisexual, always small,
-<i>naked</i> and without bracteoles; <span class="smaller">generally stamens 3 + 3, and
-gynœceum 3, but the number of the stamens may be reduced by suppression
-to 2, and the carpels to 1</span>. The flowers are situated in the axils
-of the small, generally shield-like floral-leaves. The ovary is always
-<i>unilocular</i> and has <i>one upright, orthotropous</i> ovule. Fruit
-a berry or drupe. Both endosperm and <i>perisperm</i> are present, the
-latter being especially well developed (Fig. <a href="#fig359">359</a>).</p>
-
-<p><i>Piper</i>; generally shrubs with scattered leaves, and terminal<span class="pagenum" id="Page_362">[362]</span>
-inflorescences which are crowded to one side by the development of the
-highest lateral bud, so that they are situated opposite the leaves
-(Fig. <a href="#fig357">357</a>). Many species have stems with an abnormal anatomical
-structure.&mdash;<i>Peperomia</i>; chiefly succulent herbs, often epiphytes,
-with opposite or verticillate leaves having aqueous tissue on the upper
-side.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig357" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig357.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 357.</span>&mdash;<i>Piper nigrum</i>: branch with
-fruit (½)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The group <i>Saurureæ</i> (considered by some as an order, and
-perhaps representing a more original type) has 3–4 carpels with
-many ovules. <i>Lactoris</i> stands the highest with regular
-3-merous perianth, 3 + 3 stamens and 3 carpels, which are united
-at the base. Fruit a capsule with several seeds. (It has one
-species from the island of Juan Fernandez, and is also placed in
-an order of its own, Lactoridaceæ, allied to the Magnoliaceæ,
-through <i>Drimys</i>).&mdash;<i>Saururus</i> has naked flowers;
-most frequently 6 stamens, and 4 carpels, free or united at
-the base, each with 2-4 orthotropous ovules. Fruit, small
-berries.&mdash;<i>Houttuynia</i>; stamens situated a little upward on
-the ovaries; placentation parietal; capsule many-seeded.</p>
-
-<p>About 1,000 species; entirely tropical, especially from
-South America and East India. They are found chiefly among
-the underwood in damp, shady places; some, which are fleshy
-(<i>Peperomia</i>), live as epiphytes on trees; a few climb by<span class="pagenum" id="Page_363">[363]</span>
-roots.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Uses.</span> Several Piperaceæ are used medicinally
-and for spices on account of their pungent properties and the
-essential oils found in nearly all parts of the plant. The
-following are <i>officinal</i>: “Black-pepper” (the unripe,
-dried fruits) and “White-pepper” (the seeds of the ripe fruits)
-of <i>Piper nigrum</i> (climbing shrub, East Indian); “Cubeb”
-berries of <i>P. cubeba</i> (climbing shrub, Java). “Long-pepper”
-is the unripe inflorescence of <i>P. longum</i>, East India. The
-leaves of <i>P. angustifolia</i> (Matico) are officinal. The
-leaves of the Betelpepper (East India) are used together with
-the nuts of the Areca-palm to form the well-known East Indian
-intoxicating compound “Betel.” A good many others are also used.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig358" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig358.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 358.</span>&mdash;<i>Piper nigrum</i> (Diagram). In
-addition to the bract there are two structures resembling bracteoles.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig359" style="width: 276px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig359.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 359.</span>&mdash;<i>Piper nigrum</i>: Fruit in
-longitudinal section, showing the endosperm, perisperm, and pericarp.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Chloranthaceæ.</b> (<i>Chloranthus</i>,
-<i>Hedyosmum</i>) have opposite leaves, with stipules more
-or less united at the base, and inferior “drupes.” Ovules
-pendulous. Only endosperm. About 33 species, Tropical.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 7. <b>Curvembryæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The plants in this family have a <i>curved ovule</i>, and most
-frequently a <i>kidney-shaped seed</i> (generally provided with fine,
-cuticular, projecting warts, Fig. <a href="#fig362">362</a> <i>B</i>), with a <i>curved,
-peripheral embryo enclosing the endosperm which is most frequently
-floury</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig362">362</a> <i>C</i>, <a href="#fig365">365</a> <i>H</i>; for exceptions, see Fig.
-<a href="#fig366">366</a>); the seeds in all cases are borne on a <i>centrally-placed</i>,
-and in most cases <i>free</i>, placenta (they are “basal” when there
-is only 1 ovule in the ovary, Fig. <a href="#fig364">364</a>). The flower is regular,
-hypogynous or perigynous (Fig. <a href="#fig364">364</a>) (only rarely epigynous) and
-usually 5-<i>merous</i>. The flower which is most complete has 5
-whorls (S5, P5, A5+5, G2-3–5), as in some genera of the Caryophyllaceæ
-(Figs. <a href="#fig360">360</a>, <a href="#fig361">361</a>); but from this type it becomes reduced, the petals
-and stamens being suppressed, so that finally 5 perianth-leaves,
-5 stamens (opposite the perianth-leaves), and 2 carpels (Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a>
-<i>F</i>) only are present; for example,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_364">[364]</span> in certain genera of the
-<i>Caryophyllaceæ</i>, in the <i>Chenopodiaceæ</i>, <i>Amarantaceæ</i>,
-and others. When the number of stamens is increased to more than 5
-in the whorl, it is always possible to show that some of the stamens
-have been divided. The number of the carpels and ovules also becomes
-reduced; in the highest there is a central placenta, not free in its
-early stages, with a large number of ovules; in those which are most
-reduced there is only a single ovule, which is placed centrally at
-the base of the ovary [Fig. <a href="#fig364">364</a>]. Somewhat corresponding changes are
-found in the fruit, which is a many-seeded <i>capsule</i> in those
-which have many ovules, but a one-seeded <i>nut</i> where there
-is one ovule. In the most reduced forms the flowers are generally
-unisexual.&mdash;Similar features are also present in the vegetative parts.
-Almost all the species are herbaceous, the leaves are simple and most
-frequently without stipules. <span class="smaller">The structure of the stem, especially
-in Chenopodiaceæ, Amarantaceæ, Nyctaginiaceæ and others, often differs
-from that of the ordinary Dicotyledon. In the woody portion of the stem
-and root several rings are sometimes formed which resemble annual rings
-but which are formed by new cambium-rings arising outside the old ones
-which then cease to divide.</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Caryophyllaceæ.</b> Herbaceous plants, with round, nodose
-stem; leaves <i>opposite</i>, slightly amplexicaul, simple, with
-sessile, undivided, entire lamina; stipules nearly always absent;
-the inflorescences are <i>dichasia</i> passing over into unipared
-scorpioid cymes. The flowers are regular, ☿ or unisexual, hypogynous or
-perigynous, 5-(or 4-) merous with 2–3–4–5 carpels; calyx persistent;
-corolla polypetalous. The ovary is unilocular (or originally, and
-sometimes also in the later stages, plurilocular below, <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Viscaria</i>), with <i>free styles</i> and 1–several curved ovules
-on a <i>central</i>, free placenta. The fruit is a nut or a capsule
-opening apically with long or short valves (teeth, Fig. <a href="#fig362">362</a>), equal
-to or double the carpels. For the seeds refer to the family. <span class="smaller">In
-<i>Dianthus</i> the embryo is straight.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The flowers which are most complete have <i>Sn</i>, <i>Pn</i>,
-<i>An</i> + <i>n</i> (obdiplostemonous), <i>Gn</i> where
-<i>n</i> = 5 (Figs. <a href="#fig360">360</a>, <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>A</i>) or 4 (Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>B</i>);
-the carpels may be placed opposite to the sepals (Fig. <a href="#fig360">360</a>) or
-opposite to the petals (Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>). Without
-any change taking place in the position of the other whorls, the
-carpels are next found reduced to 2–3–4 (see the genera); their
-number may easily be recognised by that of the styles. This is
-the construction in the majority of the genera in the two first
-groups. <i>Stellaria media</i> differs considerably. It may
-have (<i>a</i>) the flower as described above, with <i>G3</i>;
-(<i>b</i>), the corolla only absent, or (<i>c</i>) only the
-petal-stamens (A5 + 0, Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>C</i>), or (<i>d</i>) all
-these as well as some of the sepal-stamens. The same applies
-to <i>Sagina</i>, <i>Alsine</i>, <i>Cerastium</i>, and others,
-and, finally, a series of genera are formed, with certain
-conditions<span class="pagenum" id="Page_365">[365]</span> of reduction which have become constant, and by a
-gradual series of steps lead to the most reduced form, which has
-only 5 sepals and 5 (or even as far as only 1) sepal-stamens
-(Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>D</i>, <i>E</i>, <i>F</i>).&mdash;The <span class="allsmcap">PETALS</span>
-in the <i>Alsineæ</i> are often deeply bifid. The sepal-stamens
-are most frequently the longest, and bear nectaries at the base
-(Fig. <a href="#fig363">363</a> <i>st</i>). In the most complete forms the ovary has
-partition-walls in the lower portion (Fig. <a href="#fig360">360</a>); these do not,
-however, reach to the top, and generally soon disappear. The
-ovules, when numerous, are situated on the placenta in as many
-double rows as there are carpels. In the number of ovules a
-reduction from many to 1 takes place (Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a>). A comparison
-proves that the “free, centrally placed” placenta is formed by
-the ventral portion of the carpels. The single basal ovule in
-<i>Herniaria</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig364">364</a>), <i>Scleranthus</i>, and others, is
-also borne on the carpels.</p>
-
-<p>The vegetative <i>branching</i> is characteristic. One of
-the leaves in a pair is formed before the other, and has a
-more vigorous axillary bud; these stronger leaves stand in a
-¼-spiral, the fifth above the first one, and the branches are
-consequently arranged in the same manner. In the inflorescence,
-however, it is the upper or second bracteole (β) whose axillary
-bud (<i>w</i> in Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a>) is most advanced. The bud of the
-first bracteole (α) becomes sometimes entirely suppressed, or in
-some this bracteole itself is suppressed.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig360" style="width: 294px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig360.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 360.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Lychnis</i>: α, β
-bracteoles.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig361" style="width: 700px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig361.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 361.</span>&mdash;<i>A-F</i> Diagrams of flowers of
-the Caryophyllaceæ: <i>A Agrostemma</i>; <i>B Sagina</i>;
-<i>C Stellaria</i>; <i>D Corrigiola</i>; <i>E</i>
-<i>Paronychia</i>; <i>F Herniaria</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The most original type appears to be represented by the Alsineæ.
-From this form on one side the Sileneæ, adapted in a higher
-degree for insect-pollination, are developed, and on the other
-side the Paronychieæ, with various reductions.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Alsineæ, Stitchwort Group.</span> Sepals free, and
-connected with them stellately expanded, slightly unguiculate (white or
-inodorous)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_366">[366]</span> petals; these, however, often become suppressed (Fig. <a href="#fig363">363</a>).
-The fruit is a capsule.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig362" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig362.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 362.</span>&mdash;<i>Cerastium arvense</i>: <i>A</i>
-fruit; <i>B</i> seed; <i>C</i> section of seed.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>a.</b> As many carpels as sepals (4 or 5). <i>Cerastium</i>
-(Chickweed). The petals are bifid. Capsule cylindrical, frequently
-<i>curved</i> at the top, and opening by 10 teeth (Fig.
-<a href="#fig362">362</a>).&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Malachium</i> differs only in the 5-toothed capsule with
-bifid teeth.</span>&mdash;<i>Spergula</i> (Spurry). The petals are not bifid,
-capsule 5-valved; seeds winged. The leaves are linear, and appear as if
-placed in large numbers in a whorl, a branch being situated in the axil
-of each with leaves placed very close together at its base; <i>stipules
-membranous</i>.&mdash;<span class="smaller">Sagina has Sn, Pn, An + n, or An, Gn, where n = 4
-or 5. The corolla is often wanting.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>b.</b> 3 (rarely 2) carpels (Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>C</i>). <i>Stellaria</i>
-(Stitchwort) has deeply cleft petals. The number of stamens varies
-(see above).&mdash;<i>Arenaria</i> has entire petals. <span class="smaller">(To this
-group belong <i>Alsine</i>, <i>Moehringia</i>, <i>Halianthus</i>,
-or <i>Honckenya</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig363">363</a>), which differ from each other,
-especially in the form of the seed and number of the capsular
-valves.) <i>Spergularia</i> has membranous stipules, as in
-<i>Spergula</i>.&mdash;<i>Holosteum.</i></span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig363" style="width: 750px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig363.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 363.</span>&mdash;<i>Arenaria</i> (<i>Halianthus</i>)
-<i>peploides</i>: ♀-(<i>A</i>) and ♂-flower (<i>B</i>, <i>C</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Paronychieæ</span> (Figs. <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>D</i>, <i>E</i>,
-<i>F</i>; <a href="#fig364">364</a>). Small, greenish<span class="pagenum" id="Page_367">[367]</span> plants. The leaves, in the majority,
-are opposite, with <i>membranous stipules</i>. The flowers are most
-frequently arranged in small <i>dichasia</i>; they are small and
-insignificant, perigynous (Fig. <a href="#fig364">364</a>) or hypogynous. The corolla is in
-most cases wanting, and when present is very small; in general the
-calyx-stamens are developed, but the corolla-stamens may be represented
-by small scales (Fig. <a href="#fig364">364</a>). Ovary most frequently with 1 ovule.
-Fruit, a <i>nut</i>, rarely a capsule; it is enclosed by the strongly
-perigynous floral axis (torus).</p>
-
-<p><i>Scleranthus</i> (Knapwell) is perigynous with bell-shaped torus;
-no corolla; corolla-stamens are wanting or rudimentary; some
-calyx-stamens may also be absent.&mdash;<i>Corrigiola</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a>
-<i>D</i>); <i>Illecebrum</i>; <i>Paronychia</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>E</i>);
-<i>Herniaria</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>F</i>, <a href="#fig364">364</a>).</p>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Sileneæ, Pink or Carnation Group.</span> This has a
-<i>gamosepalous</i> calyx and unguiculate, white or red, petals, with
-<i>outgrowths</i> (<i>ligule</i>, <i>corona</i>, <i>paracorolla</i>) at
-the throat of the corolla. These structures are not found in the other
-groups, and are merely outgrowths at the junction of the limb and claw.
-The corolla, stamens and ovary are frequently raised above the calyx,
-upon a lengthened internode (<i>gynophore</i>). The flower has S5, P5,
-A5 + 5; fruit a capsule with many seeds.</p>
-
-<p><b>a.</b> 5-(rarely 3–4) carpellate ovary.&mdash;<i>Lychnis</i> (Campion,
-Fig. <a href="#fig360">360</a>). The corolla is longer than the calyx; corona present. The
-capsule is 10- or 5-toothed, completely 1-chambered or 5-chambered at
-the base,&mdash;the genus has been divided accordingly into several genera:
-<i>Melandrium</i>, <i>Lychnis</i>, <i>Viscaria</i>. <span class="smaller">Some species are
-unisexual by the abortion of stamens or carpels (<i>L. vespertina</i>,
-<i>diurna</i>).</span> <i>Agrostemma</i> (<i>A. githago</i>, Corn-cockle,
-Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>A</i>) has a long-toothed calyx, the teeth exceeding the
-corolla; corona absent; 5-toothed capsule.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig364" style="width: 300px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig364.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 364.</span>&mdash;<i>Herniaria glabra</i>: <i>a<sup>1</sup></i>
-flower; <i>b<sup>1</sup></i> longitudinal section through the flower; <i>c<sup>1</sup></i>
-stigma with two pollen-grains.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>b.</b> Tricarpellate.&mdash;<i>Silene</i> (Catch-fly). Six-toothed
-capsule; corona present in the majority.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Cucubalus</i> has
-berry-like fruits which finally become dry but do not dehisce.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>c.</b> Bicarpellate (2 styles, 4-toothed capsule).&mdash;<i>Dianthus</i>
-(Pink); at the base of the calyx 1–several pairs of floral-leaves are
-situated;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_368">[368]</span> corona absent. The <i>straight embryo</i> is a peculiar
-exception.&mdash;<i>Gypsophila</i> has a campanulate, open calyx, 5-nerved,
-membranous between the nerves; corona absent; the flowers are generally
-small and numerous, in a large, paniculate dichasia.&mdash;<i>Saponaria</i>
-(Soapwort) has corona.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> <i>Alsineæ</i> has ordinary nectaries at
-the base of the calyx-stamens (Fig. <a href="#fig336">336</a>): they are frequently
-protandrous but may often, in the absence of cross-pollination
-(in the less conspicuous species) pollinate themselves.
-Their open flowers are accessible to many kinds of insects
-(particularly flies and bees). <i>Gynodiœcious</i> flowers are
-found in several species, and the ☿-flowers are then generally
-more conspicuous than the ♀-flowers. That the ♀-flowers have
-descended from ☿-flowers is seen by the large staminodes found
-in them (Fig. <a href="#fig363">363</a>). <i>Arenaria peploides</i> is diœcious (Fig.
-<a href="#fig363">363</a>). The <i>Sileneæ</i> are as a rule adapted for pollination
-by insects with long probosces&mdash;especially butterflies,&mdash;and
-they are frequently protandrous, so that at first the
-calyx-stamens open, later on the corolla-stamens, then the
-stigmas expand. The honey is secreted by a ring-like nectary
-round the base of the ovary or by nectaries at the base of
-the stamens. Some only blossom and emit scent at night or in
-the evening (<i>Lychnis vespertina</i>, <i>Silene nutans</i>,
-<i>Saponaria officinalis</i>) and, like other night-flowers, are
-of a white or pale colour.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Distribution.</span> 1,100 species, especially in temperate
-climates, fewer in the colder zone, less still in the Tropics.
-The Paronychieæ are especially found in dry, sandy fields.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> “Soap-root” (with <i>Saponin</i>, forming
-a lather in water) from <i>Saponaria officinalis</i> was
-formerly officinal, and <i>Gypsophila struthium</i>. The seeds
-of <i>Agrostemma githago</i> are said to be poisonous.&mdash;The
-following are ornamental plants: species of Pinks (<i>D.
-caryophyllus</i>, garden Pink, often with double flowers; <i>D.
-barbatus</i>, <i>plumarius</i>, <i>etc.</i>). <i>Lychnis</i>,
-<i>Gypsophila</i>, <i>Silene</i>, <i>Cerastium</i> (<i>C.
-tomentosum</i> as edging for borders), <i>Saponaria
-officinalis</i> (often coronate).&mdash;<i>Spergula arvensis</i> is
-sometimes cultivated.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Amarantaceæ.</b> The flowers are essentially
-the same as in the <i>Chenopodiaceæ</i> and the extremely
-reduced Caryophyllaceæ (Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>F</i>); they are regular,
-hypogynous, generally ☿, have 5 free (rarely slightly united)
-perianth-leaves; in front of these 5 stamens, which <i>are often
-united</i> at their base into a shorter or longer tube and have
-stipule-like teeth between them (the division <i>Gomphreneæ</i>
-has 2-locular anthers, each of which opens longitudinally); and
-a 2–3 carpellate gynœceum with one loculus and most frequently
-one, more rarely several ovules; the fruit is a nut, more
-rarely (in <i>Celosia</i>, <i>Amarantus</i>, <i>Gomphrena</i>)
-a capsule, dehiscing irregularly, or like a pyxidium. The
-characters which especially separate them from the allied orders
-are found in the perianth. The perianth-leaves are not green and
-herbaceous, but <i>membranous, dry, and often coloured</i>; they
-are frequently produced into a bristle or awn; they have also
-both subtending floral-leaves and <i>2 large bracteoles similar
-to the perianth</i>; all these dry leaves persist without
-alteration after the withering of the flower.&mdash;The flowers are
-without scent. They are arranged in spike- or capitulum-like
-inflorescences; sometimes placed singly, sometimes aggregated
-in the panicle-like inflorescences; in others, on the contrary,
-in dichasia. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_369">[369]</span> majority are herbs, some are shrubs. The
-leaves are scattered, or opposite, but always simple and without
-stipules; some are smooth, others hairy.</p>
-
-<p>450 species; especially in the Tropics, principally S. Am. and
-E. Ind.: few are found outside these countries.&mdash;Only a few
-are used; some, chiefly E. Indian species, are cultivated as
-ornamental plants: <i>Amaranthus</i> (Fox-tail); <i>Gomphrena
-globosa</i>; <i>Celosia cristata</i> (Cock’s-comb) remarkable
-for its fasciated inflorescence; <i>Alternanthera</i>. Some are
-employed as culinary plants in the Tropics, and in a few of the
-E. Indian species the seeds are farinaceous, and used for food.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Chenopodiaceæ.</b> Generally herbaceous plants like
-the Caryophyllaceæ, but the leaves are arranged spirally (except
-<i>Salicornia</i>), and are simple, exstipulate; they are generally
-fleshy and like the stem “mealy,” that is, covered with small hairs,
-whose large spherical terminal cell readily falls away; otherwise they
-are seldom hairy. The inflorescences are generally flower-clusters
-borne in panicles. Bracteoles generally absent. Flowers generally
-<i>unisexual</i>: with the single exception of <i>Beta</i> the
-flowers are hypogynous; they are regular, small and inconspicuous,
-with <i>single, green</i>, 5-leaved, but <i>more or less united</i>
-perianth; 5 stamens opposite the perianth, and a <i>2–5-carpellate,
-unilocular</i> ovary with 1 basal, curved ovule; but in some genera the
-number of the perianth-leaves and stamens is reduced to 3–2–1–0. The
-fruit is generally a <i>nut</i>,&mdash;thus this flower and fruit are the
-same as in the reduced Caryophyllaceæ (Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>F</i>). The seed is
-similar to that generally found in the family (for exceptions see the
-genera).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The floral diagram most frequently present is the same as
-in Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>F</i>. There is no indication of corolla or
-of corolla-stamens, which may be supposed to have belonged
-to the plant, but which are now entirely and completely
-suppressed. This order appears to have been an offshoot from
-the Caryophyllaceæ.&mdash;The perianth persists after the withering
-of the flower, and envelopes the nut; it is very variable, and,
-together with the position of the seed, the form of the embryo,
-the sex of the flowers, etc., gives the characters of the genera.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Chenopodieæ</span>, <span class="smcap">Goosefoot Group</span> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig365">365</a>), has ☿ (or polygamous) flowers, with regular 5-parted perianth
-(<i>C</i>); the embryo is ring-like (<i>H</i>). The leaves have the
-ordinary flat forms.&mdash;<i>Chenopodium</i> (Goosefoot). The flower
-is hypogynous, and the fruit (which is compressed) perfectly free;
-Mulberry-like collections of fruits are formed in some species
-(sub-genus <i>Blitum</i>) by the perianth becoming finally fleshy
-and coloured.&mdash;<i>Beta</i> (Beet, Mangold, Fig. <a href="#fig365">365</a>) differs from
-all genera in the perianth, which finally becomes cartilaginous,
-being epigynous (<i>D</i>). Small, most frequently 2–3-flowered
-clusters without bracteoles, situated in a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_370">[370]</span> long, interrupted
-axis (<i>A</i>, <i>B</i>); the flowers and fruits in each cluster
-are more or less united individually, and fall off together&mdash;they
-are commonly known as seeds (<i>E</i>, <i>F</i>). The seed lies
-horizontally.&mdash;<i>Hablitzia</i> (<i>H. tamnoides</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig365" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig365.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 365.</span>&mdash;<i>Beta vulgaris.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig366" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig366.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 366.</span>&mdash;<i>Salsola soda</i>: embryo.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Salsoleæ</span>, <span class="smcap">Saltwort Group</span>, has cylindrical
-or semi-cylindrical leaves. Perianth as in the preceding group;
-the fruit is most frequently compressed. The two first mentioned
-genera differ from most of the others in the order in having a
-spirally-coiled,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_371">[371]</span> and not a ring-like embryo, so that the endosperm
-is slight or wanting (Fig. <a href="#fig366">366</a>). These plants are sometimes placed
-as a group by themselves, <span class="smcap">Spirolobeæ</span>&mdash;in contradistinction
-to which the others are termed <span class="smcap">Cyclolobeæ</span>.&mdash;<i>Salsola</i>
-(Saltwort); leaves subulate, with spiny tips; the flowers have
-2 spinous bracteoles: during the ripening of the fruit a tough
-leathery wing is developed transversely to the back of the
-perianth.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Chenopodina</i> deviates from <i>Chenopodium</i>
-chiefly in the embryo and want of endosperm.&mdash;<i>Kochia</i> has a
-somewhat similar perianth to <i>Salsola</i>, but a ring-like embryo; it
-differs from the others in being hairy.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Salicornieæ</span>, <span class="smcap">Glasswort Group</span>.
-<i>Salicornia</i> (Glasswort) has a very different appearance. The
-stems are succulent, jointed, and almost leafless; the leaves opposite,
-very small, sheath-like and connate; there is a depression in the axil
-of each leaf, in which a small 3-flowered dichasium without bracteoles
-is sunk; the flowers have a trimerous perianth, 1–2 stamens and 1
-carpel. No endosperm. <i>S. herbacea</i> on clayey beaches.</p>
-
-<p><b>4.</b> <span class="smcap">Atripliceæ.</span> This group has most frequently
-unisexual flowers; the ♂-flower has a 4–5 partite perianth, but the
-♀-flower differs from it. <i>Atriplex</i> is monœcious or polygamous,
-the ♀-flower is naked, but has 2 large, herbaceous bracteoles which
-expand during the ripening of the fruit, and often become warted
-and fringed, enveloping the <i>compressed nut</i>. <span class="smaller">The section
-<i>Dichospermum</i> has two kinds of ♀-flowers, one like those just
-described, the other similar to the <i>Chenopodium</i>-flowers,
-which have been deprived of their stamens, and the fruits of which
-are <i>depressed</i>, not pressed together from the sides; some
-(<i>e.g. A. hortensis</i>) have even three kinds of nuts. All
-the flowers of <i>Atriplex</i>, which present vertical fruits, are
-accessory shoots, which stand beneath the ordinary flower-clusters, a
-rather singular relation.</span>&mdash;<i>Spinacia</i> (Spinach) is diœcious;
-♂-flower: perianth, 4 (-5); stamens, 4 (-5); ♀-flower: tubular,
-2–4-partite perianth, hardening during the ripening of the fruit,
-and uniting with the compressed nut; in <i>S. oleracea</i>, it also
-forms <i>thorns</i>; 4 long stigmas.&mdash;<i>Halimus</i> has the 2 long
-bracteoles almost entirely united and ultimately adhering firmly to the
-fruit.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>5.</b> <span class="smcap">Baselleæ.</span> A somewhat exceptional group
-with more or less perigynous flowers and 2 bracteoles.
-<i>Basella</i>, <i>Boussingaultia</i>, <i>Ullucus</i>. The
-perianth is sepaloid; ovary 1-ovuled. In <i>Basella</i> the
-perianth is fleshy, enveloping the nut, and the cotyledons are
-so rolled together that a tranverse cut divides them in two
-places (as in Spirolobeæ). Herbaceous climbing plants.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> Wind-and self-pollination, as far as
-is known; the insignificant flowers, devoid of honey, appear
-to exclude insect-pollination.&mdash;520 species. Most of them
-are annual (out of 26 native species only 5 are perennial);<span class="pagenum" id="Page_372">[372]</span>
-inhabiting salt-marshes and salt-steppes, and growing as weeds
-(most frequently on garden or field soil containing manure)
-in this country, especially species of <i>Chenopodium</i> and
-<i>Atriplex</i>. The majority are found outside the Tropics,
-and play a very important part, for example, in the Asiatic
-salt-steppes. They grow gregariously in large masses.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> Comparatively few. The only important one is
-<i>Beta vulgaris</i> (from the Mediterranean basin), with its
-different varieties, viz. Beet-root, Cattle-beet or Red-beet,
-Sugar-beet, and others. These are biennial, making in the first
-year a root which acts as a reservoir of reserve material, with
-a rosette of leaves, and in the second year using this material
-in the production of a long stem, leaves and flowers. The
-primary root has been developed by cultivation into a very thick
-and fleshy tap-root; its mode of increase in thickness deviates
-from that of other roots, concentric rings of vascular bundles
-being formed from a cambial ring developed outside the previous
-ring. In this way several rings of vascular bundles separated
-by medullary rays, alternating with rings of parenchyma, may be
-found in the root of a Beet. Besides <i>Beta vulgaris</i>, var.
-<i>hortensis</i> (Beet-root), the following are also cultivated:
-var. <i>cicla</i> (Leaf-beet, “Mangold,” or “Roman Spinach
-”), <i>Spinacia oleracea</i> and <i>Atriplex hortensis</i>
-as Spinach; a form of the latter and of Spinach are grown as
-ornamental plants. The tubers of <i>Ullucus tuberosus</i> are
-used as potatoes; <i>Chenopodium quinoa</i>, in Chili and Peru,
-is an important farinaceous plant. Soda is made from some
-(<i>Salsola kali</i>, <i>Chenopodina maritima</i> and others).
-Aromatic properties are rare: <i>Chenopodium ambrosioides</i>
-and <i>botrys</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Batidaceæ.</b> <i>Batis maritima</i>, a bushy West
-Indian maritime plant.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Phytolaccaceæ.</b> The ☿ (sometimes unisexual),
-regular, sometimes slightly perigynous flowers are inconspicuous
-and have a single sepaloid or coloured 4–5-leaved perianth
-(generally united at the base); stamens either in 1 whorl in
-the spaces between the perianth-leaves or in 1 whorl opposite
-the perianth-leaves, or in 2, one of which alternates with
-these; but the number may be increased by the splitting
-of one or of both the whorls to as many as 10–15–20–25.
-<i>Carpels</i> sometimes only one, sometimes <i>many</i>
-(4–10) placed in a whorl, either free or united into a
-gynœceum with a corresponding number of loculi in the ovary;
-but in all cases <i>each carpel bears only its own style and
-1 ovule</i>. The fruit is a <i>berry</i> (or nut, capsule,
-or schizocarp).&mdash;Mostly herbs or herbaceous shrubs, with
-scattered, simple leaves without stipules (<i>Petiverieæ</i>;
-have stipules). Inflorescences, most frequently <i>racemes</i>
-or spikes, which in some instances are apparently placed
-opposite to a leaf, being displaced by a more vigorous growth
-of the axillary bud. Embryo always bent.&mdash;<i>Petiveria</i> has
-a straight embryo with rolled cotyledons.&mdash;<i>Phytolacca</i>,
-<i>Pircunia</i>, <i>Microtea</i>, <i>Seguieria</i>,
-<i>Rivina</i> (Pr4, A4, G1; berry), and others.</p>
-
-<p>The following plant is, with some doubt, placed near this order:
-<i>Thelygonum cynocrambe</i>; monœcious. ♂-flowers: perianth,
-2-leaved; stamens indefinite. ♀-flowers: perianth-leaves united,
-3-toothed; G1, style gynobasic. Fruit a drupe. An annual plant;
-Mediterranean. Branching anomalous.</p>
-
-<p>About 90 species; in tropical and temperate countries,
-principally America and Africa.&mdash;The red juice in the fruits,
-especially of <i>Phytol. decandra</i>, is used for colouring
-wine.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_373">[373]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Portulacaceæ</b> (<b>Portulacas</b>). The flowers are
-regular (except <i>Montia</i>), hypogynous (except <i>Portulaca</i>)
-and ☿. The diagram which applies to the majority of genera is that
-in Fig. <a href="#fig367">367</a>, but with all the 5 stamens completely developed: it may
-be considered as the Chenopodiaceous diagram with the addition of 2
-<i>bracteoles</i> in the median line (<i>m-n</i>, these by some are
-considered as sepals), and with a petaloid perianth (usually designated
-“corolla”). The “petals” fall off very quickly, and are sometimes
-wanting. Most frequently 5 stamens, situated opposite the “petals,”
-but in other genera the number varies; <i>Montia</i> has only 3
-stamens (by suppression of the two anterior and lateral, Fig. <a href="#fig367">367</a>),
-others again have more than 5, some a large and indefinite number.
-This may be explained partly by the appearance of a second whorl
-of stamens alternating with the first, and partly by the splitting
-(dédoublement) of the stamens. Gynœceum most frequently tricarpellate,
-ovary unilocular with 1–several basal ovules (sometimes on a branched
-placenta, as in certain <i>Caryophyllaceæ</i>). The fruit is a
-<i>capsule</i>, more rarely a nut.&mdash;The majority are annual herbaceous
-plants with scattered, entire leaves, often fleshy and smooth, with or
-without rudimentary stipules (dry, membranous, modified into hairs).
-Inflorescence cymose.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig367" style="width: 319px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig367.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 367.</span>&mdash;<i>Montia.</i></p>
-     <p class="p0 sm center">Diagram of flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Portulaca</i> (Portulaca): flower, epigynous or semi-epigynous;
-fruit, a pyxidium. The stamens vary in number, and are most
-frequently placed in groups (in consequence of splitting) opposite
-the petals.&mdash;<i>Montia</i>: the corolla is slightly gamopetalous,
-but cleft on the posterior side (Fig. <a href="#fig367">367</a>), and as a consequence
-of the larger size of the lateral petals, slightly zygomorphic; 3
-stamens.&mdash;<i>Calandrinia</i>; <i>Talinum</i>; <i>Anacampseros</i>;
-<i>Claytonia</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>125 species; mostly in warm and temperate countries, especially
-the arid parts of S. Am. and the Cape. <i>Montia fontana</i>
-(Blinks) is a native plant. <i>Portulaca oleracea</i> is
-cultivated as a pot-herb in the south of Europe. A few species
-of <i>Portulaca</i> and <i>Calandrinia</i> are ornamental plants.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Nyctaginiaceæ.</b> The characteristic feature of this
-order is the <i>single</i>, regular, <i>united</i>, and often petaloid
-perianth, the lower part of which generally persists after flowering
-and embraces the fruit as a false pericarp. The upper portion is most<span class="pagenum" id="Page_374">[374]</span>
-frequently <i>valvate and folded</i>, or simply valvate in æstivation.
-The number of stamens varies. The free gynœceum is <i>unicarpellate</i>
-and has 1 ovule. The fruit is a <i>nut</i>, but becomes a <i>false
-drupe</i>, since the lower persistent portion of the perianth becomes
-fleshy (as in <i>Neea</i>, where this fleshy part is almost always
-crowned by the upper persistent part of the perianth. In the majority
-of the Mirabileæ the lower part becomes the dry <i>anthocarp</i>,
-while the upper petaloid part falls away after flowering). Finally,
-a peculiar involucre is formed around the flowers by free or united
-floral-leaves.&mdash;The majority are herbs, some are trees (<i>Pisonia</i>,
-etc.); <i>Bougainvillea</i> is a liane. The stems are often nodose and
-swollen at the nodes; the leaves are simple, penninerved, scattered,
-or opposite, without stipules. <span class="smaller">In some, the vascular bundles are
-scattered; stem anomalous.</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Mirabilis</i>; the structure of the stem is abnormal. Dichasial
-branching with continuation from the second bracteole, thus forming
-unipared scorpioid cymes. The perianth is petaloid, funnel-shaped,
-and has a folded and twisted æstivation resembling that of the
-corolla of the <i>Convolvulaceæ</i>; the upper coloured portion
-falls off after the flowering. Outside, and alternating with
-it, is a 5-partite, sepaloid involucre of 5 spirally-placed
-floral-leaves.&mdash;<i>Oxybaphus</i>; the involucre envelops 1–3 dichasial
-flowers.&mdash;<i>Bougainvillea</i>; the involucre is rose-coloured,
-3-leaved, and envelops 3 flowers (placed laterally; the terminal
-flower wanting). The leaves of the involucre in <i>Boerhaavia</i>,
-<i>Pisonia</i>, <i>Neea</i>, and others are reduced to teeth or scales.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>157 species; mostly in tropical countries, and especially S. Am.
-Species of <i>Mirabilis</i> (Am.) are ornamental plants. Theïn
-is found in <i>Neea theïfera</i> Oersted (discovered by Lund in
-Lagoa Santa, Brazil), which may be used as a tea-plant.</p>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Aizoaceæ.</b> Only 3 <i>whorls</i> are found in
-the flower, which <i>alternate</i> with one another when their
-leaves are equal in number. The first is sepaloid, the third one
-the carpels, and the intervening one is either uncleft, in which
-case it is developed as stamens, or it is divided into a large
-number of members which then all become stamens (arranged in
-groups), or the outermost ones become developed as petals. The
-fruit is most frequently a capsule with several loculi. Most of
-the species are herbs with thick, fleshy stems, and exstipulate
-leaves. The structure of the stem is usually anomalous.</p>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Aizoideæ</span> have hypogynous or perigynous
-flowers with (4–) 5 perianth-leaves; stamens single, or
-(by splitting) in groups of 2–3, alternating with the
-perianth-leaves. The gynœceum (with 3–5 carpels) has 3–5 loculi
-in the ovary, and most frequently numerous ovules in each
-loculus, borne on the central placenta formed by the edges
-of the carpels. The fruit is a capsule. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_375">[375]</span> inflorescences
-are dichasia and unipared scorpioid cymes.&mdash;<i>Aizoon</i>,
-<i>Mollugo</i>, <i>Sesuvium</i>, and others are herbs or bushes,
-most frequently hairy.</p>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Mesembrianthemeæ</span> have semi- or
-wholly-epigynous flowers.&mdash;<i>Tetragonia.</i> The perianth is 4
-(more rarely 3–5–6)-merous. Stamens single, or (by splitting)
-in groups alternating with the perianth-leaves. There is an
-indefinite number of carpels, and each loculus of the ovary
-contains <i>only</i> 1 pendulous ovule. Fruit a nut or drupe.
-The flowers arise singly in the leaf-axils, with an accessory
-foliage-bud below them; in some instances there is also an
-accessory flower between this bud and the flower. Southern
-hemisphere, especially at the Cape; <i>T. expansa</i>, New
-Zealand Spinach, is a fleshy plant which is cultivated as a
-pot-herb (Japan, Austr., S. Am.).&mdash;<i>Mesembrianthemum</i>:
-the flowers are 5-merous; the numerous linear petals and the
-still more numerous stamens all arise by the splitting of 5
-or 4 protuberances (primordia) alternating with the sepals.
-The ovary presents another characteristic peculiarity: the
-carpels alternating with the 5–4 stamens form an ovary (with
-several loculi) with the ovules at first borne, as in other
-cases, on the <i>inner</i> corner of the inwardly-turned
-carpels; but during the subsequent development the whole ovary
-is so turned round that the placentæ become parietal and the
-ovules assume, apparently, a position very rarely met with in
-the vegetable kingdom: on the dorsal suture of the carpels.
-Shrubs or under-shrubs, more rarely herbs with fleshy stems and
-simple, entire, more frequently thick or triangular leaves,
-containing a quantity of water. The flowers open about noon,
-and are brightly coloured, generally red or red-violet, but
-odourless. The capsules dehisce in rainy weather. 300 species,
-mostly found at the Cape. Some are ornamental plants. <i>M.
-crystallinum</i> (the Ice-plant) and others are covered with
-peculiar, bladder-like, sparkling hairs, the cell-sap of which
-contains salt&mdash;these serve as reservoirs of water.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 8. <b>Cactifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The position of this family is very doubtful; but it seems in many
-respects to approach <i>Mesembrianthemum</i>. Some botanists place it
-near to the Ribesiaceæ; others, again, to the Passifloraceæ. Only 1
-order.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig368" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig368.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 368.</span>&mdash;<i>A Echinocactus</i>:
-<i>a</i> position of a leaf-lamina; <i>b</i> a lateral shoot on the
-displaced axillary bud. <i>B</i> Pereskia: <i>b</i> a foliage-leaf on
-a small thorny branch which is subtended by a foliage-leaf which has
-fallen off and left a scar(<i>a</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig369" style="width: 308px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig369.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 369.</span>&mdash;<i>Echinopsis.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order <b>Cactaceæ</b> (<b>The Cacti</b>). The flower is epigynous,
-☿, regular, and remarkable for its <i>acyclic</i> structure; there
-are, for instance, a large number of spirally-placed sepals and
-petals, which gradually pass over into one another, and which in
-some species, to a certain extent, arise from the walls of the ovary
-as in <i>Nymphæa</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig383">383</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>). The petals are
-free; rotate, opening widely in <i>Opuntia</i>, <i>Pereskia</i>, and
-<i>Rhipsalis</i>; erect and united at their base into a shorter or
-longer tube in <i>Cereus</i>, <i>Epiphyllum</i>, <i>Mammillaria</i>,
-<i>Echinocactus</i>, <i>Melocactus</i>, and others (Fig. <a href="#fig369">369</a>).
-<i>Stamens numerous</i>, attached to the base of the corolla; gynœceum
-formed of <i>many carpels</i>, with one style, dividing into a number
-of branches corresponding to the number of carpels; the ovary has
-<i>one loculus</i> with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_376">[376]</span> <i>many parietal</i> placentæ; the ovules
-are anatropous, on long and curved funicles. Fruit a berry with
-exendospermous seeds. The fruit-pulp is mainly derived from the
-funicles.&mdash;The external appearance of the Cactaceæ is very peculiar;
-<i>Pereskia</i>, which has thick and fleshy leaves (Fig. <a href="#fig368">368</a>), deviates
-the least; foliage-leaves of the usual form are wanting in the other
-genera, or are usually very small, and quickly fall off and disappear
-(<i>Opuntia</i>), or are modified into thorns; the stem, without normal
-foliage-leaves,&mdash;so characteristic a feature in this order,&mdash;makes
-its appearance after the two normally developed cotyledons. The stems
-are fleshy, perennial, and may finally become woody. In some they are
-elongated, globose, pointed, and more or less dichotomously branched,
-<i>e.g.</i> in several of the <i>Rhipsalis</i> species, which live
-mostly as epiphytes on trees; in others, elongated, branched, globose,
-or, most frequently, more or less angular (prismatic) or grooved
-and provided with wings, and either columnar and erect (as much as
-about 20 metres in height and 1 metre in circumference,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_377">[377]</span> as in <i>C.
-giganteus</i> in New Mexico) or climbing by roots (<i>Cereus</i> and
-<i>Rhipsalis</i>-species); in others again, compressed, more or less
-leaf-like, often with a ridge in the centre (winged), branched and
-jointed: <i>Epiphyllum</i>, <i>Phyllocactus</i>, <i>Opuntia</i>, some
-species of <i>Rhipsalis</i>; others are thick, short, spherical or
-ovoid, unbranched or only slightly branched, and either studded with
-prominent warts (<i>mammillæ</i>) each of which supports a tuft of
-thorns (Fig. <a href="#fig368">368</a> <i>A</i>; <i>Mammillaria</i> and others) or with
-vertical ridges, separated by furrows (rows of mammillæ which have
-coalesced) in <i>Melocactus</i>, <i>Echinocactus</i>, <i>Echinopsis</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig369">369</a>); at the same time the ovary in some is embedded in the stem
-so that leaves or leaf-scars, with tufts of thorns in their axils, may
-be observed on the ovary just as on the stem.&mdash;The flattened shoots of
-the Cactaceæ are formed in various ways, either by the compression of
-cylindrical axes (<i>Opuntia</i>) or, as in <i>Melocactus</i>, etc.,
-from winged stems in which all the wings are suppressed except two.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The thorns are produced directly from the growing points of
-the axillary buds, and are modified leaves. The axillary
-bud is united at its base with its subtending leaf, which
-as a rule is extremely rudimentary; and these together
-form a kind of leaf-cushion, larger in some genera than in
-others. This leaf-cushion attains its highest development in
-<i>Mammillaria</i>, in which it is a large, conical wart (see
-Fig. <a href="#fig368">368</a> <i>A</i>), bearing on its apex the tuft of thorns and
-rudimentary lamina.&mdash;The <i>seedlings</i> have normal cotyledons
-and a fleshy hypocotyl.</p>
-
-<p>All the species (1,000?) are American (one epiphytic species
-of <i>Rhipsalis</i> is indigenous in S. Africa, Mauritius and
-Ceylon), especially from the tropical table-lands (Mexico,
-etc.). Some species, especially those without thorns, as
-<i>Rhipsalis</i>, are epiphytes. <i>Opuntia vulgaris</i>, the
-fruits of which are edible, is naturalized in the Mediterranean.
-The cochineal insect (<i>Coccus cacti</i>) lives on this and
-some closely allied species (<i>O. coccinellifera</i>, etc.),
-particularly in Mexico and the Canary Islands. Several are
-ornamental plants.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 9. <b>Polycarpicæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flowers <i>as a rule are</i> ☿, <i>regular</i> and
-<i>hypogynous</i>; however in some orders they are unisexual,
-<i>e.g.</i> in the Myristicaceæ, or zygomorphic (in Monkshood and
-Larkspur in the Ranunculaceæ); in the Lauraceæ, (Fig. <a href="#fig386">386</a>) for example,
-perigynous, and in <i>Nymphæa</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig383">383</a>) even partially epigynous
-flowers are typical.&mdash;The flowers are acyclic in very many of the
-genera of the two first orders, if not completely so, at any rate in
-the numerous stamens and carpels, thus denoting an old type. It is a
-remarkable characteristic that in the majority of the orders the number
-3 prevails in the calyx and corolla; the number 5 also occurs, but
-the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_378">[378]</span> number 2 is seldom met with. Most orders have a double perianth;
-chorisis does not occur, suppression is rare, and the parts of the
-flower are developed in acropetal succession. The most characteristic
-feature in the order is the <i>free, one-leaved</i>, as a rule
-<i>numerous carpels</i> (apocarpous gynœceum). The number of carpels
-in some of the last mentioned orders dwindles down to 1 (<i>e.g.</i>
-the <i>Berberideæ</i> and <i>Myristicaceæ</i>). The carpels in
-<i>Nymphæaceæ</i> become united into <i>one pistil</i> (syncarpous), a
-condition which we also find distributed among the other orders.</p>
-
-<p><i>Endosperm occurs in almost all</i> the orders (except <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Lauraceæ</i>). The nutritive tissue in <i>Cabombeæ</i> and
-<i>Nymphæeæ</i> is chiefly <i>perisperm</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig370" style="width: 293px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig370.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 370.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Aquilegia
-vulgaris</i>: <i>sp</i> spur. A cyclic flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig371" style="width: 478px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig371.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 371.</span>&mdash;Diagram of a dichasium of
-<i>Ranunculus acer</i>: α<sub>1</sub>, α<sup>1</sup>, and β<sub>1</sub>, β<sup>1</sup>, bracteoles
-(the buds in the axils of the bracteoles, α and α<sup>1</sup>, are continued
-antidromously). The flower has cyclic calyx and corolla, bub acyclic
-(8/21) stamens.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig372" style="width: 290px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig372.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 372.</span>&mdash;Diagram of an acyclic Ranunculaceous
-flower (only 3 stamens are indicated). The spiral of the sepals has a
-divergence of 3/5; that of the corolla and subsequent leaves 3/8.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Ranunculaceæ.</b> Nearly all are <i>herbs</i> (except
-<i>Clematis</i>). The leaves are scattered (except <i>Clematideæ</i>),
-they have a large sheath with broad base (no stipules), and are
-most frequently palminerved with palmate lobes. The flowers are
-hypogynous, with most frequently a well pronounced convex receptacle
-(Figs. <a href="#fig374">374</a> <i>B</i>, 380), ☿, regular (except <i>Delphinium</i> and
-<i>Aconitum</i>); their structure varies very much; in some the leaves
-are verticillate, in others arranged spirally; in others, again,
-both modes of arrangement are found. It is a characteristic feature
-that the various series of leaves (especially calyx and corolla) are
-not so distinct or so sharply divided as is usual. The leaves of the
-perianth are free, imbricate (except <i>Clematideæ</i>); stamens
-<i>numerous</i>, with most frequently extrorse anthers; gynœceum
-<i>free</i>, <i>apocarpous</i> (except <i>Nigella</i> and partly
-<i>Helleborus</i>), with 1 or several ovules (Figs. <a href="#fig373">373</a>, <a href="#fig378">378</a>, <a href="#fig379">379</a>)
-borne on the ventral suture. The fruit is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_379">[379]</span> either a nut or a follicle
-(<i>Actæa</i> has berries). The seed has a <i>large, oil-containing</i>
-endosperm and a small embryo (Fig. <a href="#fig374">374</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The main axis generally terminates in a flower, and the
-lateral axes branch in a cymose manner (Fig. <a href="#fig371">371</a>). The
-flowers show the following differences in construction:
-<span class="allsmcap">VERTICILLATE</span> (<span class="allsmcap">EUCYCLIC</span>), <i>i.e.</i>
-constructed all through of alternating whorls: <i>Aquilegia</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig370">370</a>), <i>Xanthorhiza</i>, and sometimes <i>Eranthis</i>.
-<span class="smcap">Semiverticillate</span> (<span class="allsmcap">HEMICYCLIC</span>) <i>i.e.</i> with
-sepals and petals in alternate whorls, and the others arranged
-spirally: <i>Ranunculus</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig371">371</a>), <i>Myosurus</i>,
-<i>Pæonia</i> and several other genera entirely, or in certain
-species only. <span class="smcap">Spiral-flowered</span> (<span class="allsmcap">ACYCLIC</span>)
-<i>i.e.</i> all the leaves are arranged spirally, so that
-sepals and petals do not alternate the one with the other,
-even though they are the same in number: <i>Adonis</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig372">372</a>), <i>Aconitum</i>, <i>Delphinium</i>-species,
-<i>Nigella</i>-species, <i>Helleborus</i>. The leaves of the
-calyx are in this instance arranged on a spiral of 2/5; those of
-the corolla on 2/5, 3/8, 5/13 or 8/21, and stamens and carpels
-likewise on higher fractions of the same series.</p>
-
-<p>The genera <i>Caltha</i>, <i>Anemone</i>, <i>Thalictrum</i>
-and <i>Clematis</i> have a <i>single perianth</i>, which
-is most frequently petaloid; it is thus apparent that the
-sepals are petaloid, and the leaves, which in other genera
-have developed as petals, are in these instances stamens. The
-calyx is similarly petaloid in the genera <i>Helleborus</i>,
-<i>Eranthis</i>, <i>Nigella</i>, <i>Delphinium</i> and
-<i>Aconitum</i>; but the petals are present in these instances
-in unusual (horn-like) forms, and almost entirely given up to
-the function of nectaries, a function they already possess
-in <i>Ranunculus</i>. According to a more recent theory the
-“honey-leaves” are transformed stamens, which have lost the
-function of reproduction; the perianth is then single, and
-most frequently petaloid. [Those leaves in the flowers of
-many Ranunculaceæ which bear nectaries are termed by Prantl
-honey-leaves, and comprise those leaf-structures of the flower
-whose essential function lies in the production of nectar,
-and which, independent of the differentiation of the perianth
-into calyx and corolla, are derived from the stamens by the
-loss of their reproductive functions. Clear transitional forms
-are found between the two series of the perianth (<i>e.g.</i>
-between the sepaloid and petaloid perianth-leaves of <i>Anemone
-japonica</i>, <i>A. decapetala</i>, <i>Trollius</i>-species)
-while transitional forms are never found between perianth-and
-honey-leaves (with the exception of <i>Aquilegia vulgaris</i>,
-var. <i>stellata</i>). In <i>Anemone</i> and <i>Clematis</i>
-the honey-leaves pass gradually into the stamens, and
-agree with the stamens in the other Ranunculaceæ in their
-arrangement, development, and scant system of veins (except
-<i>Nigella</i>). In <i>Delphinium</i>, sect. <i>Consolida</i>,
-the two honey-leaves placed in front of the unpaired
-perianth-leaf are united into one, as shown by the veins
-(twice three veins arranged symmetrically). The honey-leaves
-of <i>Aquilegia</i>, <i>Callianthemum</i>, and the majority of
-the <i>Ranunculus</i>-species serve by reason of their large
-circumference, as organs of attraction, and on this account
-are considered as petals by other authors.&mdash;The same position
-in the flower which the honey-leaves assume is found occupied
-by staminodes, without nectar, in some <i>Coptis</i>-species,
-in <i>Anemonopsis</i>, <i>Actæa</i> sect. <i>Euactæa</i>,
-(<i>e.g. A. racemosa</i>), <i>Clematis</i> sect.
-<i>Atragene</i>; in the last-named they closely surround the
-stamens, in <i>Actæa</i> they are petaloid.&mdash;A perianth,
-sharply differentiated into calyx and corolla, and destitute
-of honey-leaves, is found in <i>Anemone</i>, sect.
-<i>Knowltonia</i> (Cape),</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_380">[380]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Adonis</i>, <i>Pæonia</i>.&mdash;The perianth of the Ranunculaceæ
-is considered by Prantl to be usually petaloid.&mdash;The nectaries
-arise in the Ranunculaceæ (1) on normal stamens (<i>Clematis</i>
-sect. <i>Viorna</i>), (2) on the honey-leaves (this is generally
-the case), and (3) on the carpels (<i>Caltha</i> and the
-majority of <i>Trollius</i>-species).&mdash;As the result of his
-researches upon the Ranunculaceæ, Prantl does not agree with the
-view advanced by Drude (Schenk, <i>Hand. d. Bot.</i> iii.) that
-the petals in general have proceeded from the metamorphosis of
-the stamens (<i>K</i>)].</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig373" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig373.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 373.</span>&mdash;Ovaries in longitudinal section:
-<i>v</i> the ventral suture; <i>d</i> the dorsal suture: <i>A</i>,
-<i>B Clematis</i>; <i>C Ranunculus</i>; <i>D</i>
-<i>Myosurus</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The most primitive form of fruit is undoubtedly the pod formed
-by one carpel, on the edges of which (along the ventral suture)
-two rows of ovules are situated: Pæonieæ, Helleboreæ, Delphinieæ
-(Fig. <a href="#fig379">379</a>). In a great many genera the number of ovules has
-been limited to <i>one</i> perfect one, which is placed in the
-central plane under the united leaf-edges, and sometimes also
-some barren ovules above it (Fig. <a href="#fig373">373</a>). The fruitlets in this
-case become achenes, and are present in much larger numbers than
-when there are follicles.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig374" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig374.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 374.</span>&mdash;<i>Helleborus niger</i>: <i>A</i>
-flower; <i>B</i> receptacle; <i>pet</i> petals (honey-leaves);
-<i>pi</i> stamens and carpels; <i>C</i> seed; <i>D</i> anther (cross
-section); <i>alb</i> endosperm.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig375" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig375.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 375.</span>&mdash;<i>Caltha palustris</i>: fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The following have <span class="smcap">Follicles</span>: <i>Pæonieæ</i>,
-<i>Helleboreæ</i> (except <i>Actæa</i>) and <i>Delphinieæ</i>;
-<span class="smcap">Achenes</span>: <i>Ranunculeæ</i>, <i>Anemoneæ</i> and
-<i>Clematideæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_381">[381]</span></p>
-
-<p><b>A. Follicles</b> (Figs. <a href="#fig375">375</a>, <a href="#fig379">379</a>), with many ovules, situated
-in two rows along the ventral suture. <span class="smaller"><i>Actæa</i> has berries,
-<i>Nigella</i> has capsules of several loculi.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Pæonieæ, Peony Group.</span> This has regular, acyclic
-flowers with a normal, most frequently 5-leaved, imbricate calyx;
-large, coloured petals, and introrse anthers. Slightly perigynous.
-Surrounding the base of the carpels a ring-like swelling of the
-receptacle (“disc”) is present, which is largest in <i>P. moutan</i>.
-The follicles are more or less fleshy or leathery. Mostly herbs,
-with pinnatisect or decompound leaves and large, solitary flowers; a
-gradual transition may be traced from the foliage-leaves to the petals.
-<i>Pæonia; Hydrastis.</i></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig376" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig376.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 376.</span>&mdash;<i>Aquilegia vulgaris.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig377" style="width: 347px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig377.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 377.</span>&mdash;<i>Caltha palustris</i> (nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig378" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig378.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 378.</span>&mdash;<i>Nigella</i>: <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>
-fruit of <i>N. damascena</i>, entire, and cut transversely. <i>C</i>
-Petal (honey-leaf) of <i>N. arvensis</i>. <i>D</i> Petal of <i>N.
-damascena</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Helleboreæ, Hellebore Group.</span> This has regular
-flowers with most frequently a coloured calyx. The petals
-(honey-leaves) are modified into nectaries; they may be horn-like,
-provided with a spur, or of a similarly unusual form, or they
-may be entirely absent. Anthers often extrorse.&mdash;<i>Trollius</i>
-(Globe-flower<a id="FNanchor_36" href="#Footnote_36" class="fnanchor">[36]</a>). The flower is acyclic: many<span class="pagenum" id="Page_382">[382]</span> petaloid sepals,
-succeeding these, most frequently, several <i>linear</i>,
-dark yellow petals, which bear a naked nectary at the base;
-finally, many stamens and carpels arranged in a spiral (3/8,
-8/21).&mdash;<i>Caltha</i> (Marsh-marigold, Figs. <a href="#fig375">375</a>, <a href="#fig377">377</a>); 5 (-7) yellow
-sepals, no petals. The foliage-leaves have a large amplexicaul
-sheath.&mdash;<i>Helleborous</i> (Hellebore) has pedate leaves. The
-flower is acyclic, with 5 large, regular, <i>persistent</i>, often
-petaloid sepals (2/5); small, <i>horn-like</i> petals (honey-leaves;
-most frequently 13, divergence 8/13) and generally few carpels (Fig.
-<a href="#fig374">374</a>).&mdash;<i>Coptis.</i>&mdash;<i>Isopyrum.</i>&mdash;<i>Eranthis</i> (Winter
-Aconite), like <i>Anemone</i>, has a 3-leaved involucre and most
-frequently trimerous flowers, <span class="smaller">6 large petaloid sepals, 6 petals
-(tubular honey-leaves), 6 oblique rows of stamens, 3–6 carpels</span>.
-<i>Aquilegia</i> (Columbine, Fig. <a href="#fig376">376</a>); the flower is entirely
-cyclic and has large spurs on all the 5 petals (funnel-shaped
-honey-leaves); S5 coloured, P5, A5 × (8–12), G5 in regular alternation
-(Figs. <a href="#fig376">376</a>, <a href="#fig370">370</a>); the innermost stamens are often staminodes (Fig.
-<a href="#fig370">370</a>).&mdash;<i>Nigella</i> (Love-in-the-mist, Fig. <a href="#fig378">378</a>) has 5 sepals and
-8 small, <i>two-lipped</i> petals cleft at the apex (the nectary
-is covered by the under-lip; Fig. <a href="#fig378">378</a> <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>). The 5
-carpels are more or less completely united; and a many-carpellate
-ovary with free styles is formed in some. Large air-chambers in the
-external wall of the ovary are formed in <i>N. damascena</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig378">378</a>).&mdash;<i>Actæa</i> (Baneberry) has coloured sepals, either no petals
-or an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_383">[383]</span> indefinite number, and only 1 carpel. The fruit is a berry (or
-follicle).&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Cimicifuga</i>, <i>Garidella</i>, <i>Xanthorhiza</i>
-(S5, P5, A5 + 5, G5).</span></p>
-
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Delphinieæ, Larkspur Group.</span> Zygomorphic flowers
-with coloured calyx; the 2 posterior petals (honey-leaves) are
-transformed into nectaries, the others are small or absent
-altogether.&mdash;<i>Aconitum</i> (Monkshood); 5 sepals, of which the
-<i>posterior one</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig379">379</a> <i>A</i>) <i>is helmet-shaped</i>; most
-frequently 8 petals (as in Fig. <a href="#fig372">372</a>), of which the two posterior ones
-(honey-leaves) are developed into long-clawed nectaries (Fig. <a href="#fig379">379</a>
-<i>A</i>, <i>k</i>) enveloped by the helmet-like sepal; the others are
-small, or are to some extent suppressed. <span class="smaller">Stamens on a spiral of
-3/8–5/13; generally 3 carpels.</span> Perennial herbs.&mdash;<i>Delphinium</i>
-(Larkspur); very closely allied to <i>Aconitum</i>, but the anterior 4
-petals are most frequently wanting, and the 2 posterior ones have each
-a spur, which is enclosed by the <i>posterior sepal</i>, the latter
-being also provided with <i>a membranous spur</i>. <span class="smaller">Stamens and
-carpels arranged on a spiral of 3/8, 5/13, 8/21. In <i>D. ajacis</i>
-and <i>consolida</i> there is apparently only 1 petal (by the fusion of
-4) and 1 carpel.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig379" style="width: 439px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig379.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 379.</span>&mdash;<i>Aconitum napellus. A</i>
-Flower in longitudinal section, below are the 2 bracteoles; <i>a</i>
-half of helmet-like sepal; <i>b</i> and <i>c</i> other sepals; <i>k</i>
-nectary; <i>f</i> carpels. <i>B</i> Ovary in longitudinal section;
-<i>C</i> the same transversely; <i>d</i> dorsal suture; <i>v</i>
-ventral suture.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>B. Fruit achenes.</b> Many carpels, each with only 1 ascending (Fig.
-<a href="#fig373">373</a> <i>C</i>), or pendulous (Fig. <a href="#fig373">373</a> <i>D</i>), perfect ovule; often
-also rudimentary ovules above it (Fig. <a href="#fig373">373</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>). Fruit
-achenes.</p>
-
-<p><b>4.</b> <span class="smcap">Ranunculeæ, Buttercup Group</span>, has double perianth.
-<i>Myosurus</i> and <i>Adonis</i> have pendulous ovules as in Anemoneæ
-(Fig. <a href="#fig373">373</a> <i>D</i>); <span class="smaller"><i>Ranunculus</i>, with <i>Batrachium</i> and
-<i>Ficaria</i>, erect ovules (Fig. <a href="#fig373">373</a> <i>C</i>) and downwardly-turned
-radicle.</span>&mdash;<i>Ranunculus.</i> Most frequently S5, P5, many
-spirally-placed stamens and carpels (Figs. <a href="#fig371">371</a>, <a href="#fig380">380</a>). The petals
-(honey-leaves) have a nectary at the base, covered by a small scale.
-<span class="smaller"><i>Batrachium</i>, Water Ranunculus, deviates by the achenes being
-transversely wrinkled; dimorphic leaves. <i>Ficaria</i> has 3 sepals
-and 7–8 petals arranged in 2/5–3/8. <i>F. ranunculoides</i> (the only
-species) has tuberous roots, which spring from the base of the axillary
-buds, and together with these, serve as organs of reproduction. The
-embryo has only 1 cotyledon.</span>&mdash;<i>Myosurus</i> (Mouse-tail) has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_384">[384]</span>
-small prolongations from the 5 sepals; 5 narrow petals which bear the
-nectaries near the apex; sometimes only 5 stamens, and an ultimately
-very long receptacle, with numerous spirally-arranged achenes (Fig.
-<a href="#fig381">381</a>).&mdash;<i>Adonis</i> is acyclic (Fig. <a href="#fig372">372</a>); most frequently 5 sepals
-with a divergence of 2/5, 8 petals of 3/8, indefinite stamens and
-carpels of 3/8 or 5/13. The corolla has no nectary.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig380" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig380.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 380.</span>&mdash;Flower of <i>Ranunculus
-sceleratus</i> in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig381" style="width: 438px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig381.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 381.</span>&mdash;<i>Myosurus minimus</i>: <i>c</i>
-cotyledons; <i>m</i> the foliage-leaves; <i>f</i> the floral axis with
-the carpels, and <i>g</i> the same without; <i>y</i> insertion of
-perianth.]</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>5.</b> <span class="smcap">Anemoneæ, Anemone Group</span>, has a single perianth.
-<span class="smaller">(Pendulous ovules (Fig. <a href="#fig373">373</a> <i>D</i>), radicle turned
-upward).</span>&mdash;<i>Anemone</i> has a single, petaloid, most frequently
-5–6-leaved perianth, and beneath the flower most frequently <i>an
-involucre of 3 leaves</i>, placed close together in the form of
-a whorl. In <i>A. nemorosa</i>, <i>ranunculoides</i>, etc., the
-involucral leaves resemble foliage-leaves; in <i>A. hepatica</i> they
-are situated close under the perianth, and resemble sepals, and in
-the sub-genus <i>Pulsatilla</i> they stand between the foliage-leaves
-and floral-leaves. The style of <i>Pulsatilla</i> finally grows out<span class="pagenum" id="Page_385">[385]</span>
-in the form of a feather. <span class="smaller">The main axis of <i>A. hepatica</i> has
-unlimited growth (it is biaxial), and the flowers are borne laterally
-in the axils of the scale-leaves; in the others (uniaxial) the flower
-is terminal, and the rhizome becomes a sympodium after the first
-flowering.</span>&mdash;<i>Thalictrum</i> (Meadow Rue) has no involucre;
-4–5-leaved, greenish perianth. The receptacle is flat. <span class="smaller">The stamens
-are brightly-coloured and have long filaments; 1–5 accessory flowers
-may occur in the leaf-axils of the panicle-like inflorescence.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>6.</b> <span class="smcap">Clematideæ, Clematis Group.</span> This differs from all
-the others in the <i>valvate æstivation</i> of the calyx and its
-opposite leaves. There are 4 (-several) petaloid sepals; petals are
-absent, or linear (<i>Atragene</i>). Ovule 1, pendulous. Achenes, often
-with prolonged, feathery style. The majority of the genera are shrubs,
-and climb by their sensitive, twining leaf-stalks.&mdash;<i>Clematis;
-Atragene.</i></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> The flowers are conspicuous either
-by coloured petals (honey-leaves) (<i>Ranunculus</i>,
-<i>Pæonia</i>) or coloured sepals (<i>Helleborus</i>,
-<i>Anemone</i>, <i>Caltha</i>, etc.), or by both
-(<i>Aquilegia</i>, <i>Delphinium</i>), or by the
-coloured stamens (<i>Thalictrum</i>). Some have no honey
-(<i>Clematis</i>, <i>Anemone</i>, <i>Thalictrum</i>),
-and are generally visited by insects for the sake of
-their pollen. Others have nectaries on the corolla
-(<i>Ranunculus</i>, <i>Trollius</i>, <i>Helleborus</i>,
-<i>Nigella</i>, <i>Aconitum</i>, etc.), more rarely on the
-stamens (<i>Pulsatilla</i>, <i>Clematis</i>-species), or the
-carpels (<i>Caltha</i>), or the calyx (certain species of
-<i>Pæonia</i>). The honey is readily accessible in the flat,
-open flowers, and these flowers also may easily pollinate
-themselves. There is marked protandry where the honey lies
-deeply hidden, as in <i>Aquilegia</i>, <i>Delphinium</i>,
-and <i>Aconitum</i>. <i>Helleborus</i> and some
-<i>Ranunculus</i>-species are protogynous.</p>
-
-<p>About 680 species; especially in northern temperate climates,
-and extending to the Polar and Alpine regions. Only the
-<i>Clematideæ</i> are tropical.</p>
-
-<p>The order has an abundance of <i>acrid</i>, vesicant properties
-(<i>R. acer</i>, <i>sceleratus</i>, etc.), and <i>poisonous</i>
-alkaloids (<i>Helleborus niger</i> is poisonous).
-<span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: <i>Aconitum napellus</i> (aconitine; leaves
-and tuberous roots); the rhizome of <i>Hydrastis canadensis</i>
-from N. Am. (the alkaloid hydrastine). The order, however, is
-best known for its ornamental plants; almost all the genera have
-species which are cultivated for their beauty. Sweet-scented
-flowers are absent.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Nymphæaceæ (Water Lilies).</b> <span class="smcap">Water Plants</span>;
-generally with large, floating leaves, and large solitary flowers;
-sepals 3–5, petals 3–∞, stamens 6–∞, carpels 3–∞. The flower is
-hypogynous, but in the <i>Nymphæeæ</i> different degrees of epigyny
-are found, and from this fact, as well as from the carpels being
-united into one pistil, the family forms a lateral offshoot from the
-Ranunculaceæ, with much greater modification. The seed often has an
-aril, and, in the majority, a farinaceous nutritive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_386">[386]</span> tissue, partly
-endosperm, partly perisperm (Fig. <a href="#fig383">383</a> <i>C</i>). The embryo has 2 thick
-cotyledons and a small hypocotyl; the plumule is well developed, with
-2–4 leaves.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Cabombeæ.</span> 3–4 species (Tropical S. Am.), resembling
-the Water Ranunculus, with two kinds of leaves, the submerged
-being dissected and the aerial peltate. The flowers are
-eucyclic, trimerous, with 2–3 free, epigynous carpels. The
-ovules are situated <i>on the central line</i> of the carpel&mdash;an
-almost unique circumstance. Endosperm and perisperm. <i>Cabomba;
-Brasenia.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">Nelumboneæ.</span> The leaves are <i>peltate</i>, raised on
-long stalks high above the water. Large, <i>hypogynous</i> flowers
-(Fig. <a href="#fig382">382</a>); sepals 4–5; petals numerous; stamens numerous; <i>carpels
-several</i>, <i>distinct</i>. The receptacle is very remarkable, being
-raised above the stamens, and developed into an <i>inverted conical</i>
-body on the apex of which the nut-like fruits are <i>embedded in
-pits</i>. <i>Endosperm is wanting</i>, but the embryo is large and
-has well developed cotyledons.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Nelumbo</i>, 2 species. <i>N.
-lutea</i> (N. Am.); <i>N. speciosa</i> (E. Ind.) was sacred amongst the
-ancient Hindoos and Egyptians, (the Lotus flower); its seeds are used
-as food.</span></p>
-
-<p>3. <span class="smcap">Nymphæeæ, Water Lily Group.</span> The carpels are united into
-<i>one</i>, <i>many-locular ovary</i>, <i>whose numerous ovules are
-situated on the surface of the partition walls</i> (as in the Poppies);
-the stigma is sessile and radiating, the number of rays corresponding
-to the number of carpels (Fig. <a href="#fig383">383</a>). The fruit is a spongy <i>berry</i>
-with many seeds, which have a large perisperm in addition to the
-endosperm (Fig. <a href="#fig383">383</a> <i>C</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig382" style="width: 311px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig382.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 382.</span>&mdash;<i>Nelumbo nucifera</i>: vertical
-section through the receptacle.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Sepals, petals, and stamens often pass gradually over the one into
-the other, the petals becoming narrower by degrees, and bearing
-anthers on each side of the apex, which gradually become larger
-anthers in proportion to the filament, until the perfect stamen is
-developed. The long-stalked leaves are floating, and most frequently
-cordate, elliptical, leathery, with a shiny surface, sometimes (as
-in <i>Victoria regia</i> and <i>Euryale ferox</i>) with strongly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_387">[387]</span>
-projecting thorny ribs on the lower surface. In the intercellular
-passages of the leaves are some peculiar, stellate cells.</p>
-
-<p><i>Nuphar</i> has 5 sepals, and an <i>hypogynous</i> flower. <span class="smaller">The
-petals, which are small, have a nectary on the back; the coloured inner
-side of the sepals functions as petals; the ovate gynœceum is quite
-free.&mdash;<i>N. luteum</i> is a native plant (Yellow Water-Lily), with,
-most frequently, 13 petals and 10–16 loculi in the ovary. The rhizome
-is horizontal, as much as 5–6 cm. in thickness, and bears on its under
-surface a number of roots, which on dying-off leave deep scars; the
-leaves are borne in spiral lines, and the flowers are solitary in
-certain leaf-axils. The construction of the rhizome is very peculiar;
-the vascular bundles are scattered and closed as in a monocotyledonous
-stem.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig383" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig383.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 383.</span>&mdash;<i>Nymphæa</i>: <i>A</i> flower in
-longitudinal section, the most external leaves being removed; <i>B</i>
-fruit; <i>C</i> seed of <i>Nuphar</i> (longitudinal section); the
-perisperm at the base, the endosperm at the top surrounding the embryo.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Nymphæa</i> has 4 sepals, and the flower is more or less
-<i>epigynous</i>. Petals and stamens are inserted at different heights
-on the ovary to just beneath the stigma (Fig. <a href="#fig383">383</a>). <i>Nymphæa
-alba</i> (White Water-Lily). <i>Victoria regia</i> from the Amazon,
-and <i>Euryale ferox</i> from Asia, have entirely epigynous flowers.
-<span class="smaller">The shield-like leaves of <i>Victoria</i> are as much as 2 metres
-in diameter, and the edge is bent up to a height of 5–14 cm.; the
-flowers are 20–40 cm. in diameter, and change in twenty-four hours from
-white to rose-red. A development of heat, as much as 14°C. above the
-temperature of the air, together with a strong formation of carbonic
-acid, has been observed during flowering.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> <i>Nymphæa alba</i> and other species
-of the sub-genus <i>Symphytopleura</i> are self-pollinated;
-the sub-genus <i>Leptopleura</i> is insect-pollinated.
-<i>Nuphar</i> and <i>Victoria</i> can effect self-fertilisation;
-<i>Euryale</i> is self-fertilised, often in entirely closed and
-submerged flowers.&mdash;The dissemination of the seeds in <i>Nuphar
-luteum</i> is effected by the fruit, which rests on the water,
-becoming detached<span class="pagenum" id="Page_388">[388]</span> from its stalk, and dehiscing from the base
-upwards so that the seeds are set free; while in <i>Nymphæa
-alba</i> the spirally-twisted stalk draws the fruit under water,
-and it dehisces by its upper part being thrown off as a hood,
-and the seeds which are enclosed in air-tight sacs rise to the
-surface of the water. In this condition they are able to float
-and can only sink to the bottom when the air has disappeared.</p>
-
-<p>53 species; in fresh water in all parts of the world, but
-especially in the Tropics.&mdash;The rhizomes and seeds of some
-may be used as food; <i>Euryale ferox</i> is even cultivated.
-<i>Nymphæa cœrulea</i> and <i>Lotus</i> were sacred among the
-Egyptians.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Ceratophyllaceæ.</b> About 3 species. Aquatic plants,
-submerged, rootless; leaves cartilaginous, verticillate, dissected
-into repeatedly dichotomous branches which are finely toothed; only
-one of the leaves in a whorl supports a vegetative branch. The flowers
-are <i>monœcious</i>, axillary. Inside the 6–12 perianth-leaves are
-situated in the ♂-flower 10–20 stamens with thick connective, and in
-the ♀-flower a gynœceum formed by one carpel, with one orthotropous and
-pendulous ovule, which has only one integument. Fruit a nut, which,
-in some species, bears on each side a pointed horn, and at the apex
-a similar one, formed by the persistent style.&mdash;The embryo has an
-unusually well developed plumule with several whorls of leaves. The
-plant is rootless throughout its whole life.&mdash;<i>Ceratophyllum</i>
-(Horn-wort).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Annonaceæ.</b> Sepals 3; petals 3+3 (most
-frequently <i>valvate</i>); succeeding these (as in the
-<i>Ranunculaceæ</i>) are <i>numerous acyclic</i> stamens and
-an <i>apocarpous gynœceum</i>; the flowers are hypogynous,
-regular and ☿, generally very large (2–3 cm. in diameter), and
-the leaves of the perianth are more or less fleshy or leathery.
-The majority have syncarps with berry-like fruitlets, but in
-<i>Annona</i> and some others the carpels fuse together into a
-large, head-like fruit&mdash;a kind of composite berry. The seeds
-have <i>ruminate</i> endosperm as in <i>Myristica</i>.&mdash;Trees or
-shrubs with <i>alternate</i>, simple, entire, penninerved leaves
-without stipules. 450 (700?) species; especially tropical. The
-best known are <i>Anona cherimolia</i>, <i>squamosa</i> and
-<i>reticulata</i> (all from America) cultivated on account of
-their large, delicious fruits. Some have acrid and aromatic
-properties (<i>Xylopia</i>, <i>Cananga</i>&mdash;the flowers of the
-latter yield Ylang-ylang); <i>Artabotrys odoratissimus</i>;
-<i>Asimina</i> (N. Am.).</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Magnoliaceæ.</b> Trees or shrubs with scattered,
-often leathery, entire leaves, generally with <i>stipules</i>,
-which (as in <i>Ficus</i>) are rolled together and form a hood
-round the younger internodes above them, and are cast off by
-the unfolding of the next leaf, leaving a ring-like scar. The
-endosperm is <i>not ruminate</i>. Corolla imbricate. Fruit a
-syncarp.</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Magnolieæ.</span> The flowers are borne singly, and
-before opening are enveloped in an ochrea-like spathe which
-corresponds to the stipules of the foliage-leaves. The perianth
-generally consists of 3 trimerous whorls, the external one
-of which is sometimes sepaloid (<i>Liriodendron</i>, and the
-majority of <i>Magnolia</i>species),<span class="pagenum" id="Page_389">[389]</span> sometimes coloured like
-the others; the perianth is sometimes many-seriate. <i>Numerous
-spirally-placed</i> stamens and carpels. The latter are situated
-on the <i>elongated</i>, cylindrical receptacle, and are
-individually more or less united, except in <i>Liriodendron</i>,
-where they are free. This last genus has winged achenes; the
-fruitlets in <i>Magnolia</i> open along the dorsal and ventral
-sutures, and the seeds then hang out, suspended by elastic
-threads formed from the vascular bundles of the funicle and
-raphe; they are red and drupaceous, the external layer of the
-shell being fleshy&mdash;a very rare occurrence.</p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Illicieæ</span> has no stipules. The carpels
-are situated in a whorl on a short receptacle. Follicles,
-one-seeded. The leaves are dotted by glands containing essential
-oil. <i>Illicium; Drimys.</i></p>
-
-<p>70 species; in tropical or temperate climates; none in Europe
-or Africa. They are chiefly used as ornamental plants,
-<i>e.g.</i> the Tulip-tree (<i>Liriodendron tulipifera</i>, N.
-Am.), <i>Magnolia grandiflora</i> (N. Am.), <i>M. yulan</i>
-and <i>fuscata</i> (China), and others. The remains of
-<i>Liriodendron</i> occur as fossils in the Cretaceous and
-Tertiary periods.&mdash;The fruits of <i>Illicium anisatum</i>
-(Star-aniseed from Eastern Asia) are <span class="allsmcap">OFFICINAL</span>. The
-bark of <i>Drimys winteri</i> (S. Am.) is also strongly aromatic.</p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Calycanthaceæ.</b> These are very closely related
-to the Magnoliaceæ, but differ in having <i>perigynous</i>
-flowers with many perianth-leaves, stamens and (about 20)
-carpels in a continuous <i>spiral</i>, seeds <i>almost devoid of
-endosperm</i> with rolled up, leaf-like cotyledons, and leaves
-opposite on a square stem.&mdash;There are some species in N. America
-(<i>Calycanthus florida</i>, <i>occidentalis</i>, etc.) and 1 in
-Japan (<i>Chimonanthus præcox</i>), all strongly aromatic.</p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Monimiaceæ.</b> Aromatic shrubs with opposite
-leaves. Perigynous flowers. The anthers dehisce by valves like
-those of the <i>Lauraceæ</i>, and the Monimiaceæ may thus
-be considered as an apocarpous form of this order. They are
-also closely related to <i>Calycanthaceæ</i>. 150 species,
-tropical.&mdash;<i>Hedycarya, Mollinedia, Monimia.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig384" style="width: 300px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig384.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 384.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Berberis</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig385" style="width: 286px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig385.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 385.</span>&mdash;<i>Berberis</i>: carpel with 2
-stamens.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Berberidaceæ (Barberries).</b>&mdash;The regular, ☿, hypogynous
-flowers are dimerous or trimerous and have regularly alternating
-whorls of free sepals, petals, and stamens and 1 unilocular carpel;
-the corolla and stamens have each 2 whorls, the calyx at least 2. The
-anthers open, as in Lauraceæ, by (2) <i>valves</i>, but are always
-introrse (Fig. <a href="#fig384">384</a>). The pistil has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_390">[390]</span> a large, disc-like, almost
-<i>sessile</i> stigma (Fig. <a href="#fig385">385</a>), and in the ovary <i>several</i> erect
-ovules are placed close to the base of the ventral suture. The fruit is
-most frequently a <i>berry</i>. Seeds endospermous.&mdash;Shrubs or herbs
-with scattered, most frequently compound leaves (without stipules), and
-racemose inflorescences.&mdash;<span class="smaller">They show a relationship to the Lauraceæ
-in the number of the parts of the flower and the dehiscence of the
-anthers.</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Berberis</i> is a shrub; it has sepals 3 + 3, petals 3 + 3, stamens
-3 + 3 (Fig. <a href="#fig384">384</a>). The petals (honey-leaves) bear internally at the base
-2 darkish-yellow nectaries. The filaments are sensitive at the base,
-and suddenly bend inwards if touched at that spot (Fig. <a href="#fig385">385</a>). <span class="smaller">The
-racemes often have a terminal, 5-merous flower; they are borne on
-dwarf-branches. The leaves on the long-branches develope into thorns,
-but the buds in their axils, in the same year as themselves, develope
-as the short-branches with simple foliage-leaves, <i>articulated</i>
-at the base, from which fact some authorities have considered that the
-leaf is compound with a single, terminal leaflet.</span>&mdash;<i>Mahonia</i>
-has imparipinnate leaves. The flower has 3 whorls of sepals.
-Otherwise as in <i>Berberis</i>.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Epimedium</i>; herbs with
-spurred petals; the flowers dimerous; 4–5 whorls of sepals, 2 of
-petals and stamens. Fruit a capsule. <i>Leontice</i>, fruit dry. The
-anthers of <i>Podophyllum</i> dehisce longitudinally.&mdash;<i>Nandina.
-Aceranthus.</i></span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>100 species; North temp., especially Asia: fossils in Tertiary.
-<i>Berberis vulgaris</i> is a native of Europe. This and other
-species, together with <i>Mahonia aquifolium</i> (N. Am.),
-<i>Epimedium alpinum</i>, etc., are cultivated as ornamental
-plants. Several have a yellow colouring matter in the root
-and stem. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: the rhizome of <i>Podophyllum
-peltatum</i> (from N. Am.) yields podophyllin.</p>
-
-<p>Order 9. <b>Menispermaceæ.</b> This order has derived its
-name from the more or less crescent-like fruits and seeds.
-Diœcious. The flowers are 2–3-merous, most frequently as in
-<i>Berberis</i> (S3 + 3, P3 + 3, A3 + 3), with the difference
-that there are 3 <i>free carpels</i>, each with 1 ovule;
-in some genera, however, the number is different. Stamens
-often united into a bundle (as in <i>Myristica</i>); anthers
-dehiscing longitudinally; fruit a drupe.&mdash;The plants (with
-herbaceous or woody stems) belonging to this order are nearly
-all <i>twining</i> or <i>climbing</i> plants, and have
-scattered, palmate or peltate, sometimes lobed leaves without
-stipules. Structure of stem anomalous. <i>Cocculus, Menispermum,
-Cissampelos, Anamirta.</i></p>
-
-<p>150 species; Tropical; very rich in bitter and poisonous
-properties. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: Calumba-root from <i>Jateorhiza
-columba</i> (E. Africa). The following are cultivated as
-ornamental plants:&mdash;<i>Menispermum canadense</i> (N. Am.)
-and <i>M. dahuricum</i> (Asia). The fruits of <i>Anamirta
-cocculus</i> (E. Ind.) are very poisonous (“Grains-of-Paradise”;
-the poisonous matter is picrotoxine).</p>
-
-<p>Order 10. <b>Lardizabalaceæ.</b> This order, by the free,
-apocarpous carpels, belongs to a more primitive type, and by
-the united stamens to a more developed one. <i>Akebia</i>;
-<i>Holbœllia</i>; principally climbing or twining shrubs. About
-7 species in S.E. Asia and S. Am.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_391">[391]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 11. <b>Lauraceæ</b> (<b>True Laurels</b>). Trees or shrubs; the
-leaves, always without stipules, are simple, most frequently scattered,
-lanceolate or elliptical, entire, penninerved, finely reticulate
-(except <i>Cinnamomum</i> with 3–5-veined leaf), leathery and evergreen
-(except, <i>e.g. Cinnamomum</i>); they are frequently studded
-with clear glands containing <i>volatile oil</i>. The flowers are
-borne in panicles and are small and of a greenish or whitish colour.
-They are <i>regular, perigynous</i>, with most frequently a bowl or
-cup-shaped receptacle (Fig. <a href="#fig386">386</a>), usually ☿, and <i>trimerous</i>
-(rarely dimerous) through all (most frequently 6–7) whorls; viz. most
-frequently, perianth 2 whorls, stamens 3–4 and carpels 1 (P3 + 3, A3 +
-3 + 3 + 3, G3) in regular alternation (Fig. <a href="#fig387">387</a>). Each of the 2 or 4
-loculi of the anthers <i>open by an upwardly directed valve</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig386">386</a>); of the stamens, the 2 outermost whorls are generally introrse,
-the others extrorse, or 1–3 whorls are developed as staminodes (Fig.
-<a href="#fig387">387</a> <i>g</i>). The gynœceum has 1 loculus with 1 style and 1 pendulous
-ovule (Fig. <a href="#fig386">386</a>), and may be considered as formed of 3 carpels. The
-fruit is a <i>berry</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig388">388</a>) or <i>drupe</i>, which often is
-surrounded at its base by the persistent receptacle (as an acorn by
-its cupule), which becomes fleshy and sometimes coloured during the
-ripening of the fruit. The embryo has 2 thick cotyledons, but <i>no
-endosperm</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig388">388</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig386" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig386.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 386.</span>&mdash;Flower of the Cinnamon-tree
-(<i>Cinnamomum zeylanicum</i>) (longitudinal section).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig387" style="width: 300px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig387.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 387.</span>&mdash;Typical diagram of the Lauraceæ:
-<i>g</i> staminodes.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig388" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig388.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 388.</span>&mdash;<i>Laurus nobilis</i>: longitudinal
-section of fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The Lauraceæ present affinities with the Polygonaceæ, in which
-there is found perigyny, as well as a similar number of parts
-in the flower and a similar gynœceum, but with erect and
-orthotropous ovule. From their general characters they should
-be classed among the Polycarpicæ, but stand, however, isolated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_392">[392]</span>
-by the <i>syncarpous</i> gynœceum, if it is in reality formed
-by 3 carpels and not by 1 only. <i>Hernandia</i>, which has
-epigynous monœcious flowers, deviates most.&mdash;<i>Cassytha</i>
-is a <i>Cuscuta</i>-like, herbaceous, slightly green parasite
-with twining, almost leafless stems. The flower however agrees
-with the diagram in Fig. <a href="#fig387">387</a>. Some Lauraceæ have curved veins or
-palminerved and lobed leaves (often together with entire ones)
-<i>e.g. Sassafras</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig389" style="width: 206px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig389.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 389.</span>&mdash;<i>Myristica</i>: fruit.]</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig390" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig390.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 390.</span>&mdash;Seed with aril entire and in
-longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>There are 1000 species; especially in the forests of tropical S.
-America and Asia, of which they form the principal part. Only
-<i>Laurus nobilis</i> is found in Europe, and there is little
-doubt that its proper home is in Western Asia. They are rare
-in Africa.&mdash;On account of <i>the volatile oil</i> found in all
-parts of the plant, they are used as <i>spices</i>, <i>e.g.</i>
-the false Cinnamon-tree (<i>Dicypellium caryophyllatum</i>, in
-the Brazils). The <span class="allsmcap">OFFICINAL</span> ones are&mdash;the Cinnamon-tree
-(<i>Cinnamomum zeylanicum</i> from Ceylon, E. India, Eastern
-Asia), which is also cultivated; the Camphor-tree (<i>Cinnamomum
-camphora</i>, Eastern Asia). The Laurel-tree (<i>Laurus
-nobilis</i>, Mediterranean), the berries and leaves of which
-give laurel oil, is medicinal.&mdash;Scented wood for furniture,
-etc., is obtained from <i>Sassafras officinalis</i> (from N.
-Am.). The wood from its roots is officinal. Pichurim “beans” are
-the large cotyledons of <i>Nectandra pichury</i>, whilst the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_393">[393]</span>
-famous “Greenheart” wood of Demarara is the wood of <i>Nectandra
-rodiæi</i>. The pulp and seeds contain a <i>fatty oil</i>.
-The pear-like fruit of <i>Persea gratissima</i> (Mexico, also
-cultivated) is very delicious. <i>Lindera benzoin</i> is a
-garden shrub; <i>Laurus nobilis</i> likewise.</p>
-
-<p>Order 12. <b>Myristicaceæ</b> (<b>Nutmegs</b>). In this order
-there is only 1 genus, <i>Myristica</i>. Trees or shrubs.
-The leaves agree closely with those of the Lauraceæ, with
-which this order has many points in common. The majority of
-the species are aromatic, having in their vegetative parts
-pellucid glands with volatile oils. The flowers are regular,
-diœcious, trimerous, and have a single gamophyllous (cupular or
-campanulate) 3-toothed, fleshy perianth. In the ♂-flowers the
-anthers vary in number (3–15), and they are extrorse and borne
-on a centrally-placed column; in the ♀-flower the gynœceum is
-unilocular, unicarpellary, with 1 ovule. The <span class="allsmcap">FRUIT</span>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig389">389</a>) has the form of a pear; it is a fleshy, yellow
-capsule, which opens along the ventral and dorsal sutures,
-exposing the large seed. This seed has a large, red, irregularly
-branched aril&mdash;the so-called “mace”; the “nutmeg,” on the other
-hand, is the seed itself with the inner thin portion of the
-testa, which has pushed its way irregularly into the endosperm,
-and causes the marbled appearance of the cut seed (Fig. <a href="#fig390">390</a>);
-the external, dark brown, hard, and brittle part of the
-seed-shell is however removed. Mace and nutmeg contain volatile
-and fatty oils in abundance.&mdash;80 species. Tropical. The majority
-are used on account of their aromatic seeds and aril, the most
-important being <i>M. fragrans</i> (<i>moschata</i>), from the
-Moluccas. This is cultivated in special plantations, not only in
-its native home, but in other tropical countries also. Nutmegs
-were known as commodities in Europe in very ancient times
-(<i>e.g.</i> by the Romans), but it was not until the year 1500
-that the tree itself was known. The seed is <span class="allsmcap">OFFICINAL</span>.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 10. <b>Rhœadinæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The plants belonging to this family are almost exclusively herbaceous,
-with scattered, exstipulate leaves. The flowers are eucyclic di- or
-tetramerous, with the calyx and corolla deciduous, <i>hypogynous</i>,
-☿, <i>regular</i>, the gynœceum with 2–several carpels (generally
-2, transversely placed) (Figs. <a href="#fig391">391</a>, <a href="#fig392">392</a>, <a href="#fig393">393</a>, <a href="#fig397">397</a>). The ovary is
-<i>unilocular with parietal placentæ</i>, but in <i>Cruciferæ</i> and a
-few others it becomes bilocular by the development of a <i>false</i>,
-membranous wall between the placentæ. The stigmas in the majority
-of cases are <i>commissural</i>, <i>i.e.</i> they stand above the
-placentæ, and not above the dorsal line of the carpels. The fruit is
-nearly always a <i>capsule</i>, which opens by the middle portions
-of the carpels detaching themselves as valves, bearing no seed,
-whilst the placentæ persist as the seed-bearing frame. Endosperm is
-found in <i>Papaveraceæ</i> and <i>Fumariaceæ</i>, but is absent in
-<i>Cruciferæ</i> and <i>Capparidaceæ</i>.&mdash;<span class="smaller">This family through the
-Papaveraceæ is related to the Polycarpicæ (the Nymphæaceæ), through the
-Capparidaceæ to the Resedaceæ in the next family.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Exceptions to the above are: <i>Eschscholtzia</i>,
-<i>Subularia</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig403">403</a>) and a few<span class="pagenum" id="Page_394">[394]</span> Capparidaceæ, in
-which perigynous flowers are found. A few Papaveraceæ and
-Fumariaceæ have trimerous flowers. In <i>Fumaria</i> and certain
-Cruciferæ, the fruit is a nut. The Fumariaceæ have zygomorphic
-flowers. Trees and shrubs are almost entirely confined to the
-Capparidaceæ, in which order stipules also are found.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Papaveraceæ</b> (<b>Poppies</b>). Herbaceous plants with
-stiff hairs and <i>latex</i>; flowers <i>regular</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig391">391</a>)
-with generally 2 (-3) sepals (which <i>fall off</i> as the flower
-opens), 2 + 2 petals (imbricate and crumpled in the bud) <i>without
-spur, numerous stamens in several alternating whorls</i> (generally
-a multiple of 2); carpels 2–several, united into a unilocular
-gynœceum. Trimerous flowers also occur. Capsule with very numerous
-seeds on the parietal placentæ; embryo small, with large, oleaginous
-<i>endosperm</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig392">392</a>).&mdash;The leaves have no stipules and are
-generally pinnately lobed.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig391" style="width: 418px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig391.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 391.</span>&mdash;A Diagram of the flower of
-<i>Glaucium</i> and the dichasium (which becomes transformed into a
-scorpioid cyme). <i>B Papaver argemone</i>, transverse section
-of the ovary with indication of the position of the stigmas.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig392" style="width: 330px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig392.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 392.</span>&mdash;<i>Papaver somniferum</i>: <i>A</i>
-capsule; <i>st</i> the stigma; <i>v</i> valves; <i>h</i> pores;
-<i>B</i> seed in longitudinal section; <i>alb</i> endosperm; <i>emb</i>
-embryo.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Papaver</i> (Poppy) has large, solitary, terminal flowers; petals
-firmly and irregularly folded in æstivation; gynœceum formed by many
-(4–15) carpels; stigmas velvety, <i>sessile</i> and <i>stellate</i>
-(the rays stand above the placentæ) (Fig. <a href="#fig392">391</a> <i>B</i>). The edges
-of the carpels project deeply into the ovary, but do not meet in the
-centre, so that it remains unilocular. The capsule opens by pores
-placed close beneath the stigma, and formed of small valves alternating
-with the placentæ and the rays of the stigma (Fig. <a href="#fig391">391</a>). <i>P.
-dubium</i>, <i>P. argemone</i>, <i>P. rhœas</i>.&mdash;<i>Chelidonium</i>
-(Greater Celandine) has <i>yellow</i> latex, flowers in umbellate
-cymes (the terminal, central flower opening first) and only 2
-carpels; the fruit resembles the siliqua<span class="pagenum" id="Page_395">[395]</span> of the Cruciferæ in having
-two <i>barren valves</i>, which are detached from the base upwards,
-and a <i>seed-bearing frame</i>, but there is no partition wall
-formed between the placentæ. <i>Ch. majus.</i>&mdash;<span class="smaller">The majority
-of the other genera have, like <i>Chelidonium</i>, 2 carpels
-(lateral and alternating with the sepals: Fig. <a href="#fig391">391</a> <i>A</i>) and
-siliqua-like fruit, thus: <i>Eschscholtzia</i> (perigynous) with
-a linear, stigma-bearing prolongation extending as far above the
-placentæ as above the dorsal suture of the carpels; <i>Glaucium</i>
-(Horn-Poppy); <i>G. luteum</i>, whose extremely long, thin capsule
-differs from that of <i>Chelidonium</i> by the formation, during
-ripening, of a thick, spongy (<i>false</i>) replum, which persists
-when the valves are detached; <i>Sanguinaria</i> with red latex, the
-2 petals divided into 8–12 small petals (perhaps by dédoublement);
-<i>Macleya</i> and <i>Bocconia</i> (1-seeded capsule) with 2 sepals
-and no petals.&mdash;Trimerous flowers are found in <i>Argemone</i>
-and <i>Platystemon</i> (with a curious fruit, carpels free, and
-transversely divided and constricted into joints which separate as
-nut-like portions).&mdash;<i>Meconopsis.</i>&mdash;<i>Hypecoum</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig393">393</a>
-<i>C</i>) has tri-lobed and three cleft petals, 4 free stamens with
-4-locular anthers and a jointed siliqua; it presents a transitional
-form to the Fumariaceæ, with which order it is sometimes included.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> <i>Papaver</i> and <i>Chelidonium</i> have
-no honey, and are without doubt only visited by insects for the
-sake of the pollen. The anthers and stigmas mature about the
-same time.&mdash;There are 80 species; especially from warm climates.
-<span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: <i>Papaver somniferum</i> (Opium-Poppy);
-the latex of its unripe capsules is obtained by incisions, and
-dried (<i>opium</i>); it contains many alkaloids: morphine,
-papaverine, narcotine, thebaine, etc. The oleaginous seeds are
-also used in the manufacture of oil. Its home is in the East,
-where it is extensively cultivated. The petals of the Corn-poppy
-(<i>P. rhœas</i>) are also officinal. Several species are
-cultivated as ornamental plants.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Fumariacæ</b> (<b>Fumitories</b>). This order differs
-from the closely allied Papaveraceæ in the absence of latex, a poorer
-flower, generally <i>transversely zygomorphic</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig393">393</a> <i>B</i>),
-in which case one or both of the outer lateral petals are gibbous, or
-prolonged into a spur; the stamens are especially anomalous. Sepals
-<b>2</b>, caducous; petals 2 + 2; stamens 2, <i>tripartite</i>; each
-lateral anther is <i>bilocular</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig393">393</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>;
-395); gynœceum bicarpellate. The fruit is a nut or siliqua-like
-capsule. <i>Endosperm.</i>&mdash;<i>Herbs</i> with scattered, repeatedly
-pinnately-divided leaves without stipules, generally quite glabrous and
-glaucous; the flowers are arranged in racemes with subtending bracts,
-but the bracteoles are sometimes suppressed.</p>
-
-<p><i>Dicentra</i> (syn. <i>Dielytra</i>) and <i>Adlumia</i> have a
-doubly symmetrical flower, with a spur or gibbous swelling at the base
-of <i>each</i> of the laterally-placed petals (Figs. <a href="#fig393">393</a> <i>A</i>,
-<a href="#fig394">394</a>). <i>Corydalis</i> has a zygomorphic flower, <i>only one of</i>
-the lateral petals <i>having a spur</i>, and consequently there is
-only one nectary at the base of the bundle of stamens, which stands
-right in front of the spur (Fig.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_396">[396]</span> <a href="#fig393">393</a> <i>B</i>, <a href="#fig395">395</a>, <a href="#fig396">396</a>). The fruit
-is a many-seeded siliqua-like capsule. <span class="smaller">A peculiarity of the flower
-is that the plane of symmetry passes <i>transversely</i> through the
-flowers, whilst in nearly all other zygomorphic flowers it lies in
-the median line. Moreover, the flower is turned, so that the plane of
-symmetry ultimately becomes nearly vertical, and the spur is directed
-backwards.&mdash;Many species have subterranean tubers; in these the
-embryo germinates with <i>one cotyledon</i>, which is lanceolate and
-resembles a foliage-leaf. The tuber is in some the swollen hypocotyl
-(<i>C. cava</i>), in others a swollen root (<i>C. fabacea</i>, etc.),
-which grows down through the precisely similar swollen root of the
-mother-plant. The sub-genus <i>Ceratocapnos</i> has dimorphic fruits
-(nuts and capsules) in the same raceme.</span> <i>Fumaria</i> differs from
-<i>Corydalis</i> only by its almost drupaceous, one-seeded nut (Fig.
-<a href="#fig395">395</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig393" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig393.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 393.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Dicentra</i>
-(<i>A</i>), <i>Corydalis</i> (<i>B</i>), and <i>Hypecoum</i>
-(<i>C</i>).]</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig394" style="width: 506px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig394.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 394.</span>&mdash;<i>Dicentra spectabilis</i>:
-<i>A</i> flower (2/5); <i>B</i> the same, after removal of half of one
-outer petal; the cap, formed by the inner petals, is moved away from
-the anthers and stigma; the insect does this with the lower side of its
-abdomen, and thus rubs the stigma on the hairs of its ventral surface;
-the dotted line at <i>e</i> indicates the direction of the proboscis;
-<i>C</i> andrœcium and gynœceum; <i>D</i> stigma.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">The structure of the flower.</span> <i>Hypecoum</i> among the
-Papaveraceæ is the connecting link with the Fumariaceæ. The
-diagram (Fig. <a href="#fig393">393</a> <i>C</i>) corresponds both in number and in
-the relative position of its members with that of most of the
-other Papaveraceæ (Fig. <a href="#fig391">391</a>), except that there are only four
-stamens (with extrorse anthers). In <i>Dicentra</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig393">393</a>
-<i>A</i>), the two central (uppermost) stamens are absent, but
-each of the two lateral ones are divided into three filaments,
-of which the central one bears a four-locular anther, and each
-of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_397">[397]</span> others a two-locular (half) anther. <i>Corydalis</i>
-and <i>Fumaria</i> stand alone in the symmetry of the flower,
-differing from <i>Dicentra</i> in having only one of the
-lateral petals (Fig. <a href="#fig393">393</a> <i>B</i>, <i>sp</i>) prolonged into
-a spur, while in <i>Dicentra</i> both the petals are spurred.
-This structure has been interpreted in various ways. According
-to Asa Gray the median stamens are absent in the last-named
-genera, and the lateral ones are split in a similar manner to
-the petals of <i>Hypecoum</i>. Another, and no doubt the most
-reasonable theory (adduced by De Candolle), is: that two median
-stamens are split, the two parts move laterally, each to their
-respective sides and become united with the two lateral stamens;
-this affords a natural explanation of the two half-anthers,
-and establishes a close relationship to the Cruciferæ. A third
-interpretation, held by Eichler and others, is as follows: the
-median stamens are <i>always</i> wanting; when they appear to be
-present, as in <i>Hypecoum</i>, it is due to the fact that the
-side portions of the lateral stamens <i>approach each other</i>
-(as interpetiolar stipules) and coalesce into an apparently
-single stamen.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig395" style="width: 228px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig395.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 395.</span>&mdash;<i>Fumaria officinalis</i>: <i>A</i>
-the flower in longitudinal section; <i>B</i> the andrœcium and
-gynœceum; nectary to the right.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig396" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig396.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 396.</span>&mdash;<i>Corydalis cava</i>: <i>a</i> a
-flower (lateral view); <i>b</i> the anthers lying round the stigma;
-<i>c</i> the anthers shortly before the opening of the flower; <i>d</i>
-the head of the stigma; <i>e</i> relative position of the parts of the
-flower during the visit of an insect.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>130 species; mostly from the northern temperatures.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> <i>Fumaria</i>, with its inconspicuous
-flowers, has to a great extent to resort to self-pollination.
-<i>Corydalis</i>, on the other hand, is dependent on
-cross-pollination; <i>C. cava</i> is even absolutely sterile
-with its own pollen. <i>Corydalis</i> is pollinated by insects
-with long probosces (humble-bees, bees), which are able to reach
-the honey secreted in the spur; as they alight on the flowers
-they press the exterior petals on one side (Fig. <a href="#fig396">396</a> <i>e</i>),
-so that the stigma, surrounded by the anthers, projects forward;
-the proboscis is introduced in the direction of the arrow
-in the figure, and during this act the under-surface of the
-insect is covered with pollen, which is transferred by similar<span class="pagenum" id="Page_398">[398]</span>
-movements to the stigma of another (older) flower.&mdash;Ornamental
-plants; <i>Dicentra</i> (<i>spectabilis</i> and <i>eximia</i>),
-<i>Adlumia</i>, <i>Corydalis</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Cruciferæ (Crucifers).</b> The flowers are <i>regular</i>,
-☿; sepals 4, free (2 + 2), deciduous; petals 4, free, deciduous,
-unguiculate, placed <i>diagonally</i> in one whorl, and alternating
-with the sepals; stamens 6; the 2 <i>outer</i> are <i>short</i>,
-the 4 <i>inner</i> (in reality the two median split to the base)
-<i>longer</i>, placed in pairs (tetradynamia of Linnæus); gynœceum
-syncarpous formed by 2 (as in the previous order, lateral) carpels,
-with 2 parietal placentæ, but divided into two loculi by a
-<i>spurious</i> membranous dissepiment (<i>replum</i>) (Fig. <a href="#fig397">397</a>).
-Style single, with a capitate, usually two-lobed stigma, generally
-commisural, that is, placed above the parietal placentæ (Fig.
-<a href="#fig397">397</a>), but it may also be placed above the dorsal suture, or remain
-undivided. Ovules <i>curved</i>. The fruit is generally a bivalvular
-<i>siliqua</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig398">398</a> <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>), the valves separating
-from below upwards, and leaving the placentæ attached to the replum;
-other forms of fruits are described below. The oily seeds <i>have no
-endosperm</i> (endosperm is present in the two previous orders); the
-<i>embryo is curved</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig398">398</a> <i>E</i>, <i>F</i>; <a href="#fig399">399</a>, <a href="#fig400">400</a>).&mdash;In
-general they are <i>herbaceous</i> plants, without latex, with
-scattered, penninerved leaves, without stipules; the inflorescence
-is very characteristic, namely, a raceme with the flowers aggregated
-together at the time of flowering into a corymb, and <i>destitute of
-both bracts and bracteoles</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig397" style="width: 261px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig397.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 397.</span>&mdash;Diagram of a Cruciferous flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig398" style="width: 442px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig398.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 398.</span>&mdash;<i>Brassica oleracea</i>: <i>A</i>
-raceme; <i>B</i>, <i>C</i> siliqua; <i>D</i> seed; <i>E</i> embryo;
-<i>F</i> transverse section of seed.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig399" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig399.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 399.</span>&mdash;Transverse section of seed and
-embryo of <i>Cheiranthus cheiri</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig400" style="width: 224px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig400.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 400.</span>&mdash;Transverse section of seed of
-<i>Sisymbrium alliaria</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Many are biennial, forming in the first year a close
-leaf-rosette. By cultivation the tap-root can readily be induced
-to swell out into the form of a tuber (Turnips, Swedes, etc.).
-<i>Stipules</i> are found indicated by small glands on the very
-young leaves; in <i>Cochlearia armoracia</i> they are fairly
-large triangular scales. <i>Stellate hairs</i> often occur.
-<i>Floral-leaves</i> are occasionally developed. Terminal
-flowers are never found in the inflorescences. <i>Iberis</i>
-and <i>Teesdalia</i> have <i>zygomorphic</i> flowers.
-<i>Subularia</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig403">403</a>) is perigynous. The 2 external
-sepals (Fig. <a href="#fig397">397</a>) stand in the median plane; it may therefore
-be supposed that there are two bracteoles outside these which,
-however, are suppressed, and can only in a few instances be
-traced in the young flower; the two lateral sepals are often
-gibbous at the base, and serve as reservoirs for the nectar
-secreted by the glands placed above them; they correspond in
-position to the external petals of the Fumariaceæ. The 4 petals
-which follow next arise simultaneously, and alternate with the
-4 sepals; if it could be shown that these are merely 2 median
-petals, which have been deeply cleft and the two parts separated
-from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_399">[399]</span> each other and displaced to the diagonal position, there
-would be a perfect correspondence with the Fumariaceous flower;
-then the petals would be followed in regular alternation by
-the 2 lateral small stamens, the 2 median long stamens, which
-it has been proved are split into 4 and placed in couples, and
-the 2 laterally-placed carpels,&mdash;in all 6 dimerous whorls.
-But the formation of the corolla by the splitting of 2 petals
-does not agree with the development of the flower or bear
-comparison, and hence the only fact in favour of this theory is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_400">[400]</span>
-the otherwise prevailing correspondence with the Fumariaceæ.
-Yet it may be observed that in special cases each pair of long
-stamens clearly enough arises from one protuberance and even
-later on may be considerably united or entirely undivided
-(<i>e.g. Vella</i>); in other instances they are quite
-distinct from the beginning, and it is possible that this latter
-condition has become constant in the corolla. <i>Lepidium
-ruderale</i> and others have no corolla. <i>Senebiera didyma</i>
-has only 2 median stamens. <i>Megacarpæa</i> has several
-stamens, no doubt by dédoublement, as in Capparidaceæ.&mdash;The
-<i>number of carpels</i> may also be abnormally increased;
-<i>Tetrapoma barbareifolium</i> has normally 4 carpels with
-an equal number of placentæ and repla. It is supposed to be a
-variety of <i>Nasturtium palustre</i>.&mdash;The 2–4–8–10 greenish
-<i>glands</i>, which are found at the base of the stamens, are
-nectaries, morphologically emergences, and not rudimentary
-stamens. The forms of <i>fruits</i> are of great systematic
-significance, see the genera. In some species dimorphic fruits
-are present, <i>e.g. Cardamine chenopodiifolia</i>
-which has both ordinary <i>Cardamine</i>-siliquas and 1-seeded
-siliculas.</p>
-
-<p>The <i>curved embryo</i> appears in five forms, which have
-systematic importance: 1. To the <span class="smcap">Pleurorhizæ</span>
-belong those genera whose radicle (with the hypocotyl)
-lies bent upwards along the <i>edge</i> of the <i>flat</i>
-cotyledons (Fig. <a href="#fig399">399</a>); to this group belong <i>Cardamine</i>,
-<i>Nasturtium</i>, <i>Cheiranthus</i>, <i>Matthiola</i>,
-<i>Cochlearia</i>, <i>Draba</i>, <i>Iberis</i>, <i>Thlaspi</i>,
-etc.; diagrammatic transverse section: ◯=.&mdash;2. To
-<span class="smcap">Notorhizæ</span> belong those whose radicle lies in an upward
-direction along the <i>back</i> of one of the <i>flat</i>
-cotyledons (Figs. <a href="#fig400">400</a>, <a href="#fig412_413">413</a>); <i>e.g. Hesperis</i>,
-<i>Sisymbrium</i>, <i>Lepidium</i>, <i>Capsella</i>,
-<i>Camelina</i>: ◯‖.&mdash;3. <span class="smcap">Orthoploceæ</span> differ from the
-Notorhizeæ in having the cotyledons folded (not flat) (Fig.
-<a href="#fig398">398</a> <i>E</i>, <i>F</i>); to this belong <i>Brassica</i>,
-<i>Sinapis</i>, <i>Raphanus</i>, <i>Crambe</i>, etc.: ◯&gt;&gt;.&mdash;4.
-<span class="smcap">Spirolobeæ</span>: the radicle lies as in the Notorhizæ,
-but the cotyledons are so rolled together that a transverse
-section of the seed cuts them twice; <i>Bunias</i>: ◯‖‖.&mdash;5.
-<span class="smcap">Diplecolobeæ</span>: the cotyledons are folded forward and
-backward so that a transverse section cuts them several times;
-<i>Subularia</i>, <i>Senebiera</i>: ◯‖‖‖.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>On <i>germination</i> the cotyledons appear above the ground
-as green leaves; in the Orthoploceæ they are bilobed, in the
-<i>Lepidium</i>-species divided.</p>
-
-<p>1. <b>Silicula, broad replum</b> (Siliculosæ latiseptæ), valves flat or
-slightly vaulted, and the replum extends through the greatest width of
-the silicula (Fig. <a href="#fig404">404</a>). The seeds are situated in two rows.</p>
-
-<p>◯=: <i>Cochlearia</i> (Horse-radish): the siliqua is nearly spheroid;
-glabrous herbs, generally with fleshy, stalked leaves, and white
-flowers.&mdash;<i>Draba</i> has an oblong, lanceolate, somewhat compressed
-silicula; herbs with small rosettes of leaves, most frequently with
-stellate and long-stalked racemes.&mdash;<i>Alyssum</i> and <i>Berteroa</i>
-are whitish, on account of the stellate hairs; they have a more
-compressed and round or elliptical silicula. <i>Vesicaria</i>;
-<i>Aubrietia</i>. <i>Lunaria</i> (Honesty, Fig. <a href="#fig401">401</a>): very broad and
-flat silicula with long stalk (the receptacle as in Capparidaceæ).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_401">[401]</span></p>
-
-<p>◯‖: <i>Camelina</i> (Gold-of-pleasure) has a spheroid, pear-shaped
-siliqua with a small rim passing right round (Fig. <a href="#fig402">402</a>).
-<i>Subularia</i> (Awlwort), an aquatic plant with <i>perigynous</i>
-flower (Fig. <a href="#fig403">403</a>) and folded cotyledons.</p>
-
-<p>2. <b>Silicula, narrow replum</b> (Siliculosæ angustiseptæ),
-<i>i.e.</i> the replum is much shorter than the arched, more or less
-boat-shaped valves (Figs. <a href="#fig405">405</a>, <a href="#fig406">406</a>, <a href="#fig407">407</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig401" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig401.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 401.</span>&mdash;<i>Lunaria biennis.</i> Fruit, the
-valves of which have fallen off.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig402" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig402.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 402.</span>&mdash;<i>Camelina sativa.</i> Fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig403" style="width: 255px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig403.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 403.</span>&mdash;<i>Subularia aquatica.</i>
-Longitudinal section through the flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>◯=: <i>Thlaspi</i> (Penny-Cress) has a flat, almost circular silicula,
-emarginate or cordate, with a well-developed wing round the edge (Fig.
-<a href="#fig406">406</a>). <i>Iberis</i> and <i>Teesdalia</i>: the racemes during flowering
-are especially corymbose, and the most external petals of the outer
-flowers project radially and are much larger than the other two (the
-flower is <i>zygomorphic</i>).&mdash;<i>Biscutella</i>, <i>Megacarpæa</i>.</p>
-
-<p>◯‖: <i>Capsella</i> (Shepherd’s-Purse) has a wingless, obcordate or
-triangular silicula (Fig. <a href="#fig407">407</a>). <i>Lepidium</i> (Pepperwort) has a
-few–(2–4) seeded, slightly winged, oval silicula. <i>Senebiera</i> has
-a silicula splitting longitudinally into two nut-like portions; its
-cotyledons are folded.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Anastatica hierochuntica</i> (“Rose of
-Jericho”) is an annual, silicula-fruited, desert plant (Arabia, Syria,
-N. Africa). After the flowering all its then leafless branches bend
-together upwards, forming a kind of ball; this spreads out again on
-coming in contact with water, and the fruits then disseminate their
-seeds, which germinate very quickly, often in the fruit.</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_402">[402]</span></p>
-
-<p>3. <b>Siliqua</b> (Siliquosæ). The fruit is a true siliqua, several
-times longer than broad. The seeds in most are borne apparently in one
-row.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig404" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig404.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 404.</span>&mdash;Transverse section of a silicula
-with broad replum: <i>s</i> replum; <i>k</i> the valves.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig405" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig405.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 405.</span>&mdash;Transverse section of a silicula
-with narrow replum.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>◯&gt;&gt;: <i>Brassica</i> (Cabbage). The seeds are placed apparently in one
-row in each loculus (Fig. <a href="#fig398">398</a> <i>C</i>); the style is long and round;
-the valves have only 1 strong, longitudinal rib.&mdash;<i>Melanosinapis</i>
-(<i>M. nigra</i>, Black-mustard); the style is compressed, two-edged;
-the valves of the siliqua are one ribbed.&mdash;<i>Sinapis</i> (Mustard);
-quadrangular or flat style (in which in most cases there is a seed) and
-3–5 strong, longitudinal ribs on the valves.&mdash;<i>Eruca</i> differs from
-<i>Brassica</i> by the shorter siliqua, broad, sword-like “beak” and
-seeds in two rows.</p>
-
-<p>◯= (Fig. <a href="#fig399">399</a>): <i>Cardamine</i> (Bitter Cress) has a long,
-linear siliqua, with flat, unribbed, <i>elastic</i> valves.
-The leaves are most frequently pinnatifid or pinnate. <span class="smaller"><i>C.
-pratensis</i> reproduces by buds formed in the axils of the
-leaves.</span>&mdash;<i>Arabis</i> (Rock Cress); <i>Matthiola</i> (Stock);
-<i>Cheiranthus cheiri</i> (Wallflower); <i>Barbarea</i> (Winter
-Cress) (double-edged, quadrangular siliqua); <i>Nasturtium</i> (<i>N.
-officinale</i>, Water-cress); the siliqua of the latter genus is in
-some species short, in others long.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig406" style="width: 241px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig406.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 406.</span>&mdash;<i>Thlaspi arvense.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig407" style="width: 403px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig407.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 407.</span>&mdash;Silicula of <i>Capsella
-bursa-pastoris</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>◯‖ (Fig.<a href="#fig400">400</a>): <i>Sisymbrium</i> (Hedge Mustard) the valves of
-the siliqua are 3-ribbed.&mdash;<i>Erysimum</i>; <i>Hesperis</i>;
-<i>Schizopetalum</i> (with fimbriate petals).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_403">[403]</span></p>
-
-<p>4. <b>Fruit jointed</b> (Lomentaceæ). The fruit is divided by
-transverse walls into as many spaces as there are seeds, and dehisces
-at maturity, generally <i>transversely</i>, into a corresponding number
-of nut-like joints (“articulate-siliqua.”)</p>
-
-<p>◯=: <i>Crambe</i> (Kale, Fig. <a href="#fig408">408</a>). The fruit has only 2 joints. The
-lower one resembles a short, thick stalk, and is barren, the upper
-one is spherical, and has 1 seed.&mdash;<i>Cakile</i> (<i>C. maritima</i>,
-Sea-kale); the lower node is triangular, 1-locular, the upper one more
-ensiform, 1-locular (Fig. <a href="#fig409">409</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig408" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig408.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 408.</span>&mdash;Fruit of <i>Crambe maritima</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig409" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig409.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 409.</span>&mdash;<i>Cakile maritima.</i> Fruit (2/1).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig410" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig410.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 410.</span>&mdash;<i>Raphanus raphanistrum.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig411" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig411.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 411.</span>&mdash;<i>Raphanus sativus.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>◯&gt;&gt;: <i>Raphanus</i> has a long siliqua, which, in the garden Radish
-(<i>R. sativus</i>), is spongy and slightly abstricted (Fig. <a href="#fig411">411</a>), but
-neither opens nor divides transversely (a kind of dry berry), and which
-in the Wild Radish (<i>R. raphanistrum</i>) (Fig. <a href="#fig410">410</a>) is abstricted
-in the form of a string of pearls, and separates into many joints.
-<span class="smaller"><i>R. sativus</i>; the “Radish” is formed by the hypocotyl, after
-the bursting of its external, cortical portions (of which there are
-generally two patches at the top of the Radish).</span></p>
-
-<p>5. <b>Siliqua indehiscent</b> (Nucumentaceæ). The fruit is a short,
-<i>unjointed</i>, unilocular and 1-seeded nut, and the fruit-stalks
-are often long, slender, and drooping. (Sometimes a thin endosperm
-is present).&mdash;<i>Isatis</i> (Woad) has most frequently an oblong,
-small-winged nut; ◯‖ (Figs. <a href="#fig412_413">412</a>, <a href="#fig412_413">413</a>).&mdash;<i>Bunias</i>; <i>Neslia</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_404">[404]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>[The systematic division of this order given
-above is founded upon that of A. P. de Candolle. Prantl
-(<i>Engler and Prantl, Nat. Fam.</i>), 1891, adopts a somewhat
-different system, which may briefly be summarised as follows:&mdash;</p>
-</div>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li class="hangingindent"><i>A.</i> Hairs unbranched or absent; no glandular hairs.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent4">1. <span class="smcap">Thelypodieæ.</span> Stigma equally developed on all sides;
-style undivided or prolonged above the middle of the carpels, or
-turned back.&mdash;<i>Stanleyinæ</i>; <i>Heliophilinæ</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent4">2. <span class="smcap">Sinapeæ.</span> Stigma strongly developed above the
-placenta; style beaked or two-lobed.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent3"><i>a.</i> Cotyledons arising behind the bend of the
-embryo.&mdash;<i>Lepidiinæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="hangingindent3"><i>b.</i> Cotyledons arising at the bend of the embryo.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent6">α. Only lateral nectaries. Generally a silicula or indehiscent
-fruit.&mdash;<i>Cochleariinæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="hangingindent6">β. Generally a siliqua, more rarely a silicula or
-transversely-divided or indehiscent fruit. Nectaries generally
-lateral and median.&mdash;<i>Alliariinæ</i>; <i>Sisymbriinæ</i>;
-<i>Vellinæ</i>; <i>Brassicinæ</i>; <i>Cardamininæ</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent"><i>B.</i> Hairs collectively or partially branched, very rarely
-entirely absent; glandular hairs are sometimes also present.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent4">1. <span class="smcap">Schizopetaleæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="hangingindent4">2. <span class="smcap">Hesperideæ.</span> Stigma strongly developed above the
-placenta; style undivided or prolonged above the placentæ into
-shorter or longer lobes.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent3"><i>a.</i> Surface cells of the replum, not divided
-diagonally.&mdash;<i>Capsellinæ</i>; <i>Turritinæ</i>;
-<i>Erysiminæ</i>; <i>Alyssinæ</i>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent3"><i>b.</i> Surface cells of the replum divided
-diagonally.&mdash;<i>Malcolmiinæ</i>; <i>Hesperidinæ</i>;
-<i>Moricandiinæ</i>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig412_413" style="width: 300px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig412_413.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 412.</span>&mdash;<i>Isatis tinctoria.</i> Fruit (Fig.
-412); and in longitudinal section (Fig. 413). (Mag.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> Honey is secreted by the nectaries
-mentioned above; but the position of the stamens is not always
-the most favourable for pollination by insects (in these flowers
-the honey-seeking insect must touch the anthers with one of its
-sides and the stigma with the other), and self-fertilisation is
-common. In some species (<i>Cardamine pratensis</i>) the long
-stamens turn their anthers outwards towards the small stamens,
-so that 3 anthers surround each of the two large entrances to
-the nectaries.</p>
-
-<p>1200 species (180 genera), especially in the cold and temperate
-parts of the Old World (Europe, W. Asia). Many are <i>weeds</i>
-in this country, <i>e.g.</i> Wild Cabbage (<i>Brassica
-campestris</i>), Charlock (<i>Sinapis arvensis</i>), Wild
-Radish (<i>Raphanus raphanistrum</i>) and others.&mdash;The order
-is acrid and oleaginous. Oil is obtained from many of the
-oil-containing seeds, especially of the Rape (<i>Brassica
-napus</i>), Summer-Rape (the oil-yielding cultivated form of the
-Field-Cabbage) and <i>Camelina</i>. Several are pot-herbs or
-fodder plants, <i>e.g.</i> Cabbage</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_405">[405]</span></p>
-
-<p>(<i>Brassica oleracea</i>) with its numerous varieties:
-Cauliflower (var. <i>botrytis</i>; the entire inflorescence
-is abnormally branched and fleshy), Kohlrabi (var.
-<i>gongylodes</i>, with swollen, tuberous stem), Kale,
-Red-Cabbage, White-Cabbage, etc.; <i>B. campestris</i>, var.
-<i>rapifera</i> (Turnip); <i>B. napus</i>, var. <i>rapifera</i>
-(Swede); <i>Raphanus sativus</i> (Radish from W. Asia), <i>R.
-caudatus</i> (long Radish); <i>Nasturtium officinale</i> (Water
-Cress), <i>Lepidium sativum</i> (Garden Cress), and <i>Barbarea
-præcox</i> (Early Cress); <i>Crambe maritima</i> (Sea-Kkale).
-The seeds of the following are especially used as spices: (the
-flour of) <i>Melanosinapis</i> (Black-mustard), and <i>Sinapis
-alba</i> (White-mustard), which are <i>officinal</i> like the
-root of <i>Cochlearia armoracia</i> (Horse-radish, E. Eur[**.]).
-The herbaceous parts of <i>Cochlearia officinalis</i> and
-<i>danica</i> are medicinal.&mdash;A blue dye (woad) is extracted
-from <i>Isatis</i>.&mdash;Ornamental plants: <i>Cheiranthus
-cheiri</i> (Wallflower), <i>Matthiola</i> (Stock),
-<i>Iberis</i>, <i>Hesperis</i>, <i>Lunaria</i>, and others
-(especially from S. Eur.). Sweet-scented flowers are rare.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig414" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig414.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 414.</span>&mdash;<i>Gynandropsis pentaphylla.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig415" style="width: 346px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig415.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 415.</span>&mdash;<i>Capparis spinosa.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Capparidaceæ</b> (<b>Capers</b>). The relationship
-with the Cruciferæ is so close that certain forms are with
-difficulty distinguished from them. The diagram of the flower
-is the same in the number and position of its parts, but it
-differs in the modifications which occur in the development of
-the stamens. In some genera all 4 stamens are undivided; in
-others both the 2 median ones are divided as in the Cruciferæ
-(6 stamens, but <i>not tetradynamous</i>) (Fig. <a href="#fig414">414</a>); in other
-genera only 1 of these; in other instances again they are
-divided into more than 2; and finally the 2 lateral ones also
-may be found divided, so that <i>indefinite stamens</i> occur
-(Fig. <a href="#fig415">415</a>). The bicarpellate gynœceum is <i>unilocular</i>
-(without replum), but more than 2 carpels may occur. The ovary
-is elevated<span class="pagenum" id="Page_406">[406]</span> on a <i>stalk</i> (sometimes as much as 1 foot
-in length); also between the stamens and corolla a similar
-stalk may be found (Fig. <a href="#fig414">414</a>). The fruit is long and siliquose
-(<i>Cleome</i>, <i>Polanisia</i>, <i>Gynandropsis</i>), or a
-berry (<i>Capparis</i>). Endosperm absent. Some have zygomorphic
-flowers. Gamosepalous calyx and perigynous flowers also
-occur.&mdash;350 species; especially in the Tropics. The majority are
-trees and shrubs, and they differ also from the Cruciferæ in
-having distinct stipules present in some species.</p>
-
-<p>“Capers” are the flower buds of the climbing, thorny shrub,
-<i>Capparis spinosa</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig415">415</a>), which grows in the
-Mediterranean.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 11. <b>Cistifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flowers in this family are perfect, regular (except <i>Resedaceæ,
-Violaceæ</i>), hypogynous, the perianth-leaves free (a few have them
-slightly united), æstivation most frequently imbricate; they are
-eucyclic in the andrœcium, and most frequently in the other parts, and
-generally 5-merous with S5, P5, A5 + 5, G3, but other numbers also
-occur; several have <i>indefinite stamens</i>, but the stamens arise
-(where the development is known) in <i>centrifugal order</i> and are
-arranged, often very distinctly, <i>in bundles</i>; in other words,
-the large number of stamens is formed by the splitting of a small
-number (most frequently 5); a true spiral arrangement is never found.
-Gynœceum syncarpous, multicarpellary (<i>Dilleniaceæ</i> and a few
-<i>Resedaceæ</i> are apocarpous), most frequently the number of carpels
-is 3, forming a <i>unilocular ovary</i> with <i>parietal placentæ</i>,
-but parallel with this, multilocular ovaries, with the ovules placed
-in the inner angle of the loculi, are also found, and a few genera
-have a free, centrally-placed placenta. The fruit is most frequently
-a capsule. The dehiscence is never with a “replum,” <i>i.e.</i> the
-persistent frame of the placenta, as in the family Rhœadinæ. One
-half of the orders has endosperm (<i>Violaceæ</i>, <i>Cistaceæ</i>,
-<i>Droseraceæ</i>, <i>Bixaceæ</i>, <i>Ternstrœmiaceæ</i>, etc.),
-the other has no endosperm (<i>Resedaceæ</i>, <i>Hypericaceæ</i>,
-<i>Elatinaceæ</i>, <i>Tamaricaceæ</i>, etc.); some have a curved, the
-majority a straight embryo. <span class="smaller">The family is scarcely quite natural; in
-the future the orders will probably be arranged differently.</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Resedaceæ (Mignonettes).</b>&mdash;Herbs or small shrubs with
-spirally-placed leaves and very small, gland-like stipules (as in
-Cruciferæ); the ☿, hypogynous flowers are <i>zygomorphic</i>, and
-arranged in racemes or spikes typically without bracteoles. The
-zygomorphic structure is produced by the <i>greater development of the
-posterior side of the flower</i>, especially the petals and the nectary
-(“disc,” in Fig. <a href="#fig416">416</a> <i>d</i>) which is situated between<span class="pagenum" id="Page_407">[407]</span> the petals
-and stamens; in general there are 5–8 free sepals and petals, the
-latter consisting of a large scale-like <i>sheath</i> with a fimbriated
-blade (see Fig. <a href="#fig416">416</a>); stamens numerous; carpels 6–2 united together;
-ovary unilocular with parietal placentæ, but <i>the cavity of the
-ovary is not closed</i> at the top. In <i>Astrocarpus</i> the gynœceum
-is apocarpous. The fruit is most frequently a capsule; the seeds are
-reniform, without endosperm, and the embryo is <i>curved</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>This order connects the Rhœadinæ with the Cistifloræ. It is
-closely allied to the Rhœadinæ by its external appearance, even
-by the smell and taste, the parietal placentation, structure of
-the seeds, the inflorescences, etc., whilst by the irregular
-flowers and the disc placed at the posterior side of the
-flower, <i>it is allied to Capparidaceæ</i>, but differs from
-this order in not having its characteristic number (2–4) and
-by the very different mode of dehiscence of the fruit, etc. It
-differs from the other orders of this family chiefly in the
-fact that the number of the perianth-leaves is not constantly
-5. In <i>Reseda luteola</i> both the calyx and corolla appear
-to be 4-leaved, because the posterior sepal is suppressed, and
-the 2 posterior petals are united. Where there are 10 stamens,
-they stand in 2 whorls, <i>i.e.</i> in front of the sepals and
-petals; if there are several, their position depends upon the
-splitting.&mdash;<i>Astrocarpus</i> is remarkable for its apocarpous
-fruit and the position of the ovules on the <i>dorsal</i> suture
-of the carpel.</p>
-
-<p>The yellow, flat disc at the back of the flower serves as a
-nectary, the honey being protected by the lobes of the petals.
-If pollination by insects is not effected, then self-pollination
-may take place, at all events in <i>R. odorata</i>.</p>
-
-<p>45 species; the majority in the Mediterranean and in Persia.
-<i>Reseda odorata</i> (from Egypt) is cultivated on account of
-its sweet scent; <i>R. luteola</i> (“Dyer’s Weed”) yields a
-yellow dye.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig416" style="width: 248px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig416.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 416.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Reseda odorata</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Droseraceæ (Sundews).</b> Herbs, chiefly living on moors
-or in water, and whose leaves are adapted to catch and digest small
-animals. With regard to the flower, they are closely allied to the
-Violaceæ, especially to those with regular flowers. <i>Drosera</i>
-(Sundew) has a long-stalked scorpioid cyme with regular, ☿, hypogynous
-flowers, 5-merous as in <i>Viola</i>. S5, P5, A5, G3 (in a syncarpous
-gynœceum, with free, bifid styles and basal or parietally-placed ovules
-in the unilocular ovaries). The capsule opens also as in <i>Viola</i>,
-but, among other differences, the styles are free, the seeds very
-small, and surrounded by a loosely lying, thin shell. <span class="smaller"><i>Drosera</i>
-has radical, long-stalked leaves with the blade (Fig. <a href="#fig417">417</a>) covered by
-numerous strong glandular hairs, placed on the edge and in the middle;
-when small animals are caught by these hairs, the latter and the
-entire<span class="pagenum" id="Page_408">[408]</span> blade close slowly over them dissolving and absorbing all the
-digestible matter as nourishment.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig417" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig417.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 417.</span>&mdash;Leaf-rosette of <i>Drosera
-rotundifolia</i> (nat. size), and a leaf (magnified).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Dionæa muscipula</i> (Fly-trap; N. Am.) has the same
-appearance as <i>Drosera</i>, but the leaves are constructed
-as in Fig. <a href="#fig418">418</a>. The stalk is flat and winged, the blade small,
-circular, with powerful, pointed teeth along the edge, and on
-its surface are 6 small bristles (<i>A</i>), which are very
-sensitive. When these are touched the blade quickly closes,
-folding along the midrib (<i>B</i>, <i>C</i>) and imprisoning
-the irritating object, the teeth round the edges fitting like
-the teeth of a trap. If it happens to be an insect or similar
-body, a digestive fluid is secreted which, like the gastric
-juice, dissolves the digestible portions. <i>Aldrovandia
-vesiculosa</i> (Central and S. Europe) captures small aquatic
-animals in a similar manner; it is a floating, aquatic plant,
-the two halves of its leaves also close together when irritated
-(Fig. <a href="#fig419A">419</a>).&mdash;<i>Drosophyllum.</i></p>
-
-<p>About 110 species; most of them in the temperate regions.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig418" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig418.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 418.</span>&mdash;<i>Dionæa muscipula.</i> Leaves
-(nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Orders 3 and 4. <b>Sarraceniaceæ and Nepenthaceæ.</b> These
-two orders are perhaps most closely allied to the Droseraceæ
-and agree with these, among other things, in the manner of
-taking nourishment. Like the Droseraceæ they absorb nitrogenous
-food from dissolved animal matter by means of their leaves,
-which are specially constructed both to catch, to retain,
-and to digest any small<span class="pagenum" id="Page_409">[409]</span> animals which may be caught. The
-<span class="smcap">Sarraceniaceæ</span> are North American marsh-plants (10
-species) which have pitcher-like leaf-stalks, in the cavity of
-which a fluid (with properties approaching those of gastric
-juice) is secreted, and which bear at the apex a small, lid-like
-blade; these leaf-stalks are the catching and digestive
-organs.&mdash;<i>Sarracenia, Darlingtonia.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig419A" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig419a.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig419B" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig419b.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 419.</span>&mdash;<i>Aldrovandia vesiculosa</i>:
-<i>A</i> a plant (nat. size). <i>B</i> Leaf (mag.); the blade is
-closed; the winged stalk is prolonged into 4–6 irritable bristles.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig420" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig420.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 420.</span>&mdash;<i>Nepenthes</i> (reduced).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Nepenthaceæ</span> has only 1 genus, <i>Nepenthes</i> (the
-Pitcher-plant; about 35 species), especially found in tropical
-E. Asia; the majority are climbing shrubs. The leaf-stalks are
-twining organs, and terminate either simply in a tendril, or
-in addition to this, with a pitcher-shaped body (which in some
-species may be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_410">[410]</span> as much as a foot in length) on whose upper edge
-a lid-like structure is found (Fig. <a href="#fig420">420</a>). In this pitcher, as
-among the Sarraceniaceæ, a fluid is secreted which is able to
-digest the animals captured (sometimes rather large) and which
-corresponds in some degree to the gastric juice.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Violaceæ (Violets).</b> The flowers are ☿, and generally
-zygomorphic, hypogynous, with S5, P5, A5, G3 (Fig. <a href="#fig421">421</a>). The stamens
-are closely applied to the ovary, they have a very short filament,
-and at their summit generally a membranous appendage formed by
-the prolongation of the connective (Fig. <a href="#fig422">422</a> <i>g</i>). The ovary
-is unilocular with 3 parietal placentæ; style undivided (Fig. <a href="#fig422">422</a>
-<i>B</i>). The fruit is usually a 3-valved capsule, opening along the
-dorsal sutures (Fig. <a href="#fig423">423</a>). Embryo straight; endosperm fleshy (Fig.
-<a href="#fig425">425</a>).&mdash;Many are herbaceous plants (<i>e.g. Viola</i>), but in
-the Tropics shrubs are also found (<i>e.g. Ionidium</i>); a few
-are lianes; the leaves are scattered, with stipules, and involute in
-the bud.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig421" style="width: 255px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig421.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 421.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Viola</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig422" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig422.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 422.</span>&mdash;The large-flowered form of <i>Viola
-tricolor</i>: <i>A</i> the flower in median longitudinal section;
-<i>B</i> the gynœceum.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Viola.</i> The sepals are prolonged backwards beyond the point of
-insertion (appendiculate); the corolla is polypetalous, descending
-imbricate, and zygomorphic, its anterior petal being larger than the
-others and provided with a spur (Fig. <a href="#fig421">421</a>). The 2 anterior of the 5
-almost sessile stamens are provided with a spur-like nectary, which
-protrudes a considerable distance into the petaloid spur (Figs. <a href="#fig421">421</a>,
-<a href="#fig422">422</a> <i>n</i>, <i>sp</i>). The style is club-like, and bears the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_411">[411]</span>
-stigma in a groove on the anterior side (Fig. <a href="#fig422">422</a> <i>st</i>). <span class="smaller">Herbs
-with rhizomes, or annuals; flowers solitary. <i>V. odorata</i>,
-<i>canina</i>, etc., have cleistogamic flowers which produce fruit in
-addition to the large, coloured (violet) flowers. The Pansy (<i>V.
-tricolor</i>) has large flowers adapted for insect-pollination, and
-also smaller, less conspicuous ones designed for self-pollination. The
-stigma, as in Fig. <a href="#fig422">422</a> <i>A</i>, <i>st</i>, and <i>B</i>, is situated
-on the anterior side of the stylar-head, immediately in front of the
-channel leading down to the spur (<i>sp</i>); below it is situated
-a valve, easily covered with pollen when the proboscis of an insect
-is introduced into the spur, but which closes upon its withdrawal;
-cross-pollination is thus secured.&mdash;The sweet-scented <i>V. odorata</i>
-is visited by the honey-bee, which insures cross-pollination, and
-in the absence of insect visits it effects self-fertilisation by
-cleistogamic flowers. The conspicuous but scentless <i>V. tricolor</i>,
-var. <i>vulgaris</i>, is less frequently visited by insects
-(humble-bees). In <i>V. silvatica</i> and <i>V. canina</i> the pollen
-is carried on the head or proboscis of the honey-sucking bee.&mdash;The
-fruits of <i>V. odorata</i> bury themselves slightly in the soil. In
-the others the fruits are raised above the ground; the 3 boat-shaped
-valves close together along the central line, and eject the seeds,
-one by one, with much violence, so that they are thrown to a great
-distance.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig423" style="width: 305px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 423–425.</span>&mdash;<i>Viola Tricolor.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig423.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 423.</span>&mdash;Capsule after dehiscence (nat.
-size).]</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig424" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig424.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 424.</span>&mdash;External view of the seed.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig425" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig425.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 425.</span>&mdash;Seed in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The <i>Alsodeia</i>-group has regular or almost regular
-flowers. Gamopetalous corollas are found in <i>Paypayroleæ</i>.
-<i>Sauvagesieæ</i> differs the most by its regular corolla, and
-5–∞ free or united staminodes.</p>
-
-<p>250 species; especially in the Tropics.&mdash;The
-<i>Ionidium</i>-species are used as ipecacuanha. A number of
-<i>Viola</i>-species are cultivated as garden plants, especially
-<i>V. odorata</i> (sweet-scented Violet) and <i>V. tricolor</i>,
-which have a large number of varieties.</p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Frankeniaceæ.</b> A small order with doubtful
-relationships. Perennial herbs or shrubs; beach plants with
-nodose stem. Sepals united, petals free. Unilocular ovary,
-with 3–4 parietal placentæ. Fruit a capsule. Embryo straight,
-endospermous. Especially in S. Europe, Africa, on the shores of
-the Mediterranean and Atlantic.</p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Tamaricaceæ (Tamarisks).</b> To this order belong
-only <i>Tamarix</i> and <i>Myricaria</i>. They are shrubs of a
-cypress- or heather-like appearance, as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_412">[412]</span> the scattered leaves
-are very small, sessile, scale-like or linear, adpressed,
-entire, and usually glaucous, and the branches are slender and
-whip-like. The flowers are borne in small spikes or racemes,
-and are small, reddish or whitish, regular, ☿, hypogynous and
-polypetalous; formula S5, P5, A5 + 0 (<i>Tamarix</i>, which
-often has stipular teeth at the base of the filaments), or
-A5 + 5 (<i>Myricaria</i>, in which the stamens are united
-at the base); the number 4 may appear instead of 5, but
-in either case there is usually a tricarpellate gynœceum,
-which is <i>unilocular</i> and has either parietal placentæ
-(<i>Myricaria</i>) or a small basal placenta (<i>Tamarix</i>);
-1 trifid style, or 3 styles. Capsule dehiscing along the dorsal
-suture, and resembling the Willows in having a unilocular ovary
-with numerous <i>woolly</i> seeds; but the seed-wool in this
-case is borne on the chalaza, and may be attached to a long
-stalk.&mdash;Some <i>Tamarix</i>-species shed part of their branches
-in the winter.&mdash;40 species; North Temperate, on the sea-shores
-or steppes, especially in Asia. Ornamental shrubs: <i>Myricaria
-germanica</i>, and <i>Tamarix gallica</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Cistaceæ.</b> Shrubs or herbs, natives especially of the
-Mediterranean region. Flowers generally in raceme-like scorpioid cymes,
-regular, ☿, hypogynous; sepals 5, free, <i>twisted</i> in the bud, of
-which the two outer are generally much smaller than the others; petals
-5, free, <i>twisted</i> in the bud (in the direction <i>opposite</i> to
-the sepals), fugacious; stamens <i>numerous</i>; gynœceum syncarpous,
-carpels usually 3–5, style simple, ovary unilocular, with parietal
-placentation (seldom divided into loculi, with axile placentation).
-The ovules are <i>orthotropous</i> in opposition to some of the other
-orders of this family. The capsule dehisces along the dorsal sutures;
-embyro <i>curved</i>. The leaves are simple, undivided, generally
-opposite and stipulate.&mdash;<span class="smaller">They are Violaceæ with regular flowers,
-numerous stamens, and curved embryo. The numerous stamens are in
-reality only one or two 5-merous whorls, divided into a large number
-of stamens; these are formed, therefore, in descending order, like the
-lobes of many compound foliage-leaves.</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Helianthemum</i> (Rock-Rose), has 3 carpels.&mdash;<i>Cistus</i> has 5
-(-10) carpels.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>About 70 species; temperate climates, especially about the
-Mediterranean. The resin of the <i>Cistus</i>-species has been
-used medicinally (ladanum).</p>
-
-<p>Order 9. <b>Bixaceæ.</b> This order is closely allied to
-the Cistaceæ and Ternstrœmiaceæ; like these it has regular,
-5-merous, hypogynous flowers with numerous stamens, unilocular
-ovary and <i>parietal</i> placentæ; sometimes unisexual flowers;
-it differs in having anatropous ovules, in the æstivation of
-the sepals, etc. All species (about 180) are trees or shrubs,
-with scattered, simple leaves, which usually have stipules,
-and are occasionally dotted with pellucid oil-glands.&mdash;<i>Bixa
-orellana</i> (Trop. Am.) is the best known species; it has a
-2-valved capsule; the seeds are enclosed in a shiny <i>red,
-fleshy testa</i>, which contains the well-known orange or yellow
-dye, annatto.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_413">[413]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 10. <b>Dilleniaceæ.</b> Gynœceum usually apocarpous,
-seed arillate. The flower has most frequently S5, P5, and
-compound stamens (one or more bundles); sometimes irregular. 200
-species; Tropical; woody plants, many lianes.&mdash;<i>Dillenia</i>,
-<i>Candollea</i>, <i>Pleurandra</i>, <i>Davilla</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<p>Order 11. <b>Elatinaceæ</b> (<b>Water-worts</b>). About 25
-species belong to this order; especially in temperate climates.
-They are small, creeping, rooted, aquatic plants, with opposite
-or verticillate leaves and <i>stipules</i>. The flowers are
-solitary or situated in small dichasia in the leaf-axils,
-they are small, regular, ☿, hypogynous, with free petals, the
-same number in all 5 whorls (Sn, Pn, An + n, Gn), 3-merous
-(<i>e.g. Elatine hexandra</i>), 4-merous (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>E. hydropiper</i>), or 5-merous (<i>Bergia</i>); the
-corolla-stamens are sometimes suppressed; petals imbricate
-without being twisted; the ovary is 3–4–5-locular, with 3–4–5
-<i>free styles</i>; the capsule dehisces septicidally. The seeds
-are orthotropous or curved, often transversely ribbed, endosperm
-wanting. The order is most nearly allied to Hypericaceæ, whose
-primitive form it appears to represent.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig426" style="width: 329px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig426.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 426.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Hypericum
-quadrangulum</i>: <i>S</i> indicates the bud of the helicoid cyme in
-the axil of the bracteole β.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig427" style="width: 218px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig427.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 427.</span>&mdash;<i>Hypericum.</i> Flower with three
-bundles of stamens.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 12. <b>Hypericaceæ</b> (<b>St. John’s-worts</b>). This order
-is recognised by its always <i>opposite</i> or <i>verticillate</i>,
-<i>simple</i>, and entire, penninerved leaves, without stipules, and
-usually dotted with <i>pellucid</i> glands; by the always ☿, regular,
-hypogynous flowers in a cymose inflorescence; the generally 5-merous
-calyx and corolla, with sepals and petals free; the stamens 3–5,
-numerously branched (Figs. <a href="#fig426">426</a>, <a href="#fig427">427</a>); and the gynœceum, 3–5-carpellate,
-styles usually <i>free</i>. The ovary is 3–5-locular, or unilocular
-with 3–5 parietal placentæ. Fruit a capsule (dehiscing septicidally) or
-berry. Endosperm absent.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The inflorescence is a <i>dichasium</i> or <i>helicoid cyme</i>.
-The structure of the flowers is the same as that of the
-foregoing orders: S5, P5; succeeding these in some cases are two
-5-merous whorls of stamens in regular alternation, of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_414">[414]</span> which the
-inner is epipetalous; but the outer whorl is only represented by
-5 small scales (Fig. <a href="#fig427">427</a>), or is altogether absent (<i>Hypericum
-calycinum</i>, <i>H. hircinum</i>), and the inner divided
-into numerous stamens, that is, these 5 stamens are so deeply
-divided that 5 <i>epipetalous</i> groups bearing anthers are
-found (as in the Cistaceæ); in other cases the flower becomes
-<i>3-merous after the petals</i>, stamens 3 + 3 following in
-regular alternation (Figs. <a href="#fig426">426</a>, <a href="#fig427">427</a>), the outer whorl of stamens
-in these cases is also present as staminodes (Fig. <a href="#fig427">427</a>), or may
-be altogether suppressed. Carpels 3–5. <i>The petals are often
-twisted</i> in the bud, and are then oblique.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><i>Hypericum.</i> Some species have a square stem; in these cases the
-leaves are placed opposite the edges. Fruit a capsule.&mdash;<i>Vismia</i>
-has a berry.&mdash;<span class="smaller">The flowers of <i>Hypericum</i> have no honey, and
-supply only pollen; self-pollination often takes place.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>About 240 species; the tropical ones being often shrubs or
-trees; the others generally perennial shrubs.&mdash;<i>Hypericum</i>,
-St. John’s-wort, contains a resinous, red matter, which can be
-extracted with alcohol. The American gamboge is the dried sap of
-species of <i>Vismia</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 13. <b>Guttiferæ</b>, or <b>Clusiaceæ</b>. Closely allied
-to the Hypericaceæ and Ternstrœmiaceæ. Leaves opposite or
-verticillate. The flowers are often unisexual; stamens united;
-the gynœceum has most frequently a sessile, radiating or
-shield-like stigma.</p>
-
-<p>370 species; chiefly in the Tropics (Am.). They are principally
-woody plants and their bark contains a yellow gum resin,
-“gamboge,” which is extracted from <i>Garcinia morella</i>
-(E. Ind.) and others. Mangosteen (<i>Garcinia mangostana</i>
-S.E. Asia), and <i>Mammea americana</i> (W. Ind.), have very
-delicious fruits. To this order also belong <i>Platonia
-insignis</i>, <i>Pentadesma butyracea</i> (the Butter-tree),
-<i>Clusia</i>, <i>Calophyllum</i>, <i>Cataba</i>, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 14. <b>Ternstrœmiaceæ.</b> Trees and shrubs with scattered,
-simple, and often more or less leathery, evergreen, penninerved
-leaves, without stipules (Fig. <a href="#fig428">428</a>). The two most important genera
-are: <i>Camellia</i> and the closely allied <i>Thea</i> (by some
-authorities these are united into one genus). The flowers are regular,
-hypogynous, and situated singly on very short stalks. A number of green
-floral-leaves are placed below the calyx and gradually pass over into
-the sepals, and the leaves (5–6) of the calyx again gradually pass over
-into the corolla (this being especially marked in <i>Camellia</i>),
-of which the number of leaves varies (5, 6, 7 and upwards); the calyx
-and the corolla are <i>acyclic</i> or <i>eucyclic</i>; the petals are
-slightly united at the base; stamens <i>numerous</i> in many whorls,
-the external ones are arranged in bundles and united with the petals
-as in the Columniferæ; gynœceum syncarpous; styles often <i>free</i>
-nearly to the base; ovary 3–5-locular, ovules numerous in each loculus.
-The fruit is a woody capsule.&mdash;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_415">[415]</span><span class="smaller">Other genera show more distinctly
-than these the same structure as in the preceding orders, namely: S5,
-P5, A5 + 5, of which the calyx-stamens are often suppressed, and the
-petal-stamens divided into numerous stamens.&mdash;<i>Kielmeyera</i> (S.
-Am.)</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>260 species; especially in the Tropics (E. Asia, Am.) The leaves
-of <i>Thea chinensis</i> (or <i>Camellia thea</i>), the Tea-tree
-(E. Asia), are cultivated for the well-known “tea,” and contain
-theine: the best are the young, still hairy leaves, of greyish
-colour; there are many varieties. Ornamental plants, <i>Camellia
-japonica</i> and <i>Actinidia</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig428" style="width: 417px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig428.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 428.</span>&mdash;<i>Thea chinensis</i> (reduced).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Closely allied to this order are: Order 15. <b>Rhizoboleæ</b>
-(with enormously large hypocotyl&mdash;hence the name), and Order 16.
-<b>Marcgraviaceæ</b> (partly epiphytes, with dimorphic leaves
-and cup- or helmet-like, coloured, honey-secreting floral-leaves,
-which serve to attract insects).</p>
-
-<p>Order 17. <b>Dipterocarpaceæ.</b> This order has taken
-its name from the large wings attached to the fruits in
-<i>Dipterocarpus</i> (the wings being largely developed sepals);
-trees and shrubs from Trop. Asia. 180 species. Camphor ready
-prepared is found in the stem of <i>Dryobalanops camphora</i>.
-<i>Hopea</i>; <i>Vateria</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_416">[416]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 12. <b>Gruinales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flowers are hypogynous, ☿, polypetalous, usually
-regular (except <i>Pelargonium</i>, <i>Tropæolaceæ</i>,
-<i>Balsaminaceæ</i>) and <i>throughout 5-merous</i>: S5, P5, A5
-+ 5, or 5 + 0, G5 (<i>epipetalous</i>). The stamens soon fall
-off and are <i>obdiplostemonous</i>, often united at the base
-(<i>monadelphous</i>); the corolla-stamens are in some completely
-suppressed (<i>e.g. Balsaminaceæ</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig438">438</a>), in others
-reduced to teeth (<i>Linum</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig431">431</a>; <i>Erodium</i>). The
-<i>Tropæolaceæ</i> have 3 carpels and only 8 stamens (Fig. <a href="#fig437">437</a>).
-Ring-like nectaries are not present, but at most only glandular bodies,
-borne outside the base of the stamens. Ovaries many-locular. The
-ovules as a rule are pendulous, with the micropyle directed outwards
-(Fig. <a href="#fig431">431</a>, B), and the radicle therefore also points outwards. Usually
-<i>herbs</i>. Related to the Columniferæ.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Oxalidaceæ.</b> Most of the species are herbs with
-rhizomes; the leaves are stalked, <i>compound</i>, with entire leaflets
-which are folded and bent backwards in the bud (and in the sleep
-position), exstipulate; some species have sensitive leaves. The flowers
-(Fig. <a href="#fig429">429</a>) are regular, and have S5, P5, which are <i>twisted</i>
-to the left or right in æstivation, A5 + 5, all united at the base
-(monadelphous), gynœceum 5-carpellate, <i>styles 5 free</i>, stigmas
-capitate, ovary 5-locular, ovules numerous. The fruit is a <i>capsule
-opening</i> with clefts <i>on the dorsal sutures</i> through which the
-seeds are ejected, while the <i>fleshy, external layer of the testa</i>
-springs off elastically. Embryo straight. Endosperm.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig429" style="width: 269px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig429.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 429.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Oxal’s acetosella</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Oxalis</i> (Wood-Sorrel). Leaves digitate. Species also
-occur with phyllodia, <i>i.e.</i> leaf-like petioles placed
-vertically without lamina; a few have pinnate leaves. The
-flowers are situated singly or in dichasia, and unipared
-scorpioid cymes. The pollination is effected by insects. Some
-species are trimorphic (long-, short-, medium-styled flowers)
-and some, <i>e.g. O. acetosella</i>, have cleistogamic
-flowers in addition to the ordinary ones. Glands are found on
-the outer side of the corolla-stamens or of all the stamens.
-<i>O. tetraphylla</i> and others have adventitious edible roots,
-resembling tap-roots.&mdash;<i>Averrhoa</i> is a tropical tree, with
-berries and pinnate leaves.</p>
-
-<p>235 species (205 belong to <i>Oxalis</i>); chiefly in S. Africa
-and Trop. America.&mdash;Oxalate of potash is contained in the leaves
-of <i>Oxalis</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_417">[417]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Linaceæ.</b> Herbs with scattered or opposite, sessile,
-<i>simple</i>, small, entire leaves, without (rarely with small)
-stipules. The flowers (Fig. <a href="#fig430">430</a>) are regular, 5- or 4-merous. Petals
-are free, <i>twisted</i>, quickly falling off. Stamens united at the
-base; the petal-stamens <i>are either reduced to teeth</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig431">431</a>
-<i>A</i>, <i>m</i>) <i>or entirely suppressed</i>. <i>Styles free.</i>
-The (5–4) epipetalous loculi of the ovary are incompletely halved by
-<i>false divisional walls</i>, each half contains one ovule (Fig. <a href="#fig431">431</a>
-<i>C</i>). The fruit is a spherical <i>capsule, dehiscing along the
-divisional wall</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig432">432</a>); the 10 (-8) seeds have a straight
-embryo and very slight endosperm (Fig. <a href="#fig433">433</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig430" style="width: 200px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 430–433.</span>&mdash;<i>Linum usitatissimum.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig430.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 430.</span>&mdash;The Flax plant.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig431" style="width: 444px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig431.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 431.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i> Flower after removal of
-sepals and petals; <i>m</i> petal-stamens reduced to teeth. <i>B</i>
-Longitudinal section of ovary. <i>C</i> Transverse section of capsule.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig432" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig432.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 432.</span>&mdash;Capsule (nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig433" style="width: 300px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig433.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 433.</span>&mdash;Transverse and longitudinal section
-of seed: <i>bl</i> the cotyledons; <i>k</i> the plumule; <i>R</i> the
-radicle; <i>fr</i> the endosperm; <i>sk</i> the testa.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_418">[418]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Linum</i> (Flax) has 5-merous flowers. <span class="smaller">The main axis terminates
-in a flower; and the succeeding branching is cymose, or unipared
-scorpioid branching by unilateral development, and the flowers in
-consequence of the vigorous sympodial development of the lateral axis
-(and also by the leaves being displaced and pushed aside), assume a
-position apparently lateral (<i>i.e.</i> racemose) without bracts;
-each branch of the sympodium generally has 2 leaves. The testa is
-shining and smooth when dry, but its external cellular layer becomes
-mucilaginous in water.</span>&mdash;<i>Radiola</i> has a 4-merous flower. It is
-a small herb with opposite leaves, and regular, dichasial branching.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The anthers and stigmas in <i>L. catharticum</i> and
-<i>usitatissimum</i> develop simultaneously, and
-cross-pollination as well as self-pollination takes place. <i>L.
-grandiflorum</i>, <i>perenne</i>, and others, are dimorphic
-(short-and long-styled). There are 5 nectaries outside the
-stamens.</p>
-
-<p>130 species; <i>Linum</i> and <i>Radiola</i> are native
-genera.&mdash;<i>L. usitatissimum</i> is extensively cultivated
-in Europe (especially in Russia and Belgium), N. America and
-elsewhere (its home no doubt being Asia), partly on account
-of the oil (linseed oil) which is extracted from the seeds,
-and partly on account of the bast of the stem, which has very
-thick-walled cells. The seeds and oil are <span class="allsmcap">OFFICINAL</span>.
-The species cultivated in ancient times was <i>L.
-angustifolium</i>. Several species are cultivated as ornamental
-plants.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Geraniaceæ.</b> The majority are herbs with dichasial
-branching, and scattered or opposite, stalked, <i>palminerved</i>
-(rarely penninerved) leaves with small <i>stipules</i>. The flowers are
-regular (except <i>Pelargonium</i>) and 5-merous, with 10 or 5 stamens,
-which are slightly united at the base. Nectaries alternate with the
-corolla-stamens. The ovary is most frequently 5-locular, deeply
-5-grooved, and bears 1 <i>well developed style</i> (“beak”), which
-towards the apex divides into 5 branches bearing stigmas; ovules 1 in
-each loculus, pendulous or ascending. <i>The 5 carpels become detached
-from one another when ripe</i>, and bend or <i>roll back</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig434">434</a>)
-or become <i>spirally twisted</i> in the upper “beak-like” part (Figs.
-<a href="#fig435">435</a>, <a href="#fig436">436</a>), whilst a <i>central column</i> (septal column) persists;
-each carpel, in consequence, remains either closed, and the fruit is a
-5-merous <i>schizocarp</i> whose nut-like lower portion, containing the
-seed, is forced into the ground, thus burying the seed by the movements
-of the spirally-twisted, hygroscopic “beak” (Figs. <a href="#fig435">435</a>, <a href="#fig436">436</a>); or it
-opens along the ventral suture, so that the seeds may fall out, and it
-is then a 5-valved <i>capsule</i>, with septicidal dehiscence (Fig.
-<a href="#fig434">434</a>) and the rolling up often takes place so suddenly and violently
-that the seeds are shot out to considerable distances. The embryo is
-usually green and <i>curved</i>, and the <i>cotyledons are folded</i>;
-endosperm is wanting.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_419">[419]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Geranium</i> (Crane’s-bill) has 5 + 5 stamens,and a septicidal
-capsule; the carpels most frequently remain suspended from the apex of
-the column (Fig. <a href="#fig434">434</a>). The leaves are most frequently palminerved. The
-flowers are situated solitarily or 2 together (2-flowered scorpioid
-cyme).&mdash;<i>Erodium</i> (Stork’s-bill); inflorescence a many-flowered
-unipared scorpioid cyme, stamens 5 + 0 (petal-stamens are wanting),
-and fruit a schizocarp whose carpels become detached; their beaks are
-hairy on the internal surface and <i>twist themselves spirally</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig436">436</a>). The umbellate inflorescences are composed of multiflowered
-scorpioid cymes. The leaves are often penninerved.&mdash;<span class="smaller">The most
-primitive type is represented by <i>Biebersteinia</i>: S5, P5, A5
-+ 5, G5 (ovaries <i>free</i>, and styles united above); fruit 5
-small nuts. The most advanced type is <i>Pelargonium</i>, which has
-<i>zygomorphic</i> flowers, the posterior sepal being prolonged into a
-spur which becomes adnate to the peduncle; the petals are unequal in
-size; some of the petal-stamens are often wanting. (<i>Erodium</i> may
-be slightly zygomorphic).</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig434" style="width: 218px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig434.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 434.</span>&mdash;<i>Geranium sanguineum.</i> Fruit (3/1).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig435" style="width: 434px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig435.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 435.</span>&mdash;<i>Pelargonium.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig436" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig436.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 436.</span>&mdash;<i>Erodium cicutarium</i>, detached
-carpel.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> The large-flowered <i>Geranium</i>-species
-are protandrous, <i>e.g. G. pratense</i> (one whorl
-of stamens opens first, and then the other, and succeeding
-these the stigmas, after shedding the pollen the stamens
-bend outwards); the small-flowered are also adapted, with
-various modifications, for self-pollination.&mdash;470 species;
-moderately hot climates, especially S. Africa.&mdash;Several
-<i>Pelargonium</i>-species, with numerous varieties, are
-ornamental plants (from S. Africa).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Tropæolaceæ.</b> Herbaceous, juicy plants which have
-scattered, long-stalked, peltate leaves without stipules, and
-often<span class="pagenum" id="Page_420">[420]</span> climb by their sensitive petioles. The flowers are situated
-singly in the axils of the foliage-leaves on long stalks, and are
-<i>zygomorphic</i>, the receptacle under the posterior sepal being
-prolonged <i>into a spur</i>; there are also differences between the
-posterior and anterior petals, the 2 posterior petals situated on
-the border of the spur being <i>perigynous</i>, and the edge of the
-anterior petals adjoining the claw fringed. After the 5 sepals (which
-are more or less coloured) and the 5 petals, follow 8 <i>stamens</i>
-(as the 2 median ones are suppressed, one from each whorl) and a
-gynœceum formed of 3 carpels; in each of the 3 loculi of the 3-grooved
-ovary is 1 ovule. The fruit is a <i>schizocarp</i> and divides into
-3 1-seeded, <i>drupe-like</i> fruitlets, which do not (as in the
-Geraniaceæ) leave any pronounced column between them. Endosperm is
-wanting. The cotyledons are thick and sometimes slightly coalescent.
-<span class="smaller">Tubers often occur.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig437" style="width: 221px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig437.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 437.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Tropæolum</i>:
-<i>sp</i>, spur.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Tropæolum.</i>&mdash;About 40 species; all from America.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span>&mdash;The spur is the receptacle for the
-nectar; the flowers are protandrous; the anthers open first,
-and one by one take up a position in front of the entrance to
-the spur, resuming their original position when the pollen is
-shed; the stigma finally takes their place after the filaments
-have bent backwards.&mdash;These plants have an acrid taste (hence
-the name “Nasturtium,” “Indian Cress”), on which account the
-flower-buds and young fruits of <i>T. majus</i> are used as
-capers. Some species are ornamental plants.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Balsaminaceæ.</b> Herbaceous, chiefly annual plants with
-juicy, brittle stems, so transparent that the vascular bundles may be
-distinctly seen. The leaves are simple, usually scattered, penninerved
-and dentate; stipules are wanting, but sometimes large glands are
-present in their place at the base of the petioles. The flowers are
-strongly zygomorphic; of their five 5-merous whorls the petal-stamens
-are suppressed (S5, P5, A5 + 0, G5); the sepals are <i>coloured</i>,
-the 2 <i>anterior ones</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig438">438</a> <i>3</i>, <i>5</i>) <i>are very
-small</i> or entirely suppressed, <i>the posterior one</i> is very
-large and <i>elongated into a spur</i>, and the 2 lateral ones pushed
-forward; sometimes the weight of the spur turns the flower completely
-round, so that the posterior leaves assume an anterior position;
-apparently only 3 petals, since the lateral and the posterior petals
-become united in pairs, and the anterior is larger<span class="pagenum" id="Page_421">[421]</span> and differently
-shaped; the 5 stamens have very short and thick filaments united at
-the base, and their anthers finally adhere together and remain in
-this condition, covering over the gynœceum; the filaments ultimately
-rupture at the base, and the entire anthers are raised on the apex of
-the gynœceum as it grows up. The gynœceum has a <i>sessile stigma</i>
-and a 5-locular ovary. The fruit is a capsule which, on maturity, opens
-suddenly when irritated, dividing into valves from the base upwards,
-and as the 5 valves roll up elastically, the seeds are shot out on all
-sides to considerable distances; a central column persists (Fig. <a href="#fig439">439</a>).
-The embryo is straight, and without endosperm.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig438" style="width: 213px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig438.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 438.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Impatiens
-glanduligera</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig439" style="width: 267px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig439.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 439.</span>&mdash;Fruit of <i>Impatiens</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Impatiens</i>; in Europe only <i>I. noli-me-tangere</i>. 225
-species; especially from Asia. Several species have two kinds of
-flowers: small, cleistogamic, but fertile; and large, coloured
-flowers, which in <i>I. balsamine</i> (ornamental plant, E.
-Ind.) are protandrous and pollinated by hive-and humble-bees, as
-they suck the honey from the spur.</p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Limnanthaceæ.</b> The flowers are regular and differ
-from all the other orders in the family by having the carpels
-not in front of the petals, but <i>in front of the sepals</i>
-(which are <i>valvate</i>), and further, the loculi are nearly
-<i>free individually</i>, but with a <i>common gynobasic</i>
-style; the ovules are <i>ascending</i> and <i>apotropous</i>
-(anatropous with ventral raphe). The fruit is a schizocarp, with
-nut-like cocci.&mdash;<i>Limnanthes</i> (4 species; N. Am.) perhaps
-belongs to another family.</p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Humiriaceæ.</b> Trees and shrubs; about 20 species;
-Trop. Am.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 13. <b>Columniferæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The chief characteristics of the orders belonging to this family
-are the ☿, regular, generally 5-merous, <i>hypogynous</i> flowers
-with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_422">[422]</span> 5-merous <i>calyx</i>, sepals united and <i>valvate</i> in
-the bud; petals 5, free (often <i>twisted</i> in the bud); stamens
-∞ <i>e.g.</i>: 10, in two whorls, but one of these is more or less
-suppressed, often altogether wanting, or replaced by 5 staminodes,
-while <i>the other</i> (inner whorl) <i>is generally divided more
-or less deeply</i> into a large number of anther-bearing filaments.
-The filaments too (except <i>Tiliaceæ</i>) are <i>united into a
-tube</i>, which, especially in the <i>Malvaceæ</i>, forms a long
-column in the centre of the flower, surrounding the gynœceum (Figs.
-<a href="#fig445">445</a>, <a href="#fig448">448</a>); in this case, which is the most pronounced, the filaments
-are united into one bundle (<i>monadelphous</i>), in other instances,
-<i>polyadelphous</i>. The number of carpels varies greatly (2 to
-about 50), but they are nearly always united and form a syncarpous
-multilocular gynœceum.&mdash;The vegetative characters also closely agree,
-the leaves <i>are always scattered and generally stipulate</i>; all
-the green portions very often bear <i>stellate hairs</i>, and the
-bark in all the 3 orders is <i>rich in tough bast</i>. Mucilage is
-often present in cells or passages.&mdash;This family is connected with the
-<i>Ternstrœmiaceæ</i>, from which it is very hard to draw a sharp line
-of demarcation, and it is also allied to the <i>Cistaceæ</i> and to the
-<i>Gruinales</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Sterculiaceæ</b> (including Buettneriaceæ). This is,
-no doubt, the least modified order, and one in which the stamens
-occur undivided. Obdiplostemonous. The 10 stamens in two whorls
-are most frequently united at the base into a short tube, and have
-<i>4-locular, extrorse</i> anthers. The calyx-stamens are nearly always
-simple, tooth-like staminodes, situated on the edge of the tube, or
-are entirely suppressed. The same relation is found, for instance,
-in the Ampelidaceæ and Rhamnaceæ, namely <i>5 stamens in front of
-the 5 petals</i>; not infrequently the 5 stamens are doubled (Fig.
-<a href="#fig441">441</a>). Unisexual flowers are found in <i>Sterculia</i>, <i>Cola</i>,
-<i>Heritiera</i>. The corolla is often wanting, or developed in an
-unusual manner. Each loculus of the ovary (generally 5) always contains
-more than one ovule. Fruit a capsule. Androgynophore often present
-(<i>Helicteres</i>; <i>Sterculia</i>, etc.).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Hermannia</i>, <i>Mahernia</i>, <i>Melochia</i>,
-etc., have flat petals with twisted æstivation; 5
-undivided stamens, which usually are but slightly united
-at the base, and most frequently, without staminodes.
-<i>Thomasia</i>; <i>Helicteres</i>; <i>Sterculia</i>
-(free follicles).&mdash;<i>Theobroma</i>, <i>Rulingia</i>,
-<i>Buettneria</i>, <i>Commersonia</i>, <i>Guazuma</i>, etc., have
-petals concave at the base, and terminating in a limb abruptly
-bent back, and at the boundary between them most frequently
-ligular outgrowths, as in certain genera of the Caryophyllaceæ;
-stamens 5–15–∞, anthers at the edge of a short tube and 5 linear
-staminodes (Fig. <a href="#fig441">441</a>).&mdash;The Cocoa-tree (<i>Theobroma</i>), (Fig.
-<a href="#fig440">440</a>) bears large, reddish-yellow, berry-like fruits, resembling
-short cucumbers,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_423">[423]</span> but ultimately becoming leathery to woody;
-in each of the 5 loculi are 2 (apparently only 1) rows of
-horizontal, oily seeds, as large as almonds. Cotyledons large,
-thick, and irregularly folded. Endosperm absent (Fig. <a href="#fig442">442</a>).</p>
-
-<p>49 genera, with about 750 species; almost entirely confined to
-the Tropics; none in Europe or in N. Asia.&mdash;The seeds of the
-Cocoa-tree (<i>T. cacao</i>, <i>bicolor</i>, <i>glaucum</i>,
-etc., natives of Trop. Am., especially north of the Equator) are
-used for chocolate and are also <i>officinal</i> (“Cocoa-beans,”
-“Cocoa-butter,” “Oil of Theobroma”). Theobromine. <i>Cola
-acuminata</i>, Africa.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig440" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig440.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 440.</span>&mdash;<i>Theobroma cacao.</i> Branch with
-flowers and fruits (⅙).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig441" style="width: 258px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 441–442.</span>&mdash;<i>Theobroma cacao.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig441.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 441.</span>&mdash;Diagram of the flower: <i>st</i> barren stamens.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig442" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig442.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 442.</span>&mdash;<i>B</i> Seed in transverse section: <i>n</i>
-hilum. <i>A</i> Embryo after the removal of one of the cotyledons.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Tiliaceæ.</b> This differs from the other orders of the
-Columniferæ chiefly in the stamens being entirely <i>free</i> from each
-other, and also <i>divided</i> into many filaments, <i>as far as the
-base</i>, or at all events very far down, so that the <i>flower appears
-to have numerous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_424">[424]</span> stamens</i> or to be <i>slightly</i> polyadelphous
-(Fig. <a href="#fig443">443</a>); in addition to this, it may be observed that the anthers
-are <i>4-locular</i> and <i>introrse</i>. In <i>Luehea</i> the groups of
-stamens alternate with the petals. In a few genera (<i>Corchorus</i>,
-<i>Triumfetta</i>) 10 free and single stamens are found in 2 whorls;
-but, in the majority, groups of free stamens in separate bundles. The
-stamens are more or less united in <i>Apeiba, Luehea</i>. Style simple.
-Ovary 2-locular. The ovules are pendulous; raphe turned inwards. The
-calyx readily falls off; the æstivation of the entirely free petals is
-slightly imbricate (<i>not twisted</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig443" style="width: 300px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig443.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 443.</span>&mdash;Inflorescence of <i>Tilia</i>, with
-its winged bracteole (<i>h</i>); <i>a</i>, <i>a</i> axis of the shoot;
-the vegetative bud is seen between the inflorescence and the axis of
-the shoot; <i>b</i> petiole of foliage-leaf.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Tilia</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig443">443</a>, <a href="#fig444">444</a>). Calyx and corolla 5-merous; the 5
-staminal leaves (opposite the petals) divided as far as the base into a
-large number of stamens which are free or united into groups; gynœceum
-with 5 loculi in the ovary (opposite the sepals); there are 2 ovules
-in each loculus, though the ovary ripens into a 1-seeded nut, which
-is not detached from the axis of the inflorescence, but is carried
-away by the wind, whirling round and round, its large-winged bracteole
-serving as a parachute (Fig. <a href="#fig443">443</a>).&mdash;<span class="smaller">Only trees, with alternate,
-obliquely heart-shaped and dentate leaves; stellate hairs, as in the
-other Columniferæ, are often present. The terminal bud of the branch
-always fails to develop, and the growth is then continued sympodially
-by the uppermost axillary buds. The <span class="allsmcap">INFLORESCENCE</span> (Figs.
-<a href="#fig443">443</a>, <a href="#fig444">444</a>) is a 3–7-flowered dichasium (Fig. <a href="#fig444">444</a> <i>t</i>, <i>d</i>,
-<i>e</i>), which is developed in the axil of a foliage-leaf (Fig. <a href="#fig444">444</a>).
-The first of its 2 bracteoles (<i>a</i>) is large, thin, leaf-like,
-and united with the inflorescence, the lower portion of which forms a
-broad wing, its so-called “bract”; the second bracteole (<i>b</i>), on
-the other hand, remains scale-like, and supports a winter foliage-bud
-covered with bud-scales which thus is situated at the base<span class="pagenum" id="Page_425">[425]</span> of the
-inflorescence, and is a bud of the 2nd order, in relation to the
-vegetative shoot. This bud is always found beneath the inflorescence
-on the branch placed horizontally, and the winged bracteole is always
-found above it, a relation which is connected with the fact that the
-2 rows of shoots on the sides of a branch are <i>antidromous</i> with
-regard to each other.&mdash;The dichasium itself (Fig. <a href="#fig444">444</a>) terminates with
-the flower (<i>t</i>); it has 3 floral-leaves (<i>c</i>, <i>d</i>,
-<i>e</i>), which soon fall off; <i>c</i> is barren: the other two
-bear flowers, or few-flowered dichasia, or unipared scorpioid cymes
-(indicated in the figure).&mdash;The foliage-leaves are folded in the bud
-upon the median line (1, 2, 3 in Fig. <a href="#fig444">444</a> are foliage-leaves with
-their 2 stipules), the inner half is broader than the outer, and after
-unfolding is turned away from the mother-axis (the position of the new
-inflorescences and vegetative buds is indicated in their axils on the
-figure).&mdash;The cotyledons on germination appear above the ground as
-large, <i>lobed</i> leaves.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Of the other genera some have a bell-shaped, gamosepalous calyx,
-some have no corolla, the anthers of some open at the apex
-(<i>Aristotelia</i>, <i>Elæocarpus</i>, etc.), the majority
-have a capsule, some have berries, or drupes, some separate
-into fruitlets, etc.&mdash;<i>Corchorus</i>, <i>Triumfetta</i>
-(nut, with hooked bristles), <i>Luehea</i>, <i>Apeiba</i>, etc.
-<i>Sparmannia</i> is an African genus; 4-merous flowers; fruit
-a warted capsule; filaments numerous and sensitive to touch,
-the external ones are without anthers and moniliform above. The
-plant is covered with numerous soft and stellate hairs, and at
-the apex of the branches bears several cymose umbels.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig444" style="width: 438px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig444.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 444.</span>&mdash;Diagram of the inflorescence of
-<i>Tilia</i> and the vegetative bud; the position of the leaves is
-indicated, and also the position of the inflorescences, which develop
-from their axils in the following year.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination</span> in <i>Tilia</i> is effected by insects,
-especially bees and Diptera, which swarm round the tree tops,
-allured by the numerous strongly-scented flowers and the
-easily accessible honey (formed in the hollow sepals). As the
-flowers are pendulous, the nectar is protected from ruin;
-and, in addition, the inflorescence is more or less concealed
-beneath the foliage-leaf. Self-pollination is impossible, on
-account of protandry.&mdash;About 470 species (nearly all trees
-and shrubs); especially in the Tropics, only a few being
-found in the temperate, none in the polar regions, or in
-high mountainous districts.&mdash;The inflorescence of the native
-species of <i>Tilia</i> is medicinal. The wood is used for
-charcoal.&mdash;The majority are used for timber, and for the sake of
-the bast (“Bast,” “Jute,” the bast of <i>Corchorus textilis</i>,
-<i>Luehea</i>, and others).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Malvaceæ</b> (<b>Mallows</b>). The plants are easily
-recognised by the scattered, simple, <i>palminerved</i>, most
-frequently lobed, stipulate <i>leaves</i>, folded in the bud; the
-perfect, regular, hypogynous flowers, with <i>gamosepalous</i>,
-persistent, 5-merous calyx<span class="pagenum" id="Page_426">[426]</span> with <i>valvate</i> æstivation; the 5
-<i>petals twisted</i> in the bud and united with one another at the
-base, and by the 5 <i>apparently numerous stamens</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig445">445</a>,
-<a href="#fig448">448</a>), with the filaments <i>united into a tube</i>, with <i>reniform
-bilocular anthers</i> opening by a crescentic slit (in 2 valves).
-Carpels 3–∞ united into one gynœceum; the <i>embryo is curved and the
-cotyledons are folded</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig447">447</a>, <a href="#fig451">451</a>); endosperm scanty, often
-mucilaginous.&mdash;Most of the plants belonging to this order are herbs,
-often closely studded with <i>stellate hairs</i>. The leaves are most
-frequently palmatifid or palmatisect.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig445" style="width: 409px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig445.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 445.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal section through the
-flower of <i>Malva silvestris</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig446" style="width: 316px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig446.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 446.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Althæa rosea</i>:
-<i>i</i> the epicalyx.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>An <i>epicalyx</i> is often found formed by <i>floral-leaves</i>
-placed close beneath the calyx, in some 3, in others several.
-The median sepal is posterior in the species without epicalyx,
-often anterior in those which have an epicalyx.&mdash;The petals are
-<i>twisted either to the right or to the left</i> in accordance
-with the spiral of the calyx; they are most frequently oblique,
-as in the other plants with twisted corollas, so that the
-portion covered in the æstivation is the most developed.
-The corolla drops off as a whole, united with the staminal
-tube.&mdash;Only the 5 petal-stamens are developed, but they are
-divided into a number of stamens, placed in 2 rows, and provided
-only with <i>half</i>-anthers (leaf-segments, see Fig. <a href="#fig446">446</a>;
-the sepal-stamens are completely suppressed); these 5 staminal
-leaves are then united into a tube, frequently 5-dentate at
-the top, and bearing the anthers on its external side. The
-pollen-grains are specially large, spherical and spiny. There
-are from 3 to about 50 carpels united into one gynœceum and
-placed round the summit of the axis which most frequently
-projects between them. There is only 1 style, which is generally
-divided into as many stigma-bearing branches as there are
-carpels (Figs. <a href="#fig445">445</a>, <a href="#fig448">448</a>). The fruit is a schizocarp or capsule.
-Endosperm (Figs. <a href="#fig447">447</a> A, <a href="#fig451">451</a>) scanty, often mucilaginous round
-the <i>embryo</i>, which is rich in oil.</p>
-
-<p>The order is the most advanced type of Columniferæ; it stands
-especially near to the Sterculiaceæ, but is separated from these
-and from the Tiliaceæ, among other characters, by its 2-locular
-(ultimately 1-chambered) anthers.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The sub-orders may be arranged as follows:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_427">[427]</span></p>
-
-<p>I. Carpels in one whorl.</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <b>The fruit a capsule</b>, <span class="smaller">most frequently with
-loculicidal dehiscence, and many seeds in each loculus</span>.</p>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Gossypieæ.</span> The staminal-column is naked at the apex,
-blunted, or 5-dentate.&mdash;<i>Gossypium</i> (the Cotton plant) has an
-epicalyx of 3 large ovate-cordate leaves, an almost entire, low and
-compressed calyx. Solitary flowers. Large, most frequently yellow,
-corollas. A 3–5-valved capsule with many spherical seeds. “Cotton” is
-the seed-hairs developed upon the entire surface of the seeds (Fig.
-<a href="#fig447">447</a>), and consists of long, 1-cellular hairs, filled with air (and
-therefore white); these are thin-walled, with a large lumen, and during
-drying twist spirally, and come together more or less in the form of
-bands. They consist of cellulose, and have a cuticle.&mdash;<i>Hibiscus</i>
-has several, most frequently narrow, epicalyx-leaves, a distinct
-5-toothed or 5-partite calyx.&mdash;<i>Abutilon</i>; <i>Modiola</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig447" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig447.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 447.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i> Seed of <i>Gossypium</i>
-with hairs; <i>B</i> the same in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Bombaceæ.</span> The staminal tube is more or
-less deeply cleft into bundles, sometimes almost to the base;
-pollen smooth, style simple with capitate, lobed stigma. Almost
-all plants belonging to this group are trees, and in many
-instances have large barrel-shaped stems, that is, swollen in
-the centre, and sometimes covered with large warts. The wood is
-exceptionally light and soft. The flowers are often enormously
-large, and have beautiful petals; in some they unfold before
-the leaves. The capsule-wall is sometimes closely covered on
-its inner service with long, silky, woolly hairs, while the
-seeds themselves are generally without hairs. These hairs,
-however, on account of their brittle nature, cannot be used
-like those of the Cotton-plant. Digitate leaves are found in
-the <i>Baobab-tree</i> (<i>Adansonia</i>) from Africa, noted
-for its enormously thick, but short stem, and in the American
-<i>Silk-cotton trees</i> (<i>Bombax</i>, <i>Eriodendron</i>,
-<i>Chorisia</i>). <i>Ochroma</i>, <i>Cheirostemon</i>,
-<i>Durio</i>, and others also belong to this group. <i>Durio</i>
-is noted for its delicious fruits, which have a most unpleasant
-smell.</p>
-
-<p>[<i>Bombax malabaricum</i> is diplostemonous; the five
-sepal-stamens repeatedly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_428">[428]</span> branch, and the filaments bear
-unilocular anthers; the five petal-stamens bear bilocular
-anthers.]</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <b>Schizocarps</b>, with 1-seeded fruitlets, most frequently
-nut-like and reniform (Figs. <a href="#fig449">449</a>, <a href="#fig451">451</a>).</p>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Malveæ, Mallow Group.</span> The carpels are arranged in
-one whorl (Fig. <a href="#fig449">449</a>); the number of stylar-branches equals that of
-the carpels; fruitlets 1-seeded, reniform, indehiscent, but detaching
-themselves from one another and from the persistent central column
-(Figs. <a href="#fig450">450</a>, <a href="#fig451">451</a>).&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Malva</i> has an <i>epicalyx of 3 free
-leaves</i>. A flower with 2 suppressed bracteoles is situated in
-the axil of the foliage-leaves; one of these supports a homodromous
-foliage-shoot which forms a repetition of the main axis, the other
-an antidromous flower which continues the branching as a unipared
-scorpioid cyme.&mdash;<i>Althæa</i>, Rose Mallow, has an <i>epicalyx of
-6–9 leaves united at the base</i>.&mdash;<i>Lavatera</i>, <i>Sida</i>,
-<i>Anoda</i>, <i>Bastardia</i>, etc., have no epicalyx.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig448" style="width: 200px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 448–451.</span>&mdash;<i>Malva silvestris.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig448.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 448.</span>&mdash;The flower after removal of the
-perianth (5/1).]</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig449" style="width: 385px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig449.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 449.</span>&mdash;The fruit (5/1).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig450" style="width: 188px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig450.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 450.</span>&mdash;A fruitlet (5/1).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig451" style="width: 260px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig451.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 451.</span>&mdash;The same in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>4.</b> <span class="smcap">Ureneæ</span>, have always only 5 carpels arranged
-in 1 whorl, with 1 ovule in each loculus, and the fruit
-a schizocarp, generally with nut-like fruitlets provided
-with warts and hooks; but in some they dehisce by 2 valves
-(capsule). They differ principally from the other groups <i>in
-having twice as many stylar-branches as carpels</i>; the
-staminal tube is naked at the point, blunt or 5 toothed.&mdash;The
-genera <i>Urena</i>, <i>Pavonia</i>, <i>Malachra</i>,
-<i>Malvaviscus</i> (with <i>berry-like fruits</i>) belong to
-this group.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>II. Carpels arranged in a spherical head in five groups opposite to the
-petals.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>5.</b> <span class="smcap">Malopeæ</span>, differ from all the others in
-having a large number of fruitlets arranged irregularly in a
-round head, and separating considerably from each<span class="pagenum" id="Page_429">[429]</span> other even
-before maturity; there is, however, only 1 style, divided into
-a corresponding number of branches (this condition may be
-considered to have arisen from the branching [dédoublement]
-of 5 <i>carpels</i>). <i>Malope</i> has 3 large, heart-shaped
-(<i>Kitaibelia</i> 6–9) epicalyx-leaves, united at the base.
-<i>Palava</i> has no epicalyx.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> The majority have protandrous flowers,
-and are pollinated by insects. Between the basal portions of
-the 5 petals, there are 5 nectaries, protected from the rain
-by hairs, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Malva silvestris</i>. When the
-flower first opens the numerous anthers occupy the centre of the
-flower, and the still undeveloped stigmas are concealed in the
-staminal tube; in the next stage the anthers are withered and
-empty, and the stigmas protrude and assume their places (Fig.
-<a href="#fig452">452</a>). The large-flowered forms, it appears, are pollinated only
-by insects; but self-pollination takes place in small-flowered
-forms, as, for example, in <i>Malva rotundifolia</i>, in which
-the stylar-branches, twisting themselves, place the stigmas in
-between the undeveloped anthers.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig452" style="width: 493px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig452.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 452.</span>&mdash;<i>Anoda hastata</i>: <i>a</i> the
-bud just opened, the stigmas are concealed by the anthers; <i>b</i>
-fully opened flower in ♂-stage; the upper stamens are developed first,
-and then the others in descending order; the stylar-branches are
-now visible, and lie bent back on the staminal column; <i>c</i> all
-the stamens project upwards, and all the anthers are open, but the
-stylar-branches are still bent back; d the anthers are emptied and
-the filaments shrunk together, but the styles have now straightened
-themselves upwards, and the stigmas are in the receptive condition.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Distribution.</span> 800 species (63 genera), most of which
-are natives of the Tropics, especially America. <i>Althæa</i>
-and some of the species of <i>Malva</i> are natives of the
-temperate regions of the Old World, the latter is also found in
-North America. <i>Gossypium</i> is tropical, no doubt especially
-Asiatic (<i>G. herbaceum</i> from India; <i>G. arboreum</i> from
-Upper Egypt). Cotton was introduced into Greece in the time of
-Herodotus, and was cultivated in America before the arrival of
-the Europeans.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> Pungent and poisonous properties are entirely
-wanting; <i>mucilage</i>, on the other hand, is found
-in abundance in all parts of the plant. Medicinal: the
-root of <i>Althæa officinalis</i>, leaves and flowers of
-<i>Malva</i>-species (<i>M. silvestris<span class="pagenum" id="Page_430">[430]</span> vulgaris</i> and
-<i>borealis</i>) and <i>Gossypium</i>.&mdash;The seeds contain a
-large quantity of <i>fatty oil</i>, which is in some cases
-extracted (Cotton-seeds and others). <i>The seed-hairs of the
-Cotton plant</i> are the most important product of the order.
-The cultivated forms of Cotton belong to several species:
-<i>G. barbadense</i>, <i>herbaceum</i>, <i>religiosum</i>,
-<i>arboreum</i> (Nankin), <i>hirsutum</i>, and others. According
-to other botanists, there are only 3 species. <i>Bast</i>
-is obtained from <i>e.g. Hibiscus cannabinus</i>
-(Gambo-hemp, Africa), <i>Paritium tiliaceum</i> and <i>Sida
-retusa</i>. The fruits of certain species of <i>Hibiscus</i>
-(<i>e.g. H. esculentus</i>, from Tropical Africa)
-are used in tropical countries as a vegetable before they
-are ripe.&mdash;<i>The colouring matter</i> in the flowers of
-<i>Althæa rosea</i>, var. <i>nigra</i>, is used for colouring
-wines, and hence is extensively cultivated in certain parts
-of Europe.&mdash;<i>Ethereal oils and sweet-scented flowers</i>
-are rare; but several species possess a peculiar musk-like
-odour (<i>Malva moschata</i>, <i>Hibiscus abelmoschus</i>,
-and others).&mdash;Many are cultivated as <i>ornamental plants</i>
-on account of the large flowers, <i>e.g.</i> Hollyhock (<i>A.
-rosea</i>, etc.), <i>Lavatera trimestris</i>, <i>Malope
-grandiflora</i> and <i>trifida</i>, <i>Malva</i>-species,
-<i>Hibiscus rosa sinensis</i>, <i>syriaca</i>;
-<i>Sphæralcea</i>, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 14. <b>Tricoccæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The very large order <i>Euphorbiaceæ</i> and three smaller ones belong
-to this family. They have in common: <i>unisexual</i>, hypogynous,
-frequently regular flowers, the perianth most frequently single, rarely
-double, or entirely wanting; there is such a great variety in the
-structure and parts of the flower that one only can be cited as the
-<i>rule</i>: viz. the simple gynœceum composed of 3 carpels forming a
-3-locular ovary, which is frequently more or less deeply grooved (hence
-the name, <i>Tricoccæ</i>); in the inner angles of the loculi are found
-1 or 2 (never several) pendulous (except <i>Empetraceæ</i>), anatropous
-ovules, with upward and outwardly turned, frequently swollen, micropyle
-(Fig. <a href="#fig455">455</a>). The seed most frequently has a large endosperm and a
-straight embryo (Figs. <a href="#fig455">455</a> <i>B</i>, <a href="#fig464">464</a>).&mdash;<span class="smaller">The family approaches
-the nearest to the Gruinales and Columniferæ; it may perhaps be
-regarded as an offshoot from the Sterculiaceæ.</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Euphorbiaceæ.</b> Flowers unisexual. In each of the loculi
-of the ovary, generally 3, there are 1 or 2 pendulous ovules with
-upward and outwardly turned micropyle. The placenta protrudes above the
-ovules (Figs. <a href="#fig454">454</a>, <a href="#fig461">461</a> <i>B</i>). On the ripening of the capsule the 3
-carpels separate septicidally, frequently with great violence, ejecting
-the seeds and leaving a central column. Endosperm copious.&mdash;For the
-rest, the flowers present all stages, from genera with calyx and
-corolla, to those which are the most reduced in Nature, namely the
-naked, 1-stamened flowers of <i>Euphorbia</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The same variety which is found in the flower is also present in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_431">[431]</span> the
-vegetative parts. Some are herbs, as our Spurges, others are shrubs and
-trees; some African <i>Euphorbia</i>-species even resemble the habit
-of a Cactus. Leaf-like branches with rudimentary leaves are found in
-<i>Phyllanthus</i> (sub-genus <i>Xylophylla</i>) (Fig. <a href="#fig456_458">456</a>). The leaves
-are scattered or opposite, often stipulate; they are nearly always
-simple. Large, highly-branched cells containing a great quantity of
-pungent latex are found in many, and watery juice in others. Glands and
-glandular hairs are general.&mdash;Only a few genera can be considered in
-this book.</p>
-
-<p>As an example of the most perfect flowers (which partly reproduce the
-Geraniaceous type) may be mentioned, <i>Croton</i>, <i>Manihot</i>, and
-<i>Jatropha</i>; 5 sepals, 5 petals, sometimes gamopetalous, andrœcium
-diplostemonous, or many-stamened, often monodelphous.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig453" style="width: 300px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 453–455.</span>&mdash;<i>Ricinus communis.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig453.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 453.</span>&mdash;♂-flower (magnified).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig454" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig454.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 454.</span>&mdash;♀-flower in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig455" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig455.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 455.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i> seed entire;
-<i>B</i> in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Ricinus</i> (Castor-oil) (Figs. <a href="#fig453">453–455</a>); monœcious; the
-♂-flowers, situated in the lower portion of the inflorescence, have 5
-perianth-leaves and a large number of branched stamens; the ♀-flower
-has 3–5 perianth-leaves; 3 bifid styles. Leaves peltate, palmately
-lobed. The seeds (Fig. <a href="#fig455">455</a>) contain an abundance of fatty oil and large
-aleurone grains.&mdash;<i>Mercurialis</i> (Mercury): the perianth is most
-frequently 3-merous; in the ♂-flowers 9–12 stamens; in the ♀-flowers
-most frequently a <i>2-locular</i> gynœceum.&mdash;<i>Phyllanthus</i>: Pr3 +
-3, A3, united in some and forming a column in the centre of the flower
-(Figs. <a href="#fig456_458">457</a>, <a href="#fig456_458">458</a>); <i>Xylophylla</i> is a section of this genus.&mdash;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_432">[432]</span>
-<i>Hura crepitans</i> (Sand-box tree) has a many-carpellate gynœceum,
-which separates with great violence when ripe.&mdash;A drupe is found in
-<i>Hippomane mancinella</i> (the Mancinil-tree, W. Ind.)&mdash;<i>Alchornea
-(Coelebogyne) ilicifolia</i> is well known on account of its
-“parthenogenesis”; only the ♀-plant has been introduced into Europe,
-but it nevertheless produces seeds capable of germination; these have
-generally several embryos.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig456_458" style="width: 221px">
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 456–458.</span>&mdash;<i>Phyllanthus (Xylophylla)
-angustifolius.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig456_458.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 456.</span>&mdash;Leaf-like branch with flowers (nat. size).</p>
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 457.</span>&mdash;♂-flower; and</p>
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 458</span>, ♀-flower (mag.).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Euphorbia</i> (Spurge) has the most reduced flowers, which are
-borne in a very complicated inflorescence. Each ♂-flower (Fig. <a href="#fig460">460</a>
-<i>B</i>) is naked, and consists of one stamen only (terminal on the
-axis). In the closely allied genus <i>Anthostema</i>, a small perianth
-is situated at the place where, in <i>Euphorbia</i>, there is a joint
-in the “filament,” (Fig. <a href="#fig461">461</a> <i>A</i>). The ♀-flowers (Fig. <a href="#fig460">460</a>) are
-naked, with a 3-locular ovary and 3 bifid styles. (<i>Anthostema</i>
-has a distinct perianth (Fig. <a href="#fig461">461</a> <i>B</i>); in a few Euphorbias traces
-of a perianth are present). In <i>Euphorbia</i> the ♂-and ♀-flowers are
-grouped into flower-like inflorescences termed “cyathia.” Each cyathium
-consists of a centrally placed ♀-flower which is first developed,
-surrounded by 5 groups of ♂-flowers (stamens) placed in a zig-zag, with
-a centrifugal order of development (Figs. <a href="#fig459">459</a>, <a href="#fig460">460</a> <i>B</i>), that
-is, in unipared scorpioid cymes; these flowers are surrounded by an
-<i>involucre</i> of 5 leaves united into a <i>bell-shaped structure</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig459">459</a>, 1–5) (resembling a calyx); on its edge are placed 4,
-generally crescent-like, yellow glands, one in each of the intervals,
-except one, between the lobes of the involucre (shaded in Fig. <a href="#fig459">459</a>; see
-also Fig. <a href="#fig460">460</a> <i>A</i>). Scale-like<span class="pagenum" id="Page_433">[433]</span> thin structures (floral-leaves?)
-are situated between the ♂-flowers. The ♀-flower has a long stalk, and
-finally bends down on one side, namely to the place on the edge of the
-involucre where the gland is not developed. These cyathia are again
-arranged in an inflorescence which commences as a 3–5-rayed umbellate
-cyme (pleiochasium), the branches of which ramify dichasially and
-finally as scorpioid cymes.&mdash;Latex, with peculiar-shaped starch-grains,
-is found in laticiferous <i>cells</i> (especially in the Cactus-like,
-leafless species.)</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig459" style="width: 472px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig459.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 459.</span>&mdash;Diagram of an inflorescence
-(cyathium) of <i>Euphorbia</i> with 3 floral-leaves, <i>m</i>,
-<i>n</i>, <i>o</i>, supporting other cyathia which are subtended by 2
-floral-leaves (bracteoles; <i>m</i>, <i>n</i>). 1–5, the involucral
-leaves in their order of development; the shaded portions are the
-crescentic glands.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig460" style="width: 609px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig460.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 460.</span>&mdash;<i>Euphorbia lathyris</i>: <i>A</i>
-an (entire) inflorescence (cyathium); <i>B</i> the same after the
-removal of the involucre.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig461" style="width: 334px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig461.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 461.</span>&mdash;<i>Anthostema</i>: ♂- (<i>A</i>)
-and ♀-(<i>B</i>) flowers; <i>p</i> the perianth; <i>ar</i> the node;
-<i>o</i> the ovule.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>205 genera; more than 3,000 species; especially in the
-Tropics.&mdash;Many are used on account of the oil, and of
-the pungent (aperient, poisonous, anthelmintic,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_434">[434]</span> etc.)
-properties in the latex or the seeds. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>:
-“Cascarilla-bark” of <i>Croton eluteria</i>; the fatty oil
-of the seeds of <i>Croton tiglium</i> (Trop. Asia); “Castor
-oil” from <i>Ricinus communis</i> (Africa, and cultivated
-in all warm climates throughout the world); the glandular
-hairs of <i>Mallotus philippinensis</i> (“Kamala”); this also
-yields a red dye. Gum “Euphorbium” is the hardened (resinous)
-latex of the <i>Cactus</i>-like <i>Euphorbia resinifera</i>
-(Morocco).&mdash;<span class="smcap">Nutritive</span> plants: <i>Manihot utilissima</i>
-and other species (Maniok, Am.). Their large, farinaceous
-roots form a very important article of food in the Tropics
-(Cassava-flour, Tapioca or Brazilian arrowroot). The fresh
-latex of the root in some species is a powerful poison; but the
-poisonous properties are diminished by roasting or cooking.
-<i>Caoutchouc</i> is obtained from <i>Siphonia elastica</i>
-(Trop. S. Am.). The vegetable tallow of the Chinese tallow-tree
-(<i>Stillingia sebifera</i>) is used in large quantities in
-soap factories. An indigo-like <i>dye</i> is obtained from
-<i>Crozophora tinctoria</i>, and is also found in <i>Mercurialis
-perennis</i>. Shellac is obtained from <i>Aleurites
-laccifera</i>. <span class="smcap">Ornamental</span> plants: <i>Acalypha</i>,
-<i>Croton</i>, <i>Dalechampia</i>.&mdash;<i>Hippomane</i> is
-poisonous.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Buxaceæ.</b> This order differs from the
-Euphorbiaceæ in having the micropyle turned inwards; the
-♂-flower has a 4-partite perianth and 4 stamens; the ♀-flower
-a 6-partite perianth and 3 carpels. Capsule with loculicidal
-dehiscence, the inner layer being detached elastically from the
-outer.&mdash;30 species. Shrubs without latex and with evergreen
-leaves.&mdash;<i>Buxus sempervirens</i> (Box) is an ornamental shrub
-(poisonous); it has a very hard and valuable wood which is used
-for wood-engraving and carving.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig462" style="width: 200px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 462–464.</span> <i>Callitriche stagnalis.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig462.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 462.</span>&mdash;♂-flower with the 2 bracteoles and the solitary
-stamen.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig463" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig463.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 463.</span>&mdash;♀-flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig464" style="width: 355px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig464.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 464.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal
-section of the ripe fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Callitrichaceæ.</b> Aquatic plants, growing at the
-bottom of shallow water, with opposite, simple, undivided,
-entire, exstipulate leaves, which are generally crowded and
-form a rosette in the apex of the branches. The flowers are
-unisexual (monœcious) and borne singly in the leaf-axils; they
-have no perianth, but are provided with two delicate bracteoles;
-the ♂-flowers consist of only <i>1 terminal stamen</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig462">462</a>); the ♀-flowers of a bicarpellate gynœceum (Fig. <a href="#fig463">463</a>) which
-is originally 2-locular, but later on becomes 4-locular, as in
-the case of the gynœceum of the Labiatæ, by the formation of
-a false partition-wall; in each loculus there is 1 pendulous
-ovule with the micropyle turned outwards. Fruit a <i>4-partite
-schizocarp</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig464">464</a>). 25 species.&mdash;<i>Callitriche.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 4 (?). <b>Empetraceæ.</b> 4 species. <i>Empetrum</i>;
-<i>E. nigrum</i> (Crowberry)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_435">[435]</span> is a heather-like, moorland,
-evergreen undershrub with linear leaves, having a deep groove
-closed with hairs, on the under side. The <i>erect ovules</i>
-show the greatest deviation from the Euphorbiaceæ. Diœcious
-(and ☿); S3, P3; in the ♂-flower, 3 stamens; in the ♀-flower, a
-6–9-locular ovary. Fruit a <i>drupe</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 15. <b>Terebinthinæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The diagram of the flower (Figs. <a href="#fig465">465–467</a>) is the same as in the
-Gruinales, namely S, P, A2 and G in whorls of 5 (less frequently 3,
-4, 6, 8), and the same modifications also occur with the suppression
-of the petal-stamens, etc. But a <i>ring</i> or sometimes <i>cup-like
-glandular structure</i> (<i>disc</i>) is found <i>between</i> the
-andrœcium and the gynœceum (Figs. <a href="#fig465">465</a>, <a href="#fig466">466</a>). The flowers similarly
-are regular, <i>hypogynous</i>, ☿ and polypetalous, though exceptions
-are found to all these characters: thus, for example, united sepals
-and petals frequently occur, and, in some orders, unisexual flowers
-by the suppression of one sex. In most cases the flowers are small,
-greenish-yellow, and arranged in paniculate inflorescences. The
-carpels (most frequently 5) are free in a few, but generally united
-into a multilocular gynœceum; rarely more than 1 or 2 ovules in each
-loculus. The gynœceum in the Anacardiaceæ is so reduced that it has
-only 1 fertile loculus with 1 ovule.&mdash;The <i>ovules are epitropous</i>,
-<i>i.e.</i> anatropous with outward-turned raphe (except the
-Anacardiaceæ).&mdash;The majority of the species are trees and shrubs with
-scattered, often <i>compound (pinnate) leaves</i> without stipules,
-and as in addition they frequently contain <i>aromatic, especially
-turpentine-like substances</i>, they assume a certain resemblance to
-the Walnut trees, and were formerly classed with them mainly on this
-account. In a series of genera the volatile, scented oils are found in
-special glands in the bark of the branches and in the leaves, in the
-latter case appearing as <i>pellucid dots</i>. This family includes
-several orders which are somewhat difficult to distinguish from each
-other.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Connaraceæ.</b> This order forms the connecting
-link between Terebinthinæ and Rosifloræ (<i>Spiræa</i>) as
-well as Leguminosæ, with which they are sometimes classed.
-The flowers have 5 5-merous whorls; 2 ovules in each loculus;
-micropyle turned upwards. Fruit a <i>follicle</i>, rarely a
-collection of follicles. Seed with aril. Shrubs with scattered
-(most frequently pinnate) leaves, without stipules. 170 species.
-Tropical.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Meliaceæ.</b> Trees and shrubs with scattered,
-often pinnate leaves without pellucid dots and exstipulate; the
-leaflets are nearly always entire. Flowers small in paniculate
-inflorescences. Calyx and corolla 4–5-merous; 2 whorls of
-stamens; 3–5 carpels in the gynœceum. A very characteristic
-feature is the union of the filaments into a tube, on the
-edge of which stipule-like teeth are often found. There are
-most frequently 2 ovules in the loculi;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_436">[436]</span> fruit a capsule with
-many winged seeds in <i>Swietenia</i> (Mahogany tree; Trop.
-Am.), <i>Cedrela</i>, etc.; berries in others. The wood of
-<i>Cedrela</i> is used for making cigar boxes. 550 species;
-tropical.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Rutaceæ.</b> Leaves glandular with pellucid dots. The type
-is the same as that of the family. Flowers 4–5-merous. The ovary is
-most frequently 4–5-grooved. Disc well pronounced, often appearing as
-a “gynophore.” The majority are shrubs with alternate or opposite,
-compound, more rarely simple, leaves.</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> The ovary is deeply 2–5-cleft with basal styles which are
-more or less united; the carpels in some genera are entirely free
-(groups 1, 2). The fruit is capsular and most frequently dehisces like
-follicles along the ventral suture or septicidally, so that a horn-like
-internal layer (endocarp) separates elastically from the external layer.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Zanthoxyleæ.</span> <i>Zanthoxylum</i>;
-<i>Choisya</i>; <i>Evodia</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Boronieæ.</span> Australia.&mdash;<i>Correa.</i></p>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Diosmeæ.</span> Heather-like shrubs;
-Africa.&mdash;<i>Diosma</i>, <i>Coleonema</i>, <i>Empleurum</i> and
-<i>Barosma</i>. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: <i>Barosma crenulata</i> and
-<i>betulina</i>, “broad Buchu leaves” (<i>B. serratifolia</i>
-and <i>Empleurum serrulatum</i>, “narrow Buchu-leaves”).</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig465" style="width: 534px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig465.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 465.</span>&mdash;<i>Ruta.</i> Flower (mag.).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig466" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig466.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 466.</span>&mdash;<i>Ruta.</i> Longitudinal section of
-flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig467" style="width: 297px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig467.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 467.</span>&mdash;<i>Ruta.</i> Floral diagram.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>4.</b> <span class="smcap">Ruteæ.</span> <i>Ruta</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig465">465–467</a>) <i>graveolens</i>
-is an herbaceous, glaucous, strongly smelling plant with bipinnate
-leaves and yellow flowers; the terminal flower is 5-merous, the others
-4-merous (S. Eur.).&mdash;<i>Dictamnus</i>; zygomorphic flower. <span class="smaller">The
-individual carpels<span class="pagenum" id="Page_437">[437]</span> of the fruit separate from each other, and dehisce
-like follicles, upon which the internal layer is detached elastically
-and springs out, carrying the seeds with it. Several species are
-ornamental plants.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>5.</b> <span class="smcap">Cusparieæ.</span> American. Flowers
-often zygomorphic with gamopetalous corolla; stamens
-5.&mdash;<i>Ticorea</i>; <i>Galipea</i> (<i>G. officinalis</i>; S.
-Am.; “Cortex angosturæ”); <i>Cusparia</i>; <i>Almeidea</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> The ovary is entire or only slightly grooved; the style is
-terminal, undivided. The fruit is most frequently a drupe or berry.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>6.</b> <span class="smcap">Toddalieæ.</span> <i>Ptelea</i>; winged fruit.
-The buds are enclosed in the leaf-sheath. <i>Skimmia</i>;
-<i>Phellodendron</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig468" style="width: 350px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 468–470.</span>&mdash;<i>Citrus vulgaris.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig468.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 468.</span>&mdash;Branch with compound leaves.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig469" style="width: 296px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig469.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 469.</span>&mdash;Transverse section of fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig470" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig470.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 470.</span>&mdash;Flowers (after the removal of the petals).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>7.</b> <span class="smcap">Aurantieæ</span>, <span class="smcap">Orange Group</span>. Fruit a berry
-with a leathery external layer.&mdash;The most typical flower is found for
-example in <i>Limonia</i>: S5, P5, A5 + 5, G5 (2–5).&mdash;<i>Citrus</i>
-has 4–5–8-merous<span class="pagenum" id="Page_438">[438]</span> flowers, a gamosepalous, dentate calyx, free petals,
-one whorl of stamens which are split irregularly into several bundles
-(Fig. <a href="#fig470">470</a>). The fruit is a <i>multilocular berry</i> provided with a
-thick, tough, outer layer. The juicy pulp, which fills up the loculi
-and envelopes the seeds, is formed from many large-celled, juicy
-hair-structures which arise on the inner side of the walls of the
-loculi and by degrees entirely fill them up; the dissepiments remain
-thin, and form the partitions so easily separating from each other
-(Fig. <a href="#fig469">469</a>). The seeds in many instances are remarkable for containing
-several embryos. The blade of the leaf is separated from the frequently
-winged stalk by a <i>node</i> (and hence is a compound leaf with only
-the terminal leaflet developed?) (Fig. <a href="#fig468">468</a>); in other genera, as
-<i>Triphasia</i>, there is a fully developed trifoliate leaf. Thorns
-are frequently developed.&mdash;<span class="smaller">The species of this genus, which is a
-native of the warmer parts of S. E. Asia, are very hard to separate.
-The differences are found in the forms of the fruit, the leaves and
-the leaf-stalks, and in the number of stamens. <i>Citrus medica</i>,
-“Cedrat” (Ind.); <i>C. limonum</i>, “Citron,” “Lemon” (introduced
-into Italy in the 3rd to 4th century). <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: the fruits
-and essential oil of Lemon. <i>C. aurantium</i> from E. Asia, the
-Orange (introduced into Italy in the 14th century). <i>C. vulgaris</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig468">468</a>), Bitter Orange (introduced into Europe at the time of the
-Crusades); the unripe Bitter Oranges, and peel of the Bitter Orange
-is officinal; it is from the flowers of this species especially that
-the essence of Neroli is made. <i>C. limetta</i>, <i>C. bergamia</i>,
-Bergamot; essence of Bergamot is officinal. <i>C. decumana</i>, Pomalo,
-a native of the Islands of the Pacific. About 780 species; chiefly
-tropical.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Burseraceæ.</b> Fruit a drupe; 1–5 stones. The bark,
-as well as the other parts, contain strong aromatic resins and
-balsams, and hence several species are used: the Myrrh tree,
-<i>Commiphora</i> (<i>Balsamodendron</i>) from Arabia and
-Africa; <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: Myrrha (<i>Commiphora myrrha</i>).
-Mecca-balsam from <i>C. opobalsamum</i>, Arabia; E. Africa. The
-Incense-tree (<i>Boswellia</i>) from the same parts of the globe
-and E. India. The incense of <i>B. carteri</i> is medicinal
-(Frankincense). The resin (Elemi) of <i>Protium</i>-species
-is officinal, and is used technically for varnish (S. Am.).
-Takamahaka-resin from <i>Elaphrium</i> (S. Am.) <i>Protium</i>
-(<i>Icica</i>); <i>Amyris</i> (1 carpel). 270 species; tropical.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Zygophyllaceæ.</b> The majority have opposite,
-pinnate leaves with stipules. <i>Leaves without pellucid
-dots.</i> The filaments have a scale on the inner side. The most
-important is <i>Guaiacum officinale</i> (West India), the wood
-(Lignum Vitæ) of which is very hard and heavy, this wood and
-Gum-guaiacum are officinal. Others have a peculiar repulsive
-smell and taste: the Creosote shrub (<i>Larrea mexicana</i>)
-and <i>Zygophyllum simplex</i>. <i>Tribulus terrester</i> is a
-common weed in S. Europe. <i>Fagonia. Peganum harmala</i>
-(South of Russia) yields a red dye.&mdash;110 species; especially in
-the Tropics; several species in sandy deserts. <i>Nitraria.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Simarubaceæ.</b> This order is distinguished by
-the abundance of <i>bitter</i> substances which it contains
-(Quassine) especially in the bark and the wood. The wood
-of <i>Quassia amara</i> (Guiana, Antilles) is officinal;
-<i>Picraena<span class="pagenum" id="Page_439">[439]</span> excelsa</i> yields Jamaica Quassia; the bark of
-<i>Simaruba</i>, <i>Simaba</i>-species and others is used.
-<i>Ailanthus glandulosa</i> is a garden plant (pinnate leaves,
-winged fruit).&mdash;110 species. Tropical.</p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Ochnaceæ.</b> Flowers diplostemonous, 5-merous.
-The unilocular ovaries, which are individually free, project
-considerably into the air around the gynobasic style; 1 ovule
-in each loculus; the fruitlets are drupes. Shrubs; leaves
-alternate, with stipules. <i>Ochna</i>; <i>Ouratea</i>.&mdash;160
-species; tropical; especially American.</p>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Anacardiaceæ.</b> The ovary rarely contains more
-than 1 ovule, even though there be several loculi and several
-carpels; in <i>Anacardium</i> all the 10 stamens except one
-become suppressed. Resin passages.&mdash;<i>Anacardium.</i> The
-most peculiar feature is the development of the flower-stalk
-into a fleshy body about the form and size of a pear (<i>A.
-occidentale</i> from Trop. Am. and <i>A. orientale</i> from
-E. Ind.) which bears the kidney-shaped nut (the so-called
-“Cashew-nut”) on its apex. <i>Mangifera indica</i> (the
-Mango-tree, from E. Ind.) is cultivated in several tropical
-countries on account of its delicious drupe. Similarly, species
-of <i>Spondias</i> (<i>S. dulcis</i>, Pacific Islands, <i>S.
-lutea</i>). Several species of <i>Rhus</i> are ornamental shrubs
-in this country, for instance, <i>R. typhina</i> (N. Am.), <i>R.
-cotinus</i> (the Wig-tree, the <i>barren</i> flower-stalks
-of the panicles being feather-like and hairy); <i>R.
-toxicodendron</i> (Poisonous Sumach, from N. Am.) is poisonous.
-Chinese galls are produced by the sting of a leaf-louse
-(<i>Aphis chinensis</i>) on <i>R. semialata</i> (China), and
-Japanese wax is from the seeds of <i>R. succedanea</i> (Japan).
-Considerable quantities of Sumach (<i>R. coriaria</i>) are used
-in tanning and as a black dye. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: the mastic
-resin of <i>Pistacia lentiscus</i> (the Mastic-tree, from the
-Mediterranean). The fruits of <i>Pistacia vera</i> (Syria) are
-edible; <i>P. terebinthus</i> and others yield turpentine.&mdash;450
-species; tropical.</p>
-
-<p>Order 9. <b>Icacinaceæ.</b> Flowers 4–5-merous; haplostemonous;
-receptacle convex or cup-like surrounding the gynœceum; in
-the (single) loculus of the ovary, 2 anatropous, pendulous
-ovules.&mdash;200 species; tropical.</p>
-</div>
-
-<h4>Family 16. <b>Aesculinæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The essential characters of this family are in the main the same as
-those of the Terebinthinæ and Gruinales. The flowers are hypogynous,
-perfect, with free petals, 5-merous (S5, P5, typically A5 + 5, all of
-which, however, are not generally developed; in our native orders there
-are only 7–8 stamens), and most frequently a <i>3-merous, 3-locular
-gynœceum</i> (less frequently 2 or 5 carpels with as many loculi). In
-each loculus there are usually only 1–2 ovules. A deviation from the
-preceding families is the frequent <i>zygomorphy</i> of the flower,
-with, as a rule an <i>oblique</i> plane of symmetry (Fig. <a href="#fig471">471</a>). When a
-<i>disc</i> is developed it is placed <i>outside</i> the stamens. The
-majority have no endosperm (Fig. <a href="#fig473">473</a>).&mdash;The members of the family are
-nearly all trees.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The family is closely allied to the Terebinthinæ, but unlike
-this it never has<span class="pagenum" id="Page_440">[440]</span> aromatic properties, and differs also
-in the position of the nectary, in the flowers, which are
-often irregular with a reduction in the number of stamens,
-and in the ovule which is usually ascending with micropyle
-pointing downwards (the Terebinthinæ having the micropyle
-turned upwards), etc. It is also related to Frangulinæ, the
-Staphyleaceæ being the chief connecting link; but the Æsculinæ
-generally have compound leaves.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Staphyleaceæ.</b> Leaves opposite, often compound.
-Flowers regular, ☿, 5-merous in calyx and corolla, 5-stamened.
-The stamens are placed <i>outside</i> the nectary. Ovary
-syncarpous or 2–3-partite with free styles. The capsule is
-thin, bladder-like, 2–3-locular, opening at the apex, and
-has several very hard seeds with a shining testa without
-aril. Endosperm. <i>Staphylea pinnata</i> (S. Europe) and
-<i>trifoliata</i> (N. Am.) are cultivated in gardens; they have
-white flowers in pendulous, axillary racemes or panicles.&mdash;16
-species.&mdash;<i>Staphylea</i> is found in the Tertiary of N.
-America.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Melianthaceæ.</b> Glaucous shrubs with scattered,
-pinnate leaves, and large stipules. <i>Melianthus.</i>&mdash;8
-species; S. Africa.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Sapindaceæ.</b> Trees or shrubs, often climbing by tendrils
-(lianes with anomalous structure of the stem) and with compound leaves.
-The flowers, in most cases, are small, insignificant, and without
-scent, and in some polygamous and zygomorphic. S4–5, P4–5, A8 (less
-frequently 5–10) inside the nectary (disc); ovary generally 3-locular,
-with 1–2 ovules in each loculus (raphe ventral, micropyle turned
-downwards). Seed without endosperm, often with an aril. The embryo is
-often thick and curved (Fig. <a href="#fig473">473</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig471" style="width: 481px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 471–473.</span>&mdash;<i>Æsculus hippocastanum.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig471.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 471.</span>&mdash;Diagram of the flower and of a scorpioid cyme.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig472" style="width: 217px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig472.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 472.</span>&mdash;Flower in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig473" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig473.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 473.</span>&mdash;Seed in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Æsculus</i> (Horse-Chestnut). Trees with opposite, digitate,
-dentate leaves without stipules; the inflorescence is composed of
-unipared scorpioid cymes arranged in a pyramidal panicle (termed a
-thyrsus). The flowers are irregular, with an <i>oblique plane of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_441">[441]</span>
-symmetry</i> (through the 4th sepal, Fig. <a href="#fig471">471</a>); there are 5 sepals,
-5 free petals, of which the one lying between S<sup>3</sup> and S<sup>5</sup> is the
-smallest (see Fig. <a href="#fig471">471</a>) and may be absent; stamens 7 (5 + 2), three
-being suppressed; gynœceum simple, 3-carpellary and 3-locular, with
-single style; of the two ovules one is ascending, the other descending
-(Fig. <a href="#fig472">472</a>).&mdash;The fruit is a 3-valvate, sometimes spiny, capsule,
-with loculicidal dehiscence, the seed having a large hilum, a curved
-embryo without endosperm and united cotyledons (the radicle lies in
-a fold of the testa, Fig. <a href="#fig473">473</a>). <i>Æ. hippocastanum</i> (Greece,
-Asia), introduced into cultivation about 300 years ago; the majority
-of the other species, <i>e.g. Æ. pavia</i>, etc., several of
-which are frequently cultivated in gardens, are from N. America.
-<span class="smaller">The flower of the Horse-Chestnut is adapted for bees, whose abdomen
-touches the anthers or style when visiting the flower. The flowers are
-protogynous.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The other Sapindaceæ have most frequently 4 sepals, 8 stamens,
-various fruits (septicidal capsule, nuts with or without wings,
-schizocarp), etc. <i>Serjania</i>, <i>Cardiospermum</i>,
-<i>Sapindus</i>, <i>Koelreuteria</i>, etc. (about 118 genera,
-970 species). The seeds of <i>Paullinia sorbilis</i> contain
-caffeine, and are used as “Pasta guaranà,” in the North Western
-Brazils in the manufacture of a common drink. <i>Nephelium</i>
-(or <i>Euphoria</i>) <i>litchi</i> (with edible aril), and other
-species, from Asia.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig474" style="width: 358px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig474.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 474.</span>&mdash;Samara of <i>Acer platanoides</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Aceraceæ.</b> This order is so closely allied to the
-Sapindaceæ, that some authorities have classed it with them. The
-main difference is in the <i>regularity</i> of the flowers, and
-the <b>2</b>-merous gynœceum (in abnormal cases several carpels
-occur).&mdash;They are trees, and, like the Horse-Chestnuts, have opposite
-leaves without stipules; in <i>Acer</i> the leaves are palminerved,
-but imparipinnate in <i>Negundo</i>, a plant frequently cultivated in
-gardens. The flowers are often unisexual, polygamous (some species
-have ☿-, ♂-and ♀-flowers); sepals 5, petals 5 free, <b>stamens 8</b>
-(that is, 5 + 5, but the two median ones are absent) inside a large
-disc. Fruit a samara (schizocarp) with 2 <i>winged, nut-like</i>
-fruitlets (Fig. <a href="#fig474">474</a>).<span class="pagenum" id="Page_442">[442]</span> In each of the 2 loculi of the ovary are 2
-ovules. Embryo <i>curved</i>, with thin, <i>folded</i> cotyledons.
-Endosperm absent.&mdash;<span class="smaller">The inflorescences are racemes with a more or
-less elongated main axis and terminal flower (which sometimes has 10
-stamens); when the lateral branches are developed they are similar
-to the main axis. In some species both corolla and petal-stamens are
-suppressed. <i>Acer</i> is pollinated by insects, <i>Negundo</i> by the
-wind.&mdash;88 species; North Temperate zone. <i>Acer</i> in the Tertiary
-from the Oligocene. The following are native plants: Maple (<i>Acer
-campestre</i>), Sycamore (<i>A. pseudoplatanus</i>, doubtful native).
-Important as avenue trees and timber. Sugar is obtained from the spring
-sap of the Sugar Maple (N. Am.).</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Malpighiaceæ.</b> A tropical (especially American)
-order closely related to the Aceraceæ, having often the same
-form of fruit (but 3-partite). Some species are lianes with
-anomalous stem-structure. Leaves opposite. The flowers are
-regular or obliquely zygomorphic (the plane of symmetry passing
-through sepal 3), with S5, P5, A5 + 5, G3; 1 pendulous ovule
-in each loculus. Important characteristics for identification
-are the numerous grandular structures on the sepals.
-Peculiar 2-spined hairs are found in some. <i>Malpighia</i>,
-<i>Bunchosia</i>, <i>Galphimia</i>, <i>Tetrapterys</i>,
-<i>Heteropterys</i>, etc.&mdash;About 600 species.</p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Erythroxylaceæ.</b> Sepals 5, petals 5 (with a
-ligular corona), 10 stamens in one bundle. Gynœceum 3-locular.
-Fruit a drupe. Tropical (especially American) trees and shrubs,
-the <i>Coca-plant</i> (<i>Erythroxylon coca</i>) being best
-known. Its leaves are considered by the inhabitants of Chile and
-Peru to be one of the indispensable necessaries of life; they
-are chewed, and possess intoxicating, exhilarating properties,
-and contain the alkaloid cocaine, which is frequently employed
-as a local anæsthetic.&mdash;103 species; chiefly in America.</p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Vochysiaceæ.</b> Trees; Trop. Am. 1 stamen.&mdash;140
-species.</p>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Trigoniaceæ.</b> Shrubs; Trop. Am.&mdash;30 species.</p>
-
-<p>Order 9. <b>Tremandraceæ.</b> Polygalaceæ with regular
-flowers.&mdash;27 species. Australia.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig475" style="width: 287px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig475.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 475.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Polygala</i>: <i>d</i>
-a gland in the posterior side of the flower; α and β the two caducous
-bracteoles.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 10. <b>Polygalaceæ.</b> Herbs or shrubs (some tropical
-species are lianes) with scattered (rarely opposite), simple and
-most frequently quite entire leaves, without stipules. The flowers
-are usually borne in terminal spikes or racemes, and are strongly
-zygomorphic (<i>the plane of symmetry being median</i>); they have
-5 free sepals, the 2 <i>lateral ones</i> of which (4 and 5 in Figs.
-<a href="#fig475">475</a>, <a href="#fig476">476</a>) are very large, <i>petaloid</i>, and frequently project on
-each side like the “wings” of a Pea-flower; petals 5, of which the
-two lateral ones are wanting or rudimentary (dotted on Fig. <a href="#fig475">475</a>), and
-the <i>anterior</i> “the <i>keel</i>” (Fig. <a href="#fig476">476</a> <i>c</i>) is large,
-hollow and boat-shaped, and frequently<span class="pagenum" id="Page_443">[443]</span> with a lobed or fimbriated
-edge (Fig. <a href="#fig476">476</a> <i>A</i> and <i>B</i>, <i>c</i>); stamens 8, the two
-median ones being absent, all <i>united</i> into a tube split along the
-back, which is also slightly united to the keel (the anthers, often
-2 locular, <i>open by pores</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig476">476</a> <i>B</i>, <i>st</i>); the
-2 median carpels form a bilocular ovary. 1 pendulous ovule in each
-loculus (Figs. <a href="#fig476">476</a> <i>C</i>, <a href="#fig475">475</a>); capsule compressed with loculicidal
-dehiscence, rarely a nut. <i>Polygala</i> (Milk-wort).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>470 species; distributed over the whole globe (none Arctic).
-<span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: the root of <i>P. senega</i>, from N. Am.
-Some are used as ornamental plants.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination</span>. The flowers of <i>Polygala</i> are
-pollinated by insects (chiefly bees). The fimbriated processes
-of the anterior petal support the insect when it alights. The
-anthers lie on each side of the stigma in the pouch of the
-anterior petal; the apex of the style is spoon-shaped, and
-immediately behind it is a viscid stigmatic lobe. In reaching
-the honey the proboscis of the insect must come in contact
-with the pollen and the viscid stigma, by which it is rendered
-sticky; this ensures the pollen adhering to the proboscis and so
-being carried to other flowers.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig476" style="width: 594px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig476.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 476.</span>&mdash;<i>Polygala amara.</i> Parts of
-the flower (mag.) <i>A</i> Flower from side, 1-5 sepals: <i>c</i>
-keel; <i>B</i> flower from above spread out: <i>st</i> the 8 stamens;
-<i>c</i> fimbriated edge of “keel”; <i>C</i> ovary with style and
-stigma.</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 17. <b>Frangulinæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The plants belonging to this family, with very few exceptions,
-are trees or shrubs. The leaves are usually simple; stipules may
-be absent or present. The flowers in almost all the orders are
-<i>small, green or whitish</i>; they are <i>always regular</i>,
-4-<i>or</i> 5-<i>merous</i> with 2–5 <i>carpels</i>, but never have
-more than 1 <i>whorl of stamens</i>, which in <i>Rhamnaceæ</i> and
-<i>Ampelidaceæ</i> are placed <i>opposite</i> the petals (typically 5
-+ 5 or 4 + 4 stamens, of which however either the external or internal
-whorl is always wanting); hypogynous or slightly perigynous, in
-<i>Rhamnaceæ</i> only strongly perigynous or epigynous; generally ☿;
-the calyx is inconspicuous; petals free or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_444">[444]</span> slightly united. Gynœceum
-simple; <i>ovary generally multilocular</i>; style short or entirely
-wanting. A <i>disc</i> is nearly always developed in the flower, but
-is found sometimes inside the staminal whorl, sometimes outside it or
-between the stamens. The ovules are apotropous (anatropous with dorsal
-or ventral raphe).</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Celastraceæ.</b> <i>Euonymus europæa</i> (Spindle-tree)
-may be chosen as a type. It is a shrub with simple, opposite leaves
-and small caducous stipules. The small, greenish-yellow flowers, borne
-in regularly-branched dichasia, are regular, ☿, with 4 whorls, 4-(or
-5-) merous in regular alternation. There is a <i>thick disc</i> upon
-which the polypetalous corolla (imbricate in the bud) and the stamens
-are borne, with a slightly perigynous insertion. The style is short and
-thick; the ovary has 2 <i>erect</i> ovules in each loculus. The fruit
-is a red, 4-valvate capsule with loculicidal dehiscence; the seeds are
-few in number, and have a large, red-yellow <i>aril</i> (developed from
-the micropyle). Embryo green, in a large, fleshy, white endosperm.
-<span class="smaller">The dingy yellow flowers are generally visited only by flies and
-ants for the sake of the honey secreted by the disc, and while they
-run about on the flowers they touch the anthers and stigmas, now with
-one part of the body, now with another. The flower is protandrous. The
-stigmas are not developed till several days after the opening of the
-anthers.&mdash;<i>Celastrus</i>, <i>Cassine</i>, <i>Catha</i>, etc.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>38 genera; 300 species. Distributed over the entire globe, with
-the exception of the colder districts, and especially in the
-Tropics. Some are ornamental bushes (<i>Euonymus japonica</i>).
-The leaves of <i>Catha edulis</i> are used by the Arabs and
-Abyssinians in the same way as those of <i>Coca</i> by the
-Peruvians.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Hippocrateaceæ.</b> 150 species; tropical; chiefly
-lianes. S5, P5, A3, G3. Anthers extrorse.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig477" style="width: 337px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig477.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 477.</span>&mdash;<i>Ilex aquifolium</i>: magnified
-flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Aquifoliaceæ (Hollies).</b> The genus <i>Ilex</i> forms
-almost the entire order. (175 species out of 180; especially from S.
-Am.) They are shrubs or trees with scattered, leathery, simple leaves
-(in <i>Ilex aquifolium</i>, spiny) with very small stipules. The
-flowers are small, white, and borne in few-flowered inflorescences in
-the axils of the foliage-leaves; they are most frequently unisexual
-and diœcious. There are 4–5 sepals, petals, stamens and carpels in
-regular alternation; the calyx and <i>corolla</i> have their leaves
-<i>slightly</i> connate;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_445">[445]</span> stamens slightly adnate to the corolla; the
-ovary is generally almost spherical with a thick, sessile stigma (Fig.
-<a href="#fig477">477</a>). This order deviates especially from <i>Celastraceæ</i> in the
-<i>absence of the disc</i> and in having only 1 (<i>pendulous</i>)
-ovule in each of the 4 loculi of the ovary, and in having a
-<i>drupe</i> with generally 4 stones. Embryo extremely small, at the
-apex of the large endosperm, with the radicle directed upwards.&mdash;<span class="smaller">3
-genera.&mdash;<i>I. aquifolium</i> (Holly) principally on the coasts of
-European countries; from Norway to W. Denmark, and further westward.
-It is a common garden shrub with stiff, shining leaves and red fruits.
-Several South American species contain so much <i>caffeine</i>
-that they may be used as a beverage in the place of tea (<i>I.
-paraguayensis</i>, Paraguay tea, or Maté). The Holly does not contain
-caffeine.</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Ampelidaceæ (Vines).</b> Shrubs with the stem swollen
-at the insertion of the petioles and climbing by <i>tendrils borne
-opposite the leaves</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig478">478</a>, <a href="#fig479">479</a>). The leaves are scattered
-(generally 1/2), stalked, stipulate, frequently palminerved and
-lobed, divided or compound. The small, greenish flowers are generally
-borne in paniculate <i>inflorescences, whose position is the same as
-that of the tendrils</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig478">478</a>); they are hypogynous or slightly
-perigynous, ☿, with 4–5 sepals, petals, stamens (which, as in the
-Rhamneæ, are <i>opposite the petals</i>; Fig. <a href="#fig480">480</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>)
-and 2 carpels. The calyx is very small, entire, or slightly dentate;
-corolla <i>valvate</i>, and in some falling off as a hood, since the
-individual parts remain united at the summit (Fig. <a href="#fig480">480</a> <i>A</i>).
-Between the stamens and gynœceum is situated an hypogynous <i>disc</i>,
-with 5 lobes alternating with the stamens (Fig. <a href="#fig480">480</a> <i>A</i>,
-<i>B</i>, <i>E</i>). In each loculus of the 2-locular ovary there are
-2 <i>erect</i> ovules (<i>E</i>); the style is short or wanting. The
-fruit is a <i>berry</i>. The embryo is small and lies in a horny,
-sometimes slightly folded (ruminate) endosperm (Fig. <a href="#fig480">480</a> <i>C</i>,
-<i>D</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig478" style="width: 418px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 478–481.</span>&mdash;<i>Vitis vinifera.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig478.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 478.</span>&mdash;Branch with bunch of grapes.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig479" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig479.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 479.</span>&mdash;Diagram of the position of leaf and tendrils. The
-branch is divided into sections on the sympodial theory (the successive
-generations, I, II, III, IV, are alternately white and shaded);
-<i>k</i> buds.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig480" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig480.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 480.</span>&mdash;A Flower throwing off the corolla; <i>B</i> flower
-after the removal of the corolla; <i>C</i>, <i>D</i> longitudinal and
-transverse section of seed; <i>E</i> longitudinal section of gynœceum;
-<i>s</i> calyx.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig481" style="width: 385px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig481.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 481.</span>&mdash;Diagram of branch and position of leaves;
-<i>sl</i> tendril; <i>lt</i> the main axis; <i>ax</i> stipules of the
-foliage-leaf shown below; <i>g</i> axillary-bud (the dwarf-branch);
-<i>v</i> its fore-leaf; <i>l<sub>1</sub> l<sub>2</sub></i> its first two
-foliage-leaves with their stipules; <i>lt<sub>1</sub></i> long-branch in the
-axil of <i>v</i> (everything appertaining to this branch is entirely
-black); <i>v<sub>1</sub></i> the first leaf of this branch.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Vitis</i> and <i>Ampelopsis</i> (5-merous flowers);
-<i>Cissus</i> (4-merous flower); <i>Leea</i> (without stipules,
-corolla gamopetalous). The inflorescence in <i>Pterisanthes</i>
-(E. Ind.) has a peculiar, flat, leaf-like axis, on the edges of
-which ♂-flowers are borne, and on the surface ♀-flowers.</p>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">TENDRILS</span> in Ampelidaceæ are modified branches,
-since they bear leaves and may be abnormally developed as
-branches with foliage-leaves, and finally the inflorescences
-are borne in the position of the tendrils, and tendrils are met
-with which are partly inflorescences. The explanation of the
-position of the tendril, namely, right opposite the foliage-leaf
-but without a subtending-leaf, has been much disputed. The
-relative positions are as follows: in <i>Vitis vinifera</i>
-the following two kinds of shoots and relative positions are
-found (the other species deviate in one or other particular),
-(<i>a</i>) <span class="smcap">Long-branches</span>, which have 2 scale-leaves
-and a large number of foliage-leaves with a divergence of
-1/2;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_446">[446]</span> opposite the lowest 3–5 foliage-leaves no tendrils are
-found, then follow: 2 foliage-leaves with tendrils, 1 without a
-tendril, 2 with and 1 without, etc., with great regularity. Buds
-are developed in the axils of the foliage-leaves<span class="pagenum" id="Page_447">[447]</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig479">479</a>):
-these develop into (<i>b</i>) <span class="allsmcap">DWARF-BRANCHES</span>, which
-commence with 1 laterally-placed scale-leaf (fore-leaf; Fig. <a href="#fig481">481</a>
-<i>v</i>) succeeded by several foliage-leaves with a divergence
-of 1/2 (in a plane at right angles to that of the mother-shoot),
-but the whole shoot is extremely small, and often dries up
-and drops off in the autumn, so that only the scale-leaf,
-<i>v</i>, with the bud (Fig. <a href="#fig481">481</a> <i>lt<sub>1</sub></i>) in its axil
-remains. This bud in the following year developes into a new
-long-branch, and since its leaves lie in a plane at right angles
-to that of the dwarf-branch, their plane coincides with that
-of the long-branch from which it is developed (the grandmother
-axis).&mdash;The tendrils no doubt may most correctly be regarded as
-the modified main axis which has been pushed aside by a lateral
-branch. The branches are then sympodia, whose successive shoots
-bear alternately 1 and 2 foliage-leaves: thus, on the figure
-there are portions altogether of 5 shoots (I.-V.), the 1-leaved
-ones are shaded, the 2-leaved ones are white. The following
-facts however are adverse to this theory: (1) the first leaf on
-an axillary bud is then situated 180° from the subtending leaf
-(<i>e.g.</i> the lowermost shaded leaf, Fig. <a href="#fig479">479</a>, 180° from the
-lowermost white leaf), whilst the rule in the Dicotyledons is
-that it is placed only about 90° to one side. (2) The buds (Fig.
-<a href="#fig479">479</a> <i>K</i>) from which the dwarf-branches develop, must then
-be accessory and sister-buds to the sympodial shoots, but their
-first leaves have a different relative position to this, which
-is very peculiar, and a still more remarkable fact is that the
-buds, <i>K</i>, etc. are similar in structure and present in
-<i>all the axils</i>; thus we <i>only</i> find accessory buds
-in the cases where no tendrils are opposite to the leaves, and
-the main bud must then be considered to be suppressed. (3) The
-development proves that the tendrils arise on the side of a
-vigorous growing-point of the stem or by its division, and do
-not develop, as might be expected, from the apex of the shoot.
-But these relations however, find their analogues and are all
-capable of explanation, whereas other less natural modes of
-explanation are opposed to them.</p>
-
-<p>435 species; especially in the Tropics; they are rarer in
-America. In N. Am. some <i>Vitis</i>-species and <i>Ampelopsis
-quinquefolia</i> are found. <i>Vitis vinifera</i> is supposed to
-have originated in the districts East and South of the Caspian
-Sea. Wine is obtained from <i>Vitis</i>-species, especially
-<i>V. vinifera</i>, and “raisins,”&mdash;(the name “currants,” given
-to a special variety with small, seedless fruits, is derived
-from Corinth).&mdash;The species of <i>Ampelopsis</i> (Virginian
-Creeper) are cultivated as ornamental plants.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Rhamnaceæ.</b> <i>The stamens are placed opposite the
-petals</i> as in the Ampelidaceæ (Fig. <a href="#fig482">482</a>), but the flowers are
-<i>much more perigynous or entirely epigynous</i>. The trees and shrubs
-belonging to this order have simple, most frequently penninerved leaves
-with stipules; frequently thorny (modified branches). The flowers
-are inconspicuous, sometimes unisexual (Fig. <a href="#fig482">482</a>), and have 5 (-4)
-sepals, petals, stamens, and generally 3 (2–5) carpels. The calyx has
-<i>valvate</i> æstivation. The petals are very <i>small</i> (generally
-less than the sepals), often spoon-like, hollow, and embracing the
-stamens; <i>a disc covers the inner surface of the thalamus</i> or the
-base of the style in the epigynous flower; gynœceum simple,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_448">[448]</span> with one
-style and one <i>erect ovule in each loculus</i>. The fruit is most
-frequently a <i>drupe</i>. The embryo is large, often green or yellow,
-with endosperm.</p>
-
-<p><i>Rhamnus</i> (Buckthorn) has a juicy drupe with 3 (2–4) stones,
-surrounded at the base by the persistent portion of the receptacle; the
-disc is thin. <i>R. cathartica</i> (common Buckthorn): diœcious, with
-opposite, serrate leaves. <i>R. frangula</i> (Alder Buckthorn): flowers
-☿, with scattered, entire leaves.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Ceanothus</i> (N. Am., with
-richly-flowered inflorescences and a fruit closely resembling that of
-the Euphorbias). <i>Phylica</i>, <i>Pomaderris</i> (Austr., fruit a
-capsule). <i>Zizyphus</i>, <i>Paliurus</i>, <i>Colletia</i> (S. Am.)
-are thorny shrubs; <i>C. spinosa</i> has thorny shoots with small,
-caducous leaves; the seedling has normal foliage-leaves. Others climb
-by tendrils as in the Ampelidaceæ, <i>e.g. Gouania</i>.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig482" style="width: 700px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig482.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 482.</span>&mdash;<i>Rhamnus cathartica</i>: <i>A</i>
-long-styled ♂-flower; <i>pet</i> petals; <i>B</i> short-styled
-♂-flower; <i>C</i> long-styled ♀-flower; <i>D</i> short-styled ♀-flower
-(after Darwin).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>475 species, 40 genera; chiefly in temperate and tropical
-climes. Some are medicinal plants, the bark and fruit having
-purgative properties (the bark of <i>Rhamnus frangula</i>
-and “Cascara Sagrada” from the bark of <i>R. purshiana</i>
-are officinal). The fruits and seeds of others are edible,
-for example, the fruits of <i>Zizyphus lotus</i>, <i>Z.
-vulgaris</i>, <i>Z. spina Christi</i>, etc. Green and yellow
-<i>dyes</i> are obtained from the fruit of <i>R. cathartica</i>,
-<i>infectoria</i> and others (Avignon grain). <i>Ceanothus-</i>,
-<i>Rhamnus-</i> and evergreen <i>Phylica</i>-species are
-ornamental shrubs.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 18. <b>Thymelæinæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>Exclusively trees or shrubs with simple, entire, scattered leaves
-without stipules. They have a <i>strongly perigynous</i>, regular,
-<i>4-merous</i> flower. The receptacle (often coloured) envelopes
-a simple gynœceum formed of <b>1</b> <i>carpel</i> and with, in
-most cases, <b>1</b> ovule, bearing on its edge 4 (or 5) petaloid
-sepals and, but rarely at the same time, small, scale-like petals.
-The corolla is most frequently entirely wanting (and hence these
-plants were formerly reckoned among the Monochlamydeæ); frequently
-only one of the 2 whorls of stamens, which are situated on the inner
-side of the edge of the receptacle, is developed. The fruit is most
-frequently a <i>1-seeded</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_449">[449]</span> berry or drupe, or a nut which may be
-falsely berry-like, the partly persistent receptacle being fleshy and
-enveloping it.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>This family appears the most nearly allied to the Frangulinæ,
-especially the Rhamnaceæ, and may be considered as a further
-development of these in the direction of the petaloid
-development of the receptacle and reduction of the corolla and
-gynœceum, which in this instance only consists of one carpel.
-Another deviation is that both the whorls of stamens are
-present, while one of these is always wanting in Frangulinæ.
-They also appear to be related to the Lauraceæ (see page <a href="#Page_391">391</a>).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Thymelæaceæ.</b> The flowers are most frequently ☿ (Fig.
-<a href="#fig483">483</a>). The receptacle is high, generally tubular, coloured, and bears
-on its edge the 4-(or 5)-merous calyx, with imbricate æstivation. The
-corolla is wanting or is represented by small scales. The stamens are
-situated on the inside of the receptacle, and number 4 + 4 (or 5 + 5);
-stigma capitate. 1 <i>pendulous ovule</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig483">483</a> <i>B</i>), the
-<i>radicle pointing upwards</i>. The fruit is most frequently a berry.
-<span class="smaller">A disc is sometimes developed. Endosperm wanting or very slight.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig483" style="width: 546px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig483.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 483.</span>&mdash;<i>Daphne mezereum</i>: <i>A</i>
-flower; <i>B</i> longitudinal section of pistil.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Daphne</i> (Spurge-Laurel, Fig. <a href="#fig483">483</a>) has a deciduous
-receptacle, often coloured; sepals 4; petals absent; stamens 4 +
-4. Berry.&mdash;<i>Gnidia</i> (corolla); <i>Pimelea</i> (2 stamens);
-<i>Thymelæa</i>; <i>Passerina</i> and others.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>400 species; chiefly in the warm, sub-tropical zone, especially
-the Cape and Australia. Only <i>Daphne</i> and <i>Thymelæa</i>
-in Europe. In the fruit and bark of some, for example
-<i>Daphne</i>, pungent, burning and poisonous properties are
-found. The bark of <i>D. mezereum</i> (native and cultivated)
-and <i>D. laureola</i> is officinal. A specially tough bast is
-found in some species, for example <i>Lagetta lintearia</i>
-(Lace-tree, Jamaica), which is used in weaving. Some are
-cultivated in gardens as ornamental shrubs, especially species
-of <i>Daphne</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Elæagnaceæ.</b> Shrubs or trees, which are easily
-recognised by the covering of <i>peltate hairs</i> found upon almost
-all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_450">[450]</span> parts of the plant, causing them to assume a <i>silvery</i>
-or rusty-brown appearance. Stipules are absent; the leaves are
-simple, most frequently scattered. Flowers (Figs. <a href="#fig484">484</a>, <a href="#fig485">485</a>)
-frequently unisexual. The sepals are valvate, 2-4; the <i>corolla
-is wanting</i>; <i>stamens</i> 4 + 4 or 0 + 4. The ovule is
-<i>erect</i> and <i>the radicle turned downwards</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig486">486</a>).
-The fruit is a <i>nut</i>, but becomes <i>a false fruit</i>, being
-surrounded by the persistent receptacle or the lower part of it,
-and thus assuming a berry- or drupe-like appearance (Fig. <a href="#fig486">486</a>).
-Endosperm insignificant.&mdash;<i>Shepherdia</i> (opposite leaves) has 4
-sepals, 4+4 stamens, as in <i>Daphne</i>. Diœcious.&mdash;<i>Elæagnus</i>
-(Silver-leaf) is ☿, has 4–6 sepals, and 4–6 stamens alternating with
-them. <i>Hippophaë</i> is diœcious; it has 2 sepals and 4 stamens
-in the ♂-flower (perhaps properly speaking 2+2 stamens); thorny
-(stem-structures).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>16 species; especially ornamental shrubs, <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Elæagnus argentea</i>, <i>angustifolia</i>; <i>Hippophaë
-rhamnoides</i> and <i>Shepherdia canadensis</i>. Northern Temp.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig484" style="width: 266px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs.</span> 484–486.&mdash;<i>Elæagnus angustifolia.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig484.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 484.</span>&mdash;Floral diagram.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig485" style="width: 188px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig485.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 485.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal section through the flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig486" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig486.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 486.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal section
-through the fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 3 (?). <b>Proteaceæ.</b> This order has its chief centre
-in the dry regions of Australia (6/10–7/10 of about 1,000
-species), a smaller number in S. Africa (2/10–3/10). a few
-species in S. Am. Trees or shrubs, leaves generally scattered,
-without stipules, and more or less dry, leathery, evergreen,
-and often of very different forms on the same plant (undivided,
-compound, etc.) The flowers are ☿ (rarely unisexual), and
-<i>4-merous</i> in the single, petaloid perianth and in
-the staminal whorl; 1 carpel; sometimes zygomorphic. The
-perianth-leaves are generally almost free, with <i>valvate</i>,
-æstivation, often leathery. Small scales alternating with the
-perianth are often found at the base of the ovary. The stamens
-generally have extremely short filaments, and are situated
-opposite, sometimes quite on the tip of the perianth-leaves, in
-a spoon-like groove. The gynœceum is 1-locular, has 1–several
-ovules, and is often raised on a stalk-like internode. The fruit
-is a follicle or nut. The seeds, most frequently winged, have
-no endosperm.&mdash;<i>Protea</i>, <i>Manglesia</i>, <i>Hakea</i>,
-<i>Banksia</i>, <i>Grevillea</i>, etc.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_451">[451]</span> 50 genera; about 1,000
-species. Several species are cultivated in our conservatories
-for the sake of the flowers, which are beautifully coloured and
-arranged in crowded inflorescences. Protandrous. It is doubtful
-whether they were existent in Europe in the Tertiary Period.
-The true systematic position of the order is doubtful. They are
-related to the Leguminosæ and Rosifloræ, but more closely no
-doubt to the two preceding orders.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 19. <b>Saxifraginæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flower is generally perfect, regular and polypetalous, usually
-<i>perigynous</i> or <i>epigynous</i>, <i>eucyclic</i> and 5-merous;
-most frequently S5, P5, A5 + 5 or 5 + 0 and G<b>2</b>-5, but other
-numbers are found, especially 4; the flowers are very frequently
-obdiplostemonous. The calyx is sometimes large and the corolla small;
-the carpels in some are entirely free, in others more or less united.
-Endosperm is found in the majority. <span class="smaller">The hypogynous forms approach
-the Cistifloræ, the others the following families, especially the
-Rosifloræ. This family is not, upon the whole, so well defined and
-natural as most of the others. The Saxifragaceæ proper, approach very
-near to the Rosaceæ, especially <i>Spiræa</i>, and form a transition
-to it. The forms with opposite leaves, as <i>Philadelphus</i>, etc.,
-approach the Myrtifloræ, just as the Escalloniæ appear to be closely
-allied to Bicornes, especially <i>Vacciniaceæ</i>. Finally through
-<i>Pittosporaceæ</i>, they pass over to the Frangulinæ. The family
-terminates in very reduced forms, on the one hand in the arborescent
-orders with crowded inflorescences, on the other perhaps in the very
-remarkable order <i>Podostemaceæ</i>.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig487" style="width: 327px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig487.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 487.</span>&mdash;Diagram of a 6-merous flower
-(<i>Sedum hispanicum</i>): <i>w</i> branch of scorpioid cyme in the
-axil of the bracteole β.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Crassulaceæ.</b> Nearly all are herbs or small shrubs with
-round, succulent branches and scattered, <i>fleshy</i>, often more
-or less round leaves, which are very rarely incised, and never have
-stipules. The flowers are generally borne in dichasia or unipared
-scorpioid cymes, which again may be arranged in racemes, umbels, etc.;
-they are regular, ☿, hypogynous or perigynous, and most frequently have
-free sepals and petals (gamopetalous corollas with sessile stamens are
-found in <i>Cotyledon</i>, <i>Bryophyllum</i>, <i>Echeveria</i>, and
-others); the floral formula is Sn, Pn, An + n, Gn, where n may have
-very different values, partly depending upon the size of the flower
-(<i>e.g.</i> 4–7 in <i>Sedum</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig487">487</a>; 6–30 in <i>Sempervivum</i>;
-4 in <i>Rhodiola</i>, <i>Bryophyllum</i>, and <i>Kalanchoë</i>; 5 in
-<i>Echeveria</i>, <i>Umbilicus</i>, <i>Cotyledon</i>). The carpels
-are <i>free</i> and are <i>placed opposite the petals</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig487">487</a>). Fruit a <i>syncarp composed of follicles</i> containing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_452">[452]</span> many,
-small seeds without endosperm. Outside each carpel is found a small,
-nectariferous scale (Fig. <a href="#fig487">487</a>). <span class="smaller">The northern genus, <i>Rhodiola</i>,
-is diœcious. The petal-stamens are wanting in some (<i>Crassula</i>,
-<i>Bulliarda</i>, and others). The floral-leaves are very often
-displaced upon their axillary branches. A multicarpellary gynœceum also
-occurs.</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Sedum</i> (Stonecrop) is generally 5-merous with 10 stamens;
-<i>Sempervivum tectorum</i> (House-leek), 12-merous, and with 24
-stamens. <span class="smaller">The leaves of <i>Bryophyllum calycinum</i> very readily
-form buds, and also frequently exude water from the edges.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>485 species; especially Temp. (Cape, Europe). Principally used
-as ornamental plants.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Saxifragaceæ.</b> The flowers are 4–5-merous with <b>2</b>
-(-3) carpels, most frequently: S5, P5, A5 + 5 (obdiplostemonous), G2.
-They are regular, ☿, polypetalous, hypogynous, perigynous or most
-frequently <i>more or less epigynous</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig488">488</a>). The carpels may
-be individually quite free, but are more frequently united at the
-base, or the entire portion enclosing the ovules is united into a
-1- or 2-locular ovary, the styles, however, are always free. <i>Fruit
-a capsule</i> with many seeds; endosperm present.&mdash;They are herbs,
-most frequently with <i>scattered</i> leaves without stipules; but the
-leaf-base is broad. The inflorescences are most frequently cymose,
-and a displacement of the floral-leaves is frequent (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Chrysosplenium</i>).&mdash;<span class="smaller">Some <i>Saxifraga</i>-species, <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>S. sarmentosa</i>, have irregular flower with an <i>oblique</i>
-plane of symmetry. The petal-stamens in some may be wanting:
-<i>Heuchera</i>, species of <i>Saxifraga</i> and <i>Mitella</i>. The
-corolla is wanting in others.</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Saxifraga</i> (Saxifrage): S5, P5, A5 + 5, G2 (Fig. <a href="#fig488">488</a>); capsule
-bilocular, opening along the ventral suture between the 2 persistent
-styles. <span class="smaller"><i>S. granulata</i> has small tubers at the base of the
-stem.</span>&mdash;<i>Chrysosplenium</i> (Golden Saxifrage): 4 sepals, <i>no
-corolla</i>, 4 + 4 stamens; 1-locular capsule.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Protandry is most frequently found in <i>Saxifraga</i>,
-with the stamens successively bending towards the gynœceum;
-protogyny is more rare. In other genera there is protogyny
-without any movement of the stamens; <i>Chrysosplenium</i> is
-homogamous.&mdash;About 300 species; mostly in temperate climates.
-<i>Saxifraga</i> is especially Alpine. <i>S. crassifolia</i> and
-other species, <i>Hoteia japonica</i>, <i>Tellima</i>, etc., are
-ornamental plants.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig488" style="width: 400px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig488.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 488.</span>&mdash;<i>Saxifraga granulata.</i>
-Longitudinal section of flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_453">[453]</span></p>
-
-<p>The following genera are allied to the Saxifragaceæ:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <i>Parnassia</i> (about 14 species; <i>P. palustris</i>,
-Grass of Parnassus). The flower is slightly perigynous, and has
-S5, P5, 5 fertile sepal-stamens, and 5 petal-stamens, which are
-developed as barren staminodes, palmately-lobed, and (3–) 4
-carpels united in a 1-locular ovary with (3–) 4 parietal placentæ.
-Capsule.&mdash;<span class="smaller">Protandrous. The flower has a slightly oblique plane of
-symmetry, which is especially shown during its development and in the
-order of sequence in which the anthers dehisce: originally they lie
-closely round the gynœceum; the anthers dehisce extrorsely, first
-the one which is placed opposite the most external sepal (the 2/5
-arrangement is very distinct in the calyx), the filament elongating so
-that the anther lies over the ovary, and this is followed successively
-by the 4 others in a zig-zag line; the filaments bend backwards after
-the pollen is shed and the anthers drop off, and the stigmas are not
-developed until this is completed. The barren stamens are palmately
-divided into an uneven number (7, 9, 11) of lobes, tapering from the
-centre towards the edge, and bearing apparently glandular tips; their
-gland-like appearance is supposed to allure flies to visit the flower,
-or they may act as a kind of fence which compels the insects to enter
-the flower in a certain way, and thus effect pollination; the honey is
-secreted on their inner side, and not by the gland-like tips.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig489" style="width: 405px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig489.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 489.</span>&mdash;Portion of <i>Cephalotus
-follicularis</i>: <i>k</i> pitcher-like leaf with thick corrugated edge
-(<i>m</i>) and lid (<i>l</i>); <i>b</i> foliage-leaf of the ordinary
-form.]</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <i>Adoxa moschatellina</i> (Moschatel). This is a perennial,
-creeping herb; the horizontal rhizome has an unlimited growth, and
-bears, in a <i>scattered</i> arrangement, both foliage-leaves,
-and white, fleshy scale-leaves. The aerial stem bears 2 opposite
-foliage-leaves and a capitate inflorescence of 5 flowers, 4 placed
-laterally (in opposite pairs) and 1 terminally. The flower is
-semi-epigynous, the calyx<span class="pagenum" id="Page_454">[454]</span> gamosepalous, corolla absent. The stamens
-are divided to the base, so that each filament bears a bilocular
-anther. The style is free, deeply cleft. The <i>terminal</i> flower has
-2 bracteoles, 4 sepals, 4 stamens, cleft to the base, and a 4-locular
-ovary. The bracts of the <i>lateral</i> flowers are displaced on
-the flower-stalk, as in <i>Chrysosplenium</i>, and united with the
-2 bracteoles into a kind of 3-leaved involucre; these flowers have
-5 sepals, 5 split stamens with 2-locular anthers, and a 5-locular
-ovary. 1 pendulous ovule in each loculus. Fruit a <i>drupe</i>,
-green-coloured, with 1–5 stones.&mdash;This plant, which would perhaps
-be best placed in a special order, has also been classed with the
-Araliaceæ and Caprifoliaceæ.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The following are also allied to this order:
-<i>Escalloniaceæ</i> (arborescent plants with simple, scattered,
-leathery leaves), <i>Cunoniaceæ</i> (arborescent with opposite
-leaves), <i>Cephalotaceæ</i> (with pitcher-like, insect-catching
-leaves; Australia; Fig. <a href="#fig489">489</a>) and <i>Francoaceæ</i>. These have
-respectively 85, 107, 1 and 3 species.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig490" style="width: 283px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 490–492.</span>&mdash;<i>Ribes rubrum.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig490.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 490.</span>&mdash;Floral diagram.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig491" style="width: 472px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig491.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 491.</span>&mdash;Flower in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig492" style="width: 180px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig492.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 492.</span>&mdash;Seeds in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Ribesiaceæ</b> (<b>Currants</b>). 5-stamened Saxifragaceæ
-with epigynous flowers.&mdash;Moderately sized shrubs with <i>scattered</i>,
-stalked and palminerved, and generally palmilobed leaves, with a large
-leaf-sheath. The flowers (Figs. <a href="#fig490">490</a>, <a href="#fig491">491</a>), most frequently borne in
-<i>racemes</i>, are regular, <i>epigynous</i>, and have often, <i>above
-the ovary</i>, a cup- or bell-shaped, or tubular prolongation of the
-receptacle, on which the sepals, petals and stamens are situated; they
-have 5 sepals (often large, coloured), 5 <i>small</i>, free petals,
-only <b>5</b> stamens (opposite the sepals) and a <b>2</b>-carpellate
-gynœceum with a <i>unilocular</i> ovary and 2 <i>parietal</i> placentæ
-bearing many ovules. The fruit is a <i>berry</i>, whose seeds have a
-fleshy and juicy outer covering (Fig. <a href="#fig492">492</a>). <span class="smaller">In some species, for
-example <i>Ribes grossularia</i>, there is found an unbranched, or a
-3–5-branched spine, very closely resembling the spiny leaves of the
-<i>Berberis</i>, but which, however, are emergences springing from
-the base of the petiole. <i>Ribes</i> has two kinds of branches:
-long-branches and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_455">[455]</span> dwarf-branches, the latter alone bearing the
-flowers.</span>&mdash;<i>Ribes</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig490">490–492</a>). The blades of the leaf are
-folded or rolled together in vernation. <i>R. alpinum</i> is diœcious.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>75 species; especially from the N. Temp. regions (especially
-N. Am.).&mdash;The receptacle secretes honey on its inner surface.
-The Gooseberry-flower is slightly protandrous, others are
-homogamous; insect-and self-pollination are found. The
-following are <span class="allsmcap">FRUIT BUSHES</span>: <i>R. nigrum</i> (Black
-Currant), <i>R. rubrum</i> (Red Currant), <i>R. grossularia</i>
-(Gooseberry), originating in Northern Europe and Asia.
-<span class="smcap">Ornamental bushes</span>: the North American <i>R. aureum</i>
-(Golden Currant) and <i>R. sanguineum</i> (Blood-red Currant),
-etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig493" style="width: 241px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig493.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 493.</span>&mdash;<i>Deutzia crenata.</i> Longitudinal
-section of flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Hydrangeaceæ.</b> Shrubs, with simple, opposite
-leaves, without stipules; flowers generally epigynous,
-4–5-merous (Fig. <a href="#fig493">493</a>).&mdash;<i>Hydrangea</i> (<i>H. hortensia</i>,
-etc.). Shrubs from N. Am. and E. Asia; corolla often valvate.
-The inflorescence, as in the case of the inflorescence of
-<i>Viburnum opulus</i> (Guelder Rose), has often irregular,
-large, but barren flowers at the circumference, whilst the
-others are much smaller, regular and ☿; the barren flowers are
-mostly 4-merous; in these cases it is the calyx which is large
-and petaloid, while the other parts of the flower are more or
-less suppressed. The branches of the inflorescence appear to
-be partially devoid of floral-leaves, since they are displaced
-upon the main axis.&mdash;<i>Philadelphus</i>; racemes (with terminal
-flower), sepals 4 (valvate), petals 4 (twisted), stamens many,
-and carpels 4 (opposite the petals), forming a 4-locular
-ovary. The numerous stamens (20–30) occur by the splitting of
-the sepal-stamens and are often therefore placed in distinct
-bundles. Fruit a capsule. <i>Ph. coronaria</i> (Syringa, Mock
-Orange-blossom), from S. Eur., is a common ornamental shrub, as
-also is <i>Deutzia</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig493">493</a>) from N. Am. and E. Asia. The
-latter has S5, P5, A5 + 5, G3.&mdash;About 70 species.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5 (?). <b>Pittosporaceæ.</b> This order has its home
-especially in Australia (90 species). The flower has S5, P5,
-A5 (episepalous), G2 (3–5), most frequently a unilocular ovary
-with many ovules in 2 rows, borne on 2 parietal placentæ,
-or a bilocular ovary. Some have berries, others capsules.
-<i>Pittosporum, Citriobatus, Sollya, Billardiera.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Hamamelidaceæ.</b> Flowers more or less epigynous,
-with S4, P0 or 4, 4 fertile sepal-stamens, and 4 barren
-petal-stamens, bilocular ovary with 1–2 ovules in each loculus.
-Fruit a capsule. <i>Hamamelis</i>: one species in Japan and one
-in N. Am. <i>Fothergilla. Liquidambar</i>: monœcious;
-flowers in capitula or spikes; ♂-flowers without perianth,
-stamens indefinite; ♀-flower: slight perianth, 2-locular ovary
-with many ovules. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: “Styrax-balsam,” which is
-obtained by boiling the bark of <i>Liq. orientalis</i>, from
-Asia Minor. <i>Liquidambar</i> and <i>Parrotia</i> are found as
-fossils in the Upper Oligocene; <i>Hamamelis</i> perhaps in the
-Chalk.</p>
-
-<p>Finally two orders with very reduced flowers are included in
-this family.</p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Platanaceæ.</b> Trees, with large, scattered,
-palminerved and lobed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_456">[456]</span> leaves, and ochreate stipules; the buds
-are concealed in a hollow at the base of the petiole. The
-bark falls off in large scales. ♂-and ♀-flowers (monœcious)
-in crowded, spherical inflorescences which are placed at
-wide intervals on a terminal, thin, and pendulous axis. The
-flowers have an insignificant calyx and corolla; the ♂-flower
-has few stamens; ♀-flower, perigynous, with 4 free carpels, 1
-<i>pendulous</i>, <i>orthotropous</i> ovule in each. Fruit a
-nut; endosperm absent. 5 species; frequently grown in avenues
-and parks. <i>P. occidentalis</i> (N. Am.); <i>P. orientalis</i>
-(W. Asia.).</p>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Podostemaceæ.</b> Aquatic plants, especially in
-swiftly running water, with somewhat of an Alga-like, Moss-like,
-or thalloid appearance; they show themselves in many ways to
-be adapted to their mode of life and situations (having a
-dorsiventral creeping stem, the flowers sunk in hollows, a
-formation of haptera upon the roots, and thalloid assimilating
-roots and thalloid stems, etc.). Tropical; 100 species.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 20. <b>Rosifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The leaves are scattered, stipulate, or have at least a well developed
-sheath, which is generally prolonged on each side into a free portion
-(“adnate stipules”). The flowers are regular, <i>perigynous</i> or
-<i>epigynous</i>. Calyx and corolla 5 (-4)-<i>merous</i> with the usual
-position. The corolla is always polypetalous. The stamens are present
-in very varying numbers (5–∞) and position, but <i>always</i> placed
-in 5-<i>or</i> 10-<i>merous whorls</i>; they <i>are frequently</i> 20
-in 3 whorls (10 + 5 + 5; see Figs. <a href="#fig494">494</a>, <a href="#fig502">502</a>, <a href="#fig505">505</a>); the nearer they are
-placed to the circumference, the longer they are; they are generally
-<i>incurved in the bud, or even rolled up</i>. The number of the
-carpels is from 1–∞; in most cases all are <i>individually free</i>
-(syncarp), and when they are united it is in every case with the
-ovaries only, whilst the <i>styles</i> remain more or less <i>free</i>
-(<i>Pomaceæ</i>, species of <i>Spiræa</i>). The <i>seeds</i> have a
-straight embryo, and usually no endosperm.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The perianth and stamens are most frequently <i>perigynous</i>
-on the edge of the widened receptacle; its form varies between
-a flat cupule and a long tube or a cup (Figs. <a href="#fig495">495</a>, <a href="#fig496">496</a>, <a href="#fig498">498</a>,
-<a href="#fig499">499</a>, <a href="#fig500">500</a>); the carpels are situated on its base or inner
-surface, in some instances on a central conical elongation of
-the floral axis (Fig. <a href="#fig496">496</a>). The carpels in <i>Pomaceæ</i> also
-unite more or less with the hollow receptacle, or this grows
-in and fills up the space between the carpels, so that a more
-or less epigynous flower is formed (Fig. <a href="#fig504">504</a>).&mdash;The following
-numbers of <i>stamens</i> occur: 5, 10 (in 1 whorl), 15 (10
-+ 5), 20 (10 + 5 + 5), 25 (10 + 10 + 5), 30-50 (in 10-merous
-whorls)&mdash;compare the diagrams. The theoretical explanation of
-this relation of the 10-merous whorls and their alternation with
-the 5-merous whorls is not definitely determined; a splitting
-of the members of the 5-merous whorls may be supposed, but the
-development shows no indication of this, and it is not supported
-in any other way. Several genera have “<i>gynobasic</i>” styles,
-that is, the style springs from the base of the ovary (Fig. <a href="#fig497">497</a>
-<i>A</i>, <i>B</i>).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_457">[457]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The Rosifloræ are on one side closely related to the
-Saxifragaceæ (especially through <i>Spiræa</i>) from which it
-is difficult to separate them, and to the Myrtifloræ; on the
-other side they are allied, through the Mimosaceæ with the large
-number of stamens, and through the Amygdalaceæ with its single
-carpel, to the Leguminosæ. The family begins with forms which
-have many-seeded follicles, and passes on the one side to forms
-with nuts and drupes in perigynous flowers, and on the other
-side to the Pomaceæ.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Rosaceæ.</b> Herbs or shrubs, generally with compound
-leaves and persistent (adnate) stipules, flower <i>perigynous</i>,
-<i>gynœceum formed of many free</i> (therefore oblique) <i>carpels,
-syncarps</i> with fruitlets of various kinds. The exceptions are noted
-under the genera.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig494" style="width: 267px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig494.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 494.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Comarum palustre</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig495" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig495.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 495.</span>&mdash;Flower of <i>Spiræa lanceolata</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Spiræeæ</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig495">495</a>) has 2–many ovules in each ovary,
-while in the other groups there is generally only 1, and never more
-than 2 ovules in each loculus. There are generally 5 <i>cyclic</i>
-carpels and the fruit is 5 <i>follicles</i>, which are not enclosed
-by the receptacle. The majority are shrubs. Stipules are often
-wanting.&mdash;<i>Spiræa</i> (Meadow-Sweet). The flowers are generally borne
-in richly flowered inflorescences of various forms. The carpels, in
-some species, unite together and form a <i>simple</i> gynœceum with
-free styles (an approach to the <i>Pomaceæ</i>).&mdash;<span class="smaller">Closely allied
-to <i>Spiræa</i> are the East Asiatic shrubs: <i>Kerria japonica</i>,
-which has solitary flowers, in this country nearly always double (the
-fruit a nut), and <i>Rhodotypos kerrioides</i> which has opposite
-leaves, a remarkable feature among the Rosifloræ; it has a 4-merous
-flower, a well developed disc inside the andrœcium, and a drupe.
-Closely allied also is <i>Gillenia</i> (N. Am.) differing chiefly in
-the ascending ovules, <i>Spiræa</i> having pendulous ovules, and a more
-tubular receptacle.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The groups <i>Quillajeæ</i> and <i>Neuradeæ</i> form a
-transition from <i>Spiræa</i> to <i>Pomaceæ</i>. In the first
-group, which contains only trees or shrubs with generally simple
-leaves, the carpels are either free or united (into a capsule);
-in the second the receptacle unites with the carpels, which are
-themselves often united together; in this case, too, the fruit
-is a capsule. <i>Quillaja</i> (S. Am.); <i>Exochorda</i> (China).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_458">[458]</span></p>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Potentilleæ</span> (Figs. <a href="#fig494">494</a>, <a href="#fig496">496</a>, <a href="#fig497">497</a>). The flower has
-an “<i>epicalyx</i>” (Fig. <a href="#fig494">494</a> <i>C</i>) alternating with the sepals
-and formed by their stipules which are united in pairs, and hence
-its leaves are often more or less deeply bifid. The receptacle is
-cupular and often quite insignificant. The sepals are valvate in the
-bud. The large number of fruitlets are <i>achenes</i>, borne on a
-well-developed convex portion of the receptacle (<span class="smaller">the Ranunculeæ
-resemble the Potentilleæ, but have no epicalyx, no enlarged receptacle,
-and spirally-placed stamens</span>). Most of the species are herbs with
-dichasial inflorescences, often arranged in racemes.&mdash;<i>Potentilla</i>
-(Cinquefoil). The achenes are borne on a <i>dry</i>, hairy receptacle;
-the style is situated towards the apex of the ovary, and is not
-prolonged after flowering. Herbs with digitate, in some, however,
-pinnate leaves, and generally yellow flowers.&mdash;<i>Comarum</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig494">494</a>) (Marsh Cinquefoil) forms, by its fleshy-spongy receptacle, a
-transition to the next genus.&mdash;<i>Fragaria</i> (Strawberry) (Fig.
-<a href="#fig496">496</a>). The receptacle becomes finally fleshy, coloured, and falls
-off (biologically it is a berry); the numerous fruitlets (drupes
-with thin pericarp) have basal styles (Fig. <a href="#fig497">497</a>); leaves trifoliate;
-long, creeping runners.&mdash;<i>Geum</i> (Avens) has a terminal style
-which after flowering elongates into a long beak, with the apex
-(after the uppermost part has been thrown off) bent back into a
-hook, thus furnishing a means of distribution for the fruits. Leaves
-pinnate.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Dryas</i> comprises 3 Arctic or Alpine species with
-simple leaves and solitary flowers, the calyx and corolla 8–9-merous,
-the fruit resembles that of <i>Geum</i>, but the styles become still
-longer and feather-like (a flying apparatus).</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig496" style="width: 550px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 496, 497.</span>&mdash;<i>Fragaria vesca.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig496.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 496.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal section of flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig497" style="width: 225px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig497.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 497.</span>&mdash;A carpel, entire, and in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Rubeæ.</span> <i>Rubus</i> (Bramble) has the same form of
-receptacle as the <i>Potentilleæ</i>, but <i>no epicalyx</i>; <i>the
-fruitlets are drupes</i>, not enclosed by the persistent calyx. Most
-frequently shrubs or undershrubs<span class="pagenum" id="Page_459">[459]</span> with prickles (emergences), glandular
-bristles and compound leaves. In the Raspberry (<i>R. idæus</i>) the
-fruitlets unite together and detach themselves from the receptacle.</p>
-
-<p><b>4.</b> <span class="smcap">Roseæ.</span> <i>Rosa</i>; the receptacle is hollow,
-ovoid and contracted beneath the insertion of the calyx (Fig. <a href="#fig498">498</a>),
-ultimately <i>fleshy</i> and <i>coloured</i>; it encloses a large
-number of fruitlets which are achenes as hard as stones (“hip,”
-biologically a berry).&mdash;Shrubs with imparipinnate leaves and adnate
-stipules. <span class="smaller">The sepals show clearly the order of their development (a
-divergence of 2/5), the two outer ones on both sides are lobed, the
-third one on one side only, and the two last, whose edges are covered
-by the others, are not lobed at all. <i>Prickles</i> (emergences) are
-generally present and in some species are placed in regular order,
-being found immediately below each leaf (usually two) although at
-somewhat varying heights.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig498" style="width: 416px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig498.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 498.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal section of flower of
-<i>Rosa</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig499" style="width: 546px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 499, 500.</span>&mdash;<i>Agrimonia eupatoria.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig499.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 499.</span>&mdash;Flower in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig500" style="width: 332px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig500.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 500.</span>&mdash;Fruit and receptacle in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>5.</b> <span class="smcap">Agrimonieæ.</span> The receptacle is more or less cup- or
-bell-shaped, and almost closed at the mouth; it is persistent and
-envelopes the <i>nut-like fruitlets</i>, but is <i>dry</i>, and
-in some species hard, the fruitlets being firmly attached to it.
-In biological connection with this the number of the carpels is
-generally only 1 or 2, and the whole becomes a <i>false nut</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig500">500</a>). Herbs.&mdash;<i>Agrimonia</i> (Agrimony; Figs. <a href="#fig499">499</a>, <a href="#fig500">500</a>);
-the perianth is 5-merous, stamens 5–20. The receptacle bears
-externally, on the upper surface, a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_460">[460]</span> number of hooked bristles
-which serve as a means of distribution for the 1–2 achenes which
-are enclosed in it, and hence the entire flower finally falls off.
-The inflorescence is a long upright raceme. <span class="smaller">These bristles are
-arranged in whorls of 5 and 10, of which the uppermost alternate
-with the sepals.</span>&mdash;<i>Alchemilla</i> (Ladies-mantle; Fig. <a href="#fig501">501</a>)
-has 8 green perianth-leaves in two whorls (some authorities consider
-the four outer as an epicalyx, and the flower therefore apetalous),
-and 4 stamens <i>alternating with the innermost whorl</i>. There is
-only one carpel with a <i>basal</i> style and capitate stigma. The
-flowers are small and greenish, the filaments jointed. The anthers
-open by one extrorse cleft. The leaf-sheath entirely envelops the
-stem; the leaves are palminerved. <i>A. aphanes</i> has often only
-1–2 stamens. <span class="smaller">The following genera, with 4-merous flowers borne in
-short spikes or capitula, are allied to this group. <i>Sanguisorba</i>
-has entomophilous, ☿-flowers with 4(-20) stamens, 1 carpel; stigma
-papillose.&mdash;<i>Poterium</i>; spike or capitulum, the uppermost flowers
-are ♀, the lowermost ♂, and some intermediate ones ☿ (the order of
-opening is not always centripetal); S4, P0, A20–30, G2, the long styles
-having brush-like stigmas (wind-pollination). Leaves imparipinnate.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig501" style="width: 480px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig501.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 501.</span>&mdash;Flower of <i>Alchemilla</i> in
-longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> A yellow ring on the inner side of the
-receptacle, inside the stamens, serves as a nectary when any
-honey is formed; this, for instance, is not the case in <i>Rosa,
-Agrimonia</i>, <i>Spiræa ulmaria</i>, <i>S. filipendula</i>,
-<i>S. aruncus</i>, etc., to which the insects (especially
-flies and bees) are allured by the quantity of pollen.
-Homogamy and slight protogyny are frequent, in many instances
-self-pollination also is finally possible. <i>Poterium</i>, with
-the long-haired stigma, is wind-pollinated.&mdash;About 550 (1100?)
-species, especially in northern temperate regions.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Uses.
-Officinal</span>: the petals of <i>Rosa centifolia</i> and
-<i>gallica</i>, the fruits of the Raspberry (<i>Rubus
-idæus</i>), the rhizome of <i>Geum urbanum</i>, the flowers
-of the Koso-tree (<i>Hagenia abyssinica</i> or <i>Brayera
-anthelmintica</i>).&mdash;The bark of <i>Quillaja saponaria</i>
-(Chili) is used as soap and contains <i>saponin</i>. “Attar of
-Roses” from <i>Rosa damascena</i>, <i>centifolia</i> and other
-species, especially from the southern slopes of the Balkans.
-Many species and varieties of Roses are <span class="allsmcap">ORNAMENTAL</span>
-plants: from S. Europe, <i>Rosa lutea</i> (the Yellow Rose),
-<i>R. gallica</i> (the French Rose) and <i>R. rubrifolia</i>;
-from W. Asia, <i>R. centifolia</i>, of which the Moss Roses
-(<i>R. muscosa</i> and <i>cristata</i>) are varieties, and <i>R.
-damascena</i>; from India and N. Africa, <i>R. moschata</i>
-(the Musk Rose); from China, <i>R. indica</i> (Tea Rose)
-etc., besides the native species and the varieties which have
-been derived from them. In addition, <i>Kerria japonica</i>,
-species of <i>Potentilla</i>, <i>Rubus odoratus</i> from N.
-Am., and many species of <i>Spiræa</i> from South-eastern
-Europe and N. Am. <span class="smcap">Esculent</span>: the “hips” of <i>R.
-mollissima</i>, <i>R. pomifera</i>, etc.; the fruits of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_461">[461]</span>
-<i>Rubus</i>-species: Raspberry (<i>R. idæus</i>), Cloudberry
-(<i>R. chamæmorus</i>), Blackberry (<i>R. fruticosus</i>), etc.;
-of <i>Fragaria</i>-species (<i>F. vesca</i>, <i>collina</i>,
-<i>grandiflora</i>, etc).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Amygdalaceæ.</b> Trees or shrubs with rosaceous flowers;
-leaves simple with caducous stipules; a regular, <i>perigynous</i>
-flower, the receptacle being partly thrown off by a circular slit;
-sepals 5, petals 5, stamens 20–30; <i>gynœceum simple, formed of
-1 carpel</i> (hence oblique, Fig. <a href="#fig502">502</a>), with terminal style and 2
-pendulous ovules, ripening into a <i>drupe</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig503">503</a>).&mdash;The leaves
-are penninerved and frequently have <i>glands</i> on the stalks and
-edges; <i>thorns</i> (modified branches) often occur, <i>i.e.</i>
-dwarf-branches, which, after producing a few leaves, terminate their
-growth in a thorn (<i>e.g. Prunus spinosa</i>). <span class="smaller">The vernation
-of the <i>foliage-leaves</i> varies in the different genera; in the
-Almond, Peach, Cherry, and Bird-Cherry they are folded; in the Apricot,
-Plum, Sloe and Bullace, rolled together. In some the flowers unfold
-before the leaves (<i>Amygdalus</i>, <i>Armeniaca</i>). That the
-gynœceum is formed of 1 carpel is evident in this as in other instances
-(<i>e.g.</i> in the Leguminosæ, which are closely related to this
-order), from the fact that the carpel is oblique, and has only one
-plane of symmetry, and similarly in the fruit there is a longitudinal
-groove on one side which indicates the ventral suture. It is only
-exceptionally that both ovules are developed. In abnormal instances
-more than 1 carpel is developed.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig502" style="width: 274px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig502.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 502.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Prunus virginiana</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Fruit hairy</span>: <i>Amygdalus</i> (<i>A. communis</i>,
-Almond-tree) has a dry pulp which is detached irregularly, when
-ripe, from the wrinkled, grooved, ovoid and somewhat compressed
-stone.&mdash;<i>Persica</i> (<i>P. vulgaris</i>, Peach-tree) differs from
-the Almond in having a juicy pulp, not detachable from the stone, which
-is deeply grooved and has pits in the grooves (Fig. <a href="#fig503">503</a>). (<span class="smaller">The
-name of the genus is derived from Persia, though it is a native of
-China.</span>).&mdash;<i>Armeniaca</i> (<i>A. vulgaris</i>, Apricot) has a
-hairy, velvety fruit, but the stone is smooth and has two ribs along
-one of the edges; the pulp is juicy. (<span class="smaller">The generic name has been
-given on the incorrect assumption that it was a native of Armenia; its
-home is China.</span>)</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig503" style="width: 344px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig503.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 503.</span>&mdash;Fruit of the Peach. The pulp is cut
-through so that the stone is visible.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_462">[462]</span></p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Fruit glabrous</span> (<i>i.e.</i> without hairs):
-<i>Prunus</i> (Plum) has a glabrous fruit with bluish bloom; the stone
-is compressed, smooth or wrinkled. The flowers are borne solitarily or
-in couples, and open before or at the same time as the leaves; they
-are borne on shoots without foliage-leaves.&mdash;<i>Cerasus</i> (Cherry)
-has a glabrous, spherical fruit, without bloom, and a spherical
-stone. The flowers are situated in 2–many-flowered umbels or racemes,
-and open at the same time as the leaves or a little before them.
-<span class="smaller"><i>Long-stalked</i> flowers in <i>umbels</i> are found in <i>C.
-avium</i> (Wild Cherry), <i>C. vulgaris</i> (the cultivated Cherry,
-from Western Asia); <i>racemes</i> at the apex of leaf-bearing branches
-and small spherical fruits are found in <i>C. padus</i> (Bird Cherry),
-<i>C. virginiana</i>, <i>C. laurocerasus</i> (Cherry-laurel), <i>C.
-mahaleb</i>.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> <i>Prunus spinosa</i> (Sloe, Blackthorn)
-is protogynous, but the stamens are developed before the stigma
-withers. Honey is secreted by the receptacle. <i>Cerasus
-padus</i> (Bird-Cherry) agrees in some measure with <i>P.
-spinosa</i>. In the flowers of the Plum and Cherry the stamens
-and stigma are developed simultaneously and self pollination
-seems general; the stigma, however, overtops the inner stamens
-and thus promotes cross-pollination.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Distribution.</span>
-114 species in the N. Temp, zone; few in the warmer regions;
-the majority from W. Asia. <i>C. vulgaris</i>, from the regions
-of the Caspian; <i>Prunus spinosa</i>, <i>insititia</i>
-(Bullace), <i>domestica</i> (Plum, from the Caucasus,
-Persia).&mdash;<span class="smcap">Uses</span>, principally as fruit-trees: Cherry,
-Plum, Apricot, etc.; “Almonds” are the seeds of <i>Amygdalus
-communis</i> (W. Mediterranean), “bitter,” “sweet,” and
-“shell” almonds are from different varieties, the latter being
-remarkable for the thin, brittle stone. In the majority of
-species and in almost all parts of the plant (especially the
-bark, seed and leaves) is found the glycoside, <i>amygdalin</i>,
-which forms prussic acid. Many form <i>gum</i>, and the seeds
-have <i>fatty oils</i> (“Almond oil”). <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>:
-the seeds and oil of <i>Amygdalus communis</i>, and the fruit
-of the Cherry; in other countries also the leaves of <i>C.
-laurocerasus</i>.&mdash;The stems of <i>Cerasus mahaleb</i> are used
-for pipes. Ornamental Shrubs: <i>Amygdalus nana</i>, <i>Cerasus
-laurocerasus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <i>Chrysobalanaceæ.</i> Tropical Amygdalaceæ with
-zygomorphic flower and gynobasic style. 200 species; especially
-Am. and Asia. <i>Chrysobalanus icaco</i> (Cocoa-plum) is
-cultivated on account of its fruit (Am.)</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Pomaceæ.</b> Trees and shrubs, most frequently with simple
-leaves and caducous stipules. The flowers (Fig. <a href="#fig505">505</a>) have 5 sepals, 5
-petals and generally 20 stamens (10 + 5 + 5, or 10 + 10 + 5). There are
-from 1–5 <i>carpels</i>, which unite entirely or to some extent with
-each other, and with the hollow, fleshy receptacle (the <i>flower</i>
-becoming <i>epigynous</i>), (Figs. <a href="#fig505">505</a>, <a href="#fig506">506</a>, <a href="#fig507">507</a>). The carpels are
-nearly always free on the ventral sutures, rarely free at the sides
-also. The whole outer portion of the fruit becomes fleshy, but the
-portions of the pericarp surrounding the loculi (endocarp) are most
-frequently formed of sclerenchymatous cells, and are more or less<span class="pagenum" id="Page_463">[463]</span>
-firm (the “core”). The nature of the fruit varies, according to the
-thickness and hardness of the endocarp, being either a “berry” or a
-“drupe” (see <i>A</i> and <i>B</i>). When the endocarp is thin and
-parchment-like, the fruit has the characteristics of a berry, each
-of the 5 loculi generally present containing several seeds; but when
-this is hard the fruit resembles a drupe, only one seed is developed
-in each loculus, and the number of the loculi is reduced to one or
-two. There are nearly always 2 ovules in the loculi of the ovary, but
-in <i>Cydonia</i> there are a large number in 2 rows. In the genera
-which have stones, only one seed is developed in each stone. The genera
-are distinguished mainly in accordance with the kind of fruit and the
-number of ovules and seeds.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig504" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig504.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 504.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal and transverse
-section through the flowers of <i>A</i>, <i>B Cotoneaster</i>;
-<i>C Cydonia</i>; <i>D Malus communis</i>; <i>E</i>
-<i>Raphiolepis</i>; <i>F Cydonia</i>; <i>G Mespilus</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig505" style="width: 325px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig505.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 505.</span>&mdash;Floral diagram of <i>Mespilus
-germanica</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Sorbeæ.</span> <span class="smcap">The endocarp is parchment-like or
-papery</span> (drupe, with thin stone or berry).</p>
-
-<p>1. <i>Pyrus</i> and <i>Cydonia</i>; carpels completely embedded in the
-cup-like receptacle, styles always free.&mdash;<i>Pyrus</i>: the fruit is
-glabrous, and has only a small calyx, withering or deciduous, and a
-5-locular ovary with at most 2 ascending ovules in each<span class="pagenum" id="Page_464">[464]</span> loculus (Fig.
-<a href="#fig504">504</a> <i>D</i>). The large flowers are situated in few-flowered umbels
-or corymbs. <span class="smaller"><i>P. communis</i> (Pear; free styles, Fig. <a href="#fig507">507</a>; it has
-the well-known pear-shaped fruit; the core is reduced to several groups
-of sclerenchymatous cells embedded in the pulp, the leaf-stalk is as
-long as the blade).</span>&mdash;<i>Cydonia</i> (Quince) has a hairy fruit with
-<i>many seeds in 2 rows</i> in each loculus of the endocarp (Figs. <a href="#fig504">504</a>
-<i>C</i>, <i>F</i>; <a href="#fig506">506</a>); the testa of these seeds is mucilaginous.
-<i>C. vulgaris</i>, large, terminal flowers on lateral branches, and
-large leaf-like, persistent sepals.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig506" style="width: 277px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig506.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 506.</span>&mdash;<i>Cydonia vulgaris.</i>
-Longitudinal section of fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig507" style="width: 535px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig507.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 507.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal section of Pear flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>2. <i>Malus</i> and <i>Amelanchier</i> (<i>Aronia</i>); carpels free
-on the ventral edge; styles united. <i>Malus communis</i> (Apple)
-the fruit is “umbilicate” at the base; no sclerenchymatous cells in
-the pulp; styles united at<span class="pagenum" id="Page_465">[465]</span> the base (Fig. <a href="#fig504">504</a> <i>D</i>); leaf-stalk
-shorter than the blade. <i>Sorbus</i> (Mountain-ash) differs only
-in having a 2–3-locular fruit with extremely thin endocarp. Cymose
-inflorescences in umbellate cymes. <span class="smaller"><i>S. aucuparia</i> has pinnate
-leaves, <i>S. aria</i> (White-beam) and other species have simple
-leaves.&mdash;<i>Amelanchier</i> (the Service-tree) has a false divisional
-wall springing from the dorsal suture, and more or less projecting into
-each of the loculi of the ovary; <i>Raphiolepis</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig504">504</a> <i>E</i>)
-has racemes and a juicy berry; <i>Eriobotrya japonica</i> (Loquat).</span></p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Cratægeæ.</span> <span class="smcap">The endocarp is hard and bony</span>
-(“drupes,” generally with several, sometimes, however, with only
-1–2 stones, rarely one multilocular stone; only 1 seed in each of
-the loculi).&mdash;<i>Cratægus</i> (Hawthorn, May). There are 1–5 stones
-in the spherical or ovoid fruit. The disc, found on the apex of the
-fruit, inside the small, withered calyx, is small (much less than the
-transverse section of the fruit). Shrubs with thorns (branches) and
-moderately large flowers borne in corymbs.&mdash;<i>Mespilus</i> (Medlar)
-differs from the last-named only in having a <i>large disc</i> at
-the apex of the fruit, inside the large, <i>leaf-like sepals</i>,
-<i>i.e.</i> almost equal to the greatest diameter of the fruit. The
-flowers are solitary and terminal.&mdash;<i>Cotoneaster</i> is chiefly
-distinguished from the others by its syncarps, the 2–5 carpels (and
-stones) being free from one another, and only united to the receptacle
-by a larger or smaller portion of their dorsal surface (Figs. <a href="#fig504">504</a>
-<i>A</i>, <i>B</i>). Small shrubs with leathery leaves, generally
-covered with white, felted hairs on the lower surface, and with small
-flowers; the fruit is red or black.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Pear, Apple, Mountain Ash and Hawthorn have protogynous
-flowers which secrete honey, and are conspicuous to ensure
-insect pollination.&mdash;180 species; in the northern temperate
-regions.&mdash;Pear and Apple are especially cultivated as fruit
-trees in a number of varieties; the Paradise Apple (<i>Pyrus
-baccata</i>); especially in southern countries also the Quince
-(from N. Persia and the Caucasian districts), Medlar and
-<i>Amelanchier vulgaris</i>. <i>Malus pumila</i> (Caucasus,
-Altai) and <i>M. dasyphylla</i> (Orient, S. Eur.) are regarded
-as primitive forms of the Apple-tree; <i>M. sylvestris</i>,
-which grows wild in European forests, appears to have been less
-used. The early Lake-dwellers in Switzerland had the apple-tree
-both wild and cultivated.&mdash;The original form of the Pear is
-supposed to be <i>Pyrus achras</i> (Central Asia).&mdash;Many of
-the species of <i>Cratægus</i>, some with double flowers, and
-<i>Pyrus (Chænomeles) japonica</i>, with brilliant red flowers,
-are cultivated as ornamental shrubs. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: Quince
-pips, on account of the mucilaginous testa.&mdash;The fruits contain
-free organic acids and sugar; prussic acid may be obtained from
-the seeds. The wood of the Pear-tree is used in manufactures.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_466">[466]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 21. <b>Leguminosæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The most characteristic feature is, that the <i>gynœceum is
-1-locular</i> and formed of <i>1 carpel, the ventral suture of which is
-turned posteriorly</i>. The fruit, in most instances, is a <i>pod</i>
-(legume), which opens generally along both sutures, the two valves
-twisting more or less in opposite directions. <span class="smaller">In other instances it
-opens along one suture only, or as a pyxidium (Red Clover), or it is
-indehiscent, in which case it is more or less berry-like (<i>e.g.</i>
-the Tamarind, Carob-bean), or it is a drupe (<i>e.g.</i> the
-Tonquin-bean), or a 1–few-seeded nut (<i>e.g. Melilotus</i>), or
-a lomentum, which divides transversely into as many joints as there are
-seeds (<i>Ornithopus</i>, see Fig. <a href="#fig513">513</a>).</span></p>
-
-<p>The inflorescences belong to the <i>centripetal</i> type (<i>i.e.</i>
-indefinite); cymes do not occur. The flowers are <i>zygomorphic</i>,
-with vertical plane of symmetry, seldom regular; <i>5-merous</i>
-with but a few exceptions, ☿, and slightly <i>perigynous</i>. The
-following diagram is the most general (Fig. <a href="#fig511">511</a>): 5 sepals, with the
-<i>unpaired sepal median and anterior</i>, 5 petals, 5 + 5 stamens,
-all in alternating whorls, 1 carpel. The calyx is most frequently
-gamosepalous, the gynœceum is narrowed down at the base to a short
-stalk and, in the majority, is more or less bent. The seed is most
-frequently kidney-shaped, with a smooth, hard and shining testa,
-the hilum being very distinct. <i>Endosperm is wanting</i>, or is
-reduced to a thin layer, which is of service when the seed swells
-during germination. The vegetative parts have these features in
-common, namely, the <i>leaves are scattered, stipulate</i>, and
-almost always <i>compound</i>. Peculiar <i>sleep-movements</i> and
-<i>sensitiveness</i> are found in some, chiefly in the Mimosas.
-Many, probably all, Leguminosæ have <i>small tubercles on their
-roots</i> which are produced by a kind of bacterium, and assist in the
-assimilation of free nitrogen. Spontaneous movements are exhibited by
-<i>Desmodium gyrans</i> (Telegraph-plant).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>This family is closely allied to the Rosifloræ, with which
-it agrees in the scattered leaves, the presence of stipules,
-the generally 5-merous and most frequently perigynous
-flowers with eucyclic stamens, and the absence of endosperm.
-<i>Amygdalaceæ</i> and <i>Chrysobalanaceæ</i>, with solitary
-carpels, approach on one side to the Leguminosæ, among which
-genera with drupes are also found; <i>Mimosaceæ</i>, with their
-many stamens, form a connecting link on the other side. In this
-respect the Mimosa-genus <i>Affonsea</i>, and certain Cæsalpineæ
-and Swartzieæ, are of special interest in having more than
-one carpel (syncarp), a condition which is sometimes met with
-abnormally in other Leguminosæ, as well as in Amygdalaceæ. About
-7,000 species of the Leguminosæ are known.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Cæsalpiniaceæ.</b> These are <i>leguminous plants with
-straight embryo and a flower which is not papilionaceous and has not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_467">[467]</span>
-the same æstivation</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig508">508–510</a>); but in reality there is not
-a single characteristic which absolutely distinguishes them from the
-Papilionaceæ.&mdash;The majority are arborescent; the leaves as a rule
-are pinnate or bipinnate. The flower is 5-merous, most frequently
-perigynous and slightly zygomorphic; the calyx is free or gamosepalous,
-the corolla polypetalous with <i>ascending imbricate æstivation</i>
-(<i>i.e.</i> the two lowest petals envelop the lateral ones, and these
-again the posterior; Fig. <a href="#fig508">508</a>); 10 <i>free stamens</i>; fruit various.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig508" style="width: 271px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 508–510.</span>&mdash;<i>Cassia floribunda.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig508.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 508.</span>&mdash;Floral diagram.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig509" style="width: 309px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig509.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 509.</span>&mdash;Flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig510" style="width: 408px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig510.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 510.</span>&mdash;The same in long. sect.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Cassia</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig508">508–510</a>) is the largest genus (about 200
-species); it has an almost hypogynous, zygomorphic flower with 5 free
-sepals and petals; of the 10 stamens the 3 posterior are generally
-barren, the others are of very unequal length and open at the apex by
-<i>pores</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig509">509</a>). In some (the <i>Senna</i> group) the fruit is
-a flat, short, thin, dehiscing pod; in others (<i>Cathartocarpus</i>)
-it is round, long, woody or fleshy, indehiscent, and divided
-internally by more or less fleshy transverse walls into as many
-cells as there are seeds.&mdash;The following also have <span class="allsmcap">DEHISCENT
-FRUITS</span>: <i>Bauhinia</i> (often lianes, tropical climbers with
-tendrils [stem-structures] and anomalous stems), <i>Copaifera</i>,
-<i>Hæmatoxylon</i> (whose pod does not dehisce along the suture,
-but laterally), <i>Cercis</i> (simple leaves; the corolla resembles
-that of the Papilionaceæ, but the posterior petal is the smallest,
-and is enveloped by the 2 lateral ones, which are enveloped in their
-turn by the 2 anterior).&mdash;<span class="smcap">Fruit Indehiscent</span>: <i>Tamarindus
-indica</i>; the pod is almost round, often a little abstricted between
-the seeds; the wall is formed by a thin, brittle external layer,
-enclosing an acid pulp; well-developed<span class="pagenum" id="Page_468">[468]</span> septa are present, between
-the seeds; the most internal layer is parchment-like. Calyx 4-merous
-by the coalescence of 2 sepals. Only 3 fertile stamens.&mdash;<i>Ceratonia
-siliqua</i> (Carob-bean, Locusts); the pod is long, compressed, with
-thick sutures, and has a wall, the central part of which is more or
-less leathery, fleshy and sweet; there are transverse septa between the
-seeds, as in the Tamarind. Embryo greenish in endosperm. The flower
-is without a corolla, 5 stamens.&mdash;<i>Pterogyne</i> (winged fruit),
-etc.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Kramerieæ</span> with <i>Krameria</i> is an anomalous group.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Distribution.</span> 80 genera, with 740 species; almost
-exclusively in the Tropics. The Carob-tree and <i>Cercis</i>
-grow in the Mediterranean basin. The largest and most widely
-distributed genus is <i>Cassia</i>, which is found as trees,
-shrubs, and weeds in all tropical countries. The order has
-many important uses to mankind. <span class="smcap">Medicinal</span>: the leaves
-and pods of <i>Cassia acutifolia</i> and <i>angustifolia</i>
-(officinal, Senna-leaves), the fruit-pulp of the
-<i>Cassia</i>-sub-genus, <i>Cathartocarpus</i>. Rhatany root
-from <i>Krameria triandra</i> (Peru, officinal). <i>Balsam</i>
-is extracted from a number of <i>Copaifera</i>-species (Balsam
-of Copaiba) from S. Am. (officinal), and from <i>Hymenæa</i>
-(Copal balsam), <i>Trachylobium</i> and others. <i>Edible
-fruits</i> are obtained especially from the Carob-tree (from the
-East) and the Tamarind (officinal). The heart-wood of several
-species of <i>Cæsalpinia</i>, such as <i>C. brasiliensis</i>
-(the Pernambuco-tree), <i>echinata</i> (Red-tree), and
-<i>sappan</i>, yield <i>dyes</i>; <i>Hæmatoxylon</i> (<i>H.
-campechianum</i>, Logwood), <i>Copaifera bracteata</i>
-(Amarant-tree).&mdash;<i>Timber</i> is obtained from many
-(<i>Melanoxylon</i> and others). In Europe they are of
-little importance as ornamental plants, these being confined
-principally to the species of <i>Gleditschia</i> (<i>G.
-triacantha</i>, from N. Am.) and <i>Cercis</i> (the Judas-tree,
-<i>C. siliquastrum</i>, S. Eur.), which are cultivated in
-gardens; but in tropical gardens beautiful flowering species,
-<i>e.g.</i> of <i>Cassia</i>, <i>Poinciana</i>, <i>Brownea</i>,
-are found, and the most beautiful of all ornamental plants, the
-Indian <i>Amherstia nobilis</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig511" style="width: 271px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig511.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 511.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Faba vulgaris</i>:
-<i>f</i> the standard; <i>v</i> the wings; <i>k</i> the keel.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Papilionaceæ.</b> The flower (Figs. <a href="#fig511">511</a>, <a href="#fig512">512</a>) is
-<i>strongly zygomorphic</i> and somewhat perigynous (Fig. <a href="#fig512">512</a>
-<i>B</i>; most frequently more on one side than the other). The calyx
-is <i>gamosepalous</i> and persistent. The polypetalous corolla has
-<i>descending</i> imbricate æstivation, the posterior, large leaf,
-the <i>standard</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig511">511</a> <i>f</i>; <a href="#fig512">512</a> <i>B’</i>, <i>e</i>),
-<i>covering in the bud</i> the two lateral ones, the <i>wings</i>
-(Figs. <a href="#fig511">511</a> <i>v</i>; <a href="#fig512">512</a> <i>B’</i>, <i>a</i>), which again cover the
-two anterior; these are united in the form of a boat, the <i>keel</i>
-(<i>k</i> and <i>c</i>); the wings and the two petals of the keel are
-very unsymmetrical. That the keel is formed of two petals is seen by
-its position (in front of one sepal)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_469">[469]</span> and by the two often more or less
-free claws. The 10 (5 + 5) <i>stamens</i> (monadelphous) <i>are either
-all united into one bundle, or into two bundles</i> (diadelphous),
-the posterior one being free (Fig. <a href="#fig512">512</a> <i>C</i>). The ovules are
-<i>curved</i> and <i>also the embryo</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig512">512</a> <i>G</i>),
-especially the hypocotyl, so that the radicle assumes a position close
-to the edge of the thick, fleshy cotyledons. Endosperm wanting; the
-cotyledons are very rich in proteid reserve material. The forms of the
-fruit and exceptions are described under the genera.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig512" style="width: 700px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig512.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 512.</span>&mdash;<i>Pisum sativum</i>: <i>A</i>
-entire flower; <i>B</i> in longitudinal section; <i>C</i> gynœceum
-and stamens; <i>D</i> gynœceum; <i>B’</i> corolla dissected, <i>e</i>
-standard, <i>a</i>, <i>a</i> wings, <i>c</i> keel; <i>D</i> seed opened
-to show the cotyledons (<i>c</i>), the radicle (<i>r</i>), the plumule
-(<i>g</i>); <i>E</i> fruit (legume); <i>F</i> seed.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Geocarpic</i> fruits, <i>i.e.</i> those which penetrate
-the soil during their development and ripen underground, are
-found in <i>e.g. Arachis hypogæa</i> (see page <a href="#Page_472">472</a>),
-<i>Trifolium subterraneum</i>, <i>Vicia amphicarpæa</i>.
-<i>Germination</i> takes place in various ways. In the
-majority the cotyledons are raised above the ground as green,
-leaf-like bodies; in the Vicieæ they remain thick and white,
-and are always enclosed in the testa, and are therefore never
-able to take part in the work of assimilation; in species of
-<i>Phaseolus</i>, on the other hand, they are raised well above
-the ground and become green, but remain however thick and fleshy.</p>
-
-<p><b>1, 2.</b> The two groups <span class="smcap">Podalyrieæ</span> (the
-majority of the genera are Australian) and <span class="smcap">Sophoreæ</span>
-(<i>Sophora</i>, <i>Edwardsia</i>, etc.), represent the oldest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_470">[470]</span>
-type, as they have 10 <i>free stamens</i> and so form the
-transition to the Cæsalpiniaceæ. Nearly all are trees and shrubs.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Astragaleæ.</span> Herbs or shrubs, less frequently
-trees, with <i>imparipinnate</i> leaves (without tendrils). The
-flowers are generally borne in racemes or spikes. Stamens monadelphous
-or diadelphous.&mdash;<i>Astragalus</i> (Milk-Vetch) has the legume
-incompletely divided longitudinally into 2 loculi by a septum formed
-by the incurved dorsal suture. Diadelphous.&mdash;<i>Glycyrrhiza</i>
-(Liquorice); <i>Colutea</i> (Bladder-Senna) from S. Europe;
-<i>Robinia</i> (the false Acacia) with thorny stipules;
-<i>Indigofera</i> (the Indigo plant); <i>Amorpha</i> (which has only
-one petal, namely the standard, and the fruit a nut), <i>Caragana</i>,
-<i>Wistaria</i> (a climbing shrub), <i>Galega</i>. <i>Carmichælia
-australis</i>, when old, produces flat branches with scale-like leaves.</p>
-
-<p><b>4.</b> <span class="smcap">Vicieæ.</span> <i>Climbing herbs</i> with
-<i>paripinnate</i> leaves, the midrib ending in a point or frequently
-in a <i>tendril</i>, which generally is branched, representing lateral
-veins without mesophyll; stamens diadelphous; the cotyledons remain
-underground on germination.&mdash;<i>Vicia</i> (Vetch) has a filamentous
-style, hairy towards the tip, and a pod with many seeds; climbing
-by means of tendrils; the leaves have many leaflets.&mdash;<i>Faba</i>
-(<i>F. vulgaris</i>, Horse-bean) is erect, without tendrils; its pod
-is thick with spongy septa between the seeds.&mdash;<i>Ervum</i> (Lentil)
-has a pod with only 1–2 seeds, and sweeping hairs (stylar-brush) on
-the inner side of the style.&mdash;<i>Pisum</i> (Pea; Fig. <a href="#fig512">512</a>) has very
-large stipules, the bent style has a hollow groove on the anterior
-side. <i>P. sativum</i> (Common Pea), <i>P. arvense</i> (Grey
-Pea).&mdash;<i>Lathyrus</i> (Sweet Pea) generally has an angular, winged
-stem and most frequently only a few pairs of leaflets. The style is
-flattened, with sweeping hairs on the back. <span class="smaller">In <i>L. aphaca</i>
-the stipules alone are developed into foliage-leaves, while the
-remainder of the leaf is modified into a tendril.</span>&mdash;<i>Cicer</i>
-has a nearly straight embryo and imparipinnate leaves with dentate or
-incised leaflets. <i>C. arietinus</i> (Chick-pea).&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Abrus</i>
-(<i>precatorius</i>, etc.); the seeds (“Crab’s eyes,” “Paternoster
-peas,” “Jequirity”) are scarlet with a black spot round the hilum.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>5.</b> <span class="smcap">Phaseoleæ.</span> Herbs, twining or erect, but not climbing
-by tendrils; the leaves are imparipinnate, generally <i>ternate</i>,
-and bear small, linear bodies resembling stipules at the base of
-the stalks of the leaflets. The inflorescences are most frequently
-compound, groups of few flowers being situated on short, nodose,
-lateral axes borne on a longer stem. On germination the cotyledons
-are raised a considerable distance above the ground, and become<span class="pagenum" id="Page_471">[471]</span>
-greenish, but do not become leaf-like; in <i>P. multiflorus</i> they
-remain underground. Stamens as in the Vetches.&mdash;<i>Phaseolus</i>
-(Kidney-bean): the keel with the stamen and style is spirally
-<i>twisted</i> (to the right). Herbs, twining to the left.&mdash;<span class="smaller">The
-“Calabar-bean” (<i>Physostigma venenosum</i>), <i>Erythrina</i>,
-<i>Clitoria</i>, <i>Glycine</i>, <i>Soja</i>, <i>Mucuna</i>,
-<i>Apios</i>, <i>Canavalia</i>, <i>Vigna</i>, <i>Dolichos</i>,
-<i>Cajanus</i>, <i>Rhynchosia</i>, etc.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>6.</b> <span class="smcap">Trifolieæ</span> (<span class="smcap">Clovers</span>). Herbs with
-<i>ternate</i> leaves, the leaflets are often dentate with the veins
-prolonged into the teeth; stamens diadelphous; fruit 1-locular,
-1–few-seeded, pyxidium-like, irregularly dehiscent, or more frequently
-a <i>nut</i>. The flowers are generally borne in capitula, racemes,
-or spikes.&mdash;<i>Trifolium</i> (Clover). The corolla is gamopetalous.
-The calyx persists, together with the corolla, round the ripe fruit.
-The inflorescence is a spike, capitulum or capitate umbel; the leaves
-are ternate, and have adnate stipules.&mdash;<i>Medicago</i> (Medick).
-The corolla falls off after flowering; fruit curved like a sickle
-or spirally twisted; it is a nut, and opens with difficulty. Leaves
-ternate.&mdash;<i>Melilotus</i> (Melilot) has a small, spherical or
-lanceolate, thick and wrinkled fruit, which as a rule is indehiscent.
-The inflorescence is a raceme, often long, or a spike, sometimes a
-capitulum. Leaves ternate.&mdash;<i>Ononis</i> (Rest-harrow) differs in
-having monadelphous stamens and in being more shrub-like and bushy, and
-in having a normal, 2-valved pod, by which characteristic it approaches
-the Genisteæ. The flowers are generally rose-coloured, solitary, or in
-few-flowered racemes in the leaf-axils. Thorns (branches) are often
-present; the leaves are compound with only one small leaflet (the
-terminal one), or ternate with adnate stipules.</p>
-
-<p><b>7.</b> <span class="smcap">Loteæ.</span> Herbs with ternate or imparipinnate leaves,
-with entire leaflets. In the latter case, when the lowest pair of
-leaflets is placed quite close to the sheath, the stalk is wanting,
-and apparently a trifoliate leaf with large stipules is developed.
-Flowers in an umbel or capitulum. Stamens monadelphous or diadelphous,
-the filaments (either all of them, or only the 5 sepal-stamens) are
-widened at the top.&mdash;<i>Lotus</i> (Bird’s-foot-trefoil) has a long,
-round pod.&mdash;<i>Tetragonolobus.</i>&mdash;<i>Anthyllis</i> (Lady’s-finger);
-the fruit is a nut, which is distributed by the wind by means of the
-membranous, bladder-like calyx, which completely encloses and falls off
-with it.</p>
-
-<p><b>8.</b> <span class="smcap">Genisteæ.</span> The majority are shrubs or trees with
-apparently simple leaves, <i>i.e.</i> compound leaves with only one
-leaflet (the terminal leaflet), or ternate leaves; the stipules in
-most instances<span class="pagenum" id="Page_472">[472]</span> are very small or are entirely wanting; stamens
-monadelphous.&mdash;<i>Genista</i> (Dyer’s-weed) has apparently simple
-leaves; the branches often terminate in a thorn. <span class="smaller">The strongly-winged
-stems in <i>G. sagittalis</i> are its most important organs of
-assimilation. <i>Bossiæa rufa</i> has flat branches, its leaves
-being reduced to small, pointed stipules.</span>&mdash;<i>Sarothamnus</i>
-(Broom) has switch-like, angular branches and often both the
-apparently simple and ternate leaves on the same shoot; style spirally
-rolled.&mdash;<i>Cytisus</i> (Laburnum). <i>Ulex</i> (Furze; <span class="smaller">in <i>U.
-europæus</i>, the seedlings bear a few foliage leaves, but the leaves
-succeeding these are modified into thorns</span>); <i>Spartium</i>;
-<i>Crotalaria</i>, etc.&mdash;<i>Lupinus</i> (Lupin) is allied to this
-group; it has a thick, often somewhat fleshy pod, and digitate leaves
-with adnate stipules.&mdash;<i>Retama.</i></p>
-
-<p><b>9.</b> <span class="smcap">Hedysareæ</span> are especially recognised by having
-the ovary divided by transverse septa into as many cells as there
-are seeds, the fruit thus becomes a <i>lomentum</i>, dehiscing
-transversely into nut-like joints (Fig. <a href="#fig513">513</a>).&mdash;<i>Ornithopus</i>
-(Bird’s-foot); <i>Coronilla</i>; <i>Hippocrepis</i>; <i>Onobrychis</i>
-(Sainfoin) has a fruit with only 1 joint (<i>i.e.</i> a 1-seeded nut);
-<i>Desmodium</i>; <i>Alhagi</i>; <i>Hedysarum</i>, etc.&mdash;<i>Arachis
-hypogæa</i> (Earth-nut) has a pod which is abstricted between the
-seeds, and is indehiscent, but is not multilocular nor a true lomentum;
-it is reticulately wrinkled externally, and ripens underground; the
-basal part of the ovary is prolonged after flowering, attaining a
-length of several inches, and buries the young fruit in the soil. The
-embryo is straight.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Desmodium gyrans</i> is well-known for its
-motile leaflets.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig513" style="width: 250px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig513.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 513.</span>&mdash;<i>Hedysarum coronarium.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>10.</b> <span class="smcap">Dalbergieæ.</span> 25 genera; especially in
-Tropical America; the majority are trees, a few shrubs or
-lianes; the leaves are simple or imparipinnate. The fruit is
-<i>indehiscent</i> in all; in some it is a winged, in others
-a wingless <i>nut</i> (<i>Machærium</i>, <i>Dalbergia</i>,
-<i>Centrolobium</i>, etc.), in others, again, a drupe,
-<i>e.g.</i> in <i>Dipteryx</i> (Tonquin-bean) and <i>Andira</i>.
-In some genera the embryo is straight.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> Especially effected by Bees. The nectar
-is secreted by a ring or disc-like portion round the base
-of the gynœceum or the inner surface of the receptacle. The
-flower is constructed with a peculiar mechanism to ensure
-cross-pollination by insects. The pollen is shed just before
-the flower opens, and is retained in a pouch formed by the
-keel. An insect visiting the flower uses the wings and keel
-for a landing-stage, and in attempting to reach the honey
-presses down the wings and the keel which are locked together
-near the standard; the stylar-brush by this means is forced
-through the apical opening of the keel and a little pollen is
-thus swept out and deposited upon the abdomen of the visiting
-insect as it presses against the apex of the keel;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_473">[473]</span> the insect
-thus carries away pollen and may effect cross-pollination. In
-the different flowers this arrangement is modified in various
-ways to promote pollination. 5000 species (319 genera);
-especially in the Tropics, where many are important forest
-trees.&mdash;The following plants are used <span class="allsmcap">FOR FOOD</span>:
-<i>Pisum sativum</i> (W. Asia?) and <i>arvense</i> (Italy);
-<i>Phaseolus vulgaris</i> (Kidney-bean, American; <i>Dolichos
-sinensis</i> was known to the Greeks and Romans under the name
-“φασηλος,” “phaseolus”), <i>P. compressus</i> (French-bean),
-etc.; <i>Faba vulgaris</i> (Field-bean, Horse-bean;
-from the Old World); <i>Ervum lens</i> (Lentil, Eastern
-Mediterranean); in tropical countries the oil-containing seeds
-of <i>Arachis hypogæa</i>.&mdash;The following are <span class="allsmcap">FODDER</span>
-plants: <i>Vicia sativa</i>, <i>Faba vulgaris</i>, <i>Onobrychis
-sativa</i> (Sainfoin), <i>Medicago sativa</i> (Lucerne),
-and <i>lupulina</i> (Medick), species of <i>Trifolium</i>,
-<i>Hedysarum coronarium</i>. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: “Liquorice
-root,” from <i>Glycyrrhiza glabra</i> (S. Europe); “Red
-Sandalwood,” from <i>Pterocarpus santalinus</i> (Tropical
-E. Asia); Gum Tragacanth, from <i>Astragalus</i>-species
-(E. Mediterranean); Balsam of Peru, from <i>Toluifera
-pereiræ</i>, and Balsam of Tolu, from <i>Toluifera balsamum</i>.
-Calabar-beans, from <i>Physostigma venenosum</i>; Kino,
-from <i>Pterocarpus marsupium</i>; the pith of <i>Andira
-araroba</i> is used under the name of “Chrysarobin.”&mdash;Of use
-<span class="allsmcap">TECHNICALLY</span>: <i>Genista tinctoria</i> (yellow dye) and
-<i>Indigofera-species</i> (Indigo), the bast of <i>Crotalaria
-juncea</i> (Sunn Hemp); the seeds of <i>Dipteryx</i>,
-which contain Coumarin, and are highly scented, and Balsam
-of <i>Myroxylon</i>. <span class="smcap">Poisonous</span>: the seeds of
-<i>Laburnum</i> (<i>Cytisus laburnum</i>), various species
-of <i>Lathyrus</i>, and <i>Abrus precatorius</i>; the latter
-contain two poisonous proteids, paraglobulin and albumose,
-which resemble snake-poison in their effects. The following
-are <span class="allsmcap">ORNAMENTAL</span> plants: <i>Phaseolus multiflorus</i>
-(Scarlet runner, from America), <i>Robinia pseudacacia</i>,
-<i>Amorpha</i>, <i>Colutea</i>, <i>Coronilla</i>, <i>Indigofera
-dosua</i>, <i>Wistaria polystachya</i>, <i>Cytisus laburnum</i>
-(Laburnum, S. Europe, Orient.) and other species.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Mimosaceæ.</b> The flowers are most frequently hypogynous
-and <i>regular</i>, the æstivation of the corolla is <i>valvate</i>
-and, in the majority of instances, that of the calyx also. The flower
-is 4-merous, less frequently 5- or 3-merous.&mdash;The flowers are generally
-small, but are always borne in compact, round <i>capitula</i> or spikes
-(Fig. <a href="#fig514">514</a>); they are hypogynous or perigynous. The calyx is generally
-<i>gamosepalous</i> and the corolla <i>gamopetalous</i>, the latter
-being frequently wanting. The stamens are equal or double the number
-of the petals (<i>Mimosa</i>, etc., in <i>M. pudica</i>, <i>e.g.</i>
-S4, P4, A4, G1) or (in <i>Acacia</i>, <i>Inga</i>, etc.) in a large,
-indefinite number, free or monadelphous, often united to the corolla
-(Fig. <a href="#fig514">514</a> <i>b</i>). The colour of the flower in most cases is due to
-the long and numerous stamens. The <i>fruit</i> is various. The embryo
-is <i>straight</i> as in the Cæsalpiniaceæ. <i>Entada</i> and many
-species of <i>Mimosa</i> have a flat, straight, or somewhat sickle-like
-pod, which resembles the siliqua of the Cruciferæ in that the sutures
-(in this instance, however, dorsal and ventral suture) persist as a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_474">[474]</span>
-frame, but the intermediate portion divides, as in the transversely
-divided siliqua, into as many nut-like portions as there are seeds.
-Some species have a pod of enormous dimensions. The seeds of <i>Entada
-gigalobium</i> are often carried from the West Indies to the N. W.
-coasts of Europe by the Gulf Stream.&mdash;The fruit of <i>Acacia</i>
-in some species is an ordinary pod, in others it is transversely
-divided, or remains an undivided fruit, a nut.&mdash;This order includes
-both trees and herbaceous plants, which are often thorny; the leaves
-are usually bipinnate (Fig. <a href="#fig514">514</a>) and are sensitive, and also possess
-sleep-movements.&mdash;Many Australian Acacias have compound leaves only
-when young, but when old have <i>phyllodia</i>, <i>i.e.</i> leaf-like
-petioles without blades, placed vertically. A large number have thorny
-stipules, which in some (<i>Acacia sphærocephala</i>) attain an
-enormous size, and serve as a home for ants, which in return protect
-their host-plant against the attacks of other, leaf-cutting ants.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig514" style="width: 544px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig514.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 514.</span>&mdash;<i>Acacia farnesiana</i>: <i>a</i>
-inflorescence; <i>b</i> flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_475">[475]</span></p>
-
-<p>Other genera besides those mentioned are: <i>Adenanthera</i>,
-<i>Desmanthus</i>, <i>Parkia</i>, <i>Inga</i> (with rather fleshy,
-indehiscent fruit), <i>Calliandra</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>1350 species (30 genera); none natives of Europe, their
-home being the Tropics and sub-tropical regions, especially
-Australia and Africa.&mdash;Fossils in Tertiary.&mdash;Gums are found
-in many species of <i>Acacia</i>, especially the African (Gum
-arabic) and Australian, of which some are <i>officinal</i>. The
-bark, and also the fruits, contain a large amount of <i>tannic
-acid</i> and are used as astringents and in tanning (“Bablah” is
-the fruits of several species of <i>Acacia</i>). Catechu is a
-valuable tanning material extracted from the wood of <i>Acacia
-catechu</i> (E. Ind). The flowers of <i>Acacia farnesiana</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig514">514</a>) are used in the manufacture of perfumes. With us
-they are cultivated as ornamental plants, <i>e.g. A.
-lophantha</i> and many others, in conservatories.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 22. <b>Passiflorinæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flowers are most frequently regular, 5-merous in the three
-most external whorls, eucyclic and perigynous or epigynous, less
-frequently hypogynous. A characteristic feature is that the
-ovary is <i>tricarpellary</i>, <i>unilocular</i>, and with 3
-<i>parietal</i> placentæ which sometimes meet in the central line
-(<i>Cucurbitaceæ</i>). The styles are generally free and <i>bifid</i>.
-To all these characteristics, however, there are exceptions. <span class="smaller">The
-Cucurbitaceæ are sometimes placed among the Sympetalæ, close to the
-Campanulinæ, but they are not allied to the Sympetalæ, from which they
-differ especially, for instance, in the structure of the ovule. The
-position of the Begoniaceæ in this family is also open to doubt.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig515" style="width: 700px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig515.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 515.</span>&mdash;<i>Passiflora cœrulea</i>
-(reduced).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_476">[476]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Passifloraceæ</b> (<b>Passion-flowers</b>). The majority
-are herbs which climb by means of tendrils (modified branches) and
-have scattered, stipulate leaves, often palminerved and lobed (Fig.
-<a href="#fig515">515</a>). The flowers, which are often large and beautiful, are regular, ☿,
-with S5, P5, A5, G3; the calyx and corolla are <i>perigynous</i>, and
-immediately inside the corolla is the “corona,” consisting of numerous,
-tapering, filamentous bodies, or sometimes united in rings, most
-frequently petaloid and coloured; the stamens are raised on a long,
-round internode above the <i>cup-like receptacle</i>; immediately above
-these is the gynœceum with its 3 free styles and capitate stigmas; the
-ovary is unilocular with 3 parietal placentæ. Fruit most frequently a
-<i>berry</i>. The seeds have an aril.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>210 species; especially in Tropical America. Several
-<i>Passiflora</i>-species are ornamental plants, and the fruits
-of some species are edible.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Papayaceæ.</b> The best known representative is the
-Papaw (<i>Carica papaya</i>), a Tropical American tree whose stem is
-usually unbranched, and bears at its summit several large, palmilobed
-leaves on long stalks. The stem and leaves have latex. The large,
-Melon-like berries are edible, and for this reason it is cultivated
-in the Tropics. Flowers unisexual, with slightly different structure
-in the ♂-and ♀-flowers, besides intermediate forms. The ♂-flower has
-a gamopetalous, the ♀-flower a polypetalous corolla.&mdash;The milky juice
-contains a substance with similar action to pepsine. 10 stamens. 5
-carpels.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Turneraceæ.</b> 85 species; especially in America.</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Samydaceæ.</b> 160 species; tropical.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Loasaceæ.</b> Herbaceous plants seldom shrubs, sometimes
-climbing, and nearly always studded with <i>stiff hairs</i>, in some
-instances stinging or hooked. The leaves are most frequently palmilobed
-and without stipules. The flowers are regular, ☿, polypetalous,
-entirely <i>epigynous</i>, with 4–5 sepals, petals and stamens, or more
-frequently (by splitting) many stamens, those which are placed before
-the sepals being generally barren and more or less petaloid; carpels
-most frequently 3, united into an inferior, unilocular ovary with 3
-parietal placentæ, above which the receptacle is generally more or less
-prolonged. Fruit a capsule; in <i>Gronovia</i> an ovary with 1 ovule
-and fruit a nut.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>115 species; principally from S. Am. A number of annuals are
-often grown in our gardens: <i>Bartonia aurea</i> (California);
-<i>Mentzelia</i>; <i>Cajophora</i>; <i>Gronovia</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_477">[477]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Datiscaceæ.</b> 4 species, especially in the
-Tropics.&mdash;<i>Datisca cannabina</i> (Asia Minor) resembles the Hemp
-in external appearance. The flowers are diœcious, insignificant;
-♂-flowers: a low, gamosepalous calyx, no corolla, and an indefinite
-number of stamens; ♀-flowers; <i>epigynous</i>; ovary unilocular with
-free, mostly bifid, styles, and generally 3 parietal placentæ. In most
-cases the ovary is not entirely closed at the top (as in <i>Reseda</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig516" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig516.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 516.</span>&mdash;<i>Begonia rex</i> (reduced).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Begoniaceæ.</b> This order principally comprises herbs or
-under-shrubs with succulent stems (having scattered vascular bundles in
-the pith); the leaves are arranged in two rows (a divergence of 1/2)
-and <i>are asymmetrical</i>, as a rule more or less obliquely cordate,
-or ovate with cordate base (Fig. <a href="#fig516">516</a>); large, caducous stipules are
-present. Inflorescences dichasial, or unipared scorpioid cymes; the
-flowers are unisexual; the first ones (the oldest) are ♂-flowers, while
-♀-flowers are found especially on the younger axes. The ♂-flowers
-have most frequently 2 + 2 coloured perianth-leaves, and many stamens
-collected into a head in the centre of the flower; the ♀-flowers are
-<i>epigynous</i> with 5 coloured perianth-leaves (placed spirally with
-a divergence of 2/5) and a trilocular ovary, bearing 3 bifid styles
-and 3 wings (the wings usually of unequal size); in the inner angle of
-each loculus<span class="pagenum" id="Page_478">[478]</span> there is one large projecting placenta, or two plate-like
-placentæ (the bent back edges of the carpels) studded with ovules.
-Fruit a capsule, with many extremely small seeds.&mdash;<i>Begonia.</i></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>420 species; almost all from the Tropics (Am., Asia).&mdash;Many
-species, with varieties and hybrids, are ornamental plants in
-houses and conservatories, chiefly on account of the form,
-colour and markings of their leaves; but also for their very
-beautiful flowers. They reproduce easily by adventitious buds
-from leaves and portions of leaves placed on damp soil; some
-have bulbils. Like the Oxalideæ they contain an acid sap.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig517" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig517.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 517.</span>&mdash;<i>Ecballium agreste.</i> Diagram of
-a ♂-and a ♀-flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Cucurbitaceæ.</b> The flower is <i>epigynous</i>, and,
-as a rule, is also provided with a leaf-like, cup- or bell-shaped
-receptacle above the ovary, to which the perianth and stamens are
-attached; the flowers are regular, <i>unisexual</i>, with rudiments of
-the other sex, and 5-merous: sepals 5, narrow and pointed, with the
-median sepal posterior (Fig. <a href="#fig517">517</a>), petals 5, stamens 5, and carpels
-3 (rarely 4–5); the corolla is <i>gamopetalous</i> in the majority,
-polypetalous in some; generally plicate-valvate in the bud. <i>The
-anthers in the ♂-flowers are extrorse, and monothecious, i.e. only
-one half of each of the anthers of the 5 stamens is developed</i>,
-the <i>pollen-sac</i> having frequently a peculiar [**rtilde]-shaped
-curve (Fig. <a href="#fig518">518</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>); the stamens are <i>either all
-united</i> into a column (<i>e.g.</i> in <i>Cucurbita</i>), or they
-are <i>united in pairs</i>, so that only one remains free (Figs. <a href="#fig517">517</a>
-<i>A</i>; <a href="#fig518">518</a> <i>A</i>); in the latter case there appears to be one
-small stamen with a ~-shaped, curved pollen-sac and two larger
-ones, each with two curved pollen-sacs placed as in Fig. <a href="#fig517">517</a> <i>A</i>.
-The original form appears to be <i>Fevillea</i> with free petals and
-5 free stamens. Sometimes the rudiment of a gynœceum is present. The
-carpels are united into an <i>ovary</i> with 3 (4–5) placentæ formed by
-their united edges. These are thick, fleshy, and <i>bifid</i>, bearing
-a number of ovules on each side (Figs. <a href="#fig517">517</a> <i>B</i>; <a href="#fig518">518</a> <i>C</i>,
-<i>D</i>); in general the placentæ are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_479">[479]</span> so large that they not only
-meet in the centre, but also fill up the ovary as far as the wall of
-the pericarp. The whole interior of the fruit thus becomes a juicy mass
-in which three lines may be seen, meeting in the centre (the boundaries
-of the individual placentæ), and near the circumference 6 groups of
-seeds (Fig. <a href="#fig518">518</a> <i>D</i>). When the carpels are equal in number to
-the petals they alternate with them. The <i>style</i> is short and
-thick, and generally divided into 3 (4–5) branches, with a horse-shoe
-shaped stigma on each branch (Fig. <a href="#fig518">518</a> <i>C</i>). The <i>fruit</i>
-is most frequently a many-seeded <i>berry</i>; in some it attains a
-considerable size and has a firm external layer (<i>Cucurbita</i>,
-<i>Lagenaria</i>, etc.). <i>The embryo is straight</i>, has <i>no
-endosperm</i>, but contains a large quantity of <i>oil</i>. The
-exceptions to the above characters will be found under the genera.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig518" style="width: 454px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig518.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 518.</span>&mdash;<i>Citrullus colocynthis</i>:
-<i>A</i> ♂-flower, cut open and spread out; <i>B</i> stamen; <i>C</i>
-♀-flower in long section; <i>h</i> receptacle; <i>ca</i> calyx;
-<i>D</i> transverse section of ovary.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Exclusively herbs, generally with stiff hairs and yellow flowers. Many
-species are annuals, others are perennial, having tuberous roots or
-hypocotyls. The leaves are scattered, long-stalked, in most cases more
-or less heart-shaped, palminerved, palmilobed,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_480">[480]</span> and exstipulate; in
-their axils are found both flowers (singly, or in an inflorescence)
-and a vegetative bud, and outside the axil, <i>on the anodic<a id="FNanchor_37" href="#Footnote_37" class="fnanchor">[37]</a> side
-of the leaf, a simple or branched tendril</i>, by which the plant
-<i>climbs</i> (exceptions: <i>e.g. Ecballium</i>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The position of the flowers, branches and tendrils situated
-in and near the leaf-axils is as follows. In the leaf-axils,
-a flower is borne (as a branch of the first order), ♂ or ♀,
-according to the conditions of the various genera. This branch
-is not situated in the centre of the axil, but is removed
-slightly towards the anodic side of the leaf. Of its two
-bracteoles as a rule only the one lying on the anodic side is
-developed, namely as a tendril, which is displaced to a position
-outside the axil. The branch of the first order bears on its
-catodic side an inflorescence (in the axil of the suppressed
-bracteole), on the anodic side a vegetative bud which grows out
-into a branch like the main axis. The subtending leaf of this
-branch is thus the tendril; but when it has several arms the
-condition is complicated by the appearance of an accessory bud
-which unites with its subtending leaf, the tendril, its leaves
-also becoming tendrils (situated on an undeveloped internode);
-the many-branched tendril is thus a branch, and the tendril-arms
-are its leaves, except the main arm which is its subtending
-leaf. Other explanations of these difficult relations have been
-given.&mdash;The <i>germination</i> is somewhat peculiar, owing to
-the fact that a heel-like prolongation is formed at the base
-of the hypocotyl to assist in separating the two halves of the
-testa from each other, and to facilitate the unfolding of the
-cotyledons.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><i>Cucurbita</i> (Pumpkin, Marrow) has branched tendrils; the flowers
-are monœcious, and are borne singly; the corolla is bell-shaped, and
-divided almost as far as the middle. The stamens are all united into a
-tube; the compressed seeds have a thick, blunt edge.&mdash;<i>Cucumis</i>
-has (generally) unbranched tendrils; the ♀-flowers are borne singly,
-whilst the ♂-flowers are borne in groups: the corolla is divided
-nearly as far as the base, and the stamens are united 2-2-1.
-The connective is elongated above the anthers. The seeds have a
-sharp edge.&mdash;<i>Citrullus</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig518">518</a>) has a corolla similar to
-<i>Cucumis</i>, but ☿-and ♂-flowers are borne singly; the stigma is
-only 3-lobed, the fruit most frequently spherical.&mdash;<i>Ecballium</i>
-(Squirting Cucumber, only 1 species, E. <i>elaterium</i>) has no
-tendrils, and is therefore not a climber. The oblong fruit is pendulous
-from the apex of its stalk, and when ripe is distended with an acrid,
-watery fluid; on being touched the fruit is detached, and the seeds,
-together with the watery fluid, are violently ejected through<span class="pagenum" id="Page_481">[481]</span> the
-aperture formed at the base of the fruit. The ♂-flowers are borne in
-racemes near the solitary ♀-flowers (Fig. <a href="#fig517">517</a>).&mdash;<i>Bryonia</i> (White
-Bryony) has chiefly unbranched tendrils and small, greenish-yellow,
-usually diœcious flowers with rotate corolla, in many-flowered
-inflorescences; the small, spherical berry has no specially firm outer
-layer, and generally only few seeds. The tap-root and a few of the
-other roots are tuberous. <i>B. alba</i> (berry black; monœcious) and
-<i>dioica</i> (berry red; diœcious). <span class="smaller">Among other genera may be
-mentioned: <i>Lagenaria</i> (Gourd); the fruit has a woody external
-layer which, after the removal of the pulpy integument, may be used as
-a gourd. <i>Luffa</i> has a polypetalous corolla; the fruit is dry,
-and consists internally of a network of vascular bundles; it opens by
-an aperture at the summit. <i>Benincasa</i>; the fruit has a close,
-bluish coating of wax. <i>Trichosanthes</i> (Snake Cucumber) has a
-thin, round, long and curved fruit. <i>Momordica</i>; the fleshy fruit
-opens and ejects the seeds. <i>Cyclanthera</i> takes its name from the
-staminal column which is found in the centre of the ♂-flower, bearing
-a bilocular, ring-like anther which opens by a horizontal cleft. The
-fruit is unilocular by suppression, has 1 placenta, and when touched
-opens and ejects the seeds. <i>Sicyos</i> and <i>Sechium</i> have
-only unilocular ovaries with one pendulous ovule. <i>Sechium</i>
-has, moreover, 5 free stamens, of which only one is halved, the
-other 4 having both halves of the anther. <i>Fevillea</i> and
-<i>Thladiantha</i> also have 5 free stamens. <i>Dimorphochlamys</i> has
-dimorphic flowers.</span></p>
-
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination</span> is effected by insects, chiefly bees
-or wasps, the nectar being secreted by the inner, yellow
-portion of the receptacle; in the ♂-flower access is gained
-to the nectar through the slits between the stamens, which
-arch over the nectary.&mdash;85 genera; about 637 species;
-especially in the Tropics. Only two are found in the whole
-of N. Europe, <i>Bryonia alba</i> and <i>dioica</i>; in S.
-Europe, <i>Ecballium</i> also. Most of the cultivated species
-have been obtained from Asia, such as the Cucumber, Melon,
-Colocynth, several <i>Luffa</i>-species (the “Gourds” mentioned
-in Scripture are <i>Cucumis chate</i>); from Africa, the
-Water-melon, <i>Cucurbita maxima</i>, and others; from S. Am.,
-no doubt, the Pumpkin (<i>C. pepo</i> and <i>melopepo</i>).
-<span class="smcap">Uses.</span> Many species are used in medicine or for
-domestic purposes. <i>Bitter</i>, <i>poisonous properties</i>
-are found; the fruits of the two <i>officinal</i> ones are
-purgative: <i>Citrullus colocynthis</i> (Mediterranean, E.
-India, Ceylon) and <i>Ecballium elaterium</i>, as well as
-various tropical species, the roots of Bryonia, etc.&mdash;The
-following are cultivated <span class="allsmcap">AS ARTICLES OF FOOD</span>:
-Pumpkin (<i>Cucurbita pepo</i>, etc.), Cucumber (<i>Cucumis
-sativus</i>), Melon (<i>Cucumis melo</i>), the Water-melon
-(<i>Citrullus vulgaris</i>), <i>Sechium edule</i> (Chocho),
-certain species of <i>Luffa</i> (the young fruit). The Bottle
-Gourd is cultivated in tropical countries for the sake of its
-hard pericarp, which is useful for bowls, bottles, etc. The
-fruits of <i>Luffa</i> have a number of reticulately felted,
-tolerably firm vascular bundles, which render them serviceable
-in various ways (as a kind of “sponge”). The Cucurbits are of no
-use in the manufactures. Only a few are cultivated as ornamental
-plants, chiefly as curiosities.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_482">[482]</span></p>
-
-
-<h4>Family 23. <b>Myrtifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The leaves are most frequently <i>opposite</i>, <i>simple</i>,
-<i>entire</i> (rarely dentate), and <i>exstipulate</i>. The flowers are
-<i>regular</i> and <i>epigynous</i> (perigynous in <i>Lythraceæ</i>
-and a few others), ☿, polypetalous; the number of members in a
-whorl is generally 4 or 5 (S, P, A, or most frequently A 2, G), but
-sometimes it becomes (<i>e.g.</i> Myrtles and <i>Lythraceæ</i>) very
-large in the andrœcium by splitting, and in the gynœceum also is
-often different. (When suppression takes place it is principally in
-the corolla and petal-stamens.) In nearly all instances the calyx
-is <i>valvate</i>. Gyncœceum multicarpellary, multilocular, with
-only one <i>style</i> (except <i>Haloragidaceæ</i>). In the majority
-the ovules are situated on an axile placenta in the multilocular
-ovary. <i>Endosperm is wanting</i> in the majority.&mdash;<span class="smaller">Less
-important exceptions: <i>Rhizophoraceæ</i> and <i>Gunnera</i> have
-stipules. <i>Haloragidaceæ</i> have several styles and endosperm.
-<i>Rhizophora</i> also has endosperm.</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Lythraceæ.</b> <i>Hermaphrodite</i>, <i>perigynous</i>
-flowers which are <i>most frequently <b>6</b>-merous</i>, viz. S 6
-(often with a <i>commissural</i> “<i>epicalyx</i>,” Fig. <a href="#fig519">519</a> <i>c</i>),
-one segment posterior, P 6, A 6 + 6 or 6 + 0 and G <b>2–6</b>, forming
-a 2–6-locular ovary with many ovules in the loculi, style single,
-and capitate stigma. The <i>gynœceum is free</i> at the base of the
-tubular, or bell-shaped, <i>thin</i>, strongly veined receptacle,
-which bears the other leaf-whorls on its edge and inner side. Fruit
-a capsule. No endosperm.&mdash;To this order belong both herbs, shrubs
-and trees. The branches are frequently square, the leaves always
-<i>undivided</i>, <i>entire</i>, and without stipules, or with several
-very small stipules, and often opposite. The calyx is valvate. The
-flower is regular (except <i>Cuphea</i>) and frequently large and
-beautiful. The stamens are generally incurved in the bud, and the
-petals irregularly folded.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig519" style="width: 353px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig519.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 519.</span>&mdash;<i>Lythrum salicaria. c</i>
-the “epicalyx.”</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Lythrum</i> (Loose-strife). The flower is diplostemonous and
-6-merous, with a long, tubular receptacle with epicalyx-teeth (Fig.
-<a href="#fig519">519</a> <i>c</i>). The 12 stamens are arranged in two tiers on the
-inner side of the receptacle. The gynœceum is bicarpellary. <span class="smaller">The
-flowers are borne in small dichasia in the leaf-axils, and their
-number is increased by accessory inflorescences beneath the main
-inflorescence.&mdash;The native species, <i>L. salicaria</i>, is trimorphic
-(long-styled, mid-and short-styled forms, Fig. <a href="#fig520">520</a>). Cross-pollination
-is chiefly effected by humble-bees<span class="pagenum" id="Page_483">[483]</span> and bees, which seek the nectar
-formed at the bottom of the receptacle. Other species are only
-dimorphic, or even monomorphic.</span>&mdash;Closely allied are, <i>Nesæa</i>,
-<i>Diplusodon</i>, <i>Lagerstrœmia</i>, and <i>Cuphea</i>, whose flower
-resembles that of <i>Lythrum</i>, but is zygomorphic. In <i>Cuphea</i>
-the receptacle is oblique and at the back prolonged into a <i>spur</i>,
-in which the nectar, secreted by a gland situated behind the ovary,
-is collected; the calyx and corolla gradually become reduced in size
-toward the anterior side of the flower; the reverse, however, is the
-case with the 11 stamens (the posterior one is absent); the posterior
-loculus in the bilocular ovary is sometimes barren; the fruit, when
-ripe, dehisces along the posterior side, the ovary as well as the wall
-of the receptacle being ruptured by the placenta, which expands and
-projects freely. <span class="smaller">The flowers stand singly in the centre of the stem,
-between the pairs of leaves. This may be explained as follows: of the
-two foliage-leaves in each pair, one supports a foliage-shoot, the
-other a flower; the foliage-shoot remains in the axil, but the flower
-is displaced through the length of an entire internode to the next pair
-of leaves, and then assumes a position between these two leaves. All
-foliage-shoots stand in two rows, the flowers in two other rows.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig520" style="width: 318px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig520.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 520.</span>&mdash;<i>Lythrum salicaria.</i> One
-side of the perianth is removed from all three flowers. <i>A</i>
-is long-styled, <i>B</i> mid-styled, and <i>C</i> short-styled.
-The direction of the arrows and dotted lines indicates the best
-(legitimate) methods of crossing.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Peplis</i> (Water-purslane), a small, annual plant, with
-thin, bell-shaped receptacle without projecting nerves. The
-small flowers have no petal-stamens, and often also no corolla;
-fruit indehiscent.&mdash;<i>Ammannia</i> is closely allied to it.</p>
-
-<p>365 species; 30 genera; mostly in the Tropics, and more
-especially S. Am.&mdash;Some yield <i>dyes</i>, <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Lawsonia inermis</i> (cultivated in Africa and Asia) and
-<i>Lagerstrœmeria indica</i>; some contain tannin; others are
-ornamental plants, especially in gardens in warm countries.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Blattiaceæ.</b> 12 species. Tropical Asia and
-Africa. Trees. Formerly included with <i>Punica</i>, but best
-placed as an independent order.</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Melastomaceæ.</b> A very natural and very large
-order (150 genera; 2,500 species), its home being chiefly in
-tropical S. America, especially the Brazils (termed by Schouw
-“The kingdom of Palms and Melastomaceæ”). There are both
-herbaceous and arborescent species, which are easily recognized
-by the opposite or verticillate, simple leaves which have (with
-the exception of a few heather-like species) 3–5–7–9 curved
-veins proceeding from the base of the leaf, and connected very
-regularly by closely parallel, transverse<span class="pagenum" id="Page_484">[484]</span> veins. The flower
-is perigynous or epigynous; its type is that of the Onagraceæ
-(4–5-merous; 1 whorl of sepals, petals and carpels, 2 of
-stamens); the calyx is valvate, the corolla is twisted (to
-the left) in æstivation; the stamens are very characteristic;
-in the bud they are geniculate; the anther opens in the often
-long, beak-like, prolonged point, with 1, less frequently with
-2 pores, and has generally ear-like appendages at its base.
-The fruit is a berry or capsule. These large and beautiful
-flowering-plants play a very important part in South American
-landscapes; otherwise they are of slight importance (a few are
-cultivated in conservatories, <i>e.g. Centradenia</i>,
-<i>Medinilla</i>, <i>Lasiandra</i>, <i>Tibouchina</i>,
-<i>Miconia</i>, etc.).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Œnotheraceæ</b> (or <b>Onagraceæ</b>). The flowers are
-arranged in racemes or spikes, ☿, epigynous, regular, polypetalous,
-<i><b>4</b>-merous in all 5 whorls</i> (1 whorl of sepals, petals and
-carpels, 2 of stamens); 2–3–5–6-merous flowers are less frequent;
-<i>the calyx is valvate</i>, the <i>corolla twisted</i> in æstivation
-(the left edge being covered). Gynœceum simple with multilocular
-ovary; the <i>style is undivided</i>, filiform, and bears a capitate
-or 4-partite stigma; endosperm wanting; embryo straight.&mdash;The majority
-are herbs, especially water- and marsh-plants; several are shrubs. No
-essential oils. The leaves are alternate or opposite, always single,
-and without (or with very small) stipules. <span class="smaller">The odourless flowers
-sometimes have a coloured calyx. In some instances (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Œnothera</i>, <i>Fuchsia</i>) the receptacle is prolonged more or
-less beyond the inferior ovary, and finally falls off. The stamens are
-obdiplostemonous (carpels epipetalous); the petal-stamens are sometimes
-suppressed. The anthers in some genera are divided into storeys. The
-well-pronounced, triangular pollen-grains are connected together by
-viscous threads. Small stipules are sometimes found, <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Fuchsia</i>, <i>Lopezia</i>.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig521" style="width: 664px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig521.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 521.</span>&mdash;Flower of <i>Lopezia</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <b>Fruit a capsule.</b> <i>Œnothera</i> (Evening Primrose)
-is 4-merous, has 8 stamens, a tubular receptacle, and an oblong
-capsule with loculicidal dehiscence leaving a centrally placed
-column, bearing the seeds.&mdash;<i>Epilobium</i> (Willow-herb) deviates
-from <i>Œnothera</i> especially in the seeds being hairy (at the
-chalazal end of the seed).&mdash;<i>Chamænerium</i> is a Willow-herb
-with zygomorphic flowers.&mdash;<span class="smaller">The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_485">[485]</span> following may be included here:
-<i>Clarkia</i>, <i>Eucharidium</i> (an <i>Œnothera</i> with 4
-stamens and 3-lobed petals), <i>Godetia</i> and <i>Boisduvalia</i>,
-<i>Jussiæa</i> (dehiscence septicidal), <i>Isnardia</i> (petal-stamens
-absent, sometimes the petals also).&mdash;<i>Lopezia</i> has a peculiar,
-zygomorphic flower (Fig. <a href="#fig521">521</a>); one of the four sepals is bent forwards
-and the other 3 backwards; the posterior petals are narrower than
-the 2 anterior ones which are turned obliquely backwards and bent
-like a knee, with a greenish nectary at the bend; 2 stamens, one only
-fertile (the posterior), while the anterior is barren, petaloid, and
-spoon-shaped; both are sensitive, which is essential for pollination.
-In Fig. <a href="#fig521">521</a>, <i>a</i> represents an early stage, in which the stamen
-and style lie concealed in the staminode; <i>b</i> is the ♂ stage, the
-stamen projects from the centre of the flower; <i>c</i>, the ♀ stage,
-the style occupies the place of the stamen.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <b>Fruit a berry.</b> <i>Fuchsia</i> generally has a coloured
-calyx and tubular receptacle; the corolla may be wanting.</p>
-
-<p><b>C.</b> <b>Fruit a nut.</b> <i>Circæa</i> (Enchanter’s Nightshade)
-has a 2-merous flower (S2, P2, A2 + 0 [petal-stamens are wanting], G2).
-The flowers are borne in racemes without bracts.&mdash;<i>Gaura.</i></p>
-
-<p><b>D.</b> <b>Fruit a drupe.</b> <i>Trapa</i> (Horn-nut); a peculiar
-aquatic plant; the submerged stem has long internodes and lanceolate
-leaves, falling off at an early period, but at each node are found 4
-long roots with thin, lateral roots (sometimes erroneously regarded as
-leaves) borne pinnately; the stem reaching the surface of the water,
-bears a rosette of rhombic foliage-leaves, with large, inflated stalks
-containing air, and forming the floating apparatus of the plants.
-In the axils of the leaves (as in <i>Gunnera</i>) 8 small, stipular
-structures are present. The flowers are solitary in the axils of the
-foliage-leaves (S4, P4, A4 + 0, G2), <i>semi</i>-epigynous. There is
-an 8-lobed, crenate disc on the free portion of the ovary; one ovule
-in each loculus. The fruit is a <i>drupe</i> with 4 (or 2) prominent
-horns (the persistent sepals), which after the pulp has decayed away
-bear a series of hooks turned downwards on each side, <i>i.e.</i>
-sclerenchymatous bundles which formerly lay concealed in the pulp of
-the sepals. <span class="smaller">The germination is peculiar: one of the cotyledons is
-large, and its thick extremity remains in the fruit, the other however
-is small and is pushed out at the apex of the fruit together with the
-radicle and plumule; the development of the root soon ceases, and the
-plumule usually grows into a stem entirely without branches, similar
-to the one described above, only that 1–2 precisely similar shoots
-arise in the axil of each cotyledon, so that each embryo produces 3–5
-shoots.&mdash;<i>Trapa</i>, by its mode of life, its 1-seeded fruit, etc.,
-forms a transition to <i>Haloragidaceæ</i>.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The large-flowered forms are adapted for insect-pollination and
-are often protandrous, the small-flowered ones are homogamous
-and may pollinate themselves. <i>Œnothera</i> is adapted for
-hawk-moths and bees.&mdash;330 species; especially in temperate
-climates, chiefly in the Northern Hemisphere. <i>Epilobium</i>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_486">[486]</span>
-<i>Circæa</i> are natives of this country; <i>Trapa</i> is
-extinct in this country, it has been found in a semi-fossilized
-condition near Cromer and in bogs in Denmark, and existed
-in Sweden until a few years ago; <i>Œnothera</i> has been
-introduced from N. Am.&mdash;A number of N. Am. species are grown
-as ornamental plants in our gardens. The seeds of <i>Trapa
-natans</i> are edible, and used as food in China.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Haloragidaceæ.</b> This is a reduced form of the
-Œnotheraceæ, and principally differs from these in the presence
-of <i>endosperm</i> and <i>free styles</i>. <i>Only 1 ovule in
-each loculus.</i>&mdash;84 species distributed over the entire globe;
-the majority are aquatic plants. The most advanced type is
-<i>Myriophyllum</i> (Water-Milfoil), with a regular, epigynous
-flower (S4, P4, A4 + 4, G4), most frequently <i>diclinous</i>
-(monœcious); the fruit is a <i>2–4-partite schizocarp</i>.
-Aquatic plants, most frequently with pectinate, pinnate
-leaves.&mdash;<i>Haloragis.</i>&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Gunnera</i> (a dozen species from
-the Southern Hemisphere) forms the next step in the reduction. Large,
-scattered, rough-haired, and softly-spined leaves, with small flowers
-in crowded inflorescences. The flower, when most complete, has S2, P2,
-A2 (petal-stamens) and G2, forming an inferior, unilocular ovary with
-1 ovule. It is remarkable for the great number of stipules placed in
-transverse rows in the leaf-axils, for the peculiar glandular organs,
-and for the colonies of <i>Nostoc</i>, which are found embedded in the
-cortex as a kind of parasite.</span>&mdash;The simplest form is <i>Hippuris</i>
-(Mare’s-tail) with an extremely small, crenate or entire calyx, without
-corolla, and with only one stamen and one carpel, forming an inferior,
-unilocular ovary with only one ovule. Fruit a drupe with thin pulp.
-<span class="smaller">It is an aquatic plant with creeping, sympodial rhizome, and erect
-unbranched shoots, bearing numerous small, verticillate leaves. The
-small flowers are situated singly in the leaf-axils.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Rhizophoraceæ.</b> Tropical trees or shrubs (50
-species, the best known being <i>Rhizophora mangle</i>,
-Mangrove) which grow gregariously, especially along the banks of
-rivers and by sea-coasts, where the water is quiet and brackish,
-and where they form the so-called Mangrove-swamps. Aerial roots
-are formed on the stems and branches (Fig. <a href="#fig522">522</a> <i>A</i>). The
-seeds germinate in the fruit, which by arrest contains only one
-seed (Fig. <a href="#fig522">522</a> <i>B</i>), before it is detached from the tree.
-The radicle projects considerably from the seed, and hangs down
-freely in the air; when the embryo is finally detached from
-the mother-plant, the separation is effected by the hood-like
-cotyledon, which entirely envelops the plumule, becoming
-detached from the rest of the embryo, which falls down, while
-the hood-like cotyledon remains enclosed in the fruit. The
-embryo, after it has fallen, strikes root, and continues growing
-in the undisturbed mud under the trees, or perhaps it may first
-be drifted about by the water, being well adapted for this by
-its peculiar, tough nature, and large, intercellular spaces.&mdash;It
-may also further be remarked that the anther is divided into a
-number of small loculi. The leaves are stipulate. The endosperm
-projects from the micropyle, growing out from the base of the
-seed, and thus serves as an organ of suction to convey nutriment
-to the embryo from the mother-plant.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_487">[487]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Combretaceæ.</b> Trees and shrubs, partly lianes.
-An inferior, unilocular ovary with few pendulous ovules.
-<i>Conocarpus</i> and <i>Laguncularia</i> form, in conjunction
-with the species of Rhizophoraceæ, the tropical Mangrove-swamps.
-<i>Terminalia.</i>&mdash;280 species; Tropics.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig522" style="width: 716px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig522.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 522.</span>&mdash;<i>Rhizophora mangle</i> with the germinating fruit
-(much reduced).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Myrtaceæ (Myrtles).</b> The plants belonging to this order
-are shrubs or trees, the majority being easily recognised by the
-vegetative characters. The leaves, for instance, are most frequently
-opposite, without stipules, undivided and entire, parchment-like or
-leathery, evergreen, <i>aromatic</i>, finely dotted by <i>pellucid
-glands containing essential oils</i>; the venation is penninerved
-with a nerve just inside and running parallel to the edge of the
-leaf. The flowers are regular, epigynous (Figs. <a href="#fig523_524">523</a>, <a href="#fig523_524">524</a>, <a href="#fig525">525</a>) and ☿,
-most frequently <b>4-</b> or 5-merous in the calyx and corolla, with
-<i>many</i> stamens (by splitting, so that they are often in several
-distinct bundles) and an ovary with one style, formed of 2–5–many
-carpels; the receptacle is most frequently united for its entire
-length with the ovary. The fruit varies, but is <i>most frequently a
-berry</i>. The embryo is thick, often curved, with united cotyledons;
-no endosperm.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_488">[488]</span></p>
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Myrteæ, Myrtle Group.</span> Chiefly American, though some
-are found also in Africa and Asia. The fruit is a <i>berry</i>
-with generally 2–5 loculi in the ovary, and many ovules in
-each.&mdash;<i>Myrtus</i>; <i>Eugenia</i> (the petals fall off together
-as a hood in the Clove, <i>E. caryophyllata</i>, Figs. <a href="#fig523_524">523</a>, <a href="#fig523_524">524</a>);
-<i>Myrcia</i>; <i>Jambosa</i>; <i>Amomis</i>; <i>Psidium</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<p>2. <span class="smcap">Puniceæ, Pomegranate Group.</span> Only 2 species (<i>Punica
-granatum</i>; from Persia, Afghanistan), differing in several respects
-from the typical form of the Myrtaceæ. The leaves are generally
-<i>opposite</i>, without glands and marginal veins. The receptacle,
-calyx and corolla are red; the latter 5–8–(generally 6-) merous. Calyx
-valvate and corolla folded as in Lythraceæ, stamens also and epicalyx
-as in this order. The most characteristic feature is the inferior,
-spherical berry, with dry pericarp, formed from two whorls of carpels
-in two tiers (Fig. <a href="#fig525">525</a>); the interior whorl, which is also the lower,
-has 3 carpels, and the placentæ are situated in the inner angles of
-the 3 loculi; the external whorl is 5-merous, and the placentæ have
-originally the same position in the inner angles of the loculi, but
-their position is changed to the outer side of the loculi owing to the
-growth of the wall of the ovary, which takes place early, causing the
-carpels to become, as it were, turned inside out, so that the part
-which was turned downwards is turned upwards, and the part which was
-turned inwards becomes turned outwards (as in <i>Mesembrianthemum</i>).
-The edible part of the fruit is the <i>fleshy testa</i>, as in
-<i>Ribes</i>. The cotyledons are rolled together spirally.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig523_524" style="width: 624px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 523, 524.</span>&mdash;<i>Eugenia caryophyllata.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig523_524.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 523.</span>&mdash;Flowers (nat. size).</p>
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 524.</span>&mdash;A bud (“clove”), long. sec. (mag.).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig525" style="width: 256px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig525.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 525.</span>&mdash;<i>Punica granatum.</i> Flower,
-long. sec. (nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_489">[489]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Lecythideæ.</span> The majority are South American.
-The leaves are scattered, without pellucid glands, and
-frequently dentate. The flowers are zygomorphic. The woody
-fruits are either indehiscent, or open by a lid. To this belong:
-<i>Bertholletia</i> (<i>B. excelsa</i>), the seeds well known
-as “Brazil-nuts,” <i>Lecythis</i> (Sapucaia-nuts from <i>L.
-ollaria</i>), <i>Barringtonia</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>4.</b> <span class="smcap">Leptospermeæ.</span> Almost entirely from Australia
-and the East Asian and Pacific Islands. The fruit is a
-<i>capsule</i>. The leaves are scattered, and in some placed
-edgewise by the twisting of the leaf-stalks.&mdash;<i>Eucalyptus</i>,
-the Australian Gum-tree; the calyx falls off like a lid (Figs.
-<a href="#fig526">526</a>, <a href="#fig527">527</a>). Some of the species attain gigantic heights, <i>E.
-amygdalina</i> 140–150 m. with a diameter of 8 m. The leaves
-in <i>E. globulus</i> are opposite and dorsiventral on the
-young plant; on the older scattered, placed edgewise by the
-twisting of the leaf-stalk, and isolateral; <i>Metrosideros</i>,
-<i>Calothamnus</i> (stamens distinctly polyadelphous),
-<i>Melaleuca</i>, <i>Leptospermum</i>, <i>Callistemon</i> (the
-flowers are borne in spikes whose axis continues to grow after
-flowering, thus several zones of fruits may be seen on the same
-branch).</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig526" style="width: 436px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 526, 527.</span>&mdash;<i>Eucalyptus globulus.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig526.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 526.</span>&mdash;Long. sect. of flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig527" style="width: 201px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig527.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 527.</span>&mdash;Flower opening.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>5.</b> <span class="smcap">Chamælaucieæ.</span> Australian shrubs with
-heath-like appearance; they differ from the other Myrtaceæ in
-having a unilocular ovary with few, basal ovules, and a 1-seeded
-<i>nut</i>. The sepals are often pappus-like, and divided into
-many bristles.&mdash;<i>Chamælaucium</i>, <i>Darwinia</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<p>This large order (2,100 species) is confined almost entirely to
-the Tropics, being found principally in America and Australia.
-In Europe, only <i>Myrtus communis</i>.&mdash;Several are useful
-on account of the large quantity of <i>volatile oils</i>
-(contained in internal glands): the flower-buds (“Cloves”) of
-<i>Eugenia caryophyllata</i> (the Moluccas, cultivated in the
-Tropics, Figs. <a href="#fig523_524">523</a>, <a href="#fig523_524">524</a>); the unripe, dry berries (“Pimento”)
-of <i>Myrtus pimenta</i> (<i>Pimenta officinalis</i>, W.
-Indies); Cajeput oil is extracted from <i>Melaleuca minor</i>
-and <i>leucadendron</i> (East Asian Islands). <i>Eucalyptus
-globulus</i> (Australia) has of late years become well known
-on account of its rapid growth, its hard wood, and its
-antipyretic qualities; it is cultivated on swampy soils, which
-it helps to drain.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: “Cloves,” and the
-cork of both stem and root of <i>Punica granatum</i>. Several
-have <span class="allsmcap">EDIBLE FRUITS</span>, such as <i>Psidium guyava</i>
-(Guava, var. <i>pomiferum</i> and <i>pyriferum</i>, Am.),
-<i>Eugenia cauliflora</i> and others, <i>E. jambosa</i>,
-<i>Punica granatum</i> (the Pomegranate), etc. <span class="smcap">Edible
-seeds</span> (with abundance of <i>fatty oil</i>): “Brazil nuts”
-from <i>Bertholletia excelsa</i> (Trop. S. Am.). “Bay-rum” is
-extracted from the leaves<span class="pagenum" id="Page_490">[490]</span> and fruits of the Bayberry-tree
-(<i>Pimenta acris</i>, W. Ind.); Guava-rum from the berries
-of <i>Eugenia floribunda</i>. <i>Tannin</i> is found in large
-quantities <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Punica</i>. <i>Gum</i> is formed
-by many Australian Eucalypti (“Gum-trees”). <span class="smcap">Ornamental
-plants</span> cultivated in this country are: <i>Myrtus
-communis</i> (Mediterranean), several in conservatories,
-especially the Australian Leptospermeæ, Eucalyptæ and others.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 24. <b>Umbellifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flower is regular, ☿, and <i>completely epigynous</i>, 5- or
-4-merous, with <b>1</b> whorl of stamens and 5–2 carpels. <i>Sepals
-very small, tooth-like.</i> The <i>corolla is polypetalous, most
-frequently valvate in æstivation</i> (least pronounced in the
-Umbelliferous plants). Round the base of the styles, which are
-generally free, there is an <i>epigynous</i> (undivided, or divided)
-<i>nectar-disc</i> (“stylar-foot”: Figs. <a href="#fig528">528</a> <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>,
-<i>D</i>; <a href="#fig539">539</a>); the number of loculi in the ovary equals that of
-the carpels; <i>only <b>1</b> pendulous (anatropous) ovule</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig528">528</a> <i>C</i>) <i>in each loculus</i>. Endosperm copious (Fig.
-<a href="#fig528">528</a> <i>D</i>). To this must be added that the inflorescence in the
-majority of cases is an <i>umbel</i> or a capitulum, especially in the
-<i>Umbelliferæ</i> and <i>Araliaceæ</i>. Stipules are absent, but most
-frequently the base of the petiole forms a large sheath.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The Umbellifloræ are on one side so closely allied to the
-Frangulinæ, especially Rhamnaceæ, that they may perhaps be
-regarded as the epigynous continuation of this family. On
-the other hand, the similarities to the Rubiales, especially
-those between Cornaceæ and Sambuceæ, are so great that there
-is scarcely any character to distinguish them except the
-polypetalous corolla of the former and the gamopetalous corolla
-of the latter. Whether this is more than a merely analogous
-resemblance, and if not, whether the Cornaceæ at least should
-not be included in the Rubiales, must be left in abeyance.&mdash;The
-sepals are very small, as is generally the case in epigynous
-flowers.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Cornaceæ.</b> The majority of the species are shrubs
-with solid internodes, <i>opposite</i> (rarely scattered)
-leaves, which are <i>simple</i>, <i>entire</i> (rarely incised),
-penninerved, <i>without</i> stipules or large sheaths; flowers
-<i><b>4</b>-merous</i> (most frequently S4, P4, A4, G2), borne
-in dichasia which are either collected into corymbs (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Cornus sanguinea</i>), or in closely crowded umbels or capitula
-(<i>Cornus mas</i>, <i>C. suecica</i>), in which latter case there is
-often a <i>large</i>, leafy, or coloured, most frequently 4-leaved
-<i>involucre</i> round the base of the inflorescence; the <i>style is
-undivided</i>, with lobed stigma; the raphe of the ovule is turned
-<i>outwards</i>. The fruit is a <i>berry</i> or a <i>drupe</i>, with a
-1–4-locular stone or 2 free stones.</p>
-
-<p><i>Cornus</i> (Dogwood, Cornel) has S4, P4, A4, G2. Leaves opposite.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_491">[491]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Drupe</i> with a bilocular, 2-seeded stone.&mdash;<i>Aucuba</i>,
-diœcious; unilocular ovary; 1 ovule; 1-seeded
-berry.&mdash;<i>Garrya.</i>&mdash;<i>Helwingia.</i></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>80 species; N. Temp. The fruits of <i>Cornus mas</i> are edible;
-the wood is very hard; gum is found in some. Several species of
-<i>Cornus</i> and <i>Aucuba japonica</i> (Japan) are cultivated
-as ornamental shrubs.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Araliaceæ (Ivies).</b> Principally <i>trees</i> or
-<i>shrubs</i> with <i>solid stems</i>. The leaves are <i>scattered</i>,
-simple or compound, with a sheath more or less developed. The flowers
-are most frequently situated in umbels or capitula which are either
-borne singly or in racemes, or in paniculate inflorescences. The small,
-most frequently yellowish-green flowers are <b>5</b>-<i>merous</i>, in
-the calyx, corolla, and andrœcium; the gynœceum may be 5-merous or may
-have some other number (<b>2</b>-∞). The styles are most frequently
-several, free; the <i>raphe</i> of the ovules is turned <i>inwards</i>
-as in the Umbelliferous plants. The fruit is a <i>drupe</i> or
-<i>berry</i>.&mdash;<span class="smaller">Stellate hairs often occur. The petals generally
-have a broad base, and a thick apex which is slightly incurved, and a
-distinctly valvate æstivation.</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Hedera helix</i> (Ivy) climbs by adventitious roots. The leaves are
-palminerved and lobed on the sterile branches, but often ovate and not
-lobed on the flowering branches. <span class="smaller">The flowers are yellowish-green
-and open in the autumn; they are slightly protandrous, and are visited
-by flies and wasps. Berries black. Endosperm ruminate.&mdash;<i>Panax.</i>
-<i>Aralia</i> (with <i>Dimorphanthus</i>).</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>375 species, 51 genera; especially in the Tropics (E.
-Asia).&mdash;The Ivy, several species of <i>Aralia</i>, <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>A. japonica</i> (<i>Fatsia</i>), <i>Gastonia palmata</i>, are
-cultivated as ornamental plants. Paper is manufactured from the
-pith of <i>Aralia papyrifera</i> (China).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Umbelliferæ.</b> <i>The stem is herbaceous</i> with
-<i>hollow internodes</i>; the leaves are <i>scattered</i>, and have
-a broad, amplexicaul base, a <i>large, most frequently inflated
-sheath</i>, and generally a pinnate (often very much dissected)
-blade. <span class="smaller">Entire leaves are found in <i>Hydrocotyle vulgaris</i>;
-<i>Bupleurum</i>.</span></p>
-
-<p>The flowers are ☿, regular, small, but collected in <i>compound
-umbels</i>, that is, in “simple umbels,” which again are borne in
-umbels (for exceptions see <i>Hydrocotyleæ</i>); the external flowers
-in the simple umbel have often subtending bracts, which surround
-the base as an <i>involucre</i>, and may be termed the <i>small
-involucre</i>; the internal ones have no bracts; when involucral leaves
-are present at the base of the compound umbel, they may be termed the
-<i>large involucre</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig528" style="width: 666px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig528.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 528.</span>&mdash;<i>Daucus carota</i> with flower and
-fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The <i>flower</i> has <b>5</b> sepals (the median, as usual,
-posterior), <b>5</b> petals, <b>5</b> stamens and <b>2</b> carpels (in
-the median line) (Fig. <a href="#fig528">528</a>). The calyx is often scarcely indicated.
-The petals have a short claw<span class="pagenum" id="Page_492">[492]</span> are most frequently obcordate, or have
-an incurved apex (Fig. <a href="#fig528">528</a> <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>), being incurved in the
-bud; they are white, rarely yellow (Fennel and Parsnips), blue or
-red. The flowers are sometimes zygomorphic, especially those on the
-circumference of the umbel, and in that case it is the petal which
-is directed outside (anterior) which is the largest, and the two
-posterior are the smallest (<i>e.g. Heracleum</i>). The stamens are
-<i>incurved</i> in the bud. The 2 <i>free styles</i> unite at the base
-into the “stylar-foot” (<i>stylopod</i>), a swollen nectary (Fig. <a href="#fig528">528</a>
-<i>B</i>, <i>C</i>); the ovary is bilocular, the raphe of the ovules
-being directed inwards. <i>The fruit is a schizocarp</i>, <i>dividing
-into two mericarps</i>; the plane in which these separate coincides
-with that of the union of the carpels, and the two <i>nut-like
-mericarps</i> are in most genera kept together for awhile at the top
-of a thin, bifid, or undivided stalk (<i>carpophore</i>) which is in
-direct continuation with the flower-stalk (Fig. <a href="#fig537">537</a>). Each mericarp
-has most frequently 5 more or less strongly projecting ridges, the
-<i>primary ridges</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig530">530</a>, <a href="#fig532">532</a>, <a href="#fig534">534</a>, <a href="#fig535">535</a>, etc.), of which 3
-lie on the back of the mericarp, the <i>dorsal ridges</i>, and 2 on
-its edge near the plane of division, the <i>marginal ridges</i>; five
-of these (10 ridges<span class="pagenum" id="Page_493">[493]</span> in all in the entire fruit) are placed opposite
-the calyx-teeth and the others between them. In some genera there are
-in addition 4 <i>secondary ridges</i> to each mericarp between the
-primary ones (Fig. <a href="#fig528">528</a> <i>E</i>: the secondary ridges bear the long
-bristles). Inside these secondary ridges, or inside the grooves between
-the primary ridges, when the secondary ridges are absent, <i>oil
-ducts</i> (vittæ, schizogenous ducts) are found in the pericarp, most
-frequently one in each groove; two are also often found on the ventral
-side of each mericarp (Figs. <a href="#fig528">528</a> <i>E</i>, 530 <i>ol</i>, etc.). The
-seed is most frequently united with the pericarp. The <i>embryo</i>
-is <i>small</i> and lies high up in the large, most frequently horny
-endosperm (Fig. <a href="#fig528">528</a> <i>D</i>).&mdash;The endosperm <i>does not contain
-starch, but oil</i>, and presents three different forms, of important
-systematic value: (<b>a</b>) those which are quite flat on the ventral
-side (<i>i.e.</i> the side turned towards the plane of splitting)
-(Figs. <a href="#fig528">528</a> <i>E</i>, <a href="#fig530">530</a>, <a href="#fig531">531</a>, <a href="#fig534">534</a>, etc.): the majority of the genera,
-<span class="smcap">Orthospermeæ</span> (<i>e.g. Carum</i>, <i>Pastinaca</i>);
-(<b>b</b>) those in which the endosperm on the ventral side is provided
-with a longitudinal groove, often deep: <span class="smcap">Campylospermeæ</span>
-(<i>e.g. Anthriscus</i>); the transverse section is nearly
-a crescent (Fig. <a href="#fig532">532</a>); (<b>c</b>) those in which the endosperm is
-concave on the ventral side (hollow in both longitudinal and transverse
-sections): <span class="smcap">Cœlospermeæ</span> (<i>e.g. Coriandrum</i>) (Fig.
-<a href="#fig538">538</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The genera are distinguished first of all by the endosperm and
-forms of fruit, the ridges and oil-ducts; then by the form of
-the umbel, the calyx and corolla, by the absence or presence of
-an involucre, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig529" style="width: 150px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig529.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 529.</span>&mdash;<i>Hydrocotyle vulgaris.</i>
-Transverse section of fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>1. <span class="smcap">Hydrocotyleæ</span>, <span class="smcap">Penny-wort Group</span>. <i>Capitula</i> or
-<i>simple umbels</i> (all the other groups have compound umbels). No
-oil-ducts. Orthospermous.&mdash;<i>Hydrocotyle</i> (Penny-wort). The fruit
-is <i>considerably compressed</i> laterally (Fig. <a href="#fig529">529</a>). The calyx-teeth
-are small. The leaves are peltate.&mdash;<i>Didiscus.</i>&mdash;<i>Sanicula</i>
-(Sannicle). The umbels are small, capitate, generally collected
-in a raceme; calyx-teeth distinct. ♂-and ♀-flowers in the same
-umbel. The fruits are round, studded with hooked bristles. No
-carpophore.&mdash;<i>Astrantia</i> has an umbel surrounded by a large,
-often coloured involucre, with this exception it is the same as the
-preceding, but the fruit is slightly compressed, with 5 equal ridges.
-<i>Hacquetia</i> (<i>Dondia</i>).&mdash;<i>Eryngium</i> (Sea Holly): leaves
-often thorny. The flowers <i>are all<span class="pagenum" id="Page_494">[494]</span> sessile</i>, the inflorescence
-is thus a capitulum; each flower is often subtended by a bract, which
-is thorny like the involucre, resembling the burrs of the Teasel. The
-sepals are large.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Lagœcia</i>: one of the loculi of the ovary is
-suppressed.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig530" style="width: 511px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig530.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 530.</span>&mdash;Fruit of <i>Carum petroselinum</i>:
-<i>fr</i> endosperm; <i>ol</i> oil-ducts.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig531" style="width: 299px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig531.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 531.</span>&mdash;<i>Pimpinella.</i> Transverse
-section of fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Ammieæ</span>, <span class="smcap">Caraway Group</span> (Figs. <a href="#fig530">530–532</a>).
-The fruit has only the 10 primary ridges; it is usually short,
-almost spherical or broadly ovate and distinctly <i>compressed</i>
-laterally. Oil-canals are most frequently present. Orthospermous
-(except <i>Conium</i>).&mdash;<i>Cicuta</i> (Cow-bane). Pointed
-calyx-teeth. Glabrous herbs with pinnate or bipinnate leaves. <span class="smaller"><i>C.
-virosa</i> has a thick, vertical rhizome, divided by transverse
-septa into many compartments; the leaflets are narrow, lanceolate,
-and dentate; the large involucre is wanting.</span>&mdash;<i>Apium</i>
-(Celery). No calyx-teeth. <i>A. graveolens</i>, a maritime plant,
-has neither large nor small involucre; the umbels are short-stalked
-or sessile.&mdash;<i>Carum</i> (Caraway). Calyx-teeth small; the large
-involucre is wanting or is only few-leaved. <i>C. carvi</i> (Caraway).
-<i>C. petroselinum</i>, (Parsley) (Fig. <a href="#fig530">530</a>). <i>Falcaria</i>;
-<i>Ammi</i>; <i>Helosciadium</i>; <i>Bupleurum</i> (Hare’s-ear) with
-simple leaves and yellow corolla; <i>Pimpinella</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig531">531</a>);
-<i>Sium</i>; <i>Ægopodium</i> (<i>A. podagraria</i>, Gout-weed) has
-bi- or tri-ternate leaves, with ovate, dentate leaflets; the large
-involucre is wanting.&mdash;<i>Conium</i> is campylospermous (Fig. <a href="#fig532">532</a>);
-the short, broadly ovate fruit has distinctly projecting, often wavy
-crenulate ridges. <i>C. maculatum</i> (Hemlock) has a round, smooth
-stem with purplish spots.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig532" style="width: 470px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig532.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 532.</span>&mdash;<i>Conium maculatum.</i> Fruit
-entire and in transverse section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_495">[495]</span></p>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Scandiceæ.</span> This group has a distinctly oblong
-or linear fruit which is <i>slightly compressed laterally</i>,
-and generally prolonged upwards into a “beak”; wings absent.
-<i>Campylospermous.</i> Otherwise as in the Ammieæ.&mdash;<i>Anthriscus</i>
-(Beaked Parsley) has a lanceolate fruit, round on the dorsal
-side, without ridges, but with a ten-ridged beak.&mdash;<i>Scandix</i>
-(Shepherd’s-needle).&mdash;<i>Chærophyllum</i> (Chervil): fruit lanceolate
-or linear with low, blunt ridges; beak absent or very short. <i>C.
-temulum</i> has a red-spotted, hairy stem.&mdash;<i>Myrrhis</i> (Cicely) has
-a short beak and sharp, almost winged ridges. <i>M. odorata</i> (Sweet
-Cicely) has very long fruits.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig533" style="width: 365px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig533.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 533.</span>&mdash;<i>Œnanthe phellandrium.</i> Fruit
-entire and in transverse section. <i>emb</i> The embryo; <i>ol</i> the
-oil-ducts; <i>fr</i> endosperm.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig534" style="width: 282px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig534.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 534.</span>&mdash;<i>Fœniculum vulgare.</i> Fruit in
-transverse section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>4.</b> <span class="smcap">Seselineæ</span>, <span class="smcap">Fennel Group</span> (Figs. <a href="#fig533">533</a>, <a href="#fig534">534</a>).
-The fruit is slightly elliptical or oblong, in transverse section
-circular or nearly so, without grooves in the dividing plane; only
-primary ridges are present. Orthospermous.&mdash;<i>Fœniculum</i> (Fennel)
-has yellow petals; both involucres are wanting; the fruit is oblong.
-The ridges are thick, all equally developed, or the lateral ridges are
-slightly larger (Fig. <a href="#fig534">534</a>).&mdash;<i>Æthusa</i> (<i>A. cynapium</i>, Fool’s
-Parsley); the large involucre is wanting or is reduced to one leaf, the
-small involucre is composed of three linear leaves which hang downwards
-on the outer side of the umbels. The fruit is spherical-ovate,
-with thick, sharp, keeled ridges, the lateral ones of which are
-the broadest.&mdash;<i>Œnanthe</i> (Dropwort); the fruit (Fig. <a href="#fig533">533</a>) has
-usually an ovate, lanceolate form, with distinct, pointed sepals and
-long, erect styles; the ridges are very blunt, the marginal ones a
-trifle broader than the others.&mdash;<i>Seseli</i>, <i>Libanotis</i>,
-<i>Cnidium</i>, <i>Silex</i>, <i>Silaus</i>, <i>Meum</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_496">[496]</span></p>
-
-<p><b>5.</b> <span class="smcap">Peucedaneæ</span>, <span class="smcap">Parsnip Group</span> (Figs. <a href="#fig535">535–537</a>).
-The fruit is most frequently very strongly <i>compressed</i> dorsally,
-with broad, mostly <i>winged</i>, lateral ridges. Only primary ridges.
-The dorsal ridges may project considerably, but are not winged.
-Orthospermous.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig535" style="width: 487px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig535.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 535.</span>&mdash;<i>Archangelica officinalis.</i>
-Transverse section of fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig536" style="width: 450px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig536.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 536.</span>&mdash;<i>Scorodosma fœtidum.</i>
-Transverse section of fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>a.</b> The winged lateral ridges stand <i>out from each other</i>,
-so that the fruit appears to be 4-winged (Fig. <a href="#fig535">535</a>).&mdash;<i>Angelica</i>;
-<i>Archangelica</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig535">535</a>); <i>Levisticum</i> (Lovage).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig537" style="width: 319px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig537.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 537.</span>&mdash;<i>Heracleum sphondylium.</i> Fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>b.</b> The winged lateral ridges lie <i>close together</i>, and
-form one wing on each side of the fruit (Fig. <a href="#fig536">536</a>).&mdash;<i>Pastinaca</i>
-(Parsnip). Corolla yellow. The dorsal ridges are very weak; the
-oil-ducts do not reach quite as far as the base of the fruit.
-Both large and small involucres are wanting; leaflets ovate.
-<i>Anethum</i> (Dill) is a Parsnip with more distinct dorsal
-ridges and filamentous leaflets. <i>Peucedanum</i> (Hog’s-fennel);
-<i>Ferula</i> (with <i>Scorodosma</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig536">536</a>, and <i>Narthex</i>);
-<i>Dorema</i>.&mdash;<i>Heracleum</i> (Cow-parsnip); the flowers in the
-margin of the umbels are often very large, zygomorphic, and project
-like rays, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>H. sibiricum</i>. The fruit is very flat,
-with very small dorsal ridges; the oil-ducts are more or less club-like
-and <i>do not reach as far as</i> the base of the fruit (Fig. <a href="#fig537">537</a>).
-<i>Imperatoria</i>; <i>Tordylium</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>6.</b> <span class="smcap">Dauceæ</span>, <span class="smcap">Carrot Group</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig528">528</a>). The fruit
-has 18 ridges, <i>i.e.</i> each fruitlet has 5 primary and 4 secondary
-ridges, the latter being often more prominent and projecting further
-than the primary ones. The oil-ducts are situated under the secondary
-ridges (Fig. <a href="#fig528">528</a>).</p>
-
-<p><b>a.</b> <span class="smcap">Orthospermous</span>: <i>Daucus</i> (Carrot). The secondary
-ridges project much further than the primary, and bear on their crests
-a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_497">[497]</span> series of hooked spines (Fig. <a href="#fig528">528</a> <i>D</i>, <i>E</i>); these are
-much longer than the small bristles on the primary ridges. <span class="smaller">The
-involucral leaves of <i>D. carota</i> (Carrot) are numerous and deeply
-pinnate; the inflorescence contracts during the ripening of the fruit,
-and since the external umbels have longer stalks than the central ones,
-they arch over them, and the inflorescence becomes hollow. For the
-terminal flower, see below.</span>&mdash;<i>Cuminum</i>; <i>Laserpitium</i>;
-<i>Melanoselinum</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>b.</b> <span class="smcap">Campylospermous</span>: <i>Torilis</i> (Hedge Parsley).
-The primary ridges are covered with bristles; the secondary ridges are
-not. very distinct on account of the spines, which entirely fill up the
-grooves. <i>Caucalis</i> (Bur Parsley).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig538" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig538.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 538.</span>&mdash;<i>Coriandrum sativum</i>: <i>b</i>
-secondary ridges; <i>d</i> primary ridges; <i>f</i> endosperm; <i>l</i>
-embryo.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>c.</b> <span class="smcap">Cœlospermous</span>: <i>Coriandrum</i> (Coriander) has a
-smooth, spherical fruit (Fig. <a href="#fig538">538</a>) with a distinct, 5-dentate calyx,
-the two anterior (<i>i.e.</i> turned outward) teeth being generally
-longer than the others; the two fruitlets scarcely separate from each
-other naturally; all the ridges project only very slightly, the curved
-primary ones least, the secondary ridges most.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> The flowers are adapted for
-insect-pollination; they secrete nectar at the base of the
-styles; individually they are rather small and insignificant,
-but yet are rendered conspicuous by being always crowded in
-many-flowered inflorescences. <i>Protandry</i> is common,
-sometimes to such an extent that the stamens have already fallen
-off before the styles begin to develop (Fig <a href="#fig539">539</a>, 2). Insect
-visits are more frequent and numerous as the inflorescences are
-more conspicuous. The flowers as a rule are ☿, but ♂-flowers
-are often found interspersed among the others (Fig. <a href="#fig539">539</a>), and
-the number of these becomes greater on the umbels developed at
-the latest period. A terminal flower, which differs from the
-others in form, and in <i>Daucus carota</i> often in colour also
-(purple), is sometimes found in the umbel. The nectar lies so
-exposed and flat that the flowers are principally visited by
-insects with short probosces, especially Diptera; bees are less
-frequent visitors, and butterflies rare.&mdash;1400 species (175
-genera); especially from temperate climates in Europe, Asia, N.
-Am. About 68 species in this country.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_498">[498]</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig539" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig539.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 539.</span>&mdash;<i>Anthriscus silvester</i>: 1
-♂-flower; 2 ☿-flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> A few are cultivated as ornamental plants.
-They are, however, useful in medicine,<a id="FNanchor_38" href="#Footnote_38" class="fnanchor">[38]</a> and for culinary
-purposes on account of the <i>essential oils</i> and
-<i>gum-resins</i> which in many are formed in root, stem,
-and fruit. The <span class="allsmcap">FRUITS</span> of the following are used:
-<i>Carum carvi</i> [+] (Caraway), <i>Carum petroselinum</i>
-(Parsley; also the leaves and root; its home is the Eastern
-Mediterranean); <i>Fœniculum capillaceum</i> [+] (Fennel; S.
-Europe); <i>Pimpinella anisum</i> [+] (Anise; E. Mediterranean);
-<i>Coriandrum sativum</i> [+] (Coriander; S. Eur.); <i>Œnanthe
-phellandrium</i> (Water Dropwort); <i>Cuminum cyminum</i>
-(Point Caraway; Africa; cultivated in S. Europe); <i>Anethum
-graveolens</i> (Dill). The <span class="allsmcap">LEAVES</span> of the following
-are used as pot-herbs: <i>Anthriscus cerefolium</i> (Chervil);
-<i>Myrrhis odorata</i> (Sweet Cicely; Orient.); <i>Conium
-maculatum</i> [+] (the green portions; Hemlock). Besides
-Parsley, the <span class="allsmcap">ROOTS</span> of the following are used:
-Carrot, Parsnip, <i>Sium sisarum</i> (Sugar-root; E. Asia);
-<i>Chærophyllum bulbosum</i> (Chervil-root); <i>Levisticum
-officinale</i> (foliage-shoots; S. Europe); <i>Imperatoria
-ostruthium</i>; <i>Apium graveolens</i> (Celery, the root in
-conjunction with the internodes); <i>Pimpinella saxifraga</i>
-and <i>magna</i> (Pimpinell); <i>Archangelica</i> (Angelica,
-the root of <i>A. norvegica</i> was formerly an article of
-food in Norway). <i>Poisonous alkaloids</i> are found in a
-few, such as Fool’s Parsley (<i>Æthusa cynapium</i>), Hemlock
-(<i>Conium maculatum</i>), Cow-bane (<i>Cicuta virosa</i>) and
-species of <i>Œnanthe</i>.&mdash;<i>Gum-resin</i> is extracted from
-various species: “Galbanum” from <i>Ferula galbaniflua</i> [+]
-and <i>rubricalis</i> [+] (Persia); Asafœtida from <i>Ferula
-scorodosma</i> [+] and <i>F. narthex</i> [+]; Ammoniac-gum from
-<i>Dorema ammoniacum</i> [+], all from Central and S. W. Asia.
-“<i>Silphium</i>” was an Umbelliferous plant which grew in
-ancient times in Cyrene, and from which the Romans extracted a
-valued condiment.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<p>Family 25. <b>Hysterophyta.</b></p>
-
-<p>This family (with the exception of Aristolochiaceæ) includes only
-parasitic plants. Partly on this ground, and partly because they all
-have <i>epigynous</i> flowers, they are considered to belong to the
-youngest type (which is expressed in the name ὕστερος, the one that
-comes after). It is not certain to which of the preceding families they
-are most nearly allied. <span class="smaller">Again, it is a matter of doubt<span class="pagenum" id="Page_499">[499]</span> whether the
-Aristolochiaceæ are related to the others; they are by Engler united
-with Rafflesiaceæ into one family, <i>Aristolochiales</i>.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig540" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig540.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 540.</span>&mdash;Flower of <i>Aristolochia
-clematitis</i> (long. sect.). <i>A</i> Before pollination, and <i>B</i>
-after: <i>n</i> stigma; <i>a</i> anthers; <i>t</i> an insect; <i>kf</i>
-ovary.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <i>Aristolochiaceæ.</i> The majority are perennial herbs or
-twining shrubs, whose stalked, simple, and generally more or less
-cordate or reniform leaves are borne in 2 rows and are exstipulate.
-The flowers are <i>hermaphrodite</i>, <i>epigynous</i>, regular or
-zygomorphic; perianth-leaves united, <i>simple</i> but most frequently
-<i>petaloid</i> and 3-merous; 6 or 12 (in <i>Thottea</i> as many as
-36) stamens with <i>extrorse</i> anthers. The ovary is more or less
-completely 4–6-locular with ovules attached in the inner angles of
-the loculi (Fig. <a href="#fig540">540</a> <i>kf</i>). The style is short, and has a large,
-radiating stigma (Fig. <a href="#fig540">540</a> <i>n</i>). Fruit a capsule. Seeds rich in
-endosperm.</p>
-
-<p><i>Asarum europæum.</i> Each shoot has 2 reniform foliage-leaves,
-between which the terminal flower is borne (the rhizome becomes
-a sympodium by development of the bud in the axil of the upper
-foliage-leaf). The flower is <i>regular</i> and has a bell-shaped
-perianth with 3 outer valvate, and 3 inner small segments (which
-may be wanting). <b>12</b> (2 × 6) free, extrorse stamens, 6
-carpels.&mdash;<i>Aristolochia clematitis</i> (Birth-wort) has an erect,
-unbranched stem, bearing many flowers in the leaf-axils, in a zig-zag
-row (accessory buds in a unipared scorpioid cyme). The flowers are
-zygomorphic (Fig. <a href="#fig540">540</a>), formed by 3 alternating, 6-merous whorls. The
-perianth has a lower, much-distended part (<i>k</i>), succeeded by a
-narrow, bent tube (<i>r</i>), which passes over into an oblique, almost
-tongue-like projection<span class="pagenum" id="Page_500">[500]</span> (6 vascular bundles indicate that the number
-6 is prevalent here, as in <i>Asarum</i>); <b>6</b> stamens (Fig. <a href="#fig540">540</a>
-<i>a</i>), with the dorsal portion turned upwards, are united with
-the short style to form a <i>stylar column</i>; they are placed quite
-beneath the 6 commissural stigmatic rays, which arch over them as
-short, thick lobes. <span class="smaller">Protogynous; <span class="smcap">Pollination</span> is effected
-in <i>Arist. clematitis</i> by small flies; these enter the erect
-unfertilised flower through the tube (Fig. <a href="#fig540">540</a> <i>A</i>, <i>l</i>)
-without being prevented by the stiff, downwardly-turned hairs which
-line the tube and prevent their escape; they find the stigma (<i>n</i>)
-fully developed, and may pollinate it with the pollen they have brought
-with them. The stigmas then straighten and wither (<i>B</i>, <i>n</i>),
-the anthers open, and the flies may again be covered with pollen; but
-the hairs which blocked up the tube do not wither until the anthers
-have shed their pollen, and only then allow the imprisoned flies to
-escape and effect cross-pollination. Prior to pollination, the flowers
-stand erect, but after this has taken place they become pendulous, and
-the perianth soon withers.&mdash;<i>A. sipho</i> (Pipe-flower), another
-species, is a climber, and often grown in gardens; it has only one row
-of accessory buds in the leaf-axils.&mdash;200 species; chiefly in S. Am.
-<span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: the rhizome of <i>Aristolochia serpentaria</i> (N.
-Am.).</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig541" style="width: 460px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig541.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 541.</span>&mdash;A fruit of <i>Myzodendron
-brachystachyum</i> (slightly mag.) germinating on a branch.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Santalaceæ.</b> Parasites containing chlorophyll,
-which, by the help of peculiar organs of suction (haustoria)
-on their roots, live principally on the roots of other
-plants. Some are herbs, others under-shrubs. The regular,
-most frequently ☿-flowers have a simple perianth, which is
-gamophyllous, 3- or 5 partite with the segments valvate in
-the bud, and a corresponding number of stamens opposite the
-perianth-leaves. In the inferior ovary there is a <i>free,
-centrally placed</i>, often long and curved <i>placenta</i>
-with three ovules (one opposite each carpel); these are naked,
-or in any case have an extremely insignificant integument.
-Fruit a nut or drupe. Seed without testa. Endosperm fleshy. 225
-species; chiefly in the Tropics.&mdash;<i>Thesium</i>, a native,
-is a herb with scattered, linear leaves and small 5-merous
-flowers (P5, A5, G3) in erect racemes; the subtending bracts
-are displaced on the flower-stalks. Fruit a nut.&mdash;<i>Osyris</i>
-(diœcious shrub; 3-merous flowers) is another European
-genus.&mdash;<i>Santalum album</i>, which grows in E. Ind., yields
-the valuable, scented Sandalwood, the oil of which is used
-medicinally.&mdash;<i>Quinchamalium.</i></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_501">[501]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Myzodendron</i> is a reduced form of the Santalaceæ; the
-♂-flowers are without perianth; the perianth of the ♀-flower
-is 3-merous. About 7 species; S. Am.; parasitic on a Beech
-(<i>Nothofagus</i>). The fruit has 3 feathery brushes,
-alternating with the lobes of the stigma, which serve as flying
-organs and to attach the fruits to a branch (Fig. <a href="#fig541">541</a>), the
-brushes twining round as soon as they come in contact with it.
-There is only 1 seed in the fruit, which germinates by a long,
-negatively heliotropic hypocotyl, and is attached by a radicle
-modified into an haustorium.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Loranthaceæ</b> (<b>Mistletoes</b>). Plants containing
-chlorophyll which are parasites on trees, and most frequently have
-opposite, simple, entire leaves and regular, epigynous, often
-unisexual, 2- or 3-merous flowers, with single or double perianth.
-Stamens equal in number and opposite to the perianth-leaves, free,
-or in varying degrees united to one another. The inferior ovary is
-constructed as in the Santalaceæ, the ovules being situated on a low,
-free, centrally-placed placenta, but the placenta and ovules unite with
-the wall of the ovary into <i>one connected, parenchymatous mass</i>,
-in which <i>the embryo-sacs are imbedded</i>. Only 1 (less frequently
-2–3) of the 1–6 embryo-sacs is fertile. The number of the carpels
-however varies. The fruit is a <i>1-seeded berry</i>, whose inner layer
-is changed into a <i>tough slimy mass</i> (bird-lime), which serves to
-attach the fruits to other plants.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The two groups, <i>Loranthoideæ</i> and <i>Viscoideæ</i>,
-are distinguished by the fact that the former has a distinct
-“calyculus,” <i>i.e.</i> an entire or lobed, or dentate swelling
-on the receptacle below the perianth. The majority of the
-Loranthoideæ have a petaloid perianth; in all the Viscoideæ, on
-the other hand, it is sepaloid.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig542" style="width: 278px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig542.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 542.</span>&mdash;<i>Viscum album</i>: <i>A</i>
-branch with leaves and berries: <i>a</i> scale-leaves; <i>b</i>
-foliage-leaves; <i>n m n</i> flowers; <i>B</i> seedling,
-the bark of the branch being removed; <i>C</i> an older embryo which
-still retains the cotyledons.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig543" style="width: 355px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig543.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 543.</span>&mdash;To the left the Rafflesiaceous
-<i>Cytinus hypocistus</i>, parasitic on the roots of <i>Cistus</i>. To
-the right the Balanophoraceous <i>Cynomorium coccineum</i>, parasitic
-on the roots of <i>Salicornia</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_502">[502]</span></p>
-
-<p>The Mistletoe (<i>Viscum album</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig542">542</a>) is a native, evergreen
-plant which may be found growing on almost any of our trees (sometimes
-on the Oak), and, like other Loranthaceæ, it produces swellings of
-the affected branches. <span class="smaller">Its spherical white berries (Fig. <a href="#fig542">542</a>
-<i>A</i>) enclose (1–) 2–3 green embryos; they are eaten by birds
-(especially Thrushes), and are partly sown with their excrement,
-partly struck or brushed off the branches of the trees, the seed
-being enclosed, at maturity, by viscin, <i>i.e.</i> “bird-lime.”
-The seeds may also germinate on the branches, without having first
-passed through the alimentary canal of the birds. On germination,
-the hypocotyl-axis first appears, as in Fig. <a href="#fig541">541</a>, and bends towards
-the branch; the apex of the root then broadens, and forms at the
-end a disc-like haustorium, from the centre of which a root-like
-body grows through the bark into the wood, and ramifies between the
-bark and wood. Suckers are developed on the root like strands which
-are formed in this manner, without, however, having a rootcap; they
-are green, and penetrate the wood by the medullary rays (Fig. <a href="#fig542">542</a>
-<i>C</i>). Adventitious buds may also be developed from the root-like
-strands which break<span class="pagenum" id="Page_503">[503]</span> through the bark and emerge as young plants.
-The young stem quickly ceases its longitudinal growth, and lateral
-shoots are developed from the axils of its foliage-leaves. These and
-all following shoots have a similar structure; each of them bears
-a pair of scale-leaves (Fig. <a href="#fig542">542</a> <i>A</i>, <i>a</i>) and a pair of
-foliage-leaves (Fig.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_504">[504]</span> <a href="#fig542">542</a> <i>A</i>, <i>b</i>), and then terminates its
-growth, if it does not produce an inflorescence; new lateral shoots
-proceed from the axils of the foliage-leaves, and the branching, in
-consequence, is extremely regular and falsely dichotomous. Only one
-internode (shoot-generation) is formed each year, so that each fork
-indicates one year. The foliage-leaves fall off in the second year.
-The inflorescence is a 3(-5)-flowered dichasium (Fig. <a href="#fig542">542</a> <i>A</i>,
-<i>m</i> is the central flower, <i>n</i> the lateral). The plants are
-<i>diœcious</i>; the ♂-flower as a rule is 2-merous: perianth 2 + 2,
-each leaf of which bears on its inner side 6–20 pollen-sacs, each of
-which opens by a pore; this relationship may be considered to have
-arisen from the union of the perianth-leaves with the multilocular
-stamens (2 + 2) placed opposite them. The ♀-flowers always have
-Pr 2 + 2, G2.&mdash;<i>Loranthus</i> is also found in Europe (it has
-a 3-merous flower), especially in the central and south-eastern
-districts, on <i>Quercus cerris</i> and <i>Q. pubescens</i>; but
-the great majority of the 520 species grow in the Tropics on trees
-which they ornament with their often brightly-coloured flowers, and
-ultimately kill when present in too great numbers. The pollination in
-the numerous Loranthaceæ with unisexual flowers, is effected by the
-wind. In <i>Viscum album</i> this takes place in autumn, the actual
-fertilisation in the following spring, and the maturity in November
-or December; in the succeeding month of May the berry is ready to
-germinate, and falls off.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Uses.</span> Birdlime from <i>Viscum album</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Rafflesiaceæ</b> and Order 5. <b>Balanophoraceæ</b>.
-These orders comprise <i>root-parasites</i>, almost entirely
-devoid of chlorophyll; they are reddish or yellow, without
-foliage-leaves (Fig. <a href="#fig543">543</a>). As far as our knowledge of these
-rare tropical plants extends, they have thalloid organs of
-vegetation resembling the root-like strands of <i>Viscum</i>,
-or they are filamentous and branched like Fungus-hyphæ; they
-live in and on the tissues of the host-plant, from which their
-flowering-shoots, often of mushroom-like form, are subsequently
-developed (Fig. <a href="#fig543">543</a>). In order to unfold they must often break
-through the tissues of the host-plant.</p>
-
-<p>Of the <span class="smcap">Rafflesiaceæ</span>, <i>Cytinus hypocistus</i> is
-found in S. Europe living on roots of <i>Cistus</i>-plants
-and to some extent resembling <i>Monotropa</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig543">543</a>).
-<i>Rafflesia</i> is the best known; it lives on roots of
-<i>Cissus</i>-species (belonging to the Ampelidaceæ) in Java;
-its yellowish-red, stinking flowers attain a gigantic size (one
-metre or more in diameter), and are borne almost directly on the
-roots of the host-plant. Besides these there are other genera:
-<i>Brugmansia</i>, <i>Pilostyles</i>, <i>Hydnora</i>.&mdash;To
-<span class="smcap">Balanophoraceæ</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig543">543</a>) belong: <i>Balanophora</i>,
-<i>Langsdorffia</i>, <i>Scybalium</i>, <i>Sarcophyte</i>,
-<i>Helosis</i>, etc., and in S. Europe, <i>Cynomorium
-coccineum</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller">Sub-Class 2. <b>Sympetalæ.</b></h3>
-
-<p>The characters which separate this from the first Sub-class, the
-Choripetalæ, have been described on page <a href="#Page_336">336</a>. They consist in the
-following: the flower is always verticillate, generally with <b>5</b>
-sepals, <b>5</b> petals, <b>5</b> stamens, and <b>2</b> carpels (in the
-median plane), the calyx is generally persistent and gamosepalous, the
-corolla is gamopetalous and united to the stamens, which are therefore<span class="pagenum" id="Page_505">[505]</span>
-adnate to it, the ovules have only <i>one</i> thick integument and a
-small nucellus. (The exceptions are noted later.)</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>This Sub-class is no doubt more recent than the Choripetalæ; it
-is also peculiar in including fewer trees and shrubby forms than
-the latter.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>The Sympetalæ may be separated into 2 sections:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Pentacyclicæ (five-whorled).</span> The flowers in this
-section have 5 <i>whorls equal in number</i>, namely, 2 staminal whorls
-in addition to the calyx, corolla, and carpels; in some instances,
-one of the staminal whorls is rudimentary or entirely suppressed, but
-in this case it is frequently the sepal-stamens which are suppressed,
-and the whorl which is present stands opposite the petals. The flowers
-are regular. The <i>number of carpels equals that of the sepals</i>,
-but in one of the orders (<i>Bicornes</i>) they are opposite the
-petals (the flower being obdiplostemonous); in the other two orders
-(<i>Primulinæ</i> and <i>Diospyrinæ</i>) they are placed opposite the
-sepals (the flower being diplostemonous). This section is the most
-closely allied to the Choripetalæ, since the petals may sometimes
-be found entirely free, and the stamens inserted directly on the
-receptacle (Ericaceæ); ovules with two integuments are also found.
-<span class="smaller">It is very doubtful, whether the orders included under this head
-have any relationship with the other Sympetalæ. They appear in any case
-to represent older types.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Tetracyclicæ (four-whorled).</span> The flowers have only
-4 whorls, namely, beside sepals, petals, and carpels, only one whorl
-of stamens, which alternates with the petals; there is no trace of
-the second staminal whorl, and when the number of carpels is the same
-as that of the preceding whorls (“isomerous”) they alternate with
-the stamens; but in most cases there are 2 <i>carpels placed in the
-median plane</i> (see the diagrams, <i>e.g.</i> Figs. <a href="#fig559">559</a>, <a href="#fig567">567</a>, <a href="#fig583">583</a>,
-<a href="#fig590">590</a>, etc.). This section is the largest, and the one which shows the
-characteristics of the Sympetalæ best. Very irregular flowers are met
-with.</p>
-
-<p>The following families belong to the <b>Pentacyclicæ</b>: 26,
-<i>Bicornes</i>; 27, <i>Diospyrinæ</i>; 28, <i>Primulinæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p>The remaining families belonging to the <b>Tetracyclicæ</b> are:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p><b>a.</b> <span class="smcap">Hypogynous</span> flowers (with a few exceptions): 29,
-<i>Tubifloræ</i>; 30, <i>Personatæ</i>; 31, <i>Nuculiferæ</i>; 32,
-<i>Contortæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>b.</b> <span class="smcap">Epigynous</span> flowers: 33, <i>Rubiales</i>; 34,
-<i>Dipsacales</i>; 35, <i>Campanulinæ</i>; 36, <i>Aggregatæ</i>. The
-ovaries and ovules in the last family are always reduced to one; and at
-the same time the fruits become nuts, and the flowers are united into
-crowded inflorescences.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_506">[506]</span></p>
-
-<h3 class="smaller"><b>A. Pentacyclicæ</b>.</h3>
-
-<h4>Family 26. <b>Bicornes.</b></h4>
-
-<p>This family is chiefly composed of shrubs, less frequently of small
-trees, or perennial herbs; their leaves are undivided, most frequently
-evergreen, stiff and leathery, and always without stipules. The flowers
-are ☿ and <i>regular</i>, rarely slightly zygomorphic, most frequently
-obdiplostemonous, and 4- or 5-merous through all the 5 whorls. <i>The
-stamens are attached to the receptacle</i>, and as a rule are quite
-free from the petals, an attachment which is very rare among the
-Gamopetalæ. They have a simple gynœceum with <i>one</i> undivided
-style, a commissural stigma, and a <i>multilocular</i> ovary, whose
-axile placentæ project considerably into the loculi, and bear a large
-number of ovules. <span class="smaller">The placentæ are sometimes not united, and in
-consequence, the ovary is 1-locular with incomplete partition-walls,
-<i>e.g. Pyrola</i>, <i>Monotropa</i>.</span> Embryo straight, with
-endosperm. <i>The carpels are placed opposite the petals.</i></p>
-
-<p>The <i>diagram</i> is generally Sn, Pn, An + n, Gn, in which n is
-4 or 5. To this may be added, that the <i>corolla is in most cases
-gamopetalous</i>, but in some (especially <i>Pyrolaceæ</i>) perfectly
-polypetalous; and that the <i>anthers usually open by pores</i>, and
-often have <i>two horn-like</i> appendages (hence the name “Bicornes”)
-(Figs. <a href="#fig545">545</a>, <a href="#fig546">546</a>); frequently the two halves of the anther are also
-widely separated from each other at the upper end, so that the pores
-are placed each one at the end of its own tube (Fig. <a href="#fig546">546</a>); the
-pollen-grains in the majority are united into <i>tetrads</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig542">542</a>
-<i>D</i>).&mdash;The flowers, as a rule, are pendulous and borne in racemes,
-coloured (red or white), but odourless. When the fruit is a capsule,
-the placenta with the seeds attached persists as a central column. A
-<i>mycorhiza</i> occurs on many.</p>
-
-<p>The majority of plants belonging to this family inhabit cold and
-temperate countries, or high mountains in tropical regions; they prefer
-cold and dry or damp places (bogs, heaths, etc.). Plentiful in N.
-America.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Pyrolaceæ.</b> Perennial <i>herbs</i>; <i>petals most
-frequently quite free from each other</i>, and falling off singly
-after flowering; <i>the anthers are without appendages</i>, and open
-by pores (Fig. <a href="#fig544">544</a>), or by a transverse slit. The placentæ are thick.
-The seeds in the <i>capsule-like</i> fruit (loculicidal dehiscence)
-are exceedingly small and light, they have a sac-like testa which
-loosely envelops them, an oily endosperm, and an <i>extremely simple
-embryo</i>, which consists<span class="pagenum" id="Page_507">[507]</span> only of an ellipsoidal, cellular mass,
-without cotyledons or differentiation into plumule and radicle.</p>
-
-<p><i>Pyrola</i> (Winter-green) is green, and has also large evergreen
-foliage-leaves. The flowers, 5-merous, are most frequently borne in
-racemes without a terminal flower; the anthers are extrorse in the
-bud with the pores in the lower portion (Fig. <a href="#fig544">544</a> <i>A</i>), but they
-become inverted at a later period, so that the pores open at the top
-(Fig. <a href="#fig544">544</a> <i>C</i>). <span class="smaller"><i>P. uniflora</i> has a single, terminal
-flower; it winters by its roots, producing from these in the spring
-aerial, quite unbranched shoots. <i>Chimaphila umbellata.</i></span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig544" style="width: 551px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig544.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 544.</span>&mdash;<i>Pyrola minor</i>: <i>A</i>
-portions of a young flower; <i>B</i> the stigma; <i>C</i> portions of
-an older flower (longitudinal section).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Monotropa</i> (Yellow Bird’s-nest) is very pale yellow, without
-chlorophyll, succulent, and has only scale-like leaves closely pressed
-upon the stem; it is a saprophyte. The raceme has a terminal flower,
-and is pendulous before flowering. The anthers open by a semicircular,
-transverse cleft. <span class="smaller"><i>M. hypopitys</i> reproduces chiefly by
-root-shoots.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>About 30 species, especially N. Europe, N. America, and N. Asia.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Ericaceæ.</b> The flower (Fig. <a href="#fig545">545</a>) is <i>hypogynous</i>,
-the median sepal posterior; corolla, <i>gamopetalous</i>; the stamens
-are generally <i>2-horned</i>, and the fruit is a <i>capsule</i>,
-less frequently a berry or drupe. At the base of the ovary is a
-nectar-secreting disc (Fig. <a href="#fig545">545</a> <i>B</i>). This order comprises shrubs
-or undershrubs (rarely small trees), which are evergreen, and as a rule
-have densely crowded leaves.</p>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Ericeæ, Heath Group.</span> Flowers most frequently
-<i>4-merous</i> (S4, P4, A4 + 4, G4, united in a 4-locular gynœceum),
-rarely 5-merous. The withered corolla <i>persists</i> after flowering.
-The leaves are most frequently acicular, opposite or verticillate; the
-buds are without scales. The fruit is a capsule.&mdash;<i>Calluna</i> (<i>C.
-vulgaris</i>, Ling) has a deeply 4-cleft corolla, which is less than
-the coloured calyx; capsule with septicidal dehiscence.&mdash;<i>Erica</i>
-(about 420 species; <i>E. tetralix</i>, Cross-leaved Heath) has a
-tubular or bell-shaped, 4-dentate corolla, which is much longer than
-the calyx. Capsule with loculicidal dehiscence.&mdash;<i>Pentapera.</i></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_508">[508]</span></p>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Andromedeæ.</span> The flowers are 5-merous (S5, P5, A5
-+ 5, G5), with <i>deciduous</i> corolla. Capsule with loculicidal
-dehiscence. The leaves are scattered, and incline more to the ordinary
-broad-leaved forms.&mdash;<i>Andromeda</i>; <i>Gaultheria</i>; <i>Cassandra
-(Lyonia)</i>; <i>Cassiope</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig545" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig545.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 545.</span>&mdash;<i>Arctostaphylos uva-ursi.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Arbuteæ.</span> The flowers as in the preceding group
-(Fig. <a href="#fig545">545</a>), but the fruit is a berry or drupe. <i>Arctostaphylos</i>
-(<i>A. uva-ursi</i>, Bear-berry) has a drupe with 5 stones in a dry,
-farinaceous pulp; in other species there is 1 stone with several
-loculi. <i>Arbutus</i> (<i>A. unedo</i>, Strawberry-tree) has a
-spherical berry.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Pollination</i> is effected by means of insects, especially
-by bees. The pollen is light and dry, and is shaken out
-through the pores of the anthers when the insects agitate the
-horn-like appendages during their visits. Self-pollination
-takes place, no doubt, in many cases.&mdash;800 species; the very
-large genus, <i>Erica</i>, especially in S. Africa (the
-Cape).&mdash;<span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: the leaves of <i>Arctostaphylos
-uva ursi</i>. <i>Arbutus unedo</i> (S. Europe) has an
-edible, peculiarly warted (strawberry-like) fruit. Many
-<i>Erica</i>-species are cultivated as ornamental plants.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Rhodoraceæ</b> (<b>Rhododendrons</b>). This differs from
-the preceding order in the <i>median sepal being anterior</i>, and
-hence the position of the other floral whorls is also reversed. The
-flower is <i>hypogynous</i>, in most cases 5-merous; the corolla is
-most frequently deeply cleft or polypetalous, and falls off after
-flowering; the anthers open by pores, and have <i>no horn-like
-appendages</i>. <i>Capsule</i> with <i>septicidal</i> dehiscence.&mdash;The
-shrubs or small trees belonging to this order have, like the Vaccineæ,
-ordinary foliage-leaves, and the buds are generally provided with
-<i>large bud-scales</i>.</p>
-
-<p><i>Rhododendron</i> has 10 stamens, and a slightly zygomorphic
-flower with deeply 5-cleft corolla (the section <i>Azalea</i> has
-frequently<span class="pagenum" id="Page_509">[509]</span> only 5 stamens, the petal-stamens being absent). They
-are Alpine plants (200 species) in the mountains of Asia, especially
-the Himalayas; some in S. Europe.&mdash;<i>Menziesia.</i>&mdash;<i>Ledum</i>;
-small, rusty-brown, hairy shrubs with polypetalous, expanded, star-like
-corolla.&mdash;<i>Kalmia</i> (N. Am.) has a cupular corolla, with 10 small,
-pocket-like depressions in which the anthers are concealed until the
-arched, elastic filaments are freed from this position by means of
-the insects, when they quickly straighten themselves in the centre
-of the flower.&mdash;<i>Phyllodoce</i>; <i>Loiseleuria</i> (5 stamens);
-(<i>Clethra</i> (?); also placed among the Ternstrœmiaceæ).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>About 270 species. Several species are ornamental plants.
-Several plants of the order are more or less <i>narcotic</i>.
-<i>Ledum palustre</i> has been used as a substitute for hops.</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Diapensiaceæ.</b> Hypogynous flower. 3 floral-leaves
-beneath the flower (S5, P5, A5 + 0, G3). Stamens on the throat
-of the corolla. Pollen-grains single. Disc absent. Capsule
-loculicidal.&mdash;9 species from the Arctic regions. It is doubtful
-whether this order should be included in the Bicornes; perhaps
-it would be more correctly assigned to the <i>Polemoniaceæ</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Epacridaceæ.</b> This order comprises those species
-of the family which are confined to Australia and the South Sea
-Islands. They are shrub-like plants, resembling the Ericaceæ in
-habit, in the inflorescence, and in the structure, form, and
-colour of the flower. They differ especially in having only 1
-<i>whorl of stamens</i> (placed opposite the sepals) and in the
-anthers having only 2 loculi, and opening by a longitudinal
-slit. Fruit most frequently a drupe (or loculicidal capsule).
-<i>Epacris</i>-and <i>Styphelia</i>-species are ornamental
-plants. About 325 species.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Vacciniaceæ</b> (<b>Bilberries</b>). <i>The flower</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig546">546</a>) <i>is epigynous, the corolla gamopetalous</i>, and <i>the
-fruit a berry</i>. The latter is most frequently spherical, and bears
-on its apex the calyx, which is generally very low, almost entire, and
-with a <i>disc-like expansion</i> inside. The flower is 4- or 5-merous
-(Fig. <a href="#fig546">546</a> <i>B</i>, <i>D</i>). The anthers have 2 pores, and are most
-frequently 2-horned (Fig. <a href="#fig546">546</a> <i>F</i>, <i>G</i>). Small shrubs; the
-leaves are scattered, not needle-like.</p>
-
-<p><i>Vaccinium</i> (Bilberry, Whortleberry) has an urceolate,
-gamopetalous, only slightly dentate corolla, and horn-like appendages
-to the anthers (Fig. <a href="#fig546">546</a>). <span class="smaller"><i>V. vitis idæa</i> (Cowberry)
-is evergreen, with flowers in racemes, and bright red berries;
-<i>V. myrtillus</i> (Bilberry) and <i>V. uliginosum</i> (Bog
-Whortleberry) both have black berries with a blue bloom, leaves
-deciduous.</span>&mdash;<i>Oxycoccus</i> has a <i>polypetalous</i> corolla
-with the petals projecting backwards. Anthers without appendages.
-<span class="smaller"><i>O. palustris</i> (Cranberry) has a slender, creeping stem, and is
-evergreen. Dark red berry.</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_510">[510]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Pollination essentially the same as the preceding order.&mdash;320
-species; especially in N. Am. Some are useful on account of
-their edible fruits, especially <i>Vaccinium myrtillus</i> and
-<i>V. vitis-idæa</i>, and in a less degree <i>Oxycoccus</i>,
-etc. The fruits of <i>V. myrtillus</i> are <i>officinal</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig546" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig546.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 546.</span>&mdash;<i>Vaccinium uliginosum</i> (var.
-<i>microphyllum</i>). The parts of the flower <i>A-E</i> are enlarged
-5–6 times; <i>C</i> and <i>E</i> are longitudinal sections; <i>B</i>
-and <i>D</i> the flower seen from above; <i>F</i> and <i>G</i> a stamen
-seen from the back and front; <i>H</i> the style and stigma.</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 27. <b>Diospyrinæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flowers are <i>regular</i>, gamopetalous, typically diplostemonous,
-with the same number throughout all 5 whorls, thus: Sn, Pn, An + n,
-Gn, where n most frequently =5 (4–6), rarely 3, 7 or 8. Of the two
-whorls of stamens the one opposite the sepals is often present only
-as rudiments or is entirely suppressed, and the completely developed
-<i>stamens are thus placed opposite the petals</i>. The carpels are
-generally placed opposite the sepals. The <i>ovary is multilocular</i>
-with the ovules attached in the inner angles. The fruit is most
-frequently a <i>berry</i>. The seeds are large, generally solitary,
-or a few in each loculus.&mdash;All plants belonging to this family are
-<i>trees</i> or shrubs with <i>scattered</i>, <i>single</i>, <i>most
-frequently entire</i>, <i>penninerved</i> and <i>leathery</i> leaves
-without stipules; the majority are tropical (America, Asia), some are
-found in N. Am. and the Mediterranean.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Sapotaceæ.</b> Plants with latex; anthers extrorse,
-1 <i>erect</i> ovule in each loculus; fruit a berry; the
-seeds with bony, shiny brown testa have a large, lateral
-hilum. The leaves are frequently covered with silky hairs.&mdash;A<span class="pagenum" id="Page_511">[511]</span>
-useful order in several respects (400 tropical species).
-The wood of some genera, such as <i>Sideroxylon</i> (Iron
-wood) and <i>Bumelia</i>, is as hard as iron. The latex of
-<i>Palaquium</i> (<i>P. oblongifolium</i>, <i>P. gutta</i>, and
-other species), <i>Mimusops</i> and <i>Payena</i> (Sumatra, E.
-Ind.), is the raw material of <i>gutta percha</i>. The following
-have very delicious fruits: <i>Lucuma mammosa</i>, <i>Achras
-sapota</i>, <i>Chrysophyllum cainito</i> (Star-apple), etc. The
-seeds of <i>Bassia</i> (E. Ind.) contain a large quantity of a
-fatty oil. <i>Isonandra</i>, <i>Mimusops schimperi</i> are often
-found in the Egyptian royal tombs.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Ebenaceæ.</b> Plants without latex, often diœcious;
-flowers with a more or less leathery perianth. The number of
-stamens is sometimes increased (by splitting?); ovules 1–2,
-<i>pendulous</i> in each loculus. Fruit a berry.&mdash;250 species;
-chiefly tropical. Some are well known on account of their hard
-and black-coloured heart-wood, <i>e.g. Maba ebenus</i>
-(the Moluccas) and <i>Diospyros ebenum</i> (Ebony-wood, from
-Tropical Asia) and others.&mdash;The fruits are edible <i>e.g.</i>
-of <i>Diospyros lotus</i> (Date-plum, Asia), which is also
-cultivated as an ornamental shrub, together with several other
-species.</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Styracaceæ.</b> The flower is more or less
-<i>epigynous</i>, and the corolla is almost <i>polypetalous</i>.
-The stamens (by splitting?) are more than double the number
-of the petals, and often united at the base. Stellate hairs
-are frequent.&mdash;235 species; Tropical Asia and America, a few
-for example in the East.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: Gum-benzoin from
-<i>Styrax benzoin</i> and perhaps other species (Sumatra and
-Siam). <i>Halesia tetraptera</i> (N. Am.) is an ornamental shrub
-with 4-winged fruits.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig547" style="width: 258px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig547.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 547.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Primula</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 28. <b>Primulinæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flowers are <i>regular</i>, ☿, <i>hypogynous</i>, and gamopetalous.
-The <i>stamens</i> are <i>equal in number</i> to the petals (Fig. <a href="#fig547">547</a>)
-and <i>are placed opposite to them</i>. The ovary is <i>unilocular</i>,
-with <i>a free, central</i> placenta with 1–many ovules.&mdash;The flower
-is a further development of the Diospyrinæ; the suppression of the
-calyx-stamens, which commenced in this family, is carried further
-in the Primulinæ, so that in the majority of cases no trace of them
-is present, but in certain species and genera (<i>Samolus</i>,
-<i>Lysimachia thyrsiflora</i>, <i>Soldanella</i>, certain Myrsineæ)
-some small bodies (scales, teeth, etc.) are found in the position of
-the suppressed stamens. Again, the lateral portions of the carpels
-are suppressed, so that the <i>ventral placentæ</i> with the ovules
-are separated from the dorsal portions, and <i>are united into a
-free central placenta</i>; this theory is supported by the branching
-of the vascular bundles, the development, and various comparative
-considerations.&mdash;Sn, Pn, A0 + n, Gn; where n = 4–8, generally 5. The
-carpels are placed opposite the sepals (Fig. <a href="#fig547">547</a>).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_512">[512]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Primulaceæ</b> (<b>Primroses</b>). This order has <i>many
-ovules</i> attached to a <i>thick, free, central placenta</i> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig547">547</a>); <i>style undivided</i> with a <i>capitate</i> stigma; ovules
-semi-anatropous; fruit a <i>capsule</i> with many seeds.</p>
-
-<p>All the plants belonging to this order are <i>herbs</i>; stipules
-wanting; the flower is most frequently 5-merous (S5, P5, A0 + 5, G5;
-except <i>Centunculus</i> and <i>Trientalis</i>). The corolla and
-capsule have various forms, but the capsule generally opens by teeth at
-the apex. The ovules are semi-anatropous (in <i>Hottonia</i> they are
-anatropous), and the seeds are therefore <i>peltate</i>, with the hilum
-situated in the centre of one side. The endosperm is fleshy or horny.
-The flowers are borne either in racemes or in umbels; as <i>bracteoles
-are typically</i> absent (Fig. <a href="#fig547">547</a>), cymose branching does not occur.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig548" style="width: 327px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig548.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 548.</span>&mdash;<i>Primula</i>: dimorphic flowers.
-<i>A</i> short-styled; <i>B</i> long-styled.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig549" style="width: 443px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig549.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 549.</span>&mdash;<i>Cyclamen persicum.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Primula</i> (Primrose) has most frequently a vertical rhizome,
-bearing a rosette of leaves at its summit, and long-stalked umbels;
-corolla <i>rotate</i> or slightly funnel-shaped; the capsule opens
-at the apex by 5 <i>teeth</i>. The flowers in some species are
-heterostyled (long-styled or short-styled; Fig. <a href="#fig548">548</a>). Closely allied
-are <i>Androsace</i> (with ovate, cup-shaped corolla-tube and ligular
-scales, alternating with the corolla-lobes) and <i>Soldanella</i>
-(funnel-shaped corolla with laciniate lobes and most frequently
-ligular scales).&mdash;<i>Hottonia</i> (Water-Violet) is an aquatic plant
-with pectinate leaves and heterostyled flowers.&mdash;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_513">[513]</span><i>Cortusa.</i>
-<i>Dodecatheon. Cyclamen</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig549">549</a>) has solitary,
-long-stalked flowers, and a rotate corolla with the lobes reflexed; the
-stalk of the capsule rolls up spirally; the tuberous rhizome is formed
-by the hypocotyledonary internode. Only 1 cotyledon.&mdash;<i>Lysimachia</i>
-(Money-wort); stem-internodes well developed, leaves opposite or
-verticillate, calyx almost polysepalous, corolla deeply 5-partite
-(Fig. <a href="#fig550">550</a>). The flowers are solitary or in racemes.&mdash;<i>Anagallis</i>
-(Pimpernel), leaves opposite, flowers solitary; the fruit a
-pyxidium (Fig. <a href="#fig551">551</a>); similarly in <i>Centunculus</i>, which is
-4-merous.&mdash;<i>Trientalis</i>, the flowers are most frequently
-7-merous.&mdash;<i>Glaux</i> (Sea Milk-wort) is a creeping maritime plant
-with opposite leaves; flowers solitary in the leaf-axils, <i>corolla
-absent</i>, but with coloured calyx. <span class="smaller">The petals are usually
-developed later than the stamens in the Primulaceæ; but in this
-instance they are entirely suppressed.</span>&mdash;<i>Samolus</i> (Brookweed)
-differs from all the others in having an <i>epigynous</i> flower;
-barren sepal-stamens are also present. The bracts in the racemose
-inflorescences are displaced along the flower-stalks.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig550" style="width: 475px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig550.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 550.</span>&mdash;<i>Lysimachia thyrsiflora.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig551" style="width: 261px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig551.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 551.</span>&mdash;<i>Anagallis arvensis.</i> Fruit
-dehiscing.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> Insect-pollination in the majority;
-cross-pollination is promoted in some by heterostyly (Fig.
-<a href="#fig548">548</a>).&mdash;300 species; especially in northern temperate zones; the
-majority on mountains (<i>Soldanella</i>, <i>Androsace</i>,
-etc.); almost absent in the Tropics. A large number are
-<span class="allsmcap">ORNAMENTAL PLANTS</span>, <i>e.g. Primula auricula</i>
-(from the Alps), <i>P. sinensis</i> (China), <i>P. elatior</i>
-(Oxslip, a native) and <i>grandiflora</i>, etc. <i>Cyclamen
-europæum</i> (Alpine Violet); the tubers are poisonous.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Myrsinaceæ.</b> Trees or shrubs; evergreen, tropical
-Primulaceæ with fleshy fruits and few seeds, embedded in the
-placenta. The leaves are nearly always dotted with yellow glands
-(schizogenous resin-receptacles).&mdash;550 species; especially
-Am.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Ornamental plants</span>: <i>Ardisia crenulata</i>
-(W. Ind.); other genera: <i>Clavija</i>, <i>Maesa</i>,
-<i>Theophrasta</i> (barren sepal-stamens), <i>Myrsine</i>,
-<i>Jacquinia</i> (barren sepal-stamens), etc.&mdash;<i>Ægiceras</i>,
-allied to this order, comprises arborescent plants, often
-growing with <i>Rhizophora</i> in tropical forests, along the
-shore. The embryo germinates while still in the fruit.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_514">[514]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Plumbaginaceæ.</b> This order has a position of the stamens
-similar to that in Primulaceæ (S5, P5, A0 + 5, G5), but it differs from
-these in the flower, which has generally a <i>membranous</i>, dry,
-thin, coloured, folded, almost entire calyx and an <i>almost entirely
-polypetalous corolla</i>, which, as a rule, has twisted æstivation
-and is <i>only united</i> with the stamens <i>at its base</i>; but
-more especially it differs in the ovary, which bears 5 <i>free</i>
-or almost free <i>styles</i> and only 1 <i>basal</i> ovule with a
-<i>long</i>, twisted funicle (the placenta of the Primulaceæ is here so
-much reduced that it bears only 1 ovule). The fruit is a <i>nut</i> or
-<i>capsule</i>. The radicle is turned outwards. Endosperm mealy.&mdash;To
-this order belong herbs or under-shrubs, which are especially natives
-of the sea-coast and of salt-steppes; they also resemble the Primulaceæ
-in the scattered, undivided, entire leaves (without stipules), often in
-rosettes, and the inflorescence borne on a long stalk. In opposition to
-the Primulaceæ, the <i>bracteoles are typically present, and hence the
-branching is generally cymose</i> (scorpioid).</p>
-
-<p><i>Armeria</i> (Thrift) has a round <i>capitulum</i>, composed of
-closely-packed dichasia, surrounded at its base by an involucre with
-peculiar prolongations, directed downwards, and united into a sheath
-protecting the intercalary zone of growth. The pericarp is finally
-ruptured at the base, and drops off like a hood.&mdash;In <i>Statice</i>
-(Sea-lavender), the unipared scorpioid cymes are prolonged and
-collected into panicle-like inflorescences.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Plumbago</i> is
-the genus which approaches nearest to the Primulaceæ, and differs
-most from the characters given above. It has capitate or spike-like
-inflorescences, a salver-shaped corolla, and the stamens are not
-attached to the corolla. The style is only divided at the extremity;
-the calyx is not membranous, but is covered with sticky, glandular
-hairs.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>250 species; chiefly in the Mediterranean and about the Caspian
-Sea, on salt-steppes and beaches. Some are Tropical; a few are
-ornamental plants.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller"><b>B. Tetracyclicæ.</b></h3>
-
-
-<h4><b>a. Tetracyclicæ with hypogynous flowers.</b></h4>
-
-
-<h4>Family 29. <b>Tubifloræ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flower is regular, ☿, and <i>hypogynous</i>. The gamopetalous type
-is present in this family with great uniformity, without suppression
-or splitting; S5, P5, A5, G2 (3–5). The stamens are all fertile,
-alternating with the lobes of the corolla. Gynœceum with 2, more
-seldom 3–5 syncarpous carpels. Style nearly always simple; 2 dorsal
-stigmas. In each carpel 2–∞ ovules. At the base of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_515">[515]</span> ovary is
-found a yellowish ring-like nectary (Fig. <a href="#fig552">552</a> C), sometimes 5-sinuate
-or 5-partite.&mdash;The leaves are nearly always scattered; stipules are
-absent.&mdash;<span class="smaller">The Solanaceæ, which formerly were classed here, are so
-closely allied to the Personatæ, that it would be unnatural not to
-place them first in this family; and the Boraginaceæ (which were also
-placed in the Tubifloræ) appear to be best united, with the Labiatæ and
-others, into one family Nuculiferæ.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Polemoniaceæ.</b> The flowers are regular; S5, P5,
-A5, G3. The calyx and corolla have united leaves, the petals
-<i>twisted</i> to the right in <i>æstivation</i> (all the left
-edges being covered). The ovary is 3-locular with 2–∞ ovules
-in each loculus; the style is trifid at the apex; the fruit
-is a 3-valved capsule. Embryo straight; endosperm fleshy. The
-inflorescences are dichasia passing over into unipared helicoid
-cymes (the shoot of the <i>lower</i> bracteole being the
-more strongly developed).&mdash;Herbs without latex. 150 species;
-especially Western N. Am.&mdash;<i>Phlox</i> (salver-shaped corolla;
-entire, opposite leaves), <i>Polemonium</i> (campanulate
-or almost rotate corolla; scattered, pinnate leaves),
-<i>Leptosiphon</i>, <i>Gilia</i>, <i>Collomia</i>, <i>Cobæa</i>
-(climbing, like the Vetches, by tendrils at the ends of the
-leaves), etc. They are frequently ornamental plants.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Hydrophyllaceæ.</b> This order approaches very
-closely to the Boraginaceæ. Herbs with pinnate or palmate
-leaves; S5, P5, A5, G2. The lobes of the corolla are imbricate
-in æstivation. Generally 2 median carpels. The ovary is
-<i>most frequently unilocular</i>, and the seeds are situated
-on 2 <i>parietal placentæ</i>; capsule 2-valved; embryo
-straight; endosperm fleshy. In the corolla-tube, opposite the
-corolla-lobes, there are frequently appendages of various forms,
-which resemble those of <i>Cuscuta</i>. The inflorescences
-correspond exactly with those of the Boraginaceæ, being
-<i>unipared scorpioid cymes</i>, which, prior to opening,
-<i>are tightly rolled up</i>.&mdash;130 species, especially in N.
-Am. (California, etc.). Many annual species of <i>Phacelia</i>,
-<i>Nemophila</i>, <i>Whitlavia</i>, <i>Eutoca</i>,
-<i>Cosmanthus</i>, etc., are cultivated in gardens as ornamental
-plants. <i>Hydrolea</i> (has a bilocular ovary, and two free
-styles).</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Convolvulaceæ</b> (<b>Bindweeds</b>). The flower
-is regular, hypogynous, with 5 almost free sepals (quincuncial
-æstivation), P5, A5, G2 (rarely 3–5). The <i>corolla</i> is very
-characteristic; it is (with various forms) almost entire, or slightly
-5-lobed, and <i>folded</i> longitudinally <i>in the bud</i> in such
-a way that 5 projecting, flat portions, tapering towards the top and
-frequently differing in colour and hairiness from the rest, are visible
-externally and applied close together, while the remainder of the
-corolla is folded inwards (Fig. <a href="#fig552">552</a> A); and hence the whole corolla
-is <i>strongly twisted to the right</i> in the bud. The gynœceum most
-frequently has a bilocular ovary; <i>in each loculus</i> there are
-<i>only</i> 2 (erect) <i>anatropous ovules</i> on the placenta, which
-is not especially thickened (Fig. <a href="#fig552">552</a> <i>D</i>, <i>E</i>); each loculus
-is sometimes divided into two by a false septum (a relationship with
-the <i>Boraginaceæ</i>, etc.); style simple with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_516">[516]</span> most frequently a
-bilobed stigma, or a bipartite style. The fruit is nearly spherical,
-most frequently a <i>capsule</i>. The seeds are erect, and have a large
-hilum at the base. The embryo is <i>curved</i>, with leaf-like, thin,
-bilobed, most frequently folded cotyledons; <i>endosperm absent or
-mucilaginous</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Convolvuleæ, Bindweed Group.</span> The majority are
-<i>twining</i> (to the left) <i>herbs</i>, with <i>latex</i>. The
-leaves are scattered, without stipules, often long stalked, and
-nearly always with cordate base; some are palmately lobed. The
-flowers are most frequently solitary in the leaf-axils, large,
-quickly withering.&mdash;<i>Convolvulus</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig552">552</a>), <i>Calystegia</i>
-(unilocular ovary, 2 large bracteoles), <i>Ipomœa</i>, <i>Batatas</i>,
-<i>Evolvulus</i> (with a doubly bifid style), <i>Calonyction</i>,
-<i>Pharbitis</i>, etc.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig552" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig552.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 552.</span>&mdash;<i>Convolvulus scammonia.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Dichondreæ.</span> This group is a more primitive
-form, not twining, and without latex. It has 2 <i>free</i>
-carpels with basal style (as in Boraginaceæ) and valvate corolla.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Cuscuteæ, Dodder Group</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig553">553</a>). Parasites, with
-round, filamentous stems, bearing only scale-like leaves and almost
-destitute of chlorophyll (they are reddish or yellowish); they are
-parasitic upon other plants, around which they twine, first with
-narrow, compact coils from which haustoria (Fig. <a href="#fig553">553</a> <i>A</i>) are
-developed which enter the host-plant, and then with wider coils by
-which they raise themselves to other portions of their host or try
-to reach other plants. On germination a very temporary primary root
-is developed, which bears root-hairs as far as the tip (rootcap is
-wanting); it only serves as a kind of reservoir for water, and perishes
-very soon after the seedling has fastened on to a host. The embryo
-is filamentous and rolled up <i>spirally</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig553">553</a> <i>C</i>),
-and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_517">[517]</span> is sometimes destitute of cotyledons. The flowers are crowded
-into capitulate inflorescences, complicated by accessory shoots (Fig.
-<a href="#fig553">553</a> <i>A</i>); they have S5, P5 (<i>imbricate</i> æstivation), A5
-(and beneath the stamens 5 scales on the corolla-tube), G2. Fruit a
-capsule opening by a lid.&mdash;<i>Cuscuta europœa</i>, <i>C. epilinum</i>
-(Flax-Dodder), <i>C. epithymum</i> (Lesser-Dodder), <i>C. trifolii</i>
-(Clover-Dodder), etc., are parasitic on different hosts, or parasitic
-each on its own particular host.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig553" style="width: 623px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig553.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 553.</span>&mdash;<i>Cuscuta trifolii</i>, parasitic
-on Red Clover. <i>A</i> A portion of the stem with an inflorescence
-and haustoria (mag.); <i>B</i> seed (nat. size); <i>C</i> seed (mag.);
-<i>D</i> embryo (nat. size).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>840 species; the majority in the Tropics, especially Am. Many
-are ornamental plants. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: some on account of
-their purgative properties: the tuberous roots of <i>Ipomæa
-purga</i> (Jalap, from Mexico) and the dried latex (“Scammony”)
-of <i>Convolvulus scammonia</i> (from the East). The tuberous
-roots of <i>Batatas edulis</i> (Trop. S. Am.) are used as a
-common vegetable (Sweet Potato) in the Tropics.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 30. <b>Personatæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The type of the flower is: S5, P5, A5 (of which one, or in some cases
-several, are suppressed), and G2. The flowers are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_518">[518]</span> <i>hypogynous</i>,
-☿, perfect with gamopetalous corolla, but most frequently irregular
-(medianly zygomorphic, except <i>Solanaceæ</i>), the <i>corolla</i>
-being <i>bilabiate</i> (divided into a posterior part of two lobes
-and an anterior part of three lobes), and the <i>stamens</i> 4,
-<i>didynamous</i> (the posterior being suppressed). The ovary has
-2 loculi (only 1 in <i>Utriculariaceæ</i>, <i>Gesneriaceæ</i>,
-<i>Orobanche</i>); the placenta in the first-named orders (1–7) is most
-frequently very thick, and bears a <i>great many ovules</i> (Figs.
-<a href="#fig554">554</a>, <a href="#fig555">555</a>, <a href="#fig557">557</a>, <a href="#fig562">562</a>); the number of ovules in the last orders (8–9) is
-considerably reduced (Fig. <a href="#fig570">570</a>).</p>
-
-<p>Special mention may be made of the apparently 4-merous flower which
-is found, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Veronica</i> and <i>Plantago</i> (Figs.
-<a href="#fig567">567</a>, <a href="#fig562">562</a> <i>C</i>, <a href="#fig570">570</a>, <a href="#fig571">571</a>), and which arises from the typical
-5-merous flower by the suppression of the posterior sepal and the
-posterior stamen, and by the union of the two posterior petals into
-one.&mdash;Terminal flowers very seldom occur on the main axis, and would
-not harmonise well with the very irregular form of the flower. When
-they do occur, they are, as a rule, “peloric,” <i>i.e.</i> regular (in
-<i>Linaria vulgaris</i> two kinds of peloric flowers occur,&mdash;one with
-5 spurs, and one without spurs). The halves of the anthers are often
-divided as far as the base, and laterally so widely separated from each
-other as to assume an almost straight line (Figs. <a href="#fig563">563</a>, <a href="#fig564">564</a>). There is
-generally a nectary (“disc”) round the base of the ovary, often 5-lobed
-(or divided into free glands).&mdash;A common vegetative characteristic is
-the <i>absence of stipules</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The 9 orders of the Personatæ are: 1, Solanaceæ; 2, Nolanaceæ;
-3, Scrophulariaceæ; 4, Utriculariaceæ; 5, Gesneriaceæ; 6,
-Bignoniaceæ; 7, Pedaliaceæ; 8, Acanthaceæ; 9, Plantaginaceæ.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig554" style="width: 290px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig554.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 554.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Petunia</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Solanaceæ.</b> The flower (Figs. <a href="#fig554">554</a>, <a href="#fig555">555</a>, <a href="#fig559">559</a>) is
-hypogynous, regular (zygomorphic in <i>Hyoscyamus</i>), ☿, and
-gamopetalous, with S5, P5 (most frequently <i>imbricate</i> or
-<i>valvate</i>), A5, G2, the 2 carpels being placed obliquely (Fig.
-<a href="#fig554">554</a>); the bilocular ovary has a very <i>thick axile placenta</i> (Figs.
-<a href="#fig554">554</a>, <a href="#fig555">555</a> <i>H</i>, 557), which extends almost as far as the wall of
-the ovary. The fruit is a capsule or berry; the seeds are more or less
-reniform, and the embryo is <i>curved</i> (rarely straight), in a
-fleshy endosperm (Figs. <a href="#fig555">555</a> <i>F</i>, <i>G</i>; <a href="#fig561">561</a>).&mdash;Both arborescent
-and herbaceous forms are found in the order; leaves scattered without
-stipules,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_519">[519]</span> but with variously formed laminæ (always penninerved). <i>A
-peculiar leaf-arrangement</i> is found in many species, viz. the leaves
-are borne <i>in pairs, a large and a smaller one together</i>; these
-pairs stand in 2 rows, and the flowers are then situated <i>between</i>
-the individual leaves in each pair, apparently <i>not</i> in a leaf
-axil. The inflorescences are frequently unipared scorpioid cymes
-without floral-leaves.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig555" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig555.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 555.</span>&mdash;<i>Atropa belladonna</i>: <i>A</i>
-is reduced.]</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Zygomorphic flowers occur, and thus form a transition to the
-closely allied Scrophulariaceæ; the zygomorphy sometimes shows
-itself only in the relative length of the stamens, sometimes
-also in the corolla (<i>Hyoscyamus</i>).&mdash;<i>Nicandra</i> is
-5-merous throughout all the whorls.&mdash;The peculiar relative
-<i>leaf-arrangement</i> in this order occurs from sympodial
-branching and displacement. The most simple is, <i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Datura</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig556">556</a> <i>A</i>); each shoot-generation
-in the floral parts of the plant has only 2 foliage-leaves
-(<i>f<sup>1</sup></i> and <i>f<sup>2</sup></i>), and then terminates in a flower;
-the axillary buds of both the foliage-leaves are developed
-and form a dichasium, but since the leaves are displaced on
-their axillary-shoots as far, or almost as far, as the first
-leaf of these axillary-shoots, the flowers are borne singly
-on the dichasial branches, and all the branches appear to be
-without subtending leaves (Shoot I is white, II shaded, III
-white, etc., diagram <i>A</i>). <i>Scopolia</i> and others
-(Fig. <a href="#fig556">556</a> <i>B</i>) differ in that the lowest and smallest
-(<i>f<sup>1</sup></i>) of the two leaves on each shoot is barren, and
-is therefore not displaced; but the upper one (the second
-bracteole, <i>f<sup>2</sup></i>) is displaced as in the first instance,
-and consequently it assumes a position near the first leaf
-(the shaded leaf <i>f<sup>2</sup></i> of shoot I being placed near the
-white leaf <i>f<sup>1</sup></i> of shoot II, etc.,) of the next youngest
-shoot-generation,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_520">[520]</span> and hence the leaves are borne in pairs; the
-flower placed between the two leaves of a pair is therefore the
-terminal flower of the shoot to which the smaller of the two
-leaves belongs, and the larger leaf is the subtending leaf for
-the floral shoot itself.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig556" style="width: 546px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig556.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 556.</span>&mdash;Diagrammatic representation of the
-branching in Solanaceæ. The various shoot-generations are white or
-shaded.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig557" style="width: 419px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig557.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 557.</span>&mdash;Fruit of <i>Hyoscyamus niger</i>
-after removal of calyx.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig558" style="width: 260px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig558.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 558.</span>&mdash;Fruit of <i>Datura stramonium</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Fruit a capsule.</span> <i>Nicotiana</i> (Tobacco) has
-a 2-valved capsule with septifragal dehiscence; the valves separate
-at the apex; the corolla is funnel-shaped, tubular, salver-shaped
-or campanulate. The flowers in panicles.&mdash;<i>Datura</i> (<i>D.
-stramonium</i>, Thorn-apple) has a (frequently spiny) capsule (Fig.
-<a href="#fig558">558</a>), which is <i>falsely 4-locular</i> (at the top, bilocular)
-and opens septifragally with 4 valves. The lower part of the
-calyx persists as a thick collar<span class="pagenum" id="Page_521">[521]</span> (see Fig. <a href="#fig558">558</a>). The corolla is
-funnel-shaped. The flowers are solitary, large.&mdash;<i>Hyoscyamus</i>
-(<i>H. niger</i>, Henbane) has a pyxidium (Fig. <a href="#fig557">557</a>) enclosed in the
-campanulate, completely persistent, thick-walled calyx. The flowers
-are slightly <i>zygomorphic</i>, and borne in unipared scorpioid
-cymes. <span class="smaller"><i>Scopolia</i> (pyxidium); <i>Fabiana</i> (Heather-like
-shrub); <i>Petunia</i> (slightly zygomorphic flower; funnel-shaped
-corolla); <i>Nierembergia</i>; <i>Brunfelsia</i> (almost a drupe);
-<i>Franciscea</i>; <i>Browallia</i>.</span>&mdash;Among those with capsular
-fruits are found the most anomalous forms, which by their zygomorphic
-flowers and often didynamous stamens present the transition to the
-Scrophulariaceæ: <i>Salpiglossis</i>; <i>Schizanthus</i> (lobed petals;
-2 perfect, and 3 rudimentary stamens).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig559" style="width: 363px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 559–561.</span>&mdash;<i>Solanum tuberosum.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig559.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 559.</span>&mdash;Flower (1/1).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig560" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig560.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 560.</span>&mdash;Stamen, ejecting pollen.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig561" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig561.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 561.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal section of seed.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Fruit a berry.</span> <i>Solanum</i> (Nightshade); rotate
-corolla (Fig. <a href="#fig559">559</a>). The stamens have short filaments, the anthers
-stand erect, close together round the style, like a cone in the centre
-of the flower, and open by pores at the apex (Fig. <a href="#fig560">560</a>). <span class="smaller"><i>S.
-tuberosum</i> (the Potato-plant); the Potato-tuber is a swollen,
-underground stem; the “eyes” are buds, situated in the axils of
-its scale-like, quickly-perishing leaves.</span>&mdash;<i>Lycopersicum</i>
-resembles <i>Solanum</i> in the flower, but the united anthers open
-by longitudinal clefts and have an apical appendage. The cultivated
-species, <i>L. esculentum</i> (Tomato), has often a higher number
-than 5 in the flower, and in the fruit several loculi of unequal
-size.&mdash;<i>Physalis</i> (Winter Cherry); the calyx ultimately swells
-out in the form of a bladder, becomes coloured, and loosely envelopes
-the spherical berry.&mdash;<i>Capsicum</i> (Guinea Pepper-plant); some
-species have very large, irregular, rather dry (red, yellow, black)
-berries, which are unilocular in the upper part.&mdash;<i>Lycium</i> (false
-Tea-plant); the corolla is salver- or funnel-shaped; shrubs; often
-thorny.&mdash;<i>Atropa</i> (<i>A. belladonna</i>, Deadly Nightshade,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_522">[522]</span> Fig.
-<a href="#fig555">555</a>); corolla campanulate; the calyx projects beneath the spherical,
-black berry. The flowers are borne singly.&mdash;<i>Mandragora</i>;
-(Mandrake); <i>Nicandra</i> (ovary often 5-locular).&mdash;<span class="smaller">A small
-tropical group: <span class="smcap">Cestreæ</span> (<i>Cestrum</i>, <i>Habrothamnus</i>,
-etc.) has an almost <i>straight</i> embryo, which may also be
-found <i>e.g</i>. in species of <i>Nicotiana</i>. Related to the
-Scrophulariaceæ.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>About 1,500 species; the majority within the Tropics, outside
-these limits especially in America. <i>Solanum nigrum</i>
-is a common weed.&mdash;<i>The Potato-plant</i> (<i>Solanum
-tuberosum</i>), from Peru and Chili, was introduced into
-Europe in 1584 by Sir Walter Raleigh. (Potatoes = Batatos).
-The fruits of several serve as <i>condiments</i>: Chilies or
-Pod-pepper (<i>Capsicum annuum</i> and <i>longum</i>), and the
-Cayenne-pepper (<i>C. baccatum</i> and others), whose fruits
-also are officinal, were brought to Europe from S. America by
-Columbus, and are commonly cultivated in Tropical America;
-<i>Lycopersicum esculentum</i> (Tomato) and others from Peru;
-<i>Solanum ovigerum</i> (Egg-plant); <i>Solanum melongena</i>,
-etc. <i>Poisonous</i>, <i>acrid</i>, <i>narcotic</i> properties
-(alkaloids, etc., solanine, nicotine, atropine, hyoscyamine)
-are found in many: <i>Atropa belladonna</i> (from S. Europe;
-the roots and leaves are officinal); <i>Solanum dulcamara</i>
-(Bitter-sweet; formerly officinal), <i>S. toxicarium</i>
-(Guiana); <i>Datura stramonium</i> from Asia (leaves and seeds
-officinal), <i>D. sanguinea</i>, <i>metel</i>, <i>tatula</i>,
-and others; <i>Hyoscyamus</i> (officinal: the leaves and seeds
-of <i>H. niger</i>); <i>Nicotiana tabacum</i> (Virginian
-tobacco, officinal: the leaves), <i>N. rustica</i> and others
-from Trop. America (<i>Tobacco</i> was introduced into Europe
-in 1560); <i>Cestrum</i>-species. <i>Duboisia myoporoides</i>
-(Australia); the leaves contain <i>hyoscyamine</i> and are used
-in medicine. A number of species of these genera are ornamental
-plants.</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Nolanaceæ.</b> These most resemble the Convolvulaceæ
-in the corolla, but the Solanaceæ in their branching, and
-leaf-arrangement (in pairs, etc.). The diagram is the same as
-in <i>Nicandra</i> with 5 carpels, but the fruits of this order
-most frequently form, by invaginations in various directions,
-an ovary (with 1 style) consisting of numerous and irregularly
-grouped, 1-ovuled cells; the fruit is a schizocarp with many
-1-seeded fruitlets.&mdash;<i>Nolana</i> (Western S. America): a few
-are ornamental plants.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Scrophulariaceæ.</b> The flower is hypogynous, ☿,
-<i>zygomorphic</i>, with the usual type: S5, P5, A5, and G2, the
-latter placed <i>in the median plane</i>; some genera have all 5
-stamens developed (Fig. <a href="#fig562">562</a> <i>A</i>), but most frequently the
-posterior one is suppressed and the flower becomes <i>didynamous</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig562">562</a> <i>B</i>). The fruit, as in the capsular-fruited Solanaceæ,
-is a bilocular, 2-valved <i>capsule</i>, with a <i>thick, axile
-placenta</i>, and most often septicidal dehiscence (Fig. <a href="#fig563">563</a> <i>C</i>).
-The <i>numerous seeds</i> are not reniform as in many Solanaceæ, and
-have a <i>straight, or only slightly curved embryo</i>, with abundant
-endosperm (Fig. <a href="#fig563">563</a> <i>D</i>).&mdash;The majority are herbs; some are
-arborescent; the leaves are opposite or scattered, but stipules are
-wanting as in the whole family.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The Scrophulariaceæ are closely allied to the Solanaceæ, and
-there is, properly<span class="pagenum" id="Page_523">[523]</span> speaking, no characteristic feature which
-absolutely separates them. The somewhat irregular corolla,
-with five stamens of unequal length in <i>Verbascum</i>, is
-also found in <i>Hyoscyamus</i>; curved and straight embryos
-are found in both orders. The activation of the corolla in the
-Scrophulariaceæ is <i>simple imbricate</i>, in the Solanaceæ
-most frequently <i>folded imbricate</i> (in <i>Atropa</i> and
-those allied to it, imbricate without folding). The genera
-(about 164) are distinguished according to the form of the
-corolla, number of stamens, inflorescence, arrangement of the
-leaves, etc. <i>Verbascum</i> belongs to the most primitive
-5-stamened forms, and from it proceed a long series down to
-<i>Veronica</i>, with only two stamens and most frequently the
-posterior sepal suppressed.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig562" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig562.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 562.</span>&mdash;Diagrams. <i>A Verbascum</i>;
-<i>B Linaria</i>; <i>C Veronica</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Antirrhineæ, Snapdragon Group.</span> This has most
-frequently a descending æstivation of the petals (the posterior petals
-are outside the lateral ones, which again enclose the anterior; Fig.
-<a href="#fig562">562</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>). The plants belonging to this group are not
-parasites.</p>
-
-<p><b>a.</b> <b>5-stamened.</b>&mdash;<i>Verbascum</i> (Mullein, Fig. <a href="#fig563">563</a>
-<i>A</i>) has a slightly irregular, rotate corolla; five stamens
-(frequently covered with woolly hairs), of which the two anterior
-ones are the longer and differ often also in other respects. <span class="smaller">The
-inflorescences are racemose, often with several series of accessory
-dichasia in the axil of each primary floral-leaf. The leaves are
-scattered and, together with the stems, are often covered with a grey
-felt of branched hairs.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig563" style="width: 355px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig563.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 563.</span>&mdash;<i>Verbascum thapsiforme.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_524">[524]</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig564" style="width: 391px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig564.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 564.</span>&mdash;<i>Antirrhinum majus.</i> A flower,
-and the upper lip of a flower with the stamens.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig565" style="width: 550px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig565.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 565.</span>&mdash;<i>Scrophularia nodosa.</i>
-Protogynous flower in various stages: <i>A</i> ♀ stage; <i>g</i> the
-stigma projecting from the throat of the corolla; <i>B</i> the same in
-longitudinal section; <i>C</i> ♂ stage, the stigma is bent down and its
-former position occupied by the stamens; <i>s</i> staminode; <i>g</i>
-stigma; <i>d</i> nectary.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig566" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig566.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 566.</span>&mdash;<i>Digitalis purpurea.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>b.</b> <b>4-stamened, didynamous</b> (Fig.
-<a href="#fig564">564</a>).&mdash;<i>Scrophularia</i> (Fig-wort, Fig. <a href="#fig565">565</a>) has cymose
-inflorescences in a panicle; the corolla (Fig. <a href="#fig565">565</a>) is urceolate,
-short two-lipped; the posterior stamens are present as a scale below
-the upper lip of the corolla (Fig <a href="#fig565">565</a> <i>s</i>). <span class="smaller"><i>S. nodosa</i>
-has a tuberous rhizome.&mdash;<i>Pentstemon</i>; the posterior stamen
-is barren and very long.</span>&mdash;<i>Antirrhinum</i> (Snapdragon). The
-corolla (Fig. <a href="#fig564">564</a>) is personate, <i>i.e.</i> bilabiate, but with
-the under lip arched to such an extent that it meets the upper lip,
-closes the corolla throat, and entirely conceals the stamens and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_525">[525]</span>
-style; the corolla-tube is produced into a short pouch at the base
-on the anterior side. The capsule is oblique and opens by 2–3 pores,
-formed by small, dentate valves. In <i>Linaria</i> (Toad-flax) the
-pouch is produced into a spur. Sometimes there are traces of the
-posterior stamens. The capsule opens by large pores (one for each
-loculus), produced by large, many-partite valves. <i>L. vulgaris</i>
-reproduces by suckers.&mdash;<i>Digitalis</i> (Foxglove, Fig. <a href="#fig566">566</a>) has
-long racemes with drooping flowers; the posterior sepal is small
-(a step towards complete suppression, as in <i>Veronica</i>); the
-corolla is obliquely campanulate, and generally nearly 4-lobed, the
-two posterior petals coalescing.&mdash;<i>Alonsoa</i>; <i>Nemesia</i>;
-<i>Chelone</i>; <i>Herpestis</i>; <i>Mimulus</i>; <i>Torenia</i>;
-<i>Vandellia</i>; <i>Limosella</i> (<i>L. aquatica</i>, Mud-wort,
-native); <i>Scoparia</i>; <i>Capraria</i>; <i>Erinus</i> (found on
-the Roman Camp at Chesters, Northumberland, and supposed to have
-been introduced from Spain by the Roman soldiers); <i>Celsia</i>
-(near <i>Verbascum</i>); <i>Maurandia</i>; <i>Lophospermum</i>;
-<i>Rhodochiton</i>; <i>Collinsia</i>; <i>Nycterinia</i>, etc.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig567" style="width: 289px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig567.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 567.</span>-Flower of <i>Veronica</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>c.</b> <b>2-stamened.</b>&mdash;<i>Gratiola</i> (Water-hyssop). 5-partite
-calyx. The upper lip of the corolla is undivided or slightly bifid;
-the two anterior stamens are either entirely absent or are reduced
-to staminodes (a transition to <i>Veronica</i>).&mdash;<i>Veronica</i>
-(Speedwell), most frequently 4-partite calyx; 4-lobed, rotate,
-zygomorphic corolla with 2 perfect stamens and no trace of the others
-(Figs. <a href="#fig567">567</a>, <a href="#fig562">562</a> <i>c</i>); capsule with loculicidal dehiscence.
-<i>Calceolaria</i>; the corolla has two slipper-like lips.</p>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Rhinantheæ, Yellow-rattle Group.</span> Herbs, all of which
-(with the exception of <i>Lathræa</i>) are annual <i>parasites</i>
-with green foliage-leaves. They attach themselves by haustoria to the
-roots of other plants and draw nourishment from them. The majority
-turn black when dried. Racemose inflorescences. In many the calyx
-is 4-partite, the posterior sepal being absent, or very small. The
-corolla is distinctly bilabiate (Fig. <a href="#fig568">568</a>), with <i>most frequently
-ascending æstiration</i>; in the majority it does not become detached
-at the base, but by means of a ring-like cut some distance up the
-tube; 4 didynamous stamens; pollen-grains dry, easily falling out;
-the anthers are often furnished at the base with bristles or hairs
-(Fig.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_526">[526]</span> <a href="#fig568">568</a>) which play a part in the pollination, the probosces
-of the insects, being forcibly pushed against them, agitate the
-anthers and shake out the pollen-grains. Capsule with loculicidal
-dehiscence.&mdash;<i>Euphrasia</i> (Eye-bright), <i>Melampyrum</i>
-(Cow-wheat), <i>Rhinanthus</i> (Yellow-rattle), <i>Odontites</i>
-(Bartsia), <i>Pedicularis</i> (Louse-wort), and <i>Lathrœa</i>
-(Tooth-wort) all have native species. The last named is pale yellow,
-or reddish (without chlorophyll); <span class="smaller">it is a parasite on the roots
-of the Hazel, Beech and other shrubs, having an aerial stem, and an
-underground, perennial rhizome, covered with opposite, scale-like, more
-or less fleshy leaves with a number of internal glandular, labyrinthine
-cavities. The inflorescence is a unilateral raceme. It approaches
-<i>Gesneriaceæ</i> in having a <i>unilocular</i> ovary with two
-parietal placentæ.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig568" style="width: 600px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig568.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 568.</span>&mdash;<i>Euphrasia officinalis.</i> Flower
-of the large and the small-flowered forms; showing the anthers and
-stigmas.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The mechanical contrivances for <span class="allsmcap">POLLINATION</span> are so
-numerous that no general principle can be laid down. Personate
-flowers, like those of <i>Antirrhinum</i> are only accessible to
-strong insects, such as humble-bees, which can force themselves
-between the two lips, and so become dusted with pollen on
-the back. In <i>Euphrasia</i> and other <i>Rhinantheæ</i>
-the insects become covered with smooth, powdery pollen when
-they shake the anther-apparatus in touching the hairs and
-bristles mentioned above. <i>Scrophularia nodosa</i> is
-protogynous (Fig. <a href="#fig565">565</a>). <i>Digitalis purpurea</i>, however,
-is protandrous. <i>Mimulus luteus</i> and some others have
-sensitive stigmatic lobes, which shut up on being touched. The
-<i>Veronica</i>-species constitute a series, from large-flowered
-down to small-flowered forms, and parallel with them are found
-various gradations from insect-to self-pollination. In some (as
-<i>Euphrasia officinalis</i>, <i>Rhinanthus crista galli</i>)
-there are two kinds of flowers: large, which are pollinated
-by insects, and small, which are self-pollinated (Fig. <a href="#fig568">568</a>).
-<i>Lathræa squamaria</i> (Tooth-wort) is a protogynous
-spring-flowering plant, largely visited by humble-bees. Others
-have cleistogamic flowers. <i>Nycterinia capensis</i> opens its
-flowers at night.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_527">[527]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>2,000 species; chiefly from the Temp. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>:
-<i>Digitalis purpurea</i> (the leaves; Europe), a poisonous
-plant. <i>Verbascum thapsus</i> and <i>thapsiforme</i>,
-<i>Veronica officinalis</i> (“Herba V.”), <i>Gratiola
-officinalis</i> (“Herba”) have medicinal uses. The whole
-of the Scrophulariaceæ are more or less suspicious, if
-not actually poisonous, and none serve as food. Many are
-<span class="allsmcap">ORNAMENTAL PLANTS</span>: <i>Mimulus luteus</i> (N. America),
-<i>Paulownia imperialis</i> (the only species; in Japan; a
-tree), <i>Antirrhinum vulgare</i> (S. Eur.), <i>Linaria</i>,
-<i>Pentstemon</i>, <i>Veronica</i>, <i>Calceolaria</i> (Peru,
-Chili, etc.).</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig569" style="width: 416px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig569.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 569.</span>&mdash;Leaf of <i>Utricularia vulgaris</i>,
-with bladder. Median longitudinal section through a bladder containing
-a <i>Cyclops</i>. At a a hair of the upper-lip, at <i>i</i> 2 bristles
-of the under-lip of the entrance (<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>); in the latter
-are placed 4 bristles <i>h</i>; <i>k</i> stalk of the bladder, in which
-is seen a vascular bundle. (After Cohn.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Utriculariaceæ.</b> To this order belong only perennial,
-<i>insectivorous</i>, <i>aquatic</i>, and <i>marsh-plants</i> (200
-species) with a more or less characteristic appearance. They differ
-from the Scrophulariaceæ, especially in having <b>2</b> stamens
-(the anterior) and a <i>unilocular ovary</i>, with <i>free, central
-placenta</i> (like that of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_528">[528]</span> Primulaceæ). For the rest the flower
-is distinctly bilabiate, both in the calyx and corolla. Two-valved
-capsule; no endosperm.</p>
-
-<p><i>Pinguicula</i> (Butter-wort) has a rosette of leaves close to the
-ground; these are sticky, covered with glandular hairs, and roll round
-any small insects which may be caught upon them; flowers solitary,
-terminal on a long scape; calyx, 5-partite; corolla with spur. The
-embryo germinates with 1 cotyledon.&mdash;<i>Utricularia</i> (Bladder-wort).
-Our native species are floating, <i>without roots</i>, with hair-like,
-divided leaves, studded with peculiar bladders (in the Tropics there
-are terrestrial species, with ordinary foliage). The bladders (Fig.
-<a href="#fig569">569</a>) have an aperture, closed by a valve opening inwards, so that small
-aquatic animals are allowed to enter, but are not able to escape; they
-are thus entrapped in the bladders, and are probably used as food.
-Calyx bipartite; corolla personate with spur.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The <i>embryo</i> of <i>Utricularia</i> is very imperfect,
-scarcely more than a spherical, cellular mass, with a few slight
-leaf-rudiments. On the germination of <i>U. vulgaris</i>,
-several bristle-like leaves develop into a compact rosette; the
-stem then develops, and also the finely-divided, bladder-bearing
-leaves. A primary root is not developed. The stems branch
-copiously and in a very peculiar manner. The growing-point of
-the stem is rolled spirally.&mdash;The stigmatic lobes are sensitive
-and close on being touched; self-pollination often takes place,
-however, in <i>Pinguicula</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Gesneriaceæ.</b> The flower in this order may be
-both <i>epigynous</i> (<i>Gesnerieæ</i>) and <i>hypogynous</i>
-(<i>Cyrtandreæ</i>), but otherwise is nearly the same as in
-Scrophulariaceæ, only that <i>the ovary is unilocular</i>,
-with 2 <i>parietal</i>, often bifid, <i>placentæ</i>. Of the
-5 stamens the posterior is rudimentary, or (more rarely)
-entirely wanting, and the others are didynamous (Cyrtandreæ
-have often only 2 stamens); their anthers are generally
-glued into a quadrangular mass. The majority are herbs with
-juicy stems, opposite, verticillate or scattered leaves
-without stipules, often, like the stems, thick and juicy,
-soft-haired or glabrous. The corollas are often highly-coloured
-(scarlet, red-yellow, etc., and spotted internally), large
-and magnificent, so that many species are ornamental plants.
-<span class="smcap">Gesnerieæ</span> (often epigynous) have endosperm; S.
-Am.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cyrtandreæ</span>, hypogynous, without endosperm; Asia,
-S. Africa.&mdash;<i>Streptocarpus</i>, neither the primary root nor
-primary shoot attains development; one of the cotyledons dies,
-while the other grows and becomes a very large foliage-leaf,
-from which spring adventitious roots and adventitious
-inflorescences.</p>
-
-<p>500 species. <i>Gloxinia</i>, <i>Achimenes</i>, <i>Gesneria</i>,
-<i>Alloplectus</i>, <i>Tydæa</i>, <i>Columnea</i>,
-<i>Nægelia</i>, <i>Æschynanthus</i>, and others, especially in
-the forests of tropical America. Some are epiphytes on trees,
-others prefer the leaf-mould of the forest and crevices of
-cliffs. Several genera have peculiar, catkin-like, underground
-shoots, with scale-like compact leaves; others have tubers.</p>
-
-<p><i>Orobanche</i> (Broom-rape) is allied to this order as a
-<i>parasitic</i> form. It is a parasite on the roots of other
-plants, not like <i>Lathræa</i> by means of thin rootbranches<span class="pagenum" id="Page_529">[529]</span>
-with haustoria, but growing with the base of its stem in close
-contact with its host, and probably even often protruding a kind
-of thallus into it, in a manner similar to the Loranthaceæ. Its
-aerial shoots are not entirely destitute of chlorophyll, but are
-not green; they only bear scale-leaves and terminate in a raceme
-or spike-like inflorescence.&mdash;Some <i>Orobanche</i>-species
-are detrimental to various cultivated plants (Hemp, Lucerne,
-Tobacco, etc.). The flowers are strongly zygomorphic; the
-posterior sepal is often wanting, and the anterior are united to
-the two lateral ones. Ovary unilocular, as in Gesneraceæ, with 2
-or 4 parietal placentæ.&mdash;The exceedingly small seeds have a very
-rudimentary embryo, formed of an ellipsoidal, cellular mass,
-without indication of cotyledons or other organs.&mdash;About 100
-species; especially in the Mediterranean region.</p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Bignoniaceæ.</b> 500 species; nearly all trees and
-shrubs, and to a great extent lianes, climbing by tendrils
-(modified leaves), which are sometimes terminated by a
-special clasping apparatus. These lianes have, as a rule, an
-<i>anomalous stem structure</i>, the wood being either divided
-into four wedges at right angles to each other, separated
-by four grooves filled with secondary wood-parenchyma, or a
-greater number of wedges occur, by the cambium ceasing to
-form wood in several places. The leaves are most frequently
-opposite and compound; the flowers in the main are similar to
-the didynamous Scrophulariaceæ, and especially resemble those
-of <i>Digitalis purpurea</i>; they are bilabiate, large, and
-beautiful, campanulate or trumpet-shaped, many of the prettiest
-ornamental plants in the Tropics belonging to this order. The
-fruit is most frequently a large, woody, 2-valved, siliqua-like,
-septifragal capsule, whose valves separate from the flat and
-broad partition-wall, which bears the large, generally winged
-seeds: <i>Tecoma</i>; <i>Bignonia</i>.&mdash;In gardens: <i>Catalpa
-syringæfolia</i> (Trumpet-wood); <i>Tecoma radicans</i> (from
-S. Am.).&mdash;“Palisander”-wood is from <i>Jacaranda</i> (S.
-Am.).&mdash;<i>Eccremocarpus</i> (N. Am.) forms, by its unilocular
-capsule, a transition to the Gesneriaceæ (<i>E. scaber</i>;
-herbaceous).</p>
-
-<p><i>Crescentia</i> is allied to this order; <i>C. cujete</i>
-(Calabash) is its best known species. The fruit (unilocular with
-2 parietal placentæ) is a very large, spherical or ellipsoidal
-berry, with a firm, finally woody outer layer. After the removal
-of the juicy interior, these are commonly used as drinking
-vessels in Tropical America.</p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Pedaliaceæ.</b> <i>Sesamum</i> (<i>orientale</i> and
-<i>indicum</i>); very important oil-plants, which from olden
-times have been cultivated in tropical Asia and Africa for food
-and as medicinal plants, and are now cultivated in America
-also. The seeds are used as a raw material in the manufacture
-of soap in Europe.&mdash;To this order also belong <i>Martynia</i>
-and <i>Craniolaria</i>, which have a long horned capsule and
-sensitive stigmas.&mdash;46 species.</p>
-
-<p>Order 8. <b>Acanthaceæ.</b> 1,500 species; mostly erect,
-slender, branched herbs or shrubs, rarely arborescent,
-especially in S. Am. and Ind. The branches frequently have
-swollen nodes; the leaves are <i>opposite</i>, penninerved,
-undivided, more or less lanceolate or elliptical, and generally
-leave a distinct scar when they fall off. Stipules are wanting.
-The flowers are solitary or in dichasia, which are arranged
-in 4-rowed spikes or racemes, each flower with its subtending
-bract, which may be brightly coloured, and most frequently
-also with two bracteoles. With regard to the corolla (which is
-often labiate, in any case irregular, and frequently prettily
-coloured), the 2 or 4 didynamous stamens<span class="pagenum" id="Page_530">[530]</span> (of whose anthers one
-half is inserted lower than the other, or suppressed) and the
-gynœceum, the Acanthaceæ are true Personatæ, approaching most
-nearly to the Scrophulariaceæ: they differ from the other orders
-especially in the <i>fruit</i>, which is a bilocular, 2-valved,
-often elastically dehiscing capsule, which never has more than
-2 rows, and in some only 2 seeds in each loculus, the seeds
-being often compressed and borne on <i>strong</i>, <i>curved</i>
-or <i>hook-like funicles</i> (<i>retinacula</i>) which persist
-after dehiscence. <i>Embryo curved without endosperm</i>;
-radicle pointed downwards.&mdash;Cleistogamic flowers are found in
-several species. Cystoliths are common.</p>
-
-<p>The following grow wild in Europe: <i>Acanthus</i>
-(<i>spinosus</i> and <i>mollis</i>, whose pinnatifid leaves
-served as models for the capitals of the Corinthian columns).
-The posterior sepal is the largest of all the leaves of the
-flower, and covers the other parts like a helmet; the 2 anterior
-sepals are united, and the two lateral ones are small and
-greenish; the corolla has no upper-lip, but only a 3-lobed
-under-lip. The anthers are bilocular; the filaments ultimately
-become very firm.&mdash;<i>Justicia</i>, <i>Eranthemum</i>,
-<i>Goldfussia</i>, <i>Thunbergia</i> (a twiner), <i>Ruellia</i>,
-<i>Dicliptera</i>, etc.&mdash;Ornamental plants in conservatories.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 9. <b>Plantaginaceæ</b> (<b>Plantains</b>). The flowers (Figs.
-<a href="#fig570">570</a>, <a href="#fig571">571</a>) are regular, ☿, hypogynous, with a <b>4</b>-partite,
-persistent calyx, a gamopetalous, <i>scarious</i> corolla with <b>4</b>
-projecting lobes, <b>4</b> stamens, incurved in the bud, later on
-projecting considerably, about equal in length, and a bilocular ovary
-with <i>one</i> long, filamentous, <i>undivided</i>, <i>feathery</i>,
-papillose style (see Fig. <a href="#fig571">571</a>). The ovary is most frequently bilocular
-with 1–few ovules in each loculus. An hypogynous disc is wanting. The
-fruit is a <i>pyxidium</i> with 1–few peltate seeds attached in each
-loculus (<i>Littorella</i> is in several respects an exception). All
-species are herbs, the majority with leaf-rosettes near the ground, and
-the flowers in spikes or capitula.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The labiate-like flowers are in this case entirely
-concealed under a regular, apparently 4-merous exterior.
-The structure of the flower, however, is the same as in the
-<i>Scrophulariaceæ</i>, only the reduction, which is found in
-<i>Veronica</i> (compare Figs. <a href="#fig562">562</a> <i>C</i>, <a href="#fig567">567</a> with <a href="#fig570">570</a>,
-<a href="#fig571">571</a>), is also present in this instance and the lobes are also
-more equally developed; the posterior petal corresponds to
-the bilobed upper-lip; the posterior stamen and the posterior
-sepal also are entirely wanting. In the development of the
-flower there is no trace of posterior sepal or stamen, and the
-posterior petal arises from one primordium, but the two anterior
-sepals arise before the lateral ones. The position of sepals and
-petals does not agree with that of a true 4-merous flower, which
-is represented in Fig. <a href="#fig361">361</a> <i>E.</i> The bracteoles are always
-suppressed in <i>Plantago</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><i>Plantago</i> (Plantain, Rib-grass). The foliage-leaves are most
-frequently scattered, entire, with curved veins, arranged in a
-rosette close to the ground on an unlimited rhizome; the spike-like
-inflorescence is borne on a long scape; in some (<i>P. psyllium</i>)<span class="pagenum" id="Page_531">[531]</span>
-the leaves are opposite on a stem with well-developed internodes, and
-the inflorescences are borne in their axils. The order also presents
-a transition from insect-pollinated to wind-pollinated flowers.
-<span class="smaller">The flowers are protogynous, wind-pollinated in <i>P. major</i>
-and <i>P. lanceolata</i>, partly also in the other species, but
-insect pollination also occurs, and <i>P. media</i> has three kinds
-of flowers, some of which are adapted for wind-pollination (Fig.
-<a href="#fig571">571</a>), others, with short filaments, for insects.</span> <i>Littorella
-lacustris</i> (Shore-weed) is the most reduced of the Plantaginaceæ:
-an aquatic plant with rosettes of round, awl-like leaves and diclinous
-(monœcious) flowers. <span class="smaller">In the axils of the foliage-leaves is a very
-short 3-flowered spike, formed by 2 sessile ♀-flowers, and above them
-a long-stalked ♂-flower; all the flowers are lateral, the terminal one
-being absent, as in <i>Plantago</i>. The ♂-flower is essentially the
-same as in <i>Plantago</i>, but the ♀-flower has a scarious corolla,
-with a narrow, 3–4-dentate mouth, which closes tightly round the
-nut-like fruit.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig570" style="width: 227px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 570, 571.</span>&mdash;<i>Plantago media.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig570.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 570.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Plantago media</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig571" style="width: 448px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig571.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 571.</span>&mdash;Two different forms of the flower (magnified): 1, chiefly
-adapted for pollination by wind; 2, for insect-pollination. <i>a</i>
-The stigma; <i>b</i> the calyx; <i>k</i> the corolla.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The genus <i>Plantago</i> constitutes nearly the entire
-order (200 species). Some are widely distributed weeds
-(<i>e.g. P. major</i>, “The white man’s footstep”). In
-<i>P. psyllium</i> (S. Eur.) the integument of the seeds is
-mucilaginous, and swells considerably in water.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 31. <b>Nuculiferæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flowers are <i>hypogynous</i> and <i>zygomorphic</i> (in
-<i>Boraginaceæ</i> and <i>Cordiaceæ</i>, however, they are regular,
-except <i>Echium</i> and <i>Anchusa arvensis</i>). The calyx is
-gamosepalous, the corolla <i>bilabiate</i> (except in the two orders
-mentioned), mostly after 2/3, <i>i.e.</i> divided into a 2-leaved
-posterior portion, and a 3-leaved anterior portion.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_532">[532]</span> The æstivation
-of the corolla is nearly always descending.&mdash;In <i>Boraginaceæ</i>
-and <i>Cordiaceæ</i> there are 5 stamens of equal length; in the
-other orders 4 didynamous ones, or only 2 fertile; the posterior
-stamen is sometimes developed as a staminode, sometimes fertile (in
-<i>Stilbaceæ</i>). The ovary is formed of 2 median carpels (except
-some <i>Verbenaceæ</i>), with (1-) <b>2</b> ovules on each carpel;
-in the majority of the orders it is, however, divided by a false
-partition-wall between the dorsal and ventral sutures, into <b>4</b>
-<i>loculi</i>, each of which is often raised independently, causing
-the style to be situated in the depression between the four lobes
-(“gynobasic” style, Figs. <a href="#fig572">572</a>, <a href="#fig573">573</a>, <a href="#fig575">575</a>, <a href="#fig579">579</a>). The fruit in these
-orders most frequently becomes a <i>4-partite schizocarp</i> with
-<i>nut-like fruitlets</i>. The other orders have a 1(-2)-locular
-ovary.&mdash;The leaves are <i>simple, without stipules</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The family is related to (and proceeds from) the
-<i>Tubifloræ</i>, especially <i>Convolvulaceæ</i>, which has an
-almost similar construction of the ovary. It is doubtful whether
-the <i>Cordiaceæ</i> and <i>Boraginaceæ</i> should be classed
-with the others.</p>
-
-<p>The orders are: 1, Cordiaceæ; 2. Boraginaceæ; 3, Verbenaceæ; 4,
-Labiatæ; 5, Selaginaceæ; 6. Globulariaceæ; 7, Stilbaceæ.</p>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Cordiaceæ</b> unites Convolvulaceæ and Boraginaceæ.
-Tree-like plants with 5-(4–10) merous flowers, doubly bifid
-style, and drupe with 4 or less loculi. No endosperm; cotyledons
-folded.&mdash;185 species; tropical.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Boraginaceæ.</b> The vegetative parts are very
-characteristic: <i>herbs</i> with <i>cylindrical</i> stems and
-<i>scattered</i>, undivided, nearly always sessile, entire leaves,
-without stipules, and generally, together with the other green portions
-of the plant, covered with stiff hairs, consequently rough and often
-even stinging (hence the other name for the order <i>Asperifoliæ</i>).
-The inflorescences are <i>unipared scorpioid cymes</i> with the
-branches coiled spirally (“helicoid,” Fig. <a href="#fig573">573</a>) before the flowers
-open. The flower is perfect, <i>regular</i> (obliquely zygomorphic in
-<i>Echium</i> and <i>Anchusa arvensis</i>), hypogynous, gamopetalous:
-S5, P5 (often with ligular outgrowths), A5, G2, but each of the two
-loculi of the ovary becomes divided by a false partition-wall into two,
-each of which contains one <i>pendulous</i> anatropous ovule with the
-micropyle turned upwards; the four loculi arch upwards, so that the
-ovary becomes 4-lobed, and the style is then, as in the <i>Borageæ</i>,
-placed <i>at the base</i> (“gynobasic”) between the four projections
-(Figs. <a href="#fig572">572</a>, <a href="#fig573">573</a>). The fruit is a <i>4-partite schizocarp</i> with four
-nut-like fruitlets (Fig. <a href="#fig572">572</a>).&mdash;<i>Endosperm is wanting</i> (except in
-<i>Heliotropium</i>); the radicle is turned <i>upwards</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_533">[533]</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">INFLORESCENCES</span> are often double unipared scorpioid
-cymes; the bud of the second bracteole is developed, that of
-the first suppressed; in some cases both the bracteoles are
-suppressed (<i>Myosotis</i>, <i>Omphalodes</i>, etc.), but
-in other instances all the first bracteoles (<i>a</i>) only
-are suppressed, and the others are then situated in two rows
-towards the under side of the coiled axis, while the flowers are
-situated on the upper side. Displacement of the branches or of
-the floral-leaves sometimes takes place. The flowers are often
-red at first, and later on become blue or violet; they hardly
-ever have any smell. The fruit entirely resembles that of the
-Labiatæ, but the radicle of the latter is turned downwards.
-The fruitlets present small differences which have systematic
-importance; they are hollow or flat at the base, attached to a
-flat or columnar receptacle, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Heliotropieæ.</span> This group deviates from the
-characteristics mentioned above in the undivided ovary and terminal
-(“apical”) style. In this, as well as in the fact that in some genera
-(<i>Tournefortia</i>, <i>Ehretia</i>, etc.) the fruit is a drupe,
-it connects this order with the Cordiaceæ. <i>Heliotropium</i>,
-<i>Tiaridium</i>, and others have schizocarps.</p>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Borageæ, Borage Group.</span> Style gynobasic; fruit a
-schizocarp.</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> The throat of the corolla is without ligules, or with very
-small ones.&mdash;<i>Pulmonaria</i> (Lung-wort); funnel-shaped corolla; a
-whorl of hairs in the corolla-throat.&mdash;<i>Echium</i> (Viper’s-bugloss)
-has zygomorphic flowers, the plane of symmetry almost coinciding
-with that of the very well-developed inflorescence (through the
-fourth sepal); the corolla is obliquely funnel-shaped, the style is
-more deeply cleft at the apex than in the others; stamens 2 longer,
-2 shorter, and 1 still shorter.&mdash;<i>Cerinthe</i> has a tubular
-corolla with five small teeth and two bilocular fruitlets. The
-bracts are large and leafy, and, like all the rest of the plant, are
-<i>almost glabrous</i>.&mdash;A few <i>Lithospermum</i>-species have a
-naked corolla-throat; others have small hairy ligules, which do not
-close the corolla-throat. The fruitlets are as hard as stone, owing
-to the presence of carbonate of lime and silica.&mdash;<i>Mertensia</i>
-(<i>Steenhammera</i>); <i>Arnebia</i>; <i>Nonnea</i> (small ligules).</p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> The corolla-throat is closed by, or in any case provided
-with <i>ligules</i>, <i>i.e.</i> scale-like bodies or small
-protuberances, situated in the throat of the corolla <i>opposite</i>
-the petals, and which are invaginations or <i>internal</i> spurs
-of the petals (Fig. <a href="#fig572">572</a> <i>D</i>).&mdash;The nuts in <i>Cynoglossum</i>
-(Hound’s-tongue) bear <i>hooked bristles</i> over the entire surface,
-or, in <i>Echinospermum</i>, only on the edge. The following have
-smooth nuts:&mdash;<i>Symphytum</i> (Comfrey) has a cylindrical, campanulate
-corolla, and prolonged-triangular, pointed ligules.&mdash;<i>Borago</i>
-(Borage) has a rotate corolla with projecting,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_534">[534]</span> emarginate ligules;
-the stamens have a horn-like appendage, projecting upwards from the
-back of the filament. The fruitlets are hollow below.&mdash;<i>Anchusa</i>
-(Alkanet, Fig. <a href="#fig572">572</a>). The corolla is salver-shaped; the ligules small,
-hairy protuberances. <i>A. (Lycopsis) arvensis</i> has an S-curved
-corolla-tube.&mdash;<i>Myosotis</i> (Forget-me-not, Fig. <a href="#fig573">573</a>); rotate
-corolla with small (yellow) protuberances in the throat; scorpioid
-cyme without floral-leaves; fruitlets flat.&mdash;<i>Omphalodes</i>;
-fruitlets hollow at the back, with a scarious, turned-in, toothed
-edge.&mdash;<i>Asperugo</i> (Mad-wort); the calyx grows after flowering,
-becoming large, compressed, and deeply bifid.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig572" style="width: 496px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig572.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 572.</span>&mdash;<i>Anchusa officinalis</i>: <i>A</i>
-diagram; the brocteole <i>a</i> is suppressed (dotted); β supports
-a flower. <i>B</i>, <i>C Myosotis</i>, the fruit, entire and
-with the calyx in longitudinal section. <i>D</i>, <i>F Alkanna
-tinctoria</i>: D the corolla opened (4/1); <i>e</i> the ligule;
-<i>f</i>, <i>g</i> the anthers; <i>E</i> gyncœceum (3/1); <i>F</i>
-fruit, with three fruitlets; <i>i</i> an aborted loculus; <i>h</i>
-disc.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Cross-pollination</span> is most commonly effected by
-insects (especially bees). There are a great many contrivances
-for pollination; some flowers are protandrous (<i>Echium
-vulgare</i>, <i>Borago officin.</i>), others are heterostylous
-(long-and short-styled: <i>Pulmonaria officin.</i>); the corona
-(ligules) is a protection against rain, and excludes certain
-insects. Some are barren when self-pollinated (<i>Pulmonaria<span class="pagenum" id="Page_535">[535]</span>
-officinalis</i>, <i>Echium vulgare</i>); others which have
-but little honey, may, failing insect-pollination, fertilise
-themselves, and in <i>Myosotis versicolor</i> this regularly
-occurs by the growth of the corolla during flowering, so
-that the anthers are brought into contact with the stigma.
-Honey is secreted on the hypogynous disc.&mdash;About 1,150
-species, growing especially in the northern temperate zone,
-<i>Mucilage</i> is found (<i>e.g.</i> in the <i>officinal</i>
-root of <i>Cynoglossum officinale</i>, in the root of
-<i>Symphytum</i>): red <i>dyes</i> are found in some roots
-(<i>e.g.</i> Alkanet-root, the root of <i>Alkanna tinctoria</i>,
-which is also medicinal; S. E. Europe, Asia Minor); some
-are <i>poisonous</i>: <i>Cynoglossum</i>, <i>Echium</i>,
-<i>Anchusa</i>, etc. Several species are ornamental plants.
-<i>Heliotropium</i> (Peru) is cultivated chiefly on account of
-its pleasant scent; essential oils are otherwise very rare.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig573" style="width: 240px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig573.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 573.</span>-<i>Myosotis.</i> Inflorescence and
-gynœceum.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Verbenaceæ.</b> The majority are shrubs; a few are
-herbs or trees (Teak-tree); some are lianes. The branches are
-often square. The leaves are opposite or verticillate, without
-stipules; in some compound. The inflorescences are racemes,
-spikes, capitula, or dichasia. Five sepals; five petals in a
-gamopetalous, zygomorphic corolla, which is often bilabiate, but
-rarely to such an extent as in the Labiatæ, and the upper lip
-in some is larger than the under, in others smaller; stamens
-four didynamous, or two; the ovary is entire (not grooved or
-divided), 1- or 2-locular, or, as in the Labiatæ, divided into
-four loculi with an <i>erect</i> ovule in each, but in some the
-anterior carpel is suppressed. One <i>terminal</i> style. The
-fruit is, <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Verbena</i>, a 4 partite schizocarp
-with nut-like fruitlets; in <i>Vitex</i> (digitate leaves) a
-drupe with a 4-locular stone; in <i>Clerodendron</i> a similar
-fruit, with four free stones; in <i>Lantana</i> a bilocular
-stone, or two unilocular stones. The radicle is <i>turned
-downwards</i>. Endosperm small or absent.&mdash;<i>Lippia</i>,
-<i>Stachytarpheta</i>, <i>Bouchea</i>, <i>Priva</i>,
-<i>Citharexylon</i>, <i>Callicarpa</i>, etc.&mdash;The Verbenaceæ are
-closely allied to the Labiatæ; they differ especially in the
-ovary not being 4-lobed with gynobasic style, but undivided,
-almost spherical or ovoid with a terminal style. Again, the
-leaves are not so constantly opposite, and the inflorescences
-are various.</p>
-
-<p>730 species; especially in the Tropics; there are several
-in America, especially <i>Lantana-species</i>; shrubby
-weeds.&mdash;Many of those mentioned are <span class="allsmcap">ORNAMENTAL PLANTS</span>,
-especially <i>Verbena</i>; <i>Vitex agnus castus</i> is a S.
-European shrub. <i>Lippia citriodora</i> (S. Am.) etc., have
-strongly-scented leaves; the Teak tree (<i>Tectona grandis</i>)
-is one of the largest trees in East India, and has a very hard
-wood.</p>
-
-<p><i>Avicennia</i> is allied to this order; it inhabits the
-Mangrove swamps on tropical coasts. The endosperm emerges from
-the ovule, carrying the embryo with it; the embryo ultimately
-bursts the endosperm and lies free in the loculus of the
-fruit; this is then filled by the embryo with its large, green
-cotyledons, which are borne on an already hairy or rooted stem.
-The seedling thus developed falls from the tree, together with
-the fruit, and strikes root in the mud. One special cell of
-the endosperm at an earlier period becomes a highly-developed
-organ of suction, growing into a much-branched sac, very rich in
-protoplasm.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_536">[536]</span></p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Labiatæ.</b> The special characteristics are: the
-<i>square</i> stem, the <i>opposite leaves</i> (without stipules), the
-inflorescences which are formed by <i>two double unipared scorpioid
-cymes</i>, the <i>labiate</i> corolla, the 4 <i>didynamous</i>
-stamens (the posterior being entirely suppressed) (Fig. <a href="#fig574">574</a>), and the
-<i>4-partite schizocarp</i> with <i>nut-like fruitlets</i>. The floral
-formula is S5, P5, A5 (the posterior stamen is generally absent), G2.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig574" style="width: 382px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig574.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 574.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Lamium album</i>:
-<i>sv</i> dichasia.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>They are chiefly aromatic plants (herbs, shrubs, <i>e.g.</i> Lavender,
-or trees), volatile oil being formed in internal cells or in the
-glandular hairs, which cover all green parts. The stem is always more
-or less markedly square; the leaves are borne upon the flat sides,
-and are simple and penninerved, but vary in the other characters.
-The inflorescences are double unipared scorpioid cymes, which may
-be situated at some distance from one another in the axils of the
-foliage-leaves (Fig. <a href="#fig575">575</a> <i>A</i>), but frequently when the subtending
-leaves are bract-like, they are crowded into spike-like inflorescences
-(<i>Lavandula</i>, <i>Mentha</i>, <i>Salvia</i>, etc.), each of
-the so-called “whorls” (verticillaster, glomerulus) being a double
-unipared scorpioid cyme (Fig. <a href="#fig574">574</a>). (Solitary flowers are found in
-<i>e.g. Scutellaria</i>, and <i>Origanum</i>). The calyx is
-strongly gamosepalous, 5-toothed, often bilabiate (Fig. <a href="#fig575">575</a> <i>B</i>).
-The corolla is strongly bilabiate (Figs. <a href="#fig575">575</a>, <a href="#fig576">576</a>, etc.), with 2
-lobes in the upper lip and 3 lobes in the under lip (an approach to
-regularity occurs only when the upper lip is small, and thus resembles
-one lobe, as in <i>Mentha</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig578">578</a>) and <i>Lycopus</i>, so
-that the corolla approaches the 4-merous corolla of <i>Veronica</i>
-and <i>Plantago</i>). The posterior stamen in the diagram (Fig. <a href="#fig574">574*</a>) is entirely suppressed; in most of the genera the posterior
-lateral stamens are the smaller (Fig. <a href="#fig575">575</a> <i>D</i>), and are entirely
-suppressed in some (see below); in others, <i>e.g. Nepeta</i>,
-they are the longer. 2 stamens are found in <i>Salvia</i>,
-<i>Rosmarinus</i>, <i>Lycopus</i>, etc. The two halves of the anthers
-are often separated from one another, and are placed at an angle with
-each other. The gynœceum has 1 style with a bifid extremity (Fig. <a href="#fig575">575</a>
-<i>C</i>) bearing the stigma; the true bilocular ovary is divided by a
-false partition-wall into 4 loculi, each with 1 erect ovule (Fig. <a href="#fig575">575</a>
-<i>H</i>). These 4 loculi project so strongly that the ovary becomes
-deeply 4-lobed with the style situated in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_537">[537]</span> the centre of the lobes
-and at their base, “gynobasic” (Figs. <a href="#fig575">575</a>, <a href="#fig579">579</a>). A ring-like, often
-crenate, nectary surrounds the base of the ovary (Fig. <a href="#fig575">575</a> <i>G</i>,
-<i>H</i>). The embryo in this order, as in the <i>Verbenaceæ</i>, is
-directed downwards (Fig. <a href="#fig575">575</a> <i>J</i>) (it is directed upwards in the
-<i>Boraginaceæ</i>, which have an entirely similar fruit). <i>Endosperm
-absent.</i></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig575" style="width: 474px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig575.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 575.</span>&mdash;<i>Thymus vulgaris.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The 142 genera are mainly distinguished according to the form of
-the calyx and corolla, the number, direction, and length of the
-stamens, the forms of the nuts, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Ajugeæ, Bugle Group.</span> Calyx 10-nerved; the upper
-lip is small; 4 stamens. The ovary is not so strongly lobed as
-in the following group, so that it is most nearly allied to the
-<i>Verbenaceæ</i>. The nuts are reticulately wrinkled. <i>Ajuga</i>
-(Bugle) has a very<span class="pagenum" id="Page_538">[538]</span> small upper lip. The upper lip of <i>Teucrium</i>
-(Germander) is deeply cleft, and the two lobes are bent on their
-respective sides towards the under lip, which in consequence appears to
-be 5-lobed, and the upper lip to be wanting.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig576" style="width: 626px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig576.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 576.</span>&mdash;<i>Lamium album</i>: <i>A</i>
-lateral view of flower; <i>B</i> longitudinal section; <i>C</i> ovary
-with nectaries (<i>a</i>); <i>D</i> the apex of the style; <i>e</i>,
-upper lip of corolla; <i>c</i>, <i>b</i>, <i>c</i> the three petals of
-the lower lip; <i>f</i> anthers; <i>g</i> stigma.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Stachydeæ, Betony Group.</span> The calyx is 5- or
-10-nerved. The upper lip of the corolla is most frequently <i>strongly
-arched</i> or helmet-shaped; 4 stamens, the <i>anterior pair the
-longer</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig576">576</a>).</p>
-
-<p><b>a.</b> A somewhat regular and 5–10-dentate calyx with
-<i>projecting</i> stamens.&mdash;<i>Stachys</i> (Betony, Woundwort); the
-lobes of the under lip are rounded off. The anterior filaments, after
-pollination, <i>bend outwards</i>. <i>Betonica</i>&mdash;<i>Ballota</i>
-(Horehound); the calyx is funnel-shaped, and has triangular, long,
-pointed, awn-like teeth.&mdash;<i>Galeopsis</i> (Hemp-nettle) has two
-conical protuberances on the under lip between the lateral and
-the central lobes. The anthers open by 2 <i>unequal</i> valves.
-<i>Lamium</i> (Dead-nettle, Fig. <a href="#fig576">576</a>) has dentate, lateral lobes on the
-under lip. <i>L. album</i> (White Dead-nettle), <i>L. rubrum</i>, etc.
-<i>Galeobdolon.</i>&mdash;<i>Leonurus</i>; <i>Phlomis</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>b.</b> Tubular, regular, often 10-toothed calyx and <i>concealed</i>
-stamens.&mdash;<i>Marrubium vulgare</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig577">577</a>); 10 calyx-teeth,
-hooked at the apex; many almost spherical whorls of flowers
-in the axils of the foliage-leaves, at some distance from one
-another.&mdash;<i>Sideritis.</i></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig577" style="width: 430px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig577.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 577.</span>&mdash;<i>Marrubium vulgare.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>c.</b> Strongly bilabiate calyx, the lips <i>closing together</i>
-after<span class="pagenum" id="Page_539">[539]</span> flowering.&mdash;<i>Scutellaria</i> (Skull-cap); the two lips of the
-calyx are entire, the upper lip has a large spur, and drops off on the
-ripening of the fruit. The flowers are generally solitary and turned to
-one side.&mdash;<i>Prunella</i> (Heal-all); the calyx is compressed, its two
-lips are strongly dentate, the upper lips closing slightly round the
-under. The stamens have a tooth-like projection beneath the anthers.</p>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Nepeteæ, Catmint Group.</span> 13–15 nerves in the calyx;
-this deviates from the other groups in the <i>posterior stamens being
-the longer</i>. The upper lip is slightly arched. <i>Nepeta</i>
-(Catmint), also <i>Glechoma</i> (Ground Ivy), with regular, and
-<i>Dracocephalum</i> with irregular calyx.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig578" style="width: 499px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig578.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 578.</span>&mdash;<i>Mentha aquatica</i>, var.
-<i>crispa</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>4.</b> <span class="smcap">Satureieæ, Mint Group.</span> The upper lip is <i>flat</i>,
-most frequently ovate, or almost spherical, and emarginate (Fig.
-<a href="#fig578">578</a>). The calyx is most frequently 5–10-nerved. 4 stamens, <i>the
-anterior being the longer</i>; rarely, 2 stamens only.&mdash;<i>Mentha</i>
-(Mint, Fig. <a href="#fig578">578</a>) has a regular, 5-dentate calyx, a small, almost
-regular, 4-partite corolla, and 4 erect stamens of nearly equal size.
-The verticillasters are many-flowered, and are often collected into
-cylindrical inflorescences. Herbs.&mdash;<i>Lycopus</i> (Gipsy-wort);
-corolla almost regular. 2 stamens, the posterior lateral ones are
-wanting. <i>Preslia</i>: 4-dentate calyx, 4-partite, regular corolla; 4
-stamens of equal size.&mdash;<i>Thymus</i> (Thyme, Fig. <a href="#fig575">575</a>) has a strongly
-bilabiate calyx, the throat being closed by a whorl of hairs (Fig. <a href="#fig575">575</a>
-B). The corolla is distinctly labiate. Under-shrubs, with small entire
-leaves; verticillasters few-flowered and separate.&mdash;<i>Origanum</i>
-(Marjoram); spike or capitate inflorescences with the flowers solitary<span class="pagenum" id="Page_540">[540]</span>
-in the axils of the rather large and distinctly 4-rowed (often
-slightly coloured) floral-leaves. <i>Melissa. Calamintha.</i>
-<i>Clinopodium</i> (Wild Basil). <i>Satureia. Hyssopus</i>
-(Hyssop); small, entire leaves; the verticillasters are situated
-unilaterally in a slender, spike-like inflorescence. <i>Lavandula</i>
-(Lavender); shrubs with verticillasters collected in cylindrical,
-long-stalked inflorescences; the calyx is tubular, has 13–15 nerves,
-the posterior tooth is much larger than the others. Stamens and
-style do <i>not</i> project. <span class="smaller"><i>Coleus</i> differs, among other
-characters, in having united filaments; the stamens and style are bent
-down and concealed in the boat-shaped under lip.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig579" style="width: 557px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig579.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 579.</span>&mdash;<i>Salvia officinalis.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>5.</b> <span class="smcap">Monardeæ, Salvia Group.</span> <i>Only the 2 anterior
-stamens are developed.</i>&mdash;<i>Salvia</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig579">579</a>); calyx deeply
-bilabiate; the upper lip of the corolla is generally strongly
-compressed. Rudiments of the two lateral stamens are present. The
-connective in the two fertile stamens is long and filamentous, and
-bears at the upper end a normal half-anther, but at the lower one a
-barren, often broader portion, against which the insect is obliged
-to push its proboscis during its visits to the flowers, causing the
-pollen-bearing half-anther to be pressed down against its back.
-Floral-leaves often coloured.&mdash;<i>Rosmarinus</i> (Rosemary); a shrub
-with leathery linear leaves, with rolled back edge. A small tooth on
-the filament represents the barren half of the anther. <i>Monarda.</i></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">POLLINATION</span> is generally effected by insects,
-especially bees; the under-lip is the landing-stage and the
-pollen is deposited on their backs. Cross-fertilisation is
-promoted by dichogamy; honey is secreted by an hypogynous disc
-and collected in the corolla-tube. Some genera are homogamous
-(<i>Lamium</i>, <i>Galeopsis</i>, etc.); others are dichogamous
-(protandrous); a few are <i>gynodiœcious</i>:<span class="pagenum" id="Page_541">[541]</span> ♀-and ☿-flowers
-in various relative sizes (<i>Glechoma hederaceum</i>,
-<i>Thymus</i>, <i>Salvia pratensis</i>, and others). The
-entrance of uninvited guests to the honey is often rendered
-difficult by whorls of hairs, etc. In numerous instances the
-upper lip protects the pollen from rain. <i>Cleistogamy</i> is
-found <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Lamium amplexicaule</i>.</p>
-
-<p>2,700 species; distributed over the entire globe, but the
-greater number in Mediterranean countries (especially in the
-Eastern regions), where many are shrub-like.&mdash;Poisonous and
-acrid properties are absent. On account of their <i>volatile
-oils</i> they are principally used as <i>condiments</i>,
-for <i>perfumery</i> and in <i>medicine</i> (the officinal
-parts are therefore nearly always “folia” and “herba,”
-in <i>Lavandula</i> the flowers, and the volatile oils
-extracted from them). Such are:<a id="FNanchor_39" href="#Footnote_39" class="fnanchor">[39]</a><i>Mentha piperita</i>
-[+] (Peppermint)&mdash;menthol is obtained from this species and
-from <i>M. arvensis</i>&mdash;<i>M. viridis</i> [+] (Spearmint),
-<i>M. crispa</i> (Curly-mint), <i>Thymus vulgaris</i> (Garden
-Thyme), <i>Melissa officinalis</i> (S. Eur.), <i>Hyssopus
-officinalis</i> (Hyssop, S. Eur.), <i>Origanum majorana</i>
-(Marjoram, from the Mediterranean), <i>O. vulgare</i> (Wild
-Marjoram), <i>creticum</i>, <i>smyrnæum</i>, etc., <i>Salvia
-officinalis</i> (S. Eur.), <i>Rosmarinus officinalis</i>
-(oil of Rosemary, S. Eur.), <i>Lavandula vera</i> [+] (oil
-of Lavender, S. Eur.). Also: <i>Satureia hortensis</i> (S.
-Eur.), <i>Ocimum basilicum</i> (E. India), <i>Pogostemon
-patchouli</i> (E. India), etc.&mdash;As <i>ornamental</i>
-plants, <i>e.g. Monarda</i>, <i>Plectranthus</i>,
-and <i>Coleus</i> (foliage-plants, often with red stems and
-leaves), <i>Stachys lanata</i> (white, woolly), <i>Phlomis</i>,
-<i>Salvia</i>-species, <i>Perilla</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Selaginaceæ.</b> 130 species; small, most
-frequently heath-like shrubs or herbs, mainly from S. Africa.
-They differ from the other Nuculiferæ especially in the
-bilocular, transversely-placed anthers of the 4 stamens (2
-stamens divided as far as the base (?)). The ovary has 2, or by
-suppression only 1 loculus, each with 1 ovule, and the fruit is
-a schizocarp dividing into two, or is a 1-seeded nut. Radicle
-turned upwards.&mdash;A few are ornamental plants (<i>Selago</i>,
-<i>Hebenstreitia</i>).</p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Globulariaceæ.</b> 12 species; especially in the
-Mediterranean. They form an analogy to the Compositæ, and in
-the main resemble <i>Jasione montana</i> in appearance, the
-flowers being crowded into a spherical head (hence their name)
-and supported by bracts, but <i>without</i> involucre; the ovary
-is <i>unilocular</i> with 1 pendulous ovule. The <i>1-seeded
-nut</i> is enveloped by the persistent calyx. The corolla is
-more or less labiate, the upper-lip is often absent as in the
-ligulate corollas of the Astereæ; stamens 4, didynamous, with
-transversely placed anthers opening by one transverse cleft.
-The leaves are scattered, simple, entire, and generally form a
-rosette. <i>Globularia.</i></p>
-
-<p>Order 7. <b>Stilbaceæ.</b> Heath-like shrubs. The ovary is
-bilocular; 1 erect seed in each loculus, or the posterior cell
-is empty. <i>Stilbe.</i> 7 species. S. Africa.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 32. <b>Contortæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p><i>Hypogynous</i>, regular, ☿, gamopetalous flowers (Figs. <a href="#fig581">581</a>,
-<a href="#fig582">582</a>), which are generally 5- or 4-merous, with 5 or 4 stamens (with
-the exception of <i>Oleaceæ</i> and <i>Jasminaceæ</i> which have
-<i>only</i> 2 stamens, alternating with the carpels). The gynœceum
-is formed of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_542">[542]</span> 2 (nearly always median) carpels. The corolla <i>very
-frequently has twisted æstivation</i> (the upper edges of the petals
-being free; Fig. <a href="#fig581">581</a> <i>A</i>), and hence the individual lobes of
-the corolla are oblique, but the flower as a whole is regularly
-actinomorphic. A nectary, in the form of a honey-secreting ring or
-glands, is often found round the base of the ovary.&mdash;The leaves, with
-a few exceptions, are <i>opposite</i> and <i>without stipules</i>.
-Endosperm large (Fig. <a href="#fig581">581</a> <i>C</i>), except in <i>Jasminaceæ</i> and
-<i>Asclepiadaceæ</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The Apocynaceæ and the Asclepiadaceæ, on account of the free
-ovaries, without doubt represent a more primitive form, but the
-Asclepiadaceæ on the other hand form an offshoot on account of
-their peculiar pollen-masses. The Loganiaceæ form a transition
-to the Rubiaceæ.</p>
-
-<p>The orders are:&mdash;</p>
-
-<p>A. <span class="smcap">Stamens</span> 5. 1, Gentianaceæ; 2, Apocynaceæ; 3,
-Asclepiadaceæ; 4, Loganiaceæ.</p>
-
-<p>B. <span class="smcap">Stamens</span> 2. 5, Oleaceæ; 6, Jasminaceæ; 7,
-Salvadoraceæ.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Gentianaceæ</b> (<b>Gentians</b>). <i>Glabrous</i> herbs,
-without latex; the opposite, undivided and <i>entire</i> leaves are
-often slightly united at the base; many have rosette-like radical
-leaves. <i>Stipules absent</i>. The flowers are generally borne in
-regular, dichotomously-branched <i>dichasia</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig580">580</a>, <a href="#fig581">581</a>
-<i>A</i>), which finally become transformed into unipared scorpioid
-cymes; the parts of the flower are 4–5-merous as far as the gynœceum,
-which is 2-merous; the calyx frequently is almost polysepalous; the
-corolla has distinctly twisted æstivation (the upper edges being
-free) (Fig. <a href="#fig581">581</a> <i>A</i>), except <i>Menyantheæ</i>. The carpels are
-<i>entirely</i> united, and most frequently form a <i>1-locular</i>
-ovary with 2 <i>parietal placentæ</i> bearing many ovules (often in
-several rows, Fig. <a href="#fig581">581</a> <i>D</i>, <i>F</i>). <i>Capsule</i>, 2-valved,
-with septicidal dehiscence, the incurved edges bearing the seeds (Fig.
-<a href="#fig581">581</a> <i>D</i>, <i>F</i>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig580" style="width: 360px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig580.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 580.</span>&mdash;<i>Erythræa.</i> Inflorescence. 1,
-2, 3, etc., the successive shoot-generations.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Gentianeæ.</span>&mdash;<i>Gentiana</i> (Gentian) has
-most frequently a tubular, campanulate or funnel-shaped corolla,
-sometimes with teeth between the corolla-lobes and fringed in
-the throat of the corolla; <i>G. lutea</i> has a rotate, yellow
-corolla.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Swertia</i>: rotate corolla; each lobe has at its base
-1–2 nectaries, with fringed edges.</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_543">[543]</span></p>
-
-<p><i>Erythræa</i> (Centaury, Fig. <a href="#fig581">581</a>); corolla most frequently
-salver-shaped. The anthers ultimately become spirally twisted
-(<i>E</i>). The style prolonged, deciduous. The flower has the
-<i>Lobelia</i>-arrangement, <i>i.e.</i> the median sepal is anterior;
-the corolla is rose-coloured (in the native species). The capsule is
-semi-bilocular (Fig. <a href="#fig581">581</a> <i>F</i>, <i>G</i>).&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Cicendia</i> has
-a low creeping stem, fine as a thread, and small, yellow flowers,
-4-merous (without twisted anther).&mdash;<i>Chlora</i> (Yellow-wort)
-6–8-merous.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig581" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig581.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 581.</span>&mdash;<i>Erythræa centaurium.</i>
-Inflorescence, flower and fruit: <i>br<sup>1</sup></i>, <i>br<sup>2</sup></i> floral-leaves
-of the 1st and 2nd order; <i>G</i> a valve of the capsule separated
-from its fellow.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Menyantheæ.</span> <i>Menyanthes</i> (Buck-bean)
-deviates in several respects from the type of the order. The leaves
-are <i>scattered</i> and, in <i>M. trifoliata</i>, trifoliate;
-the corolla has <i>valvate</i> æstivation; the testa is also very
-hard (thin in the true Gentians). They are aquatic plants with
-creeping rhizome; the flowers borne in racemes, with terminal
-flower, heterostylous. The corolla is funnel-shaped with a very
-hairy throat.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Limnanthemum</i> with floating leaves, like the
-Water-lilies.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>575 species; distributed over the entire globe, but most
-numerous in <i>Alpine</i> districts. Neither poisonous nor
-nutritive plants are found, but several are used in medicine on
-account of the <i>bitter</i> properties so prevalent amongst
-them. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: the roots of <i>Gentiana lutea</i>.
-The roots of other species, <i>e.g. G. purpurea</i>,
-<i>punctata</i> and <i>pannonica</i> (Europe) and the leaves
-of <i>Menyanthes trifoliata</i> are medicinal. Some are grown
-as ornamental plants on account of the pure (often deep blue)
-colour of the flowers.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Apocynaceæ</b> (<b>Periwinkles</b>). Trees and shrubs (also
-lianes), less frequently herbs, generally <i>with latex</i>. The leaves
-are opposite, simple, entire, <i>without stipules</i>; the flowers are<span class="pagenum" id="Page_544">[544]</span>
-regular; corolla-lobes oblique, æstivation twisted. The stamens are
-individually free, and the <i>pollen-grains are free</i> or at most
-united in fours (see Asclepiadaceæ). The two carpels have 2–∞ ovules,
-in all cases there is only 1 style and a capitate stigma, which towards
-the base is widened out into a disc-like table (stigma-disc) abstricted
-in the centre; but the carpels in most of the genera (<i>e.g.</i> those
-mentioned below) are entirely separate, and the fruit consists of two
-<i>follicles</i>, the seeds of which often have a tuft of <i>woolly
-hairs</i> projecting from the micropyle, less frequently of two drupes.
-In some other genera there is a 1-locular (provided with 2 parietal
-placentæ) or a 2-locular ovary becoming a 2-valved capsule or a berry.
-Endosperm abundant.</p>
-
-<p><i>Vinca</i> (Periwinkle) has a salver-shaped corolla, which is twisted
-to the left in æstivation (<i>i.e.</i> the left edge of the petals is
-free); nectaries 2, alternating with the carpels; the summit of the
-style is hairy. Follicles; seeds without hairs. <span class="smaller">Mostly creeping,
-perennial, evergreen plants, whose large flowers are apparently
-axillary; in reality they are terminal, but by the development of the
-bud in the axil of one of the two uppermost leaves, they are thus
-displaced over the other leaf of the pair (a helicoid sympodium being
-formed).&mdash;<i>Plumeria</i>, <i>Tabernæmontana</i>, <i>Cerbera</i>
-(drupe). <i>Aspidosperma.</i></span></p>
-
-<p><i>Nerium</i> (Oleander). The leaves are in whorls of 3. Corolla
-funnel-shaped, in æstivation twisted to the right, and with a corona
-resembling that of <i>Lychnis</i>. The anthers are prolonged at the
-base and each also bears at the apex a long, linear, hairy appendage;
-these finally become spirally twisted. Follicles; seeds hairy.
-<i>Apocynum</i>, <i>Echites</i>, etc. <i>Epigynum</i> is epigynous.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>124 genera, 1,000 species; principally in the Tropics. Only
-2 species of <i>Vinca</i> are natives of this country; the
-following are cultivated as ornamental plants:&mdash;<i>Vinca
-minor</i>, <i>V. major</i>, <i>V. (Lochnera) rosea</i>,
-<i>Amsonia salicifolia</i>, <i>Nerium oleander</i> (Eastern
-Mediterranean). The <i>latex</i> of some is <i>poisonous</i>
-(<i>Tanghinia venenifera</i>, <i>Cerbera</i>). Caoutchouc is
-obtained from others (<i>Hankornia</i>, <i>Landolphia</i>,
-<i>Vahea</i>, etc.). Tough bast is frequently developed.
-The bark of <i>Aspidosperma quebracho</i> and the seeds of
-<i>Strophanthus hispidus</i> are used in medicine (also for
-African arrow-poison), the latter is officinal.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Asclepiadaceæ.</b> A natural and easily recognised order,
-closely allied to the Apocynaceæ, having, like it, frequently a
-poisonous latex, opposite, single, entire leaves and fundamentally
-the same floral diagram and floral structure (S5, P5, A5, G2); but in
-some the æstivation of the corolla is valvate. The carpels here also
-have <i>free ovaries</i>, but are united for some distance above into
-a <i>large, shield-like, 5-angular head</i>, having on its underside<span class="pagenum" id="Page_545">[545]</span>
-the true stigmas, and the fruit always consists of 2 <i>follicles</i>;
-seeds most frequently numerous and <i>hairy</i> at the micropyle
-(“vegetable silk”); endosperm scanty.&mdash;The order is distinguished from
-the Apocynaceæ and from all other plants also, except the Orchids, by
-having all the pollen-grains in each of the <b>2</b> loculi of the
-anthers (true 2-locular anthers) united into <i>one waxy, club-shaped
-pollen-mass</i> (“pollinium”), for the purpose of pollination by
-insects. These heavy masses, in order to secure pollination (as in the
-case of the Orchids), must be attached to sticky discs (corpuscula);
-there are 5 corpuscula, one at each of the corners of the 5-angular
-stylar-head (alternating with the anthers), and to each of these are
-attached 2 pollinia, one from each of the anthers situated on either
-side (thus each anther gives its right pollinium to one corpusculum and
-its left to another). The stamens are frequently united at the base,
-and each bears on the back a variously formed, petaloid appendage,
-termed a “cucullus.”</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig582" style="width: 465px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig582.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 582.</span>&mdash;<i>Asclepias cornuti. A</i>
-An open flower with the calyx (<i>k</i>) and corolla (<i>c</i>) turned
-down; the stamens are bent together and surround the gynœceum. <i>B</i>
-The andrœcium after removal of the sterile part (cucullus) of the
-anther, which functions as a nectary: <i>e</i> the lateral expansions
-of the fertile portion of the anthers; <i>f</i> the slit between the
-expansions of two contiguous anthers, through which the insect’s foot,
-and later a pollinium which is caught by it, is dragged, and behind
-which the only receptive part (stigma) is hidden; above the slit
-<i>f</i> is the gland (<i>r</i>), which secretes the horny corpusculum,
-which is split at its base and joined on either side with a pollinium
-(this is more distinctly seen in <i>D</i> and <i>E</i>). When the foot
-of the insect is caught in the slit (<i>f</i>) and is drawn upwards,
-it becomes entrapped in the slit of the corpusculum, which is then
-pulled out together with the pollinia firmly attached to it. In walking
-over the flowers the insect will draw its foot through other slits
-(<i>f</i>) and so leave the pollinia on the stigmas. <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>
-The gynœceum with the pollinia hanging freely. <i>E</i> A corpusculum
-and two pollinia.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>A peculiar relative position (and therefore a good, distinctive
-characteristic) is often found in the <i>inflorescence</i>, which is
-cymose; it is placed <i>between</i> the two leaves of a whorl, nearer
-to one than to the other. <span class="smaller">The leaf-pairs are placed obliquely in the
-floral region, at acute and obtuse angles, and not at right angles (as
-in the purely vegetative parts); the inflorescences are placed in two
-rows only which are nearly 90° from each other, and the two contiguous
-to one another are antidromous; they are in reality terminal, each
-on its own axis, and the entire floral portion of the shoot is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_546">[546]</span> a
-unipared scorpioid cymose sympodium; in addition, complications also
-arise through individual parts becoming united.&mdash;Herbs and shrubs, some
-twining or climbing.</span></p>
-
-<p>In <i>Asclepias</i> the corolla is bent back and there is a cup-like
-cucullus, from the base of which protrudes a horn-shaped body, bent
-inwards.&mdash;<i>Vincetoxicum</i> has a rotate corolla and a ring-like,
-5-lobed cucullus, without internal prominences.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Stapelia</i>
-(especially from S. Africa) is remarkable on account of its
-Cactus-like, leafless stems and large, brownish flowers, often with
-carrion-like smell. <i>Periploca</i> has more powdery pollinia
-(S. Eur., etc.); <i>Hoya carnosa</i> (Wax-flower; Trop. Asia) is
-a climber, and has small, annual, flower-bearing dwarf-branches.
-<i>Ceropegia.</i></span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>201 genera with 1700 species, distributed over all tropical
-countries; few outside these limits: no native species. Several
-are used in medicine on account of the pungent properties of
-the latex. Condurango-bark of <i>Gonolobus condurango</i>
-is medicinal. Caoutchouc is obtained from the latex of some
-(<i>e.g.</i> from <i>Cynanchum</i>). The seed-hairs, which
-are most frequently shining, silk-like, and white, are not
-sufficiently pliant to be of much value. Ornamental plants in
-our gardens: <i>Asclepias</i>-species, etc.</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Loganiaceæ.</b> Ovary single, with two loculi, in
-structure resembling the Rubiaceæ, but superior. 360 species are
-included in this order; the majority are tree-like, some lianes
-which climb by tendril-like branches. The <i>interpetiolar
-stipules</i> of some species are very characteristic (as in
-Rubiaceæ, to which they maybe considered to be closely related).
-The fruit is a capsule or berry. The most familiar genus is
-<i>Strychnos</i>, which has spherical berries with an often
-firm external layer, and compressed seeds with shield-like
-attachments; endosperm abundant. The leaves have 3–5 strong,
-curved nerves proceeding from the base.&mdash;<i>Spigelia.</i>&mdash;They
-have <i>no latex</i>, as in the two preceding orders, but many
-are <i>very poisonous</i> (containing the alkaloid “strychnine,”
-etc.); the South American arrow-poison, urare or curare, is made
-from various species of <i>Strychnos</i>, also an arrow-poison
-in the East Indian Islands (Java, etc.). <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>, the
-seeds of <i>Strychnos nux vomica</i> (“Vomic nut,” Ind.). The
-seeds of <i>Strychnos ignatii</i> (Ignatius-beans, medicinal),
-and others are poisonous.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Oleaceæ.</b> The leaves are always opposite. The
-inflorescences are racemes or panicles. The calyx and corolla are
-<i>4-merous</i>, more or less united, free in some species; the
-corolla has most frequently <i>valvate</i> æstivation. All four forms
-of fruit occur (see the genera). <i>Ovules pendulous</i>, 2 in each
-loculus (Fig. <a href="#fig583">583</a> <i>C</i>). Endosperm oily.&mdash;<i>Syringa</i> (Lilac)
-and <i>Forsythia</i> (anthers somewhat extrose) have <i>capsules</i>
-with loculicidal dehiscence and winged seeds.&mdash;<i>Fraxinus</i> (Ash)
-has <i>winged nuts</i> (samara) (Fig. <a href="#fig583">583</a> <i>D</i>); trees with
-most frequently imparipinnate leaves; the flowers are <i>naked</i>
-and sometimes unisexual (polygamous), the Manna Ash (<i>F.
-ornus</i>) has however a double perianth with 4 free petals (Fig.
-<a href="#fig583">583</a> <i>a</i>); in the native species, <i>F. excelsior</i>,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_547">[547]</span> the
-flowers open before the foliage appears.&mdash;<i>Ligustrum</i> (Privet)
-has <i>berries</i>.&mdash;<i>Olea</i> (<i>O. europæa</i>; Olive) has
-<i>drupes</i>; the pulp and seeds of the ellipsoidal fruits are rich
-in oil. The lanceolate leaves are grey on the under surface, being
-covered with stellate hairs. In the wild state it is thorny (modified
-branches).&mdash;<i>Phillyrea</i>; <i>Chionanthus</i>.&mdash;Few species of
-<i>Linociera</i> have 4 stamens.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig583" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig583.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 583.</span>&mdash;<i>Fraxinus ornus</i>: <i>A</i>
-flower; <i>ca</i> calyx; co corolla; <i>B</i> gynœceum and calyx;
-<i>C</i> longitudinal median section of gynœceum; <i>D</i> fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>180 species; chiefly in the northern temperate zone. The
-<i>Olive-tree</i> (<i>Olea europæa</i>) has been an important
-cultivated plant from ancient times (Olive oil, Provence
-oil, “Sweet oil”). The best oil is extracted from the
-fruit-pulp. The fruits are edible. Home: Western Asia, Eastern
-Mediterranean. <span class="smcap">Timber</span>: the Ash (<i>Fr. excelsior</i>).
-<span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: the Manna Ash (<i>Fr. ornus</i>), cultivated
-in the Mediterranean countries for the sake of its saccharine
-juice, which flows out and coagulates into “Manna.”&mdash;The
-following are ornamental plants: species of <i>Ligustrum</i> and
-<i>Syringa</i> (introduced in the 16th century, from S.E. Europe
-and Asia), <i>Forsythia</i> (China, Japan; the large, yellow
-flowers are borne on dwarf-branches with scale-like leaves,
-before the opening of the foliage-leaves), <i>Chionanthus</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 6. <b>Jasminaceæ.</b> The æstivation of the corolla is
-<i>imbricate</i>; the <i>ovules are erect</i>; seeds almost
-without endosperm; radicle directed downwards. The number
-of lobes in the calyx and corolla is not 4, but <i>e.g.</i>
-5, 8, 10, and variations are sometimes found in the same
-individual. The fruit is a berry or capsule. Many species
-are twiners, and their scattered or opposite leaves are most
-frequently imparipinnate.&mdash;120 species; especially in Trop.
-Asia (E. India). Some <i>Jasminum</i>-species are cultivated as
-ornamental shrubs in the warmer districts on account of their
-elegant foliage, and beautiful, sweet-scented flowers, the
-essential oil of which is also used in perfumery; the best known
-are: <i>J. sambac</i> and <i>grandiflorum</i>. <i>Nyctanthes
-arbor-tristis</i> opens its sweet-scented flowers only at night
-(E. India).</p>
-
-<p>Order 7 (?). <i>Salvadoraceæ.</i> 8–9 species; Asia,
-Africa.&mdash;<i>Salvadora.</i></p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_548">[548]</span></p>
-
-
-<h3 class="smaller"><b>b. Tetracyclicæ with epigynous flowers.</b></h3>
-
-
-<h4>Family 33. <b>Rubiales.</b></h4>
-
-<p><i>The leaves are always opposite or verticillate. The flower is
-epigynous</i>, ☿, 5-(or 4-) merous, with the usual sympetalous diagram;
-2–5 carpels. The inflorescences are frequently dichasial. The sepals
-are small, reduced to teeth, and become almost entirely suppressed
-in the higher forms.&mdash;The flower is regular in <i>Rubiaceæ</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_549">[549]</span> and
-some <i>Caprifoliaceæ</i>, but in other genera of this latter order
-(especially of <i>Lonicereæ</i>) it is unsymmetrical. In several
-genera of the order first mentioned the loculi of the ovary contain
-many ovules, but in the last the number of loculi and ovules becomes
-reduced. This is to some extent connected with the nature of the fruit
-which is many-seeded in most instances, namely a capsule or berry, but
-in others nut-like. Endosperm is present.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The family on one side is allied to the Contortæ (not
-only through the <i>Loganiaceæ</i> but also through the
-<i>Apocynaceæ</i>), and may be regarded as an epigynous
-continuation of this family; on the other side it is allied to
-the Valerianaceæ and Dipsacaceæ. Many points of agreement with
-the <i>Cornaceæ</i> and <i>Araliaceæ</i> are also found, and
-in fact several Caprifoliaceæ are distinguished from these by
-hardly any other feature than the gamopetalous corolla.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig584" style="width: 426px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig584.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 584.</span>&mdash;<i>Cinchona calisaya.</i> Flowering
-branch.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Rubiaceæ.</b> Leaves opposite (or verticillate), undivided
-and entire, with <i>interpetiolar stipules</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig586">586</a>). Flowers
-epigynous and hermaphrodite, <i>regular</i>, 4- or 5-merous with the
-usual arrangement (Figs. <a href="#fig585">585</a>, <a href="#fig588">588–590</a>); corolla gamopetalous, in
-æstivation often valvate; ovary <i>frequently 2-locular</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig585" style="width: 700px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig585.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 585.</span>&mdash;<i>Cinchona calisaya. A</i>
-entire flower; <i>B</i> after removal of the corolla; <i>C</i>
-longitudinal section of ovary; <i>D</i> fruit; <i>E</i> seed.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>There are no external characters which at once distinguish
-this exceedingly large order, as in many other natural orders
-(Compositæ, Umbelliferæ, etc.), but the <i>opposite</i> leaves
-with <i>interpetiolar stipules</i> form an excellent mark of
-recognition. It is divided into many sub-orders and groups,
-especially characterised by the nature of the ovary (1 or
-several ovules in each loculus), and of the fruit (schizocarp,
-berry, drupe, capsule).&mdash;The corolla is bilabiate in 4 genera;
-its æstivation in some is twisted; in <i>Capirona</i>, etc., the
-filaments are of unequal size. The ovary is semi-epigynous in
-<i>Henriquezia</i>, etc. In <i>Morinda</i> all the fleshy fruits
-coalesce into one multiple fruit.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_550">[550]</span></p>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Cinchoneæ.</span> The fruit is a 2-valved <i>capsule</i>,
-with many winged seeds (Fig. <a href="#fig585">585</a>). <i>Cinchona</i> (Quinine, Fig. <a href="#fig584">584</a>).
-Trees and shrubs with the foliage and inflorescence somewhat resembling
-<i>Syringa</i>; the corolla also being of a lilac colour, more or
-less salver- or funnel-shaped, and frequently edged with a fringe of
-hairs (Fig. <a href="#fig585">585</a>), is somewhat similar to that of <i>Menyanthes</i>.
-Their home is the Andes from Bolivia to Venezuela, varying in altitude
-from 1–3000 metres. There are now large plantations in Java and E.
-India. <span class="smaller">(The name “quinine” is of Indian origin; that of the genus
-“<i>Cinchona</i>,” is from the Spanish Duchess Cinchon, who in 1638
-first introduced the bark into Europe.) The following are closely
-allied: <i>Cascarilla</i>, <i>Remijia</i>, <i>Ladenbergia</i>,
-<i>Manettia</i>, <i>Bouvardia</i>, etc.</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Gardenieæ.</span> Trees and shrubs, frequently
-having a many-locular berry. <i>Randia</i>, <i>Gardenia</i>,
-<i>Genipa</i>, <i>Hamelia</i>, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Coffeeæ.</span> Only 1 seed in each of the two loculi of
-the ovary; <i>the fruit is a drupe with 2 stones</i>. <i>Coffea</i>
-has an ellipsoidal fruit about the size and colour of a cherry;
-the two thin-shelled, parchment-like stones are enclosed by a thin
-layer of pulp; the two seeds are flat on the side turned to one
-another, which has also a deep, longitudinal groove curving to the
-sides. The endosperm is hard, horny and greyish (without starch);
-the small embryo lies in the lower end near the circumference. The
-Coffee-plant (<i>C. arabica</i>) is a small tree, or more frequently,
-and especially in plantations, a shrub with large dark-green leaves
-and scented, white flowers. Its home is in Tropical Africa; it is
-now cultivated in many tropical countries. <i>C. liberica</i>, W.
-Africa.&mdash;<i>Cephaëlis</i> (<i>C. ipecacuanha</i>, Fig. <a href="#fig586">586</a>; the roots
-are officinal).&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Psychotria</i>, <i>Chiococca</i>, <i>Ixora</i>,
-<i>Hydnophytum</i>, <i>Myrmecodia</i>, etc.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig586" style="width: 418px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig586.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 586.</span>&mdash;<i>Cephaëlis ipecacuanha.</i>
-Portion of a branch: <i>st</i> stipules.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>4.</b> <span class="smcap">Spermacoceæ.</span> Chiefly small shrubs and herbs,
-many of which are weeds in tropical countries. The stipular
-sheaths bear numerous bristles at the edge. <i>Spermacoce</i>,
-<i>Borreria</i>, <i>Diodia</i>, <i>Richardsonia</i>, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>5.</b> <span class="smcap">Stellatæ.</span> <i>Herbaceous plants with</i> verticillate
-leaves (Figs.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_551">[551]</span> <a href="#fig587">587</a>, <a href="#fig588">588–590</a>); <i>the stipules are large, leaf-like</i>,
-and resemble the lamina of the leaves, so that <i>the leaves appear to
-be placed several in a whorl</i>, while in reality there are only two
-opposite leaves, the stipules of which project <i>freely</i>, and are
-not erect (Fig. <a href="#fig587">587</a>).</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig587" style="width: 334px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig587.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 587.</span>&mdash;<i>Rubia tinctorum.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><span class="smaller">In some cases there are apparently 4 leaves in the whorl, and then
-2 of these are leaves, and the other two are their interpetiolar
-stipules. When there are apparently 6 leaves, then the two of these
-which are opposite each other are leaves, and the other four are
-stipules; if there are several members in the whorl, then a division of
-the stipules has taken place. The proof of this theory is founded upon
-the fact that not more than 2 of the leaves of the whorl ever support
-buds (which, in addition, are seldom of equal vigour), and also that
-the whorls do not alternate with each other, which, according to the
-rules of the position of the leaves, they should do if all the members
-of a whorl had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_552">[552]</span> equal value. If there are, for instance, 4 members in
-two successive whorls, they stand right above one another, and do not
-alternate. The development and anatomical relations (the branching of
-the vascular bundles) also point to the same conclusion.</span>&mdash;All the
-other groups of the order have only 2 small scale-like interpetiolar
-stipules, or they form at the base of the leaf-stalks an interpetiolar
-sheath, having often a toothed edge (Fig. <a href="#fig586">586</a>).&mdash;Another characteristic
-feature in this group is that the calyx is rudimentary, the corolla
-<i>valvate</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig588">588</a>), and that each of the two loculi of the
-ovary has only 1 ovule. The fruit is a <i>schizocarp dividing into
-2 fruitlets</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig590">590</a>). <span class="smaller">The forms of the fruit, as well as
-many other characters, as, for example, the epigynous flower, the
-rudimentary calyx, the two free or almost free styles, present
-interesting analogous resemblances to the polypetalous order of the
-Umbelliferæ.</span> This group has its home chiefly in the temperate
-regions of the northern hemisphere, especially about the Mediterranean;
-it is the only group which occurs in this country, represented by 4
-genera.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig588" style="width: 263px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 588–590.</span>&mdash;<i>Rubia tinctorum.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig588.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 588.</span>&mdash;Diagram.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig589" style="width: 392px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig589.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 589.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal section of flower.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig590" style="width: 371px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig590.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 590.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal section of fruit (3/1).</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Galium</i> (Cleavers) is almost destitute of a calyx; it has a
-small <i>4-partite, rotate corolla</i>, 4 stamens, and 2 free styles.
-The fruitlets are <i>nut-like</i>. The inflorescence is a paniculate
-dichasium passing into helicoid cymes.&mdash;<i>Asperula</i> (Woodruff) is
-distinguished from the above by its salver- or funnel-shaped corolla.
-1 style.&mdash;<i>Rubia</i> (Madder, Figs. <a href="#fig587">587–590</a>) has almost the same
-form of corolla as <i>Galium</i>, but (most frequently) a <i>5-merous
-flower</i>, and the fruitlets are “<i>drupes</i>.” <span class="smaller"><i>Sherardia</i>
-(Field Madder); the flowers are clustered in closely arranged cymes
-surrounded by <i>an involucre</i>; <i>the calyx has 6 distinct
-teeth</i>, while the number of petals and stamens is 4. The corolla is
-funnel-shaped.&mdash;<i>Vaillantia. Crucianella.</i></span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">DISTRIBUTION OF SEEDS</span>, in some instances, is
-promoted by hooked appendages on the fruitlets (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Galium aparine</i>).</p>
-
-<p>The small flowers of the Stellatæ are frequently collected
-in compact inflorescences, and are therefore rendered
-more conspicuous; slight protandry is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_553">[553]</span> found in some,
-self-pollination in the species which are less conspicuous.
-Many species are heterostylous. <i>Myrmecodia</i>,
-<i>Hydnophytum</i>, and other genera have large tubers
-(hypocotyledonous stems), whose labyrinthine cavities and
-passages are inhabited by ants.</p>
-
-<p>About 4,500 species; tropical or sub-tropical except the
-Stellatæ; especially American. The tropical ones are mostly
-trees.&mdash;Several are <span class="smaller">OFFICINAL</span> on account of the large
-amount of <i>alkaloids</i> and <i>glycosides</i> which they
-contain. The most important are the Cinchonas (<i>Cinchona
-calisaya</i>, <i>C. succirubra</i>, <i>C. officinalis</i>,
-<i>C. micrantha</i>, etc.), whose bark contains the well-known
-febrifuge and tonic, Quinine, Cinchonin, etc.; Quinine is
-also found in <i>Exostemma</i>, <i>Ladenbergia</i>, and
-<i>Remijia</i>. The root “Ipecacuanha” (an emetic) from
-<i>Cephaëlis ipecacuanha</i> (Brazils). Caffeine is officinal.
-The use of the seeds of the coffee plant (“the beans”) was first
-known in Europe in 1583.&mdash;There are only a few which contain
-<i>aromatic</i> properties, principally among the Stellatæ
-(coumarin in <i>Asperula odorata</i>, the Woodruff), in which
-group <i>colouring materials</i> are also found. The root and
-root-stalks of <i>Rubia tinctorum</i>, the Madder (S. Eur.,
-Orient., Fig. <a href="#fig587">587</a>), were formerly largely used for dyeing,
-but are now superseded by the analine colours. Red dyes are
-also obtained from the roots of species of <i>Asperula</i>
-and <i>Galium</i>. Gambier is a splendid colouring material,
-obtained from <i>Uncaria gambir</i> (S.E. Asia), which is
-used in dyeing and tanning.&mdash;The order does not furnish many
-ornamental flowers.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Caprifoliaceæ.</b> This order agrees with the Rubiaceæ
-in having opposite leaves and an epigynous flower, most frequently
-5-merous with the ordinary tetracyclic diagram, but in some species it
-is zygomorphic; the corolla has imbricate æstivation, <i>carpels 3–5,
-most frequently 3</i> (not 2, which is the most usual number in the
-Rubiaceæ). The fruit is generally a <i>berry</i> or a <i>drupe</i>, but
-the most important, and in any case most easily recognisable feature,
-is the <i>absence of stipules</i>; in exceptional cases, where they
-are present, they are not interpetiolar, and are most frequently
-small.&mdash;<span class="smaller">The majority of plants belonging to this order are shrubs
-or trees. Compound leaves sometimes occur. Stipules only appear in a
-few species of <i>Lonicera</i>, <i>Sambucus</i> and <i>Viburnum</i>;
-in the common Elder (<i>Sambucus nigra</i>) they are in some instances
-glandular and small, but in other cases larger and more leaf-like (upon
-long, well-developed shoots); in the Dwarf Elder (<i>S. ebulus</i>)
-they have the normal leaf-like form; in <i>Viburnum opulus</i> they
-are present as narrow lobes at the base of the petiole; in others they
-are completely absent. The leaves are frequently penninerved, rarely
-palminerved. The calyx, as in the Stellatæ and Aggregatæ, is often very
-insignificant.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>1.</b> <span class="smcap">Lonicereæ, Honeysuckle Group.</span> This has
-<i>campanulate or tubular corollas</i> which are often zygomorphic;
-in connection with the length of the corolla the <i>style is long,
-filamentous</i>, and most frequently has a large, capitate stigma.
-There are <i>several ovules</i> in the loculi of the ovary, and the
-fruit is most frequently a <i>berry</i>.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_554">[554]</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig591" style="width: 416px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig591.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 591.</span>&mdash;<i>Lonicera.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>Lonicera</i> (Honeysuckle). Shrubs, sometimes twiners. The corolla
-in some species is considerably bilabiate (Fig. <a href="#fig591">591</a>), with 4 lobes in
-the upper lip, and 1 in the under lip, but in others more regular,
-tubular, or campanulate. The flowers are either borne in capitate
-inflorescences, which are compound and formed of closely compressed
-3-flowered dichasia (sect. <i>Caprifolium</i>), or in dichasia with
-2 flowers (the terminal flower is wanting). The ovaries and fruits
-coalesce in some (sect. <i>Xylosteum</i>). <span class="smaller">The opposite leaves in
-some species unite with each other and form a broad collar encircling
-the stem (Fig. <a href="#fig591">591</a>). Above the primary bud 1–2 accessory buds are often
-found in the leaf-axils.&mdash;<i>Diervilla</i> (<i>Weigelia</i>); with a
-2-locular, 2-valved capsule.&mdash;<i>Symphoricarpus</i> (Snowberry) has
-an almost regular, funnel-shaped corolla; a peculiar feature is found
-in the ovary which has 4 loculi, the 2 median having many ovules in 2
-rows, all of which are aborted; the 2 lateral ones, on the other hand,
-each have only 1 ovule which is developed. Different forms of leaves
-are frequently found on the same branch; they are entire or lobed.</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_555">[555]</span></p>
-
-<p><b>2.</b> <span class="smcap">Sambuceæ, Elder Group</span> (Fig. <a href="#fig592">592</a>). This has a
-<i>rotate</i>, <i>regular corolla</i>, extrorse anthers, a very short
-and thick (or almost absent) <i>style</i>, with tripartite stigmas, and
-only 1 pendulous ovule in each of the 3 (-5) loculi of the ovary. The
-fruit is a “<i>drupe</i>” with 1–3 (-5) stones. The inflorescence is
-made up of <i>cymes grouped in an umbel-like arrangement</i>.</p>
-
-<p><i>Sambucus</i> (Elder, Fig. <a href="#fig592">592</a>) has <i>imparipinnate</i> leaves
-and a “drupe” with 3 (-5) <i>stones</i>. Between the calyx and the
-style a disc remains on the apex of the fruit. <i>S. nigra</i> with
-black fruit; <i>S. racemosa</i> with red fruit; <i>S. ebulus</i> is a
-perennial herb; the others are woody.&mdash;<i>Viburnum</i> (Guelder-rose)
-has <i>simple</i> leaves (penninerved or palminerved, entire, dentate
-or lobed), and a “drupe” with only 1 <i>stone</i>, which is compressed,
-cartilaginous, and parchment-like; 2 of the loculi of the ovary
-are aborted. <span class="smaller">(In <i>V. opulus</i> the marginal flowers of the
-inflorescence are barren, and in that case their corollas are generally
-specially large; the cultivated <i>Viburnum</i> has only barren
-flowers, with large corollas.)</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig592" style="width: 700px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig592.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 592.</span>&mdash;<i>Sambucus nigra</i>: <i>cor</i>
-corolla; <i>s</i> calyx.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>3.</b> <span class="smcap">Linnæeæ.</span> <i>Linnæa borealis</i> (the only
-species) is an extreme form of the order; it has a 2-flowered
-dichasium, funnel-shaped, slightly bilabiate corollas (2/3);
-4 didynamous stamens. Two of the 3 loculi of the ovary have
-several ovules which are not developed, while the third has only
-1 ovule, which developes into a seed. The fruit is a nut, which
-is enveloped by the two large bracteoles, which are covered by
-sticky, glandular hairs, and serve as a means of distribution.
-It is a small undershrub.</p>
-
-<p>[<i>Adoxa</i>, which was formerly classed in this order,
-appears, according to recent investigations, to be more properly
-placed among the Saxifraginæ.]</p>
-
-<p>In cases where the flowers are small, as in <i>Sambucus</i>
-and <i>Viburnum opulus</i>, they are rendered conspicuous by
-being arranged in closely-packed inflorescences; they are
-massed together and form large surfaces, and in the last named
-are still more conspicuous on account of the barren, but large
-ray-flowers, which are of service in this respect. Honey is
-secreted in the nectaries at the base of the styles. In the
-genera with rotate flowers, as <i>Viburnum</i> and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_556">[556]</span> other
-Sambuceæ, the honey lies so exposed and in such a thin layer,
-that only flies and insects with short probosces can procure it;
-bees, however, visit these flowers for the sake of the pollen.
-There is hardly any nectar in the Elder; self-pollination
-frequently takes place. The flowers of the Caprifoliaceæ,
-which, with their long corolla-tube are adapted for evening-and
-night-flying insects with long probosces, open in the evening,
-and at that time give off their strongest scent.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Distribution.</span> 230 species; especially outside
-the Tropics in the Northern Hemisphere. In this
-country they are found especially in hedges and as
-under-shrubs.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Officinal</span>: the flowers and fresh fruits
-of the Elder (<i>S. nigra</i>), the fruits (“berries”) being
-also used in the household. <span class="smcap">Ornamental shrubs</span>: species
-of <i>Lonicera</i>, <i>Symphoricarpus</i>, <i>Diervilla</i>,
-which are chiefly from N. Am., <i>Abelia</i> and <i>Viburnum</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 34. <b>Dipsacales.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The leaves are <i>opposite and without stipules</i>. The flower (Figs.
-<a href="#fig593">593</a>, <a href="#fig595">595</a>, <a href="#fig598">598</a>, <a href="#fig599">599</a>, <a href="#fig600">600</a>) is <i>epigynous</i>, <i>zygomorphic</i> or
-<i>asymmetrical</i>, 5-merous with S5, P5, stamens typically 5, but
-by suppression <i>never more than 4</i>, sometimes less, carpels 3–2.
-The calyx is more or less insignificant, and almost suppressed in the
-extreme forms. The ovary has 3–1 loculi, but <i>only one loculus</i>
-has an ovule, which is <i>pendulous</i> with the micropyle <i>turned
-upwards</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig594">594</a>). Fruit a nut. Embryo straight, with the radicle
-<i>pointing upwards</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig597">597</a>), without or with endosperm.</p>
-
-<p>The inflorescences are distinct dichasia in Valerianaceæ, but in
-Dipsacaceæ and Calyceraceæ they are crowded together into capitula.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>This family is closely allied to the Rubiales through the
-Valerianaceæ, which have almost the same structure as many
-of the Caprifoliaceæ. It attains the highest development in
-the Dipsacaceæ, which are composite plants, but differs from
-Compositæ in the position of the ovule, etc.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Valerianaceæ.</b> Herbaceous plants or under-shrubs with
-opposite leaves, often pinnate; stipules absent. The flowers are borne
-in <i>dichasia</i> and in <i>scorpioid cymose inflorescences</i> and
-are <i>entirely without any plane of symmetry</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig593">593</a>). The
-calyx and corolla are 5-merous, but the calyx is frequently very
-insignificant and ultimately a pappus, as in Compositæ; the corolla
-is frequently saccate or produced into a spur at the base. Most
-frequently, only 3 (4–1) of the 5 stamens are developed; these are
-free. Carpels <b>3</b>, which form an inferior <i>ovary</i>, often with
-3 <i>loculi</i>, but only <i>1 of the loculi</i> contains <b>1</b>
-<i>pendulous, anatropous ovule</i> (Figs. <a href="#fig593">593</a>, <a href="#fig594">594</a> <i>A</i>), the other
-loculi are empty<span class="pagenum" id="Page_557">[557]</span> and shrink up more or less completely. (Compare Fig.
-<a href="#fig593">593</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>). Style 1, stigma tripartite. Endosperm absent;
-embryo straight, with the radicle directed <i>upwards</i>.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The inflorescences are dichasia, or unipared scorpioid cymes
-with the branches developed in the axil of the second bracteole.
-Both the bracteoles are generally present and frequently form
-4 very regular, longitudinal rows on the branches of the
-inflorescence.&mdash;5 stamens do not occur (except perhaps in
-<i>Patrinia</i>). The suppression of stamens and carpels takes
-place most readily on the anterior side of the flower and that
-turned towards the first bracteole (<i>a</i>) (Fig. <a href="#fig593">593</a>), whose
-branch is suppressed in the dichasium; after this the posterior
-median stamen is next suppressed.</p>
-
-<p>By the vegetative characters as well as by the inflorescence
-and the flower, the order is allied to the Caprifoliaceæ and
-especially to the Sambuceæ.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig593" style="width: 269px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig593.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 593.</span>&mdash;<i>A</i> Diagram of <i>Valeriana
-officinalis</i>. <i>B</i> Diagram of <i>Centranthus</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>In the least modified (oldest) forms, <i>Patrinia</i> and
-<i>Nardostachys</i>, there is an almost regular flower, a 5-merous
-calyx, 4 stamens, and 3 loculi in the ovary, 2 of which however
-are barren. The stamens in <i>Valerianella</i> are reduced to
-3, in <i>Fedia</i> to 2 (posterior), and the calyx is less
-distinctly 5-dentate; the 2 empty loculi in the ovary are still
-visible. <i>Fedia</i> has a small spur at the base of the corolla.
-<i>Valeriana</i> has a very reduced, hair-like calyx (pappus),
-an unsymmetrical, salver-shaped corolla with a <i>sac-like</i>,
-nectariferous spur at the base, 3 stamens and only 1 loculus in
-the ovary (Figs. <a href="#fig594">594</a>, <a href="#fig593">593</a>). <i>Centranthus</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig593">593</a>) is still
-further reduced. The corolla has a spur and only 1 stamen; <span class="smaller">unipared
-scorpioid cymes with 4 rows of bracteoles. In the last two genera there
-is a peculiar wall in the corolla-tube, which divides it longitudinally
-into two compartments (indicated by a dotted line in Fig. <a href="#fig593">593</a>), one of
-which encloses the style. This wall is low in <i>Valeriana</i>, but in
-<i>Centranthus</i> it reaches as far as the throat.&mdash;The rays of the
-<i>pappus</i> are pinnately branched and rolled up before the ripening
-of the fruit. 12–20 in number (Fig. <a href="#fig594">594</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>).</span></p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><i>Val. officinalis</i> and others are protandrous: in the
-first period the stamens project from the centre of the flower
-(Fig. <a href="#fig595">595</a> <i>a</i>), the stigmas in the second (<i>b</i>) when
-the stamens have become bent backwards. (<i>V. dioica</i> is
-diœcious<span class="pagenum" id="Page_558">[558]</span> with large ♂-and small ♀-flowers).&mdash;275 species;
-especially from the temperate and colder parts of the
-northern hemisphere of the Old World, Western North America
-and the Andes.&mdash;<i>Bitter</i> properties are characteristic,
-such for instance as the volatile acid and volatile oil of
-<i>Valeriana</i>; these occur especially in the rhizomes.
-<span class="smcap">Officinal</span>; the rhizomes of <i>V. officinalis</i>.&mdash;The
-true Indian “Nardus,” an important medicine and perfume in
-India, is extracted from <i>Nardostachys</i> (Himalaya). A
-variety of <i>Valerianella olitoria</i> is sometimes used as
-salad.</p>
-</div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig594" style="width: 500px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig594.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 594.</span>&mdash;<i>Valeriana</i>: <i>A</i> ovary
-(longitudinal section); <i>B</i> ripe fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig595" style="width: 361px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig595.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 595.</span>&mdash;<i>Valeriana</i>: <i>a</i> flower in
-the ♂ stage; <i>b</i> in the ♀.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig596" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig596.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 596.</span>&mdash;<i>Centranthus ruber.</i> Flower,
-its lowermost portion (the ovary and spur) in longitudinal section. (Mag.)</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig597" style="width: 239px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig597.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 597.</span>&mdash;<i>Scabiosa atropurpurea.</i> Fruit
-in longitudinal section. Inside the “epicalyx” may be seen the fruit
-drawn out into a beak, with straight embryo and radicle directed
-upwards.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Dipsacaceæ</b> (<b>Teasels</b>). Herbs with <i>opposite</i>
-leaves without stipules. The flowers are situated in compact capitula
-each with an involucre. A characteristic feature of the order is
-that <i>each flower</i> of the capitulum has a <i>gamophyllous</i>
-“<i>epicalyx</i>”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_559">[559]</span> (Figs. <a href="#fig597">597</a>, <a href="#fig599">599</a>, <a href="#fig600">600</a>), which envelopes the inferior
-ovary. The flowers (Figs. <a href="#fig599">599</a>, <a href="#fig600">600</a>) are ☿, 5-merous (S5, P5, stamens
-typically 5, G<b>2</b>), but the calyx often expands at the edge into a
-membrane with 5, or an indefinite number of bristles or teeth (pappus,
-Figs. <a href="#fig597">597</a>, <a href="#fig600">600</a>), and the <i>zygomorphic, funnel-shaped corolla</i> is
-sometimes 5-lobed and bilabiate (2/3), but most frequently 4-partite
-(Fig. <a href="#fig599">599</a>), the two lobes of the upper lip coalescing into one lobe, as
-in certain Labiatæ, <i>Veronica</i> and <i>Plantago</i>; the æstivation
-is <i>imbricate</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig598" style="width: 330px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 598–600.</span>&mdash;<i>Dipsacus fullonum.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig598.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 598.</span>&mdash;Inflorescence (the flowers in a zone below the apex
-commence to flower first).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig599" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig599.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 599.</span>&mdash;Flower (4/1).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig600" style="width: 200px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig600.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 600.</span>&mdash;The same in longitudinal section.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p><i>The stamens are never more than 4</i>, the posterior one
-<i>remaining undeveloped</i>; they <i>usually have free anthers</i>
-which generally project considerably (Fig. <a href="#fig599">599</a>). The ovary is
-unilocular with 1 <i>pendulous</i> ovule and bears 1 <i>undivided
-style</i>; fruit a nut with 1 <i>seed, containing endosperm</i> and
-with the radicle turned <i>upwards</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig597">597</a>).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The flowers do not always open in centripetal order, a fact
-which may be observed especially in the Dipsacaceæ, in which a
-zone of flowers round the centre of the capitulum opens first,
-and the flowering then proceeds both upwards and downwards (Fig.
-<a href="#fig598">598</a>). This has probably some connection with the fact that the
-capitulum has arisen from the coalescence of several dichasial
-inflorescences. In species of <i>Scabiosa</i> the flowers
-open simultaneously at the circumference, or in a zone at the
-centre.&mdash;The morphological explanation of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_560">[560]</span> “<i>epicalyx</i>”
-is not quite certain; in all probability it is formed from two
-united bracteoles, for an “epicalyx” is distinctly formed in
-this way in one of the Valerianaceæ, <i>Phyllactis</i>.&mdash;The
-<i>ray-flowers</i> are larger and more irregular, labiate or
-ligulate, than the disc-flowers, yet not in so high a degree as
-in the Compositæ.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> A scarious bract to each flower. <i>Scabiosa</i> has a
-5-lobed corolla; the “epicalyx” has a dry, scarious, often finally
-large collar, and the true calyx is formed of long bristles (generally
-5) (Fig. <a href="#fig597">597</a>). <i>Succisa pratensis</i> (Devil’s-bit) has a 4-lobed
-corolla, the collar of the “epicalyx” is herbaceous; the calyx as in
-the preceding.&mdash;<i>Pterocephalus.</i>&mdash;<i>Dipsacus</i> (Teasel); large,
-spiny and stiff-haired herbs with capitula, or short, thick spikes on
-which both the involucral-leaves and bracts project considerably, and
-are stiff and spinose (Fig. <a href="#fig598">598</a>). The “epicalyx” has short teeth, or is
-almost entire. <span class="smaller">The leaves of the stem unite together in pairs, so
-that shallow cups are formed round the stems in which rain-water may
-collect.&mdash;<i>Cephalaria.</i>&mdash;<i>Morina</i>: the flowers are falsely
-verticillate as in the Labiatæ; the calyx has 2 laterally-placed,
-entire, or emarginate lobes; 2 stamens, or 2 large and 2 small ones.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> Bristles, but <i>no</i> true bract to each flower.
-<i>Knautia</i>; the corolla is 4-partite, the calyx cup-like, with many
-bristles or teeth on the edge.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination</span> is in many species effected by insects.
-The honey is secreted by a ring round the base of the style.
-The flowers in our native species are considerably protandrous.
-Gynodiœcious flowers also occur.&mdash;150 species; especially in
-the Mediterranean and the Orient; the order is not represented
-in the South Sea Islands, Australia and America.&mdash;The heads of
-the true Teasel (<i>Dips. fullonum</i>) are used for carding
-wool, on account of the elastic bracts, which are hooked at
-the point. The order has bitter properties; tanin, etc.; but
-no species are used in medicine or the household.&mdash;<i>Scabiosa
-atropurpurea</i>, etc., are used as ornamental plants.</p>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Calyceraceæ.</b> This order resembles the Compositæ
-in the valvate æstivation of the corolla and the more or less
-united stamens, and the Dipsacaceæ in the undivided style,
-pendulous ovule and endosperm. The calyx is frequently composed
-of 5 distinct scales. An “epicalyx” is wanting.&mdash;20 species;
-America.</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 35. <b>Campanulinæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flower is <i>epigynous</i>, perfect, with 5 sepals, 5 petals, and
-5 stamens in regular alternation, and <b>3</b> (2–5) carpels. The
-sepals in all cases are <i>distinct</i>, but narrow and pointed, so
-that the æstivation is open. The corolla is gamopetalous with (as in
-the Compositæ) <i>valvate</i>, or slightly infolded-valvate æstivation.
-The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_561">[561]</span> stamens are nearly always <i>situated on the torus</i> without
-being united to the corolla (Figs. <a href="#fig601">601</a>, <a href="#fig604">604</a>). The anthers adhere or
-unite and form a tube with introrse anthers from which the pollen is
-swept out by the projecting, brush-like hairs on the style (as in the
-Compositæ). The ovary is <b>3</b>-(2–5) locular, <i>many ovules</i>
-in each loculus. The fruit is generally a <i>many-seeded</i> capsule
-(or berry). Embryo in the centre of a fleshy <i>endosperm</i>.&mdash;The
-majority are herbs with scattered leaves, without stipules. The
-presence of <i>latex</i> and <i>inulin</i>, together with the
-tubular formation of the anthers, the pollination, etc., indicate a
-relationship with the Compositæ.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The <i>Cucurbitaceæ</i> are by some authorities placed in this
-family as being most closely related to the Campanulaceæ.
-Although the corolla is most frequently gamopetalous, and other
-similarities to the Campanulaceæ are present, yet on account
-of the structure of the ovule, and for other reasons, the
-Cucurbitaceæ are here placed in the Choripetalæ. The Campanulinæ
-without doubt proceed upwards to the Compositæ, with which, in
-addition to the occurrence of inulin and laticiferous vessels
-(Cichorieæ), there are many corresponding features both in the
-structural and biological relations (epigyny, valvate æstivation
-of the corolla, tendency of the anthers to adhere or unite,
-protandry with a stylar-brush, etc.) The inflorescence of
-<i>Jasione</i> is almost identical with that of the Compositæ.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 1. <b>Campanulaceæ</b> (<b>Campanulas</b>). The flowers are
-<i>regular</i> and in some only semi-epigynous, 5-merous, except in the
-gynœceum which is 3-merous (the unpaired, median carpel being generally
-posterior), more rarely 2–5-merous, and has a corresponding number
-of stigmas and loculi in the ovary; the placentation is axile with a
-large number of ovules. The median sepal is posterior. The stamens
-frequently have broad, free bases (Fig. <a href="#fig601">601</a> <i>H</i>) which cover
-the nectariferous upper surface of the ovary; the anthers only fit
-loosely together, and become separated as soon, as the pollen is shed
-(Fig. <a href="#fig601">601</a> <i>G</i>), 1 long style, which is studded by sweeping-hairs
-(stylar-brush), which ultimately become invaginated; the stigmas do
-not unfold until the stamens have shed the pollen (Fig. <a href="#fig601">601</a> <i>E</i>,
-<i>G</i>). Fruit a capsule.&mdash;Herbs, more rarely under-shrubs or shrubs,
-with latex and scattered, undivided leaves without stipules. The
-inflorescence is most frequently a raceme or spike <i>with</i> terminal
-flower.</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> Capsule opening at the side by pores and small valves:
-<i>Campanula</i> (Canterbury-bell); the corolla is bell-shaped, rarely
-almost rotate; capsule obconical. <span class="smaller">The pores of the capsule are
-found near the top of the fruit when it is erect, and near the base
-when it is pendulous,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_562">[562]</span> so that the seeds are not liberated unless the
-capsule is forcibly shaken, and they are thus ejected to a considerable
-distance.</span>&mdash;<i>Phyteuma</i> (Rampion) has free petals, which for a
-long time adhere at the apex and form a tube round the stamens (Fig.
-<a href="#fig601">601</a>); inflorescence compact, spike-like or capitate, in the latter case
-resembling that of the Compositæ, and frequently with an involucre
-similar to the one possessed by this order. <span class="smaller"><i>Specularia</i>
-(rotate corolla, prismatic capsule), <i>Michauxia</i> (flower
-8-merous).&mdash;<i>Symphyandra</i> has syngenesious anthers.</span></p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> Capsule with valves at the apex, loculicidal dehiscence:
-<i>Jasione</i>; the petals are almost free. The anthers are united at
-the base (syngenesious). The flowers are situated in capitate umbels
-with involucres.&mdash;<i>Wahlenbergia</i>; <i>Platycodon</i>.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig601" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig601.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 601.</span>&mdash;<i>Phyteuma spicatum.</i> Flowers
-and parts of flowers in various stages of development.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>C.</b> Berry: <i>Canarina</i>; flower, 6-merous; leaves
-opposite.</p>
-
-<p>Protandry is general (Fig. <a href="#fig601">601</a>). 510 species; principally in
-temperate countries. Several genera furnish ornamental plants,
-but are of little use for other purposes. The roots of some
-<i>Campanula</i>-and <i>Phyteuma</i>-species are large and may
-serve as pot-herbs (<i>C. rapunculus</i>, <i>P. spicatum</i>).</p>
-
-<p>Order 2. <b>Cyphiaceæ.</b> In this order the corolla is
-zygomorphic and the stamens free, hence it is intermediate
-between orders 1 and 3.&mdash;About 24 species; Africa.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p>Order 3. <b>Lobeliaceæ</b> (<b>Lobelias</b>). This order may briefly
-be described as Campanulaceæ with <i>zygomorphic</i> flowers and
-anthers <i>united into a tube</i>, in most cases slightly bent;
-generally 2 carpels and an <i>inverted</i> position of the flower,
-<i>i.e.</i> the median sepal is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_563">[563]</span> turned anteriorly (Fig. <a href="#fig602">602</a>)
-(a position which is found to occur within the Campanulaceæ). A
-twisting of the peduncle takes place even before flowering (as in the
-Orchids) so that the ordinary position of the 5-merous Dicotyledons
-appears to be restored. The zygomorphy of the flower is especially
-present in the corolla, which has a <i>bipartite</i> under-lip and a
-<i>tripartite</i> upper-lip, and is, in <i>Lobelia</i>, anteriorly
-(apparently posteriorly) deeply cleft (Fig. <a href="#fig602">602</a>). There is 1 style,
-but the stigma is capitate and bilobed and surrounded at its base by a
-<i>whorl of hairs</i>, which assists in pollination (as a stylar-brush)
-in the same manner as the sweeping-hairs in the Campanulaceæ and
-Compositæ. There is <i>no terminal flower</i> in the spicate, or
-racemose inflorescences.&mdash;<i>Lobelia</i> has a capsule, several others
-have berries. <span class="smaller"><i>Isotoma</i> (regular flower); <i>Heterotoma</i>
-has a spur; <i>Siphocampylos</i>; <i>Lysipoma</i> (pyxidium);
-<i>Clintonia</i> (1–locular fruit). <i>Metzleria</i> (all the petals
-are free).</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig602" style="width: 297px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig602.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 602.</span>&mdash;Diagram of <i>Lobelia fulgens</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig603" style="width: 204px">
-     <p class="p2 sm center"><span class="smcap">Figs. 603, 604.</span>&mdash;<i>Lobelia syphilitica.</i></p>
-     <img
-    class="p0"
-    src="images/fig603.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 603.</span> Flower (2/1).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig604">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig604.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 604.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal
-section of the same.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>Entomophilous and protandrous. About 500 species, especially in
-the Tropics; in this country, <i>L. dortmanna</i> (margin of
-lakes).&mdash;Several are cultivated in gardens and conservatories
-as ornamental plants (<i>Lobelia bicolor</i>, <i>erinus</i>,
-<i>fulgens</i>, etc., <i>Siphocampylos</i>, <i>Centropogon</i>).
-The latex of several species of <i>Tupa</i> is poisonous;
-caoutchouc is also obtained from them. <span class="smcap">Officinal</span>:
-“herba <i>Lobeliæ</i>” (the alkaloid lobeline) from the
-poisonous <i>L. inflata</i> (N. Am.).</p>
-
-<p>Order 4. <b>Goodeniaceæ.</b> Chiefly Australian (200 species),
-closely related to Orders 3 and 5, but without latex. The style
-is provided with a “collecting-cup” which receives the pollen
-before the flower opens; it has a small, hairy aperture through
-which the pollen is forced out by the stigmas, and through
-which they emerge when the pollen is shed; it is sensitive
-and exhibits movements<span class="pagenum" id="Page_564">[564]</span> when touched.&mdash;Herbs, under-shrubs,
-less frequently shrubs. <i>Goodenia</i>, <i>Leschenaultia</i>,
-<i>Scævola</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Order 5. <b>Stylidiaceæ</b> (or <b>Candolleaceæ</b>); 100
-species, the majority Australian; zygomorpbic flowers, but
-with the ordinary position. The anterior petal is very small.
-The chief characteristic feature is the presence of only 2
-stamens (with extrorse anthers) which are united with the style
-and form a <i>stylar-column</i>; this is bent like a knee and
-sensitive at the bend to such a degree that when touched it
-jerks violently across the flower to the opposite side and then
-loses its sensitiveness.&mdash;Herbs, less frequently under-shrubs.
-<i>Stylidium</i> (<i>Candollea</i>).</p>
-</div>
-
-
-<h4>Family 36. <b>Aggregatæ.</b></h4>
-
-<p>The flowers, which are borne in “capitula” (Figs. <a href="#fig605">605</a>, <a href="#fig610">610</a>), are
-<i>epigynous</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig605">605</a> <i>C</i>, <i>D</i>), <i>5-merous</i> in
-the calyx, corolla and andrœcium, the corolla is <i>valvate</i> in
-æstivation, with <b>2</b> carpels (S5, P5, A5, G2). The anthers
-are united into a tube (syngenesious) (except <i>Ambrosieæ</i>)
-which surrounds the bifid style. There is never more than <b>1</b>
-<i>loculus</i> in the ovary, with <b>1</b> <i>erect</i>, anatropous
-ovule. The fruit is a 1–seeded nut (cypsela), with thin pericarp, the
-calyx generally persists as a tuft of hairs (<i>pappus</i>) (Fig.
-<a href="#fig606">606</a>) on the summit of the fruit. Embryo <i>without endosperm</i>; the
-radicle <i>directed downwards</i>.</p>
-
-<p>Only 1 Order: Compositæ.</p>
-
-<p>With respect to the inflorescence and the development of the individual
-flowers, there is a very close resemblance to the Dipsacaceæ, which
-stand on the same plane of progression as the Compositæ. But while
-the latter are allied to Campanulinæ as the last stage in the
-process of evolution, the Dipsacaceæ form the final stage of the
-Rubiales-Dipsacales.</p>
-
-<p>Order <b>Compositæ</b>. (For the principal characteristics compare
-those of the family.) The Compositæ are chiefly herbs, but trees
-and shrubs also occur in tropical countries. The leaves may be
-scattered or opposite, but have no stipules. The outer leaves of
-the <i>involucre</i> as a rule are barren, especially when numerous
-and imbricate, while the innermost ones support the ray-flowers
-of the capitulum; in a few instances all are fertile (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Tragopogon</i>, <i>Tagetes</i>). The <span class="allsmcap">CAPITULA</span> are
-many-flowered, with the exception, <i>e.g.</i> of <i>Echinops</i>,
-which has 1-flowered capitula (see page <a href="#Page_570">570</a>). The capitula are again
-arranged in inflorescences, most frequently corymbose with centrifugal
-order of development. The <i>form of the receptacle</i> is an important
-character for the division of the genera (flat, convex, conical), and
-also the <i>presence of scales</i>;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_565">[565]</span> these may be one scale (bract) for
-each flower (Fig. <a href="#fig610">610</a> <i>br</i>), or a large number of bristles, which
-do not each correspond to a leaf, or the receptacle may be entirely
-without covering (<i>naked</i>). The flowers open in acropetal order
-in each capitulum. All the flowers in a capitulum may be of the same
-<i>sex</i>, and their form and colour are in that case the same, or
-the sexes may be different, in which case the form and colour are also
-most frequently different: the ray-flowers have projecting labiate or
-ligulate corollas, while the disc-flowers have tubular corollas. As a
-rule in the latter case the ♀ flowers are at the circumference, and the
-☿ in the centre, less frequently ♀-flowers at the edge and ♂-flowers
-in the centre. The ray-flowers in some genera are neuter (<i>e.g.</i>
-<i>Centaurea</i>). Some are diœcious.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig605" style="width: 628px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig605.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 605.</span>&mdash;<i>Calendula arvensis</i>: <i>A</i>
-capitulum; <i>B</i> capitulum in longitudinal section; <i>C</i>
-♀-flower; <i>D</i> ☿-flower; <i>E</i> the stamens; <i>F</i> capitulum
-with ripe fruits; <i>G</i> ripe fruit.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>There is no trace of an epicalyx (in contrast to the Dipsacaceæ, which
-they generally so resemble). The formation of the <span class="allsmcap">CALYX</span> is
-very varied. The calyx always consists of a very small cushion-like
-structure, most frequently developed later than the corolla; the 5
-corners, which correspond to the 5 sepals, in a few<span class="pagenum" id="Page_566">[566]</span> instances are
-raised as 5 large, flat, membranous bodies, <i>e.g.</i> in species
-of <i>Xeranthemum</i>, <i>Catananche</i>, <i>Sphenogyne</i>, etc.;
-in other instances each of these bears a shorter or longer bristle
-on its apex, followed by others in rather uncertain numbers and
-with but slight indications of order, on the edge and on the outer
-side of the calyx between the 5 points; in other instances, again,
-the calyx is covered with bristles and hairs without any indication
-of order or definite number (Fig. <a href="#fig606">606</a> <i>a</i>, <i>b</i>); finally
-instances occur in which the edge is raised as a membranous collar,
-irregularly toothed and notched, or divided into small scales. There
-are naturally differences in the means of distribution corresponding
-to the differences in structure of the calyx. The fruits <i>a</i> and
-<i>b</i> represented in Fig. <a href="#fig606">606</a> are distributed by the wind, those
-like <i>c</i>, on the other hand, by attaching themselves to animals
-and human beings. The rays of the pappus are termed <i>rough</i> when
-special cells project a little beyond the surface, but if these grow
-out, and are hair-like, the pappus is said to be <i>feathery</i>. In
-some genera the pappus is raised on a long stalk, which is developed
-from the upper part of the fruit, and termed a <i>beak</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig606">606</a>
-<i>a</i>). The pappus does not attain its full development till the
-ripening of the fruit, <i>i.e.</i> until it is about to be of use.</p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig606" style="width: 653px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig606.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 606.</span>&mdash;<i>a</i> Fruit of <i>Taraxacum</i>;
-<i>b</i> of <i>Senecio</i>; <i>c</i> of <i>Bidens</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">COROLLA</span> has various forms: (<i>a</i>) <i>tubular</i>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig605">605</a> <i>D</i>), with a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_567">[567]</span> shorter or longer tube, not always of the
-same bore throughout and especially slightly widened at the top to
-form a bell-shaped opening, with 5 <i>regular</i> teeth: (<i>b</i>)
-<i>labiate</i> after 2/3, <i>i.e.</i> with 2 petals in the upper
-and 3 in the under lip: (<i>c</i>) <i>ligulate</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the
-corolla is split for a considerable distance on the posterior side
-(as in the Labiate genus <i>Teucrium</i>) and prolonged into a long,
-strap-like portion (Fig. <a href="#fig609">609</a> <i>A</i>), which projects upwards. A
-distinction must, however, be drawn between the true and false ligulate
-corolla. In the first case the corolla has 5 teeth at the apex (Fig.
-<a href="#fig609">609</a> <i>A</i>) and is made up of all the petals of the corolla united
-together; this is the usual condition in the <i>Ligulate-flowered</i>.
-In the latter case (Fig. <a href="#fig605">605</a> <i>C</i>) the tongue has only 3 teeth
-(or is more irregularly 2–3-dentate), and is only formed of 3 petals;
-the corolla is then truly bilabiate, the tongue is the large under
-lip, and the upper lip is very slightly developed, or even at an early
-stage quite suppressed. This false “ligulate” corolla is found among
-the <i>ray-flowers</i>; sometimes the upper lip is seen quite plainly,
-<i>e.g.</i> in <i>Tagetes</i>, especially in the double capitula.
-<span class="smaller">The <span class="allsmcap">VENATION</span> of the corolla is peculiar; there are always
-commisural veins which branch dichotomously at the angles between
-the teeth of the corolla, and send a branch into the edge of the two
-nearest teeth. The midrib is frequently absent, but may be present,
-and then it has sometimes no connection with the other veins of the
-corolla.</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig607" style="width: 350px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig607.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 607.</span>&mdash;<i>Centaurea cyanus</i>: <i>A</i>
-the anther-tube (<i>st</i>) with the crescentic curved filament before
-irritation; <i>g</i> the style; <i>k</i> the base of the corolla;
-<i>B</i> the same after irritation, the anthers are drawn further down.</p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">STAMENS</span> are attached to the corolla, and have free
-filaments (<i>Silybum</i> has united filaments), but the anthers, which
-at first are free, adhere together and form a tube (Fig. <a href="#fig605">605</a> <i>E</i>:
-only <i>Ambrosieæ</i> have free anthers). The <i>connective</i> is
-generally prolonged, and protrudes above the anthers as a thin, brown
-membrane of various forms (Fig. <a href="#fig605">605</a> <i>E</i>); appendages of various
-forms may also be found at the base of the anthers. The anthers open
-introrsely, and the pollen must be carried out at the top of the tube
-by upward growth of the style, and by means of the “stylar-brush”
-(Figs. <a href="#fig607">607</a>, <a href="#fig608">608</a>, <a href="#fig609">609</a>); the filaments are sometimes sensitive
-(<i>e.g.</i> in the Corn-flower, Fig. <a href="#fig607">607</a>), and shorten on being
-touched, so that the anther-tube is pulled downwards, and the pollen
-swept out at the top (Figs. <a href="#fig607">607</a>, <a href="#fig608">608</a> <i>A</i>, <i>B</i>).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_568">[568]</span></p>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig608" style="width: 320px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig608.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 608.</span>&mdash;<i>Cirsium arvense</i>: <i>A</i>
-the upper portion of a flower, the pollen (<i>e</i>) is being ejected;
-<i>B</i> part of the upper portion of the style with stylar-brush
-(<i>b</i>, <i>c</i>) and the stigmatic papillæ (<i>d</i>).</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig609" style="width: 320px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig609.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm"><span class="smcap">Fig. 609.</span>&mdash;<i>Leontodon autumnale</i>: <i>A</i>
-ligulate flower; <i>B</i> extremity of the style with stylar-brush
-(<i>a</i>), stigma (<i>b</i>) and pollen-grains (<i>c</i>). <i>C</i>
-<i>Centaurea cyanus</i>.</p>
-  </div>
-
-  <div class="figcenter" id="fig610" style="width: 650px">
-     <img
-    class="p2"
-    src="images/fig610.jpg"
-     alt="" />
-     <p class="p0 sm center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 610.</span>&mdash;<i>Achillea millefolium.</i></p>
-  </div>
-
-<p>The <span class="allsmcap">STYLE</span> divides at the apex into two branches (Figs.
-<a href="#fig609">609</a>, <a href="#fig610">610</a>), both of which generally bear on the inner surface two
-lines of stigmatic papillæ (Fig. <a href="#fig610">610</a> <i>B</i>, <i>C</i>) and being
-in shape, etc., very varied, are therefore employed as systematic
-characters.&mdash;<span class="smaller">The most important types are: <b>A.</b> The style
-is uniformly cylindrical; its branches are semi-cylindrical,
-long, and with long hairs, and finally bend backwards; the stylar
-branches bear slightly projecting stigmatic papillæ on the inner
-side. This form is characteristic of the <i>Cichorieæ</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig609">609</a>
-<i>A B</i>). <b>B.</b> The style is uniformly cylindrical;
-the branches are long, cylindrical or club-like, short,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_569">[569]</span> not rolled
-back, with fine hairs externally; the stigmatic lines do not reach
-beyond the centre, and do not meet together. Characteristic of
-<i>Eupatorium</i>, <i>Petasites</i>, <i>Tussilago</i>. <b>C.</b> The
-style is thickened beneath the stigmatic branches in the form of a
-knob, or very hairy (Fig. <a href="#fig609">609</a> <i>C</i>); the stigmatic lines reach
-as far as the apex of the branches and then converge; sometimes the
-stigmatic branches are united as far as the apex. Characteristic of
-the <i>Cynareæ</i>. <b>D.</b> The stylar branches are lanceolate,
-or linear, pointed; externally flat and thickly covered with hairs
-in the upper portion; the stigmatic lines cease where the hairs
-commence externally. Characteristic of <i>Aster</i>, <i>Bellis</i>,
-<i>Inula</i>, <i>Dahlia</i>, etc. <b>E.</b> The stylar branches are
-linear, with long, brush-like hairs at the apex, where they are either
-abruptly cut off or prolonged into a very hairy, conical appendage;
-the stigmatic lines are broad, <i>reach as far</i> as the brush-like
-hairs, and do not meet together (Fig. <a href="#fig610">610</a>). Characteristic of
-<i>Senecio</i>, <i>Helianthus</i>, <i>Xanthium</i>, <i>Gnaphalium</i>,
-<i>Artemisia</i>, <i>Anthemis</i>, and others related to these.</span></p>
-
-<p>A <i>ring-like nectary</i> is found round the base of the style.</p>
-
-<p>The thin-walled <i>cypsela</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig606">606</a>), with seeds fitting closely
-to the pericarp, has many different forms (smooth, ribbed, spined,
-etc.); its point of attachment generally lies at the lowest end but
-sometimes it is drawn obliquely up the side (<i>Centaurea</i>, etc.).
-The calyx, persistent on the apex of the fruit, has been described
-above. Some genera have two or three different forms of fruits in
-each capitulum.&mdash;The embryo is straight, with the radicle <i>turned
-downwards</i>, and <i>without endosperm</i>, but is rich in oil.</p>
-
-<p>The variously flowered capitula, whose normal tubular disc-flowers have
-been changed to ligulate flowers, may be termed “double flowers.”</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>The relationship of the Compositæ to the Campanulinæ has been
-described above (page 561). The alliance with the Dipsacaceæ
-is more apparent than real. Similar capitate inflorescences
-also occur as the final stage in other lines of descent, as in
-<i>Eryngium</i> among the <i>Umbelliferæ</i>.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>1. Cynareæ, Thistle Group.</b> Flowers all ☿, regular, with
-<i>tubular</i> corollas. The receptacle is covered with numerous
-<i>bristles</i>, which surround the flowers without any definite
-order, or the edges of the grooves in which these are placed have a
-well-marked fringe. The involucral leaves are numerous, imbricate,
-and are either prolonged into a <i>thorn</i> or terminate with a
-<i>membranous edge</i>. The style has been described on page <a href="#Page_568">568</a>
-(Fig. <a href="#fig609">609</a> <i>C</i>). Nearly all have a hairy or feathery pappus. The
-filaments are sensitive.</p>
-
-<p><i>Carduus</i> (Thistle); capitula ovoid; involucral leaves
-compact, imbricate, with thorny points; the pappus-rays are
-<i>hair-like</i> and united at the base by a ring (<i>i.e.</i> the
-calyx), and fall off together.&mdash;<i>Cirsium</i> (Fig. <a href="#fig608">608</a>) has a
-<i>feathery</i> pappus, in other respects it is like <i>Carduus</i>.
-<span class="smaller"><i>C. arvense</i> reproduces and passes the winter by means of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_570">[570]</span>
-suckers.</span>&mdash;<i>Cynara</i> (Artichoke) has a feathery pappus and
-large, <i>solitary</i> capitulum, with broad involucral leaves; these
-have a fleshy base like the receptacle (edible).&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Silylum</i>
-has united filaments. <i>S. marianum</i> (Milk-thistle), has leaves
-with numerous <i>white spots</i>. <i>Onopordon</i> (Cotton-thistle).
-<i>Cnicus</i> (<i>C. benedictus</i>) has a large, many-spined thorn
-on the involucral leaves; pappus trimorphic.</span>&mdash;<i>Lappa</i>
-(Burdock) is easily recognized by the <i>hooked involucral leaves</i>,
-which assist in the distribution of the fruit; in this respect it
-differs from the other inflorescences, and also in the fact that the
-pappus is short, and quickly falls off, without serving as a means
-of distribution.&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Carlina</i>; the external involucral leaves
-are <i>leafy</i>, <i>thorny</i>, with branched or unbranched spines
-standing straight out or bent backwards; the <i>internal ones are
-dry</i>, and prolonged as <i>dry</i>, <i>coloured</i>, radiating
-<i>scales</i>. The well-developed bristles on the receptacle and edge
-of the calyx are <i>deeply cleft and lobed</i>.</span>&mdash;<i>Centaurea</i>
-(Knap-weed, Fig. <a href="#fig607">607</a>). The ray-flowers are neuter, and generally
-larger than the disc-flowers; the involucral leaves are regularly
-imbricate, but are frequently provided at the apex with a dry, chaffy,
-often lobed, fringed appendage. The attachment of the fruit is
-lateral. <i>Serratula</i> (Saw-wort).&mdash;<span class="smaller"><i>Carthamus</i>, the outer
-and inner involucral leaves differ very much.</span>&mdash;<i>Echinops</i>
-(Globe-thistle) is characterised by having “compound capitula,”
-<i>i.e.</i> there is only one flower in each capitulum, but many
-such capitula are collected into a spherical head, which at the base
-may also have a few involucral leaves. The individual capitula have
-narrow, linear involucral leaves. <span class="smaller">(There are altogether about
-150 species of Compositæ with 1-flowered capitula, all from warm
-countries.)</span>&mdash;<i>Xeranthemum</i>, <i>Staehelina</i>, <i>Jurinea</i>,
-<i>Saussurea</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>2. Mutisieæ, Labiate-flowered Group.</b> Tropical (S.
-American) forms whose zygomorphic flowers have a bilabiate
-corolla (2/3). The involucre is nearly the same as in the
-Thistles.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><b>3. Cichorieæ, Chicory Group</b> (or <span class="smcap">Ligulifloræ</span>). The
-flowers are all ☿ and have a <i>ligulate, 5-dentate</i> corolla.
-The stylar branches are thin and prolonged (Fig. <a href="#fig609">609</a> <i>B</i>).
-<i>Laticiferous vessels</i> occur in the majority (in this feature they
-resemble the Lobeliaceæ and Campanulaceæ).</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> The pappus is <i>wanting</i>, or it is <i>scale-like</i>,
-but not long and hairy.&mdash;<i>Cichorium</i> (Chicory); capitula with
-<i>blue flowers</i>, borne singly or a few together in the leaf-axil;
-there are two whorls of involucral leaves, an outer one of short and
-radiating, an inner of more numerous, longer and erect leaves; pappus,
-scale-like.&mdash;<i>Lapsana</i> (Nipplewort). The few involucral leaves are
-nearly of the same size, and persist forming a sort of capsule round
-the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_571">[571]</span> fruits, which are entirely without a pappus. There are only a few
-flowers in the small capitula.&mdash;<i>Arnoseris</i> (Swine’s-succory),
-<i>Catananche</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> The pappus is long and <i>hairy</i> (not branched),
-generally fine and snowy-white. There are <i>no scales</i> on the
-receptacle. The two genera first considered have <i>beaked</i>
-fruits.&mdash;<i>Taraxacum</i> (Dandelion) (Fig. <a href="#fig606">606</a> <i>a</i>); the capitula
-are many-flowered, and borne singly on the top of a leafless, hollow
-stalk.&mdash;<i>Lactuca</i> (Lettuce) has many small, few-flowered capitula
-borne in panicles.&mdash;<i>Crepis</i> (Hawksbeard).&mdash;<i>Hieracium</i>
-(Hawk-weed) has many imbricate involucral leaves, and a stiff, brittle,
-brownish pappus.&mdash;<i>Sonchus</i> (Sow-thistle); the capitula, when a
-little old, have a broad base, and are abstricted above in the form of
-a jug; involucral leaves imbricate; the fruit is compressed, without a
-beak, ridged. The soft, white pappus falls off collectively.</p>
-
-<p><b>C.</b> The pappus is <i>feathery</i> and branched; no scales
-on the receptacle.&mdash;<i>Tragopogon</i> (Goat’s-beard) generally
-has 8 involucral leaves in one whorl. The fruit has a long
-beak; the rays of the pappus are interwoven in the form of an
-umbrella.&mdash;<i>Scorzonera</i> has fruits like the preceding, but almost
-without any beak; involucral leaves many, imbricate.&mdash;<i>Leontodon</i>
-(Hawkbit) has a slightly feathery pappus, rays not interwoven; beak
-absent.&mdash;<i>Picris.</i></p>
-
-<p><b>D.</b> Long, chaff-like, deciduous scales on the receptacle; pappus
-<i>feathery</i>.&mdash;<i>Hypochœris</i> (Cat’s-ear).</p>
-
-<p><b>4. Eupatorieæ, Hemp-agrimony Group.</b> All the flowers are most
-frequently ☿; corollas tubular and regular; the involucral leaves are
-not stiff and spiny; the receptacle is not covered with stiff bristles.
-The stylar branches are long, club-like, or gradually tapering. There
-is no swelling below the stigma.</p>
-
-<p><i>Eupatorium</i> (Hemp-agrimony); all the flowers are
-☿.&mdash;<i>Petasites</i> (Butterbur); ray-flowers ♀, disc-flowers ☿ or ♂;
-sometimes diœcious. Capitula in racemes or panicles. The leaves develop
-after the flowering.&mdash;<i>Tussilago</i> (<i>T. farfara</i>, Colt’s-foot)
-has a solitary capitulum borne on a scaly, scape-like stem; the
-ray-flowers are ♀ with <i>ligulate</i> corollas, disc-flowers ♂. The
-leaves unfold after the flowering. <i>Ageratum</i>, <i>Mikania</i>,
-<i>Vernonia</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>5. Astereæ, Aster Group</b> (or <span class="smcap">Radiatæ</span>, Ray-flowered).
-The flowers are of two forms and different sexes; the ray-flowers
-are ♀ (sometimes neuter), most frequently with irregular, <i>falsely
-ligulate</i>, radiating corollas; the disc-flowers are ☿, regular,
-with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_572">[572]</span> tubular corollas (Fig. <a href="#fig610">610</a>). Sometimes only tubular flowers are
-present, as <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Senecio vulgaris</i> (Groundsel), and
-the exterior of the capitulum is then as in the Eupatorieæ. The stylar
-branches are straight, more or less flat and short (Fig. <a href="#fig610">610</a>).</p>
-
-<p><b>A.</b> <span class="smcap">Anthemideæ.</span> Involucral leaves imbricate, generally
-membranous at the edge; <i>pappus wanting</i>, or at most a
-<i>membranous margin</i> to the calyx, but without hairs.</p>
-
-<p>[+]. <i>Chaff-like bracts</i> on the receptacle are found in
-<i>Anthemis</i> (Chamomile), <i>Anacyclus</i> (<i>A. officinarum</i>),
-<i>Achillea</i> (Milfoil, Fig. <a href="#fig610">610</a>), <i>Santolina</i>, etc.</p>
-
-<p>[++]. A <i>naked</i> receptacle is found in the following:
-<i>Bellis</i> (Daisy) has solitary capitula on leafless stalks
-with white ray-flowers.&mdash;<i>Matricaria</i> (Wild Chamomile) has
-a conical receptacle. <span class="smaller">(<i>M. chamomilla</i> has a very high,
-hollow receptacle; <i>M. inodora</i> has large, odourless capitula,
-and the receptacle is not hollow.)</span>&mdash;<i>Chrysanthemum</i>
-(Ox-eye) most frequently large, solitary capitula; flat
-receptacle.&mdash;<i>Pyrethrum</i>; pappus scanty.&mdash;With these are classed
-<i>Tanacetum</i> (Tansy) and <i>Artemisia</i> (Wormwood) with tubular
-corollas only.</p>
-
-<p><b>B.</b> <span class="smcap">Heliantheæ.</span> Most frequently a bract to each flower
-is found on the receptacle. The pappus is never exactly hairy, but
-consists of scales, spines, etc., and the fruits are most frequently
-compressed (Fig. <a href="#fig606">606</a> <i>c</i>).&mdash;<i>Helianthus</i> (Sun-flower); <i>H.
-tuberosus</i> (Jerusalem Artichoke) has tuberous underground stems.
-<i>Dahlia</i> has tuberous roots (Am.). <i>Bidens</i> (Bur-marigold,
-Fig. <a href="#fig606">606</a> <i>c</i>); the fruits are compressed with 2 (or more) spines
-provided with reflexed barbs.&mdash;<i>Calliopsis</i>; <i>Rudbeckia</i>;
-<i>Zinnia</i>; <i>Tagetes</i> has united involucral leaves, and
-yellow, transparent oil-glands. <i>Spilanthes</i>, <i>Galinsoga</i>,
-<i>Melampodium</i>, <i>Silphium</i> (Compass-plant), <i>Helenium</i>,
-<i>Gaillardia</i>.</p>
-
-<p><b>C.</b> <span class="smcap">Calenduleæ</span> have 1–2 rows of involucral leaves,
-a naked receptacle, and large, crescent-shaped, irregularly warted
-fruits, of different forms in the same capitulum; pappus absent (Fig.
-<a href="#fig605">605</a>).&mdash;<i>Calendula</i> (Marigold); ray-flowers ♀, disc-flowers ♂.</p>
-
-<p><b>D.</b> <span class="smcap">Senecioneæ</span>, have a fine, <i>hairy</i>, white pappus;
-no bracts, otherwise as in Anthemideæ. The involucral leaves are most
-frequently in 1–2 rows.&mdash;<i>Senecio</i> (Groundsel) has two whorls
-of involucral leaves, which most frequently have black tips, the
-external being much shorter than the internal ones (<i>S. vulgaris</i>
-has all flowers ☿ and alike).&mdash;<i>Cacalia</i>, <i>Doronicum</i>,
-<i>Cineraria</i>, <i>Ligularia</i>, <i>Arnica</i> (<i>A. montana</i>;
-large, long-stalked capitula; leaves opposite, forming a kind of
-rosette).</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_573">[573]</span></p>
-
-<p><b>E.</b> <span class="smcap">Astereæ</span> have a bristle-like, unbranched pappus,
-often of a dingy brown; receptacle naked; involucral leaves
-numerous, imbricate.&mdash;<i>Solidago</i> (Golden-rod); capitula small,
-yellow-flowered, borne in panicles. <i>Aster</i>; disc-flowers
-most frequently yellow, ray-flowers violet; <i>Callistephus</i>;
-<i>Erigeron</i> (Flea-bane)&mdash;<i>Inula</i>.&mdash;All the corollas are
-tubular in: <i>Gnaphalium</i> (Cud-weed); involucral leaves dry,
-rattling, often coloured; the foliage-leaves and stem often white with
-woolly hairs; ray-flowers ♀, with narrow, tubular corolla; disc-flowers
-☿ (few). <i>Antennaria</i> (Cat’s-foot; diœcious), <i>Filago</i>,
-<i>Helichrysum</i>, <i>Ammobium</i>, <i>Rhodanthe</i> and others.
-<i>Leontopodium</i> (<i>L. alpinum</i>, “Edelweiss”).</p>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p><b>F.</b> <span class="smcap">Ambrosieæ</span>, a very reduced type of
-Compositæ, differing from the others in having <i>free
-anthers</i>; the capitula are generally unisexual, monœcious,
-the ♂ borne in a terminal inflorescence, the ♀ in the
-leaf-axils. In other respects they are most closely related to
-<i>Heliantheæ</i>.&mdash;<i>Xanthium.</i> In the ♂-capitula there
-are many flowers without calyx, but with tubular corolla and
-free involucral leaves. In the ♀-capitula there are only 2
-flowers, which are entirely destitute of both calyx and corolla;
-involucral leaves 2-spined, united to form an ovoid, bilocular
-envelope, each compartment containing one flower. The envelope
-of involucral leaves unites with the fruits, enclosing them at
-maturity with a hard covering from which numerous hook-like
-spines project, assisting very greatly in the distribution of
-the fruit. The whole structure thus finally becomes a 1- or
-2-seeded <i>false</i> nut.&mdash;<i>Ambrosia</i>, the ♀ capitulum
-1-flowered.</p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Pollination.</span> The flowers are somewhat insignificant,
-but become very conspicuous owing to a number being crowded
-together in one inflorescence. The corollas of the ray-flowers,
-being often very large (<i>Astereæ</i>; <i>Centaurea</i>),
-frequently render the capitula still more conspicuous. The
-capitula display many biological phenomena similar to those
-often shown by the individual flowers in other orders, e.g.
-by periodically opening and closing, in which the involucral
-leaves resemble the calyx in their action. (The name “Compositæ”
-originates from the term “flos compositus,” composite flower).
-An abundance of honey is formed, which to some extent fills
-up the corolla-tube, and since insects may visit a number
-of flowers in the course of a short period they are very
-frequently visited, especially by butterflies and bees. The
-pollination has been described on page <a href="#Page_567">567</a>. Protandry is
-universal. In the bud the tips of the styles, covered by the
-sweeping-hairs, lie closely enveloped by the anther-tube; in
-the next stage the style grows through the tube and sweeps
-out the pollen as it proceeds; ultimately the stylar branches
-expand and the stigma is then prepared to receive the pollen.
-In many, the sensitiveness of the filaments assists in sweeping
-out the pollen at the exact moment of the insect visit.
-Regular self-pollination is found <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Senecio
-vulgaris</i>; wind-pollination <i>e.g.</i> in <i>Artemisia</i>
-and the plants related to it.</p>
-
-<p>This extremely natural and well-defined order is the largest
-(and no doubt one of the youngest?); it embraces 10–12,000
-known species (in 770 genera), or about one-tenth of all
-Flowering-plants. They are distributed over the whole globe, but
-are most numerous in temperate countries; the majority prefer
-open<span class="pagenum" id="Page_574">[574]</span> spaces; a smaller number are forest-forms. They abound
-especially in open districts in America.</p>
-
-<p>Among the substances frequently found may be mentioned:
-<span class="smcap">Inulin</span> (especially in the subterranean parts),
-<span class="smcap">Bitter</span> materials, Tannin, volatile oils, fatty
-oils in the fruits. <span class="smcap">Medicinal</span>:<a id="FNanchor_40" href="#Footnote_40" class="fnanchor">[40]</a> “Herba” of
-<i>Artemisia absinthium</i> (Wormwood) and <i>maritima</i>[+]
-(Sea-wormwood), <i>Achillea millefolium</i>; the <i>leaves</i>
-of <i>Cnicus benedictus</i> and <i>Tussilago farfara</i>; the
-unopened <i>capitula</i> of <i>Artemisia maritima</i>, var.
-<i>stechmanniana</i>; the <i>capitula</i> of <i>Tanacetum</i>,
-<i>Matricaria chamomilla</i>[+] (wild Chamomile), <i>Anthemis
-nobilis</i>[+] (common Chamomile); the separate flowers of
-<i>Arnica</i>; the <i>roots</i> of <i>Arnica montana</i>[+],
-<i>Taraxacum officinale</i>[+], <i>Anacyclus officinarum</i>[+],
-<i>Lappa major</i>, <i>minor</i>, <i>nemorosa</i> and
-<i>tomentosa</i>, <i>Inula helenium</i> and <i>Artemisia
-vulgaris</i>; the latex of <i>Lactuca virosa</i>[+]. The
-following are cultivated for food:&mdash;<i>Lactuca sativa</i>
-(Lettuce), <i>Cichorium endivia</i> (from E. Asia, for salads),
-<i>Cynara scolymus</i> (Artichoke, Mediterranean), <i>Scorzonera
-hispanica</i> (S. Eur.), <i>Helianthus tuberosus</i> (Jerusalem
-Artichoke, from N. Am., introduced into Europe 1616),
-<i>Cichorium intybus</i> (roots as “chicory,”) <i>Tragopogon
-porrifolium</i> (Salsafy), <i>Artemisia dracunculus</i>.
-<span class="smcap">Oil</span> is extracted from the following (the seeds):
-<i>Helianthus annuus</i> (Peru), <i>Madia sativa</i>
-(Chili), <i>Guizotia oleifera</i> (Abyssinia). <span class="smcap">Dyes</span>
-from: <i>Carthamus tinctorius</i> (Safflower, used in the
-preparation of rouge; Egypt), <i>Serratula tinctoria</i>.
-<span class="smcap">Insect-powder</span> from: <i>Pyrethrum cinerariifolium</i>
-(Dalmatia) and <i>roseum</i> (Persia, Caucasus). The
-following are cultivated in houses and gardens for the
-sake of their scented leaves:&mdash;<i>Tanacetum balsamita</i>
-(Balsam), <i>Artemisia abrotanum</i> (Southernwood) and <i>A.
-argentea</i>. A great many of the genera enumerated are
-cultivated in dwelling-houses for the sake of the flowers;
-<i>e.g. Pericallis cruenta</i> (generally termed
-“Cineraria”). <i>Asteriscus pygmæus</i> is supposed to be the
-genuine “Rose of Jericho”; the involucral leaves envelop the
-fruits after their ripening and keep them enclosed for 8–10
-months until rain occurs.</p>
-</div>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_575">[575]</span></p>
-
-<h2 class="smaller">APPENDIX ON THE CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<p class="smcap center">By M. C. POTTER.</p>
-
-
-<p>The earliest systems of classification were derived from the properties
-and uses of plants; and it was not until some two centuries ago
-that any scientific grouping of plants was attempted. Aristotle and
-Theophrastus had adopted the groups of Trees, Shrubs and Herbs as the
-chief divisions of the Vegetable Kingdom, a system which persisted
-and was employed by Tournefort and Ray as late as the end of the 17th
-century. The arrangement by which these three divisions were separated
-into smaller divisions was often founded upon a single character, such
-as the formation of the corolla, the form of fruit, that of the calyx
-and corolla, etc. All these systems of classification which brought
-into close proximity plants distinguished by some one character alone,
-could only be considered as <i>artificial</i>, since plants related to
-one another would not necessarily be included in the same group. As the
-knowledge of the morphology, physiology, and reproduction of plants
-increased, such systems were recognised as unscientific, and it became
-the aim of botanists to establish a <i>natural</i> system, founded upon
-mutual relationships, which would associate together <i>only</i> those
-plants which are truly allied.</p>
-
-<p>The following are some of the chief systems of classification which
-will show the gradual development of the natural system, and may be of
-service to students making use of this text-book.<a id="FNanchor_41" href="#Footnote_41" class="fnanchor">[41]</a></p>
-
-
-<p>System of <span class="smcap">John Ray</span> (1703).</p>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>&ensp;I. Herbæ.</li>
-  <li class="i2">A. <span class="smcap">Imperfectæ</span> (Flowerless).</li>
-  <li class="i2">B. <span class="smcap">Perfectæ</span> (Flowering).</li>
-  <li class="i4"><i>Dicotyledones</i>.</li>
-  <li class="i4"><i>Monocotyledones.</i></li>
-  <li class="space">II. Arbores.</li>
-  <li class="i2">A. <i>Monocotyledones.</i></li>
-  <li class="i2">B. <i>Dicotyledones.</i></li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Ray was the first botanist who recognised the importance of the one
-or two seed-leaves of the embryo, and initiated the division of the
-Flowering-plants into Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_576">[576]</span></p>
-
-
-<p>System of <span class="smcap">Linnæus</span> (1733).</p>
-
-<p>In his well known artificial system Linnæus divided the Vegetable
-Kingdom into twenty-four classes, based upon the number, relative
-position and union of the stamens with regard to each other, and also
-to the gynœceum.</p>
-
-<table summary="classes" class="smaller">
- <tr>
-    <td class="center">Class</td>
-    <td class="right">I.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Monandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht">Flowers with</td>
-    <td class="right">1</td>
-    <td class="cht">stamen.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">II.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Diandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„</td>
-    <td class="right">2</td>
-    <td class="cht">stamens.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">III.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Triandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„</td>
-    <td class="right">3</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;„</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">IV.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Tetrandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„</td>
-    <td class="right">4</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;„</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">V.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Pentandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„</td>
-    <td class="right">5</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;„</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">VI.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Hexandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„</td>
-    <td class="right">6</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;„</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">VII.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Heptandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„</td>
-    <td class="right">7</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;„</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">VIII.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Octandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„</td>
-    <td class="right">8</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;„</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">IX.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Enneandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„</td>
-    <td class="right">9</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;„</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">X.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Decandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„</td>
-    <td class="right">10</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;„</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XI.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Dodecandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„</td>
-    <td class="right" colspan="2">11 to 19 stamens.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XII.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Icosandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„</td>
-    <td class="right" colspan="2">20 or more stamens inserted on the calyx.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XIII.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Polyandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„</td>
-    <td class="right" colspan="2">20 or more stamens inserted on the receptacle.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XIV.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Didynamia.</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">Stamens didynamous.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XV.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Tetradynamia.</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&ensp;tetradynamous.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XVI.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Monadelphia.</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">Filaments united into 1 bundle.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XVII.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Diadelphia.</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„&ensp;2 bundles.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XVIII.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Polyadelphia.</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;„&ensp;several bundles.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XIX.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Syngenesia.</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">Anthers united together.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XX.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Gynandria.</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">Stamens and pistil united.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XXI.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Monœcia.</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">Flowers diclinous, ♂ and ♀ on the same plant.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XXII.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Diœcia.</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;♂ and ♀ on different plants.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XXIII.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Polygamia.</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">♂-, ♀-, and ☿-flowers on the same plant.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-<tr>
-    <td class="center">„</td>
-    <td class="right">XXIV.</td>
-    <td class="cht smcap">Cryptogamia.</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">Flowerless plants (Ferns, Mosses, Algæ, Fungi).</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<div class="blockquot">
-
-<p>These classes were further divided into orders, according to the
-number of styles, as Monogynia, flowers with 1 style; Digynia,
-with 2 styles, etc. Thus a Dock (<i>Rumex</i>), having 6 stamens
-and 3 styles, would be placed in Class VI., <span class="smcap">Hexandria</span>,
-and Order III., Trigynia.</p>
-
-<p>Class XIV. was divided into two orders. Order I., Gymnospermia,
-with seeds apparently naked, comprising the Labiatæ; and
-Order II., Angiospermia, with the seeds enclosed in a capsule
-(<i>Bartsia</i>, <i>Rhinanthus</i>).</p>
-
-<p>Class XV. was divided into two orders: Order I., Siliculosa,
-fruit a silicula (<i>Capsella</i>); and Order II., Siliquosa,
-fruit a siliqua (<i>Brassica</i>).</p>
-
-<p>Class XIX. was divided into Order I., Æqualis, all the flowers
-perfect (<i>Sonchus</i>); Order II., Superflua, flowers in
-the centre perfect, those at the circumference with pistils
-only (seemingly superfluous), <i>e.g. Aster</i>; Order
-III., Frustranea, flowers in the centre perfect, those at the
-circumference neuter, <i>e.g. Centaurea</i>.</p>
-
-<p>“Fragments” of a natural system have also come down to us from
-Linnæus, who himself always recognised the imperfection of his
-artificial system.</p>
-</div>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_577">[577]</span></p>
-
-
-<p class="p1">System of <span class="smcap">Antoine Laurent de Jussieu</span> (1789).</p>
-
-<table summary="system" class="smaller">
-  <tr>
-    <th></th>
-    <th></th>
-    <th></th>
-    <th></th>
-    <th></th>
-    <th class="pag">Class</th>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="5"><b>Acotyledones.</b> Plants without cotyledons: Fungi, Ferns, Mosses, Algæ, Naiades</td>
-    <td class="right">I.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="6"><b>Monoctyledones.</b> Plants with <i>one</i> cotyledon:&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1" colspan="5">1. Stamens hypogynous</td>
-    <td class="right">II.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1" colspan="5">2.&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&ensp;perigynous</td>
-    <td class="right">III.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1" colspan="5">3.&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&ensp;epigynous</td>
-    <td class="right">IV.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="6"><b>Dicotyledones.</b> Plants with <i>two</i> cotyledons:&mdash;</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1a" rowspan="3">1. <span class="smcap">Apetalæ</span></td>
-    <td class="brckt" rowspan="3"><img src="images/big_left_bracket.png" alt="big left bracket"
-      style="height:4.5em;padding:0 0em 0 0em;" /></td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">Stamens epigynous</td>
-    <td class="right">V.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">&emsp;„&emsp;perigynous</td>
-    <td class="right">VI.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">&emsp;„&emsp;hypogynous</td>
-    <td class="right">VII.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1a">2. <span class="smcap">Monopetalae</span></td>
-    <td class="brckt" rowspan="4"><img src="images/big_left_bracket.png" alt="big left bracket"
-      style="height:5.5em;padding:0 0em 0 0em;" /></td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">Corolla hypogynous</td>
-    <td class="right">VIII.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">&emsp;„&emsp;perigynous</td>
-    <td class="right">IX.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td class="cht1a" rowspan="2">&emsp;„&emsp;epigynous,</td>
-    <td class="brckt" rowspan="2"><img src="images/big_left_bracket.png" alt="big left bracket"
-      style="height:2.5em;padding:0 0em 0 0em;" /></td>
-    <td class="cht">anthers connate</td>
-    <td class="right">X.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td></td>
-    <td class="cht">&emsp;„&emsp;free</td>
-    <td class="right">XI.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1a" rowspan="3">3. <span class="smcap">Polypetalæ</span></td>
-    <td class="brckt" rowspan="3"><img src="images/big_left_bracket.png" alt="big left bracket"
-      style="height:4.5em;padding:0 0em 0 0em;" /></td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">Stamens epigynous</td>
-    <td class="right">XII.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">&emsp;„&emsp;hypogynous</td>
-    <td class="right">XIII.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3">&emsp;„&emsp;perigynous</td>
-    <td class="right"> XIV.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1" colspan="6">4. <span class="smcap">Diclines irregulares</span>, male and female flowers
-on different plants, corolla generally absent.</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-
-<p>System of <span class="smcap">A. P. de Candolle</span> (1819).</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>&ensp;I. <b>Vasculares.</b> Plants with vascular bundles.</li>
-  <li class="i1">1. <span class="smcap">Exogenæ.</span> Vascular bundles arranged in a ring.</li>
-  <li class="i2">A. <i>Diplochlamydeæ.</i> Calyx and corolla present.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent7"><i>a.</i> Thalamifloræ. Corolla polypetalous and hypogynous.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent7"><i>b.</i> Calycifloræ. Corolla perigynous or epigynous; stamens inserted on the calyx.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent7"><i>c.</i> Corollifloræ. Corolla gamopetalous; stamens inserted on the corolla.</li>
-  <li class="i2">B. <i>Monochlamydeæ.</i> Perianth simple.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent4">2. <span class="smcap">Endogenæ.</span> Vascular bundles scattered, the youngest in the centre.</li>
-  <li class="i2">A. <i>Phanerogamæ.</i> Flowers present.</li>
-  <li class="i2">B. <i>Cryptogamæ.</i> Flowers absent.</li>
-  <li class="space">II. <b>Cellulares.</b> Vascular bundles absent.</li>
-  <li class="i1">1. <span class="smcap">Foliaceæ.</span> Leaves present.</li>
-  <li class="i1">2. <span class="smcap">Aphyllæ.</span> Leafless.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_578">[578]</span></p>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">Robert Brown</span> published in 1827 his discovery of the
-gymnospermy of the ovules of the Coniferæ and Cycadeæ, and showed
-that the Gymnosperms, which had previously been classed with the
-Dicotyledons, must be regarded as an independent group.</p>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p>System of <span class="smcap">Stephen Endlicher</span> (1836–40).</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>&ensp;I. <b>Thallophyta.</b> No differentiation into stem and root.</li>
-  <li class="i1">1. <span class="smcap">Protophyta.</span> Class I., Algæ; Class II., Lichenes.</li>
-  <li class="i1">2. <span class="smcap">Hysterophyta.</span> Class III., Fungi.</li>
-  <li class="space">II. <b>Cormophyta.</b> Differentiated into stem and root.</li>
-  <li class="i1">1. <span class="smcap">Acrobrya.</span> Stem growing at the point.</li>
-  <li class="i2"><i>Anophyta</i> (Hepaticæ, Musci).</li>
-  <li class="i2"><i>Protophyta</i> (Filices, etc.).</li>
-  <li class="i2"><i>Hysterophyta</i> (Balanophoreæ, etc.).</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent4">2. <span class="smcap">Amphibrya.</span> Stem growing at the circumference (Monocotyledons).</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent4">3. <span class="smcap">Acramphibrya.</span> Stem growing both at the point and circumference.</li>
-  <li class="i2"><i>Gymnosperma</i> (Coniferae).</li>
-  <li class="i2"><i>Apetala.</i> Perianth single or absent.</li>
-  <li class="i2"><i>Gamopetala.</i> Petals gamopetalous.</li>
-  <li class="i2"><i>Dialypetala.</i> Petals polypetalous.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p>System of <span class="smcap">A. Brongniart</span> (1843).</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>&ensp;I. <b>Cryptogamæ.</b> Plants without flowers.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent4">1. <span class="smcap">Amphigenæ.</span> Not differentiated into stem or leaf (Algæ, Fungi, Lichenes).</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent4">2. <span class="smcap">Acrogenæ.</span> Plants with stem and leaf (Muscineæ, Filicinæ).</li>
-  <li class="space">II. <b>Phanerogamæ.</b> Plants with flowers.</li>
-  <li class="i1">3. <span class="smcap">Monocotyledones.</span></li>
-  <li class="i2"><i>a.</i> Albuminosæ. Seeds with endosperm.</li>
-  <li class="i2"><i>b.</i> Exalbuminosæ. Seeds without endosperm.</li>
-  <li class="i1">4. <span class="smcap">Dicotyledones.</span></li>
-  <li class="i2"><i>a.</i> Angiosepermæ.</li>
-  <li class="i3">α. Gamopetalæ.</li>
-  <li class="i3">β. Dialypetalæ.</li>
-  <li class="i2"><i>b.</i> Gymnospermæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_579">[579]</span></p>
-
-
-<p>System of <span class="smcap">John Lindley</span> (<i>Vegetable Kingdom</i>, 1845).</p>
-
-<table summary="system" class="smaller">
-  <tr>
-    <td class="center" colspan="3">Asexual, or Flowerless Plants.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht">Stem and leaves undistinguishable</td>
-    <td class="right">I.</td>
-    <td class="cht"><b>Thallogens.</b></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht">Stem and leaves distinguishable</td>
-    <td class="right">II.</td>
-    <td class="cht"><b>Acrogens.</b></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="center" colspan="3">Sexual, or Flowering Plants.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht">Fructification springing from a thallus</td>
-    <td class="right">III.</td>
-    <td class="cht"><b>Rhizogens.</b></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht">Fructification springing from a stem.</td>
-    <td class="right"></td>
-    <td class="cht"></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Wood of stem youngest in the centre; cotyledon
-single. Leaves parallel-veined, permanent; wood
-of stem always confused</td>
-    <td class="right1">IV.</td>
-    <td class="cht1b"><b>Endogens.</b></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Leaves net-veined, deciduous; wood of the stem,
-when perennial, arranged in a circle with a central pith</td>
-    <td class="right1">V.</td>
-    <td class="cht1b"><b>Dictyogens.</b></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1">Wood of stem youngest at the circumference, always
-concentric; cotyledons, 2 or more.</td>
-    <td class="right"></td>
-    <td class="cht"></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht">Seeds quite naked</td>
-    <td class="right">VI.</td>
-    <td class="cht"><b>Gymnogens.</b></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht">Seeds inclosed in seed-vessels</td>
-    <td class="right">VII.</td>
-    <td class="cht"><b>Exogens.</b></td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p>System of <span class="smcap">Alexander Braun</span> (1864).</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>&emsp;I. <b>Bryophyta.</b></li>
-  <li class="i2">1. <span class="smcap">Thallodea</span> (Algæ, Fungi, Lichenes).</li>
-  <li class="i2">2. <span class="smcap">Thallophyllodea</span> (Charas, Mosses).</li>
-  <li>&ensp;II. <b>Cormophyta.</b></li>
-  <li class="i2">1. <span class="smcap">Phyllopterides</span> (Ferns, Equisetums).</li>
-  <li class="i2">2. <span class="smcap">Maschalopterides</span> (Lycopods).</li>
-  <li class="i2">3. <span class="smcap">Hydropterides</span> (Water-ferns).</li>
-  <li>III. <b>Anthophyta.</b></li>
-  <li class="i2"><span class="smcap">Gymnospermæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">1. <i>Frondosæ</i> (Cycadeæ).</li>
-  <li class="i4">2. <i>Acerosæ</i> (Coniferæ).</li>
-  <li class="i2"><span class="smcap">Angiospermæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">1. <i>Monocotyledones.</i></li>
-  <li class="i4">2. <i>Dicotyledones.</i></li>
-  <li class="i6">Apetalæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">Sympetalæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">Eleutheropetalæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p><span class="smcap">W. Hofmeister</span> published from 1849 to 1851 his researches
-upon the embryology of the Phanerogams, and upon the embryology
-and life-history of the Vascular Cryptogams, and established the
-phylogenetic connection existing between the Mosses, Vascular
-Cryptogams and Phanerogams.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_580">[580]</span></p>
-
-
-<p>System of <span class="smcap">Hooker</span> and <span class="smcap">Bentham</span> (<i>Genera
-plantarum</i>, 1862–1883).</p>
-
-<p class="center p1 smaller"><b>DICOTYLEDONES.</b></p>
-
-<p class="center p1 sm"><b>I. POLYPETALÆ.</b></p>
-
-<p>Series I. <b>Thalamifloræ.</b> Calyx most often free from the ovary.
-Petals uniseriate or often 2–∞-seriate. Stamens ∞ or definite, inserted
-on the receptacle, often small, or raised, or stipitate. Ovary most
-frequently free.</p>
-
-<p>Cohort I. <span class="smcap">Ranales.</span> Stamens ∞, or if definite the perianth
-is 3–∞-seriate. Carpels apocarpous, or immersed in the receptacle.
-Endosperm usually abundant, fleshy.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 1. Ranunculaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;2. Dilleniaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;3. Calycanthaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;4. Magnoliaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;5. Anonaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;6. Menispermaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;7. Berberideæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;8. Nymphæaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort II. <span class="smcap">Parietales.</span> Stamens ∞ or definite. Ovary
-unilocular, or divided into loculi by spurious dissepiments, with
-parietal placentation. Endosperm absent or fleshy.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order&ensp;&nbsp;9. Sarraceniaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;10. Papaveraceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;11. Cruciferæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;12. Capparideæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;13. Resedaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;14. Cistineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;15. Violarieæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;16. Canellaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;17. Bixineæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-
-<p>Cohort III. <span class="smcap">Polygalinæ.</span> Stamens definite. Ovary usually
-perfectly or imperfectly bilocular. Micropyle often superior. Fruit
-very often compressed laterally. Endosperm very often abundant and
-fleshy.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 18. Pittosporeæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;19. Tremandreæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;20. Polygaleæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;20<i>a.</i> Vochysiaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort IV. <span class="smcap">Caryophyllineæ.</span> Stamens definite, or rarely ∞.
-Ovary unilocular, or imperfectly septate. Placenta central, more rarely
-parietal. Micropyle inferior. Embryo curved, rarely straight. Endosperm
-farinaceous.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 21. Frankeniaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;22. Caryophylleæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;23. Portulaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;24. Tamariscineæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort V. <span class="smcap">Guttiferales.</span> Sepals inbricate. Stamens usually ∞.
-Ovary septate, placentæ on the inner angles of the loculi. Endosperm
-absent or fleshy.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 25. Elatineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;26. Hypericineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;27. Guttiferæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;28. Ternstrœmiaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;29. Dipterocarpeæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;30. Chlænaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_581">[581]</span></p>
-
-<p>Cohort VI. <span class="smcap">Malvales.</span> Sepals valvate. Stamens usually ∞ or
-monadelphous. Ovary septate, placentæ on the inner angles of the
-loculi. Endosperm absent or fleshy.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 31. Malvaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;32. Sterculiaceae.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;33. Tiliaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series II. <b>Discifloræ.</b> Calyx usually free from the ovary. Petals
-uniseriate. Stamens usually definite, inserted within, or upon, or
-around the receptacle, which is more often expanded as a disc. Ovary
-usually free, or embedded in the disc.</p>
-
-<p>Cohort VII. <span class="smcap">Geraniales.</span> Disc usually as a ring between
-the stamens, or adnate to the staminal tube, or reduced to glands
-alternating with the petals, more rarely absent. Gynœceum entire, or
-more often lobed, or sub-apocarpous. Ovules most often 1–2 in each
-loculus, <i>pendulous</i>, <i>raphe ventral</i>. Leaves various.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 34. Lineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;35. Humiriaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;36. Malpighiaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;37. Zygophylleæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;38. Geraniaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;39. Rutaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;40. Simarubeæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;41. Ochnaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;42. Burseraceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;43. Meliaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;44. Chailletiaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort VIII. <span class="smcap">Olacales.</span> Disc cupular or annular, free, or
-bearing the stamens and petals on its edge. Gynœceum entire. Ovules 1–3
-in the unilocular ovaries, or 1–2 in each loculus, <i>pendulous</i>,
-<i>raphe dorsal</i>. Leaves simple.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 45. Olacineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;46. Ilicineæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort IX. <span class="smcap">Celastrales.</span> Disc tumid, adnate to the calyx, or
-covering its base. Stamens inserted round the disc or affixed to its
-margin. Gynœceum usually entire. Ovules most often two in each loculus,
-<i>erect</i>, <i>raphe ventral</i>. Leaves simple, or rarely compound.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 47. Celastrineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;48. Stackhousieæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;49. Rhamneæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;50. Ampelideæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort X. <span class="smcap">Sapindales.</span> Disc various. Stamens variously inserted
-on the disc. Gynœceum entire, or more often lobed, or sub-apocarpous.
-Ovules more often 1–2 in each loculus, <i>ascending</i> with
-<i>ventral</i> raphe, or reversed, or <i>solitary</i> and <i>pendulous
-from an ascending funicle</i>, or rarely ∞ horizontal. Leaves pinnate,
-or more rarely simple or digitate.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 51. Sapindaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;52. Sabiaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;53. Anacardiaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Anomalous orders, or rather genera,&mdash;</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 54. Coriarieæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;55. Moringeæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series III. <b>Calycifloræ.</b> Calyx-tube usually surrounding the
-ovary, or adnate to it. Petals uniseriate, inserted on the calyx-tube.
-Stamens ∞ or definite, inserted on the calyx-tube, or most often on the
-disc lining the calyx-tube. Ovary often enclosed by the calyx-tube, or
-inferior.</p>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_582">[582]</span></p>
-
-<p>Cohort XI. <span class="smcap">Rosales.</span> Carpels solitary, or free, or united at
-the base, more rarely at the apex; styles distinct, or very rarely
-united into a column, and easily separated.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 56. Connaraceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;57. Leguminosæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;58. Rosaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;59. Saxifrageæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;60. Crassulaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;61. Droseraceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;62. Hamamelideæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;63. Bruniaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;64. Halorageæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort XII. <span class="smcap">Myrtales.</span> Ovary syncarpous, inferior, or enclosed
-in the calyx-tube, usually divided into loculi; style undivided. Ovules
-2–∞ in the loculi.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 65. Rhizophoreæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;66. Combretaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;67. Myrtaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;68. Melastomaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;69. Lythrarieæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;70. Onagrarieæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort XIII. <span class="smcap">Passiflorales.</span> Ovary syncarpous, inferior or
-superior, enclosed in the calyx-tube or exserted, unilocular with
-parietal placentation, or divided into loculi; styles distinct, one
-style divided, or undivided.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 71. Samydaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;72. Loaseæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;73. Turneraceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;74. Passifloreæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;75. Cucurbitaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;76. Begoniaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;77. Datisceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort XIV. <span class="smcap">Ficoidales.</span> Ovary syncarpous, inferior or
-superior, divided into loculi with sub-basilar placentæ, or more rarely
-unilocular with parietal placentæ. Styles distinct, or divided at the
-apex. Embryo curved or excentric.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 78. Cacteæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;79. Ficoideæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort XV. <span class="smcap">Umbrellales.</span> Ovary syncarpous, inferior, crowned
-by the disc, divided into loculi, or unicarpellate. Styles distinct or
-divided at the apex. Ovules solitary and pendulous in the loculi.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 80. Umbelliferæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;81. Araliaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;82. Cornaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-
-<p class="center sm p1"><b>II. GAMOPETALÆ.</b></p>
-
-<p>Series I. <b>Inferæ.</b> Ovary inferior. Stamens equal to the lobes of
-the corolla, rarely fewer.</p>
-
-<p>Cohort I. <span class="smcap">Rubiales.</span> Stamens adnate to the corolla. Ovary
-2–∞-locular, loculi 1–∞-ovuled.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 83. Caprifoliaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;84. Rubiaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort II. <span class="smcap">Asterales.</span> Stamens adnate to the corolla. Ovary
-formed of 2 carpels, unilocular and 1-ovuled.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 85. Valerianeæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;86. Dipsaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;87. Calycereæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;88. Compositæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_583">[583]</span></p>
-
-<p>Cohort III. <span class="smcap">Campanales.</span> Stamens generally free from the
-corolla. Ovary 2–6-locular, loculi most often ∞-ovuled.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 89. Stylidieæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;90. Goodenovieæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;91. Campanulaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series II. <b>Heteromeræ.</b> Ovary most often superior. Stamens free
-from the corolla, opposite to, or double the lobes of the corolla, or
-∞, or if epipetalous, equal and alternating with them. Carpels more
-than 2.</p>
-
-<p>Cohort IV. <span class="smcap">Ericales.</span> Stamens double the lobes of the corolla,
-or alternating with them. Ovary 2–∞-locular. Seeds small, frequently
-minute.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 92. Vacciniaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;93. Ericaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;94. Monotropeæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;95. Epacrideæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;96. Diapensiaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;97. Lennoaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort V. <span class="smcap">Primulales.</span> Stamens equal to and opposite the lobes
-of the corolla. Ovary unilocular, with a free central placenta, 1–∞
-ovules.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order&ensp;&nbsp;98. Plumbagineæ</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&ensp;&nbsp;99. Primulaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;100. Myrsineæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort VI. <span class="smcap">Ebenales.</span> Stamens equal to and opposite the lobes
-of the corolla, or double, or ∞. Ovary 2–∞-locular. Seeds few and
-large. Trees or shrubs.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 101. Sapotaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;102. Ebenaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;103. Styraceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series III. <b>Bicarpellatæ.</b> Ovary most often superior. Stamens
-equal, or fewer than the lobes of the corolla, and alternating with
-them. Carpels 2, rarely 1 or 3.</p>
-
-<p>Cohort VII. <span class="smcap">Gentianales.</span> Corolla regular. Stamens equal to
-the lobes of the corolla, or if fewer, usually alternating with the
-carpels. Leaves generally opposite.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 104. Oleaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;105. Salvadoraceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;106. Apocynaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;107. Asclepiadeæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;108. Loganiaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;109. Gentianeæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort VIII. <span class="smcap">Polemoniales.</span> Corolla regular. Stamens equal to
-the lobes of the corolla. Leaves generally alternate.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 110. Polemoniaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;111. Hydrophyllaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;112. Boragineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;113. Convolvulaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;114. Solanaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Cohort IX. <span class="smcap">Personales.</span> Corolla most often irregular or
-oblique. Posterior stamen less than the others, more often reduced to a
-staminode, or altogether absent. Ovary ∞-ovuled, or 2-ovuled.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 115. Scrophularineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;116. Orobanchaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;117. Lentibularieæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;118. Columelliaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;119. Gesneraceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;120. Bignoniaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;121. Pedalineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;122. Acanthaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_584">[584]</span></p>
-
-<p>Cohort X. <span class="smcap">Lamiales.</span> Corolla most often irregular or oblique.
-Posterior stamen less than the others, most frequently reduced to a
-staminode or absent. Carpels 1-ovuled or with 2 collateral ovules.
-Fruit enclosed in the persistent calyx, indehiscent, and with one seed,
-or dehiscing into 2 or 4, rarely ∞, 1-seeded nuts.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 123. Myoporineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;124. Selagineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;125. Verbenaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;126. Labiateæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Anomalous Order 127. Plantagineæ.</p>
-
-
-<p class="center sm p1"><b>III. MONOCHLAMYDEÆ.</b></p>
-
-<p>Perianth simple, lobes or segments 1–2-seriate and often sepaloid, or
-small, or wanting.</p>
-
-<p>Series I. <b>Curvembryeæ.</b> Endosperm frequently farinaceous. Embryo
-curved, excentric, lateral or peripheral, rarely straight. Ovules most
-frequently 1 in the ovary, or 1 in each loculus. Flowers ☿, in some
-genera unisexual or polygamous. Petals very rare. Stamens equal to the
-segments of the perianth, rarely fewer or more.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 128. Nyctagineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;129. Illecebraceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;130. Amarantaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;131. Chenopodiaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;132. Phytolaccaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;133. Batideæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;134. Polygonaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series II. <b>Multiovulatæ Aquaticæ.</b> Aquatic herbs, submerged.
-Ovary syncarpous; ovules numerous in each loculus or on each placenta.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 135. Podostemaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series III. <b>Multiovulatæ Terrestres.</b> Terrestrial trees or
-shrubs. Ovary syncarpous; ovules numerous in each loculus or on each
-placenta.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 136. Nepenthaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;137. Cytinaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;138. Aristolochiaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series IV. <b>Micrembryeæ.</b> Ovary syncarpous, monocarpous, or
-apocarpous. Ovules generally solitary in each carpel, rarely 2 or few.
-Endosperm copious, fleshy, or rarely farinaceous. Embryo very minute.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 139. Piperaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;140. Chloranthaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;141. Myristiceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;142. Monimiaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series V. <b>Daphnales.</b> Ovary monocarpous, very rarely syncarpous,
-with 2–4 loculi; ovules in the ovary or in each loculus, solitary, or
-in pairs. Trees or shrubs, very rarely herbs; flowers generally ☿.
-Perianth perfect, sepaloid, 1–2 seriate. Stamens perigynous, equal to
-the lobes of the perianth, or double unless fewer.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 143. Laurineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;144. Proteaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;145. Thymelæaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;146. Penæaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;147. Elæagnaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series VI. <b>Achlamydosporeæ.</b> Ovary unilocular, 1–3 ovules. Ovules
-most frequently poorly developed before flowering. Seeds endospermous,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_585">[585]</span>
-but without testa, either free in the pericarp or attached to its
-walls. Perianth generally perfect, sepaloid or petaloid.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 148. Loranthaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;149. Santalaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;150. Balanophoreæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series VII. <b>Unisexuales.</b> Flowers unisexual. Ovary syncarpous
-or monocarpous, ovules in the ovary or in each loculus, solitary, or
-in pairs. Endosperm copious, fleshy, or scanty, or absent. Trees or
-shrubs, rarely herbs. Stipules generally present. Perianth sepaloid, or
-minute, or absent. Styles equal in number to the carpels, not rarely
-bifid.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 151. Euphorbiaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;152. Balanopseæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;153. Urticaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;154. Platanaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;155. Leitnerieæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;156. Juglandeæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;157. Myricaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;158. Casuarineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;159. Cupuliferæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series VIII. <b>Ordines Anomali.</b> Anomalous Orders.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 160. Salicineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;161. Lacistemaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;162. Empetraceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;163. Ceratophylleæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p class="center sm p1"><b>GYMNOSPERMEÆ</b></p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 164. Gnetaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;165. Coniferæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;166. Cycadaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-
-<p class="center sm p1"><b>MONOCOTYLEDONES.</b></p>
-
-<p>Series I. <b>Microspermæ.</b> At least the inner series of the perianth
-petaloid. Ovary inferior, unilocular, with 3 parietal placentæ, or
-rarely 3-locular, with axile placentation. Seeds minute, numerous,
-without endosperm.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 167. Hydrocharideæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;168. Burmanniaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;169. Orchideæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series II. <b>Epigynæ.</b> At least the inner series of the perianth
-petaloid. Ovary most often inferior. Endosperm copious.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 170. Scitamineæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;171. Bromeliaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;172. Hæmodoraceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;173. Irideæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;174. Amaryllideæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;175. Taccaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;176. Dioscoreaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series III. <b>Coronarieæ.</b> At least the inner series of perianth
-petaloid. Ovary free, very rarely slightly adnate at the base.
-Endosperm copious.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 177. Roxburghiaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;178. Liliaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;179. Pontederiaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;180. Philydraceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;181. Xyrideæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;182. Mayaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;183. Commelinaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;184. Rapateaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_586">[586]</span></p>
-
-<p>Series IV. <b>Calycinæ.</b> Perianth sepaloid, small, rigid, or
-herbaceous (inner series subpetaloid or small). Ovary free. Endosperm
-copious.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 185. Flagellarieæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;186. Juncaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;187. Palmæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series V. <b>Nudifloræ.</b> Perianth absent, or reduced to hairs or
-scales. Ovary superior, carpel solitary, or if many, syncarpous,
-1–∞-ovuled. Endosperm most frequently present.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 188. Pandaneæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;189. Cyclanthaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;190. Typhaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;191. Aroideæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;192. Lemnaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series VI. <b>Apocarpæ.</b> Perianth 1–2-seriate, or absent. Carpels
-superior, solitary, or if more, apocarpous. Endosperm absent.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 193. Triurideæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;194. Alismaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;195. Naiadaceæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>Series VII. <b>Glumaceæ.</b> Flowers solitary, sessile in the axils of
-bracts and arranged in capitula or spikelets with bracts. Segments of
-perianth small, scale-like, glumaceous or absent. Ovary 1-ovuled, or
-divided into 1-ovuled loculi. Endosperm present.</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>Order 196. Eriocauleæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;197. Centrolepideæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;198. Restiaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;199. Cyperaceæ.</li>
-  <li>&emsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;200. Gramineæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p>Classification of the Thallophytes proposed by <span class="smcap">Sachs</span>
-(<i>Text-Book of Botany</i>, English Edition, 1882).</p>
-
-<table summary="system" class="smaller">
-  <tr>
-    <td class="center" colspan="4"><b>THALLOPHYTES.</b></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="chtr"><i>Containing chlorophyll.</i></td>
-    <td class="cht1" colspan="3"><i>Not containing chlorophyll.</i></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="center" colspan="4">Class I. <b>Protophyta.</b></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="chtr">Cyanophyceæ.</td>
-    <td class="cht1" colspan="3">Schizomycetes.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="chtr">Palmellaceæ (in part).</td>
-    <td class="cht1" colspan="3">Saccharomycetes.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="center" colspan="4">Class II. <b>Zygosporeæ.</b></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="center" colspan="4">Conjugating cells motile.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="chtr">Pandorineæ.</td>
-    <td class="cht1" colspan="3">Myxomycetes.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="chtr">(Hydrodictyeæ).</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3"></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="center" colspan="4">Conjugating cells stationary.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="chtr">Conjugatæ (including Diatomaceæ).</td>
-    <td class="cht1" colspan="3">Zygomycetes.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="center" colspan="4">Class III. <b>Oosporeæ.</b></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="4">Sphæroplea.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht1c" colspan="2" rowspan="2">Vaucheria (<i>Cœloblastæ</i>).</td>
-    <td class="brckt" rowspan="2"><img src="images/big_left_bracket.png" alt="big left bracket"
-      style="height:2.5em;padding:0 0em 0 0em;" /></td>
-    <td class="cht">Saprolegnieæ.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht"></td>
-    <td class="cht">Peronosporeæ.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht">Volvocineæ.</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3"></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht">Œdogonieæ.</td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3"></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="cht">Fucoideæ.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_587">[587]</span></td>
-    <td class="cht" colspan="3"></td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="center" colspan="4">Class IV. Carposporeæ.</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="chtr">Coleochæteæ.</td>
-    <td class="cht1" colspan="3">Ascomycetes (including Lichens).</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="chtr">Florideæ.</td>
-    <td class="cht1" colspan="3">Æcidiomycetes (Uredineæ).</td>
-  </tr>
-
-  <tr>
-    <td class="chtr">Characeæ.</td>
-    <td class="cht1" colspan="3">Basidiomycetes.</td>
-  </tr>
-</table>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p>System of <span class="smcap">A. W. Eichler</span> (1883).</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li>A. <b>Cryptogamæ.</b></li>
-  <li class="i2">I. <b>Thallophyta.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">1. Class. <span class="smcap">Algæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Group. Cyanophyceæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Diatomeæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">3&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Chlorophyceæ.</li>
-  <li class="i8">1 Series. Conjugatæ.</li>
-  <li class="i8">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Zoosporeæ.</li>
-  <li class="i8">3&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Characeæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">4 Group. Phæophyceæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">5&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Rhodophyceæ.</li>
-  <li class="i4">2. Class. <span class="smcap">Fungi.</span></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Group. Schizomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Eumycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i8">1 Series. Phycomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i8">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Ustilagineæ.</li>
-  <li class="i8">3&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Æcidiomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i8">4&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Ascomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i8">5&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Basidiomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i6">3 Group. Lichenes.</li>
-  <li class="space i2">II. <b>Bryophyta.</b></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Group. Hepaticæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Musci.</li>
-  <li class="space i2">III. <b>Pteridophyta.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">1 Class. <span class="smcap">Equisetinæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">2&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Lycopodinæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">3&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Filicinæ.</span></li>
-  <li>B. <b>Phanerogamæ.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">1. Gymnospermæ.</li>
-  <li class="i4">2. Angiospermæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p>The subdivisions of the Phanerogamæ have with little variation been
-adopted in this book.</p>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_588">[588]</span></p>
-
-<p>Classification of the <span class="smcap">Thallophytes</span>, adopted in the 3rd Danish
-Edition (1891). [Algæ by Wille; Fungi by Rostrup (<i>after Zopf</i>).]</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li><b>I. DIVISION. THALLOPHYTA.</b></li>
-  <li class="i2">I. Sub-division. <b>Algæ.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">1 Class. <span class="smcap">Chlorophyceæ</span> (<span class="smcap">Green Algæ</span>).</li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Family. Conjugatæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Protococcoideæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">3&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Confervoideæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">4&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Siphoneæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">5&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Gyrophyceæ.</li>
-  <li class="i4">2 Class. <span class="smcap">Phæophyceæ</span> (<span class="smcap">Brown Algæ</span>).</li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Family. Syngeneticæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Dinoflagellata.</li>
-  <li class="i6">3&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Pyritophyceæ (Diatomeæ).</li>
-  <li class="i6">4&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Phæosporeæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">5&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Cyclosporeæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">6&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Dictyoteæ.</li>
-  <li class="i4">3 Class. <span class="smcap">Aciliatæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i5a">A. Sub-class. <i>Schizophyceæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Family. Myxophyceæ (Blue-Green Algæ).</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Bacteria.</li>
-  <li class="i5a">B. Sub-class. <i>Rhodophyceæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Family. Bangioideæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Florideæ.</li>
-  <li class="i2">&nbsp;II. Sub-division. <b>Myxomycetes.</b></li>
-  <li class="i2">III.&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;<b>Fungi.</b></li>
-  <li class="center">A. <b>Phycomycetes.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">1 Class. <span class="smcap">Oomycetes.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">2&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Zygomycetes.</span></li>
-  <li class="center">B. <b>Mycomycetes.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">3 Class. <span class="smcap">Basidiomycetes.</span></li>
-  <li class="i5a">A. Sub-class. <i>Protobasidiomycetes.</i></li>
-  <li class="i5a">B.&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;<i>Autobasidiomycetes.</i></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Family. Hymenomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Gasteromycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i6">3&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Basidiolichenes.</li>
-  <li class="i4">4 Class. <span class="smcap">Ascomycetes.</span></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Family. Gymnoasci.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Perisporieæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">3&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Pyrenomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i6">4&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Discomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i6">5&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&ensp;Ascolichenes.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<hr class="r25" />
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_589">[589]</span></p>
-
-
-<p>System of <span class="smcap">A. Engler</span> (<i>Syllabus der Vorlesungen</i>, etc.,
-1892).</p>
-
-<ul class="smaller">
-  <li><b>I. DIVISION. MYXOTHALLOPHYTA.</b></li>
-  <li class="i2">Sub-division. <b>Myxomycetes.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">1 Class. <span class="smcap">Acrasieæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">2&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Plasmodiophorales.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">3&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Myxogasteres.</span></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Series. Ectosporeæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Endosporeæ.</li>
-  <li class="space"><b>II. DIVISION. EUTHALLOPHYTA.</b></li>
-  <li class="i2">I. Sub-division. <b>Schizophyta.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">1 Class. <span class="smcap">Schizophyceæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">2&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Schizomycetes.</span></li>
-  <li class="i2">II. Sub-division. <b>Dinoflagellata.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">Class. <span class="smcap">Dinoflagellata.</span></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Series. Adinida.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Dinifera.</li>
-  <li class="i2">III. Sub-division. <b>Bacillariales.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">Class. <span class="smcap">Bacillariales.</span></li>
-  <li class="i2">IV. Sub-division. <b>Gamophyceæ.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">1 Class. <span class="smcap">Conjugatæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">2&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Chlorophyceæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i5a">1 Sub-class. <i>Protococcales.</i></li>
-  <li class="i5a">2&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;<i>Confervales.</i></li>
-  <li class="i5a">3&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;<i>Siphoneæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="i4">3 Class. <span class="smcap">Charales.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">4&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Phæophyceæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i5a">1 Sub-class. <i>Phæosporeæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="i5a">2&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;<i>Cyclosporeæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="i4">5 Class. <span class="smcap">Dictyotales.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">6&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Rhodophyceæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i5a">1 Sub-class. <i>Bangiales.</i></li>
-  <li class="i5a">2&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;<i>Florideæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Series. Nemalionales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Gigartinales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">3&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Rhodymeniales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">4&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Cryptonemiales.</li>
-  <li class="i2">V. Sub-division. <b>Fungi.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">1 Class. <span class="smcap">Phycomycetes.</span></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Series. Zygomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Oomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i8">1 Sub-series. Chytridiales.</li>
-  <li class="i8">2&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&emsp;Mycosiphonales.</li>
-  <li class="i4">2 Class. <span class="smcap">Mesomycetes.</span></li>
-  <li class="i5a">1 Sub-class. <i>Hemiasci.</i></li>
-  <li class="i5a">2&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;<i>Hemibasidii.</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_590">[590]</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">3 Class. <span class="smcap">Mycomycetes.</span></li>
-  <li class="i5a">1 Sub-class. <i>Ascomycetes.</i></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Series. Exoasci.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Carpoasci.</li>
-  <li class="i8">1 Sub-series. Gymnoascales.</li>
-  <li class="i8">2&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&emsp;Perisporiales.</li>
-  <li class="i8">3&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&emsp;Pyrenomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i10">Appended.  Pyrenolichenes.</li>
-  <li class="i8">4 Sub-series. Hysteriales.</li>
-  <li class="i8">5&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&emsp;Discomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i10">Appended.  Discolichenes.</li>
-  <li class="i5a">2 Sub-class. <i>Basidiomycetes.</i></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Series. Protobasidiomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i8">1 Sub-series. Uredinales.</li>
-  <li class="i8">2&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&emsp;Auriculariales.</li>
-  <li class="i8">3&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&emsp;Tremellinales.</li>
-  <li class="i8">4&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&emsp;Pilacrales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2 Series. Autobasidiomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i8">1 Sub-series. Dacryomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i8">2&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&emsp;Hymenomycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i10">Appended.  Hymenolichenes.</li>
-  <li class="i8">3 Sub-series. Phalloideæ.</li>
-  <li class="i8">4&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&emsp;Gasteromycetes.</li>
-  <li class="i10">Appended.  Gasterolichenes.</li>
-  <li class="i11">Fungi imperfecti.</li>
-  <li class="space"><b>III. DIVISION. EMBRYOPHYTA ZOIDIOGAMA</b> (Archegoniatæ).</li>
-  <li class="i2">I. Sub-division. <b>Bryophyta (Muscinei).</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">1 Class. <span class="smcap">Hepaticæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Series. Marchantiales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Anthocerotales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">3&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Jungermanniales.</li>
-  <li class="i8">1 Sub-series. Anacrogynæ.</li>
-  <li class="i8">2&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&emsp;Acrogynæ.</li>
-  <li class="i4">2 Class. <span class="smcap">Musci.</span></li>
-  <li class="i5a">1 Sub-class. <i>Sphagnales.</i></li>
-  <li class="i5a">2&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;<i>Andreæales.</i></li>
-  <li class="i5a">3&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;<i>Archidiales.</i></li>
-  <li class="i5a">4&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;<i>Bryales.</i></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Series. Cleistocarpæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Stegocarpæ.</li>
-  <li class="i8">1 Sub-series. Acrocarpæ.</li>
-  <li class="i8">2&emsp;&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&emsp;Pleurocarpæ.</li>
-  <li class="i2">II. Sub division. <b>Pteridophyta.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">1 Class. <span class="smcap">Filicales.</span></li>
-  <li class="i5a">1 Sub-class. <i>Filices.</i></li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Series. Planithallosæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Tuberithallosæ.</li>
-  <li class="i5a">2 Sub-class. <i>Hydropterides.</i><span class="pagenum" id="Page_591">[591]</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">2 Class. <span class="smcap">Equisetales.</span></li>
-  <li class="i5a">1 Sub-class. <i>Isosporæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="i5a">2&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;<i>Heterosporæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="i4">3 Class. <span class="smcap">Sphenophyllales.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">4&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Lycopodiceles.</span></li>
-  <li class="i5a">1 Sub-class. <i>Isosporæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="i5a">2&emsp;&emsp;„&emsp;&emsp;<i>Heterosporæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="space"><b>IV. DIVISION. EMBRYOPHYTA SIPHONOGAMA.</b></li>
-  <li class="center">(Siphonogamæ, Phanerogamæ).</li>
-  <li class="i2">I. Sub-division. <b>Gymnospermæ.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">1 Class. <span class="smcap">Cycadales.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">2&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Cordaitales.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">3&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Bennettitales.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">4&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Coniferæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i4">5&emsp;&nbsp;„&emsp;&nbsp;<span class="smcap">Gnetales.</span></li>
-  <li class="i2">II. Sub-division. <b>Angiospermæ.</b></li>
-  <li class="i4">1 Class. <span class="smcap">Chalazogamæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i6">Series. Verticillatæ.</li>
-  <li class="i4">2 Class. <span class="smcap">Acrogamæ.</span></li>
-  <li class="i5a">1 Sub-class. <i>Monocotyledoneæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;1 Series. Pandanales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Helobiæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;3&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Glumifloræ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;4&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Principes.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;5&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Synanthæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;6&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Spathifloræ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;7&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Farinosæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;8&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Liliifloræ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;9&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Scitamineæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">10&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Microspermæ.</li>
-  <li class="i5a">2 Sub-class. <i>Dicotyledoneæ.</i></li>
-  <li class="center space">1 Group of Series. Archichlamydeæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;1 Series. Piperales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Juglandales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;3&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Salicales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;4&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Fagales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;5&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Urticales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;6&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Proteales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;7&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Santalales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;8&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Aristolochiales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">&ensp;9&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Polygonales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">10&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Centrospermæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">11&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Ranales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">12&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Rhœadales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">13&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Sarraceniales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">14&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Rosales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">15&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Geraniales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">16&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Sapindales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">17&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Rhamnales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">18&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Malvales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">19&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Parietales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">20&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Opuntiales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">21&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Thymelæales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">22&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Myrtifloræ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">23&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Umbellifloræ.</li>
-  <li class="center space">2 Group of Series. Sympetalæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">1 Series. Ericales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">2&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Primulales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">3&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Ebenales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">4&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Contortæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">5&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Tubifloræ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">6&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Plantaginales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">7&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Rubiales.</li>
-  <li class="i6">8&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Aggregatæ.</li>
-  <li class="i6">9&emsp;&ensp;„&emsp;&nbsp;Campanulatæ.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_592">[592]</span></p>
-
-
-<p class="center p2">TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS.</p>
-
-<div class="parent">
-<ul class="left">
-  <li>S&ensp;= Sepals.</li>
-  <li>P&ensp;= Petals.</li>
-  <li>Pr = Perianth.</li>
-  <li>A&ensp;= Andrœcium.</li>
-  <li>G&ensp;= Gynœceum.</li>
-</ul>
-</div>
-
-
-<div class="parent">
-<ul class="left">
-  <li>♂ = Male.</li>
-  <li>♀ = Female.</li>
-  <li>☿ = Hermaphrodite.</li>
-  <li>∞ = Indefinite.</li>
-</ul>
-</div>
-
-<p>Names of continents and countries have sometimes been abbreviated, for
-example:&mdash;Am. = America; As.=Asia; Af. = Africa; Ind. = India, etc.
-N., S., E., W., = North, South, East, West; Temp. = Temperate Regions;
-Trop. = Tropics.</p>
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_593">[593]</span></p>
-
-<h2>INDEX.</h2>
-</div>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Abelia,
-    <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">Abies,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_246">246</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_264">264</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_265">265</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>Abietaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_255">255</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_263">263</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-  <li>Abrus,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Abutilon,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acacia,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_474">474</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">False,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acalypha,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acanthaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_518">518</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acer,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aceraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aceranthus,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acetabularia,
-    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
-  <li>Achillea,
-    <a href="#Page_568">568</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Achimenes,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Achlya,
-    <a href="#Page_107">107</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-  <li>Achnantheæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Achras,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acinetæ,
-    <a href="#Page_68">68</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aconitum,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acorin,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acorus,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_304">304</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acrasieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acrocarpi,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acrocomia,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acrogynæ,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acrospermaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acrostichum,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acrotonous,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acrotylaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Acrotylus,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Actæa,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_380">380</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Actinidia,
-    <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-  <li>Adansonia,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-  <li>Adder’s tongue,
-    <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
-  <li>Adenanthera,
-    <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
-  <li>Adiantum,
-    <a href="#Page_201">201</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_206">206</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-  <li>Adinida,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-  <li>Adlumia,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Adonis,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-  <li>Adoxa,
-    <a href="#Page_453">453</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_555">555</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aerobic,
-    <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
-  <li>Æchmea,
-    <a href="#Page_319">319</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Æcidiospores,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
-  <li>Æcidium,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_150">150</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ægiceras,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ægilops,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ægopodium,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li>
-  <li>Æschynanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Æsculinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Æsculus,
-    <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
-  <li>Æthalium,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Æthusa,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Affonsea,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agapanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agar-Agar,
-    <a href="#Page_33">33</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agaricaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agaricinei,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agathis,
-    <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agave,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agaveæ,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ageratum,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aggregatæ,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agraphis,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agrimonia,
-    <a href="#Page_459">459</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agrimonieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agrimony,
-    <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agropyrum,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agrostemma,
-    <a href="#Page_365">365</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agrostideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Agrostis,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ahnfeltia,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ailanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aira,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aizoaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aizoideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aizoon,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ajuga,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ajugeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li>
-  <li>Akebia,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Akinetes,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alaria,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-  <li>Albugo,
-    <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
-  <li>Albumen,
-    <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
-  <li>Albuminous,
-    <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
-  <li>Albumose,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alchemilla,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alchornea,
-    <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alcoholic fermentation,
-    <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alder,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_118">118</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aldrovandia,
-    <a href="#Page_408">408</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aleurites,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Algæ,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Algal-Fungi,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alhagi,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alisma,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alismaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alismeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alkanet,
-    <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alkanna,
-    <a href="#Page_534">534</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alliariinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Allieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Allium,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_313">313</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alloplectus,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Allosorus,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-  <li>Almeidea,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
-  <li>Almond,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alnus,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_118">118</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_341">341</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alocasia.
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aloë,
-    <a href="#Page_274">274</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_313">313</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aloineæ,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alonsoa,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alopecurus,
-    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alpine Violet,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alpinia,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alsine,
-    <a href="#Page_364">364</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alsineæ,
-    <a href="#Page_365">365</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alsodeia,
-    <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alsophila,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alstrœmeria,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alstrœmerieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alternanthera,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
-  <li>Althæa,
-    <a href="#Page_426">426</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_429">429</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Althenia,
-    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alyssinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Alyssum,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amanita,
-    <a href="#Page_167">167</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amarantaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_364">364</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amarant-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amarantus,
-    <a href="#Page_368">368</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amarylleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amaryllidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amaryllis,
-    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amber,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ambrosia,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ambrosieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_567">567</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ambrosinia,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amelanchier,
-    <a href="#Page_464">464</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amentaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amherstia,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_594">[594]</span></li>
-  <li>Ammannia,
-    <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ammi,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ammieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ammobium,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ammoniac-gum,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ammophila,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amomis,
-    <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amorpha,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ampelidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ampelopsis,
-    <a href="#Page_445">445</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amphidinium,
-    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amphigastria,
-    <a href="#Page_181">181</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amphipleureæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amphisphæriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amphithecium,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amphitropideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amphoreæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amsonia,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amygdalaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amygdalin,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amygdalus,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Amyris,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anabæna,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anacampseros,
-    <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anacamptis,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anacamptodon,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anacardiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anacardium,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anacrogynæ,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anacyclus,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anadyomene,
-    <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anaerobic,
-    <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anagallis,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anamirta,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ananassa,
-    <a href="#Page_319">319</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anastatica,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anathyllis,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anatropous,
-    <a href="#Page_242">242</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anchusa,
-    <a href="#Page_150">150</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_531">531</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_534">534</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ancylistaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ancylonema,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Andira,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Andreæa,
-    <a href="#Page_185">185</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_187">187</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-  <li>Andrœcium,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-  <li>Androgenesis,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-  <li>Andromeda,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Andromedeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Andropogon,
-    <a href="#Page_289">289</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Andropogoneæ,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Androsace,
-    <a href="#Page_512">512</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Androspore,
-    <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aneimia,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anelatereæ,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anemone,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anemoneæ,
-    <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anemonopsis,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anethum,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aneura,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Angelica,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Angiopteris,
-    <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
-  <li>Angiospermæ,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_234">234</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_250">250</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
-  <li>Angiosperms,
-    <a href="#Page_237">237</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_245">245</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-  <li>Angiosporeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-  <li>Angosturæ, Cortex,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anguliferæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anise,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anlage,
-    <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-  <li>Annatto,
-    <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
-  <li>Annularia,
-    <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
-  <li>Annulariæ,
-    <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
-  <li>Annulus,
-    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">inferus,
-    <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">superus,
-    <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anoda,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anodic,
-    <a href="#Page_480">480</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anomodon,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anona,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anonaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Antennaria,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anthemideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anthemis,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anther,
-    <a href="#Page_237">237</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Fibrous layer of,
-    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Structure of,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anthericeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anthericum,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_313">313</a>.</li>
-  <li>Antheridium,
-    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
-  <li>Antherozoid,
-    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anthocarp,
-    <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anthoceros,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_187">187</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_189">189</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anthoceroteæ,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
-  <li>Antholyza,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anthostema,
-    <a href="#Page_432">432</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anthoxanthum,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anthrax bacillus,
-    <a href="#Page_31">31</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_39">39</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anthriscus,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anthurium,
-    <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
-  <li>Anthyllis,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Antiaris,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Antipodal cells,
-    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-  <li>Antirrhineæ,
-    <a href="#Page_523">523</a>.</li>
-  <li>Antirrhinum,
-    <a href="#Page_524">524</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li>
-  <li>Antisepsis,
-    <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apeiba,
-    <a href="#Page_424">424</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apetalæ,
-    <a href="#Page_336">336</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aphanizomenon,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aphanocapsa,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aphanochæte,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aphthæ,
-    <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aphyllanthes,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apiocystis,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apios,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apiosporium,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apium,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aplanogametangium,
-    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aplanogametes,
-    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aplanospores,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apocynaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_543">543</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apocynum,
-    <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apogamy,
-    <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aponogeton,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aponogetonaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apospory,
-    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apostasia,
-    <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apostasieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_328">328</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apothecium,
-    <a href="#Page_118">118</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apple,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_464">464</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Apricot,
-    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aquifoliaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aquilegia,
-    <a href="#Page_378">378</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_381">381</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arabis,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Araceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_276">276</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arachis,
-    <a href="#Page_469">469</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aralia,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-  <li>Araliaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_454">454</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>.</li>
-  <li>Araucaria,
-    <a href="#Page_237">237</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
-  <li>Araucariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_257">257</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_263">263</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arbor vitæ,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arbuteæ,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arbutus,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Archangelica,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Archegoniata,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
-  <li>Archegonium,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_184">184</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Development of,
-    <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
-  <li>Archesporium,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>.</li>
-  <li>Archicarp,
-    <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-  <li>Archidium,
-    <a href="#Page_193">193</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arctostaphylos,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arcyria,
-    <a href="#Page_7">7</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ardisia,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Areca,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Areca-palm,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arecineæ,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arenaria,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arenga,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Argemone,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aria,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aril,
-    <a href="#Page_255">255</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arineæ,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arisarum,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aristida,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aristolochia,
-    <a href="#Page_499">499</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aristolochiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aristolochiales,
-    <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aristotelia,
-    <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-  <li>Armeniaca,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
-  <li>Armeria,
-    <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li>
-  <li>Armillaria,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_169">169</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arnebia,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arnica,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arnoseris,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aronia,
-    <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arrack,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arrow-head,
-    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arrow-poison,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_595">[595]</span></li>
-  <li>Arrowroot,
-    <a href="#Page_327">327</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Artabotrys,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Artemisia,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arthonia,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arthoniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arthrosporous,
-    <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arthrotaxis,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-  <li>Artichoke,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Jerusalem,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Artocarpeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li>
-  <li>Artocarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arum,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_304">304</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Arundo,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asafœtida,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asarum,
-    <a href="#Page_499">499</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asclepiadaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asclepias,
-    <a href="#Page_545">545</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ascobolaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ascobolus,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ascocarps,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ascocorticium,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ascogone,
-    <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ascoidea,
-    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ascoideaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ascolichenes,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ascomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_114">114</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ascophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_73">73</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ascospore,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ascus,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aseroë,
-    <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asexual reproductive cells,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ash,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asimina,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asparageæ,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asparagus,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aspen,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aspergillus,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asperifoliæ,
-    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asperococcus,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asperugo,
-    <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asperula,
-    <a href="#Page_552">552</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asphodelus,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_313">313</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aspidistra,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aspidium,
-    <a href="#Page_203">203</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_207">207</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aspidosperma,
-    <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asplenium,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Astelia,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aster,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Astereæ,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asteriscus,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asterocystis,
-    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asterophylliteæ,
-    <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
-  <li>Asterophyllites,
-    <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
-  <li>Astragaleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Astragalus,
-    <a href="#Page_114">114</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Astrantia,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li>
-  <li>Astrocarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
-  <li>Atherurus,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
-  <li>Athyrium,
-    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_207">207</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-  <li>Atragene,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
-  <li>Atraphaxis,
-    <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
-  <li>Atriplex,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Atripliceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
-  <li>Atropa,
-    <a href="#Page_519">519</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_523">523</a>.</li>
-  <li>Atropine,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Attalea,
-    <a href="#Page_297">297</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Attar of Roses,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aubrietia,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aucuba,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aulacomnium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aurantieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
-  <li>Auricula,
-    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
-  <li>Auricularia,
-    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
-  <li>Auriculariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
-  <li>Austrian Pine,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-  <li>Autobasidia,
-    <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
-  <li>Autobasidiomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
-  <li>Autœcious,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
-  <li>Autoxenous,
-    <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
-  <li>Auxiliary cells,
-    <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
-  <li>Auxospore,
-    <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
-  <li>Avena,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Aveneæ,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Avens,
-    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
-  <li>Averrhoa,
-    <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li>
-  <li>Avicennia,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Avignon grain,
-    <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
-  <li>Awlwort,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Awn,
-    <a href="#Page_288">288</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
-  <li>Azalea,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Azolla,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>“Bablah,”
-    <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bacillus,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_28">28</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_30">30</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_31">31</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_35">35</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_36">36</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">anthracis,
-    <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent4">diphtheriæ, lepræ, mallei, tetani, tuberculosis, typhosus,
-    <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bacteria,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bacterium,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_28">28</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_30">30</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_35">35</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bactris,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bæomyces,
-    <a href="#Page_140">140</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Balanophora,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Balanophoraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ballota,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li>
-  <li>Balsaminaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li>
-  <li>Balsamodendron,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Balsam of Copaiba,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">of Peru,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bamboo,
-    <a href="#Page_289">289</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_292">292</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bambusa,
-    <a href="#Page_289">289</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bambuseæ,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Banana,
-    <a href="#Page_324">324</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
-  <li>Baneberry,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bangia,
-    <a href="#Page_77">77</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bangioideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
-  <li>Banksia,
-    <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li>
-  <li>Baobab,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-  <li>Barbacenia,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Barbarea,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Barberries,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>Barbula,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bark-canker,
-    <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
-  <li>Barley,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_292">292</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Barosma,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Barringtonia,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bartonia,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bartramia,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bartsia,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Basella,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
-  <li>Baselleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
-  <li>Basidial-layer,
-    <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
-  <li>Basidiocarp,
-    <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
-  <li>Basidiolichenes,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Basidiomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_114">114</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_144">144</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
-  <li>Basidiospore,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Basidium,
-    <a href="#Page_89">89</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_144">144</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
-  <li>Basitonous,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bassia,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bast,
-    <a href="#Page_251">251</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_425">425</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bastardia,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
-  <li>Batatas,
-    <a href="#Page_516">516</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-  <li>Batidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Batis,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Batrachium,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-  <li>Batrachospermum,
-    <a href="#Page_80">80</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bauhinia,
-    <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bayberry-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Bay-rum,”
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Beaked parsley,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
-  <li>Beak-rush,
-    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bear-berry,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Beard lichen,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Beech,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Beef-steak fungus,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Beer-yeast,
-    <a href="#Page_177">177</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
-  <li>Beet,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
-  <li>Beet-root,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Beggiatoa,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_28">28</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
-  <li>Begonia,
-    <a href="#Page_477">477</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_478">478</a>.</li>
-  <li>Begoniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_475">475</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bellis,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Benincasa,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Berberidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>Berberis,
-    <a href="#Page_149">149</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bergamot,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bergia,
-    <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
-  <li>Berteroa,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bertholletia,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_596">[596]</span></li>
-  <li>Beta,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_370">370</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Betel,
-    <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
-  <li>Betonica,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li>
-  <li>Betony,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li>
-  <li>Betula,
-    <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li>
-  <li>Betulaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_341">341</a>.</li>
-  <li>Biarum,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
-  <li>Biatorella,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bicornes,
-    <a href="#Page_336">336</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li>
-  <li>Biddulphieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bidens,
-    <a href="#Page_566">566</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Biebersteinia,
-    <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bignonia,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bignoniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_518">518</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bilberry,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Billardiera,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Billbergia,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bindweed,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li>
-  <li>Biota,
-    <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
-  <li>Birch,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_342">342</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bird-cherry,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Birdlime,
-    <a href="#Page_501">501</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bird’s-foot,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bird’s-foot-trefoil,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Biscutella,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bitter-cress,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bitter-sweet,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bixa,
-    <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bixaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
-  <li>Blackberry,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
-  <li>Black-boy,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Black-currant,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Black-mustard,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Black-pepper,
-    <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
-  <li>Blackthorn,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Bladder” plums,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bladder-senna,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bladder-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Blasia,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Blattiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-  <li>Blechnum,
-    <a href="#Page_209">209</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bletia,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Blight,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-  <li>Blindia,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Blinks,
-    <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-  <li>Blitum,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
-  <li>Blood-red Currant,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Blue-green Algæ,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bocconia,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Boehmeria,
-    <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
-  <li>Boerhaavia,
-    <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bog-mosses,
-    <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bog-myrtle,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bog Wortleberry,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Boisduvalia,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-  <li>Boletus,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bomarea,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bombaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bombax,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bonnemaisonia,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bonnemaisoniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Borage,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Borageæ,
-    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Boraginaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_531">531</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li>
-  <li>Borago,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li>
-  <li>Borassinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Borassus,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Borderea,
-    <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li>
-  <li>Boronieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Borreria,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Boschia,
-    <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bossiæa,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Boswellia,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bo-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Botrychium,
-    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
-  <li>Botrydiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
-  <li>Botrydium,
-    <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
-  <li>Botrytis,
-    <a href="#Page_128">128</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bottle-gourd,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bouchea,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bougainvillea,
-    <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-  <li>Boussingaultia,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bouvardia,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bovista,
-    <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bowenia,
-    <a href="#Page_253">253</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bowiea,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Box,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brachypodium,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brachythecium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bracken-fern,
-    <a href="#Page_207">207</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bract,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bracteole,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_275">275</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bradypus,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brahea,
-    <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bramble,
-    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
-  <li>Branching of Palm,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brand-fungi,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brand-spores,
-    <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brasenia,
-    <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brassica,
-    <a href="#Page_399">399</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brassicinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brayera,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brazil-nuts,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bread-fruit,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Briza,
-    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brome,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bromeliaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bromus,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_289">289</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brookweed,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Broom,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Broom-rape,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brosimum,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Broussonetia,
-    <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li>
-  <li>Browallia,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brown Algæ,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brownea,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brownian movement,
-    <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brugmansia,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Brunfelsia,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bryaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bryonia,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bryophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bryophyta,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bryopsidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bryopsis,
-    <a href="#Page_60">60</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bryum,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Buchu,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Buck-bean,
-    <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li>
-  <li>Buckthorn,
-    <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
-  <li>Buckwheat,
-    <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
-  <li>Buettneria,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Buettneriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bugle,
-    <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bulbine,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bulbochæte,
-    <a href="#Page_55">55</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bulbocodium,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bulbophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bulgaria,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bulgariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bullace,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bulliarda,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bull-rush,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bumelia,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bunchosia,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bunias,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bupleurum,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li>
-  <li>Burdock,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Burmanniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bur-marigold,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bur Parsley,
-    <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
-  <li>Bur-reed,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Burseraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Butcher’s broom,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Butomeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Butomus,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-  <li>Butterbur,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Butter-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Butter-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Butyric-acid-bacíllus,
-    <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
-  <li>Buxaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Buxbaumia,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Buxbaumiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Buxus,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Cabbage,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cabomba,
-    <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cabombeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cacalia,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cactaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cacti,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cactifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cæoma,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cæsalpinia,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cæsalpiniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caffeine,
-    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cajanus,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cajeput-oil,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cajophora,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cakile,
-    <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_597">[597]</span></li>
-  <li>Calabar-bean,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calabash,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caladium,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calamagrostis,
-    <a href="#Page_289">289</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calamintha,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calamites,
-    <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calamus,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calamus-oil,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calandrinia,
-    <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calathea,
-    <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calceolaria,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calcocytaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calendula,
-    <a href="#Page_565">565</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calenduleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caliciaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calicium,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calla,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calliandra,
-    <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
-  <li>Callianthemum,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
-  <li>Callicarpa,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calligonum,
-    <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calliopsis,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Callistemon,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Callistephus,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Callithamnion,
-    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_79">79</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Callitrichaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Callitriche,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Callitris,
-    <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calloria,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calluna,
-    <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calocera,
-    <a href="#Page_158">158</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calonyction,
-    <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calothamnus,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calothrix,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caltha,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_380">380</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_381">381</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calycanthaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calycanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calyceraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_556">556</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calypogeia,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calypso,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calyptospora,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calyptra,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calystegia,
-    <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li>
-  <li>Calyx-stamens,
-    <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li>
-  <li>Camelina,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Camellia,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-  <li>Campanula,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_561">561</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li>
-  <li>Campanulaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_561">561</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li>
-  <li>Campanulinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>.</li>
-  <li>Camphor,
-    <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li>
-  <li>Campion,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Campylopus,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Campylospermeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
-  <li>Campylotropous,
-    <a href="#Page_242">242</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
-  <li>Canada-balsam,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cananga,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Canarina,
-    <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li>
-  <li>Canary-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Canavalia,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Candollea,
-    <a href="#Page_413">413</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li>
-  <li>Candolleaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cane,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Canker,”
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-  <li>Canna,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cannabaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cannabis,
-    <a href="#Page_357">357</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cannaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
-  <li>Canterbury-bell,
-    <a href="#Page_561">561</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cantharellei,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cantharellus,
-    <a href="#Page_170">170</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caoutchouc,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li>
-  <li>Capers,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Capillitium,
-    <a href="#Page_7">7</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
-  <li>Capirona,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>.</li>
-  <li>Capnodium,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-  <li>Capparidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Capparis,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
-  <li>Capraria,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caprification,
-    <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caprificus,
-    <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caprifoliaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_454">454</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_548">548</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_556">556</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_557">557</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caprifolium,
-    <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</li>
-  <li>Capsella,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Capsellinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Capsicum,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Capsosira,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-  <li>Capsule,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caragana,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caraway,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cardaminæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cardamine,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cardamom,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cardiospermum,
-    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carduus,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carex,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_247">247</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carica,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cariceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caries dentium,
-    <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carlina,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carludovica,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carmichælia,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carnation,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carnaueba-wax,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carob-bean,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carpels,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carpinus,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carpoasci,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_115">115</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carpogonium,
-    <a href="#Page_77">77</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carpophore,
-    <a href="#Page_91">91</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carpospore,
-    <a href="#Page_77">77</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carragen,
-    <a href="#Page_33">33</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carrot,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_497">497</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carthamus,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carum,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Carya,
-    <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caryophyllaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_336">336</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_364">364</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caryopsis,
-    <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caryota,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cascara,
-    <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cascarilla,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cashew-nut,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cassandra,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cassava,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cassia,
-    <a href="#Page_467">467</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cassine,
-    <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cassiope,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cassytha,
-    <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li>
-  <li>Castanea,
-    <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li>
-  <li>Castilloa,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Castor-oil,
-    <a href="#Page_431">431</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Casuarinaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li>
-  <li>Casuarina,
-    <a href="#Page_273">273</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
-  <li>Casuarinifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cataba,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Catabrosa,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Catalpa,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Catananche,
-    <a href="#Page_566">566</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Catasetum,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
-  <li>Catch-fly,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Catechu,
-    <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
-  <li>Catha,
-    <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
-  <li>Catharinea,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cathartocarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_467">467</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Catmint,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Catodic,
-    <a href="#Page_480">480</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cat’s-ear,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cat’s-foot,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cat’s-tail,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cattle-beet,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cattleya,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caucalis,
-    <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caudicle,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caulerpa,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_61">61</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-  <li>Caulerpaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cauliflower,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cayenne-pepper,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceanothus,
-    <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cecropia,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cedar,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cedrat,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cedrela,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cedrus,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>Celandine,
-    <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li>
-  <li>Celastraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
-  <li>Celastrus,
-    <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
-  <li>Celery,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Celidium,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cell, Vegetative,
-    <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
-  <li>Celosia,
-    <a href="#Page_368">368</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
-  <li>Celsia,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Celtideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cenangiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cenangium,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cenchrus,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Centaurea,
-    <a href="#Page_565">565</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_567">567</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_568">568</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_598">[598]</span></li>
-  <li>Centaury,
-    <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li>
-  <li>Centradenia,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Central cell,”
-    <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
-  <li>Centranthus,
-    <a href="#Page_557">557</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li>
-  <li>Centrolepidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
-  <li>Centrolepis,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
-  <li>Centrolobium,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Centropogon,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li>
-  <li>Centunculus,
-    <a href="#Page_512">512</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cephaëlis,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cephalanthera,
-    <a href="#Page_328">328</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cephalaria,
-    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cephalotaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cephalotaxeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cephalotus,
-    <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceramiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceramium,
-    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_80">80</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cerastium,
-    <a href="#Page_364">364</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cerasus,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceratiomyxa,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceratium,
-    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceratocapnos,
-    <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceratodon,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceratonia,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceratophyllaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceratophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceratostomaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceratozamia,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_253">253</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cerbera,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cercis,
-    <a href="#Page_467">467</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cereus,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cerinthe,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceropegia,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceroxylon,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cestreæ,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cestrum,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ceterach,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cetraria,
-    <a href="#Page_138">138</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_141">141</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chænomeles,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chærophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chætangiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chætoceros,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chætocladiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chætocladium,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chætomiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chætomium,
-    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chætomorpha,
-    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chætopeltis,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chætophora,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chætophoraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chætopteris,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chalaza,
-    <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chalazogames,
-    <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chalazogams,
-    <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chamæcyparis,
-    <a href="#Page_268">268</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chamædorea,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chamædoris,
-    <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chamælaucieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chamælaucium,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chamænerium,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chamaerops,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_300">300</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chamæsiphon,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chamæsiphonaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chamomile,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chantransia,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chara,
-    <a href="#Page_65">65</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_66">66</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
-  <li>Characeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
-  <li>Characium,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chareæ,
-    <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
-  <li>Charlock,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cheilanthes,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cheiranthus,
-    <a href="#Page_399">399</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cheirostemon,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chelidonium,
-    <a href="#Page_394">394</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chelone,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chenopodiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_364">364</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chenopodieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chenopodina,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chenopodium,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cherry,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cherry-laurel,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chervil,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chervil-root,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chick-pea,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chickweed,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chicory,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chilies,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chimaphila,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chimonanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>China-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chinese galls,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chiococca,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chionanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chionodoxa,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chive,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlamydomonas,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlamydomoneæ,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlamydomucor,
-    <a href="#Page_97">97</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlamydospore,
-    <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlora,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlorangium,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chloranthaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chloranthus,
-    <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlorideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chloris,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlorochytrium,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlorococcum,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlorocystis,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlorophyceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlorophytum,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlorosphæra,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlorosphæraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlorosplenium,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chlorotylium,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Choanephora,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-  <li>Choanephoraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chocho,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Choiromyces,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-  <li>Choisya,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chondrus,
-    <a href="#Page_79">79</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chorda,
-    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chordaria,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chordariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Choripetalæ,
-    <a href="#Page_336">336</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_337">337</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_561">561</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chorisia,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-  <li>Choristocarpaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Choristocarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chromaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chromulina,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chroococcaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chroococcus,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chrysalis Fungus,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chrysanthemum,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chrysarobin,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chrysobalanaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chrysobalanus,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chrysomonadinaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chrysomyxa,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chrysophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chrysopyxaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chrysopyxis,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chrysosplenium,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chylocladia,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chysis,
-    <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chytridiales,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
-  <li>Chytridium,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cibotium,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cicely,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cicendia,
-    <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cicer,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cichorieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_561">561</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_568">568</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cichorium,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cicinnobolus,
-    <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cicuta,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cilioflagellata,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cimaruoli,
-    <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cimicifuga,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cinchona,
-    <a href="#Page_548">548</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cinchoneæ,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cinchonin,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cinclidotus,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cineraria,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cinnamon,
-    <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cinnamomum,
-    <a href="#Page_391">391</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cinquefoil,
-    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cipura,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Circaea,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-  <li>Circinate,
-    <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cirsium,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_568">568</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cissampelos,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cissus,
-    <a href="#Page_445">445</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cistaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cistifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_406">406</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cistus,
-    <a href="#Page_412">412</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.</li>
-  <li>Citharexylon,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Citriobatus,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_599">[599]</span></li>
-  <li>Citron,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Citronella oil,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Citrullus,
-    <a href="#Page_479">479</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_480">480</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Citrus,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cladium,
-    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cladochytrium,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cladonia,
-    <a href="#Page_139">139</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_140">140</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_141">141</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cladophora,
-    <a href="#Page_11">11</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cladophoraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cladosporium,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cladothrix,
-    <a href="#Page_27">27</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_33">33</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_34">34</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clamp-connections,
-    <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clarkia,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clastidium,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clatbrus,
-    <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clavaria,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clavariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-  <li>Claviceps,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_126">126</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clavija,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Claytonia,
-    <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cleavers,
-    <a href="#Page_552">552</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cleistocarpeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clematideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clematis,
-    <a href="#Page_378">378</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_380">380</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cleome,
-    <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clerodendron,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clethra,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Climacium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clinopodium,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clintonia,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clitocybe,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clitoria,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clivia,
-    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Closterium,
-    <a href="#Page_43">43</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clostridium,
-    <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cloudberry,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clover,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cloves,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Club-mosses,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
-  <li>Club-rush,
-    <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clusia,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clusiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cluster-cups,
-    <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
-  <li>Clypeosphæriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cnicus,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cnidium,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cobæa,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coca,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocaine,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocci,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coccochromaticæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coccoloba,
-    <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocconeideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocconeis,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocconema,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocculus,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coccus,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cochineal,
-    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cochineal-insect,
-    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cochlearia,
-    <a href="#Page_398">398</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cochleariinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cock’s-comb,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cock’s-foot,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocoa-beans,
-    <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocoa-butter,
-    <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocoa-plum,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocoa-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocoanut,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_300">300</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocoanut, Double,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocoanut-palm,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocoineæ,
-    <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cocos,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Codiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
-  <li>Codiolum,
-    <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
-  <li>Codium,
-    <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cœlastrum,
-    <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cœlebogyne,
-    <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cœloglossum,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cœlospermeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cœlosphærium,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cœnobia,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cœnogonium,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coffea,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coffeeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coffee,
-    <a href="#Page_555">555</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coffee-plant,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coix,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cola,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
-  <li>Colchicaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-  <li>Colchiceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-  <li>Colchicin,
-    <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
-  <li>Colchicum,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coleochætaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coleochæte,
-    <a href="#Page_57">57</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coleonema,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coleorhiza,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coleosporium,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coleus,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Collema,
-    <a href="#Page_138">138</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Colletia,
-    <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
-  <li>Collinsia,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Collomia,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Collybia,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Colocasia,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Colocynth,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Colts-foot,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Columba-root,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Columbine,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Columella,
-    <a href="#Page_187">187</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_189">189</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
-  <li>Columnea,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Columniferæ,
-    <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li>
-  <li>Colus,
-    <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
-  <li>Colutea,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Comarum,
-    <a href="#Page_457">457</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
-  <li>Combretaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</li>
-  <li>Comfrey,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Comma-bacillus,
-    <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-  <li>Commelina,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
-  <li>Commelinaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
-  <li>Commersonia,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Commiphora,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Compass-plant,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Compositæ,
-    <a href="#Page_556">556</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_561">561</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li>
-  <li>Comptonia,
-    <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
-  <li>Condurango-bark,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cone,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cone-scales,
-    <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
-  <li>Conferva,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Confervoideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-  <li>Conidia,
-    <a href="#Page_87">87</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Liberation and distribution of,
-    <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
-  <li>Conidial-layers,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Conidiocarp,
-    <a href="#Page_89">89</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
-  <li>Conidio-fructification,
-    <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
-  <li>Conidiophore,
-    <a href="#Page_87">87</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coniferæ,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_237">237</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_252">252</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Female flower of,
-    <a href="#Page_255">255</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Pollination,
-    <a href="#Page_258">258</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coniocybe,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Conium,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Conjugatæ,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_41">41</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Conjugation,
-    <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
-  <li>Connaraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li>
-  <li>Conocarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</li>
-  <li>Conomitrium,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Contortæ,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>.</li>
-  <li>Convallaria,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Convallariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Convallarieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Convolvulaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>.</li>
-  <li>Convolvuleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li>
-  <li>Convolvulus,
-    <a href="#Page_114">114</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_516">516</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-  <li>Co-operating cells,
-    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-  <li>Copaifera,
-    <a href="#Page_467">467</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Copal-balsam,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Copernicia,
-    <a href="#Page_300">300</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Copper-beech,
-    <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coprinarius,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coprinei,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coprinus,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coptis,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cora,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corallina,
-    <a href="#Page_79">79</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corallinaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coralliorrhiza,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corallorhiza,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coral-root,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corchorus,
-    <a href="#Page_424">424</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cordaitaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cordiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47–61</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_531">531</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cordyceps,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cordyline,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Core,”
-    <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_600">[600]</span></li>
-  <li>Coriander,
-    <a href="#Page_497">497</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coriandrum,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_497">497</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cork-elm,
-    <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cork-oak,
-    <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cormophyta,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cormophytes,
-    <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cornaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_490">490</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cornel,
-    <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corn-cockle,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corn-flower,
-    <a href="#Page_567">567</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corn-poppy,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cornus,
-    <a href="#Page_490">490</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corona,
-    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coronilla,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Correa,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corrigiola,
-    <a href="#Page_365">365</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corsinia,
-    <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corsiniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cortex angosturæ,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corticium,
-    <a href="#Page_144">144</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cortinarius,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cortusa,
-    <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corydalis,
-    <a href="#Page_334">334</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_396">396</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corylaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_341">341</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corylus,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_343">343</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_344">344</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
-  <li>Corypha,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coscinodisceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coscinodiscus,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coscinodon,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cosmanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cosmarium,
-    <a href="#Page_42">42</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_43">43</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Costus,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cotoneaster,
-    <a href="#Page_463">463</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Cotton”
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_429">429</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cotton-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cotton-thistle,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cotyledon,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cotyledons,
-    <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
-  <li>Couch,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Coumarin,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cover-scale,
-    <a href="#Page_255">255</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cow-bane,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cowberry,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cow-parsnip,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cow-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cow-wheat,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Crab’s-eyes,”
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crambe,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
-  <li>Craniolaria,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crassula,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crassulaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cratægeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cratægus,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Craterellus,
-    <a href="#Page_162">162</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-  <li>Craterocolla,
-    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crenothrix,
-    <a href="#Page_30">30</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
-  <li>Creosote,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crepis,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crescentia,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crinum,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crocus,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cronartium,
-    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crotalaria,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Croton,
-    <a href="#Page_431">431</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crowberry,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crown-imperial,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crozophora,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crucianella,
-    <a href="#Page_552">552</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crucibulum,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cruciferæ,
-    <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crucifers,
-    <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
-  <li>Crucigenia,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cruoria,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cryptogams,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Vascular,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_198">198</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cryptoglena,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cryptogramme,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cryptomeria,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cryptonemia,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cryptonemiales,
-    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ctenanthe,
-    <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ctenium,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ctenomyces,
-    <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cubeb,
-    <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cucubalus,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cucullus,
-    <a href="#Page_545">545</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cucumber,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cucumis,
-    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_480">480</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cucurbita,
-    <a href="#Page_478">478</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_479">479</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_480">480</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cucurbitaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_475">475</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_478">478</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_561">561</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cucurbitariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cud-weed,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cuminum,
-    <a href="#Page_497">497</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cunninghamia,
-    <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cunoniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cuphea,
-    <a href="#Page_482">482</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cupressaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_257">257</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_262">262</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cupressus,
-    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_245">245</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_268">268</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cupule,
-    <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cupuliferæ,
-    <a href="#Page_341">341</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
-  <li>Curare,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Curculigo,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Curcuma,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Curly-mint,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Currants,
-    <a href="#Page_447">447</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li>
-  <li>Curvembryæ,
-    <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cuscuta,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cuscuteæ,
-    <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Cushion,”
-    <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cusparia,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cusparieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cutleria,
-    <a href="#Page_68">68</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cutleriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_11">11</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyanophyceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyanophyll,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyanotis,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyathea,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyatheaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyathium,
-    <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyathus,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cycadaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cycadeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_252">252</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cycas,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_231">231</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_251">251</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_252">252</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_253">253</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyclamen,
-    <a href="#Page_334">334</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_512">512</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyclanthaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyclanthera,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyclolobeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyclosporeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_68">68</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cydonia,
-    <a href="#Page_463">463</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_464">464</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cylindrocapsa,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cylindrocapsaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cylindrocystis,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cylindrospermum,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cymbella,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cymbelleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cymodocea,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cymopolia,
-    <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cynanchum,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cynara,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cynareæ,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cynips,
-    <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cynodon,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cynodontium,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cynoglossum,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cynomorium,
-    <a href="#Page_503">503</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cynosurus,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cypella,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyperaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_283">283</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyperus,
-    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyphella,
-    <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyphiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cypress,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cypripedileæ,
-    <a href="#Page_329">329</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cypripedilum,
-    <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cypripedium,
-    <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cypsela,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cyrtandreæ,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cystocarp,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cystoclonium,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cystopteris,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cystopus,
-    <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cytinus,
-    <a href="#Page_503">503</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Cytisus,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Dacrydium,
-    <a href="#Page_255">255</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_260">260</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dacryomitra,
-    <a href="#Page_158">158</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dacryomyces,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_158">158</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dacryomycetaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dacryomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dactylis,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dactylococcus,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dædalea,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_601">[601]</span></li>
-  <li>Dahlia,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Daisy,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dalbergia,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dalbergieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dalechampia,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Damasonium,
-    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dammara,
-    <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
-  <li>Danæa,
-    <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dandelion,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Daphne,
-    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li>
-  <li>Darlingtonia,
-    <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li>
-  <li>Darwinia,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dasycladaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dasycladus,
-    <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dasyscypha,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-  <li>Date-palm,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_299">299</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Date-plum,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Datisca,
-    <a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li>
-  <li>Datiscaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_477">477</a>.</li>
-  <li>Datura,
-    <a href="#Page_519">519</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_520">520</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dauceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-  <li>Daucus,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_492">492</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-  <li>Davallia,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Davilla,
-    <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
-  <li>Deadly nightshade,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dead-nettle,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li>
-  <li>Delesseria,
-    <a href="#Page_79">79</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_80">80</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Delesseriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Delphinieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-  <li>Delphinium,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dendrobium,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Derbesia,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
-  <li>Derbesiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dermatea,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dermateaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dermateales,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dermatophyton,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dermocarpa,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Desmanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
-  <li>Desmarestia,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Desmarestiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Desmidiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_18">18</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_42">42</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-  <li>Desmidium,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Desmodium,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Deutzia,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Devil’s-bit,
-    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dianthus,
-    <a href="#Page_364">364</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diapensiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diatoma,
-    <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diatomaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_19">19</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diatomeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diatomin,
-    <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diatoms,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diatrypaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diatrype,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dicentra,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_396">396</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dichaenaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dichelyma,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dichondreæ,
-    <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dichorisandra,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dichospermum,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dicksonia,
-    <a href="#Page_207">207</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diclinous,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dicliptera,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dicotyledones,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dicranella,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dicranum,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dictamnus,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dictyochaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dictyonema,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dictyosiphon,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dictyosiphonaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dictyosphærium,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dictyostelium,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dictyota,
-    <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dictyotaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dictyotales,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dicypellium,
-    <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li>
-  <li>Didiscus,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li>
-  <li>Didymium,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dieffenbachia,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dielytra,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diervilla,
-    <a href="#Page_554">554</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li>
-  <li>Digitalis,
-    <a href="#Page_524">524</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li>
-  <li>Digraphis,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dill,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dillenia,
-    <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dilleniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dimorphanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dimorphochlamys,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dinifera,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dinobryinaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dinobryon,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dinoflagellata,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_18">18</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dinophysis,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diodia,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diœcious,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dionæa,
-    <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dioon,
-    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dioscorea,
-    <a href="#Page_322">322</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dioscoreaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_276">276</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_322">322</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diosma,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diosmeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diospyrinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_510">510</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diospyros,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diphtheria,
-    <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diphyscium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diplarrhena,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diplecolobeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diplococcus,
-    <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diploderma,
-    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diplostemonous,
-    <a href="#Page_335">335</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
-  <li>Diplusodon,
-    <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dipsacaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_556">556</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_558">558</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_559">559</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dipsacales,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_556">556</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dipsacus,
-    <a href="#Page_559">559</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dipterocarpaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dipterocarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dipteryx,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Discelium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Discolichenes,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Discomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-  <li>Discosporangium,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Disease,
-    <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-  <li>Disinfection,
-    <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dispora,
-    <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-  <li>Distichium,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Doassansia,
-    <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
-  <li>Docidium,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dock,
-    <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dodder,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_516">516</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dodecatheon,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dog’s-tail,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dogwood,
-    <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dolichos,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dondia,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dorema,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Doronicum,
-    <a href="#Page_240">240</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dorstenia,
-    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dothideaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-  <li>Double Cocoanut,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Doum-palm,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Draba,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dracæna,
-    <a href="#Page_274">274</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dracæneæ,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dracocephalum,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dracunculus,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dragon’s blood,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dragon-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Draparnaldia,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Drimys,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>Drosera,
-    <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li>
-  <li>Droseraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
-  <li>Drosophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dryas,
-    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dryobalanops,
-    <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dry-rot,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dry yeast,
-    <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
-  <li>Duboisia,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Duckweed,
-    <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dudresnaya,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dumontia,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dumontiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Durio,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-  <li>Durra,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dwarf-elder,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dwarf-male,
-    <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dwarf-palm,
-    <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
-  <li>Dyer’s Weed,
-    <a href="#Page_407">407</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Earth-nut,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Earth-star,
-    <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
-  <li>Earth-tongue,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eating-chestnut,
-    <a href="#Page_346">346</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ebenaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ebony,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ecballium,
-    <a href="#Page_478">478</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_480">480</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_602">[602]</span></li>
-  <li>Eccremocarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Echeveria,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li>
-  <li>Echinocactus,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_376">376</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-  <li>Echinodorus,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Echinops,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Echinopsis,
-    <a href="#Page_376">376</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-  <li>Echinospermum,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Echites,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Echium,
-    <a href="#Page_531">531</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_534">534</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ectocarpaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ectocarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_69">69</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Edelweiss,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Edwardsia,
-    <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li>
-  <li>Egg-cell,
-    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-  <li>Egg-fertilisation,
-    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-  <li>Egg-plant,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ehretia,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eichhornia,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elachista,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elachistaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elæagnaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elæagnus,
-    <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elæis,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elæocarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elaphomyces,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elaphrium,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elatereæ,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elaters,
-    <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elatinaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elatine,
-    <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elder,
-    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_555">555</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elemi,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elettaria,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eleusine,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elisma,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elm,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elodea,
-    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elymus,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Elyna,
-    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-  <li>Embryo,
-    <a href="#Page_246">246</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_247">247</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-  <li>Embryo-sac,
-    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
-  <li>Emericella,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Emex,
-    <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
-  <li>Empetraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Empetrum,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Empleurum,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Empusa,
-    <a href="#Page_101">101</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
-  <li>Enantioblastæ,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
-  <li>Encephalartos,
-    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-  <li>Enchanter’s Nightshade,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-  <li>Encoeliaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Endocarpon,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Endomyces,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
-  <li>Endophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
-  <li>Endophytic parasites,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li>Endosperm,
-    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_246">246</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
-  <li>Endospermous,
-    <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
-  <li>Endosphæra,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Endospore,
-    <a href="#Page_89">89</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
-  <li>Endosporous,
-    <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
-  <li>Endothecium,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-  <li>Endozoic Fungi,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li>Enhalus,
-    <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
-  <li>Entada,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li>
-  <li>Enteromorpha,
-    <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-  <li>Entoderma,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Entomophthora,
-    <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
-  <li>Entomophthoraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
-  <li>Entomophthorales,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
-  <li>Entyloma,
-    <a href="#Page_109">109</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_111">111</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-  <li>Enzyme,
-    <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epacridaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epacris,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ephebe,
-    <a href="#Page_139">139</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ephedra,
-    <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ephemerum,
-    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epibasal,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epichloë,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epiclemmydia,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epidendreæ,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epidendron,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epigynum,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epilobium,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epimedium,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epipactis,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epipetalous,
-    <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epiphyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epiphytic parasites,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epipogon,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epipyxis,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Episepalous,
-    <a href="#Page_335">335</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epithemia,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Epizoic Fungi,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li>Equisetaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_221">221</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_234">234</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
-  <li>Equisetinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_221">221</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
-  <li>Equisetum,
-    <a href="#Page_200">200</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_206">206</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_221">221</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_222">222</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eragrostis,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eranthemum,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eranthis,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ergot,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eria,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erica,
-    <a href="#Page_507">507</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ericaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ericeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erigeron,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erinus,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eriobotrya,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eriocaulaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eriocaulon,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eriodendron,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eriophorum,
-    <a href="#Page_285">285</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erodium,
-    <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eruca,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ervum,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eryngium,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erysiminæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erysimum,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erysiphaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erysiphe,
-    <a href="#Page_119">119</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_120">120</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erythræa,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erythrina,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erythronium,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erythrotrichia,
-    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erythroxylaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Erythroxylon,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Escalloniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li>
-  <li>Escalloniæ,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eschalot,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eschsholzia,
-    <a href="#Page_393">393</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Esparto grass,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euactæa,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euaspergillus,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euastrum,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eucalyptus,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eucharidium,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eucharis,
-    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euchlæna,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eucomis,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eudorina,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eugeissonia,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eugenia,
-    <a href="#Page_488">488</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euglena,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eunotieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euonymus,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eupatorieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eupatorium,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euphacidiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euphorbia,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_432">432</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_433">433</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euphorbiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euphorbium,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euphoria,
-    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euphrasia,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eupodisceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eurhynchium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eurotium,
-    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euryale,
-    <a href="#Page_386">386</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_387">387</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eusporangiatæ,
-    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euterpe,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Euthora,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eutoca,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Evening Primrose,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li>
-  <li>Evernia,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Evodia,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Evolvulus,
-    <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li>
-  <li>Exalbuminous,
-    <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
-  <li>Exidia,
-    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
-  <li>Exoasci,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_115">115</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
-  <li>Exobasidium,
-    <a href="#Page_160">160</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-  <li>Exochorda,
-    <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-  <li>Exospore,
-    <a href="#Page_87">87</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
-  <li>Exostemma,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_603">[603]</span></li>
-  <li>Exuviella,
-    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_18">18</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Eye-bright,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Eye-spot,”
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Faba,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fabiana,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fabroniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Fæchel,”
-    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-  <li>Facultative parasites,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fagonia,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fagus,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_347">347</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Fairy-rings,”
-    <a href="#Page_86">86</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_163">163</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
-  <li>Falcaria,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Fan,”
-    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fan-palm,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
-  <li>Farinosæ,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fatsia,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-  <li>Feather-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Feather palm,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fedia,
-    <a href="#Page_557">557</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fegatella,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fennel,
-    <a href="#Page_492">492</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Ferment of wine,”
-    <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fermentation,
-    <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Alcoholic,
-    <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ferns,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Stem of,
-    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">True,
-    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Water,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Various,
-    <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ferraria,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ferula,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fescue,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Festuca,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Festuceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fevillea,
-    <a href="#Page_478">478</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ficaria,
-    <a href="#Page_334">334</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ficus,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_354">354</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_355">355</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Field-horsetail,
-    <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
-  <li>Field-madder,
-    <a href="#Page_552">552</a>.</li>
-  <li>Field-thistle,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fig-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_524">524</a>.</li>
-  <li>Filago,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Filament,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
-  <li>Filbert,
-    <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
-  <li>Filices,
-    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Systematic division of,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
-  <li>Filicinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_234">234</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fiori di fico,
-    <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fiorin,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fir,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_170">170</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_263">263</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_264">264</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fir-cones,
-    <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
-  <li>Firneedle-rust,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fissidens,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fissidentaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fission-Algæ,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fission-Fungi,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fission-plants,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fistulina,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Flag,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Flagellata,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-  <li>Flagellatæ,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Flax,
-    <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li>
-  <li>Flea-bane,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Fleur de vin,”
-    <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
-  <li>Floral-leaves,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-  <li>Florideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_77">77</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
-  <li>Flower,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Monocotyledonous,
-    <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
-  <li>Flowering-plants,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
-  <li>Flowering-rush,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Flowers-of-tan,
-    <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fly-mould,
-    <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fly-mushroom,
-    <a href="#Page_167">167</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fly-trap,
-    <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fœniculum,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Foliage-leaves,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fontinalaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fontinalis,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fool’s-parsley,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Foot,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fore-leaf,
-    <a href="#Page_275">275</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
-  <li>Forget-me-not,
-    <a href="#Page_334">334</a>.</li>
-  <li>Forskohlea,
-    <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
-  <li>Forsythia,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fossil Gymnosperms,
-    <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fothergilla,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fourcroya,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fovea,
-    <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
-  <li>Foxglove,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fox-tail,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fragaria,
-    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fragilarieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Franciscea,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Francoaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li>
-  <li>Frangulinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_443">443</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li>
-  <li>Frankeniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
-  <li>Frankincense,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fraxinus,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>French-bean,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>French Rose,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Freycinetia,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fritillaria,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_313">313</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Frog-bit,
-    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Fruit,”
-    <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fruit,
-    <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fruit-bearers,
-    <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fruit-bodies,
-    <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Fruit-forms,”
-    <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
-  <li>Frullania,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Frustule,
-    <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-  <li>Frustulia,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fucaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fuchsia,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fucoideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fucus,
-    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_73">73</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_74">74</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fuligo,
-    <a href="#Page_6">6</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fumago,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fumaria,
-    <a href="#Page_396">396</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_397">397</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fumariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fumitory,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Funaria,
-    <a href="#Page_182">182</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Funariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Funckia,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_313">313</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fundaments,
-    <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fungi,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fungi-galls,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fungi Imperfecti,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fungus chirurgorum,
-    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">laricis,
-    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
-  <li>Funicle,
-    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
-  <li>Furcellaria,
-    <a href="#Page_79">79</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Furze,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Fusicladium,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Gagea,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gaillardia,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Galactodendron,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Galangal,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Galanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Galaxaura,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Galaxia,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Galbanum,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Galega,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Galeobdolon,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li>
-  <li>Galeopsis,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.</li>
-  <li>Galinsoga,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Galipea,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
-  <li>Galium,
-    <a href="#Page_552">552</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Galphimia,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gambier,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gamboge,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gambo-hemp,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gametangium,
-    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gamete,
-    <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gametophore,
-    <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gametophyte,
-    <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gamopetalæ,
-    <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
-  <li>Garcinia,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Garden-cress,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gardenia,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gardenieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Garidella,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-  <li>Garlic,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Garrya,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gasteria,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gasterolichenes,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gasteromycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gastonia,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gaultheria,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gaura,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-  <li>Geaster,
-    <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gelidiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gelidium,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_604">[604]</span></li>
-  <li>Genipa,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Genista,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Genisteæ,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gentian,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gentiana,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gentianaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gentianeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>.</li>
-  <li>Geoglossum,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-  <li>Geonoma,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Georgiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Geraniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
-  <li>Geranium,
-    <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li>
-  <li>Germ-pores,
-    <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gesneria,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gesneriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_518">518</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gesnerieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Geum,
-    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gigartina,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gigartinaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gigartinales,
-    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gilia,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gillenia,
-    <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gills,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ginger,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ginkgo,
-    <a href="#Page_255">255</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_257">257</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_260">260</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gipsy-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gladiolus,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glandulæ,
-    <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glasswort,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glaucium,
-    <a href="#Page_394">394</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glaucocystis,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glaux,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gleba,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glechoma,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gleditschia,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gleichenia,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gleicheniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glenodinium,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-  <li>Globba,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Globe-thistle,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Globularia,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Globulariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glœocapsa,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glœotrichia,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gloiopeltis,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gloiosiphoniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gloxinia,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glume,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glumifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glyceria,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glycine,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glycyrrhiza,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Glyptostrobus,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gnaphalium,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gnetaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_251">251</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_271">271</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gneteæ,
-    <a href="#Page_252">252</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gnetum,
-    <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gnidia,
-    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gnomonia,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gnomoniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Goat’s-beard,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Godetia,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-  <li>Godlewskia,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Golden-currant,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Golden-rod,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Golden Saxifrage,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Goldfussia,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gold-of-pleasure,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gomontia,
-    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gomontiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gomphonema,
-    <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gomphonemeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gomphosphæria,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gomphrena,
-    <a href="#Page_368">368</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gonatozygon,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gongrosira,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gonidia,
-    <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gonimoblast,
-    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-  <li>Goniotrichaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
-  <li>Goniotrichum,
-    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gonium,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gonococcus,
-    <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gonolobus,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Goodenia,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li>
-  <li>Goodeniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gooseberry,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Goosefoot,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gossypieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gossypium,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_429">429</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gouania,
-    <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Gourds,”
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gout-weed,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gracilaria,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Grains of Paradise,”
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gramineæ,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_283">283</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-  <li>Grape-disease,
-    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
-  <li>Graphiola,
-    <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
-  <li>Graphis,
-    <a href="#Page_140">140</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Grasses,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-  <li>Grass-flower,
-    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
-  <li>Grass-fruit,
-    <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
-  <li>Grass of Parnassus,
-    <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li>
-  <li>Grass-wrack,
-    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-  <li>Grateloupiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gratiola,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li>
-  <li>Green Algæ,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Greenheart,”
-    <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
-  <li>Grevillea,
-    <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li>
-  <li>Griffithsia,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Grimmia,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Grimmiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gronovia,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ground Ivy,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Groundsel,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gruinales,
-    <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li>
-  <li>Guaiacum,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Guano,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-  <li>Guava,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Guava-rum,
-    <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li>
-  <li>Guazuma,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Guelder-rose,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_555">555</a>.</li>
-  <li>Guepinia,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
-  <li>Guinea-corn,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Guinea Pepper-plant,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Guizotia,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gulf-weed,
-    <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gum-arabic,
-    <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gum-benzoin,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gum-tragacanth,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gum-trees,
-    <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gunnera,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_482">482</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-  <li>Guttapercha,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Guttiferæ,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gymnadenia,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gymnoascaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gymnoascales,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gymnoascus,
-    <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gymnodinium,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gymnogramme,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gymnospermæ,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_234">234</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_250">250</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gymnosperms,
-    <a href="#Page_244">244</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Fossil,
-    <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gymnosporangium,
-    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gymnosporeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gymnostomum,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gymnozyga,
-    <a href="#Page_42">42</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gynandræ,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_328">328</a></li>
-  <li>Gynandropsis,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gynerium,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gynœceum,
-    <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gynophore,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gynostemium,
-    <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
-  <li>Gysophila,
-    <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Habenaria,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hablitzia,
-    <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li>
-  <li>Habrothamnus,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hacquetia,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hæmanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hæmatoxylon,
-    <a href="#Page_467">467</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hæmodoraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hæmodorum,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hagenia,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hair-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hakea,
-    <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li>
-  <li>Halesia,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Halianthus,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Halidrys,
-    <a href="#Page_73">73</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-  <li>Halimeda,
-    <a href="#Page_62">62</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
-  <li>Halimus,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
-  <li>Halophila,
-    <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
-  <li>Haloragidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_482">482</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-  <li>Haloragis,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_605">[605]</span></li>
-  <li>Halymenia,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hamamelidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hamamelis,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hamelia,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hankornia,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hapalosiphon,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-  <li>Haplomitrium,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Haplospora,
-    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-  <li>Haptera,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hard-fern,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hare’s-ear,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hart’s-tongue,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Harzsticken,”
-    <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
-  <li>Haschisch,
-    <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hassalia,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-  <li>Haustoria,
-    <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hawkbit,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hawksbeard,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hawthorn,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hay-bacillus,
-    <a href="#Page_37">37</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_38">38</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hazel,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hazel-nut,
-    <a href="#Page_343">343</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heal-all,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heath,
-    <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hebenstretia,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hechtia,
-    <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hedera,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hedge-mustard,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hedge-parsley,
-    <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hedwigia,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hedycarya,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hedychium,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hedyosmum,
-    <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hedysareæ,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hedysarum,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helenium,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heleocharis,
-    <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heliantheæ,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helianthemum,
-    <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helianthus,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helichrysum,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heliconia,
-    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heliconiæ,
-    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helicophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helicteres,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heliophilinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heliotropieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heliotropium,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hellebore,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helleboreæ,
-    <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helleborus,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_380">380</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helminthocladiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helobieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helosciadium,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helosis,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helotiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helotium,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helvella,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helvellaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helvellales,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-  <li>Helwingia,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hemerocallideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hemerocallis,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_313">313</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hemiasci,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hemibasidii,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hemichlamydeous,
-    <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hemileia,
-    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hemlock,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hemp,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hemp-agrimony,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hemp-nettle,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li>
-  <li>Henbane,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Henriquezia,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hepaticæ,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hepialus,
-    <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heracleum,
-    <a href="#Page_492">492</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-  <li>Herb-Paris,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heritiera,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hermannia,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hermaphrodite,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
-  <li>Herminium,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hermodactylus,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hernandia,
-    <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li>
-  <li>Herniaria,
-    <a href="#Page_365">365</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Herpestis,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Herposteiron,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Herpotrichia,
-    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hesperideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hesperidinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hesperis,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heteranthera,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heterobasidion,
-    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heterocysteæ,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heterocysts,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heterœcious,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heteromerous,
-    <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heteropteris,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heterosphæria,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heterosphæriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heterosporous Vascular Cryptogams,
-    <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heterotoma,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li>
-  <li>Heuchera,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hibiscus,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hickory,
-    <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hieracium,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hierochloa,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Higher Fungi,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hilum,
-    <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
-  <li>Himanthalia,
-    <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-  <li>Himantidium,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hip,
-    <a href="#Page_459">459</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hippocrateaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hippocrepis,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hippomane,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hippophaë,
-    <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hippuris,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Hochblatt,”
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hog’s-fennel,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-  <li>Holbœllia,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Holcus,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Holly,
-    <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hollyhock,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Holochlamydeous,
-    <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
-  <li>Holosteum,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Homalia,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Homalothecium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Homocysteæ,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Homoiomerous,
-    <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
-  <li>Honckenya,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Honesty,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Honey-dew,
-    <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
-  <li>Honey-leaves,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
-  <li>Honeysuckle,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hookeriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hop,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_357">357</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hopea,
-    <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hordeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hordeum,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Horehound,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hormidium,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hormogonia,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hornbeam,
-    <a href="#Page_157">157</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_343">343</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_344">344</a>.</li>
-  <li>Horned Pond-weed,
-    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-  <li>Horn-nut,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-  <li>Horn-poppy,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Horn-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Horse-bean,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Horse-chestnut,
-    <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
-  <li>Horse-radish,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Horsetails,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hosta,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hoteia,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hottonia,
-    <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hound’s-tongue,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>House-leek,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Houttuynia,
-    <a href="#Page_359">359</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hoya,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Humiriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li>
-  <li>Humulus,
-    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_357">357</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hura,
-    <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hyacintheæ,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hyacinthus,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_313">313</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hyalotheca,
-    <a href="#Page_42">42</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydnaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydnophytum,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydnora,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydnum,
-    <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydra,
-    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrangea,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrangeaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrastin,
-    <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrastis,
-    <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrilla,
-    <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrocharis,
-    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrocharitaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrocleis,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrocotyle,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrocotyleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrodictyaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrodictyon,
-    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_606">[606]</span></li>
-  <li>Hydrolea,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrophyllaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydropterideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydruraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hydrurus,
-    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hygrophorei,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hygrophorus,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hylocomium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hymenæa,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hymenium,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hymenogaster,
-    <a href="#Page_174">174</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_175">175</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hymenogastraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hymenolichenes,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hymenomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hymenophore,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hymenophyllaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_206">206</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hymenophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hyoscyamine,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hyoscyamus,
-    <a href="#Page_518">518</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_519">519</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_520">520</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_523">523</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypecoum,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_396">396</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypericaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypericum,
-    <a href="#Page_413">413</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypha,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hyphæ-like threads,
-    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hyphæne,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypholoma,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypnaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypnum,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypobasal,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypochæris,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypochnus,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypocreaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypocreales,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypoderma,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypodermaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypomyces,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hyporhodius,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypothecium,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypoxideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypoxis,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypoxylon,
-    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hypsophyllary leaves,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hyssop,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hyssopus,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hysteriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hysteriales,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hysterium,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-  <li>Hysterophyta,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Iberis,
-    <a href="#Page_398">398</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Icacinaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Iceland-lichen,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Iceland-moss,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ice-plant,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
-  <li>Icica,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ignatius-beans,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ilex,
-    <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
-  <li>Illecebrum,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Illicieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>Illicium,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>Impatiens,
-    <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li>
-  <li>Imperatoria,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Incense,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Indian-corn,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Indian-cress,
-    <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li>
-  <li>Indigo,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Indigofera,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Indusium,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
-  <li>Inflorescence of Palm,
-    <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
-  <li>Infusoria,
-    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
-  <li>Inga,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
-  <li>Integuments,
-    <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
-  <li>Inula,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Inulin,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Involucre,
-    <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
-  <li>Involution-forms,
-    <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ionidium,
-    <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ipecacuanha,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ipomæa,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-  <li>Iridaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Iris,
-    <a href="#Page_276">276</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Irish-moss,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Iron-bacteria,
-    <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
-  <li>Iron-wood,
-    <a href="#Page_339">339</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Irpex,
-    <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
-  <li>Isactis,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Isaria,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-  <li>Isatis,
-    <a href="#Page_403">403</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Isnardia,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-  <li>Isoëtaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
-  <li>Isoëtes,
-    <a href="#Page_200">200</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_228">228</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_230">230</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
-  <li>Isogamous fertilisation,
-    <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
-  <li>Isolepis,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-  <li>Isonandra,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Isopyrum,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Isosporous Vascular Cryptogams,
-    <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
-  <li>Isothecium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Isotoma,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ivy,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ixia,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ixora,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Jacaranda,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jack,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jacquinia,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jalap,
-    <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jambosa,
-    <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li>
-  <li>Japanese wax,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jasione,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_561">561</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jasminaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jasmine,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jasminum,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jateorhiza,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jatropha,
-    <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jequirty,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jerusalem-Artichoke,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jonquil,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Judas’-ear,
-    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
-  <li>Judas-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Juglandaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_337">337</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li>
-  <li>Juglandifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_349">349</a>.</li>
-  <li>Juglans,
-    <a href="#Page_349">349</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
-  <li>Juncaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_283">283</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
-  <li>Juncaginaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
-  <li>Juncus,
-    <a href="#Page_283">283</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jungermannia,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jungermannieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
-  <li>Juniper,
-    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_268">268</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
-  <li>Juniperus,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_268">268</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jurinea,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jussiæa,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-  <li>Justicia,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li>
-  <li>Jute,
-    <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Kalanchoë,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kale,
-    <a href="#Page_403">403</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kalmia,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kæmpferia,
-    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kamala,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kaulfussia,
-    <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kefir-grains,
-    <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kelp,
-    <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kerria,
-    <a href="#Page_457">457</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kidney-bean,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kielmeyera,
-    <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-  <li>“King Charles and the Oak,”
-    <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kingia,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kino,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kitaibelia,
-    <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
-  <li>Knap-weed,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Knapwell,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Knautia,
-    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</li>
-  <li>Knot-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li>
-  <li>Knowltonia,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kobresia,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kochia,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
-  <li>Koeleria,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Koelreuteria,
-    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
-  <li>Koenigia,
-    <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kohlrabi,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Krameria,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Kramerieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Koso-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Labellum,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_323">323</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
-  <li>Labiatæ,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_536">536</a>.</li>
-  <li>Labiate-flowered,
-    <a href="#Page_567">567</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Laburnum,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_607">[607]</span></li>
-  <li>Labyrinth Fungus,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lace-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lacmus,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lactarius,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lactoridaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lactoris,
-    <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lactuca,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ladanum,
-    <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ladenbergia,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ladies-mantle,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lady-fern,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lady’s-finger,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lælia,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lagenandra,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lagenaria,
-    <a href="#Page_479">479</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lagenedium,
-    <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lagerstrœmia,
-    <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lagetta,
-    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lagœcia,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>.</li>
-  <li>Laguncularia,
-    <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lagurus,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lamellæ,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Laminaria,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Laminariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lamium,
-    <a href="#Page_536">536</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lamprothamnus,
-    <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
-  <li>Landolphia,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Langsdorffia,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lantana,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lappa,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lapsana,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Larch,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-  <li>Larch-canker,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-  <li>Larch-fungus,
-    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lardizabalaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Larix,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>Larkspur,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-  <li>Larrea,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Laserpitium,
-    <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lasiandra,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li>
-  <li>Latania,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lathræa,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lathyrus,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lattice-rust,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
-  <li>Laudatea,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lauraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_391">391</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-  <li>Laurus,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_391">391</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_392">392</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lavandula,
-    <a href="#Page_536">536</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lavatera,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lavender,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Oil of,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lawsonia,
-    <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leafy-mosses,
-    <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leathesia,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leaven,
-    <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lecanora,
-    <a href="#Page_140">140</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lechenaultia,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lecidea,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lecythideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lecythis,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ledum,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leea,
-    <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leek,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leersia,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leguminosæ,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
-  <li>Legume,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lejolisia,
-    <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lemanea,
-    <a href="#Page_80">80</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lemaneaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lemna,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lemnaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lemon,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lentil,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lentinus,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leontice,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leontodon,
-    <a href="#Page_568">568</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leontopodium,
-    <a href="#Page_593">593</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leonurus,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lepidiinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lepidium,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lepidocaryinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lepidodendraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lepidozia,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lepiota,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leptobryum,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leptogium,
-    <a href="#Page_140">140</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leptomitus,
-    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leptopleura,
-    <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leptopuccinia,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leptosiphon,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leptospermeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leptospermum,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leptosporangiatæ,
-    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_212">212</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leptothrix,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_33">33</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_35">35</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leptotrichum,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lepturus,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lescuræa,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leskea,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leskeaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lessonia,
-    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lettuce,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leucobryaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leucobryum,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leucodon,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leucojum,
-    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Leuconostoc,
-    <a href="#Page_28">28</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_29">29</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-  <li>Levisticum,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Liagora,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Libanotis,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
-  <li>Libocedrus,
-    <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lichen,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lichen-forming Ascomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Basidiomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lichenin,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lichina,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Licmophoreæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lignum Vitæ,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ligularia,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ligulate-flowered,
-    <a href="#Page_567">567</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ligule,
-    <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ligulifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ligustrum,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lilac,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lilæa,
-    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-  <li>Liliaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_274">274</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lilies,
-    <a href="#Page_311">311</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Liliifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lilium,
-    <a href="#Page_245">245</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_313">313</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lily of the Valley,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lime,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
-  <li>Limnanthaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li>
-  <li>Limnanthemum,
-    <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li>
-  <li>Limnanthes,
-    <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li>
-  <li>Limnocharis,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Limodorum,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
-  <li>Limonia,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
-  <li>Limosella,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Linaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_417">417</a>.</li>
-  <li>Linaria,
-    <a href="#Page_523">523</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lindera,
-    <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ling,
-    <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li>
-  <li>Linnæa,
-    <a href="#Page_555">555</a>.</li>
-  <li>Linnæeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_555">555</a>.</li>
-  <li>Linociera,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Linseed,
-    <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
-  <li>Linum,
-    <a href="#Page_417">417</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
-  <li>Liparis,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lippia,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Liquidambar,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Liquorice,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Liriodendron,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Listera,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
-  <li>Litchi,
-    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lithoderma,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lithodermataceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lithophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lithospermum,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lithothamnion,
-    <a href="#Page_80">80</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Littorella,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_531">531</a>.</li>
-  <li>Liverworts,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_181">181</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.</li>
-  <li>Livistona,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_299">299</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_300">300</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lloydia,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Loasaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lobelia,
-    <a href="#Page_562">562</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lobeliaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_335">335</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lobeline,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lochnera,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Locusts,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lodicules,
-    <a href="#Page_288">288</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lodoicea,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Loganiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>.</li>
-  <li>Logwood,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Loiseleuria,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lolium,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lomandra,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lomaria,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lomentaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lomentaria,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_608">[608]</span></li>
-  <li>Lonicera,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_554">554</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lonicereæ,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Long-pepper,
-    <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
-  <li>Loose-strife,
-    <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lopezia,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lophiostomaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lophocolea,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lophodermium,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lophospermum,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Loquat,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Loranthaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
-  <li>Loranthoideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
-  <li>Loranthus,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Loteæ,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lotus,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Louse-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Love-in-the-mist,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lucerne,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lucuma,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Luehea,
-    <a href="#Page_424">424</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-  <li>Luffa,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lunaria,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lung-Lichen,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lung-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lunularia,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lupin,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lupinus,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Luzula,
-    <a href="#Page_283">283</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lychnis,
-    <a href="#Page_365">365</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lychnothamnus,
-    <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lycium,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lycogala,
-    <a href="#Page_6">6</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lycoperdaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lycoperdon,
-    <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lycopersicum,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lycopodiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lycopodieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lycopodinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_226">226</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_228">228</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_234">234</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lycopodium,
-    <a href="#Page_200">200</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_226">226</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_227">227</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_228">228</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lycopsis,
-    <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lycopus,
-    <a href="#Page_536">536</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lygeum,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lygodium,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lyme-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lyngbya,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lyngbyaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lyonia,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lysimachia,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lysipoma,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lythraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.</li>
-  <li>Lythrum,
-    <a href="#Page_482">482</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Maba,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Machærium,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Mace,”
-    <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
-  <li>Macleya,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Maclura,
-    <a href="#Page_354">354</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Macrosporangium,
-    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
-  <li>Macrospore,
-    <a href="#Page_200">200</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_242">242</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_243">243</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_245">245</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
-  <li>Macrocystis,
-    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-  <li>Macrozamia,
-    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-  <li>Madder,
-    <a href="#Page_552">552</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Madia,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Madotheca,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mad-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li>
-  <li>Maesa,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Magnolia,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>Magnoliaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Magnolieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mahernia,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mahogany,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mahonia,
-    <a href="#Page_149">149</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Maiden-hair,
-    <a href="#Page_206">206</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-  <li>Maize,
-    <a href="#Page_289">289</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Maize-blight,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-  <li>Majanthemum,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malachium,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malachra,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malaxis,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malcolmiinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Male-Fern,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mallow,
-    <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malope,
-    <a href="#Page_429">429</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malopeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malpighiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malpighia,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malt,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malus,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_463">463</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_464">464</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malva,
-    <a href="#Page_426">426</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_429">429</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malvaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malveæ,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
-  <li>Malvaviscus,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mamme,
-    <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mammea,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mammillæ,
-    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mammillaria,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mammoni,
-    <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mancinil-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mandragora,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mandrake,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Manettia,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mangifera,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Manglesia,
-    <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mango,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mangold,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mangosteen,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mangrove,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-  <li>Manihot,
-    <a href="#Page_431">431</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Manilla Hemp,
-    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
-  <li>Maniok,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Manna,”
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Manna Ash,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Manna-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Manna-lichen,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mannit,
-    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-  <li>Maple,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Maranta,
-    <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marantaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marasmiei,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marasmius,
-    <a href="#Page_168">168</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marattia,
-    <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marattiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_209">209</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_212">212</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marcgraviaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marchantia,
-    <a href="#Page_181">181</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_183">183</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_184">184</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marchantiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marchantieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mare’s-tail,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marigold,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marjoram,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marrow,
-    <a href="#Page_480">480</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marrubium,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marsilia,
-    <a href="#Page_216">216</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_217">217</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_219">219</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_220">220</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marsiliaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_218">218</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marsh Cinquefoil,
-    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
-  <li>Marsh-marigold,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Martynia,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Masdevallia,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Massariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Massulæ,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Mast,”
-    <a href="#Page_347">347</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mastic,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mastigobryum,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mastigocoleus,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Maté,
-    <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li>
-  <li>Matico,
-    <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
-  <li>Matricaria,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Matthiola,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Maurandia,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mauritia,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Maxillaria,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>May,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mayacaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
-  <li>Maydeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Meadow-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Meadow Rue,
-    <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
-  <li>Meadow-sweet,
-    <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mecca-balsam,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Meconopsis,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Medicago,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Medick,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Medinilla,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li>
-  <li>Medlar,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Meesea,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Megacarpæa,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melaleuca,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melampodium,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melampsora,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melampsorella,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melampyrum,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melanconidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melandrium,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melanogaster,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melanommaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_609">[609]</span></li>
-  <li>Melanoselinum,
-    <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melanosinapis,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melanospora,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melanoxylon,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melanthium,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melastomaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-  <li>Meliaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melianthaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melianthus,
-    <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melica,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melilotus,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melinophyl,
-    <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melissa,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melobesia,
-    <a href="#Page_80">80</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melocactus,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melochia,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melogrammataceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melon,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melosira,
-    <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
-  <li>Melosireæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Menispermaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Menispermum,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mentha,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_536">536</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Menthol,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mentzelia,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Menyantheæ,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li>
-  <li>Menyanthes,
-    <a href="#Page_240">240</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_543">543</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Menziesia,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mercurialis,
-    <a href="#Page_431">431</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mercury,
-    <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
-  <li>Merendera,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mericarp,
-    <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li>
-  <li>Meridieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Merismopedium,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Merismopedium form,
-    <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mertensia,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Merulius,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mesembrianthemeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mesembrianthemum,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mesocarpaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mesomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mesotænium,
-    <a href="#Page_43">43</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mespilus,
-    <a href="#Page_463">463</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Metaxenous,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
-  <li>Metrosideros,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Metroxylon,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Metzgeria,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Metzleria,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li>
-  <li>Meum,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
-  <li>Michauxia,
-    <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li>
-  <li>Miconia,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li>
-  <li>Micrasterias,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microcachrys,
-    <a href="#Page_255">255</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_260">260</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microchæte,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microchloa,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Micrococcus,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_35">35</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microcoleus,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microconidia,
-    <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microcycas,
-    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microdictyon,
-    <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microglena,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Micropyle,
-    <a href="#Page_242">242</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microsphæra,
-    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microspira-comma,
-    <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microspora,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microsporangia,
-    <a href="#Page_237">237</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microspore,
-    <a href="#Page_200">200</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Microtea,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mignonette,
-    <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mikania,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mildews,
-    <a href="#Page_119">119</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
-  <li>Milfoil,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Milium,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Milk-thistle,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Milk-vetch,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Milk-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li>
-  <li>Millet,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mimosa,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mimosaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mimulus,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mimusops,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mint,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mirabilis,
-    <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mistletoe,
-    <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mitella,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mitromyces,
-    <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mitrula,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mnium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mock Orange-blossom,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Modiola,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-  <li>Moehringia,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mohria,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Molinia,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mollinedia,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mollisia,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mollisiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mollugo,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
-  <li>Momordica,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monacanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monangic,
-    <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monarda,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monardeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.</li>
-  <li>Money-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monimia,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monimiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monkshood,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monoblepharis,
-    <a href="#Page_102">102</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monocotyledones,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_273">273</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_274">274</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monocotyledonous flower,
-    <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monœcious,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monostroma,
-    <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monotropa,
-    <a href="#Page_334">334</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_506">506</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li>
-  <li>Monstera,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
-  <li>Montia,
-    <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-  <li>Moonwort,
-    <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
-  <li>Moraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
-  <li>Moræa,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Morchella,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-  <li>Moreæ,
-    <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li>
-  <li>Morell,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-  <li>Moricandiinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Morina,
-    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</li>
-  <li>Morinda,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mortierellaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mortierella,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-  <li>Morus,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_354">354</a>.</li>
-  <li>Moschatel,
-    <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li>
-  <li>Moss,
-    <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Moss-flower,”
-    <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
-  <li>Moss-fruit,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-  <li>Moss-rose,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mosses,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_181">181</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mougeotia,
-    <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
-  <li>Moulds,
-    <a href="#Page_31">31</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_94">94</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mountain-ash,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mountain-meal,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mountain-pine,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mouse-tail,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mucor,
-    <a href="#Page_97">97</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_98">98</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mucoraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Mucor-yeast,”
-    <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mucro,
-    <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mucuna,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mud-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Muehlenbeckia,
-    <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mulberry,
-    <a href="#Page_353">353</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mullein,
-    <a href="#Page_523">523</a>.</li>
-  <li>Murracytaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Musa,
-    <a href="#Page_324">324</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
-  <li>Musaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Muscardine,”
-    <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</li>
-  <li>Muscari,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Musci,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">frondosi,
-    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Muscineæ,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
-  <li>Museæ,
-    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mushroom,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
-  <li>Musk-rose,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mutisieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mycelium,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mycena,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mycoidea,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mycoideaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mycomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mycorhiza,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_175">175</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_180">180</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li>
-  <li>Mycosiphonales,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myosotis,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_534">534</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myosurus,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_380">380</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myrcia,
-    <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myrica,
-    <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myricaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_337">337</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myricaria,
-    <a href="#Page_411">411</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myriophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myriotrichia,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myriotrichiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myristica,
-    <a href="#Page_392">392</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_610">[610]</span></li>
-  <li>Myristicaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myrmecodia,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myroxylon,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myrrh,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myrrha,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myrrhis,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myrsinaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myrsine,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myrtaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myrteæ,
-    <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myrtifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_482">482</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myrtle,
-    <a href="#Page_487">487</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myrtus,
-    <a href="#Page_488">488</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myxamœba,
-    <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myxogasteres,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myxomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myxophyceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-  <li>Myzodendron,
-    <a href="#Page_500">500</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Naccaria,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nægelia,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Najadaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Najas,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nandina,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Narcissus,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nardostachys,
-    <a href="#Page_557">557</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nardus,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li>
-  <li>Narthecium,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-  <li>Narthex,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nasturtium,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li>
-  <li>Navicula,
-    <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
-  <li>Naviculeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Neck-canal-cells,
-    <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
-  <li>Neckera,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Neckeraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nectandra,
-    <a href="#Page_392">392</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nectria,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-  <li>Neea,
-    <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-  <li>Negundo,
-    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nelumbo,
-    <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nelumboneæ,
-    <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nemalion,
-    <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nemalionales,
-    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nemastomaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nemesia,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nemophila,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Neomeris,
-    <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
-  <li>Neottia,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
-  <li>Neottieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
-  <li>Neovossia,
-    <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nepenthaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_408">408</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nepenthes,
-    <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nepeta,
-    <a href="#Page_536">536</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nepeteæ,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nephelium,
-    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nephrolepis,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nephroselmis,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nerium,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nesæa,
-    <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-  <li>Neslia,
-    <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nest-fungi,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nettle,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_352">352</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
-  <li>Neuradeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-  <li>Neuwiedia,
-    <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nicandra,
-    <a href="#Page_519">519</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nicotiana,
-    <a href="#Page_520">520</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nicotine,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nidularia,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nidulariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nierembergia,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nigella,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_380">380</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nightshade,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nigritella,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nile-lily,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nipa,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nipplewort,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nitella,
-    <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nitelleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nitraria,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nitrifying Bacteria,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nitzchieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Noble Pine,
-    <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
-  <li>Noctiluca,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nodularia,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nolana,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nolanaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_518">518</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Noli-me-tangere,
-    <a href="#Page_421">421</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nonnea,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nonsexual reproduction,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nostoc,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_23">23</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_27">27</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_29">29</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_138">138</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nostocaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nostocopsis,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nothofagus,
-    <a href="#Page_347">347</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_348">348</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
-  <li>Notorhizæ,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nucellus,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_243">243</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nuculiferæ,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_531">531</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nucumentaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nullipora,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nuphar,
-    <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nutmegs,
-    <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nutritive-tissue,
-    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nux vomica,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nyctaginiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nyctalis,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nyctanthes,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nycterinia,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nymphæa,
-    <a href="#Page_387">387</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nymphæaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
-  <li>Nymphæeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_386">386</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li class="hangingindent">Oak,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_346">346</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_347">347</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oat,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_292">292</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oat-grain,
-    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oat-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Obdiplostemonous,
-    <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
-  <li>Obelidium,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-  <li>Obligate parasites,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ochna,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ochnaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ochroma,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ocimum,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ocrea,
-    <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li>
-  <li>Odonthalia,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Odontites,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Œdogoniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</li>
-  <li>Œdogonium,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_11">11</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_55">55</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
-  <li>Œnanthe,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Œnothera,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-  <li>Œnotheraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oidia,
-    <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oidium,
-    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oidium forms,
-    <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oil-mould,
-    <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oil-palm,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Olea,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oleaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oleander,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oligorus,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Olive,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Olive-brown Seaweeds,
-    <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
-  <li>Olive Oil,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Olpidiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-  <li>Olpidieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-  <li>Olpidium,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-  <li>Olyreæ,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Omphalodes,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li>
-  <li>Onagraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oncidium,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oncobyrsa,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Onion,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Onobrychis,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ononis,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Onopordon,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ooblastema-filaments,
-    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oocystis,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oogamous fertilisation,
-    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oogonium,
-    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oophyte,
-    <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oosphere,
-    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oospore,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-  <li>Operculum,
-    <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ophiocytium,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ophioglossaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_209">209</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ophioglossum,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_211">211</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ophiopogon,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ophrydeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ophrys,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
-  <li>Opium-poppy,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oplismenus,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Opuntia,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orange,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orchid, diagram of flower,
-    <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orchidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orchideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_611">[611]</span></li>
-  <li>Orchids,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orchis,
-    <a href="#Page_276">276</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oreobolus,
-    <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oreodoxa,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Organs of attachment,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
-  <li>Origanum,
-    <a href="#Page_536">536</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ornithogalum,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ornithopus,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orobanche,
-    <a href="#Page_334">334</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orontieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orontium,
-    <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orris-root,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orseille,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orthoploceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orthospermeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orthothecium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orthotrichum,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Orthotropous,
-    <a href="#Page_242">242</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oryza,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oryzeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oscillaria,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_23">23</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oscillariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Osiers,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
-  <li>Osmunda,
-    <a href="#Page_209">209</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Osmundaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ostioles,
-    <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ostropa,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ostropaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ostrya,
-    <a href="#Page_345">345</a>.</li>
-  <li>Osyris,
-    <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ouratea,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ouvirandra,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ovary,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ovule,
-    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_242">242</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ovuliferous scale,
-    <a href="#Page_256">256</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oxalidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oxalis,
-    <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ox-eye,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oxslip,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oxybaphus,
-    <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oxycoccus,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_510">510</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oxyria,
-    <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
-  <li>Oyster Mushroom,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Padina,
-    <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pæonia,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pæonieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pæpalanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
-  <li>Palaquium,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Palava,
-    <a href="#Page_429">429</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pales,
-    <a href="#Page_288">288</a>.</li>
-  <li>Palisander-wood,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paliurus,
-    <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
-  <li>Palm,
-    <a href="#Page_275">275</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_276">276</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Branching of,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Inflorescence of,
-    <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
-  <li>Palm-oil,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Palm-wax,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Palm-wine,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Palmæ,
-    <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
-  <li>Palmella-stage,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
-  <li>Palmyra-palm,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paludella,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pampas-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Panama hats,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Panax,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pancratium,
-    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pandanaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pandanus,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pandorina,
-    <a href="#Page_45">45</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paniceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Panicum,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pansy,
-    <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
-  <li>Panus,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Papaveraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li>
-  <li>Papaver,
-    <a href="#Page_394">394</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Papaw,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Papayaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paper-mulberry tree,
-    <a href="#Page_354">354</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Papilionaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_335">335</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pappus,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_566">566</a>.</li>
-  <li>Papyrus,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paradise apple,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paraglobulin,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paraphyses,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paraguay tea,
-    <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li>
-  <li>Parasites,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
-  <li>Parasites, endophytic,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">endozoic,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">epiphytic,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">epizoic,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">facultative,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">obligate,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">pathogenic,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li>Parasitic Bacteria,
-    <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
-  <li>Parasol-fungus,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pariana,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>.</li>
-  <li>Parietaria,
-    <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paris,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paritium,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Parkia,
-    <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
-  <li>Parmelia,
-    <a href="#Page_140">140</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_141">141</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Parnassia,
-    <a href="#Page_453">453</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paronychia,
-    <a href="#Page_365">365</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paronychieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Parrotia,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Parsley,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Parsnip,
-    <a href="#Page_492">492</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Parthenogenesis,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pasanea,
-    <a href="#Page_346">346</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paspalum,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pasta guaranà,
-    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pastinaca,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-  <li>Passerina,
-    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-  <li>Passiflora,
-    <a href="#Page_475">475</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Passifloraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Passiflorinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_475">475</a>.</li>
-  <li>Passion-flower,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Patellaria,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Patellariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Patellea,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paternoster peas,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pathogenic Rod-Bacteria,
-    <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-  <li>Patrinia,
-    <a href="#Page_557">557</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paullinia,
-    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paulownia,
-    <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pavonia,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paxillei,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-  <li>Payena,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Paypayroleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pea,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peach,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pear,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_464">464</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pedagnuoli,
-    <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pedaliaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_518">518</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pediastrum,
-    <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pedicularis,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peganum,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pelargonium,
-    <a href="#Page_418">418</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peliosanthes,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pellia,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pellitory,
-    <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peltigera,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pelvetia,
-    <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
-  <li>Penicillium,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</li>
-  <li>Penium,
-    <a href="#Page_43">43</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pennisetum,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Penny-cress,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Penny-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pentacyclicæ,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pentadesma,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pentapera,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pentstemon,
-    <a href="#Page_524">524</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peplis,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pepper,
-    <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peppermint,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peperomia,
-    <a href="#Page_361">361</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pepperwort,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pereskia,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_376">376</a>.</li>
-  <li>Perianth,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-  <li>Perichætium,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pericarp,
-    <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pericallis,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peridermium,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_154">154</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peridinea,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peridinin,
-    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peridinium,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peridiola,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peridium,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_89">89</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
-  <li>Perigynium,
-    <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
-  <li>Perilla,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Periphyses,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Periplasm,
-    <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
-  <li>Periploca,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Perisperm,
-    <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
-  <li>Perisporiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_612">[612]</span></li>
-  <li>Perisporiales,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_118">118</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peristome,
-    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-  <li>Perithecia,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
-  <li>Periwinkle,
-    <a href="#Page_543">543</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Perizonium,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pernambuco-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peronocarpic ascocarps,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peronospora,
-    <a href="#Page_101">101</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_104">104</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_105">105</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peronosporaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
-  <li>Persea,
-    <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
-  <li>Persica,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
-  <li>Personatæ,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pertusaria,
-    <a href="#Page_140">140</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Petals,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-  <li>Petasites,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Petiveria,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Petrocelis,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Petunia,
-    <a href="#Page_518">518</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peucedaneæ,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peucedanum,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peyssonellia,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Peziza,
-    <a href="#Page_115">115</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pezizaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pezizales,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phacelia,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phacidiales,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phacidium,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phacotus,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phæophyceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phæophyl,
-    <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phæosporeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phæothamnion,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phagocytes,
-    <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phajus,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phalarideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phalaris,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phallaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phalloideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phallus,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phanerogams,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_234">234</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pharbitis,
-    <a href="#Page_516">516</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pharus,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phascum,
-    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phaseoleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phaseolus,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_469">469</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phegopteris,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phellodendron,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
-  <li>Philadephus,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phillyrea,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Philodendron,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
-  <li>Philonotis,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phlebia,
-    <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phleum,
-    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phloëm,
-    <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phlœospora,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phlomis,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phlox,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phœniceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phœnix,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_299">299</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pholiota,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phormium,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_313">313</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phragmidium,
-    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phragmites,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phragmonema,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phrynium,
-    <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phycocyan,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phycoerythrin,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phycomyces,
-    <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phycomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phycophæin,
-    <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phycopyrrin,
-    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phycoxanthin,
-    <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phylica,
-    <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyllachora,
-    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyllactinia,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyllactis,
-    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyllanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_431">431</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyllitis,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyllobium,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyllocactus,
-    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyllocladus,
-    <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyllodia,
-    <a href="#Page_474">474</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyllodoce,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phylloglossum,
-    <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyllophora,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyllosiphon,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyllosiphonaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
-  <li>Physalis,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Physarum,
-    <a href="#Page_6">6</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Physcia,
-    <a href="#Page_139">139</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Physcomitrium,
-    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Physiological varieties,
-    <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-  <li>Physoderma,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-  <li>Physostigma,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phytelephantinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phytelephas,
-    <a href="#Page_299">299</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phyteuma,
-    <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phytoamœbæ,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phytolacca,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phytolaccaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phytomyxa,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Phytophthora,
-    <a href="#Page_101">101</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_104">104</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_105">105</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
-  <li>Piassava,
-    <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
-  <li>Picea,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_265">265</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pichurim,
-    <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li>
-  <li>Picraena,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Picris,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Picrotoxine,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pilacraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pilacre,
-    <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pilea,
-    <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pilobolus,
-    <a href="#Page_99">99</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pilostyles,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pilularia,
-    <a href="#Page_216">216</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pimelea,
-    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pimenta,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pimento,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pimpernel,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pimpinell,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pimpinella,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pine,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_255">255</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_263">263</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pine-apple,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pine-shoot Fungus,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pinellia,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pinguicula,
-    <a href="#Page_334">334</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pink,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pin-mould,
-    <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pinnularia,
-    <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">Pinus,
-    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_264">264</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_265">265</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pinoideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_256">256</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_258">258</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_262">262</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pipe-flower,
-    <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li>
-  <li>Piper,
-    <a href="#Page_361">361</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
-  <li>Piperaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pipereæ,
-    <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
-  <li>Piptocephalidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-  <li>Piptocephalis,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pircunia,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pisonia,
-    <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pistia,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pistacia,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pistil,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pistillaria,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pistillate,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pisum,
-    <a href="#Page_469">469</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pitcairnia,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pitcher-plant,
-    <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pittosporaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pittosporum,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Placenta,
-    <a href="#Page_237">237</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
-  <li>Placochromaticæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plagiochila,
-    <a href="#Page_189">189</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plagiothecium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plagiotropideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Planera,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Plankton,”
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-  <li>Planogametes,
-    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plantago,
-    <a href="#Page_335">335</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_531">531</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_536">536</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_559">559</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plantaginaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_518">518</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plantain,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plasmodia,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plasmodiophora,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plasmodiophorales,
-    <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.</li>
-  <li>Platanaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Platanus,
-    <a href="#Page_456">456</a>.</li>
-  <li>Platanthera,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plate-cultures,
-    <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_613">[613]</span></li>
-  <li>Platonia,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Platycerium,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-  <li>Platycodon,
-    <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li>
-  <li>Platystemon,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plectonema,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plectranthus,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pleospora,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pleosporaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pleurandra,
-    <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pleuridium,
-    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pleurocarpi,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pleurococcaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pleurococcus,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pleurorhizæ.
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pleurotænium,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pleurothallis,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pleurotus,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plocamium,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plum,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plumbaginaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plumbago,
-    <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plumeria,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Plumule,
-    <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pneumathodia,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-  <li>Poa,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Pocket-plum,”
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Pockets,”
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pod,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pod-pepper,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Podalyrieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li>
-  <li>Podocarpeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
-  <li>Podocarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_251">251</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_255">255</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_261">261</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-  <li>Podophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_390">390</a>.</li>
-  <li>Podosphæra,
-    <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-  <li>Podospora,
-    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-  <li>Podostemaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_456">456</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pogostemon,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Poinciana,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Point Caraway,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polanisia,
-    <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polemoniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polemonium,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polianthes,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pollinarium,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pollinia,
-    <a href="#Page_329">329</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pollinodium,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pollen-chamber,
-    <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pollen-grain,
-    <a href="#Page_240">240</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_244">244</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pollen-sac,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_237">237</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pollen-tube,
-    <a href="#Page_244">244</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polycarpicæ,
-    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polycystis,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polydinida,
-    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polyembryony,
-    <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polygala,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_443">443</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polygalaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polygamous,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polygonaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polygonatum,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polygonifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_358">358</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polygonum,
-    <a href="#Page_359">359</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_360">360</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polyides,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polykrikos,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polypetalæ,
-    <a href="#Page_336">336</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polyphagus,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polypodiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_202">202</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_206">206</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_209">209</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polypodium,
-    <a href="#Page_207">207</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polyporaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polyporus,
-    <a href="#Page_163">163</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polysiphonia,
-    <a href="#Page_79">79</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polystachya,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polystigma,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polytrichaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Polytrichum,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pomaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_456">456</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pomaderris,
-    <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pomalo,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pomegranate,
-    <a href="#Page_488">488</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pomona-fungus,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pond-weed,
-    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pontederia,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pontederiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Poplar,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li>
-  <li>Poppies,
-    <a href="#Page_394">394</a>.</li>
-  <li>Populus,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pore-fungus,
-    <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
-  <li>Porogames,
-    <a href="#Page_273">273</a>.</li>
-  <li>Poronia,
-    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-  <li>Porphyra,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
-  <li>Porphyraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</li>
-  <li>Portulaca,
-    <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-  <li>Portulacaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-  <li>Posidonia,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>.</li>
-  <li>Potamogeton,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-  <li>Potamogetonaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-  <li>Potato-fungus,
-    <a href="#Page_104">104</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
-  <li>Potato-plant,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Potentilla,
-    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Potentilleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
-  <li>Poterium,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pothos,
-    <a href="#Page_304">304</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pottia,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pottiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pouzolzia,
-    <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
-  <li>Prasiola,
-    <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-  <li>Preissia,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
-  <li>Preslia,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Primrose,
-    <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li>
-  <li>Primula,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_512">512</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Primulaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_512">512</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li>
-  <li>Primulinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pringsheimia,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Prionium,
-    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pritchardia,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
-  <li>Priva,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Privet,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Procarpium,
-    <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
-  <li>Proembryo,
-    <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
-  <li>Profichi,
-    <a href="#Page_355">355</a>.</li>
-  <li>Promycelium,
-    <a href="#Page_94">94</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pronucleus,
-    <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
-  <li>Prorocentrum,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.</li>
-  <li>Protea,
-    <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li>
-  <li>Proteaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li>
-  <li>Prothallium,
-    <a href="#Page_198">198</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_244">244</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Secondary,
-    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
-  <li>Protistæ,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
-  <li>Protium,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Protobasidia,
-    <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</li>
-  <li>Protobasidiomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.</li>
-  <li>Protococcaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Protococcoideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</li>
-  <li>Protomyces,
-    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-  <li>Protomycetaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-  <li>Protonema,
-    <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
-  <li>Provence oil,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Prunella,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Prunus,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_118">118</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Psalliota,
-    <a href="#Page_167">167</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_168">168</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_169">169</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Psamma,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pseudophacidiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pseudopodium,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pseudotsuga,
-    <a href="#Page_264">264</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_265">265</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>Psidium,
-    <a href="#Page_488">488</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Psilotaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
-  <li>Psilotum,
-    <a href="#Page_201">201</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
-  <li>Psychotria,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ptelea,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pteridium,
-    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_207">207</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pteridophyta,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_198">198</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_234">234</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pterigynandrum,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pteris,
-    <a href="#Page_199">199</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_203">203</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pterisanthes,
-    <a href="#Page_445">445</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pterocarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pterocarya,
-    <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pterocephalus,
-    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pterogoniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pterogyne,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pterostegia,
-    <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pterygophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ptilidium,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ptilota,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ptychogaster,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Puccinia,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_149">149</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
-  <li>Puff-ball,
-    <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pulmonaria,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_534">534</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pulque,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pulsatilla,
-    <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pumpkin,
-    <a href="#Page_480">480</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Punctaria,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Punica,
-    <a href="#Page_483">483</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_488">488</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li>
-  <li>Puniceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_488">488</a>.</li>
-  <li>Puschkinia,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Putrefaction,
-    <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_614">[614]</span></li>
-  <li>Puya,
-    <a href="#Page_319">319</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pycnidia,
-    <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pylaiella,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pyrenoid,
-    <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pyrenolichenes,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pyrenomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_118">118</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pyrenula,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pyrethrum,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pyrola,
-    <a href="#Page_334">334</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_506">506</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pyrolaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_506">506</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pyrrophyl,
-    <a href="#Page_16">16</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pyrus,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_463">463</a>.</li>
-  <li>Pythium,
-    <a href="#Page_101">101</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Quaking-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Quassia,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Quassine,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Quercifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_337">337</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_340">340</a>.</li>
-  <li>Quercitron-wood,
-    <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
-  <li>Quercus,
-    <a href="#Page_341">341</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_346">346</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_347">347</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_348">348</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Quillaja,
-    <a href="#Page_457">457</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Quillajeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-  <li>Quill-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.</li>
-  <li>Quince,
-    <a href="#Page_464">464</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Quinchamalium,
-    <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li>
-  <li>Quinine,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Racomitrium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Radiatæ,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Radicle,
-    <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
-  <li>Radiola,
-    <a href="#Page_418">418</a>.</li>
-  <li>Radiolarias,
-    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
-  <li>Radish,
-    <a href="#Page_403">403</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Radula,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rafflesia,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rafflesiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_499">499</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Raisins,
-    <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rajania,
-    <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ralfsia,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ralfsiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ramalina,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ramenta,
-    <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ramié,
-    <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rampion,
-    <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li>
-  <li>Randia,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ranunculaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_378">378</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ranunculeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ranunculus,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_378">378</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_380">380</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_384">384</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rapateaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rape,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Raphanus,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_403">403</a>.</li>
-  <li>Raphia,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>.</li>
-  <li>Raphidium,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Raphiolepis,
-    <a href="#Page_463">463</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Raspberry,
-    <a href="#Page_459">459</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ravenala,
-    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ray-flowers,
-    <a href="#Page_567">567</a>.</li>
-  <li>Reboulia,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
-  <li>Receptacle,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
-  <li>Red Algæ,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>
-  <li>Red-beet,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Red-cabbage,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Red-clover,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-  <li>Red-currant,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Red-pine,
-    <a href="#Page_264">264</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Red-rot,”
-    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Red Sandalwood,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Red Seaweeds,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
-  <li>Red Snow,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-  <li>Red-strip,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
-  <li>Red-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Reed,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Reed-mace,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
-  <li>Reindeer Moss,
-    <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
-  <li>Reineckea,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Remijia,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Renealmia,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Replum,
-    <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
-  <li>Reseda,
-    <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
-  <li>Resedaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_406">406</a>.</li>
-  <li>Resin,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rest-harrow,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Restiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
-  <li>Restio,
-    <a href="#Page_309">309</a>.</li>
-  <li>Restrepia,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Retama,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Reticularia,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Retinospora,
-    <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhamnaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_447">447</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhamnus,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhaphidophora,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhatany,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rheum,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_359">359</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhinanthaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhinantheæ,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhinanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhingia,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhipidium,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhipsalis,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_376">376</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_377">377</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizidiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizoboleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizocarpeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizoclonium,
-    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizoids,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizomorpha,
-    <a href="#Page_169">169</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizopaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizophora,
-    <a href="#Page_482">482</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_487">487</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizophoraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_482">482</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizophyllidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizophyllis,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizopods,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizopogon,
-    <a href="#Page_175">175</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizopus,
-    <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhizosolenia,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodanthe,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodiola,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodochiton,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhododendron,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodomela,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodomelaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodophyceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodophyll,
-    <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodophyllidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodophyllis,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodoraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_335">335</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodotypus,
-    <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodymenia,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodymeniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhodymeniales,
-    <a href="#Page_82">82</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhœadinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_393">393</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhopographus,
-    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhubarb,
-    <a href="#Page_359">359</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhus,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhynchosia,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhynchospora,
-    <a href="#Page_285">285</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rhytisma,
-    <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ribbon-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ribes,
-    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_454">454</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ribesiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_454">454</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rib-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li>
-  <li>Riccia,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_189">189</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ricciaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rice,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Richardia,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>.</li>
-  <li>Richardsonia,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ricinus,
-    <a href="#Page_431">431</a>.</li>
-  <li>Riella,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ringworm,
-    <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rivina,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rivularia,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rivulariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Robinia,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Roccella,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rock-cress,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rock-rose,
-    <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rod-bacteria,
-    <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-  <li>Roestelia,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>.</li>
-  <li>Roman spinach,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Roots,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Ropiness,”
-    <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rosa,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_459">459</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rosaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rose,
-    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rose-mallow,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rose of Jericho,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Roseæ,
-    <a href="#Page_459">459</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rosellinia,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rosemary,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Oil of,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rosifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_456">456</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rosmarinus,
-    <a href="#Page_536">536</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rostellum,
-    <a href="#Page_329">329</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rotang,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
-  <li>Royal-fern,
-    <a href="#Page_209">209</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rubeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_615">[615]</span></li>
-  <li>Rubia,
-    <a href="#Page_551">551</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_552">552</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rubiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_548">548</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rubiales,
-    <a href="#Page_490">490</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_548">548</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_556">556</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rubus,
-    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rudbeckia,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ruellia,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rulingia,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rumex,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_359">359</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_360">360</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ruppia,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ruscus,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rush,
-    <a href="#Page_283">283</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-  <li>Russula,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Russulei,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rust of Wheat,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rusts,
-    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Rust spots,”
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ruta,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rutaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ruteæ,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rye,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rye-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Rye-stem blight,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Sabal,
-    <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sabaleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_299">299</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saccharomyces,
-    <a href="#Page_177">177</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saccharomyces-forms,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saccharum,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Safflower,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saffron,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sagina,
-    <a href="#Page_364">364</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_365">365</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sagittaria,
-    <a href="#Page_281">281</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sago,
-    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sago-palm,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sainfoin,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Salep,”
-    <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salicaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salicin,
-    <a href="#Page_339">339</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salicifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_337">337</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salicornia,
-    <a href="#Page_369">369</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_503">503</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salicornieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salisburia,
-    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salix,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_337">337</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salpiglossis,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salsafy,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salsola,
-    <a href="#Page_370">370</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salsoleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saltpetre formation,
-    <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saltwort,
-    <a href="#Page_370">370</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salvadora,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salvadoraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salvia,
-    <a href="#Page_536">536</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salvinia,
-    <a href="#Page_201">201</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_216">216</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_217">217</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_218">218</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
-  <li>Salviniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sambuceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_555">555</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_557">557</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sambucus,
-    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_555">555</a>.</li>
-  <li>Samolus,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Samydaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sandalwood,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sandarack resin,
-    <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sand-box tree,
-    <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sand-star,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sanguinaria,
-    <a href="#Page_395">395</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sanguisorba,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sanicula,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sannicle,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sanseviera,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Santalaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li>
-  <li>Santalum,
-    <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li>
-  <li>Santolina,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sapindaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sapindus,
-    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saponaria,
-    <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saponin,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sapotaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_510">510</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saprolegnia,
-    <a href="#Page_102">102</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_107">107</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saprolegniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saprophytes,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sapucaia-nuts,
-    <a href="#Page_489">489</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saranthe,
-    <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sarcina,
-    <a href="#Page_27">27</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_28">28</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sarcophyte,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sargassum,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_73">73</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sarothamnus,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sarracenia,
-    <a href="#Page_409">409</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sarraceniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_408">408</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sarsaparilla,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sassafras,
-    <a href="#Page_392">392</a>.</li>
-  <li>Satureia,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Satureieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saurureæ,
-    <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saururus,
-    <a href="#Page_362">362</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saussurea,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sauvagesieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saw-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saxifraga,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saxifragaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saxifrage,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Saxifraginæ,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_555">555</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scabiosa,
-    <a href="#Page_558">558</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_559">559</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scævola,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scale-leaves,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scammony,
-    <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scandiceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scandix,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scapania,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scarlet-runner,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scenedesmus,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scheuchzeria,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schistostega,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schistostegaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schizæa,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schizæaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schizanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schizocarp,
-    <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schizocarpeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schizochlamys,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schizomeris,
-    <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schizomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schizopetaleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schizopetalum,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schizophyceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_23">23</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schizophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schizophyta,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_19">19</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schœnocaulon,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schœnoxiphium,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schœnus,
-    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
-  <li>Schwendenerian Theory,
-    <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sciadium,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sciadopitys,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scilla,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scirpeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scirpus,
-    <a href="#Page_285">285</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scirrhia,
-    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scitamineæ,
-    <a href="#Page_276">276</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_323">323</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scitonemaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scleranthus,
-    <a href="#Page_365">365</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scleria,
-    <a href="#Page_286">286</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scleroderma,
-    <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sclerodermataceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sclerotinia,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sclerotium,
-    <a href="#Page_87">87</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scolopendrium,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scoparia,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scopolia,
-    <a href="#Page_519">519</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scorodosma,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scorzonera,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scotch Fir,
-    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scotinosphæra,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Screw Pine,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scrophularia,
-    <a href="#Page_524">524</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scrophulariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_518">518</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scutellaria,
-    <a href="#Page_536">536</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scutellum,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scyballium,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scytonema,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Scytonemaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sea-holly,
-    <a href="#Page_493">493</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sea-kale,
-    <a href="#Page_403">403</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sea-lavender,
-    <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sea-milkwort,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Seaweed,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sea-wormwood,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sebacina,
-    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
-  <li>Secale,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">cornutum,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sechium,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Sedimentary-yeast,”
-    <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sedum,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Seed,
-    <a href="#Page_247">247</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
-  <li>Seguieria,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Selaginaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li class="hangingindent">Selaginella,
-    <a href="#Page_200">200</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_203">203</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_228">228</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_229">229</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_230">230</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_232">232</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_245">245</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_254">254</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_616">[616]</span>.</li>
-  <li>Selaginellaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
-  <li>Selaginelleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
-  <li>Selago,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Selenastrum,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Selenipedilum,
-    <a href="#Page_329">329</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_330">330</a>.</li>
-  <li>Seligeria,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Seligeriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Semele,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sempervivum,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Senebiera,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Senecio,
-    <a href="#Page_566">566</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Senecioneæ,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Senna,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sepals,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sequoia,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-  <li>Serapias,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Serjania,
-    <a href="#Page_441">441</a>.</li>
-  <li>Serratula,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Serum,
-    <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</li>
-  <li>Service-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sesamum,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Seseli,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
-  <li>Seselineæ,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sesleria,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sesuvium,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
-  <li>Seta,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-  <li>Setaria,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sexual reproduction,
-    <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sheep-seaweed,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Shellac,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Shepherdia,
-    <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li>
-  <li>Shepherd’s-needle,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
-  <li>Shepherd’s-purse,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sherardia,
-    <a href="#Page_552">552</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Sichel,”
-    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Sickle,”
-    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sicyos,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sida,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sideritis,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sideroxylon,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sigillariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
-  <li>Silaus,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sileneæ,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Silene,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Siler,
-    <a href="#Page_495">495</a>.</li>
-  <li>Siliceous earth,
-    <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
-  <li>Siliculosæ angustiseptæ,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">latiseptæ,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Siliqua,
-    <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
-  <li>Siliquosæ,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Silk-cotton,
-    <a href="#Page_427">427</a>.</li>
-  <li>Silphium,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Silver-leaf,
-    <a href="#Page_450">450</a>.</li>
-  <li>Silybum,
-    <a href="#Page_567">567</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Simaba,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Simaruba,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Simarubaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sinapeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sinapis,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Siphocampylos,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li>
-  <li>Siphoneæ,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</li>
-  <li>Siphonia,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Siphonocladus,
-    <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sirosiphoniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sisal hemp,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sisymbriinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sisymbrium,
-    <a href="#Page_399">399</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sisyrinchium,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sium,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Skimmia,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
-  <li>Skull-cap,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>.</li>
-  <li>Slime-fungi,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_5">5</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sloe,
-    <a href="#Page_461">461</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_462">462</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sloth,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Smilaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Smilacina,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Smilax,
-    <a href="#Page_315">315</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Smut,”
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Smut-fungi,
-    <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
-  <li>Snake cucumber,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Snapdragon,
-    <a href="#Page_523">523</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_524">524</a>.</li>
-  <li>Snowberry,
-    <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</li>
-  <li>Snowdrop,
-    <a href="#Page_317">317</a>.</li>
-  <li>Soapwort,
-    <a href="#Page_368">368</a>.</li>
-  <li>Soft-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Soja,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Solanaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_514">514</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_518">518</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_520">520</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Solanine,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Solanum,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Soldanella,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Solenia,
-    <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
-  <li>Solidago,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sollya,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Solomon’s seal,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sonchus,
-    <a href="#Page_153">153</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sophora,
-    <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sophoreæ,
-    <a href="#Page_469">469</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sorbus,
-    <a href="#Page_152">152</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sordaria,
-    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sordariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-  <li>Soredia,
-    <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sorghum,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sori,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sorocea,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sorrel,
-    <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
-  <li>Southernwood,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sow-thistle,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spadicifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spadix,
-    <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sparassis,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sparaxis,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sparganium,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sparmannia,
-    <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spartium,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spathe,
-    <a href="#Page_297">297</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spathicarpa,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spathulea,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spearmint,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Specularia,
-    <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li>
-  <li>Speedwell,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spergula,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spergularia,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spermacoce,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spermacoceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spermagonia,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spermaphyta,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spermatangia,
-    <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spermatia,
-    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_76">76</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_77">77</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_141">141</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spermatochnaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spermatochnus,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spermatozoid,
-    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sperm-nucleus,
-    <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spermocarp,
-    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spermogonia,
-    <a href="#Page_89">89</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_141">141</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spermothamnion,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphacelaria,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphacelariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphacelia,
-    <a href="#Page_125">125</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphacelotheca,
-    <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphæralcea,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphærella,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphærellaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphæriales,
-    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphærobolaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphærobolus,
-    <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphærocarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphærococcaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_83">83</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphærophorus,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphæroplea,
-    <a href="#Page_13">13</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphæropleaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphærotheca,
-    <a href="#Page_120">120</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphærozosma,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphagneæ,
-    <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphagnum,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_188">188</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_194">194</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphenogyne,
-    <a href="#Page_566">566</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphenophyllaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sphinctrina,
-    <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spigelia,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spikelet,
-    <a href="#Page_285">285</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_289">289</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spikes,
-    <a href="#Page_285">285</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spilanthes,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spinach,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spinacia,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spindle-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spiræa,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_456">456</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_457">457</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spiræeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_457">457</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spiranthes,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spirilla,
-    <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spirillum,
-    <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spirochætæ,
-    <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spirochæte,
-    <a href="#Page_28">28</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_38">38</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spirodela,
-    <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spirogyra,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_617">[617]</span></li>
-  <li>Spirolobeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spirotænia,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spirulina,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Splachnaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Splachnum,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spondias,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sponges,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sporangia,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sporangial-layers,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sporangiocarp,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sporangio-fructification,
-    <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sporangiophore,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spores,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Liberation and Distribution of,
-    <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Germination of,
-    <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sporidia,
-    <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sporobolus,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sporocarp,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sporochnaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sporochnus,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sporogonium,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sporophylls,
-    <a href="#Page_223">223</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sporophyte,
-    <a href="#Page_181">181</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spring-spores,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spumaria,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spurge,
-    <a href="#Page_431">431</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spurge-laurel,
-    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-  <li>Spurry,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Squamariacæ,
-    <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Squills,”
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Squirting cucumber,
-    <a href="#Page_480">480</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stachydeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stachys,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stachytarpheta,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Staehelina,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stag-truffle,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stalk,
-    <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stamen,
-    <a href="#Page_235">235</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
-  <li>Staminate,
-    <a href="#Page_236">236</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stangeria,
-    <a href="#Page_253">253</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stanhopea,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stanleyinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stapelia,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Staphylea,
-    <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
-  <li>Staphyleaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_440">440</a>.</li>
-  <li>Staphylococcus,
-    <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-  <li>Star-aniseed,
-    <a href="#Page_389">389</a>.</li>
-  <li>Statice,
-    <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li>
-  <li>Staurastrum,
-    <a href="#Page_42">42</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_43">43</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Steenhammera,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stegocarpeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stellaria,
-    <a href="#Page_364">364</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_365">365</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stellatæ,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_552">552</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stemless Plants,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stemonitis,
-    <a href="#Page_7">7</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stephanospermum,
-    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stephanosphæra,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sterculia,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sterculiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stereocaulon,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stereum,
-    <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sterigmata,
-    <a href="#Page_144">144</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sterilization,
-    <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sticta,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_137">137</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stictidaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stictidales,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stictis,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stigeoclonium,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stigma,
-    <a href="#Page_3">3</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stigmaria,
-    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stigonema,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stilbaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stilbe,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stillingia,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stilophora,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stilophoraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stinkbrand,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stink-horn,
-    <a href="#Page_172">172</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_173">173</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stipa,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stitchwort,
-    <a href="#Page_366">366</a>.</li>
-  <li>St. John’s-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stock,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stonebrand,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stonecrop,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stone-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stork’s-bill,
-    <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stratiotes,
-    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-  <li>Strawberry,
-    <a href="#Page_458">458</a>.</li>
-  <li>Strawberry-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>.</li>
-  <li>Strelitzia,
-    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
-  <li>Streptocarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Streptochæta,
-    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>.</li>
-  <li>Streptococcus,
-    <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</li>
-  <li>Streptopus,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Striaria,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Striariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Strickeria,
-    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stroma,
-    <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stromanthe,
-    <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
-  <li>Strophanthus,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Struthiopteris,
-    <a href="#Page_209">209</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
-  <li>Struvea,
-    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-  <li>Strychnine,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Strychnos,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sturmia,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stylar-column,
-    <a href="#Page_328">328</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">-brush,
-    <a href="#Page_567">567</a>.</li>
-  <li>Style,
-    <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stylidiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stylidium,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stylochrysalis,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Stylopod,
-    <a href="#Page_492">492</a>.</li>
-  <li>Styphelia,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Styracaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Styrax,
-    <a href="#Page_511">511</a>.</li>
-  <li>Styrax-balsam,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>.</li>
-  <li>Subhymenial layer,
-    <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
-  <li>Subularia,
-    <a href="#Page_393">393</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_399">399</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Succisa,
-    <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sugar-beet,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sugar-cane,
-    <a href="#Page_289">289</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sugar-root,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sulphur-bacteria,
-    <a href="#Page_37">37</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sumach,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Summer-spores,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sundew,
-    <a href="#Page_407">407</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sun-flower,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sunn hemp,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Surface yeast,”
-    <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
-  <li>Surirayeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Suspensor,
-    <a href="#Page_233">233</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_246">246</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
-  <li>Swamp cypress,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-  <li>Swarmspores,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
-  <li>Swede,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sweet Cicely,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sweet-flag,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sweet-gale,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sweet oil,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sweet-pea,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sweet-potato,
-    <a href="#Page_517">517</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sweet-vernal,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Swertia,
-    <a href="#Page_542">542</a>.</li>
-  <li>Swietenia,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Swine’s-succory,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sycamore,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Symbiosis,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</li>
-  <li>Sympetalæ,
-    <a href="#Page_336">336</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Symphoricarpus,
-    <a href="#Page_554">554</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li>
-  <li>Symphyandra,
-    <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li>
-  <li>Symphyllodium,
-    <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
-  <li>Symphytopleura,
-    <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
-  <li>Symphytum,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Symploca,
-    <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</li>
-  <li>Synalissa,
-    <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</li>
-  <li>Synandrium,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Synangium,
-    <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
-  <li>Syncarp,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
-  <li>Syncephalis,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-  <li>Synchytrieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-  <li>Synchytrium,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-  <li>Syncrypta,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Synedra,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Synergidæ,
-    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-  <li>Syngeneticæ,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_17">17</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-  <li>Syngonium,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Synura,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Syringa,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_547">547</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_550">550</a>.</li>
-  <li>Systegium,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Systematic division of the Algæ,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">of Filices,
-    <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">of Fungi,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">of Monocotyledons,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">of Thallophytes,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">of Vascular Cryptogams,
-    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Tabellaria,
-    <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_618">[618]</span></li>
-  <li>Tabellarieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tabernæmontana,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Taccarum,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tacona,
-    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tagetes,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Takamahaka,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Talinum,
-    <a href="#Page_373">373</a>.</li>
-  <li>Talipot,
-    <a href="#Page_298">298</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tallow-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tamaricaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tamarind,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tamarindus,
-    <a href="#Page_467">467</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tamarisk,
-    <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tamarix,
-    <a href="#Page_411">411</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_412">412</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tamus,
-    <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tanacetum,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tanghinia,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tannin,
-    <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tansy,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tapetum,
-    <a href="#Page_203">203</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_239">239</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
-  <li>Taphrina,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
-  <li>Taphrinaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tapioca,
-    <a href="#Page_434">434</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tar,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>Taraxacum,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_566">566</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Targionia,
-    <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tassel Pond-weed,
-    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-  <li>Taxaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-  <li>Taxeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_261">261</a>.</li>
-  <li>Taxodiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_257">257</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-  <li>Taxodium,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-  <li>Taxoideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_258">258</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
-  <li>Taxus,
-    <a href="#Page_237">237</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_238">238</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_255">255</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_257">257</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_261">261</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_262">262</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tea,
-    <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tea-plant, False,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tea-rose,
-    <a href="#Page_460">460</a>.</li>
-  <li>Teak-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tear-Fungus,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Teasel,
-    <a href="#Page_494">494</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_558">558</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_560">560</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tecoma,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tectona,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Teesdalia,
-    <a href="#Page_398">398</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>.</li>
-  <li>Telegraph-plant,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
-  <li>Teleutospores,
-    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tellima,
-    <a href="#Page_452">452</a>.</li>
-  <li>Terebinthinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_435">435</a>.</li>
-  <li>Terfezia,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-  <li>Terminalia,
-    <a href="#Page_487">487</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ternstrœmiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Testa,
-    <a href="#Page_247">247</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
-  <li>Testudinaria,
-    <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tetmemorus,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tetracyclicæ,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tetradynamia,
-    <a href="#Page_398">398</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tetragonia,
-    <a href="#Page_375">375</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tetragonolobus,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tetraphis,
-    <a href="#Page_195">195</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tetrapoma,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tetrapteris,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tetraspora,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tetrasporaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tetraspores,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
-  <li>Teucrium,
-    <a href="#Page_567">567</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thalassia,
-    <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thalia,
-    <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thalictrum,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thallophyta,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thallus,
-    <a href="#Page_1">1</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thamnidiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thamnidium,
-    <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thea,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thecaphora,
-    <a href="#Page_110">110</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thëin,
-    <a href="#Page_374">374</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thelebolaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thelebolus,
-    <a href="#Page_109">109</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thelephora,
-    <a href="#Page_162">162</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thelephoraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thelygonum,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thelypodieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Theobroma,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
-  <li>Theobromine,
-    <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
-  <li>Theophrasta,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thesium,
-    <a href="#Page_500">500</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thistle,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thladiantha,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thlaspi,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_401">401</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thomasia,
-    <a href="#Page_422">422</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thorn-apple,
-    <a href="#Page_520">520</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thottea,
-    <a href="#Page_499">499</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thrift,
-    <a href="#Page_514">514</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thrinax,
-    <a href="#Page_300">300</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thrush,
-    <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thuidium,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thuja,
-    <a href="#Page_241">241</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thujopsis,
-    <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thunbergia,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thyme,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thymelæa,
-    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thymelæaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_449">449</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thymelæinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
-  <li>Thymus,
-    <a href="#Page_537">537</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_539">539</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_541">541</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tiaridium,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tibouchina,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ticorea,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tigridia,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tilia,
-    <a href="#Page_424">424</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tiliaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_423">423</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tillandsia,
-    <a href="#Page_320">320</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tilletia,
-    <a href="#Page_111">111</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_112">112</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tilletiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_110">110</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tilopteridaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tilopteris,
-    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-  <li>Timothy-grass,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tinnantia,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tmesipteris,
-    <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</li>
-  <li>Toad-flax,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Toad-rush,
-    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-  <li>Toadstools,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tobacco,
-    <a href="#Page_520">520</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Virginian,
-    <a href="#Page_522">522</a>.</li>
-  <li>Toddalieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_437">437</a>.</li>
-  <li>Todea,
-    <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tofieldia,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tofieldieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tolu, Balsam of,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Toluifera,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tolypella,
-    <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tolypellopsis,
-    <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tolyposporium,
-    <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tolypothrix,
-    <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tomato,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tomentella,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tomentellaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tonquin-bean,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tooth-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tordylium,
-    <a href="#Page_496">496</a>.</li>
-  <li>Torenia,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Torilis,
-    <a href="#Page_497">497</a>.</li>
-  <li>Torreya,
-    <a href="#Page_262">262</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
-  <li>Touchwood,
-    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tournefortia,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trabeculæ,
-    <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tracheides,
-    <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trachylobium,
-    <a href="#Page_468">468</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tradescantia,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trama,
-    <a href="#Page_167">167</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trametes,
-    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tragacanth, Gum,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tragopogon,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_564">564</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trapa,
-    <a href="#Page_485">485</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.</li>
-  <li>Travellers’ Palm,
-    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tremandraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tremella,
-    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_157">157</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tremellaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trentepohlia,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tribulus,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trichia,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trichocoma,
-    <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trichodesmium,
-    <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trichogyne,
-    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tricholoma,
-    <a href="#Page_168">168</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trichomanes,
-    <a href="#Page_206">206</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trichophilus,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trichosanthes,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trichosphæria,
-    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trichosphæriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trichostomum,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tricoccæ,
-    <a href="#Page_430">430</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tricyrtis,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trientalis,
-    <a href="#Page_512">512</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_513">513</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trifolieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trifolium,
-    <a href="#Page_469">469</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Triglochin,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trigoniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trillium,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Triodia,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Triphasia,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Triphragmium,
-    <a href="#Page_147">147</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
-  <li>Triplaris,
-    <a href="#Page_361">361</a>.</li>
-  <li>Triteleia,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Triticum,
-    <a href="#Page_288">288</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a><span class="pagenum" id="Page_619">[619]</span>.</li>
-  <li>Tritonia,
-    <a href="#Page_321">321</a>.</li>
-  <li>Triumfetta,
-    <a href="#Page_424">424</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_425">425</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trollius,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_381">381</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tropæolaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_419">419</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tropæolum,
-    <a href="#Page_420">420</a>.</li>
-  <li>True Ferns,
-    <a href="#Page_204">204</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
-  <li>True Laurels,
-    <a href="#Page_391">391</a>.</li>
-  <li>True Mosses,
-    <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.</li>
-  <li>Truffles,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trumpet-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Trumpet-wood,
-    <a href="#Page_529">529</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tryblidiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tryblidiales,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tryblidium,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tsuga,
-    <a href="#Page_265">265</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tuber,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tuberaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tubercles,
-    <a href="#Page_8">8</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_466">466</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tubercularia,
-    <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tuberose,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tubifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_505">505</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_514">514</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tuburcinia,
-    <a href="#Page_110">110</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_111">111</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tulip,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tulipa,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tulipeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tupa,
-    <a href="#Page_563">563</a>.</li>
-  <li>Turkish-millet,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Turmeric,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Turneraceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_476">476</a>.</li>
-  <li>Turnip,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Turpentine,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Turritinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tussilago,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tydæa,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tylostoma,
-    <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
-  <li>Tylostomaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_174">174</a>.</li>
-  <li>Typha,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_303">303</a>.</li>
-  <li>Typhaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Typhula,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Ulex,
-    <a href="#Page_472">472</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ullucus,
-    <a href="#Page_371">371</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_372">372</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ulmaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ulmeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ulmus,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ulothricaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ulothrix,
-    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_53">53</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ulva,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ulvaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
-  <li>Umbelliferæ,
-    <a href="#Page_491">491</a>.</li>
-  <li>Umbellifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_490">490</a>.</li>
-  <li>Umbilicaria,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Umbilicus,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>.</li>
-  <li>Uncaria,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Uncinia,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-  <li>Uncinula,
-    <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</li>
-  <li>Upas-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_356">356</a>.</li>
-  <li>Urare,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Uredinaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_145">145</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
-  <li>Uredo,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
-  <li>Urena,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ureneæ,
-    <a href="#Page_428">428</a>.</li>
-  <li>Urginea,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_314">314</a>.</li>
-  <li>Urocystis,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-  <li>Uroglena,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Uromyces,
-    <a href="#Page_148">148</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</li>
-  <li>Urophlyctis,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-  <li>Urospora,
-    <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</li>
-  <li>Urtica,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_151">151</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_353">353</a>.</li>
-  <li>Urticaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_352">352</a>.</li>
-  <li>Urticifloræ,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
-  <li>Usnea,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ustilaginaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_110">110</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ustilagineæ,
-    <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ustilago,
-    <a href="#Page_111">111</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ustulina,
-    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-  <li>Utricularia,
-    <a href="#Page_527">527</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_528">528</a>.</li>
-  <li>Utriculariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_518">518</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li>
-  <li>Utriculus,
-    <a href="#Page_287">287</a>.</li>
-  <li>Uvularia,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Vaccines,
-    <a href="#Page_41">41</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vacciniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_451">451</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_508">508</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vaccinium,
-    <a href="#Page_134">134</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_160">160</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_161">161</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_510">510</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vaginula,
-    <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vahea,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vaillantia,
-    <a href="#Page_552">552</a>.</li>
-  <li>Valeriana,
-    <a href="#Page_557">557</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li>
-  <li>Valerianaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_549">549</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li>
-  <li>Valerianella,
-    <a href="#Page_557">557</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_558">558</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vallisneria,
-    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_283">283</a>.</li>
-  <li>Valloons,
-    <a href="#Page_348">348</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vallota,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Valonia,
-    <a href="#Page_59">59</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-  <li>Valoniaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
-  <li>Valsa,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Valsaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vanda,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vandellia,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vandeæ,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vanilla,
-    <a href="#Page_331">331</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_333">333</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vascular Cryptogams,
-    <a href="#Page_2">2</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_198">198</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Isosporous,
-    <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">Heterosporous,
-    <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vateria,
-    <a href="#Page_415">415</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vaucheria,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_33">33</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vaucheriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vegetable-ivory,
-    <a href="#Page_301">301</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_302">302</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vegetable-silk,
-    <a href="#Page_545">545</a>.</li>
-  <li>Velamen,
-    <a href="#Page_332">332</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vella,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vellinæ,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vellosia,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vellosieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_318">318</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ve11theimia,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Velum partiale,
-    <a href="#Page_167">167</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
-  <li class="i1">universale,
-    <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
-  <li>Venter,
-    <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ventral-canal-cell,
-    <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
-  <li>Venturia,
-    <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
-  <li>Veratreæ,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-  <li>Veratrin,
-    <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
-  <li>Veratrum,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_311">311</a>.</li>
-  <li>Verbascum,
-    <a href="#Page_523">523</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_527">527</a>.</li>
-  <li>Verbena,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Verbenaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_532">532</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_537">537</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vernonia,
-    <a href="#Page_571">571</a>.</li>
-  <li>Veronica,
-    <a href="#Page_335">335</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_523">523</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_527">527</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_530">530</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_536">536</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_559">559</a>.</li>
-  <li>Verpa,
-    <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</li>
-  <li>Verrucaria,
-    <a href="#Page_140">140</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vesicaria,
-    <a href="#Page_400">400</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vetch,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vibriones,
-    <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
-  <li>Viburnum,
-    <a href="#Page_455">455</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_555">555</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_556">556</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vicia,
-    <a href="#Page_469">469</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vicieæ,
-    <a href="#Page_469">469</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>.</li>
-  <li>Victoria,
-    <a href="#Page_386">386</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vigna,
-    <a href="#Page_471">471</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vinca,
-    <a href="#Page_544">544</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vincetoxicum,
-    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vine,
-    <a href="#Page_121">121</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_444">444</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vinegar-bacterium,
-    <a href="#Page_31">31</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_32">32</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</li>
-  <li>Viola,
-    <a href="#Page_410">410</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_411">411</a>.</li>
-  <li>Violaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li>
-  <li>Violets,
-    <a href="#Page_114">114</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_410">410</a>.</li>
-  <li>Violet-stone,
-    <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</li>
-  <li>Viper’s-bugloss,
-    <a href="#Page_533">533</a>.</li>
-  <li>Virginian-creeper,
-    <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li>
-  <li>Viscaria,
-    <a href="#Page_364">364</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_367">367</a>.</li>
-  <li>Viscoideæ,
-    <a href="#Page_501">501</a>.</li>
-  <li>Viscum,
-    <a href="#Page_501">501</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_502">502</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_504">504</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vismia,
-    <a href="#Page_414">414</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vitex,
-    <a href="#Page_535">535</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vitis,
-    <a href="#Page_445">445</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_446">446</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_447">447</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vochysiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_442">442</a>.</li>
-  <li>Volkmannia,
-    <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
-  <li>Volva,
-    <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
-  <li>Volvaria,
-    <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
-  <li>Volvocaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_47">47</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>.</li>
-  <li>Volvox,
-    <a href="#Page_48">48</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</li>
-  <li>Vomic nut,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Vorblatt,”
-    <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Wahlenbergia,
-    <a href="#Page_562">562</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wallflower,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wall-lichen,
-    <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wall-rue,
-    <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</li>
-  <li>Walnut,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_349">349</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_350">350</a>.</li>
-  <li>Water-cress,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Water-dropwort,
-    <a href="#Page_498">498</a>.</li>
-  <li>Water-ferns,
-    <a href="#Page_205">205</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
-  <li>Water-fungi,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
-  <li>Water-hyssop,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>.</li>
-  <li>Water-lilies,
-    <a href="#Page_385">385</a>.</li>
-  <li>Water-melon,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>Water-milfoil,
-    <a href="#Page_486">486</a>.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_620">[620]</span></li>
-  <li>Water-net,
-    <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</li>
-  <li>Water-purslane,
-    <a href="#Page_483">483</a>.</li>
-  <li>Water-soldier,
-    <a href="#Page_282">282</a>.</li>
-  <li>Water-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_413">413</a>.</li>
-  <li>Water-violet,
-    <a href="#Page_512">512</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wax-flower,
-    <a href="#Page_546">546</a>.</li>
-  <li>Weberia,
-    <a href="#Page_197">197</a>.</li>
-  <li>Weigelia,
-    <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</li>
-  <li>Weingærtneria,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>.</li>
-  <li>Weisia,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Weisiaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wellingtonia,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-  <li>Welwitschia,
-    <a href="#Page_270">270</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
-  <li>“Wendungszellen,”
-    <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</li>
-  <li>West-Indian arrowroot,
-    <a href="#Page_327">327</a>.</li>
-  <li>Weymouth Pine,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wheat,
-    <a href="#Page_113">113</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_291">291</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_292">292</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_295">295</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wheat-grain,
-    <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wheat, seedling of,
-    <a href="#Page_292">292</a>.</li>
-  <li>White-beam,
-    <a href="#Page_465">465</a>.</li>
-  <li>White Bryony,
-    <a href="#Page_481">481</a>.</li>
-  <li>White-cabbage,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>White-mustard,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>White Pine,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>White-pepper,
-    <a href="#Page_363">363</a>.</li>
-  <li>White-rot,
-    <a href="#Page_164">164</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
-  <li>White Water-lily,
-    <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
-  <li>Whitlavia,
-    <a href="#Page_515">515</a>.</li>
-  <li>Whortleberry,
-    <a href="#Page_509">509</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wig-tree,
-    <a href="#Page_439">439</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wild Basil,
-    <a href="#Page_540">540</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wild Cabbage,
-    <a href="#Page_404">404</a>.</li>
-  <li>Willow,
-    <a href="#Page_124">124</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_133">133</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_338">338</a>.</li>
-  <li>Willow-herb,
-    <a href="#Page_484">484</a>.</li>
-  <li>Winter-aconite,
-    <a href="#Page_382">382</a>.</li>
-  <li>Winter-cherry,
-    <a href="#Page_521">521</a>.</li>
-  <li>Winter-cress,
-    <a href="#Page_402">402</a>.</li>
-  <li>Winter-green,
-    <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li>
-  <li>Winter-spores,
-    <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wistaria,
-    <a href="#Page_470">470</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_473">473</a>.</li>
-  <li>Witches’-brooms,
-    <a href="#Page_85">85</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_117">117</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</li>
-  <li>Woad,
-    <a href="#Page_403">403</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_405">405</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wolffia,
-    <a href="#Page_307">307</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wood,
-    <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wood-rush,
-    <a href="#Page_284">284</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wood-sorrel,
-    <a href="#Page_416">416</a>.</li>
-  <li>Woodruff,
-    <a href="#Page_552">552</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_553">553</a>.</li>
-  <li>Woodsia,
-    <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
-  <li>Wormwood,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_574">574</a>.</li>
-  <li>Woundwort,
-    <a href="#Page_538">538</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Xanthellaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.</li>
-  <li>Xanthidium,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-  <li>Xanthium,
-    <a href="#Page_569">569</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_573">573</a>.</li>
-  <li>Xanthorhiza,
-    <a href="#Page_379">379</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_383">383</a>.</li>
-  <li>Xanthorrhæa,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Xeranthemum,
-    <a href="#Page_566">566</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_570">570</a>.</li>
-  <li>Xerotes,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>.</li>
-  <li>Xylaria,
-    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-  <li>Xylariaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
-  <li>Xylem,
-    <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
-  <li>Xylopia,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Xylophylla,
-    <a href="#Page_431">431</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_432">432</a>.</li>
-  <li>Xylosteum,
-    <a href="#Page_554">554</a>.</li>
-  <li>Xyridaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_308">308</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Yam,
-    <a href="#Page_323">323</a>.</li>
-  <li>Yeast-formation,
-    <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</li>
-  <li>Yeast-fungi,
-    <a href="#Page_31">31</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</li>
-  <li>Yellow bird’s-nest,
-    <a href="#Page_507">507</a>.</li>
-  <li>Yellow-rattle,
-    <a href="#Page_525">525</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_526">526</a>.</li>
-  <li>Yellow Water-lily,
-    <a href="#Page_387">387</a>.</li>
-  <li>Yellow-wort,
-    <a href="#Page_543">543</a>.</li>
-  <li>Yew,
-    <a href="#Page_259">259</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_261">261</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
-  <li>Ylang-ylang,
-    <a href="#Page_388">388</a>.</li>
-  <li>Yorkshire-fog,
-    <a href="#Page_294">294</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_296">296</a>.</li>
-  <li>Yucca,
-    <a href="#Page_312">312</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_313">313</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-<ul>
-  <li>Zamia,
-    <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zannardinia,
-    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zannichellia,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zantedeschia,
-    <a href="#Page_305">305</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zanthoxyleæ,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zanthoxylum,
-    <a href="#Page_436">436</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zea,
-    <a href="#Page_290">290</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zelkova,
-    <a href="#Page_351">351</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zingiber,
-    <a href="#Page_326">326</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zingiberaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_323">323</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_325">325</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zinnia,
-    <a href="#Page_572">572</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zizania,
-    <a href="#Page_293">293</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zizyphus,
-    <a href="#Page_448">448</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zoochlorella,
-    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zoogametes,
-    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zooglœa,
-    <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zoogonicæ,
-    <a href="#Page_68">68</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zoosporangia,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zoospores,
-    <a href="#Page_10">10</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zooxantella,
-    <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zostera,
-    <a href="#Page_279">279</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_280">280</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_306">306</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_316">316</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zostereæ,
-    <a href="#Page_278">278</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zygadenus,
-    <a href="#Page_310">310</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zygochytriaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zygomorphy,
-    <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zygomycetes,
-    <a href="#Page_95">95</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zygophyllaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zygophyllum,
-    <a href="#Page_438">438</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zygospore,
-    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zygote,
-    <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zygnema,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>,
-    <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</li>
-  <li>Zygnemaceæ,
-    <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</li>
-</ul>
-
-
-<p class="center p6 xs">Butler &amp; Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London.</p>
-
-
-<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> See Angiospermæ.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> According to the recent investigations of Winogradsky some
-micro-organisms (Nitrifying-bacteria) can build organic from inorganic
-matter. Sachs’ hypothesis that the first organisms must necessarily
-have contained chlorophyll is therefore untenable.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> Myxogasteres, Engler’s Syllabus, p. 1.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_4" href="#FNanchor_4" class="label">[4]</a> Acrasieæ and Plasmodiophorales, <i>ibid.</i></p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_5" href="#FNanchor_5" class="label">[5]</a> Myxophyceæ, Cyanophyceæ.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_6" href="#FNanchor_6" class="label">[6]</a> The Bacteria are more usually included under Fungi. It
-seems better, however, to place them under the Algæ in a separate class
-with the Schizophyceæ.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_7" href="#FNanchor_7" class="label">[7]</a> See Marshall Ward, “On the Characters or Marks employed
-for Classifying the Schizomycetes,” <i>Annals of Botany</i>, 1892.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_8" href="#FNanchor_8" class="label">[8]</a> According to Hansen these are not disease forms, but occur
-regularly under certain conditions, <i>e.g.</i> temperature.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_9" href="#FNanchor_9" class="label">[9]</a> Before fertilisation the oosphere divides and cuts off at
-the base one or more cells (polar bodies?), termed “wendungszellen.”</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_10" href="#FNanchor_10" class="label">[10]</a> From the Greek μὐκης = Fungus, hence “mycology.”</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_11" href="#FNanchor_11" class="label">[11]</a> This term is adopted as a translation of the German
-“anlage.”</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_12" href="#FNanchor_12" class="label">[12]</a> Also termed Water-Fungi (Wasserpilzen).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_13" href="#FNanchor_13" class="label">[13]</a> Antheridium is preferred in this sub-class as keeping a
-more uniform term (Kn).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_14" href="#FNanchor_14" class="label">[14]</a> In the <i>resupinate</i> fruit-bodies a fertile and
-sterile surface cannot be distinguished (<i>cf.</i> Polyporaceæ and
-some <i>Stereum</i>-species).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_15" href="#FNanchor_15" class="label">[15]</a> The two last genera are identical, the Algal part being a
-<i>Scytonema</i>, that of <i>Cora</i> a <i>Chroococcus</i>; while the
-same Fungus&mdash;a <i>Thelephora</i>&mdash;takes part in the formation of all
-three (A. Möller, Flora, 1893).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_16" href="#FNanchor_16" class="label">[16]</a> Formerly termed <i>oophyte</i>.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_17" href="#FNanchor_17" class="label">[17]</a> The oospore divides by a wall transverse or oblique to
-the longer axis of the archegonium. From the upper (epibasal) cell, the
-capsule (and seta) is derived, while the lower (hypobasal) gives rise
-to the <i>foot</i>. In <i>Riccia</i> the hypobasal half takes part in
-the formation of the sporangium.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_18" href="#FNanchor_18" class="label">[18]</a> In the Polypodiaceæ unisexual prothallia as distinct as
-those of <i>Equisetum</i> are of common occurrence.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_19" href="#FNanchor_19" class="label">[19]</a> The position of the annulus varies in the different
-orders; longitudinal in Polypodiaceæ, Hymenophyllaceæ, and Cyatheaceæ;
-transverse in Schizæaceæ, Gleicheniaceæ; indistinct or apical in
-Osmundaceæ, Ophioglossaceæ, Marattiaceæ, Salviniaceæ, Marsiliaceæ.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_20" href="#FNanchor_20" class="label">[20]</a> The former genus <i>Pteris</i> is divided into
-<i>Pteris</i> and <i>Pteridium</i>.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_21" href="#FNanchor_21" class="label">[21]</a> Floral-leaves (hypsophyllary leaves) are here adopted
-as an equivalent of the term “Hochblätter,” to signify leaves on the
-floral-shoot other than foliage or sporangia-bearing leaves. The
-term <i>bract</i> is applied only to leaves in whose axil a flower
-is borne, and <i>bracteoles</i> to leaves borne on the flower-stalk
-(<i>pedicel</i>).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_22" href="#FNanchor_22" class="label">[22]</a> It may be here remarked that another explanation is
-possible, based on the study of the development (<i>K</i>).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_23" href="#FNanchor_23" class="label">[23]</a> Piperaceæ, Nymphæaceæ.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_24" href="#FNanchor_24" class="label">[24]</a> “Fore-leaf” is adopted as a translation of “Vorblatt.”</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_25" href="#FNanchor_25" class="label">[25]</a> Regarding these and other abbreviations see the appendix
-in the book.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_26" href="#FNanchor_26" class="label">[26]</a> Syncarp = cluster of fruits belonging to one flower.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_27" href="#FNanchor_27" class="label">[27]</a> “Fan” and “sickle”
-are adopted as terms for these inflorescences from the German
-“<i>fæchel</i>” and “<i>sichel</i>.”</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_28" href="#FNanchor_28" class="label">[28]</a> [Although unbranched stems are characteristic of the
-Palms, yet branched specimens are recorded from some eleven genera. The
-branches are developed from lateral buds, which in many instances only
-develope when the terminal bud has been destroyed. A few Palms develope
-axillary branches at the base of the stem; these form rhizomes, and
-give rise to clusters of aerial stems.]</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_29" href="#FNanchor_29" class="label">[29]</a> The aggregation of the fruits of several distinct flowers
-into one mass.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_30" href="#FNanchor_30" class="label">[30]</a> According to Pfitzer, the column is the prolongation of
-the floral axis beyond the insertion of the perianth, and is not formed
-by the coalescence of sporophylls (filament and style).</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_31" href="#FNanchor_31" class="label">[31]</a> <i>Cypripedilum</i> = <i>Cypripedium</i>.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_32" href="#FNanchor_32" class="label">[32]</a> <i>Corallorhiza</i> = <i>Coralliorrhiza</i>.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_33" href="#FNanchor_33" class="label">[33]</a> This is Eichler’s view.&mdash;According to Drude the perianth
-is absent; at the base of the bracts, a nectary or cup-like disc.
-Prantl holds the same view. According to Pax the perianth is absent,
-but there is a disc cup-like, or reduced to a single toothed scale.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_34" href="#FNanchor_34" class="label">[34]</a> The fruit of the Walnut is thus a false fruit; and the
-term drupe must therefore not be used in the same sense as in the
-Rosaceæ.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_35" href="#FNanchor_35" class="label">[35]</a> The pollen-tube in <i>Ulmus</i> does not enter the ovule
-through the micropyle.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_36" href="#FNanchor_36" class="label">[36]</a> According to Prantl, some species of <i>Trollius</i>
-(<i>T. europæus</i>, and <i>asiatiacus</i>) have a perianth,
-differentiated into calyx and corolla, which does not pass over into
-the honey-leaves. The outer leaves of the perianth have frequently an
-incised apex, the intermediate ones sometimes present transitional
-forms to the inner, and sometimes there is a distinct boundary between
-them.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_37" href="#FNanchor_37" class="label">[37]</a> If we suppose a spiral line drawn through the leaves
-<i>upwards</i> on a stem with scattered leaves (in the shortest way),
-then the side of the leaf first touched is the catodic, or descending,
-and the other the anodic, or ascending side.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_38" href="#FNanchor_38" class="label">[38]</a> Those marked [+] are officinal, and when no home is
-stated, the plant is a native.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_39" href="#FNanchor_39" class="label">[39]</a> Those which are officinal are indicated by [+].</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_40" href="#FNanchor_40" class="label">[40]</a> Those marked with a [+] are officinal.</p>
-
-</div>
-
-<div class="footnote">
-
-<p><a id="Footnote_41" href="#FNanchor_41" class="label">[41]</a> For further reference see Sachs, <i>History of
-Botany</i>; Lindley, <i>Vegetable Kingdom</i>; Le Maout and Decaisne,
-<i>General System of Botany</i>, etc.</p>
-
-</div>
-</div>
-
-
-<p class="transnote">Transcriber’s Notes:<br />
-
-1. Obvious printers’, punctuation and spelling errors have been
-corrected silently.<br />
-
-2. Where hyphenation is in doubt, it has been retained as in the
-original.<br />
-
-3. Some hyphenated and non-hyphenated versions of the same words have been
-retained as in the original.</p>
-
-
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