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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #68564 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/68564)
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-The Project Gutenberg eBook of Barrier beaches of the Atlantic coast,
-by Frederick J. H. Merrill
-
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
-most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
-whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
-of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
-www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
-will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
-using this eBook.
-
-Title: Barrier beaches of the Atlantic coast
-
-Author: Frederick J. H. Merrill
-
-Release Date: July 18, 2022 [eBook #68564]
-
-Language: English
-
-Produced by: Charlene Taylor, David E. Brown, and the Online Distributed
-             Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was
-             produced from images generously made available by The
-             Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
-
-*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BARRIER BEACHES OF THE
-ATLANTIC COAST ***
-
-
-
-
-
-  BARRIER BEACHES OF THE
-  ATLANTIC COAST.
-
-  BY FREDERICK J. H. MERRILL, PH. D.
-
-
-  _REPRINTED FROM THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY
-  FOR OCTOBER, 1890._
-
-  NEW YORK:
-  D. APPLETON AND COMPANY.
-  1890.
-
-
-
-
-  BARRIER BEACHES OF THE
-  ATLANTIC COAST
-
-  BY
-  FREDERICK J. H. MERRILL, PH. D.
-
-
-From Cape Cod to Cape Florida our coast is fringed with barrier
-beaches. They are the reefs of sand which protect the mainland shore
-from the storm-waves of the ocean. Isolated and uninhabited were
-most of these sea-born barriers for a long period in the history of
-our country, but the need of a breathing-place on the part of the
-thousands who inhabit our crowded cities has caused, within a few
-years, a great transformation. Railroad and turnpike bridges have been
-built, connecting many of them with the shore. Hotels and cottages,
-club-houses and bathing-houses, in short, buildings for every purpose
-which contributes to the pleasure and comfort of man have sprung up, as
-it were by magic, on the south shore of Long Island, on the coast of
-New Jersey, Virginia, and the Carolinas, on the famed sea-islands of
-Georgia, and on the coast of eastern Florida.
-
-Much alike are these peninsulas and islands wherever we view them along
-the coast. The chief variation is in the vegetation which clothes them.
-The beaches of Long Island are almost barren, but from New Jersey
-southward many are covered with dense forests which vary in their
-trees according to the latitude. At Sandy Hook, oaks, red cedars,
-hollies, maples, and sassafras-trees grow in wonderful luxuriance. On
-Seven-Mile Beach and Holly Beach the swamp magnolia abounds among the
-others. In the Carolinas the palmetto appears, often ragged in outline
-and blighted by the winter frosts. In northern Florida the palmettos
-are more numerous and show the influence of a warmer climate, while
-on the southern extremity of the zone of barrier beaches the cocoanut
-palm, planted by accident or design, rears its leafy crown in luxuriant
-verdure.
-
-It is not the design of the writer to describe in detail the beaches of
-the Atlantic coast, but rather to consider their history and mode of
-growth. As it has been his fortune to spend much time on the sea-shore
-of New Jersey, he proposes to discuss the barrier beaches of that State
-as types of their genus.
-
-They are sandy islands and peninsulas, from two to twenty miles in
-length and from half a mile to a mile in width, separated by inlets
-and usually divided from the mainland by an interval of several miles,
-in which are broad expanses of salt meadow, fringing and separating a
-series of channels, bays, and sounds.
-
-The beaches which are now in their highest state of development are
-Sandy Hook, Seven-Mile Beach, and Holly Beach near Cape May. These
-typical examples of the sea-born barriers are much alike in structure,
-and consist of four principal divisions. The first division, or
-interior, is an undulating area covered with heavy timber, of which
-the size suggests its age. Immense hollies, oaks, pines, and red
-cedars abound, many of the first measuring two feet in diameter, and
-some of the latter attaining a circumference of four or five yards.
-The sassafras grows in remarkable luxuriance and immense grape-vines
-are everywhere to be seen, overhanging a dense undergrowth. In spring
-and summer the ground is covered with fragrant blossoms; columbines,
-violets, pinks, orchids, and a host of other flowers lend their blight
-colors to enhance the varied greens of the foliage. This is the beach
-primeval. Skirting it seaward is the second division, which bears
-smaller timber. Low cedars, hollies, and pines are here the chief forms
-of arboreal vegetation, and fewer flowering plants are seen. This zone
-is of later formation, and its trees are younger than those of the
-first. Adjoining it is the third division, which consists of a belt of
-undulating dunes a few hundred feet or yards in width, and bearing
-the mossy Hudsonia or scrubby bushes of beach plum and wax-myrtle, or
-in some places, especially on the outer row of dunes, only supporting
-a meager growth of beach grass. Frequently, between two rows of dunes,
-an expanse of salt meadow occurs, or a sand flat bearing stunted forms
-of plant life. With this third division ends the domain of vegetation,
-succeeded by the sloping strand upon which the tide rises and falls.
-The sand-bar, exposed at low water at the extremity of the beach,
-is constantly increased in length and height by the action of the
-currents, and the process of beach formation is here continually in
-progress.
-
-As the tide falls, the sand laid bare is rapidly dried by the wind
-and carried above high-water mark. Then, safe beyond the reach of
-the waves, the minute particles are borne still farther from the
-water, and striking against some piece of drift-wood, bush, or tuft
-of grass, quickly build a hillock, which grows larger and larger as
-more sand falls upon it, and a dune is formed many feet in height.
-The material of which these dunes are composed is never at rest, but
-flies hither and thither with the wind, and a hillock ten or fifteen
-feet high to-day may noiselessly be taken down to-morrow and rebuilt a
-hundred yards away. In time, as the beach grows seaward and the dunes
-increase in number, those of earlier formation, which are somewhat
-protected from the breeze, catch a few seeds, and tufts of grass begin
-to grow upon them. Still later, the mossy Hudsonia or some starveling
-wax-myrtle finds a little sustenance, and as years elapse the dunes
-become so thickly covered with vegetation that under the protection of
-the seaward hillocks they retain their form with comparatively little
-change.
-
-Thus have the beaches grown. First a sand flat built by ocean waves
-and currents; then a series of low, shifting dunes; next sheltered
-hillocks, on which grasses and shrubs fasten their protecting roots;
-succeeding the latter a growth of small cedars and pines; and, finally,
-as centuries roll on, majestic forest trees raise their spreading tops
-and shelter a dense undergrowth.
-
-These few words suffice to describe the beaches’ growth, their
-physiology; but many pages might be written upon their history,
-the details of their development, their changes and their decay.
-Unfortunately, the records are but incomplete. From the memories of
-old men we can glean some facts in regard to the former condition and
-extent of certain beaches and concerning marked changes in them which
-have been notable events to men of quiet lives. In a few instances,
-surveys were made a century or two ago which can be compared with those
-of to-day. At present we can watch the changes which occur from year to
-year. As geological science advances we can speculate concerning the
-past on the basis of present knowledge and observation. We have little
-accurate information, but, after all, we have much that is interesting.
-
-The beach of Sandy Hook forms the northern extremity of the New Jersey
-sea-coast. Previous to 1778 it was connected with the base of the
-Navesink Highlands by a sandy isthmus, the mouths of the Navesink and
-Shrewsbury Rivers being open to the east; but from that date until
-about 1830, and from 1848 until 1889, it has been united with the
-mainland at Monmouth Beach by a narrow strip of sand.
-
-According to records in the office of the Surveyor-General of East
-Jersey and in that of the United States Coast Survey, the point of
-Sandy Hook advanced northward about one mile between 1685 and 1885. The
-lighthouse was built about 1764 near the water’s edge, and the ground
-on which it stands had then existed for only fifteen years as a portion
-of _terra firma_.
-
-In 1844 the point was about two hundred and fifty yards north of
-its present limit. Since that date it has receded slowly toward the
-south, and toward the west has extended a quarter of a mile. We have
-no evidence concerning the date of formation of the old “Hook” which
-existed before 1685. It is now well marked by immense forest trees,
-which exceed in height and size of trunk any of their species known to
-the writer in the neighborhood of New York.
-
-The rapid growth of Sandy Hook is due to a current which flows
-northward from the vicinity of Manasquan, carrying with it a great
-quantity of sand removed from the water-front of Asbury Park, Long
-Branch, Seabright, and that vicinity, which is dropped along the border
-of the “Hook” and its extremity. The investigations of the United
-States Coast and Geodetic Survey have shown that the ebb and flow of
-the tides from and to New York Bay produce this current by drawing a
-stream of water through False Hook Channel, which lies between Sandy
-Hook and a submerged bar called False Hook half a mile to the east.
-The stream flows northward more than seven hours out of twelve, and
-from this fact property-owners in the neighborhood of Long Branch may
-appreciate what becomes of their real estate when it disappears during
-the storms. If there were any means of identifying the soil, it might
-all be found on the rapidly growing point of Sandy Hook.
-
-About 1778 a channel was opened across the narrow isthmus which
-united Sandy Hook with the base of the Navesink Highlands, and a new
-passage being thus afforded for the tidal currents of the Navesink and
-Shrewsbury Rivers, the old Shrewsbury Inlet, which formed the common
-mouth of those two estuaries, was gradually closed by the northward
-extension of the sand-spit which formed the southern limit, and in
-1810 became impassable. The barrier thus formed existed until 1830 or
-1831, when it was broken through and a second inlet was created. By a
-change in the tidal currents, due to the formation of this new inlet,
-the isthmus which formerly connected Sandy Hook with the Highlands of
-Navesink was again brought into existence and remained until 1835. An
-artificial channel was then cut through it, and this being gradually
-deepened and widened by the ebb and flow of the tides, has ever since
-remained open. The second Shrewsbury inlet closed in 1840 near Island
-Beach, having moved northward nearly three miles during its existence
-of nine or ten years. In 1837 or 1838 the third and last inlet opened
-near the present Bellevue Hotel, and afforded a better channel for
-navigation than the second inlet, which it followed in its northward
-course and survived by about eight years. From 1848 until September,
-1889, no inlet has been opened; but this fact is due rather to the
-efforts of the railroad company to maintain its road-bed than to a
-diminution of the tendency of the waves and tidal currents to open a
-passage.
-
-The facts and dates concerning the Shrewsbury Inlets have been obtained
-chiefly by inquiry from old fishermen and sailors who have spent
-their lives on or near the waters of the Navesink and Shrewsbury
-Rivers. Coming from a number of independent sources, they agree very
-closely, and those here given may be accepted as worthy of credence.
-The tendency of the inlets to work northward, periodically closing and
-reopening farther south, has been observed in all those between Point
-Pleasant and Sandy Hook, especially in those of Manasquan and Shark
-Rivers. Between Point Pleasant and Cape May, however, all the inlets
-are moving southward.
-
-From Monmouth to the head of Barnegat Bay there is no beach similar to
-that of Sandy Hook. Instead of a sand-reef separated from the mainland
-by a navigable channel, there is only the sloping strand adjoining,
-as at Long Branch, the foot of an upland bluff, or as at Spring Lake,
-Seagirt, and Point Pleasant, with its crest on a level with the surface
-of the upland. Between Bay Head and Cape May, however, there are twelve
-beaches, mostly well developed and preserved, and named respectively
-Squan, Island, Long, Island or Little, Brigantine, Absecon, Peck’s,
-Ludlam’s, Seven-Mile, Five-Mile or Holly, Two-Mile, and Poverty. The
-majority of these, however, do not show the high degree of development
-exhibited by Seven-Mile and Five-Mile Beaches. Some appear to be only
-in the earlier stages of growth, while others have passed their prime
-and are now yielding to the attacks of wind and wave.
-
-These agents have been hitherto considered only with reference to
-their constructive effect on the beaches, and it now remains to
-consider their destructive action.
-
-When the wind blows from the west it carries back to the sea much of
-the sand which the east wind had piled up in dunes, and, but for the
-fact that the latter wind prevails, the sand-hills would not long
-exist. By a surplus of constructive action, however, the beaches are
-all moving to the west. Year after year sand is removed from their
-eastern margin by the winter storms, and carried north or south
-according to the direction of the prevailing current. The winds from
-the ocean drive the dunes westward, and, with the possible exception of
-Sandy Hook, all the beaches are now underlaid by an old salt meadow,
-originally formed in sheltered waters on their west side. In this turf,
-when exposed during an unusually low tide, the footprints of cattle
-are seen in many places, made, it is claimed, when the salt meadow was
-a pasture and lay on the shoreward side of the beach. This westward
-recession has, in many cases, amounted to more than a mile within two
-centuries.
-
-On many of the beaches south of Point Pleasant the westward progress of
-the dunes has been made over and through the native forest. As a result
-of this, gnarled cedars, dying and dead, are found among the dunes; and
-in many cases stumps may be seen in the sand within reach of the tide.
-
-Near the northern end of Seven-Mile Beach, at the time of the writer’s
-visit in 1885, an immense dune forty feet in height and half a mile
-in length had been for many years encroaching steadily upon the dense
-forest. The tree-tops here projected above the summit of the ridge
-like the heads of drowning men above the waves; while on the outer
-flank of the overwhelming mass of sand the gnarled, skeleton trunks
-of those which had perished in it stood bare and grim, showing with
-dreary grayness the fate of the earlier victims of which the ragged and
-wave-worn stumps alone remained. A more desolate scene the writer has
-never witnessed.
-
-At Long Branch the wear of the coast has been very great. According to
-the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, a strip of land varying
-from three hundred to five hundred feet in width was removed between
-Deal Beach and Monmouth during the twenty-seven years preceding 1868.
-In the vicinity of Seabright the amount of wear was a little less
-than two hundred feet during that period. Of late years the rate of
-recession has been diminished in the neighborhood of Long Branch by
-the means of artificial protection employed, but near Seabright the
-shore line is said to have receded at least two hundred feet during the
-past quarter of a century. At Cape May the wear of the shore has been
-continuous except where the land is protected by jetties or a stone
-sea-wall, the rate of encroachment varying from ten to thirty feet a
-year.
-
-Besides these alterations produced in the beaches by their westward
-progress, the variations in the positions of the inlets and the
-subsidence of the coast have caused many important changes. The history
-of the Shrewsbury Inlets has already been given; it remains to mention
-a few of those south of Point Pleasant.
-
-Squan and Island Beaches, which now form a peninsula about twenty miles
-long, terminating at Barnegat Inlet, were separated from 1750 to 1812
-by Cranberry Inlet, which was nearly opposite the mouth of Tom’s River.
-Since 1812 near the site of this old inlet there have been others of
-brief duration, and one is said to have existed before 1755 opposite
-the mouth of the Metedeconk River, which separated Squan Beach from the
-mainland.
-
-The old Barnegat Lighthouse is said to have stood nearly six hundred
-yards north of the present south shore of the inlet, at a point now
-occupied by the center of the channel. In 1855 the old tower was at
-the water’s edge, so that the inlet has moved southward approximately
-twenty yards per year.
-
-Absecon Inlet, which separates Brigantine Beach from Absecon Beach, has
-encroached upon the latter about four hundred yards in twenty years;
-and the ocean front of that portion of Absecon Beach which is occupied
-by Atlantic City extended in 1855 nearly half a mile farther east than
-it did in 1885. About 1875 jetties were built which arrested the action
-of the tidal currents, and, the wear of the shore being thus prevented,
-a considerable area was restored.
-
-Submerged tree-stumps and other evidences of a subsidence of the coast
-may be found on the beaches and the salt meadows, but a detailed
-enumeration of them would be beyond the scope of the present article.
-
-In Cape May County the depression has not been less than twenty feet,
-and has possibly been much greater. The evidence of some old buildings
-on the shore of Delaware Bay suggests a subsidence of about four feet
-during the last two centuries.
-
-It is doubtful whether depression _alone_ has caused the wear of
-the coast. A comparison of the present outline of Holly Beach with
-that determined by a survey in 1772 shows an accretion on the south
-and east, since the latter date, more than three and a half miles
-long and averaging three eighths of a mile in width, and on many
-other beaches a similar growth has taken place. During the past five
-years the ocean has rapidly encroached upon these beaches, while the
-subsidence of the coast, so far as we know, has been uniform throughout
-the past two centuries. It would appear, therefore, that the growth
-and decay of the beaches are more dependent upon the action of the
-ocean currents and winds than upon other agencies. Unquestionably the
-depression of the coast renders the beaches more subject to overflow
-and erosion by the waves and currents; but the evidence at many points
-shows that the latter are capable of forming large areas of beach
-where the conditions of their existence and action favor construction
-rather than destruction. While these currents act as at present, the
-cost of preventing the ravages of the sea, by the methods commonly
-in use, would probably be much greater than the value of the land
-protected, for the fine sand is so unstable when wet that bulkheads and
-breakwaters are quite ephemeral.
-
-After an extended examination of the various systems of shore defense
-in use between Sandy Hook and Cape May, it appears to the writer that
-the only effectual means of protection is the construction of jetties
-extending far enough from the shore to intercept the currents which
-carry away the sand loosened by the waves. Such jetties have added a
-large area to the territory of Atlantic City, and have protected the
-shore at Cape May; no doubt they would be effective everywhere if
-properly constructed.
-
-The experience of the past ten years on the New Jersey coast shows
-conclusively that the ocean front is not fit for building purposes, for
-it is impossible to protect a house near the water’s edge from injury
-or destruction in the heaviest storms. The height and force of the
-waves in such a tempest as that of September 10 and 11, 1889, render
-them irresistible to any body or structure which nature or art has yet
-produced, and anything within their reach must suffer. The immediate
-water-front is only available for parks; and, if devoted to this use,
-when protected from the erosive action of the currents by suitable
-jetties, would remain a neutral ground which, in fair weather, would
-afford numberless attractions to the occupants of dwellings placed far
-enough from the strand to be out of reach of the storm-waves.
-
-Property-owners along the ocean front of the beaches have generally
-made the mistake of supposing that the domain of the Atlantic was
-bounded by the high-water mark of the spring tides. Any one who
-should build a dwelling on the strand below ordinary high-water mark
-would be considered lacking in common sense, yet it is scarcely less
-foolish to build within reach of the storm-waves. It is, of course,
-true that many cottages are now much nearer the water’s edge than
-they were a few years ago. This is due to the wear of the shore by
-currents already described as flowing parallel to it and removing the
-sand which the waves have loosened. If the action of these currents
-should be stopped--and there is good evidence to show that a system
-of jetties would intercept them and cause them to drop their stolen
-load of sand--the wear of the shore would be arrested and the yearly
-encroachments of the ocean would cease.
-
-With regard to the inundation of Atlantic City by the sea in the
-great September storm of 1889 it should be said that this catastrophe
-ought not to be considered very wonderful, since the greater portion
-of the city is less than ten feet above mean tide, and the highest
-point recorded by the New Jersey State Survey is only thirteen feet
-above that level. As ordinary tides rise a foot above this plane, and
-spring tides nearly two feet, it is evident that a prolonged easterly
-storm would soon cause a considerable area to be overflowed. Since the
-bays and channels which lie between the beach and the mainland are
-almost completely landlocked and the inlets are relatively narrow, the
-water-level is soon raised to a height of two or three feet above the
-meadows, and this is sufficient to cover most of the railroad tracks.
-To be sure, no such inundation as the recent one has occurred since
-Atlantic City became a place of importance, nor do the old residents
-on the coast remember such a storm in former years; but it is evident
-that, while the beaches were uninhabited, such a storm as the one in
-question would attract less attention, since it would cause little if
-any loss of property.
-
-The genesis of the beaches is still a matter for speculation, but
-it may be safely affirmed that they originated as sand-bars, formed
-under water by wave and current action. How these bars were brought
-above water, so that the wind could exert its constructive power, is
-uncertain. A plausible hypothesis is, that while the ocean was breaking
-on the mainland shore and forming the Quaternary terraces, which may be
-seen there, sand-bars were made under water, and that the continental
-elevation which raised these terraces to their present position
-from twenty-five to eighty feet above tide, brought these sand-bars
-above water into a horizon of Æolian action. Once above the sea, the
-beaches would maintain their existence. A continued elevation of the
-coast would add to their seaward extent and a depression would cause
-a westward recession until they were brought to rest by contact with
-the mainland shore. In New Jersey the latter condition may be observed
-between Long Branch and Point Pleasant and also at Cape May.
-
-So far as it is known to the writer, the only way in which a beach can
-be entirely destroyed is by an inlet shifting its position. In this
-case the beach obliterated is replaced by the extension of an adjacent
-beach.
-
-Of the beaches south of New Jersey not enough is known to the writer
-to permit of a detailed biographical sketch. Their form and structure
-show that they have been subject to the same formative agencies and
-vicissitudes as those already described. In addition to the Georgia
-sea-islands of _ante-bellum_ fame, may be mentioned as familiar
-examples the barriers which in Virginia and North Carolina separate
-Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds from the ocean; in Florida, Amelia Island
-on which is built the city of Fernandina; Anastasia Island, in front
-of St. Augustine; and the beaches which separate Halifax and Indian
-Rivers from the Atlantic. The last named rivers are the lagoons which
-separate the barriers from the mainland shore. Lake Worth is one of
-these lagoons, of which the inlet has been closed.
-
-To what extent the Florida Keys may be included in the category of
-barrier beaches must be decided by future investigation. Key West
-is evidently a wave-built sand-bar composed of fragments of coral,
-molluscan shells, and foraminifera, and it seems likely that Cayo Largo
-and others of that type may be of similar origin. The coquina deposits
-of the vicinity of St. Augustine are also wave-formed.
-
-The hypothesis of Prof. Louis Agassiz, that the Florida Keys are all
-of organic origin--i. e., that they were formed by the growth of coral
-reefs--may be true so far as the determination of their location and
-direction. A submerged reef of coral may have formed a nucleus on
-which the waves and currents deposited a load of calcareous sand, but
-the superficial portion is evidently similar in origin to that of the
-beaches farther north.
-
-Barrier beaches are found on all the sea-coasts of the world where
-opportunity for their growth has been afforded, and those of New Jersey
-may be regarded as types of these formations in all their essential
-features.
-
-
-
-
-TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES:
-
-
-  Italicized text is surrounded by underscores: _italics_.
-
-  Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been standardized.
-
-  Archaic or variant spelling has been retained.
-
-  The cover image for this eBook was created by the transcriber and is
-    entered into the public domain.
-
-*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BARRIER BEACHES OF THE ATLANTIC
-COAST ***
-
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-<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Barrier beaches of the Atlantic coast, by Frederick J. H. Merrill</p>
-<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
-This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
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-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Barrier beaches of the Atlantic coast</p>
-<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Frederick J. H. Merrill</p>
-<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: July 18, 2022 [eBook #68564]</p>
-<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p>
-  <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Charlene Taylor, David E. Brown, and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)</p>
-<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BARRIER BEACHES OF THE ATLANTIC COAST ***</div>
-
-<div class="figcenter hide"><img src="images/coversmall.jpg" width="450" alt="" /></div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
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-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="titlepage">
-
-<h1>BARRIER BEACHES OF THE<br />
-ATLANTIC COAST.</h1>
-
-<p><span class="large"><span class="smcap">By FREDERICK J. H. MERRILL, Ph. D.</span></span></p>
-
-<p><i>REPRINTED FROM THE POPULAR SCIENCE MONTHLY<br />
-FOR OCTOBER, 1890.</i></p>
-
-<p>NEW YORK:<br />
-D. APPLETON AND COMPANY.<br />
-1890.</p>
-</div>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<span class="pagenum" id="Page_1">[1]</span>
-
-<h2 class="nobreak">BARRIER BEACHES OF THE<br />
-ATLANTIC COAST</h2>
-
-<p class="center">BY</p>
-
-<p class="center">FREDERICK J. H. MERRILL, <span class="smcap">Ph. D.</span></p>
-</div>
-<hr class="tiny" />
-
-<p class="drop-cap">FROM Cape Cod to Cape Florida our coast is fringed with
-barrier beaches. They are the reefs of sand which protect
-the mainland shore from the storm-waves of the ocean. Isolated
-and uninhabited were most of these sea-born barriers for a long
-period in the history of our country, but the need of a breathing-place
-on the part of the thousands who inhabit our crowded
-cities has caused, within a few years, a great transformation.
-Railroad and turnpike bridges have been built, connecting many
-of them with the shore. Hotels and cottages, club-houses and
-bathing-houses, in short, buildings for every purpose which contributes
-to the pleasure and comfort of man have sprung up, as
-it were by magic, on the south shore of Long Island, on the coast<span class="pagenum" id="Page_2">[2]</span>
-of New Jersey, Virginia, and the Carolinas, on the famed sea-islands
-of Georgia, and on the coast of eastern Florida.</p>
-
-<p>Much alike are these peninsulas and islands wherever we view
-them along the coast. The chief variation is in the vegetation
-which clothes them. The beaches of Long Island are almost
-barren, but from New Jersey southward many are covered with
-dense forests which vary in their trees according to the latitude.
-At Sandy Hook, oaks, red cedars, hollies, maples, and sassafras-trees
-grow in wonderful luxuriance. On Seven-Mile Beach and
-Holly Beach the swamp magnolia abounds among the others.
-In the Carolinas the palmetto appears, often ragged in outline
-and blighted by the winter frosts. In northern Florida the palmettos
-are more numerous and show the influence of a warmer
-climate, while on the southern extremity of the zone of barrier
-beaches the cocoanut palm, planted by accident or design, rears
-its leafy crown in luxuriant verdure.</p>
-
-<p>It is not the design of the writer to describe in detail the
-beaches of the Atlantic coast, but rather to consider their history
-and mode of growth. As it has been his fortune to spend much
-time on the sea-shore of New Jersey, he proposes to discuss the
-barrier beaches of that State as types of their genus.</p>
-
-<p>They are sandy islands and peninsulas, from two to twenty
-miles in length and from half a mile to a mile in width, separated
-by inlets and usually divided from the mainland by an interval
-of several miles, in which are broad expanses of salt meadow,
-fringing and separating a series of channels, bays, and sounds.</p>
-
-<p>The beaches which are now in their highest state of development
-are Sandy Hook, Seven-Mile Beach, and Holly Beach near
-Cape May. These typical examples of the sea-born barriers are
-much alike in structure, and consist of four principal divisions.
-The first division, or interior, is an undulating area covered with
-heavy timber, of which the size suggests its age. Immense hollies,
-oaks, pines, and red cedars abound, many of the first measuring
-two feet in diameter, and some of the latter attaining a circumference
-of four or five yards. The sassafras grows in remarkable
-luxuriance and immense grape-vines are everywhere to be seen,
-overhanging a dense undergrowth. In spring and summer the
-ground is covered with fragrant blossoms; columbines, violets,
-pinks, orchids, and a host of other flowers lend their blight colors
-to enhance the varied greens of the foliage. This is the beach
-primeval. Skirting it seaward is the second division, which bears
-smaller timber. Low cedars, hollies, and pines are here the chief
-forms of arboreal vegetation, and fewer flowering plants are seen.
-This zone is of later formation, and its trees are younger than
-those of the first. Adjoining it is the third division, which consists
-of a belt of undulating dunes a few hundred feet or yards<span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[3]</span>
-in width, and bearing the mossy Hudsonia or scrubby bushes of
-beach plum and wax-myrtle, or in some places, especially on the
-outer row of dunes, only supporting a meager growth of beach
-grass. Frequently, between two rows of dunes, an expanse of
-salt meadow occurs, or a sand flat bearing stunted forms of
-plant life. With this third division ends the domain of vegetation,
-succeeded by the sloping strand upon which the tide rises
-and falls. The sand-bar, exposed at low water at the extremity
-of the beach, is constantly increased in length and height by the
-action of the currents, and the process of beach formation is
-here continually in progress.</p>
-
-<p>As the tide falls, the sand laid bare is rapidly dried by the
-wind and carried above high-water mark. Then, safe beyond the
-reach of the waves, the minute particles are borne still farther
-from the water, and striking against some piece of drift-wood,
-bush, or tuft of grass, quickly build a hillock, which grows larger
-and larger as more sand falls upon it, and a dune is formed many
-feet in height. The material of which these dunes are composed
-is never at rest, but flies hither and thither with the wind, and a
-hillock ten or fifteen feet high to-day may noiselessly be taken
-down to-morrow and rebuilt a hundred yards away. In time, as the
-beach grows seaward and the dunes increase in number, those of
-earlier formation, which are somewhat protected from the breeze,
-catch a few seeds, and tufts of grass begin to grow upon them.
-Still later, the mossy Hudsonia or some starveling wax-myrtle
-finds a little sustenance, and as years elapse the dunes become so
-thickly covered with vegetation that under the protection of the
-seaward hillocks they retain their form with comparatively little
-change.</p>
-
-<p>Thus have the beaches grown. First a sand flat built by ocean
-waves and currents; then a series of low, shifting dunes; next
-sheltered hillocks, on which grasses and shrubs fasten their protecting
-roots; succeeding the latter a growth of small cedars and
-pines; and, finally, as centuries roll on, majestic forest trees raise
-their spreading tops and shelter a dense undergrowth.</p>
-
-<p>These few words suffice to describe the beaches’ growth, their
-physiology; but many pages might be written upon their history,
-the details of their development, their changes and their decay.
-Unfortunately, the records are but incomplete. From the memories
-of old men we can glean some facts in regard to the former
-condition and extent of certain beaches and concerning marked
-changes in them which have been notable events to men of quiet
-lives. In a few instances, surveys were made a century or two
-ago which can be compared with those of to-day. At present we
-can watch the changes which occur from year to year. As geological
-science advances we can speculate concerning the past on<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[4]</span>
-the basis of present knowledge and observation. We have little
-accurate information, but, after all, we have much that is interesting.</p>
-
-<p>The beach of Sandy Hook forms the northern extremity of the
-New Jersey sea-coast. Previous to 1778 it was connected with
-the base of the Navesink Highlands by a sandy isthmus, the
-mouths of the Navesink and Shrewsbury Rivers being open to
-the east; but from that date until about 1830, and from 1848 until
-1889, it has been united with the mainland at Monmouth Beach
-by a narrow strip of sand.</p>
-
-<p>According to records in the office of the Surveyor-General of
-East Jersey and in that of the United States Coast Survey, the
-point of Sandy Hook advanced northward about one mile between
-1685 and 1885. The lighthouse was built about 1764 near the water’s
-edge, and the ground on which it stands had then existed for
-only fifteen years as a portion of <i>terra firma</i>.</p>
-
-<p>In 1844 the point was about two hundred and fifty yards north
-of its present limit. Since that date it has receded slowly toward
-the south, and toward the west has extended a quarter of a mile.
-We have no evidence concerning the date of formation of the old
-“Hook” which existed before 1685. It is now well marked by
-immense forest trees, which exceed in height and size of trunk
-any of their species known to the writer in the neighborhood of
-New York.</p>
-
-<p>The rapid growth of Sandy Hook is due to a current which
-flows northward from the vicinity of Manasquan, carrying with
-it a great quantity of sand removed from the water-front of Asbury
-Park, Long Branch, Seabright, and that vicinity, which is
-dropped along the border of the “Hook” and its extremity. The
-investigations of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey
-have shown that the ebb and flow of the tides from and to New
-York Bay produce this current by drawing a stream of water
-through False Hook Channel, which lies between Sandy Hook
-and a submerged bar called False Hook half a mile to the east.
-The stream flows northward more than seven hours out of twelve,
-and from this fact property-owners in the neighborhood of Long
-Branch may appreciate what becomes of their real estate when it
-disappears during the storms. If there were any means of identifying
-the soil, it might all be found on the rapidly growing
-point of Sandy Hook.</p>
-
-<p>About 1778 a channel was opened across the narrow isthmus
-which united Sandy Hook with the base of the Navesink Highlands,
-and a new passage being thus afforded for the tidal currents
-of the Navesink and Shrewsbury Rivers, the old Shrewsbury
-Inlet, which formed the common mouth of those two estuaries,
-was gradually closed by the northward extension of the sand-spit<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[5]</span>
-which formed the southern limit, and in 1810 became impassable.
-The barrier thus formed existed until 1830 or 1831, when it was
-broken through and a second inlet was created. By a change in
-the tidal currents, due to the formation of this new inlet, the isthmus
-which formerly connected Sandy Hook with the Highlands
-of Navesink was again brought into existence and remained until
-1835. An artificial channel was then cut through it, and this being
-gradually deepened and widened by the ebb and flow of the
-tides, has ever since remained open. The second Shrewsbury
-inlet closed in 1840 near Island Beach, having moved northward
-nearly three miles during its existence of nine or ten years. In
-1837 or 1838 the third and last inlet opened near the present Bellevue
-Hotel, and afforded a better channel for navigation than
-the second inlet, which it followed in its northward course and
-survived by about eight years. From 1848 until September, 1889,
-no inlet has been opened; but this fact is due rather to the efforts
-of the railroad company to maintain its road-bed than to a diminution
-of the tendency of the waves and tidal currents to open a
-passage.</p>
-
-<p>The facts and dates concerning the Shrewsbury Inlets have
-been obtained chiefly by inquiry from old fishermen and sailors
-who have spent their lives on or near the waters of the Navesink
-and Shrewsbury Rivers. Coming from a number of independent
-sources, they agree very closely, and those here given may be accepted
-as worthy of credence. The tendency of the inlets to work
-northward, periodically closing and reopening farther south, has
-been observed in all those between Point Pleasant and Sandy
-Hook, especially in those of Manasquan and Shark Rivers. Between
-Point Pleasant and Cape May, however, all the inlets are
-moving southward.</p>
-
-<p>From Monmouth to the head of Barnegat Bay there is no beach
-similar to that of Sandy Hook. Instead of a sand-reef separated
-from the mainland by a navigable channel, there is only the sloping
-strand adjoining, as at Long Branch, the foot of an upland
-bluff, or as at Spring Lake, Seagirt, and Point Pleasant, with its
-crest on a level with the surface of the upland. Between Bay
-Head and Cape May, however, there are twelve beaches, mostly
-well developed and preserved, and named respectively Squan,
-Island, Long, Island or Little, Brigantine, Absecon, Peck’s, Ludlam’s,
-Seven-Mile, Five-Mile or Holly, Two-Mile, and Poverty.
-The majority of these, however, do not show the high degree
-of development exhibited by Seven-Mile and Five-Mile Beaches.
-Some appear to be only in the earlier stages of growth, while
-others have passed their prime and are now yielding to the attacks
-of wind and wave.</p>
-
-<p>These agents have been hitherto considered only with reference<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[6]</span>
-to their constructive effect on the beaches, and it now remains to
-consider their destructive action.</p>
-
-<p>When the wind blows from the west it carries back to the sea
-much of the sand which the east wind had piled up in dunes, and,
-but for the fact that the latter wind prevails, the sand-hills would
-not long exist. By a surplus of constructive action, however, the
-beaches are all moving to the west. Year after year sand is removed
-from their eastern margin by the winter storms, and carried
-north or south according to the direction of the prevailing
-current. The winds from the ocean drive the dunes westward,
-and, with the possible exception of Sandy Hook, all the beaches
-are now underlaid by an old salt meadow, originally formed in
-sheltered waters on their west side. In this turf, when exposed
-during an unusually low tide, the footprints of cattle are seen in
-many places, made, it is claimed, when the salt meadow was a
-pasture and lay on the shoreward side of the beach. This westward
-recession has, in many cases, amounted to more than a mile
-within two centuries.</p>
-
-<p>On many of the beaches south of Point Pleasant the westward
-progress of the dunes has been made over and through the native
-forest. As a result of this, gnarled cedars, dying and dead, are
-found among the dunes; and in many cases stumps may be seen
-in the sand within reach of the tide.</p>
-
-<p>Near the northern end of Seven-Mile Beach, at the time of the
-writer’s visit in 1885, an immense dune forty feet in height and
-half a mile in length had been for many years encroaching steadily
-upon the dense forest. The tree-tops here projected above the
-summit of the ridge like the heads of drowning men above the
-waves; while on the outer flank of the overwhelming mass of sand
-the gnarled, skeleton trunks of those which had perished in it
-stood bare and grim, showing with dreary grayness the fate of
-the earlier victims of which the ragged and wave-worn stumps
-alone remained. A more desolate scene the writer has never witnessed.</p>
-
-<p>At Long Branch the wear of the coast has been very great.
-According to the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, a
-strip of land varying from three hundred to five hundred feet in
-width was removed between Deal Beach and Monmouth during the
-twenty-seven years preceding 1868. In the vicinity of Seabright
-the amount of wear was a little less than two hundred feet during
-that period. Of late years the rate of recession has been diminished
-in the neighborhood of Long Branch by the means of artificial
-protection employed, but near Seabright the shore line is
-said to have receded at least two hundred feet during the past
-quarter of a century. At Cape May the wear of the shore has
-been continuous except where the land is protected by jetties or<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[7]</span>
-a stone sea-wall, the rate of encroachment varying from ten to
-thirty feet a year.</p>
-
-<p>Besides these alterations produced in the beaches by their
-westward progress, the variations in the positions of the inlets
-and the subsidence of the coast have caused many important
-changes. The history of the Shrewsbury Inlets has already been
-given; it remains to mention a few of those south of Point
-Pleasant.</p>
-
-<p>Squan and Island Beaches, which now form a peninsula about
-twenty miles long, terminating at Barnegat Inlet, were separated
-from 1750 to 1812 by Cranberry Inlet, which was nearly opposite
-the mouth of Tom’s River. Since 1812 near the site of this old
-inlet there have been others of brief duration, and one is said
-to have existed before 1755 opposite the mouth of the Metedeconk
-River, which separated Squan Beach from the mainland.</p>
-
-<p>The old Barnegat Lighthouse is said to have stood nearly six
-hundred yards north of the present south shore of the inlet, at a
-point now occupied by the center of the channel. In 1855 the
-old tower was at the water’s edge, so that the inlet has moved
-southward approximately twenty yards per year.</p>
-
-<p>Absecon Inlet, which separates Brigantine Beach from Absecon Beach,
-has encroached upon the latter about four hundred
-yards in twenty years; and the ocean front of that portion of Absecon
-Beach which is occupied by Atlantic City extended in 1855
-nearly half a mile farther east than it did in 1885. About 1875
-jetties were built which arrested the action of the tidal currents,
-and, the wear of the shore being thus prevented, a considerable
-area was restored.</p>
-
-<p>Submerged tree-stumps and other evidences of a subsidence of
-the coast may be found on the beaches and the salt meadows, but
-a detailed enumeration of them would be beyond the scope of the
-present article.</p>
-
-<p>In Cape May County the depression has not been less than
-twenty feet, and has possibly been much greater. The evidence
-of some old buildings on the shore of Delaware Bay suggests a
-subsidence of about four feet during the last two centuries.</p>
-
-<p>It is doubtful whether depression <i>alone</i> has caused the wear of
-the coast. A comparison of the present outline of Holly Beach
-with that determined by a survey in 1772 shows an accretion on
-the south and east, since the latter date, more than three and a
-half miles long and averaging three eighths of a mile in width,
-and on many other beaches a similar growth has taken place.
-During the past five years the ocean has rapidly encroached upon
-these beaches, while the subsidence of the coast, so far as we
-know, has been uniform throughout the past two centuries. It
-would appear, therefore, that the growth and decay of the beaches<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[8]</span>
-are more dependent upon the action of the ocean currents and
-winds than upon other agencies. Unquestionably the depression
-of the coast renders the beaches more subject to overflow and
-erosion by the waves and currents; but the evidence at many
-points shows that the latter are capable of forming large areas of
-beach where the conditions of their existence and action favor
-construction rather than destruction. While these currents act
-as at present, the cost of preventing the ravages of the sea, by
-the methods commonly in use, would probably be much greater
-than the value of the land protected, for the fine sand is so
-unstable when wet that bulkheads and breakwaters are quite
-ephemeral.</p>
-
-<p>After an extended examination of the various systems of shore
-defense in use between Sandy Hook and Cape May, it appears to
-the writer that the only effectual means of protection is the construction
-of jetties extending far enough from the shore to intercept
-the currents which carry away the sand loosened by the
-waves. Such jetties have added a large area to the territory of
-Atlantic City, and have protected the shore at Cape May; no
-doubt they would be effective everywhere if properly constructed.</p>
-
-<p>The experience of the past ten years on the New Jersey coast
-shows conclusively that the ocean front is not fit for building purposes,
-for it is impossible to protect a house near the water’s edge
-from injury or destruction in the heaviest storms. The height
-and force of the waves in such a tempest as that of September 10
-and 11, 1889, render them irresistible to any body or structure
-which nature or art has yet produced, and anything within their
-reach must suffer. The immediate water-front is only available
-for parks; and, if devoted to this use, when protected from the
-erosive action of the currents by suitable jetties, would remain a
-neutral ground which, in fair weather, would afford numberless
-attractions to the occupants of dwellings placed far enough from
-the strand to be out of reach of the storm-waves.</p>
-
-<p>Property-owners along the ocean front of the beaches have
-generally made the mistake of supposing that the domain of the
-Atlantic was bounded by the high-water mark of the spring tides.
-Any one who should build a dwelling on the strand below ordinary
-high-water mark would be considered lacking in common
-sense, yet it is scarcely less foolish to build within reach of the
-storm-waves. It is, of course, true that many cottages are now
-much nearer the water’s edge than they were a few years ago.
-This is due to the wear of the shore by currents already described
-as flowing parallel to it and removing the sand which the waves
-have loosened. If the action of these currents should be stopped—and
-there is good evidence to show that a system of jetties
-would intercept them and cause them to drop their stolen load of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[9]</span>
-sand—the wear of the shore would be arrested and the yearly encroachments
-of the ocean would cease.</p>
-
-<p>With regard to the inundation of Atlantic City by the sea in
-the great September storm of 1889 it should be said that this
-catastrophe ought not to be considered very wonderful, since the
-greater portion of the city is less than ten feet above mean tide,
-and the highest point recorded by the New Jersey State Survey
-is only thirteen feet above that level. As ordinary tides rise a
-foot above this plane, and spring tides nearly two feet, it is evident
-that a prolonged easterly storm would soon cause a considerable
-area to be overflowed. Since the bays and channels which
-lie between the beach and the mainland are almost completely
-landlocked and the inlets are relatively narrow, the water-level is
-soon raised to a height of two or three feet above the meadows,
-and this is sufficient to cover most of the railroad tracks. To be
-sure, no such inundation as the recent one has occurred since Atlantic
-City became a place of importance, nor do the old residents
-on the coast remember such a storm in former years; but it is
-evident that, while the beaches were uninhabited, such a storm as
-the one in question would attract less attention, since it would
-cause little if any loss of property.</p>
-
-<p>The genesis of the beaches is still a matter for speculation, but
-it may be safely affirmed that they originated as sand-bars, formed
-under water by wave and current action. How these bars were
-brought above water, so that the wind could exert its constructive
-power, is uncertain. A plausible hypothesis is, that while the
-ocean was breaking on the mainland shore and forming the
-Quaternary terraces, which may be seen there, sand-bars were
-made under water, and that the continental elevation which raised
-these terraces to their present position from twenty-five to eighty
-feet above tide, brought these sand-bars above water into a horizon
-of Æolian action. Once above the sea, the beaches would
-maintain their existence. A continued elevation of the coast
-would add to their seaward extent and a depression would cause
-a westward recession until they were brought to rest by contact
-with the mainland shore. In New Jersey the latter condition
-may be observed between Long Branch and Point Pleasant and
-also at Cape May.</p>
-
-<p>So far as it is known to the writer, the only way in which a
-beach can be entirely destroyed is by an inlet shifting its position.
-In this case the beach obliterated is replaced by the extension of
-an adjacent beach.</p>
-
-<p>Of the beaches south of New Jersey not enough is known to the
-writer to permit of a detailed biographical sketch. Their form and
-structure show that they have been subject to the same formative
-agencies and vicissitudes as those already described. In addition<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span>
-to the Georgia sea-islands of <i>ante-bellum</i> fame, may be mentioned
-as familiar examples the barriers which in Virginia and North Carolina
-separate Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds from the ocean; in
-Florida, Amelia Island on which is built the city of Fernandina;
-Anastasia Island, in front of St. Augustine; and the beaches which
-separate Halifax and Indian Rivers from the Atlantic. The last
-named rivers are the lagoons which separate the barriers from the
-mainland shore. Lake Worth is one of these lagoons, of which
-the inlet has been closed.</p>
-
-<p>To what extent the Florida Keys may be included in the category
-of barrier beaches must be decided by future investigation.
-Key West is evidently a wave-built sand-bar composed of fragments
-of coral, molluscan shells, and foraminifera, and it seems
-likely that Cayo Largo and others of that type may be of similar
-origin. The coquina deposits of the vicinity of St. Augustine are
-also wave-formed.</p>
-
-<p>The hypothesis of Prof. Louis Agassiz, that the Florida Keys
-are all of organic origin—i. e., that they were formed by the growth
-of coral reefs—may be true so far as the determination of their
-location and direction. A submerged reef of coral may have
-formed a nucleus on which the waves and currents deposited a
-load of calcareous sand, but the superficial portion is evidently
-similar in origin to that of the beaches farther north.</p>
-
-<p>Barrier beaches are found on all the sea-coasts of the world
-where opportunity for their growth has been afforded, and those
-of New Jersey may be regarded as types of these formations in all
-their essential features.</p>
-
-<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" />
-
-<div class="chapter">
-<div class="transnote">
-<p class="ph1">TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES:</p>
-
-<p>Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been standardized.</p>
-
-<p>Archaic or variant spelling has been retained.</p>
-
-<p>The cover image for this eBook was created by the transcriber and is entered into the public domain.</p>
-</div></div>
-
-<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BARRIER BEACHES OF THE ATLANTIC COAST ***</div>
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