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diff --git a/old/67942-0.txt b/old/67942-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 5f94976..0000000 --- a/old/67942-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,5472 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of USDA, Bulletin No. 1. (N.S.) The honey -bee: a manual of instruction in apiculture, by Frank Benton - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: USDA, Bulletin No. 1. (N.S.) The honey bee: a manual of - instruction in apiculture - -Author: Frank Benton - -Release Date: April 27, 2022 [eBook #67942] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Tom Cosmas produced from materials generously made - available at The Internet Archive and placed in the Public - Domain. - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA, BULLETIN NO. 1. (N.S.) -THE HONEY BEE: A MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION IN APICULTURE *** - - - - -Transcriber Note - -Text emphasis denoted by _Italics_ and =Bold=. - - - - -[Illustration: Bull. 1, new series, Div. of Entomology, U. S. Agriculture. - - Frontispiece. - - An Apiary in Maryland.] - - - - - Bulletin No. 1. New Series. (Third Edition.) - - U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. - - DIVISION OF ENTOMOLOGY. - - - - THE HONEY BEE: - - A MANUAL OF - - INSTRUCTION IN APICULTURE - - - BY - - FRANK BENTON, M. S., - - ASSISTANT ENTOMOLOGIST. - - [Illustration] - - - WASHINGTON: - - GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. - - 1899. - - - - - LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL - - - U. S. Department of Agriculture, - - Division of Entomology, - _Washington, D. C, May 27, 1899_. - -Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith for republication a manual -entitled, The Honey Bee: A Manual of Instruction in Apiculture, by -Mr. Frank Benton, who has been in charge of the apiarian work of -this Division for several years. The constant demand for information -concerning bee culture for a long time indicated a need for such a -public manual, and the work was begun and nearly completed under the -direction of my predecessor, Dr. G. V. Riley. The manuscript was -submitted September 20, 1895, and the edition of 1,000 copies was soon -exhausted. In April, 1896, Congress ordered a reprint of 20,000 copies, -in which some corrections and additions were made by the author. He has -also taken advantage of the reprint of another (the third) edition to -make some slight additional changes. - -The apiarian industry in the United States is practically a development -of the last forty years, although isolated individuals were engaged in -this work long prior to that time. The importance of the industry at -the present day is not generally realized, and the following figures -will probably be surprising to many well-informed individuals: - - Apiarian societies in the United States 110 - Apiarian journals 8 - Steam factories for the manufacture of beehives and apiarian - implements 15 - Honey produced in the United States in 1869 (according to - United States Census Report) pounds 14,702,815 - Honey produced in the United States in 1889 (according to - United States Census Report) pounds 63,894,186 - Persons engaged in the culture of bees (estimated) 300,000 - Honey and wax produced, at wholesale rates (Eleventh Census) $7,000,000 - Mr. Benton's estimate of the present annual value of - apiarian products $20,000,000 -As supplementary to these figures it may be stated that in addition -to the 15 steam-power factories there is a very largo number of smaller -factories, using mainly hand and horse power, which are engaged in the -production of supplies, such as hives, smokers, honey extractors, sections, -comb foundation, and other apiarian apparatus. It is estimated -by Mr. Benton that the present existing flora of the United States -could undoubtedly support, with the same average profit, ten times the -number of colonies of bees it now supports. This branch of agricultural -industry does not impoverish the soil in the least, but, on the -contrary, results in better seed and fruit crops. The total money gain -to the country from the prosecution of this industry would undoubtedly -be placed at several times the amount given in the table above -were we only able to estimate in dollars and cents the result of the -work of bees in cross fertilizing the blossoms of fruit crops. In support -of this it is only necessary to refer to the fact that recent investigations -by another division of this Department have shown that -certain varieties of pear are nearly or quite sterile unless bees bring -pollen from other distinct varieties for their complete cross fertilization. -I respectfully recommend the publication of this manual as No. 1 of -the new series of bulletins of this Division. - - Respectfully, L. O. Howard, - _Entomologist_. - Hon. James Wilson, - _Secretary of Agriculture_. - - - - - PREFACE. - - -This treatise is designed to make the practical management of an apiary -plain to those whose acquaintance with the subject is limited, and to -direct such as may find in it a pleasant and profitable occupation to -a system of management which may be followed on an extensive scale -with the certainty of fair remuneration for the labor and capital -required. With this object in view the author has deemed it best to -treat the natural history of the bee but briefly, and also to give -little space to matters which are in question, or to different methods -of accomplishing given results, or to such as are only adapted to a -limited portion of the country, but rather to explain one settled way -widely applicable and which will lead to success. The methods advised -here are such as the author has found practical during an extended -experience, yet in regard to numerous details many works--both foreign -and American--have been consulted, none more freely than Langstroth on -the Honey Bee, revised by Chas. Dadant & Son, and Bees and Bee Keeping, -by Prof. F. R. Cheshire. - -Many of the illustrations were specially prepared for this bulletin. -Some have been taken from publications of the Department of -Agriculture. These include some of the smaller illustrations of -honey-producing plants and also Plates III to X, which are from reports -of the Botanist of the Department. Plates II and XI, and figures 5, 6, -8, 44, 50, 51, and 76 are copied from Cheshire; figs. 08 and 69 from -Simmins. The Department is also under obligations to the A. I. Root -Company, to Chas. Dadant & Son, T. F. Bingham, Hayek Bros., Tan Allen & -Williams, and Dr. T. L. Tinker, for electrotypes. - - Frank Benton. - - Washington, D. C. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - Page. - Chapter I.--Classification of the honey bee 11 - The different species and races 11 - Common East Indian honey bee, _Apis indica_ 12 - Tiny East Indian honey bee, _Apis florea_ 13 - Giant East Indian honey bee, _Apis dorsata_ 13 - Common hive or honey bee, _Apis mellifera_ 15 - Cyprians 15 - Italians 16 - Carniolans 17 - German, common black or brown bees 18 - - Chapter II.--Kinds of bees composing a colony Bee - products and description of combs--Development of brood 19 - Kinds of bees in a colony 19 - Bee products and organs used in their preparation 21 - Nectar and honey 22 - Propolis 24 - Bee poison and the sting 24 - Water 25 - Silk 25 - Wax 25 - Combs 26 - Development of brood 28 - The worker 29 - The drone 30 - - Chapter III.--Quieting and manipulating bees 31 - - Chapter IV. Establishing an apiary: Time--Selecting hives - of bees--Moving bees Selection of site 35 - Selection of stocks 35 - Moving bees 37 - Selection of site 38 - - Chapter V.--Hives and implements 40 - Hives 40 - Implements 47 - Bee smokers 47 - Veils 48 - Honey extractors and honey knives 49 - Wax extractors 50 - Queen introducing-cages 50 - Bee feeders 51 - Section folders 52 - Bee escapes 52 - Foundation fasteners 52 - Comb-foundation machines 54 - - Chapter VI.--Bee pasturage 56 - Cultivation of honey plants 59 - Bees as cross fertilizers 62 - Honey and pollen producing plants 64 - - Chapter VII.--Spring manipulation 69 - Transferring 71 - Queenlessness in spring 74 - - Chapter VIII.--Securing surplus honey and wax 75 - Extracted honey 75 - Comb honey 79 - Putting on sections 81 - Production of wax 84 - - Chapter IX.--Rearing and introducing queens 87 - Mailing queens 92 - Introducing queens 93 - - Chapter X.--Increase of colonies 95 - Natural swarming 95 - Clipping queens 97 - Automatic hivers 98 - Prevention of after-swarming 98 - Artificial increase 99 - Dividing 100 - Driving or brushing 100 - The nucleus system 101 - Prevention of swarming 101 - Dequeening 102 - Requeening 102 - Space near entrances 103 - Langdon non-swarming device 104 - Selection in breeding 105 - - Chapter XI.--Wintering bees 106 - Outdoor wintering 109 - Indoor wintering 111 - - Chapter XII.--Diseases and enemies of bees 112 - Diarrhea and dysentery 112 - Foul brood 112 - The wax moth 113 - Braula or bee louse 115 - Other enemies 115 - Robber flies, dragon flies, etc. 115 - Ants and wasps 115 - Spiders 116 - Toads and lizards 116 - Birds 116 - Mammals 116 - Robber bees 116 - Laying workers 117 - - Brief list of books and journals relating to apiculture 118 - - - ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - PLATES. - - Page. - An apiary in Maryland Frontispiece. - - Plate I. Honey bees 16 - II. Digestive system of bee 22 - III. Alfalfa (_Medicago saliva_) 64 - IV. Esparcet or sainfoin (_Onobrychis sativa_) 64 - V. Sweet clover or melilot (_Melilotus alba_) 64 - VI. Acacia (_Acacia constricta_) 64 - VII. Mesquite (_Prosopis juliflora_) 64 - VIII. Blue weed or viper's bugloss (_Echium vulgare_) 64 - IX. Crimson clover (_Trifolium incarnatum_) 64 - X. Alsike clover (_Trifolium hybridum_) 64 - XI. _Bacillus alvei_ 112 - - TEXT FIGURES. - - Fig. 1. Worker cells of common East Indian honey bee - (_Apis indica_) 12 - 2. Worker cells of tiny East Indian honey bee - (_Apis florea_) 13 - 3. Comb of tiny East Indian honeybee (_Apis florea_) 14 - 4. Worker cells of common honey bee (_Apis mellifera_) 15 - 5. Ovaries of queen and workers 19 - 6. Heads of queen and drone 20 - 7. Modifications of the legs of different bees 21 - 8. Head and tongue of _Apis mellifera_ worker 22 - 9. Wax disks of social bees 26 - 10. Comb building, side of hive removed 27 - 11. Cross section of brood apartment 29 - 12. Use of veil and bee smoker 31 - 13. Manipulation removing comb from hive 32 - 14. Manipulation tilting to bring reverse side of comb - to view 33 - 15. Manipulation reverse side of comb brought to view 33 - 16. Manipulation examining reverse side of comb 33 - 17. Quinby closed-end frames 34 - 18. Box hive prepared for transportation 37 - 19. Frame hive prepared for transportation 37 - 20. An apiary in Florida 38 - 21. An apiary in California 39 - 22. Ancient Greek movable comb hive 41 - 23. Dadant-Quinby form of Langstroth hive with cap and - gable roof 41 - 24. Langstroth frame showing construction 42 - 25. Form in which to nail frames 42 - 26. Lock-joint chaff hive 43 - 27. Manner of nailing hives 43 - 28. Section of improved tin frame-rest 44 - 29. The Langstroth hive (Dadant-Quinby form), cross - section showing construction 45 - 30. The Nonpareil hive 46 - 31. Dadant-Quinby form of Langstroth hive open 46 - 32. The Bingham bee smoker 48 - 33. Automatic reversible honey extractor 49 - 34. Quinby uncapping knife 49 - 35. Bingham & Hetherington uncapping knife 49 - 36. Excelsior wax extractor 50 - 37. Simplicity feeder 51 - 38. Fruit-jar bee feeder, bottom of feeding stage and - perforated cap shown separately 51 - 39. The Porter spring bee escape 52 - 40. Daisy foundation fastener 53 - 41. Fastening starter of comb foundation in frame 53 - 42. Spur wire-embedder 54 - 43. Comb-foundation machine 55 - 44. Willow herb (_Epilobium angustifolium_) 57 - 45. Wagner's flat pea (_Lathyrus sylvestris wagneri_) 59 - 46. Dwarf Essex or winter rape (_Brassica napus_) 60 - 47. Summer or bird rape (_Brassica napus_) 60 - 48. Sacaline or giant knotweed (_Polygonum sachalinense_) 61 - 49. Russian or hairy vetch (_Vicia villosa_) 61 - 50. Mountain laurel (_Kalmia latifolia_) 63 - 51. Apple (_Pyrus malus_) 63 - 52. Heath-like wild aster (_Aster ericoides_) 64 - 53. Transferring drumming the bees from a box hive into - a frame hive 71 - 54. Transferred comb and inserted queen cell 73 - 55. Uncapping and extracting honey 77 - 56. One-piece "V"-grooved sections 80 - 57. Super with section holders and sections in place 80 - 58. Dadant-Quinby form of Langstroth hive, elevated from - bottom board and slid back for ventilation in summer 82 - 59. Langstroth hive with combined surplus case and - shipping crate 83 - 60. Honey shipping cases 83 - 61. Boardman solar wax extractor 85 - 62. Comb showing worker brood and queen cells 88 - 63. Queen cells and worker brood in various stages 89 - 64. The Benton queen cage fur transporting a queen and - attendants by mail 92 - 65. Caging a queen for mailing 92 - 66. Queen introducing-cage 94 - 67. Hiving a swarm of bees 96 - 68. The Simmins non-swarming system, single-story hive - with supers 103 - 69. The Simmins non-swarming system, double-story hive - with supers 103 - 70. Beehives with Langdon non-swarmer attached 104 - 71. Percolator for preparation of winter food 107 - 72. The American straw hive of Hayek Bros 108 - 73. Davis hive with newspapers packed between inner and - outer cases and brood frames on end for winter 108 - 74. Double-walled hive adapted to outdoor wintering as - well as summer use below 40 C north latitude in - United States 109 - 75. An apiary in Vermont winter view 110 - 76. Cheshire anti-robbing entrance 117 - - - - - MANUAL OF APICULTURE. - - - - - CHAPTER I. - - =CLASSIFICATION OF THE HONEY BEE= - - - THE DIFFERENT SPECIES AND RACES. - -A knowledge of the structural peculiarities and the life history -of bees will aid anyone who essays to manage them for profit in -determining more accurately what conditions are necessary to their -greatest welfare. It is not to be understood that such knowledge will -take the place of an acquaintance with those conditions under which -actual practice has shown that bees thrive, but that it forms a good -basis for an understanding of whatever practice has found best in the -management of these industrious and profitable insects. It will also -assist in pointing out in what way practice can be improved. - -In a small treatise like the present one, the object of which is to -give in plain language the information needed by one who engages in -bee keeping primarily for profit, it is not possible to do more than -present a mere outline of classification and a few general facts -regarding structure. The reader who finds them interesting and valuable -in his work is reminded that the treatment of these matters in more -extended volumes, such as Langstroth's, Cheshire's, etc., will be found -far more so. - -Singling out from the order Hymenoptera, or membranous-winged insects, -the family Apidæ, or bee family, several marked types called genera are -seen to compose it, such as _Apis_ (the hive bee), _Bombus_ (the bumble -bee), _Xylocopa_ (the carpenter bee), _Megachile_ (the leaf-cutter), -_Melipona_ (the stingless honey bee of the American tropics), etc. All -of these are very interesting to study, and each fulfills a purpose -in the economy of nature; but the plan of these pages can only be -to consider the first genus, _Apis_, or the hive bee. Incidentally -it may be mentioned that the plan of introducing the stingless bees -(_Melipona_) from tropical America has frequently been brought up with -the expectation of realizing important practical results from it. These -bees might possibly be kept in the warmer portions of our country, but -their honey yield is small, not well ripened, and not easily harvested -in good shape, since the honey cells are of dark wax, like that made -by our bumble bees, and they are not arranged in regular order, but in -irregular clumps like those of bumble bees. The writer had a colony -under observation last year, and experiments have been made with them -in their native lands as well as in European countries. Of the genus -_Apis_ the only representative in this country is _mellifera_, although -several others are natives of Asia and Africa. - - - THE COMMON EAST INDIAN HONEY BEE. - - (_Apis indica_ Fab.) - -The common bee of southern Asia is kept in very limited numbers and -with a small degree of profit in earthen jars and sections of hollow -trees in portions of the British and Dutch East Indies. They are also -found wild, and build when in this state in hollow trees and in rock -clefts. Their combs, composed of hexagonal wax cells, are ranged -parallel to each other like those of _A. mellifera_, but the worker -brood cells are smaller than those of our ordinary bees, showing 36 to -the square inch of surface instead of 29, while the comb where worker -brood is reared, instead of having, like that of _A. mellifera_, a -thickness of seven-eighths inch, is but five-eighths inch thick. (Fig. -1.) - -[Illustration: Fig. 1.--Worker cells of common East Indian honey bee -(_Apis indica_); natural size. (Original.)] - -_The workers._--The bodies of these, three-eighths inch long when -empty, measure about one-half inch when dilated with honey. The thorax -is covered with brownish hair and the shield or crescent between the -wings is large and yellow. The abdomen is yellow underneath. Above it -presents a ringed appearance, the anterior part of each segment being -orange yellow, while the posterior part shows bands of brown of greater -or less width and covered with whitish-brown hairs; tip black. They are -nimble on foot and on the wing, and active gatherers. - -_The queens._--The queens are large in proportion to their workers and -are quite prolific; color, leather or dark coppery. - -_The drones._--These are only slightly larger than the workers; color, -jet-like blue black, with no yellow, their strong wings showing -changing hues like those of wasps. - -Manipulations with colonies of these bees are easy to perform if smoke -be used, and though they are more excitable than our common hive bees, -this peculiarity does not lead them to sting more, but seems rather to -proceed from fear. The sting is also less severe. - -Under the rude methods thus far employed in the management of this bee -no great yields of honey are obtained, some 10 or 12 pounds having been -the most reported from a single hive. It is quite probable that if -imported into this country it would do more. These bees would no doubt -visit many small flowers not frequented by the hive bees we now have, -and whose nectar is therefore wasted, but very likely they might not -withstand the severe winters of the North unless furnished with such -extra protection as would be afforded by quite warm cellars or special -repositories. - - - THE TINY EAST INDIAN HONEY BEE. - - (_Apis florea_ Fab.) - -This bee, also a native of East India, is the smallest known species of -the genus. It builds in the open air, attaching a single comb to a twig -of a shrub or small tree. This comb is only about the size of a man's -hand and is exceedingly delicate, there being on each side 100 worker -cells to the square inch of surface (figs. 2 and 3). The workers, more -slender than house flies, though longer bodied, are blue-black in -color, with the anterior third of the abdomen bright orange. Colonies -of these bees accumulate so little surplus honey as to give no hope -that their cultivation would be profitable. - -[Illustration: Fig 2.--Worker cells of tiny East Indian honey bee -(_Apis florea_); natural size. (Original).] - - - THE GIANT EAST INDIAN HONEY BEE. - - (_Apis dorsata_ Fab.) - -This large bee (Plate I, figs. 2 and 3), which might not be -inappropriately styled the Giant East Indian bee, has its home also -in the far East--both on the continent of Asia and the adjacent -islands. There are probably several varieties, more or less marked, of -this species, and very likely _Apis zonata_ Guér. of the Philippine -Islands, reported to be even larger than _A. dorsata_, will prove on -further investigation to be only a variety of the latter. All the -varieties of these bees build huge combs of very pure wax--often 5 -to 6 feet in length and 3 to 4 feet in width, which they attach to -overhanging ledges of rocks or to large limbs of lofty trees in the -primitive forests or jungles. When attached to limbs of trees they -are built singly and present much the same appearance as those of the -tiny East Indian bee, shown in the accompanying figure (fig. 3). The -Giant bee, however, quite in contradistinction to the other species of -Apis mentioned here, does not construct larger cells in which to rear -drones, these and the workers being produced in cells of the same size. -Of these bees--long a sort of a myth to the bee keepers of America and -Europe--strange stories have been told. It has been stated that they -build their combs horizontally, after the manner of paper-making wasps; -that they are so given to wandering as to make it impossible to keep -them in hives, and that their ferocity renders them objects greatly -to be dreaded. The first real information regarding these points was -given by the author, lb 4 visited India in 1880-81 for the purpose -of obtaining colonies of _Apis dorsata_. These were procured in the -jungles, cutting the combs from their original attachments, and it was -thus ascertained that (as might have been expected in the case of any -species of Apis), their combs are always built perpendicularly; also -that the colonies placed in frame hives and permitted to fly freely -did not desert these habitations and that, far from being ferocious, -these colonies were easily handled by proper precautions, without even -the use of smoke. It was also proved by the quantity of honey and wax -present that they are good gatherers. The execution at that time of the -plan of bringing these bees to the United States was prevented only by -severe illness contracted in India. - -[Illustration: Fig. 3.--Comb of tiny East Indian honey bee (_Apis -florea_) one-third natural sized. (Original.)] - -These large bees would doubtless be able to get honey from flowers -whose nectaries are located out of reach of ordinary bees, notably -those of the red clover, now visited chiefly by bumble bees and which -it is thought the East Indian bees might pollinate and cause to produce -seed more abundantly. Even if no further utilizable, they might prove -an important factor in the production in the Southern States of large -quantities of excellent beeswax, now such an expensive article. Should -these bees and the common East Indian bee (_Apis indica_), previously -referred to, visit in the main only such flowers as are not adapted -to our hive bees, their introduction, wherever it could be made -successful, would, without decreasing the yield from our hive bees, add -materially to the honey and wax production of the country. Theoretical -conclusions as to the results of such an introduction can not be of -much account unless based upon an intimate acquaintance with the nature -and habits of the bees to be introduced. Enough is known of the small -bee to remove all doubt regarding the possibility of its successful -introduction, and it is also probable that the large one would prove -valuable. In neither case does there appear any possibility that evil -results might follow their introduction. There are also numerous other -varieties or species of bees in Africa and Asia about which no more or -even less is known, but to investigate them fully will require much -time and considerable expense. It is a subject, however, that should -receive careful consideration because of the possible benefits to -apiculture and the wider beneficial effects on agriculture. - - - THE COMMON HIVE OR HONEY BEE. - - (_Apis mellifera_ Linn.) - -Besides the common brown or German bee imported from Europe to this -country some time in the seventeenth century and now widely spread from -the Atlantic to the Pacific, several other races have been brought -here--the Italian in 1860, and later the Egyptian, the Cyprian, the -Syrian, the Palestine, the Carniolan (Plate I, figs. 1, 4, and 5), and -the Tunisian. Of these the brown or German, the Italian, and, in a few -apiaries, the Carniolan bees are probably the only races existing pure -in the United States, the others having become more or less hybridized -with the brown race or among themselves or their cultivation having -been discontinued. It should also be remarked that so few have kept -their Carniolans pure that purchasers who wish this race should use -caution in their selection or else import their own breeding queens. -There are many breeders of Italians from whom good stock can be -obtained. Egyptian bees were tried some thirty years ago, but only -to a very limited extent, and, as has been the case with Syrians and -Palestines imported in 1880, and whose test was more prolonged and -general, they were condemned as inferior in temper and wintering -qualities to the races of bees already here, it not being thought that -these points of inferiority were sufficiently balanced by their greater -prolificness and their greater energy in honey collecting. - -[Illustration: Fig. 4.--Worker cells of common honey bee (_Apis -mellifera_); natural size. (Original.)] - -The Tunisians, for similar reasons and also because they are great -collectors of propolis, never became popular, although a persistent -attempt was made a few years since to create sale for them under the -new name of "Punic bees," the undesirable qualities of the race having -previously been made known, under the original name, by the author, -who had tested them carefully for several years--a part of the time in -Tunis. - -_Cyprians._--Bees of the race native to the Island of Cyprus have -produced the largest yield of honey on record from a single colony -in this country, 1,000 pounds in one season. Everyone who has fairly -tested them admits their wonderful honey-gathering powers and their -persevering courage in their labors even when the flowers are secreting -honey but scantily. They winter well and defend their hives against -robber bees and other enemies with greater energy than any other known -race. When storing honey Cyprians till the cells quite fall before -sealing, and thus the capping rests against the honey, presenting a -semitransparent or "watery" appearance, which is undesirable. They -are extremely sensitive, hence easily angered by rough or bungling -manipulators, and when once thoroughly aroused are very energetic -in the use of their stings. These faults have caused a very general -rejection of Cyprians, especially by those who produce comb honey. -Even the producers of extracted honey do not seem to have learned how -to manipulate Cyprians easily and without the use of much smoke, nor -how much more rapidly they could free their extracting combs from -Cyprian bees than from Italians. Nor have they seemed to count as of -much importance the fact that Cyprians, unlike Italians and German or -common bees, do not volunteer an attack when undisturbed; that they -will, in fact, let one pass and repass their hives quite unmolested -and even under such circumstances as would call forth a vigorous and -very disagreeable protest from the other races just mentioned. It is -to be regretted that there has been such a widespread rejection of a -race having such important and well-established excellent qualities. -It would be easier by selection in breeding to reduce the faults of -this race than to bring any other cultivated race to their equal in the -other desirable points. - -Cyprians are smaller-bodied and more slender than bees of European -races. The abdomen is also more pointed and shows, when the bees are -purely bred, three light orange bands on the three segments nearest the -thorax. The underside of the abdomen is even lighter orange colored -nearly or quite to the tip. The postscutellum--the small lunule-like -prominence on the thorax between the bases of the wings--is likewise -orange colored instead of dull, as in European races. The rest of -the thorax is covered with a russet-brown pubescence. Cyprians are -the yellowest of the original races, and their bright colors and -symmetrical forms render them attractive objects. - -_Italians._--Through the agency of the United States Department of -Agriculture bees of this race were introduced direct from Italy in -1860. There had previously been repeated individual efforts to secure -Italians bred in Germany, where the race had been introduced some years -earlier, and a small number of queens had been landed here alive in -the autumn of 1859, but most of these died the following winter and -the few remaining alive seem not to have been multiplied as rapidly -as those obtained in Italy by a purchasing agent of the Department of -Agriculture and landed here early in 1860. Their good qualities were -soon appreciated, and they had become well established and widely -spread long before the Cyprians, imported twenty years later. For -this reason, together with the fact that they cap their surplus combs -whiter than some other races and because less skill is required in -subduing and handling Italians, they have retained their popularity -over bees which, though better honey gatherers, are more nervous under -manipulation. Their golden-yellow color has also proved so attractive -to many that the good qualities of more somber-hued races--gentler, -better winterers, and better comb builders--have not received due -consideration. Italians are, however, certainly preferable to the -common brown or black bees, for they show greater energy in gathering -honey and in the defense of their hives against moth larvæ and robber -bees, while at the same time they are gentler under manipulation than -the blacks, though they do not winter as well in severe climates. - - - Bul. 1, new series, Div. of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. - - Plate I. - - [Illustration] - - Honey Bees. - - 1. Worker, Carniolan variety of _Apis mellifera_--twice natural size. - 2. Giant honey bee of East India (_Apis dorsata_), worker twice - natural size. - 3. Giant honey bee of East India (_Apis dorsata_), drone twice - natural size. - 4. Drone, Carniolan variety of _Apis mellifera_ twice natural size. - 5. Queen, Carniolan variety of _Apis mellifera_--twice natural size. - - -Italian workers nearly equal Garniolans in size, and show across -the abdomen when the latter is distended with honey not less than -three yellow bands, which approach more or less a reddish or dark -leathery color. By selection in some instances, and in others by the -introduction of Cyprian blood, Italians and Italian hybrids have -recently been bred which show four or five yellow bands or which are -even yellow to the tip of the abdomen. They are certainly pleasing to -the eye, and in case due heed has been given to the vigor and working -qualities of the stock selected when establishing the strain, no -valid objection can be brought against them except the tendency they -have to revert to the original type of Italians. This is due to the -comparatively short time they have been bred, and with each season's -selection will of course grow less. - -_Carniolans._--These, the gray bees from the elevated Alpine province -of Carniola, Austria, are the gentlest of all races, and as, besides -their other good qualities, they winter the best of any, it is not -surprising to see that they have steadily grown in favor. Their sealed -combs are exceedingly white, as they do not fill the cells so full -that the honey touches the capping, and they gather little propolis, -qualities highly appreciated by the producer of comb honey. They -are quite prolific, and if kept in small hives, such as have been -popularized of late in the United States, are somewhat more inclined -to swarm than the other races introduced here. This tendency becomes -more pronounced when they are taken into a country whose summers are -hot, like ours, and their hives are not well shaded, as they have been -bred for centuries, with only slight introduction of outside blood, -in a climate where the summers are short and cool. Moreover, the -practice in Carniola is to place the long, shallow hives used almost -exclusively there, in beehouses and side by side, one above the other, -with intervening air spaces, so that at most only the front ends are -exposed to the sun. This management long continued has doubtless tended -to develop and fix more or less permanently in this race certain -characteristics which should be taken into account in their management -elsewhere. With these precautions they do well in all parts of the -United States. (See Plate I, figs. 1, 4, and 5.) - -The Carniolan worker is readily recognized by its large form, less -pointed abdomen, and general ashy gray coat, the abdominal segments -especially presenting a ringed appearance on account of silvery white -hairs which cover the posterior half of each of these segments. By -crossing Carniolans with Italians or with Cyprians a yellow type with -silvery rings is produced, and by continued selection in breeding the -gentle disposition of the Carniolans can be secured with the greater -honey-gathering powers of Cyprians should these be employed in forming -the new strain. - -_German, common black, or brown bees._--These bees are found commonly -throughout our country from ocean to ocean, both wild and domesticated. -Exactly when they were introduced from Europe is not known, but -considerable evidence exists which shows that there were no hive bees -(_Apis mellifera_) in this country for some time after the first -colonies were established; also, it was not until near the close of -the last century that they reached the Mississippi, and less than half -a century has passed since the first were successfully landed on the -Pacific Coast. - -Many bee keepers, having more attractively colored and frequently -better bees, are inclined to consider this race as possessing hardly -any redeeming qualities, or at least to underrate these because -accompanied by undesirable traits. While it is true that they have -some serious faults, the latter are not so great as those of some -other races. They have become thoroughly acclimated since their first -importation, over two centuries ago, and besides possessing good -wintering and comb-building qualities, they will, when the flow of -honey is quite abundant, generally equal Italians in gathering. But -the disposition which bees of this race have of flying toward one -who approaches the apiary and stinging him, even though the hives -have not been molested, their way of running excitedly over the combs -and dropping in bunches when they are handled, besides stinging the -backs of the operator's hands, unless the whole colony has first been -thoroughly subdued and the bees induced to gorge themselves with honey, -or are constantly deluged with smoke, are very annoying to the novice -who undertakes to perform necessary manipulations with them, and may -even so discourage and daunt him as to cause the neglect of work of -great importance to the welfare of the colony. The easy discouragement -of bees of this race when a sudden check in the flow of honey occurs is -also a peculiarity which does not commend them. These things, tending -to reduce profits, often dampen the beginner's enthusiasm before -he has acquired the knowledge and skill necessary to make the work -genuinely successful. He had therefore better choose either Italians -or Carniolans, and use as breeders only queens that are known to have -mated purely. - -The common race shows considerable variation in its markings and -qualities. The workers have a dull, rusty brown color, especially -about the thorax. Some strains are however much darker than others and -in general the drones are darker than the workers. In size workers, -drones, and queens of this race are intermediate between the other -European races and those from the Orient. The same care and skill -applied in the selection of breeding stock would result in as great -improvement in this as in any of the more attractive yellow races. - -[Illustration: Fig. 5.--Ovaries of queen and workers: A, abdomen of -queen--under side (magnified eight times); P, petiole; O, O, ovaries; -_hs_, position filled by honey sac; _ds_, position through which -digestive system passes; _od_, oviduct; _co.d_, common oviduct; E, -egg-passing oviduct; _s_, spermatheca; _i_, intestine; _po_, poison -bag; _p.g_, poison gland; _st_, sting; _p_, palpi. B, rudimentary -ovaries of ordinary worker; _sp_, rudimentary spermatheca. C, partially -developed ovaries of fertile worker; _sp_, rudimentary spermatheca. -(From Cheshire.)] - - - - - CHAPTER II. - - =KINDS OF BEES COMPOSING A COLONY--BEE PRODUCTS AND - DESCRIPTION OF COMBS--DEVELOPMENT OF BROOD.= - - - KINDS OF BEES IN A COLONY. - -Each colony of bees in good condition at the opening of the season -contains a laying queen and some 30,000 to 40,000 worker bees, or six -to eight quarts by measurement. Besides this there should be four, -five, or even more combs fairly stocked with developing brood, with a -good supply of honey about it. Drones may also be present, even several -hundred in number, although it is better to limit their production to -selected hives, which in the main it is not difficult to accomplish. - -Under normal conditions the queen lays all of the eggs which are -deposited in the hive, being capable of depositing under favorable -conditions as many as 4,000 in twenty-four hours. Ordinarily she mates -but once, flying from the hive to meet the drone--the male bee--high -in the air, when five to nine days old generally, although this time -varies under different climatic conditions as well as with different -races. Seminal fluid sufficient to impregnate the greater number of -eggs she will deposit during the next two or three years (sometimes -even four or five years) is stored at the time of mating in a sac--the -spermatheca, opening into the oviduct or egg-passage (fig. 5, _s_). -The queen seems to be able to control this opening so as to fertilize -eggs or not as she wills at the time of depositing them. If fertilized -they develop into workers or queens according to the character of the -food given, the size and shape of the cell, etc.; if unfertilized, -into drones. The queen's life may extend over a period of four or five -years, but three years is quite as long as any queen ought to be kept, -unless a particularly valuable one for breeding purposes and not easy -to replace. Indeed, if full advantage be taken of her laying powers it -will rarely be found profitable to retain a queen longer than two years. - -Upon the workers, which are undeveloped females, devolves all the labor -of gathering honey, pollen, propolis, and bringing water, secreting -wax, building combs, stopping up crevices in the hive, nursing the -brood, and defending the hives. To enable them to do all this they are -furnished with highly specialized organs. These will be more fully -referred to in connection with the description of the products gathered -and prepared by the workers. - -[Illustration: Fig. 6.--A, Head of queen, magnified ten times, showing -smaller compound eyes at sides, and three ocelli on vertex of head; -_n_, jaw notch. B, head of drone, magnified ten times, showing larger -compound eyes at sides, with three ocelli between; _n_, jaw notch. -(From Cheshire.)] - -The drones, aside from contributing somewhat to the general warmth -of the hive necessary to the development of the brood, seem to have -no other office but that connected with reproduction. In the wild -state colonies of bees are widely separated, being located wherever -the swarms chance to have found hollow trees or rock cavities, hence -the production of many drones has been provided for, so young queens -flying out to mate will not run too many risks from bird and insect -enemies, storms, etc. Mating in the hive would result in too continuous -in-and-in breeding, producing loss of vigor. As we find it arranged, -the most vigorous are the most likely to reproduce their species. - -At the time of the queen's mating there are in the hive neither eggs -nor young larvæ from which to rear another queen; thus, should she be -lost, no more fertilized eggs would be deposited, and the old workers -gradually dying off without being replaced by young ones, the colony -would become extinct in the course of a few months at most, or meet a -speedier fate through intruders, such as wax-moth larvæ, robber bees, -wasps, etc., which its weakness would prevent its repelling longer; or -cold is very likely to finish such a decimated colony, especially as -the bees, because queenless, are uneasy and do not cluster compactly. - -The loss of queens while flying out to mate is evidently one of the -provisions in nature to prevent bees from too great multiplication, for -were there no such checks they would soon become a pest in the land. On -the other hand, the risk to the queen is not uselessly increased, for -she mates but once during her life. - -[Illustration: Fig. 7.--Modifications of the legs of different bees: -A, _Apis_: _a_, wax pincer and outer view of hind leg; _b_, inner -aspect of wax pincer and leg; _c_, compound hairs holding grains of -pollen; _d_, anterior leg, showing antenna cleaner; _e_, spur on tibia -of middle leg. B, _Melipona:_ _f_, peculiar group of spines at apex of -tibia of hind leg; _g_, inner aspect of wax pincer and first joint of -tarsus. C, _Bombus_: _h_, wax pincer; _i_, inner view of same and first -joint of tarsus--all enlarged. (From Insect Life.)] - - - BEE PRODUCTS AND ORGANS USED IN THEIR PREPARATION. - -Pollen and honey form the food of honey bees and their developing -brood. Both of these are plant products which are only modified -somewhat by the manipulation to which they are subjected by the bees -and are then stored in waxen cells if not wanted for immediate use. -Pollen, the fertilizing dust of flowers, is carried home by the bees in -small pellets held in basket-like depressions on each of the hind legs. -The hairs covering the whole surface of the bee's body are more or less -serviceable in enabling the bee to collect pollen, but those on the -under side of the abdomen are most likely to get well dusted, and the -rows of hairs, nine in number, known as pollen brushes, located on the -inner surface of the first tarsal joint (fig. 7, _b_), are then brought -into use to brush out this pollen. When these brushes are filled with -pollen the hind legs are crossed during flight and the pollen combed -out by the spine-like hairs that fringe the posterior margin of the -tibial joint--that above a in fig. 7. The outer surface of this joint -is depressed, and this, with the rows of curved hairs on the anterior -margin and the straighter ones just referred to forms a basket like -cavity known as the corbiculum or pollen basket, represented by -the longest joints of the legs, A, B, and C, fig. 7. Into this the -pollen falls, and with the middle pair of legs is tamped down for -transportation to the hive. Having arrived there, the bee thrusts its -hind legs into a cell located as near to the brood nest as may be, and -loosening the pellets lets them fall into the bottom of the cell. The -tibial spur (fig. 7, _e_) on each middle leg is, as Professor Cheshire -has pointed out, probably of use in prying the pellets out. The latter -are simply dropped into cells and left for some other bee to pack down -by kneading or pressing with its mandibles. Various colors--yellow, -brown, red, slate, etc., according to the kinds of flowers from which -gathered--frequently show in layers in the same cell. Often when partly -filled with pollen the cell is then filled up with honey and sealed -more or less hermetically with wax. The bees store the pollen, for -convenience in feeding, above and at the sides of the brood and as -near to it as possible, the comb on each side of the brood nest being -generally well stored with it. - -[Illustration: Fig. 8.--Head and tongue of Apis mellifera worker -(magnified twelve times), _a_, Antenna, or feeler; _m_, mandibula, or -outer jaw; _g_, gum flap, or epipharynx; _mxp_, maxillary palpus; _pg_, -paraglossa; _mx_, maxilla, or inner jaw; _lp_, labial palpus, _l_, -ligula, or tongue; _b_, bouton, or spoon of the same. (Reduced from -Cheshire.)] - - - NECTAR AND HONEY. - -The liquid secreted in the nectaries of flowers is usually quite thin, -containing, when just gathered, a large per centage of water. Bees suck -or lap it up from such flowers as they can reach with their flexible, -sucking tongue, 0.25 to 0.28 inch long. (Fig. 8, _l_.) This nectar is -taken into the honey sac (Plate II, _h.s._) located in the abdomen, for -transportation to the hive. It is possible that part of the water is -eliminated by the gatherers before they reach the hive. A Russian bee -keeper, M. Nassanoff, while dissecting a worker, discovered between -the fifth and sixth abdominal segments a small canal, to which he -attributed an excretory function, and Zoubareff, having noticed bees -ejecting a watery substance while returning from the fields, suggested -that this gland probably served to separate a portion of the water from -the nectar, the liquid deposited in the cells appearing to contain less -of it than that just secreted by the flowers. - - - Bul. 1, new series, Div. of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. - - Plate II. - - [Illustration] - - Digestive System of Bee (magnified ten times). - - A, Horizontal section of body; _lp_, labial palpus; _mx_,, maxilla: - _e_, eye; _dv, dv_, dorsal vessel: _v_, ventricles of the same; No. - 1. No. 2, No. 3, salivary gland systems, 1, 2, 3; _œ_, œsophagus; - _pro.t_, prothorax; _mesa.t_, mesathorax; _meta.t_, metathorax; _g, - g_, ganglia of chief nerve chain; _n_, nerves; _hs_, honey sac; _p_, - petaloid stopper of honey sac or stomach mouth; _c.s_, chyle stomach: - _bt_, biliary or Malpighian vessels: _si_, small intestine; _l_, - lamellæ or gland plates of colon; _li_, large intestine. - - -However this maybe, evaporation takes place rapidly in the heat of -the hive after the nectar or thin honey has been stored, as it is -temporarily, in open cells. Besides being thin, the nectar has at first -a raw, rank taste, generally the flavor and odor peculiar to the plant -from which gathered, and these are frequently far from agreeable. To -make from this raw product the healthful and delicious table luxury -which honey constitutes--"fit food for the gods"--is another of the -functions peculiar to the worker bee. The first step is the stationing -of workers in lines near the hive entrances. These, by incessant -buzzing of their wings, drive currents of air into and out of the hive -and over the comb surfaces. If the hand be held before the entrance -at such a time a strong current of warm air may be felt coming out. -The loud buzzing heard at night during the summer time is due to the -wings of workers engaged chiefly in ripening nectar. Instead of being -at rest, as many suppose, the busy workers are caring for the last -lot of gathered nectar and making room for further accessions. This -may go on far into the night, or even all night, to a greater or less -extent, the loudness and activity being proportionate to the amount and -thinness of the liquid. Frequently the ripening honey is removed from -one set of cells and placed in others. This may be to gain the use of -certain combs for the queen, or possibly it is merely incidental to -the manipulation the bees wish to give it. When, finally, the process -has been completed, it is found that the water content has usually -been reduced to 10 or 12 per cent, and that the disagreeable odors -and flavors, probably due to volatile oils, have also been driven off -in a great measure, if not wholly, by the heat of the hive, largely -generated by the bees. During the manipulation an antiseptic--formic -acid--secreted by glands in the head of the bee, and it is also -possible other glandular secretions, have been added. The finished -product is stored in waxen cells above and around the brood nest and -the main cluster of bees, as far from the entrance as it can be and -still be near to the brood and bees. The work of sealing with waxen -caps then goes forward rapidly, the covering being more or less porous. - -Each kind of honey has its distinctive flavor and aroma, derived, as -already indicated, mainly from the particular blossoms by which it -was secreted, but modified and softened by the manipulation given it -in the hives. When the secretion is abundant in a flower having a -short or open corolla, hence one from which the bees find it easy to -obtain the honey, they will confine their visits to that kind if the -latter is present in sufficient numbers. Thus it is that linden, white -clover, buckwheat, white sage, mesquite, sourwood, aster, tulip tree, -mangrove, orange, and other kinds of honey may be harvested separately, -and each be readily recognizable by its color, flavor, consistency, -and aroma. When, however, no great honey yielder is present in large -quantity and the source is miscellaneous, all manner of combinations -of qualities may exist, introducing great and often agreeable variety. -Thus the medicinal qualities and the food value of different kinds of -honey differ as greatly as do their prices on the market. - - - PROPOLIS. - -This substance, commonly known as "bee glue," is obtained by the bees -from the buds and crevices of trees, and is carried to the hives in -the corbicula or basket-like cavities on the outside of the tibial -joints of the workers' hind legs, the same as they carry pollen. The -workers with their mandibles scrape together and bite off the particles -of propolis, and with the front and middle legs pass them back to the -baskets, where the middle legs and feet are used to tamp them down. The -pellets can be readily distinguished from those of pollen, the latter -being dull and granular in appearance, while the freshly gathered -propolis is compact and shiny. This resinous material, which becomes -hard soon after it is gathered, is at first quite sticky, and the bee -bringing it requires aid in unloading. Another worker takes hold of -the mass with its jaws, and by united exertion they get it out of the -pocket, though often by piecemeal and in long threads. It is not stored -in cells, but is used at once to stop up crevices in the hives and to -varnish the whole interior surface, as well as to glue movable portions -fast, also in strengthening the combs at their attachments, and if the -latter are designed exclusively for honey, and especially if not filled -at once, the edges of their completed cells receive a thin coating of -propolis, which adds considerably to their strength. The bees often -make the flight hole smaller by filling a part of it with masses of -propolis, sometimes mixed with old wax. Carniolans gather the least -and Tunisians the most propolis of any of the different races. On this -account the former are better suited than the latter to the production -of fancy white comb honey. - - - BEE POISON AND THE STING. - -The worker and the queen are supplied with another organ which is of -great importance to them, namely, the sting; for without this the -hard-earned stores of the hive would soon be a prey to all manner of -marauders, and the queen would be deprived of an organ of occasional -use to her in dispatching rivals, and of daily use to her during the -working season in the deposition of eggs. The darts work independently -and alternately, and are connected at the base with the poison sac, -without whose powerful contents such a tiny weapon would be wholly -ineffective. Poison glands pour an acid secretion--largely formic -acid--into this sac, whence it is conveyed to the tip of the sting -along the groove or canal formed by the junction of the sheath and the -darts. The sting being but an ovipositor modified also another purpose -in addition to oviposition, in the perfect female (the queen) its main -use is in placing the eggs in their proper position in the bottoms of -the cells. - -Formic acid is known to have considerable antiseptic properties. -Chemical tests show its presence in well-ripened honey, but not in -freshly gathered nectar. The natural conclusion is that it has been -added by the bees to assist in the preservation of the honey. In what -manner it is supplied has frequently been questioned. Tests applied to -the blood of the bee show its presence there, and the secretions of the -head glands show still larger quantities. It is therefore reasonable -to suppose that these glands, as well as the poison glands themselves -secrete formic acid, and that the honey receives its portion from the -former, the head glands, upon being disgorged from the honey-sac or -during the manipulation to which it is subjected in the hive. - - - WATER. - -During cold or cool weather much condensation of moisture takes place -in wooden hives as these are usually arranged. The water, collecting in -drops on the interior walls of the hive and on the cold, sealed honey, -often trickles down over the cluster of bees, to their great injury. It -has been claimed that when brood rearing begins this condensed moisture -will be utilized in the preparation of brood food. Very possibly it -may, yet its use is probably detrimental, since it is charged with -waste products of the hive--those of respiration, etc. In its absence -the water contained in the honey, if the latter has not granulated, -seems to be sufficient. Later, however, when no condensation takes -place in the hive and the greater number of developing larvæ require -considerable supplies of water in their food, special trips are made to -brooks and pools for it, and dew is often gathered from leaves. - - - SILK. - -The larval bee produces a small amount of silk from glands in its -head. The pupal cell is partially lined with this. Later, as the bee -develops, there being no further use for the glands, they become -atrophied. - - - WAX. - -The light colored pellets which are carried into the hive on the hind -legs of the workers, and which have been described as pollen, are often -mistaken for wax. The fact is, wax is not gathered in the form in which -we see it, except in rare instances, when, bits of comb having been -left about, small quantities will be loaded up and taken in as pellets -on the legs. Ordinarily it comes into the hive in the shape of honey -and is transformed by the workers within their own bodies into wax. -This production is wholly confined to the workers, for although the -queen has wax plates 011 the underside of the abdomen and wax glands -beneath them, yet both are less developed than in the workers and -are never used. The wax plates of the worker overlying the secreting -glands are well shown in fig. 9, those of the queen and of the related -genera, _Bombus_ and _Melipona_, being shown for comparison. During wax -secretion, that is, when combs are being built or honey cells sealed -over, a high temperature is maintained in the hive, and many workers -may be seen to have small scales of wax protruding from between the -segments of the abdomen on the underside. The molds or plates, eight -in number, in which the scales appear are concealed by the overlapping -of the abdominal segments, but when exposed to view (fig. 9, _a_) are -seen to be five-sided depressions lined with a transparent membrane. -The wax glands themselves are beneath this membrane, and through it the -wax comes in a liquid form. As the scales harden they are pushed out by -the addition of wax beneath. The bees pluck them out with neat pincers -(fig. 7, _a_ and _b_) formed by the articulation of the hind tibiæ -with the adjacent tarsal joints, pass them forward to the mandibles, -and mold them into the shape of hexagonal cells, meanwhile warming and -moistening them with the secretions of the head glands to render the -wax more pliable. - -[Illustration: Fig. 9.--Wax disks of social bees: _a_, Apis mellifera -worker; _b_. A. mellifera queen; _c_, Melipona worker; _d_, Bombus -worker--all enlarged. (From Insect Life.)] - - - COMBS. - -Wax is fashioned by the workers into cells of various sizes and shapes, -according to the use to be made of them. The most regular in shape and -size are the cells designed for brood (fig. 4). These combs in which -workers are bred show nearly 29 cells on a square inch of surface, the -combs being seven-eighths inch thick and the cells generally quite -regular hexagons in outline. Drone cells are larger, there being but -18 of them to the square inch of surface, and the comb is 1¼ inches -thick. The cells of combs designed only for honey are frequently more -irregular in shape, generally curve upward somewhat, and are often -deepened as the honey is stored in them, so that these combs sometimes -reach a thickness of 2 or 3 inches. - -The cells in which queens are bred bear in size and shape some -resemblance to a ground or pea nut. They are often irregular in form, -being sometimes curved, or short and thick, according to the space -below their point of attachment, which is most frequently the lower -edge or the side edge of a comb, or sometimes a mere projection or -angularity in the general surface of a comb. Queen cells open downward -instead of being built horizontally like drone and worker cells (figs. -62 and 63). - -[Illustration: Fig. 10.--Comb building--side of hive removed. -(Original.)] - -Into the material used in constructing brood combs bees often -incorporate bits of wax and fiber-like gnawings of cocoons from -old combs in which brood has been reared, and if given cappings or -trimmings of combs they will work them all over and utilize most of -the material. Also when the bees have abundant supplies of pollen much -of this is incorporated into the material of brood combs, thus saving -the costlier substance--wax. Such combs show at once by their brownish -or straw color, even when first constructed, that they are not made of -wax alone. It will readily be seen from the above that the quantity -of honey consumed by the bees in producing a pound of comb must vary -greatly, for if the comb is designed for surplus honey it will be made -of newly secreted wax, while if for brood other material will, as -just stated, replace a portion of the wax. The amount of honey coming -in varies from day to day, and it is difficult to estimate how much -is consumed in feeding and keeping warm the brood: moreover, a high -temperature is required in the hive to facilitate the secretion and -working of wax, necessitating, of course, extra food consumption when -the outside temperature is low. Accordingly estimates as to the amount -of honey required to produce 1 pound of comb range from 5 pounds to 25 -pounds. More accurate experiments are needed in this direction before -anything positive can be stated. Until then 18 to 20 pounds might be -looked upon as nearest the correct figure for white surplus combs, and -half as much for dull straw-colored or brownish combs built for brood -rearing. - - - DEVELOPMENT OF BROOD. - -Ordinarily the winter cluster in a hive of bees occupies the more -central combs, four or five in number. Near the middle of this -cluster the queen deposits the first eggs of the season (which are -fertilized eggs) in the small-sized or worker cells. Under favorable -circumstances, that is, in a strong colony amply protected against -inclement weather, this deposition usually occurs in January, though -in a very mild climate some brood is generally present during every -month of the year, and the cessation of egg-laying is very short. The -eggs hatch on the third day after deposition into minute white larvæ, -to which the workers supply food in abundance. The composition of this -food has been the subject of much attention and more theorizing. It may -be considered as pretty certain that during the first three days of the -life of the larva its food is a secretion from glands located in the -heads of the adult workers--a sort of bee milk, to which, after the -third day, honey is added in the case of the worker larvæ, and honey -and pollen in the case of drone larva?. As this weaning proceeds both -worker and drone larvæ receive pollen, and in constantly increasing -proportions, in place of the secretion. But this rich albuminous -substance is continued to the queen larvæ throughout their whole period -of feeding; moreover, the quantity of this food supplied to each queen -larva is apparently super-abundant, for after it ceases to feed quite a -mass of the food somewhat dried out will be found in the bottom of the -cell from which a well-developed queen has issued. After assuming the -pupa form the young queen is attached to this food by means of the tip -of the abdomen, and it very likely continues for some time to receive -nourishment from the mass. - -The following table shows approximately the time occupied in the -development of worker, drone, and queen: - - +----------+---------+---------+---------+-----------------+ - | | | | | From deposition | - | | Egg. | Larva. | Pupa. | of egg to imago.| - +----------+---------+---------+---------+-----------------+ - | | _Days._ | _Days._ | _Days._ | _Days._ | - | Queen | 3 | 5½ | 7 | 15½ | - | Worker | 3 | 5 | 13 | 21 | - | Drone | 3 | 6 | 15 | 24 | - +----------+---------+---------+---------+-----------------+ - -The original circles of brood are gradually increased by the deposition -of eggs in the cells next outside those already occupied, and circles -are soon begun in the adjoining combs. In this way the space occupied -by the developing bees is gradually increased, while preserving the -general spherical shape of the brood nest thus formed, which, however, -the shape of the hive often modifies somewhat. As already mentioned, -each circle of brood has rows of pollen cells about it, chiefly above -and at the sides, and the combs on either side contiguous to the brood -are usually well packed with pollen. Outside of the pollen most of -the honey on hand is stored. Thus (fig. 11) a cross section made in -any direction through the middle of a hive in normal condition at the -opening of the active season should show this relative arrangement -of brood, pollen, and honey, which economizes most the heat of the -hive and the labors of the nurse bees, favoring in this way the rapid -increase of the population. - -[Illustration: Fig. 11.--Cross section of brood apartment: _s, s_, -sides of hive; _t, t_, top-bars of frames; _h, p, l, sb_, combs -containing (_h_) honey, (_p_) pollen, (_l_) larvæ and eggs, and (_sb_) -sealed brood. (Original.)] - - - THE WORKER. - -The worker larvæ are fed five days, and then the cell is given by the -adult bees a covering which is quite porous by reason of numerous -pollen grains incorporated into its mass, this openness of texture -being necessary to give the developing bee air to breathe. The larva -strength ens this capping by a loose webwork of silk within, extending -down the side but slightly and attached at its edges to the last skin -cast by the molting larva. This skin, extremely delicate and pressed -closely against the inside of the cell, forms the lining of its sides -and bottom. In about twelve days after sealing, that is, twenty-one -days from the time the egg was deposited, the imago, or perfect bee, -bites its way through the brown covering. - -In the course of a couple of days it takes up the work of a nurse, and -in a week to ten days may appear at the entrance on pleasant days, -taking, however, but short flights for exercise, as ordinary field work -is not undertaken until it has passed about two weeks in the care of -brood. The worker then takes up also wax secretion, if honey is to be -capped over or combs built, although old bees can and do to a certain -extent engage in wax production. - - - THE DRONE. - -Eggs left unfertilized produce drones and require twenty-four days -from the time they are deposited until the perfect insect appears. -They are normally deposited in the larger-sized horizontal cells, and -when the latter are sealed, the capping is more convex as well as -lighter-colored than that of worker brood, which is brown and nearly -flat. - -The fact that drones develop from unfertilized eggs is to be noted -as having an important practical bearing in connection with the -introduction of new strains of a given race or of new races of bees -into an apiary. From a single choice home-bred or imported mother, -young queens of undoubted purity of blood may be reared for all of the -colonies of the apiary, and since the mating of these young queens -does not affect their drone progeny, thereafter only drones of the -desired strain or race and pure in blood will be produced, rendering, -therefore, the pure mating of future rearings fairly certain if other -bees are not numerous within a mile or two. Eventually also all of -the colonies will be changed to the new race and without admixture of -impure blood, provided always that the young queens be reared from -mothers of pure blood mated to drones of equal purity. - - - - - CHAPTER III. - - QUIETING AND MANIPULATING BEES. - - -The demeanor of bees toward an individual depends largely upon his -bearing and treatment of them. Langstroth, in his excellent treatise, -Langstroth on the Honey Bee (p. 193, revised edition), says: - - Let all your motions about your hives be gentle and slow; never crush - or injure the bees; acquaint yourself fully with the principles of - management, and you will find you have little more reason to dread - the sting of a bee than the horns of a favorite cow or the heels of - your faithful horse. - -[Illustration: Fig. 12. Use of veil and bee smoker. (Original.)] - -Most bee manipulators, however, grow somewhat indifferent to stings, -since in time they become so inoculated with the poison of the bee that -the pain of the sting is less severe and the swelling slight. _But to -avoid the stings is, with some of the races more recently introduced -into this country, simply a question of care in manipulation and a free -use of smoke._ It is not meant that the bees should be stupefied with -smoke, but merely alarmed and subjugated, and whenever they show any -disposition to act on the offensive recourse is to be had to smoke. It -is not necessary that the smoke should be from a particular source, -but that from certain substances, as tobacco, subjugates them more -quickly, while burning puffball stupefies them for the time. There are -some objections to these substances which do not apply to wood, either -partially decayed or sound, and as the latter when in a good smoker -holds fire best and is very effective, it is advisable to keep a good -supply at hand. Seasoned hickory or hard maple are best, though beech, -soft maple, etc., are good. The most improved bellows smokers, when -supplied with such fuel sawed 5 or C inches long and split into bits a -half inch or less in size, will burn all day and be ready at any time -to give a good volume of blue smoke, by which bees of most of the races -now cultivated in this country are subdued at once. - -[Illustration: Fig. 13.--Manipulation--removing comb from hive. -(Original.)] - -With Italian or black bees a puff or two of smoke should be given at -the hive entrance and the cover and honey board, or quilt, removed -slowly and carefully, smoke being driven in as soon as the least -opening is made and the volume increased enough to keep down all bees -as fast as the covering is removed. The smoker may then be placed on -the windward side of the hive to allow the fumes to pass over the top -and toward the operator. The frames may then be gently pried loose and -lifted out carefully, without crushing a bee if it can be avoided. -Crushing bees fills the air with the odor of poison, which irritates -the bees. So also when one bee is provoked to sting others follow -because of the odor of poison. - -Too much smoke will often render certain manipulations difficult; for -example, when queens are to be sought out, or nuclei or artificial -swarms made, volumes of smoke blown in between the combs will drive -the bees from them so that they will cluster in clumps on the bottoms -of the frames or in the corners of the hives. A little observation and -judgment will enable one to know when the bees need smoke and how much -of it to prevent any outbreak on their part, which it is always best to -forestall rather than be obliged to quell after it is fully under way. - -The frame hive as now made--with metal rabbets and arrangements -for surplus honey, and quilts instead of honey boards--reduces -propolization to a minimum and renders the danger of irritating the -bees by jarring when manipulating much less. As a prerequisite to rapid -and safe manipulation _perfectly straight combs are necessary_. - -[Illustration: Fig. 14.--Manipulation--tilting to bring reverse side of -comb in view. (Original.)] - -[Illustration: Fig. 15.--Manipulation--reverse side of comb brought to -view. (Original.)] - -[Illustration: Fig. 16.--Manipulation--examining verse side of comb. -(Original.)] - -With the common or black bees it is never safe to do without the veil -as a protection to the face, and with these bees it will also be very -difficult to avoid stings on the hands unless considerable smoke has -been driven into the entrance beforehand and time has been given the -bees to get well filled with honey before the hive is opened; even -then frequent recourse to smoke will generally be necessary. Blacks -are by far the most troublesome of all races about flying from their -hive entrances to sting in an unprovoked manner. Next to these are -the crosses containing the blood of the blacks. Italians have much -less of this disposition, and Carniolans and Cyprians rarely, then -latter almost never, fly from their hive entrances to attack unless -their hives have been disturbed. _Pure_ Cyprians can generally be -handled without the use of the bee veil by skillful bee manipulators -who understand the qualities of the race. Much of the work among pure -Italians can be done without a veil after one has gained experience -in manipulation. During four years' residence in Carniola the writer, -manipulating annually several hundred colonies of bees, never had -occasion to employ a bee veil. If no bees but gray Carniolans of pure -blood are in the apiary and some smoke is used a veil will never be -necessary. They maybe handled in all kinds of weather, early and late, -even during the night, yet with but a small part of the risk which -attends the manipulation of other races. Nor will it be necessary to -delude them with smoke from time to time, as one is obliged to do with -blacks. To dispense entirely with the bee veil is a more important -consideration, especially to the professional bee-master, than is at -first apparent to the inexperienced. Its use injures the eyesight -seriously, especially where one is obliged to strain his eyes for hours -to see eggs, larvæ, etc., in the cells, to hunt out queens and queen -cells, and adjust frames. Besides this, the hindrance to rapid work -which the veil causes, as well as the great discomfort in wearing it -for hours during hot weather, are considerations worth weighing. - -[Illustration: Fig. 17.--Quinby closed-end frames. (From A B C of Bee -Culture.)] - -To recapitulate: To secure easy, rapid, and safe manipulation -accurately made hives, with the frames, if hanging, arranged to rest on -folded metal rabbets, and the combs perfectly straight, are essential. -It is equally important also that some one of the gentler races be -kept Furthermore, a good bee smoker fed with dry fuel is necessary, -while the bee escape to clear supers without manipulation of combs is a -great help. Quilts, queen excluders, and bee escapes reduce the amount -of manipulation required, and at the same time facilitate what is -absolutely necessary. - -In general, the best time to manipulate hives is when most of the bees -are busy in the fields. The young bees left at home are most easily -controlled and the old ones returning are generally laden. - - - - - CHAPTER IV. - - =ESTABLISHING AN APIARY: TIME--SELECTING HIVES OF - BEES--MOVING BEES--SELECTION OF SITE.= - - -Spring is the best season to establish an apiary, especially for a -person unacquainted with the practical care of bees. Colonies in good -condition procured then are more easily kept in order by the novice -than if purchased in the fall. Mistakes in management may possibly be -remedied before the season closes, and by the time it is necessary to -prepare for the winter the learner will have gained a certain amount of -practical knowledge of the nature and requirements of the bees. If the -start be made late in the season mistakes, if they occur, may result -fatally before the proper remedy can be applied. - -The beginner had better obtain his start by purchasing one or two -colonies of pure Italian or Carniolan bees in accurately made frame -hives and in first-class condition. These he should get from some -bee-master of repute near his own place, if possible, in order to -avoid expressage and possible damage through long confinement or -numerous transfers. The cost per colony may be $6 to $8; yet bees -at this price will generally be found much cheaper in the end, for, -though common bees in box hives may frequently be obtained for half -or even less than half as much, the cost, when finally transferred -into frame hives, fitted up with straight combs, and the common queens -replaced by Italians or Carniolans, will not be less. The possession -of a colony already in prime working order gives the novice a standard -with which to compare all others and often enables him to avoid costly -experiments. Another plan, also commendable, is to agree with some -neighboring bee keeper to deliver as many first swarms on the day they -issue as are wanted. These will give the right start if placed as soon -as received in hives with foundation starters and the frames properly -spaced--1⅜ inches from center to center, it being understood that the -swarms are early and prime ones, with vigorous queens. Only those -issuing from colonies that have swarmed the year before or from such as -were themselves second swarms of the previous year should be accepted. -Swarms from these will have queens not over one year old. It is better -to have queens of the current year's raising, but these can only be -obtained by taking the second or third swarms from a given hive, which -come later and are smaller, or by substituting young queens for those -which come with the swarms. - - - SELECTION OF STOCKS. - -The relative Strength of different stocks may be determined by watching -the flight of the bees. The playing of the young bees in front of the -hive is apt to deceive one. This lasts but twenty minutes or so, but -a weak stock compared then with a strong one whose young bees are not -flying might be regarded as very populous. The young bees sporting in -front of the hive may be known by their light, fuzzy appearance, and -by the fact that as they take wing to leave the hive they turn their -heads toward the entrance and sail about it in semicircles, frequently -alighting on the flight board and taking wing again. They are thus -marking the location of the hive so as to be able to return to it, for -an attempt to enter another hive might result fatally to them. They -finally fly away in constantly widening circles. Field workers used to -the location fly in a direct line away from the hive. When the young -bees return they do not alight at once as do the field workers laden -with honey, but generally hover about the entrance until certain they -have reached the right hive. Having noted by their flight which stocks -seem to have the most bees, a closer examination can be made by blowing -a little smoke of any sort into the entrances and tipping the hives -back, if they stand on loose bottom boards. When not so constructed the -examination must, of course, be made by removing the top covering, or -if the combs are built in frames, some of these. - -In addition to the strength of the colony, the number of combs -containing brood, straightness, kind and age of combs, amount of -honey on hand, the cleanliness and healthfulness of the colony are -points upon which full information is desirable. In April a good -colony located in a central latitude ought to have brood in five or -six combs; yet as ordinarily wintered it will be difficult to find -colonies having at this time more than three or four combs containing -brood. The combs should be straight, so that if in an old-fashioned -box hive they can be cut out and fitted without great waste into -frames, and if the hive is a frame one it is absolutely necessary to -have combs straight and built wholly within the frames in order that -the latter may be readily removed and returned to the hive. The less -drone comb the better. There will always be enough, an area half the -size of a man's hand being quite sufficient for each hive. The larger -size of the drone cells and greater thickness of the combs (1¼ inches) -will make it readily recognizable. If over one-eighth of the surface -is drone comb the colony should be rejected. If the combs are so old -as to be nearly black and to show cell walls much thickened they are -very objectionable. There should be several pounds of sealed honey -in each hive in early spring. Other things being equal, those stocks -which come through the winter with 20 pounds or so of sealed honey in -the combs will develop much faster than those having just enough to -last them until they gather fresh honey rapidly enough to supply their -daily needs. The presence of an abundance gives the bees courage. -They do not fear to draw upon their stores to supply the young that -are fast developing. The combs filled with honey part with their heat -only slowly when the outside temperature falls, and there is thus less -danger of a check in the development of the brood through too low -temperature in the hive. - -[Illustration: Fig. 18.--Box hive prepared for transportation. -(Original.)] - -If the surfaces of the combs, the frames, or the inner walls of the -hive are spotted with a brown, crumbly looking substance it is an -evidence that the bees have bad diarrhea during the winter or spring, -and if they have been badly affected not only will the combs and the -whole interior of the hive be soiled, the former perhaps so as to be -rendered almost worthless, but the bees will lack vitality, and will -soon dwindle in numbers, not being able to survive the first arduous -labors of the opening of the season. It is not always easy to determine -whether a stock in a box hive is affected with foul brood or not, for -the odor of decaying brood is not of itself sufficient to warrant such -a conclusion, although it is well to reject any hive having any putrid -odor about it. The natural odor of the hive, produced as it is largely -by honey, wax, pollen, and propolis, is not unpleasant to most people, -so that the presence of any disagreeable odor should arouse suspicion. -If larvæ that have turned black are seen in the cells, and the capping -of the sealed brood is sunken and in some instances perforated, -showing brown and ropy contents in the bottoms of the cells, and the -putrid odor is present, the existence of foul brood (_Bacillus alvei_ -Cheshire) is pretty certain. This is a scourge much to be dreaded. Not -only should no hives or colonies be purchased from the same apiary, but -none in the vicinity of an apiary so affected. - -[Illustration: Fig. 19.--Frame hive prepared for transportation. -(Orig.)] - - - MOVING BEES. - -In moving bees the box hives should be turned bottom upward, the bees -driven back by blowing a little smoke on them, and a few loose rolls -of rags laid across the lower edges of the combs in such a manner that -a piece of sheeting, sacking, or preferably cheese cloth or other open -material may be tied over the whole lower end and drawn tightly, so -as to press the rolls against the combs and hold them in place. It is -even well to tack strips of lath outside of the covering, so placed -that they will cross the rolls of rags and press the latter more firmly -against the lower edges of the combs. Strips may also be tacked around -the lower edges of the hive to hold the cloth in place, or it maybe -fastened by winding with strong cord. The bees should be thus prepared -as late in the day as possible, care being taken that none escape, and -at dusk stood bottom upward in a spring conveyance or on straw or hay -several inches deep in the box of a wagon, with straw packed between -and around the hives. It is advisable to drive slowly, avoiding ruts as -much as possible. By turning the hives bottom upward the weight of the -combs rests on their points of attachment, and since in such hives the -combs are not always attached well down the sides danger of breakage -is lessened, especially when the rolls of cloth are pressed against -the edges of the combs. If the bees are in frame hives, the frames of -which have not been disturbed recently, it is likely that, with care in -driving, the combs will not get displaced. If necessary to use a sheet -or cloth to give ventilation, it should be tied over the top and the -hive placed in the wagon in the same position it occupied on the stand, -lest the combs, not being attached all the way down, should fall to one -side or the other. Except during quite warm weather and for long trips -it may not be necessary to adopt all the precautions here indicated, -although in case bees are to be transported on long journeys by rail or -water far more careful preparation is even necessary. - -[Illustration: Fig. 20.--An apiary in Florida. (Reproduced from -photograph.)] - - - SELECTION OF SITE. - -The apiary should be located where no surface water will collect -during heavy storms, yet the ground should not be very uneven, but -rather a gentle slope. In the colder portions of the United States -a south-eastern exposure is decidedly preferable, though in the -South the slope of the site is less important to the welfare of the -bees; a direct southern or south western exposure, however, will -be found extremely uncomfortable at times both for the operator and -for his bees. A windbreak, such as a board fence, a hedge, or a row -of evergreens on the north and west, is advisable as a protection -against sharp winds in winter and early spring, which keep many bees -from reaching their hives even when near the entrances. Some shade -is desirable, yet such density as to produce dampness is extremely -detrimental. In moist elevated regions, which are of course cool, -no shade will be needed, except temporarily for newly hived swarms. -Tall trees are objectionable in or near the apiary, because swarms -are likely to cluster so high as to render their capture difficult -and dangerous. Some of the self-hivers or nous warming devices now -offered for sale may with improvement yet accomplish the end in view, -but heretofore clipping one wing of each laying queen and using all -precautions to prevent after-swarming, making artificial swarms, -selection in breeding, or any other means known to limit swarming, -have not sufficed to prevent the occasional issuance of a swarm with -a queen having wings. Therefore it is advisable to have the apiary -located under or near low trees, where the hives can be readily seen -from the house. Carniolan, Italian, and Cyprian bees give less trouble -to passers-by or to live stock than do the ordinary brown or German -bees, or hybrids of these races, yet whatever race be kept, it is best -to have the apiary as secluded as the necessary or desirable conditions -will permit. - -The frontispiece and figures 20, 21, and 75, taken from photographs of -apiaries located in different parts of the country, give a fair idea of -sites actually occupied and the arrangement of hive-. - -[Illustration: Fig. 21.--An apiary in California. (Reproduced from -photograph.)] - - - - - CHAPTER V. - - =HIVES AND IMPLEMENTS.= - - -The safest and best rule in making or selecting hives and implements -for the apiary is, _have them simple and accurate in construction_. A -plain box with frames and as few other loose parts as possible will -yield in the hands of a skillful bee-master far better results than the -most elaborately constructed bee palace manipulated by one who does -not understand the nature and requirements of bees; in fact, the most -experienced generally prefer the former. The important point to decide -in connection with any proposed modification or adjunct of the hive is -whether its adoption will more than compensate for the resultant loss -of simplicity. While zealously endeavoring to preserve simplicity of -construction, however, complete adaptability to the purpose designed -must be kept in view, and should not be sacrificed because of a -slight added expense. The bee keeper needs but few implements. With -even a limited number of hives, a smoker, a wax extractor, and a few -queen-introducing cages are the most necessary, and one or two bee -veils had better be added to the equipment, the total cost of which -need not exceed $5 to $6. If the intention be to produce comb honey, -and but a few hives are kept, then sections folded and with starters -in place had better be purchased, but with ten or more hives and time -during the winter season to prepare sections for the harvest, a section -folder and a foundation fastener, costing together about $3, may be -profitably added to the outfit. If only extracted honey is wanted a -honey extractor with one or two uncapping knives should be purchased -instead of the section folder and foundation fastener, the cost of the -outfit being in this case some $15 to $18. Fifty or even seventy-five -hives may be managed conveniently and economically with no greater -investment in implements than that indicated above, and if both comb -and extracted honey are wanted the cost of the outfit, it can readily -be seen, need not exceed $20. - - - HIVES. - -In regard to the particular style or form of hive to be used to insure -the best results, it should be stated that while an intelligent -apiarist whose experience has been considerable may be successful with -almost any hive, even with poor ones, there can be no doubt that a hive -not only adapted to the nature of the bees but also to the climate of -the bee keeper's particular locality, and at the same time permitting -the rapid performance of all operations necessary in securing surplus -honey, will very materially affect the net profit of an apiary. This -being the case, the original cost of a hive, whether a dollar or two -more or less, is of small importance compared with the desirability of -securing convenience and simplicity in its management and of promoting -the welfare of the bees in winter and summer. Frame hives managed -with intelligence and skill are essential to the greatest success. -Inaccurately made frame hives, neglected, as is too frequently the -case, so that the combs are built irregularly between or across the -frames, are not one whit better than box hives. Even an accurately -built frame hive, if no attention is given to the spacing of the frames -when combs are being built, will soon present no advantages over a box -hive of the same dimensions and having the same space for supering -above the brood apartment. - -[Illustration: Fig. 22.--Ancient Greek movable comb hive. (After _La -Maison rustique_, published in 1742.)] - -The frame and hive most in use in this country is the invention of -Rev. L. L. Langstroth, and this hive, with slight modifications, -has been generally adopted in England and her colonies. It is also -becoming known and appreciated on the continent of Europe. The patent -on the frame the essential feature--expired many years ago, so that -anyone who may wish to do so is now free to employ the invention. It -is still used by many in the same form in which it was brought out in -1852. Others have changed the dimensions of the frames and given them -different names, while retaining the special feature of the inventor's -principle, namely, the loose-fitting frame suspended by the projecting -ends of its top bar on a continuous rabbet. The outside dimensions of -the Langstroth frame most in use are 17⅝ inches long by 9⅛ inches deep -(fig. 24). Mr. M. Quinby, one of the most practical and successful -bee-masters of our century, preferred frames 12 inches deep by 18 -inches Long, and these are still used by many large honey raisers. -Other sizes are also used somewhat. - -[Illustration: Fig. 23.--Dadant-Quinby form of Langstroth hive, with -cap and gable roof. (Redrawn from Langstroth on the Honey Bee.)] - -The bars composing frames are usually made seven-eighths inch wide, -although some prefer to have the top bar 1 inch or even 1⅛ inches wide, -and the bottom bar is made by some as narrow as live-eighths inch or -even three-eighths inch square. The narrower bottom bar, at least down -to a width of five eighths inch, renders the removal of the frames -less difficult, and bees are brushed off a little more easily; but -when combs cut from box hives are to be fitted into the frames it is -not quite so easy to hold the pieces in the center of the frame by -means of transferring sticks and get the bees to fasten them securely -at the bottom as it is with full seven-eighths-inch bottom bars. Top -bars have been made by some hive manufacturers from one-fourth-inch to -three-eighths-inch strips, strengthened somewhat by a very thin strip -placed edgewise on the underside as a comb guide; but such bars are -much too light and will sag when filled with honey or with brood and -honey, and when section holders or other receptacles for surplus honey -or sets of combs are placed above them more than a bee space exists -between the upper and lower sets of frames or between the section -holder and the frames below, and the bees will fill in with bits of -comb between these, making it difficult to remove the top story or -any of the combs from it; indeed, an attempt under such circumstances -to remove combs from the top story generally results in tearing the -frames apart and breaking the combs, and if honey leaks out robbing -may be induced at some times of the year, all because of an error in -construction. - -[Illustration: Fig. 24.--Langstroth frame; size, 17⅝ in. by 9⅛ in. -outside; _pn_, projecting nail. (Original.)] - -[Illustration: Fig. 25.--Form in which to nail frames: _b_, button; -_db_, double button. (Original.)] - -To avoid this the top bar should never be less than five-eighths inch -to three-fourths inch thick, while for long top bars seven-eighths-inch -or 1-inch strips are preferable. The side and bottom bars may be made -of one-fourth-inch strips. A corner is taken from the end of the top -bar by a cross cut made at exactly right angles on the underside of the -top bar, reaching to within one-fourth inch of the top of the bar, and -another cut from the end so as to meet the first-mentioned one. Each -side bar can then be nailed by one nail driven from above through the -top bar, and two driven through the side bar itself into the end of -the top bar. The bottom bar can then be nailed on, or, better still, -cut short enough to permit it to be inserted between the side bars, -the nails holding it to be driven through the latter. Nailing frames -loosely or without getting them exactly in true brings with it great -disadvantages. If only slightly out of shape they may swing together -at the bottom or touch the sides of the hive, and in either case will -be glued fast by the bees; also in the first instance the combs, which -are always built perpendicularly, will not be wholly within the frames. -To avoid these troubles it is essential, first, that the parts for the -frames be cut very accurately; second, that the frame be in exact shape -at the time of nailing; and third, that the nails be driven in quite -firmly; long, slender, flat-headed wire nails being necessary to secure -proper stiffness of the frame. Nails 1½ to 1¾ inches long made of No. -16 or No, 17 wire, or 4d. fine wire nails are the right size. Nailing -in a form, such as is shown by fig. 25, is therefore advisable. Greater -ease in withdrawing the frames from the hive is secured by making the -bottom of the frame one-fourth inch less in width than the upper part. -A round-headed nail or a curved wire staple driven through the side bar -at each lower corner into the end of the bottom bar and left projecting -one fourth inch will also facilitate the removal of frames and their -insertion in the hive without the crushing of bees, and hence allow -more rapid manipulation. (Fig. 24, _pn_.) - -[Illustration: Fig. 26.--Lock-joint chaff hive. (From Gleanings in Bee -Culture.)] - -[Illustration: Fig. 27.--Manner of nailing hives. (Original.)] - -The hive to hold the frames should be the plainest kind of a box, the -frames resting on rabbets made in the upper edges. Constructing it -with lock joints, as shown in fig. 26, or by halving together the ends -of the boards, as in fig. 27, and, in either case, nailing in both -directions makes a strong hive body. The latter may be single-walled -for mild climates or where cellar wintering is practiced: but for -severe regions it is advisable to have permanent double walls with the -inter-spaces filled with chaff, ground cork, or similar material, or -else outer cases should be provided giving space between the latter -and the hive proper for dry packing. As the bees always try to glue -the frames fast by means of propolis, it is better to make them rest -on strips of tin, galvanized iron, or band iron. The rabbet should -therefore be made eleven-sixteenths inch deep, and the strip of iron or -other metal frame-rest nailed on so that its edge will project upward -five-sixteenths inch from the bottom of the rabbet. Folded strips of -tin as made by manufacturers of apiarian implements are preferable to -single strips nailed on, since they facilitate the sliding of frames -and do not cut the top bars where the latter rest upon them (fig. 28). -The projecting ends of the top bars being one-fourth inch thick, the -bars themselves come within one-eighth inch of the upper edge of the -hive. It is essential that the distance between the ends of the frames -and the hive should not exceed three-eighths inch, lest in time of -plenty the bees should build comb there; nor can less than one-fourth -inch space be allowed, for if the bees can not readily pass around the -ends of frames of the Langstroth type they will glue the frames to the -side walls of the hive, making it very difficult, if not impossible, -to remove them without breakage. If, as suggested, the frames are made -one-fourth inch shorter at the bottom than at the top, that is, 17⅜ -inches at bottom and 17⅝ inches at top, the hive should then be 18⅛ -inches inside from front to rear, the frames running in this direction. - -[Illustration: Fig. 28.--Section of improved tin frame-rest: _A_, -folded edge on which frame rests; _B_ and _D_, nails. (From Gleanings.)] - -If the frames are accurately made there will then be one fourth inch -space at each end of the frame just below the top bar and three-eighths -inch at each end of the bottom bar. Between the frames and the bottom -board, on which the hive rests, one-half inch space answers, but -five-eighths inch is preferable. The width of the hive will depend, of -course, upon the number of frames decided upon, 1⅜ inches being allowed -for each frame, and three-eighths inch added for the extra space at -the side. If a top story to contain frames for extracting is placed -over the brood chamber, its depth is to be such as to leave the space -between the two sets of combs not over five-sixteenths inch, and in -this, as in the lower story, the space between the ends of the frames -and the hive wall should be no more than three-eighths inch. A good way -to keep rain from beating in between the stories and also to retain -the warmth of the bees in outdoor wintering, yet admit of suitable -provision for the upward escape of moisture, is to have the second -story fit over the top of the lower one, and rest on ledges made by -nailing strips around the latter one-half inch below the upper edge. As -this makes the upper story nearly 2 inches larger from front to rear -than the lower one: it will be necessary when arranging this story for -frames to make the front and rear double-walled. This is easily done -by tacking on the inside of each end two half-inch strips, on which a -halt-inch board is then nailed. These inside end pieces should be only -wide enough to reach within three-fourths inch of the top edge of the -outer ends, and, like the lower story, should be finished at the top -with a metal rabbet for the frames to rest on, or the inside piece may -be made to come within three-eighths inch of the top and its upper edge -beveled so the frames can not be greatly propolized, an arrangement -which answers very well for this story. - -[Illustration: Fig. 29.--The Langstroth hive--Dadant-Quinby form--cross -section showing construction. (From Langstroth.)] - -As to the width of hives and consequent number of frames each story -is to hold, there has been of late much diversity of opinion. The -original Langstroth hive held ten frames in the lower story and eleven -frames in the second or top story. A demand for smaller-sized brood -chambers and uniformity of the stories having been created, the larger -hive-manufacturing establishments gave hives constructed to hold eight -frames the most prominent place in their catalogues, and by many it -was considered that those who adhered to the older, larger form did so -merely through conservatism. But after some years' trial a reaction in -favor of larger hives seems to have set in, especially among producers -of extracted honey. Many of the latter are finding that with carefully -bred queens even twelve-frame brood apartments give the best results. -The author's experience of over twenty-five years with frame hives -of various sizes and styles, both American and foreign, in widely -differing climates, convinces him that to restrict a hive to a capacity -of less than ten frames for the brood chamber is, in most localities, -undesirable, but it will frequently be found advantageous to contract -temporarily the space occupied by the bees. For extracted honey alone, -especially in any region having a short flow of honey, twelve-frame -capacity is preferable. Thin, movable partitions, known as "division -boards," enable one to contract the space at will, and the addition of -supers or top stories gives storage room for surplus honey. Some prefer -to have the hive in one story holding twice the usual number of frames -and contractible with a division board. The entrance is then usually -at one end, parallel with the combs, and the surplus honey is obtained -from the rear part of the hive, either in sections held in wide frames -or it is extracted with a machine from ordinary frames. This plan -renders access to all of the frames somewhat easier than when two or -more stories are used, but as the methods now most followed involve -on the whole less manipulation of individual frames than was formerly -deemed advantageous this superiority can not count for much--hardly -enough in fact to balance the limitation as to the number of frames and -the inconvenience of larger and more unwieldy hive bodies, covers, and -bottom boards. - -[Illustration: Fig. 30.--The Nonpareil hire. (From Bee-Keeping for -Profit.)] - -[Illustration: Fig. 31.--Dadant-Quinby form of Langstroth hive, open: -_a_, front of brood apartment; _b_, alighting board; _c_, movable -entrance block; _d_, cap; _e_, straw mat; _f_, carriage-cloth cover for -frames; _g, g_, frames with combs. (From Langstroth.)] - -Small hives may yield excellent results in the hands of a skillful -bee-master, but an equal degree of skill will, in general, give as -good, if not better, returns from large hives, and the novice who may -not know just when or how to perform all operations will find himself -much safer with hives holding ten or twelve frames in each story, and -far more likely to secure good returns from them than from smaller ones. - -A good, tight roof or cover is indispensable, well painted, so that -no drop of water can get in from above. A flat roof slanting from -front to rear will answer, but a ventilated gable roof with the sides -well slanted is far preferable. Above the sections or the upper set -of frames a piece of carriage cloth, enameled side down, should be -laid during the summer season to prevent too great escape of heat -above and to keep the bees from getting into the roof or propolizing -it. The cloth is more suitable than a board, since the latter when -propolized can not be removed without considerably jarring the bees. -If the carriage cloth be weighted with a board which has been clamped -with a strip across each end to prevent warping, there will be less -propolization of the sections above or building of bits of comb on the -tops of the frames when these have been used. To dispense with this -extra piece and also to render the gable cover flat on the underside, -the board which rests on the carriage cloth may be nailed to the cover -permanently. During very hot weather the quilt may be turned back and -the cover propped up. - -The bottom board to the hive may be nailed permanently or the hive -may be merely placed on it. In either case the sides and back of the -hive should be wide enough to come down over the edges of the bottom -board and thus shed all water that runs down the outside of the hive. -A sloping board in front will facilitate the entrance of heavily laden -bees and many that fall to the ground will crawl in if the hive is -within 8 or 10 inches of the ground. Many persons place the bottom -boards directly on the ground, and the majority have them but 3 or 4 -inches above the surface. By arranging them farther from the ground, at -least 6 or 8 inches, dampness is avoided and the ease in manipulation -is greatly increased. English manufacturers make the Langstroth hive -with permanent legs some 6 or 8 inches long. This is no doubt necessary -in the damp climate of that country, and even here the free circulation -of the air beneath the hive and the entrance of direct rays of sunlight -at times are so beneficial that there might well be a return to this -valuable feature, which was part of the original Langstroth hive. - -Great accuracy of parts must be insisted upon in hives and frames, both -because covers and top stories should be made to fit interchangeably, -and because the bees carry out their own work with great precision, -so that ease in manipulation of combs can only be secured by nice -adjustment. Hives cut by machinery are therefore greatly to be -preferred, and though most of those kept in stock by apiarian -manufacturers do not include in their construction all of the features -mentioned above, they still answer in most particulars the requirements -of bee life, and, if proper protection for the winter be afforded, are -very serviceable. - - - IMPLEMENTS. - - BEE SMOKERS. - -No well-appointed apiary in these days is without one or more bee -smokers. The professional bee keeper who has once used a bellows smoker -would as soon think of dispensing with this implement as a skillful -cook would be disposed to go back from the modern cooking range to the -old-fashioned fireplace. - -[Illustration: Fig. 32.--The Bingham bee smoker.] - -For hundreds of years smoke has been used to quell and even stupefy -bees, and various forms of bee smokers have long been used; but the -modern bellows form, so far superior to the old clumsy implements which -oftentimes required both hands of the operator, or to be held between -the teeth, is purely an American invention. Mr. M. Quinby, one of the -pioneers in improved methods in apiculture in America, was the inventor -of the bellows smoker having the fire box at the side of the bellows -so arranged as to enable the operator to work it with one hand, and -when not in use to stand it upright and secure a draft which would keep -the fire going. Certain improvements on the original Quinby smoker -have been made without changing the general form of the implement, one -of the most effective and durable of these improved makes being the -Bingham direct-draft smoker. Other modifications are the Crane, with -a cut-off valve, the Clark, Hill, and Corneil smokers. The medium and -larger sized smokers, even for use in small apiaries, are preferable. -They light easier, take in all kinds of fuel, and hold fire better, -while they are always much more effective since they furnish a large -volume of smoke at a given instant, thus nipping in the bud any -incipient rebellion. The bee smoker and its use are well shown by figs. -12, 32, and 53. - - VEILS. - -Veils for the protection of the face will be needed at times--for -visitors if not for the manipulator. The beginner, however, should use -one under all circumstances until he has acquired some skill in opening -hives and manipulating frames and has become acquainted with the temper -and notes of bees, so that he will have confidence when they are -buzzing about him and will know when it is really safe to dispense with -the face protector. Veils are made of various materials. In those which -offer the least obstruction to the sight, black silk tulle or brussels -net is used, the meshes of which are hexagonal. Linen brussels net is -more durable than silk, as is also cotton, though the latter turns gray -in time and obstructs the vision. By making the front only of silk and -the sides of some ordinary white cotton netting the cost of the veil -is less, but it is not so comfortable to wear in hot weather, being -less open. A rubber cord is drawn into the upper edge, which brings -the latter snugly in about the hat band. By having the veil long and -full and drawing it over a straw hat with a wide, stiff brim, tying the -lower edge about the shoulders or buttoning it inside a jacket or coat, -the face is securely protected. (Fig. 12.) - - HONEY EXTRACTORS AND HONEY KNIVES. - -[Illustration: Fig. 33.--Williams' automatic reversible honey -extractor.] - -The honey extractor (fig. 33) consists of a large can, within which a -light metal basket revolves. The full combs of honey, from which the -cappings of the cells have been removed by a sharp knife, are placed -inside the basket and after several rapid revolutions by means of a -simple gearing are found to have been emptied of their contents. The -combs, only very slightly damaged, can then be returned to the hives to -be refilled by the bees. If extra sets of combs are on hand to supply -as fast as the bees need the room in which to store honey, great yields -can often be obtained. A good extractor should be made of metal, and -the basket in which the combs are revolved should be light, strong, and -doubly braced on the outside so that the wire-cloth surface, against -which the combs press, will not yield. The wire cloth used, as well -as all interior parts of the extractor, should be tinned, as acids -of honey act on galvanized iron, zinc, iron, etc. Wire cloth made of -coarse wire and with meshes one-half inch square is often used, but it -injures the surface of new combs and those very heavy with honey more -than that made of about No. 20 wire and with one-fourth-inch meshes. - -[Illustration: Fig. 34.--Quinby uncapping knife.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 35.--Bingham & Hetherington uncapping knife.] - -For removing the wax covering with which the bees close the full cells -a peculiarly shaped knife, known as an uncapping knife, is needed -(figs. 34 and 35). The blade, which should be of the finest steel to -hold a keen edge, is fixed at such an angle with the handle as to keep -the hand that grasps the latter from rubbing over the surface of the -comb or the edges of the frames. The form of knife with curved point is -best adapted to reach any depression in the comb, which, if uncapped -and emptied of its honey, will likely next time be built out even with -the general surface. Dipping the knife in hot water facilitates rapid -work, and of course the heavier-bladed knives hold the heat better than -thin bladed ones, and are for this reason preferred by some; also -because they more surely lift the capping clear from the surface of the -comb. - - WAX EXTRACTORS. - -A solar wax extractor is needed in every apiary; several are kept -running in many large apiaries. Extractors which render wax by steam -are also used. To the latter class belongs the improved Swiss wax -extractor (fig. 36). This implement, invented in Switzerland and -improved in America, consists of a tin or copper vessel with a circle -of perforations in the bottom near the sides to let in steam from a -boiler below, and within this upper vessel another receptacle--the comb -receiver--made of perforated zinc. Its use, as well as that of the -solar wax extractor, is described under the head of "Wax production." - -[Illustration: Fig. 36.--Excelsior wax extractor.] - -Within a few years wax extractors employing the heat of the sun and -known as solar wax extractors have come into general use (fig. 61). -The essential features in all the forms that have been devised are a -metal tank with a glass cover and usually a wire-cloth strainer, below -which is placed the receptacle for the wax, the whole so arranged as to -enable one to tilt it at such an angle as will catch the direct rays -of the sun. The effectiveness of the solar wax extractor is increased -by having the glass doubled, and adding also a reflector, such as -a mirror or a sheet of bright metal. An important advantage of the -solar wax extractor is the ease with which small quantities of comb -can be rendered. By having this machine much is therefore saved that -might be ruined by wax moth larvæ if allowed to accumulate, besides -serving at the same time to increase these pests about the apiary. The -wax obtained by solar heat is also of superior quality, being clean, -never water-soaked nor scorched, and also light in color, owing to the -bleaching action of the sunlight. - -The cost of a medium-sized solar wax extractor does not exceed that of -the larger Swiss steam extractors, yet of the two the former is likely -to prove by far the more valuable, even though it can be used only -during the warmer months. - - QUEEN-INTRODUCING CAGES. - -In every apiary there should be several of these on hand. The best are -such as permit the caging of the queen directly on the comb over cells -of honey. A little practice will enable anyone to make very serviceable -and cheap cages for introducing queens. From a piece of wire cloth -having ten to twelve meshes to the inch cut a strip 2 inches wide; cut -this in pieces 4¼ inches long, roll each piece around a stick to give -it a cylindrical form, lap the edges, and sew with a piece of wire. -Then in one end of this cylinder make slits three-quarters inch apart -and three-quarters inch deep, and bend over the tongues thus formed so -as to close this end of the cage. With the flat end of a pencil press -warm wax or comb into the bottom inside to give it firmness. Then -unravel five or six strands of the wire cloth at the other end. The -wire points left after unraveling these strands may be pressed into -the comb so as to confine a queen and four or five of her attendant -workers. (Fig. 66.) - -Most of the queen-mailing cages are arranged to admit of their use in -introducing the queens also, so that when received it is only necessary -to withdraw a cork and place the cage on top of the brood frames, thus -admitting the bees to the candy. They will eat their way in and release -the queen in twenty-four to forty-eight hours. This plan is very good -for such as lack experience in handling queens, and hence might injure -them by grasping the abdomen, by pinching the thorax too hard, or by -catching the legs on the wire cloth of the introducing cage. - -[Illustration: Fig. 37.--Simplicity feeder. (From A B C of Bee -Culture.)] - -[Illustration: Fig. 38.--Fruit-jar bee feeder. Bottom of feeding stage -and perforated cap shown separately. (Orig.)] - - BEE FEEDERS. - -During warm weather liquid food may be placed in any open receptacles -which can be set in the upper stories of the hives. Tin fruit or -vegetable cans that have been used may be made to serve the purpose, -a wooden float for each or some bits of comb being put in to keep the -bees from drowning; but during cool weather feeders arranged to admit -the bees but not permit the escape of heat had better be employed. -Glass fruit jars with metal caps are generally at Land, and make -excellent feeders by merely punching a few holes in each cap. After the -jar is filled with liquid food and the cap screwed on tightly it is -inverted over a feed hole in the quilt or honey board. The cap, or top -story, with cover, protects the whole, and it is very easy to see when -more food is wanted by merely raising the cover slightly. If arranged -on a feeding stage covered on the underside with wire cloth, as shown -in fig. 38, feeding may be accomplished without being troubled by the -workers. - -Feeders of various forms constructed of wood or tin, or of these -materials combined, most of them serving the purpose excellently, are -offered in catalogues of apiarian manufacturers. - - SECTION FOLDERS. - -Sections can be folded or put together readily over an accurately made -block just large enough to fill the space inclosed by a section, and -several machines to facilitate the work in case it is to be done on a -large scale have been devised. - - BEE ESCAPES. - -[Illustration: Fig. 39.--The Porter spring bee escape.] - -The bee escape (fig. 39) is an important labor-saving invention for the -honey producer. A number of them may be regarded as necessary in every -apiary. They are inserted in holes bored in a honey board and used in -freeing supers from bees, as described under "Honey production." - - FOUNDATION FASTENERS. - -_For sections._--Several styles of implements for fastening thin -foundation in sections have been devised. All of them do the work well. -A simple one, which is also low priced, is Parker's; Clark's and the -Daisy are also highly recommended, and A. C. Miller's is very complete, -working automatically. The latter, and the Daisy shown in fig. 40, each -require the use of a lamp. - -_For frames._--If the top bars of the frames have a slot or saw kerf -one-eighth to three-sixteenths inch deep on the underside, made by -passing them lengthwise over a circular saw, sheets of foundation -can be very readily fastened by slipping the edge into this groove -and running melted wax along the angle formed on each side by the -foundation and the top bar. Or a wedge-shaped strip may be crowded in -at the side and secured with small wire nails. If the top bar is flat -on the underside it will be necessary to press the foundation firmly -against it; that is, to incorporate the edge of the wax sheet into the -wood of the top bar by rubbing it with a smooth bit of hard wood or -bone, such as a knife handle, moistening this implement to prevent the -wax from sticking, and then fix it firmly by pouring melted wax down -the other side. In the case of top bars having triangular comb guides -or a projecting tongue on the underside the foundation can be securely -fastened by merely cutting five or six slits three-eighths to one-half -inch deep in one edge of the foundation and bending the tongues thus -formed in alternate directions so as to place the V-edge of the top -bar between them, when they can be firmly attached to the top bar by -rubbing with a knife handle as before. Soapsuds or starch water may -be used to advantage in moistening the knife handle. The foundation -roller (fig. 41), a small disk of hard wood which revolves in a slot -at the end of a handle and costs but a few cents, does effective work -in fastening foundation in brood frames; in fact, it is rather better -than the knife handle for the work just mentioned, except that it will -not reach into the corners of the frames, and to secure the foundation -there the knife handle must still be used. The roller will need to be -moistened the same as the knife handle. - -[Illustration: Fig. 40.--The Daisy foundation fastener. (From -Gleanings.)] - -[Illustration: Fig. 41.--Fastening starter of comb foundation in frame. -(Original.)] - -It is particularly important that the sheets of foundation be well -fastened, for if one edge breaks loose with the weight of the bees -it will crumple down in such a way as not only to ruin that comb, or -rather to prevent the building of a good comb in the frame in question, -but also very likely in the adjoining frames if they have not been -previously built out; and in this case damage will probably result to -them. To prevent bulging of the comb it is also essential that the -sheets of foundation, if not wired, be narrower than the inside depth -of the frame and shorter than its inside length. A full inch of space -should be allowed between the bottom bar and the sheet of foundation, -and a half inch at each end for two-thirds of the way up. - -[Illustration: Fig. 42.--Spur wire-embedder. (From Gleanings.)] - -With these precautions swarms may even be hived on full sheets of -foundation without wiring the frames: but the practice will probably -continue of using starters, chiefly in the case of swarms, and, when -full sheets are employed, of alternating them with combs already built -out. Some prefer to wire the frames even though it is considerable -trouble, for the combs require less attention while in process of -construction and are firmer for shipping, for use in the extractor, -or for any other manipulation. Three or four horizontal wires will -suffice. No. 30 annealed tinned wire is the preferable size and -quality. The end bars of the frame are pierced by four holes, the first -1 inch below the top bar. A small tack secures the end of the wire, -which is then passed back and forth and drawn up so as to leave no -slack. The four horizontal wires, 2 inches apart, will be sufficient -to render combs quite secure. After fastening the foundation to the -top bar in the usual way the wires are embedded in the wax by a spur -embedder, which is a small wheel with grooved teeth (fig. 42). Where -large numbers of frames are to be wired a current of electricity from -a small battery will do the work more neatly and quickly than the spur -embedder. - -The disadvantages of wiring frames are, first, its expense, caused -chiefly by the time employed in doing it; and second, the fact that -wherever the wire does not get embedded into the midrib of the -foundation, as is sure to happen in many cases, the rearing of brood is -interfered with, and also, under the methods employed by the majority -in wintering, moisture is very likely to cause the combs to cleave from -the wires, whereupon the bees are disposed to gnaw the combs away from -the wires in spots and not rebuild them. - -These disadvantages, except that of expense, are overcome by -incorporating fine wire in the sheets of foundation when they are -rolled. The sheets are trimmed with wooden shears, which leave the ends -of the wires projecting. These are then glued to the bars of the frame. -The added expense is again the main objection, except to those who wish -to ship colonies or nuclei, or transport them from place to place for -pasturage. - - COMB-FOUNDATION MACHINES. - -The first attempts to give bees outlines of cells as a basis for comb -building were made in Germany. The top bars of the frames were coated -on the underside with beeswax, and a strip of wood having the outlines -of bees' cells cut on it was then pressed against this wax so as to -form a guide which should lead the bees to build their combs within the -frames. This was only a comb guide, but was succeeded by small strips -of wax having the outlines of bees' cells pressed on them by hand, -a block of wood being engraved for this purpose. The general use of -comb foundation, especially of the full sheets, was only made possible -through the improved means of manufacturing it developed in the United -States. The slow process of hand stamping was succeeded by its rapid -production on machines, the essential feature of which is two engraved -cylinders between which the warm sheet of wax is made to pass (fig. 43). - -[Illustration: Fig. 43.--Comb-foundation machine. (From Langstroth.)] - -Such machines are now made in numerous patterns costing from $15 up. -Foundation is made with flat-bottomed cells and also with the same form -as that given by the bees to combs constructed wholly by themselves. -Both sorts are readily accepted by the bees and built out. Both these -kinds are also made in various qualities and weights. Only a good -quality of perfectly pure beeswax should be accepted. Brood foundation -is made in light, medium, and heavy weights. For use in section boxes -thin surplus and extra thin surplus are made of light-colored wax. When -full sheets are used in sections it is better to have it extra thin -lest there should be a noticeable toughness of the midrib, technically -known as "fishbone." For unwired frames the medium or heavy brood-comb -foundation should be employed. - -Until used it is best to keep comb foundation between sheets of paper -and well wrapped, since if long exposed to the air the surface of the -wax hardens somewhat, but if well packed it may be used years after it -was made with almost the same advantage as when first rolled out. - -It requires considerable skill to make foundation successfully, and -those who use but a small amount will do better to purchase their -supply. The high quality of nearly all of the foundation thus far -supplied in this country has also justified this plan. Should the -practice of adulterating wax become as common among comb-foundation -manufacturers in this country as on the continent of Europe no doubt -many more would procure machines and make their own foundation. - - - - - CHAPTER VI. - - =BEE PASTURAGE.= - - -Bees obtain their food from such a variety of sources that there -are few localities in our country where a small apiary could not be -made to yield a surplus above its own needs. Even in the center of -our larger cities bees placed on the roofs of stores and dwellings -have often furnished quite a surplus gathered from the gardens of -the city and its environs. Again, in regions where the soil is too -light, rocky, or wet to admit of profitable cultivation, it is often -the case that honey-producing plants abound; indeed, waste land is -frequently far more profitable for the honey-producer than fields that -have been brought under cultivation, especially when the latter are -mainly devoted to grain or potato raising, for insignificant weeds -in field or swamp often yield honey abundantly, and among the best -yielders are certain forest trees, whose blossoms, by reason of their -distance from the ground and in some instances their small size, escape -notice. Showy flowers made double by the gardener's skill, such as -roses, dahlias, chrysanthemums, etc., have rarely any attraction for -our honey bees. Moreover, the small number of these ornamental plants -usually found in any one locality renders the honey yield, even in -case they are abundant secreters of nectar, so slight that they are -of little value. The novice who is seeking to determine the honey -resources of his locality should therefore not be led into error by -these. He should compare the flora of his locality with reliable lists -of honey-producing plants, and, if possible, consult some practical -bee-master familiar with his surroundings. And all information on this -score should be fully accepted only after careful verification, as it -is very easy for anyone to be deceived regarding the sources of given -honey yields--plants which produce abundantly one season not always -yielding the next, or those that produce honey freely in one portion -of the country not yielding anything in another. Soil and climate, the -variations of successive seasons, and all other conditions affecting -plant growth--conditions which even the most skillful scientific -agriculturists admit are exceedingly difficult to understand, and in -many respects, as yet unexplainable--influence the amount and quality -of nectar secreted by a given plant. - -The danger of overstocking is largely imaginary, yet in establishing -a large apiary it is of course essential to look to the natural -resources of the location, and especially to decide only upon a place -where two or more of the leading honey-producing plants are present in -great numbers. In the North, willows, alder, maples, dandelion, fruit -blossoms, tulip tree (frequently called whitewood), locust, clovers -(white, alsike, crimson, and mammoth red), with alfalfa and melilot, -chestnut, linden or basswood, Indian corn, buckwheat, fireweed, -willow-herb, knotweeds, mints, cleome, golden-rods, Spanish needle, and -asters may be cited as the chief sources of pollen and honey; and of -these the tulip tree, locust, white clover, alfalfa, melilot, linden, -and buckwheat furnish most of the surplus honey. The fruit blossoms, -with the exception of raspberry, come so early that a small proportion -only of the colonies are sufficiently strong to store surplus, and of -course this statement applies with still more force to plants which -blossom before apple, pear, cherry, etc. Some of the clovers, mustard, -rape, cultivated teasel, chestnut, barberry, sumac coral berry, -pleurisy root, fireweed, borage, mints, willow-herb, Spanish needles, -cleome, etc., though yielding well, are only found abundantly over -certain areas, and do not therefore supply any considerable portion -of the honey that appears on the market, though when any of them are -plentiful in a certain locality the bee keeper located there will find -in nearly all cases that the surplus honey is greatly increased thereby. - -[Illustration: Fig. 44.--Willow herb (_Epilobium angustifolium_). A, -young flower: _s_, stigma turned back: _a_, anthers; _l_, lobe or pod. -B, older flower: _s_, stigma turned forward; _a_, anthers: _l_, lobe. -C, spike of flowers. D, section of pollen grain: _e_, extine; _i_, -intine; _ti_, thick intine; _f_, fovilla. E, growing point of pollen -grain: _e, e_, extine; _i, i_, intine; _f_, fovilla; _pt_, pollen tube. -(From Cheshire.)] - -In the middle section of our country, from Maryland, Virginia, and -North Carolina westward, most of the sources named above are present, -although the maples (particularly hard maple) furnish less, and fruit -bloom, the clovers, linden, and buckwheat are not as great yielders -as in the North. Sourwood or sorrel tree, mountain laurels, sour gum -or tupelo, huckleberry, cowpea, magnolia, and persimmon make up in -part for these, the sourwood being especially important, while in some -localities certain species of asters yield very abundantly. The tulip -tree (known commonly as poplar) is a greater yielder than in the North, -while in the western portion of the middle section the Rocky Mountain -bee plant or cleome and more extensive areas of alfalfa and melilot are -very important sources. - -In the more southern States fruit bloom is far from being as great a -source of honey as in the North, though with the extension of orange -groves in Florida and Louisiana an increased production of very fine -honey maybe looked for in those States. The titi, magnolia, palmetto, -and black mangrove yield well in some parts, and sour gum (tupelo or -pepperidge), cotton, and pennyroyal are sources not to be overlooked. -In Texas horsemint and mesquite, the latter also extending farther -West, furnish fine yields, while many mountain localities of southern -California are clothed with white and black sages--wonderful honey -producers. In certain localities there the orange and other fruit -orchards, and also wild buckwheat, give the bees excellent pasturage -for a portion of the year. - -Certain small homopterous insects, such as plant-lice, bark-lice, -mealy-wings, and some leaf-hoppers, which congregate on the leaves or -bark of various plants and trees, notably pines, oaks, and beeches, -and suck their juices, secrete a sweet liquid, which is often taken -up by bees as it falls on the surrounding vegetation. This secretion, -commonly known as honeydew, or plant-louse honey, is usually of an -inferior qua lit y, though that from pine-tree aphides is sometimes -fairly good. Most of it granulates very soon after having been -gathered, sometimes even before the cells have been sealed. - -Under peculiar conditions of the atmosphere sweet exudations, also -known as honeydew, drop from the leaves of certain plants and are -eagerly taken up by the bees. This substance is sometimes very abundant -and of excellent quality. It should not, however, be confounded with -the secretions of extra-floral glands such as are possessed by the -cowpea, horse bean, partridge pea, and vetches. These seem to be -natural productions for the purpose of attracting insects to the -plants, while the former is apparently an accidental exudation through -the plant pores, brought about very likely by some sudden change of -temperature. Both are, however, merely the saccharine juices of the -plant, and when refined by the bees may become excellent honey. - - - CULTIVATION OF HONEY PLANTS. - -In all localities there will probably be found intervals during -the working season when bees will find very little or even nothing -gather, unless supplied by cultivation. When possible it is ah best -to till in such intervals with some honey-producing plant which at -the same time furnishes some other product--fruit, grain, forage, -green manure, or timber. The attempt to cultivate any plant for its -honey alone has not thus far been found profitable, in practice, -however promising it may seem theoretically. Catnip (_Nepeta -cataria_), motherwort (_Leonurus cardiaca_), globe thistle (_Echinops -sphærocephalus_), figwort (_Scrophularia nodosa_), bee balm (_Melissa -officinalis_), borage (_Borago officinalis_), Rocky Mountain cleome -(_Cleome serrulata_), melilot or sweet clover (_Melilotus alba_), and -linden (_Tilia americana_) have all been recommended repeatedly and -tried here and there somewhat extensively. But thus far the hope of -securing a sufficient increase in the crop of honey to pay for the -cultivation of these plants has in all cases had to be abandoned. -With the appreciation in value of agricultural lands the prospects -for the profitable cultivation of any crop for honey alone are still -further removed. Yet the writer is fully convinced that in the future, -especially in the older portions of our country, eminent success in -bee raising will require much more attention to the furnishing of -artificial pasturage for the bees, a close study, in fact, of the -bee flora of one's locality, and a systematic effort to supply the -deficiencies by sowing self-propagating honey plants, and such as may -be cultivated with profit for other reasons besides their honey yield. - -[Illustration: Fig. 45.--Wagner a flat pea (_Lathyrus sylvestris -wagneri_).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 46.--Dwarf Essex or winter rape (_Brassica napus_).] - -Among those plants which have just been mentioned as having been -cultivated at various times for their honey alone, the linden for shade -and ornament as well as for timber, catnip for sale as an herb or to -secure its seed, and melilot for forage or green manuring are the only -ones which, under present conditions, might in some cases be profitably -cultivated. There may be introduced with advantage, however, all such -honey-producing plants as, with one sowing or planting, will readily -propagate themselves and without cultivation extend their area along -roadsides and over waste lands, always excepting of course such as may -become troublesome weeds. For this purpose most of the plants referred -to above are available, and many others which like these are adapted to -one portion or another of our country might be added, as, for example, -pleurisy root or butterfly weed (_Asclepias tuberosa_), Indian currant -or coral berry (_Symphoricarpos symphoricarpos_), viper's bugloss -(_Echium vulgare_), lady's thumb (_Polygonum persicaria_), horsemint -(_Monarda citriodora_), willow-herb (_Epilobium angustifolium_), -etc., but of course it can not be expected that they will thrive and -thoroughly establish themselves without further attention, except -in such localities as present very favorable conditions for their -growth. Furthermore, there is always the risk that a plant which yields -honey abundantly in one part of the country may not do so in another -region, even though it grows well, so that it is necessary in most -cases, especially with wild plants, to test them anew before extensive -introduction, no matter how well established their reputation as honey -producers may be elsewhere. - -[Illustration: Fig. 47.--Summer or bird rape (_Brassica napus_).] - -Among plants of economic value in other directions fruit trees and -shrubs are to be counted as of much importance to bees. The apple and -the cherry yield well, the others less, though the gooseberry, were it -more plentiful, would be of considerable value. Strawberry blossoms -are, in general, visited sparingly and yield only a small amount, but -the raspberry, coming later, when the colonies are stronger, is a most -important source, greatly liked by the bees, and furnishing as fine a -quality of honey as is known. Ten acres in raspberries will furnish -pasturage for three weeks to 75 or 100 colonies of bees. Mustard for -seed, and rape for pasture and seed, may be made to furnish much to -the bees in early spring. Buckwheat honey is dark and strong, but is -relished by some, and when well ripened is good winter food for bees, -so that whenever this plant can be made to blossom at a time when the -bees find nothing better and a crop of grain can also be harvested from -it, a plentiful supply should by all means be sown: the clovers, white, -alsike, crimson, and mammoth or medium red may be sown for pasturage, -hay, forage, for purposes of green manuring, or for seed, and honey of -fine quality obtained if a sufficient number of blossoms are allowed to -appear. - -[Illustration: Fig. 48.--Sacaline or giant knotweed (Polygonum -sachalinense).] - -[Illustration: Fig. 49.--Russian or hairy vetch (Vicia villosa).] - -Alfalfa (_Medicago sativa_), a most important honey producer as well -as perennial forage crop, can be grown over a much greater area of the -United States than has heretofore been generally supposed. Sainfoin -(_Onobrychis sativa_) and serradella (_Ornithopus sativus_), both most -excellent honey plants, have not received the attention they merit -either North or South. Japan clover (_Lespedeza striata_) is grown -profitably in the South, and more even might be expected from the -introduction of sulla clover (_Hedysarum coronarium_) there, the latter -a great honey producer. Chicory, even on poor soil, is a good honey and -pollen plant. Northern bee keepers should try the dwarf (quick-growing) -varieties of cowpeas (_Vigna sinensis_) extensively grown in the -South for forage and green manuring. Vetches are of recognized value -for the same purposes, especially the Russian hairy vetch (_Vicia -villosa_). Sacaline (_Polygonum sachalinense_) and flat peas (_Lathyrus -sylvestris_) are visited by bees, and in certain situations may be -found of value otherwise. Peppermint (_Mentha piperita_) yields well in -July and August. Parsnips (_Pastinaca sativa_) when grown for seed are -assiduously visited by bees for honey during June. July, and August. -Gorse or furze (_Ulex europæus_) for forage may prove valuable in some -localities here, as it is highly esteemed in some parts of Europe. -Its odorous yellow blossoms, much frequented by bees, appear in May. -Filbert bushes (_Corylus avellana_) will grow in many portions of our -country, yielding, besides nuts, an abundance of early pollen, even in -February or March. The carob tree (_Ceratonia siliqua_) succeeds in the -Southwest, yielding a crop of economic value, besides a harvest in -late summer for bees. It is also a fine ornamental tree. There are no -finer shade or ornamental trees for the lawn or roadside than lindens -(basswoods) and horse-chestnuts. To these chestnut, locust, sourwood, -and tulip trees may be added. The timber of all is useful; and since -they are great honey yielders their propagation near the apiary is very -desirable. - -Bees range ordinarily within 2 or 3 miles in all directions from their -homes, but sometimes go farther. Pasturage to be especially valuable, -however, should be within 2 miles, and less than a mile distant to -the main source is quite preferable. The advantage is probably not so -much in the saving of time in going back and forth, for bees fly with -great rapidity, but because when sudden storms arise, especially those -accompanied by high winds, the heavily laden bees are more likely to -reach home safely and the hive will not be decimated of its gathering -force. - - - BEES AS CROSS-FERTILIZERS. - -Allusion has already been made in this bulletin to the importance of -bees in the complete cross fertilization of fruit blossoms and to the -fact that certain varieties of pears have been found to be completely -self-sterile, requiring, therefore, pollen from other varieties before -they can develop perfect seeds and fruits. It is interesting to study -the ways in which cross fertilization of plants is secured through the -visits of insects. The part that bees perform in the development and -perpetuation of numerous ornamental and economic plants is thereby -clearly shown. Space will only permit the introduction here of one or -two examples. The willow-herb, which is an abundant secreter of nectar -and thus attracts bees freely, illustrates one feature in pollination -by bees. A young blossom of this plant (fig. 44, A) shows the stamens -maturing and shedding their pollen, while the pistil remains curved -downward and with closed stigmas. In the older flower (fig. 44, B), the -stamens having shed their pollen and begun to wither, the pistil has -straightened up and exposed its stigmatic surfaces for the reception -of the pollen which a bee chancing to come from a younger blossom is -likely to bring. Self-pollination is thus positively prevented and -cross fertilization is insured. - -In the mountain laurel the anthers are held securely by little pockets -in the corolla, so that as the flower opens the stamens are found bent -over (fig. 50, B) ready to be liberated (fig. 50, C) by the visit of a -bee. When the stamen flies up the pollen is discharged from the anther -and dusted on the underside of the bee. The latter as it alights on the -next flower naturally touches the stigma first and rubs off some of the -pollen it has brought from the last flower visited. It then proceeds to -secure the nectar of the flower on which it has just alighted, and in -doing this liberates the stamens of this flower and gets dusted again -with pollen, which it carries to the next flower. - -[Illustration: Fig. 50.--Mountain laurel (_Kalmia latifolia_). A, -flowering branch. B, expanded flower: _ap_, anther pocket. C, section -of expanded flower: _ap, ap_, anther pockets; _s_, stigma: _a_, anther -(free); _pg_, pollen grains in shower: _ca_, calyx. D, section of -flower bud: _ap_, anther pocket. E, stamen more enlarged: _a_, anther; -_po_, pores; _pg_, pollen grains; _f_, filament. (From Cheshire.)] - -[Illustration: Fig. 51.--Apple (_Pyrus malus_), showing structure of -flower and result of imperfect fertilization. A, blossom: _s_, stigmas; -_a_, anthers; _p_, petal; _s′_, sepal; _ca_, calyx; _d_, dissepiment. -B, cross section of imperfectly developed fruit: _f, f_, fertilized -carpels; _u_, unfertilised carpel. (From Cheshire.)] - -The cross section of an imperfectly developed apple shown herewith -(fig. 51, B) illustrates the importance of complete fertilization of -fruit blossoms. The seed vessel at u shows only an abortive seed, -and the side of the fruit nearest this point is also correspondingly -undeveloped. This is owing to imperfect or complete lack of -fertilization of this carpel, five distinct fertilizations being -necessary to produce a perfect fruit. Bees being, during the period -of fruit blossoms, the most abundant insects that might effect the -necessary distribution of the pollen of these flowers, the importance -is at once seen of having an apiary in or near the orchard. Continued -rainy or cold weather may keep the bees confined to their hives much of -the time during fruit bloom, hence it is advisable to have them near -at hand and in numbers proportionate to the size of the orchards, so -that even a few hours of sunshine will assure their making a thorough -distribution of the pollen. In the absence of accurate experiments -regarding the number of colonies of bees required to insure proper -fertilization in the orchard, and also in view of the fact that -surrounding conditions vary greatly, it is difficult to say exactly how -many colonies are positively necessary for a given number of trees. -However, four or five well-populated hives for every hundred large -apple trees will doubtless suffice, even though no other hive bees are -within a mile of the orchard. The bees of a neighbor's apiary are often -quite sufficient for the orchardist's purpose, the benefit resulting -from their labors being, therefore, mutual, though the orchardist -doubtless derives in this case greater advantage from them than does -their owner himself. Escaped swarms lodged in forest trees in the -vicinity of the orchard are sometimes sufficiently numerous to perform -the work well. The great value of bees as cross fertilizers makes their -destruction a serious injury to the interests of the fruit grower. -Therefore spraying with arsenicals during fruit bloom should never be -practiced. The injurious insects can be reached quite as well before -and after the blooming period. - -[Illustration: Fig. 52.--Heath-like wild aster (_Aster ericoides_). -(Original.)] - - - Bul. 1, new series, Div. of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. - - Plate III. - - - [Illustration] - - - Alfalfa (_Medicago sativa_). - - - Bul. 1, new series, Div. of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. - - Plate IV. - - [Illustration] - - Esparcet or Sainfoin (_Onobrychis sativa_). - - 1, 2. 3, 4, parts of flower; 5, pod; 6, 7, seed - - - Bul. 1, new series, Div. of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. - - Plate V. - - [Illustration] - - Sweet Clover or Melilot (_Melilotus alba_). - - - Bul. 1, new series, Div. of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. - - Plate VI. - - [Illustration] - - Acacia (_Acacia constricta_), - - - Bul. 1, new series, Div. of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. - - Plate VII. - - [Illustration] - - Mesquite (_Prosopis juliflora_). - - - Bul. 1, new series, Div. of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. - - Plate VIII. - - [Illustration] - - Blue Weed or Viper's Bugloss (_Echium vulgare_). - - - Bul. 1, new series, Div. of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. - - Plate IX. - - [Illustration] - - Crimson Clover (_Trifolium incarnatum_). - - - Bul. 1, new series, Div. of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. - - Plate X. - - [Illustration] - - Alsike Clover (_Trifolium hybridum_). - - - HONEY AND POLLEN PRODUCING PLANTS. - -In the following lists the intention has been merely to indicate -the main sources from which our hive bees secure honey and pollen. -Anything like a complete enumeration of those plants of the United -States visited by hive bees would occupy far too much space for a brief -treatise like this. Many plants are therefore omitted which secrete -nectar freely but which are abundant only locally; others are left -out because they secrete only at rare intervals, or under peculiar -conditions, or are visited by bees only when some better honey source -fails; others again because, though secreting well and readily yielding -their honey or pollen stores to the bees, they are not often present -in sufficient numbers in any one locality to enable the bees to add -materially to their surplus stores. Such plants are, however, often of -great value because they cause the bees to rear brood during intervals -between the times of storing surplus honey and thus keep the colonies -populous for successive harvests. - -Besides the main honey plants it would be easy to name for any -locality quite a number of secondary importance which are frequented -by honey bees, yet even though the localities were but a few miles -apart scarcely any two lists would agree either as to the plants to -be included or as to their relative importance. The following honey -and pollen producing plants are therefore of wide distribution or of -special importance in certain localities. - -For convenience separate lists are given for the three sections of the -United States made by the parallels of 35° and 40° N. The flora of the -western portion of each section differs of course greatly from that of -the eastern part of the same section. Only the most important honey -yielders among those of local interest in the extreme Southwest and -the West have been included in the lists, and the chief range of each -has been noted. An effort has been made to indicate by the type the -relative importance of the plants as pollen and honey producers. - - - NORTH AND NORTHEAST. - - [Above 40° N.] - - Red or Soft Maple (_Acer rubrum_) April. - Alders (_Alnus_) April. - Elm (_Ulmus_) April. - Willows (_Salix_) Apr.-May. - _Dandelion_ (_Taraxacum taraxacum_ = _T. officinale_ of - Gray's Manual) Apr.-May. - _Sugar_, _Rock_, or _Hard Maple_ (_Acer saccharum_ = _A. - saccharinum_ of Gray's Manual) Apr.-May. - _Juneberry_, or _Service Berry_ (_Amelanchier canadensis_) May. - Wild Crab Apples (_Pyrus_) May. - GOOSEBERRY and CURRANT (_Ribes_) May. - PEACH, CHERRY, and PLUM (_Prunus_) May. - PEAR and APPLE (_Pyrus_) May. - Huckleberries and Blueberries (_Gaylussacia_ and _Vaccinium_) May-June. - COMMON, BLACK, or YELLOW LOCUST (_Robinia pseudacacia_) May-June. - European Horse-chestnut (_Æsculus hippocastanum_) May-June. - Common Barberry (_Berberis vulgaris_) May-June. - TULIP TREE, or "WHITEWOOD" (_Liriodendron tulipifera_) May-June. - Grapevines (_Vitis_) May-June. - Rape (_Brassica napus_) May-June. - _White Mustard_ and _Black Mustard_ (_Brassica alba_ and - _B. nigra_) June. - RASPBERRY (_Rubus_) June. - WHITE CLOVER (_Trifolium repens_) June-July. - ALSIKE CLOVER (_Trifolium hybridum_) June-July. - Edible Chestnut (_Castanea dentata_ = _C. sativa_ var. - _americana_ of Gray's Manual) June-July. - ALFALFA, or LUCERN (_Medicago sativa_) June-July. - LINDEN, or BASSWOOD (_Tilia americana_) July. - Smooth Sumac (_Rhus glabra_) July. - _Buttonbush_ (_Cephalanthus occidentalis_) July. - MELILOT, BOKHARA, or SWEET CLOVER (_Melilotus alba_) July-Aug. - Indian Corn (Zea mags) July-Aug. - Melon, Cucumber, Squash, Pumpkin (_Citrullus_, _Cucumis_, - and _Cucurbita_). July-Aug. - _Fireweed_ (_Erechthites hieracifolia_) July-Sept. - Chicory (_Cichorium intybus_) July-Sept. - GREAT WILLOW-HERB (_Epilobium angustifolium_) July-Aug. - KNOTWEEDS (_Polygonum_, especially _P. pennsylvanicum_ and - _P. persicaria_). Aug.-Sept. - BUCKWHEAT (_Fagopyrum fagopyrum_ = _F. esculentum_ of - Gray's Manual). Aug.-Sept. - Indian Currant, or Coral Berry (_Symphoricarpos symphoricarpos_ - = _S. vulgaris_ of Gray's Manual) Aug.-Sept. - Thorough wort, or Boneset (_Eupatorium perfoliatum_) Aug.-Sept. - _Bur Marigolds_ (_Bidens_, especially SPANISH NEEDLES, - _Bidens bipinnata_). Aug.-Oct. - Wild Asters (_Aster_) Aug.-Oct. - GOLDEN-RODS (_Solidago_) Aug.-Oct. - - MIDDLE SECTION. - - [Between 35° and 40° N.] - - Redbud (_Cercis canadensis_) Mar.-Apr. - Alder (_Alnus rugosa_ = _A. serrulata_ of Gray's Manual) Mar.-Apr. - Red or Soft Maple (_Acer rubrum_) Mar.-Apr. - Elm (_Ulmus_) Mar.-Apr. - Willows (_Salix_) Mar.-May. - _Dandelion_ (_Taraxacum taraxacum_ = _T. officinale_ of - Gray's Manual) Apr.-May. - _Apricot_ (_Prunus armeniaca_) Apr.-May. - _Juneberry_ or _Service Berry_ (_Amelanchier canadensis_) Apr.-May. - Wild Crab Apples (_Pyrus_) Apr.-May. - _Gooseberry_ and _Currant_ (_Ribes_) Apr.-May. - Rhododendrons (_Rhododendron_) Apr.-May. - _Peach_, _Cherry_, and _Plum_ (_Prunus_) Apr.-May. - _Pear_ and _Apple_ (_Pyrus_) Apr.-May. - CRIMSON CLOVER (_Trifolium incarnatum_) Apr.-May. - Huckleberries and Blueberries (_Gaylussacia_ and _Vaccinium_) May. - American Holly (_Ilex opaca_) May. - _Black Gum_, _Sour Gum_, _Tupelo_ or _Pepperidge_ - (_Nyssa aquatica_ = _N. sylvatica_ of Gray's Manual) May. - Manzanitas (_Arctostaphylos_) (California) May. - COMMON, BLACK, or YELLOW LOCUST (_Robinia pseudacacia_) May. - Barberry (_Berberis canadensis_) May. - TULIP TREE, or "POPLAR" (_Liriodendron tulipifera_) May. - Mountain Laurel (_Kalmia latifolia_) May-June. - Grapevines (_Vitis_) May-June. - _Persimmon_ (_Diospyros virginiana_) May-June. - WHITE CLOVER (_Trifolium repens_) May-June. - _Alsike Clover_ (_Trifolium hybridum_) May-June. - RASPBERRY (_Rubus_) May-June. - COWPEA (_Vigna sinensis_) May-Aug. - EDIBLE CHESTNUT (_Castanet dentata_ = _C. saliva_ var. - _americana_ of Gray's Manual) June. - _Chinquapin_ (_Castanea pumila_) June. - Catalpas, or Indian Bean Trees (_Catalpa_) June. - MAGNOLIA, or SWEET BAY (_Magnolia glauca_) June - LINDEN, or "LINN" (_Tilia americana_ and _T. heterophylla_) June. - SOURWOOD, or SORREL TREE (_Oxydendrum arboreum_) June-July. - _Oxeye Daisy_, or _Whiteweed_ (_Chrysanthemum leucanthemum_) June-July. - ALFALFA (_Medicago saliva_) (West) June-Aug. - MELILOT, BOKHARA, or SWEET CLOVER (_Melilotus alba_) June-Aug. - Smooth Sumac (_Rhus glabra_) July. - _Buttonbush_ (_Cephalanthus occidentalis_) July. - CLEOME, or "ROCKY MOUNTAIN BEE PLANT" (_Cleome serrulata_ = - _C. integrifolia_ of Gray's Manual) (West) July-Aug. - Indian Corn (_Zea mays_) July-Aug. - Cucumber. Melon. Squash. Pumpkin (_Cucumis_, _Citrullus_, - and _Cucurbita_) July-Aug. - _Knotweeds_ (_Polygonum_, especially _P. pennsylvanicum_ and - _P. persicaria_) July-Sept. - _Buckwheat_ (_Fagopyrum fagopyrum_ = _F. esculentum_ of - Gray's Manual) Aug.-Sept. - Wild Asters (_Aster_, especially HEATH-LIKE ASTER, - _Aster ericoides_) Aug.-Oct. - Thoroughwort, or Boneset (_Eupatorium perfoliatum_) Aug.-Oct. - Bur Marigolds (_Bidens_, especially SPANISH NEEDLES, - _Bidens bipinnata_) Aug.-Oct. - Golden-rods (_Solidago_) Aug.-Oct. - - - SOUTH. - - [Below 35° N.] - - Redbud (_Cercis canadensis_) Feb.-Mar. - Alder (_Alnus rugosa_ = _A. serrulata_ of Gray's Manual ) Feb.-Mar. - Red or Soft Maple (_Acer rubrum_) Feb.-Mar. - Elm (_Ulmus_) Feb.-Mar. - Willows (_Salix_) Feb.-Mar. - Dandelion (_Taraxacum taraxacum_ = _T. officinale_ of - Gray's Manual) Feb.-Mar. - _Apricot_ (_Prunus armeniaca_) Feb.-Mar. - WILD PENNYROYAL (_Hedeoma pulegioides_) Feb.-Mar. - Carolina Cherry, or Laurel Cherry (_Prunus caroliniana_) March. - Juueberry, or Service Berry (_Amelanchier canadensis_) March. - ORANGE and _Lemon_ (_Citrus_) Mar.-Apr. - _Cottonwoods_, or _Poplars_ (_Populus_) Mar.-Apr. - TITI (_Cliftonia monophylla_) (Florida and southern Georgia, - westward.) Mar.-Apr. - Gooseberry and Currant (_Ribes_) Mar.-Apr. - _Peach_, _Cherry_, and _Plum_ (_Prunus_) Mar.-Apr. - _Pear_ and Apple (_Pyrus_) Mar.-Apr. - Huckleberries and Blueberries (_Gaylussacia_ and _Vaccinium_) April. - _Crimson Clover_ (_Trifolium incarnatum_) April. - BLACK GUM, SOUR GUM, TUPELO, or PEPPERIDGE - (_Nyssa aquatica_ = _N. sylvatica_ of Gray's Manual) April. - BALL, or BLACK SAGE (_Romona stachyoides_, _R. palmeri_, - etc. = _Audibertia stachyoides_, etc., of the Botany of - California) (California) April. - GALLBERRY, or HOLLY (_Ilex glabra_) Apr.-May. - Manzanitas (_Arctostaphylos California_) Apr.-May. - Acacias (_Acacia_) Apr.-May. - _Common_, _Black_, or _Yellow Locust_ (_Robinia pseudacacia_) Apr.-May. - Persimmon (_Diospyros virginiana_) Apr.-May. - EDIBLE CHESTNUT (_Castanea dentata_ = _C. sativa_ var. - _americana_ of Gray's Manual) Apr.-May. - Chinquapin (_Castanea pumila_) Apr.-May. - Catalpas (_Catalpa_) Apr.-May. - MAGNOLIAS (_Magnolia_) Apr.-May. - Rhododendrons, Rosebays, Azaleas (_Rhododendron_) Apr.-May-June. - MESQUITE (_Prosopis juliflora_) (Texas and westward) Apr.-July. - _Cowpea_ (_Vigna sinensis_) Apr.-Aug. - TULIP TREE, or "POPLAR," (_Liriodendron tulipifera_) May. - Mountain Laurel (_Kalmia latifolia_) May. - Grapevines (_Vitis_) May. - _Raspberry_ (_Rubus_) May. - China Berry, China Tree, or Pride of India (_Melia azedarach_) May. - WHITE SAGE (_Ramona polystachya_ = _Audibertia polystachya_ - of the Botany of California) (California) May-June. - SOURWOOD, or SORREL TREE (_Oxydendrum arboreum_) May-June. - SAW PALMETTO (_Serenoa serrulata_) (coasts of Georgia - and Florida) May-June. - HORSEMINT (_Monarda citriodora_) May-July. - BANANA (_Musa sapientum_) May-Sept. - LINDEN, or "LINN" (_Tilia americana_, _T. pubescens_, and - _T. heterophylla_) June. - _Bed Bay_ (_Persea borbonia_ = _P. carolinensis_ of - Gray's Manual) June. - Indian Corn (_Zea mays_) June-July. - _Cucumber_, _Melon_, _Squash_, _Pumpkin_ (_Cucumis_, - _Citrullus_, and _Cucurbita_) June-July. - BLACKWOOD or BLACK MANGROVE (Aricennia nitida) (Florida) June-July. - ALFALFA (_Medicago sativa_) June-Aug. - MELILOT, BOKHARA, or SWEET CLOVER (_Melilotus alba_) June-Aug. - COTTON (_Gossypium herbaceum_) June-Aug. - WILD BUCKWHEAT (_Eriogonum fasciculatum_) (California) June-Oct. - CABBAGE PALMETTO (_Sabal palmetto_) (coasts of South Carolina. - Georgia, and Florida) July-Aug. - _Japan_ or _Bush Clover_ (_Lespedeza striata_) Aug.-Sept. - Bur Marigolds (_Bidens_, especially SPANISH NEEDLES, - _Bidens bipinnata_) Aug.-frost. - Wild Asters (_Aster_, especially HEATH-LIKE ASTER, - _Aster ericoides_) Aug.-frost. - Golden-rods (_Solidago_) Aug.-frost. - BLUE GUM and RED GUM (_Eucalyptus globulus_ and _E. rostrata_) - (California). Dec.-Mar. - - - - - CHAPTER VII. - - =SPRING MANIPULATION.= - - -The first examination in the spring should be mainly for the purpose -of ascertaining whether or not the honey stores have been exhausted. -It should be early, and hence not so extended as to risk the loss of -much warmth from the brood apartment. Merely lifting one edge of the -quilt or, if the bottom board is a loose one, tipping the hive back so -as to get a view in between the combs will often suffice. Should there -not be at least the equivalent of two full frames of honey it is best -to supply the deficiency at once. Without disturbing the brood full -combs may be substituted at each side for the empty ones. If combs -stored with honey and sealed over are not in reserve liquid honey or -sugar sirup may be poured into empty ones and placed in the hives at -night. A less dauby plan is to use one or more feeders directly over -the brood nest, supplying several pounds of food at once. An excellent -way is to give at one time all they need in the shape of a cake of bee -candy, made by mixing fine sugar with just enough honey to produce a -stiff dough. This cake of candy should be wrapped in heavy paper (half -parchment, or such as is used for wrapping butter is good) and laid on -top of the frames, after having punctured the paper in several places -with a pencil or sharp stick to give the bees ready access. Two or -three twigs or strips of wood laid across the frames before the cake is -placed on them will also give the bees a better opportunity to reach -the food. - -If the food be given in small quantities brood rearing will be -encouraged and still greater supplies of food will be called for, -rendering it absolutely necessary to give a large amount at once or -continue the feeding until natural sources fully supply the needs -of the bees and brood, otherwise both may starve. Three pounds of -sugar dissolved in one quart of water will make a suitable sirup for -spring feeding. Dry sugar may be used instead of sirup. The bees will -liquefy it themselves if they have access to water. For stimulative -purposes honey; s better than sugar, "strained honey" being better than -extracted. This is because of the greater amount of pollen which the -strained product contains, the pollen being highly nitrogenous, hence -capable of building up muscular tissue. But if the liquid honey is -one-half more in price per pound than sugar the latter would doubtless -be the more economical, certainly so if a plentiful supply of good -pollen in the combs or fresh from the fields can be had. Eye flour put -in sunny places and sprinkled with honey to attract the bees will be -collected until new pollen comes. - -When the weather has become sufficiently settled to render safe the -inspection of the brood combs, or, in general, when the bees fly the -greater part of each clear day, the work of the queen may be inspected. -Should the comb having the largest area of brood in it be toward one -side of the hive it is best to locate it as near the center as may -be, placing on either side successively those combs having smaller -circles of brood and on each side of these the combs containing no -brood, but well stored with pollen, while those having honey only -will come still outside of these. The brood nest will then have an -opportunity to develop equally in all directions. Empty combs are of -little use at this time outside of the brood nest as thus arranged, -and should be replaced by combs of honey if the latter is needed, or -removed altogether. If the combs are well crowded with bees and the -queen shows by her regular and compact placing of the brood, as well -as by the quantity she seems to have, that she is vigorous and thus -capable of accomplishing more than any ordinary brood nest will require -of her at this time of the year, a frame filled with worker comb may -be slipped into the center of the brood nest. This will be taken -possession of immediately by the bees, cleaned and warmed up, whereupon -the queen will soon have it filled with eggs. From time to time other -combs may be added in the same manner. If cautiously and judiciously -followed this plan, supplemented by liberal stores, will increase the -brood area and eventually the population of the hive. But the utmost -caution is needed, for if done too early cool weather may cause the -bees to cluster more closely and result in the chilling of some part -of the brood which has thus been spread. The very object sought is not -only missed, but the loss of brood will prove a serious setback to -the colony. The escape of any of the warmth generated by the bees, as -also sudden changes in the weather, should be guarded against. Warm -covering above and outer protection are therefore absolute necessities -if the best results are to be attained. With favorable weather for the -development of brood it is certain that stimulative feeding, if made -necessary by the fact that the natural honey resources of the country -will not alone bring the strength of the colony fairly up to the -desired standard by the opening of the harvest, is to be begun six to -seven weeks before the opening of the honey flow from which surplus is -to be expected. - -If, however, this honey flow comes so early that it is likely to be -preceded by weather unfavorable to the development of brood, it will be -necessary to allow for this by beginning the stimulation even earlier, -so that it may be done more gradually, and the greatest care will have -to be taken to retain all the heat of the brood nest. Should the main -flow be preceded by a lighter one, especially if the latter comes some -weeks before the chief harvest, it may be important to watch the brood -nest closely lest it becomes clogged with honey to the exclusion of -brood, inclining the bees not to enter surplus receptacles placed above -and causing the colony to be weak in numbers later in the season. This -state of affairs can be easily avoided by the timely use of the honey -extractor, since the brood combs, emptied of the honey which the -workers in an emergency have stored wherever they found vacant cells, -are made available for the queen. Before the main harvest opens it may -even be necessary in order to keep the combs filled with brood to feed -back gradually this extracted honey or its equivalent; but by taking -it away and returning it gradually the object sought will have been -accomplished, namely, keeping the combs stocked with brood until the -harvest is well under way, or as long as the larger population thus -gained in the hive can be made available. - -It is in this getting workers ready for the early harvest--hives over -flowing, as it were, with bees--that the skill of the apiarist is taxed -to its utmost. The work properly begins with the close of the summer -preceding the harvest, for the first steps toward successful wintering -should be taken then, and unless wintered successfully the colony can -not be put in shape to take full advantage of an early honey harvest. - -Good judgment in the application of the hints given in this chapter, -with careful and frequent attention, will bring colonies to the chief -spring or early summer flow of honey in good condition, with plenty -of bees and with combs well stocked with brood, provided they have -wintered well and have good queens. - - - TRANSFERRING. - -If colonies have been purchased in box hives, it is advisable at the -first favorable opportunity to get them into frame hives. - -[Illustration: Fig. 53.--Transferring--drumming the bees from a box -hive into a frame hire. (Original.)] - -Early in the season--that is, in April or May in middle latitudes, -before the brood nest has reached its greatest extension and while the -hive contains the least honey--it is not a difficult matter to drive -the bees from their combs, cut out the latter, and fit them into -frames. If the combs thus fitted in are held temporarily in place in -the frames, the bees, under whose care they should be placed at once, -will fasten them securely in a few hours or days at most. To drive -the bees from the box hive proceed as follows: Toward the middle of -a pleasant day blow smoke into the hive to be transferred, and after -the bees have been given a few minutes in which to lap up their fill -of honey, invert the hive and place over the open end an empty box, -or the frame hive itself, making whichever is used fit closely on -the hive (fig. 53). By rapping continuously for some minutes on the -hive the bees will be impelled to leave it and cluster in the upper -box. A loud humming will denote that they are moving. The hive thus -vacated may then be taken into a closed room and one side pried off to -facilitate the removal of the combs. The box containing the bees is to -be placed meanwhile on the spot originally occupied by the box hive, -the bees being allowed to go in and out without restraint, only two -precautions being necessary, namely, to shade the box well and provide -for ventilation by propping it up from the bottom, leaving also, if -possible, an opening at the top. When the combs have been fitted into -frames, the hive containing them is placed on the original stand and -the bees shaken from the box in front of it. - -In filling the frames with combs cut from a box hive, the largest and -straightest sheets having the most sealed worker brood in them should -be selected first and so cut that the frame will slip over them snugly, -taking pains, as far as possible, to have the comb placed in the frame -in the same position in which it was built, since most of the cells, -instead of being horizontal, are inclined upward, the inclination of -the deeper store cells being greatest. The comb, if not heavy, can be -held in place temporarily by slender wire nails pushed through holes -punched in the side and top bars. Before the introduction of wire -nails the writer used long thorns pulled from thorn-apple trees, which -served the purpose very well. In the case of combs heavy with honey -or brood or pieced more or less it will be safer to use, in addition -to a few wire nails, a pair or two of transferring sticks. These are -simply slender strips of wood slightly longer than the depth of the -frame and notched at each end. By placing such a stick on either side -of the comb and winding annealed wire around the top and bottom ends -so as to draw the sticks firmly against the surface of the combs the -latter will be held securely in the frames. The midrib between the rows -of cells should be pressed neither to one side nor the other; thus, -if cells on one side are deeper than those on the other, they should -be shaved down, unless the honey will be cut into too much, in which -case the comb maybe allowed to project on one side until it has been -fastened in the frame and the hive has been generally put in order by -the bees, the point being not to force them to try to manage too much -running honey at one time, lest robbing be induced. In many instances -the comb when pressed into the frame will seem to be so firm as not to -need nails or sticks, but in the heat of the hive, and with the weight -of the bees that will cluster on it to repair the cut edges and fasten -them to the bars of the frame, unsupported combs are very apt to give -way, creating disastrous confusion. Thus the sticks, nails, or their -equivalent should always be used (fig. 54). All frames should be filled -with perfectly straight combs so as to be interchangeable. With care in -fitting in and some trimming and pressing into shape afterwards, fully -three-fourths of the worker combs cut from box hives can be made into -good, serviceable combs in frame hives. The process is much facilitated -if such combs are used in the extractor during the first season or two -after transferring. - -[Illustration: Fig. 54.--Transferred comb and inserted queen cell. -(Original.)] - -Should the time be near the swarming season the combs will be so filled -with brood and honey that the task will be much greater, and the -transfer should be postponed until three weeks after the first swarm -issues. The brood left by the old queen will have matured and issued -from the cells by that time, and the young queen, if no accident has -happened to her, will have begun laying; yet there will usually be only -eggs, with perhaps a few very young larvæ, present in the combs at this -time, so that the cutting out and fitting of the latter into frames -will not be as troublesome nor attended with so much waste as just -before the swarm issued. - -Still another plan--one which it would not be best to employ before -fairly warm weather has set in, but which will render the work of -transferring the lightest--is to turn the box hive bottom upward and -place on it the brood apartment of a frame hive, having in it frames -filled with worker combs or with comb foundation, arranging at the same -time to give the bees ready access from their combs to those above and -no entrance to their hive except through the frame hive above. This can -easily be done by making a temporary bottom board for the frame hive, -with several holes through it, or with one large one about the size of -the open end of the box hive. As soon as it is perceived that the queen -has taken possession of the new combs--as she will be almost certain -to do, especially if one of the combs placed above contains some -brood--a piece of queen-excluding zinc placed over the opening between -the two hives will keep her above, and three weeks later, when all the -brood in the combs below has matured, the box hive may be removed and -the combs transferred to frames, if worth using in this way; but if -old or composed of drone cells or very irregular in shape these combs -may be rendered into wax, after extracting any honey that may happen -to be in them. Inverting the box hive will generally cause the bees -to remove what honey they have stored in the combs. This honey will -be utilized in building out the foundation placed in the added story, -or, having these combs completed, the bees will store in them whatever -remains. Should the queen fail to enter the superposed hive, the plan -may be adopted of driving her with her workers into the added story, as -described on page 72. When the lower combs have been nearly deserted it -will be safe to assume that the queen has gone into the upper hive with -the main force of workers, and the excluder zinc may be inserted. - - - QUEENLESSNESS IN SPRING. - -The loss of a queen during winter or early spring can generally be -discovered by noticing just at nightfall, after the first or second -general flight, which colonies are restless and continue to buzz -excitedly when the others are humming in a contented manner or have -quieted down for the night. The workers of the queenless colony run in -and out excitedly, searching over the front of the hive. Should it be -opened they will not resent the intrusion, but, remaining on the combs, -will at once set up a loud and prolonged buzzing. These symptoms become -less pronounced from day to day. If a comb containing brood be inserted -during this period it will be hailed with evident delight, manifested -by the eager crowding of the bees from all sides toward it. A contented -hum replaces the sound of mourning, and if young worker-larvæ are -present preparations, as described on pages 88-89, are begun at once -to rear a queen. However, if much reduced in numbers the colony should -be joined to one with a queen, or several queenless ones united. The -latter may be smoked and simply shaken or brushed together. But bees -that have been queenless long when added to those that have not yet -missed their own queen will frequently be killed at once. The queen -should therefore be taken from her own bees and caged for thirty-six to -forty-eight hours in the hive which has previously been queenless, and -her own bees added when she is released. (See page 94.) A board leaned -against the front of the hive will cause the bees to note their change -in location when they fly out and they will then easily find their new -quarters when returning from their flight. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - =SECURING SURPLUS HONEY AND WAX.= - - -If the colonies of bees have been brought to the opening of a given -honey flow with a powerful population recently hatched it will require -no great skill to secure a good crop, granted, of course, that the -flowers actually do secrete the nectar. In the ordinary course of -events some colonies are likely to come through to the early harvest -in good shape, but if all those contained in a large apiary are in -prime order at this time it is good evidence of skill on the part of -the attendant, this even though the weather and other circumstances -may have favored his work. To secure a yield of surplus honey the part -remaining to be done, if all goes well, is merely to put the surplus -receptacles in place, admit the bees, and remove the combs when filled -and sealed. But if swarming complications arise the whole of the bee -keeper's skill and ingenuity may again be called into requisition to -keep the forces together and storing in the surplus receptacles. Should -the expected harvest not come--that is, should the flowers from which -the yield is anticipated not secrete honey, or should they bloom when -the weather would not permit the bees to fly--of course no amount of -skill could make up the deficiency. In such a case all that can be -done is to carry the colonies through to the next honey yield in good -shape--to keep up (by feeding if necessary) the populousness of the -colonies. The flow may begin suddenly or before it is looked for; it -may be excellent for only a very short time, a day or two even, and be -cut off short in the midst of its greatest abundance. Thus the skill -lies in having the colonies ready for whatever may come and a force -sufficient to store the whole season's surplus in a few days. - - - EXTRACTED HONEY. - -One of the most important points in securing extracted honey is to -have a large stock of surplus combs. These, with the strong colonies -of bees to utilize them, and the honey extractor, are the great -requisites of the producer of extracted honey. As fast as the bees -can cover and utilize them, these combs are added to the colonies, -one or two at a time from the opening of the season until the brood -apartment is full. As soon as more combs than the lower story will -hold are needed a second story filled with combs may be added, or but -two or three may be placed in it at one side with a division board -next to them. It is a good plan to sort over the combs of the brood -apartment, removing several of the less regular ones, or if all are -alike as regards regularity and in having worker cells only, but some -contain considerable honey and little brood, these are to be removed -and the empty space filled in with good worker combs. The removed -combs should be placed in the top story, which, if the weather and -the strength of the colony permit, is to be filled out with combs at -once. The strongest colonies will, of course, begin work first, and -can often spare partly filled combs to be placed in the top stories -of less populous colonies, thus encouraging the latter to begin work -in the upper stories. It is safe to say that in general more than -twice the yield of honey can be obtained from colonies supplied during -the whole honey flow, with all the completed combs they are able to -utilize, than can be expected from colonies that have to build all of -the combs for their surplus while storing. Completed combs not being -available, comb foundation in full sheets should be employed. During -the early part of the harvest this will be drawn out very quickly and -aid greatly in securing the honey which otherwise might be lost for -want of store combs as fast as might be needed. During a fair yield the -foundation will pay for itself the first season in the extra amount -of honey, and the combs, properly cared for, can be used year after -year--indefinitely, in fact--for extracting. The best of them should be -picked out constantly to replace less desirable ones that may be found -in the brood apartment, or to give to new swarms destined to produce -extracted honey. Some prefer for the surplus cases frames half the -depth of ordinary brood frames, finding them easier to manipulate. - -Whenever the combs of a top story are nearly filled, and before they -are completely sealed, it may be lifted up and another story, filled -with empty combs, placed between it and the brood apartment, and this -may be continued until the end of the honey flow, and all may be left -on the hive during the warm weather. It would, of course, be easier -to add the new stories successively at the top--that is, above the -partially filled surplus stories--and this plan works well as long as -the honey flow is abundant, but when put on just as the yield slackens, -even if but little, or when the weather is cool, the bees may refuse to -begin work in the new super unless it is placed between the partially -filled ones and the brood apartment. Leaving the filled top stories -on the hives for some time permits the more complete evaporation of -the moisture contained in the newly gathered honey, and by marking -the stories the honey from a certain source, when the yield has been -sufficient to get the combs filled and sealed, can be extracted by -itself. If the supply of combs is insufficient to hold the whole -amount gathered, it must then be extracted as fast as sealed, lest the -bees, lacking ready cells in which to deposit their surplus as fast -as gathered, hang idly about, or if space for new combs exists, only -slowly provide these, losing meanwhile much of the harvest. When sealed -the honey will generally be found fairly ripened, though it may improve -by being stored in open buckets or cans in a dry, warm room. - -[Illustration: Fig. 55.--Uncapping and extracting honey. (Original.)] - -The process of extracting is extremely simple, and a little practice -will enable an observing person to do it well (fig. 55). As indicated -above, some judgment is required in the selection of combs, regard -being had to the future condition of the colony. The filled comb-, as -fast as removed, are placed in a light case the size of a hive, or a -tin can made specially for the purpose, covered closely to prevent the -access of robbers, and taken to the extracting room, which should be -bee-proof. It is not always necessary to use such care in excluding all -bees, but the novice should practice it until he learns to distinguish -by the actions of the bees when such precautions may be dispensed -with. Whenever possible the stories containing surplus honey should -be lifted up and honey boards containing bee escapes slipped between -them and the brood apartment early in the morning of the day before -the extracting is to be done, in case the bees are still gathering, -otherwise the night before will do. The combs will then be free from -bees, or nearly so, when the operator wishes to remove them, and will -contain no honey gathered within twenty-four hours, the last day's -gathering having also been ripened considerably during the night -preceding the insertion of the escapes. When the queen has not been -restricted in her laying to the lower story by means of excluders, -this plan of freeing the combs of bees will fail in case the escapes -are placed on lower stories above which the brood and the queen may -be. The only way then will be to remove the combs one by one, after -smoking the bees to quiet them, and shake or brush off the latter into -the top story. Italians can not be shaken off unless their bodies are -pretty well filled with honey, but they may be safely brushed off after -smoking. For this a single large feather from the left wing of a turkey -is best. Other races can be shaken off after smoking. Eastern bees -should never be brushed from the combs when extracting, nor at any time -unless they are gorged with honey. They can all be shaken off easily, -and will need less smoke than the European races. - -When much extracting is to be done, top stories of hives or light -cases with cloth covers, weighted with a rod sewed into the loose -edge, may be used to hold the full combs as fast as taken from the -hives, and these, placed on a wheelbarrow, cart, or car, can be easily -transported to the extracting room. The uncapping knife, kept in hot -water when not in use, is passed rapidly under the capping of the -sealed combs, the point of it being used to reach depressed surfaces. -The loosened cappings drop into a sieve resting over a pan, or into -the upper part of a can specially designed to receive cappings. The -small amount of honey removed with the cappings drains through the -strainer and is drawn off below. The uncapped combs are placed in -the extractor at once. As the cells generally slant upward more or -less, especially those built for store cells outside the brood nest, -the throwing out of the honey is facilitated by placing each comb in -such a manner as to bring the top bar at the right hand, the basket -being revolved in the most natural way--that is, from right to left. -A little practice will enable the operator to note the speed required -in order to free the combs entirely from honey, which will depend, of -course, upon the consistency of the honey and the length of time combs -are revolved. While it is, in general, best to avoid extracting from -combs containing brood, cases will arise where it is necessary. If the -brood is sealed, there will, be less liability of injuring it than -when open cells containing larvæ are placed in the extractor; but a -moderate degree of speed continued somewhat longer will usually bring -the honey out without disturbance to the immature bees. Three persons -can work together very advantageously--one to remove the surplus cases -or combs from the hives, free them of their bees, and bring them into -the extracting room, where two assistants uncap and extract the honey. -If the bees are not gathering honey and are therefore prone to rob, -the person who removes the combs from the hives should be assisted by -an active boy who can cover hives or cases quickly or lift the latter -when necessary. The combs when emptied may be returned at once to the -hives if the bees are still engaged in storing. The slight damage which -they have sustained under the uncapping knife or in the extractor will -soon be repaired; indeed, with a little experience the uncappers will -be able to smooth and trim irregular combs in such a way as to render -them straighter after they have been through the extractor. It is -particularly desirable, in order to straighten the combs of transferred -colonies and get them in good working trim, that they be run for -extracted honey during the first year or two; moreover, a good yield of -extracted honey is more likely to be obtained from recently transferred -colonies than comb honey, especially if the manipulators are beginners -in the work. - -When the extracting is done after the close of the gathering period, -the greatest care should be taken not to start robbing. The surplus -combs should be returned to the hives just before nightfall, and not -even a taste of sweets of any kind should be left exposed. The object -in returning the combs is to have them cleaned up, and also to have -them under the protection of the bees until cool weather puts a stop -to the destructive work of wax-moth larvæ. When sharp frosts occur, -the surplus combs may be removed from the hives and placed in a dry, -cold room. An open loft (if not infested with mice or if the combs are -protected from the latter) is a good place, and it is much better to -place the combs so they do not touch each other. - - - COMB HONEY. - -The general directions given in the preceding chapter on spring -manipulation to secure populous colonies apply as well to those -designed for comb honey as to those which are to produce extracted -honey. If any difference is to be observed it is even more important -that the former be brought to the opening of the honey flow with the -brood combs compactly filled with developing bees to the exclusion -of honey, than that the latter should be so; and colonies not strong -enough to enter sections readily, if at all, may still be utilized, and -often do fairly well in the production of extracted honey. - -The old-fashioned surplus boxes holding 25 to 30 pounds are regarded -quite as relics of the past by those who use frame hives and produce -comb honey in fine marketable shape, and even if for home consumption -the pound (fig. 50) and 12-pound sections are always preferred, since -they are so cheap, permit the use of comb foundation, and are in neat -shape and of convenient size for the table. - -[Illustration: Fig. 56.--One-piece V-grooved section. (From Gleanings.)] - -Section holders (fig. 57) with sections folded and in place, each -section supplied with thin foundation, preferably full sheets, but at -least guides, should be in readiness before the opening of the harvest. -Forty to fifty sections for each hive should be prepared. One-piece -sections, if bought in the flat, should be placed in the cellar for two -or three days before folding. If the section back of the V-joints is -then moistened slightly they can be set up rapidly without breakage. -Sections made of white poplar are by far the neatest looking and do -not cost much if any more than basswood, so that bee keepers might -show their disapproval of the wholesale destruction of our basswood or -linden timber by resolutely refusing to buy sections made of that wood. -The four-piece sections, if well made, are preferable to the one-piece. -The latter do not keep their shape as firmly as the four-piece -sections, which are made with lock joints at all the corners. - -[Illustration: Fig. 57.--Super with sections and section holders in -place: A, super; D, separator; E, sections; F, follower; G, wedge. -(From Gleanings.)] - -The foundation for sections should be the quality known as "thin -surplus" or, preferably, if full sheets be used, "extra-thin surplus." -These grades are made of selected, light-colored wax, and 1 pound -furnishes full sheets for 100 to 125 standard sections (4¼ by 4¼ -inches). The sheets should be cut no larger than 3¾ inches square. -These will take up about three-sixteenths of an inch in fastening, -which will leave nearly one-half inch space between the lower edge and -the bottom piece of the section and allow the foundation to stretch -while being drawn out. This is necessary, otherwise the partially -completed comb will bulge as soon as it reaches the bottom of the -section. In cutting foundation either for sections or frames one -edge--the one to be attached--should be perfectly straight. To secure -this not more than six to ten sheets (depending on their thickness) -should be laid in one pile, and a sharp, thin-bladed knife, as well -as a straight rule, used. Two or three piles may be laid side by -side and with a rule long enough to reach across them all a dozen to -thirty sheets can be cut at a time. Dipping the knife in warm water -facilitates the work. - -The sheets are fastened in the section by the use of one of the -machines mentioned on page 52. They secure the wax to the wood by -pressure combined in some instances with heat. Fig. 40 shows one of -these. The simplest form consists merely of a sliding lever hinged to -a block. It is intended to be fastened by means of screws to a table -or bench, and is then ready for use when the lever is moistened with -honey, starch water, or soapsuds along the edge which is to touch the -wax sheets. The foundation is laid flat on the top piece of the section -in such a way that the straight edge passes the center line one-eighth -of an inch, and the whole is then slipped under the lever. The latter -is brought down with a sliding motion toward the operator and at the -same time the foundation is bent up at right angles to the top piece. -If the wax is slightly soft it will adhere firmly. A heated brick -placed before the pile of starters will keep the edges soft enough if -the work is done in a moderately warm room. - -Starters half to three-fourths inch in width are sometimes used at the -bottoms of sections to secure firm attachment of combs there. Bees -incline to gnaw these bottom starters away unless the top pieces of -foundation reach within one-half inch of them. Top starters an inch or -less in width may be used alone as comb guides when it is desirable to -avoid great outlay for foundation. - -The use of strips of tin or wood as separators (fig. 57, D) between the -sections insures straight combs with smooth surfaces, thus convenient -to handle and ship. - -The sections furnished with starters or full sheets of foundation are -slipped with separators into supers and piled away ready for use as -soon as the harvest opens. - - PUTTING ON SECTIONS. - -It is better not to put surplus honey receptacles on the hive until the -honey flow actually begins, as, of course, no work will be done in them -until then. Moreover, all the heat is needed in the brood apartment -during the early part of the season. The bees might also become -discouraged by the large amount of empty space and might not begin work -in it at all before swarming. The sections would also be soiled by the -bees crawling over them and daubing them with propolis. - -The bee keeper who is familiar with the honey-producing flora of his -locality will note the development of the flower buds of any plant -from which he expects a crop and will be able to judge accurately by -a glance at the colony when sections are needed. The beginner will do -well to consult carefully the list of honey-producing plants given in -the chapter on "Bee pasturage," and also endeavor by inquiry in his -neighborhood to ascertain what other sources, if any, are within the -reach of his bees. The usual time of blooming of all principal honey -plants should be noted, and the management to secure populous colonies -having been in accordance with the directions given in Chapter VII on -"Spring manipulation," the opening of the first blossoms of any one of -the important honey yielders should be the signal for placing supers -with sections on all hives intended for comb honey production. Should -these indications not be sufficient, there is still another which -no one could mistake. It is to examine the tops of the brood combs -from time to time and note when the store cells between the brood and -the top bar are being made deeper by added wax. The fresh, whitened -appearance which such combs present when viewed from above readily -distinguishes them from the yellow or dark combs wholly built during -previous seasons. The lower edges of partially completed combs will -also show additions at the same time. - -[Illustration: Fig. 58.--Dadant-Quinby form of Langstroth hive, -elevated from bottom board and slid back for ventilation in summer. -(Redrawn from Langstroth.)] - -It having been determined that the time to put on sections has arrived, -the quilt used over the frames is removed and the super, with section -holders, sections, and separators in place, is set over the frames. A -clean enameled or carriage-cloth quilt should be laid over the tops -of the sections, if these are open above, and this weighted down -with a board which has been clamped to prevent warping. At this time -the flight hole should be full width and the hive protected from the -direct rays of the sun during the hotter portions of the day. With -small, single-walled hives, such as hold eight combs or less, it may be -necessary, if the hives are crowded with bees, to raise them slightly -from the bottom board or slide them back, so as to give small openings -at the rear. Mr. Simmins's plan of placing below the brood nest a hive -chamber with starters only in the frames permits the bees to avoid -clustering too compactly and yet to keep up their work inside during -extremely hot weather. Ventilation and shading of hives assist greatly -toward the prevention of swarming, and having bred the colony up until -it is sufficiently strong to take advantage of the harvest, and having -reached the opening of that harvest, it is desirable by all means to -keep the forces together as long as the flow lasts. (Fig. 58.) - -[Illustration: Fig. 59.--Langstroth hive with combined surplus case and -shipping crate. (Original.)] - -The supers should be removed as fast as fairly filled. The bees are -slow in sealing over the outside sections; therefore it is better not -to lose time waiting for these to be completely capped, but replace -the whole with a new set. Some prefer to lift up the super when about -three-fourths completed and place the empty one below--that is, between -it and the brood chamber. The objection to this plan is that by the -time the sections placed above have been fully completed they will have -more or less propolis daubed on them and the combs will be considerably -soiled by the bees running over them. A better plan to secure the -completion of the outside sections is, after removing a number of -supers, to select enough incomplete Sections to fill one super, Which -is then placed on a strong colony for completion, or the partly filled -sections may be used in the middle of new supers as bait sections to -induce the bees to cluster and begin work in them at once. - -[Illustration: Fig. 60.--Honey shipping-cases. (From Gleanings.)] - -Notwithstanding such precautions for the prevention of swarming -as shading the hives, ventilation, having only young queens, and -the removal of the outside combs, substituting for them frames of -foundations or starters near the center of the brood nest, swarms -will sometimes issue, especially from hives devoted to comb-honey -production. The best plan in this case is to hive the swarm in a clean -new hive whose frames have been filled with starters and place this on -the stand of the parent colony, moving the latter to a new position -or more feet away. The swarm in its new quarters will then be joined -by the rest of the field workers from the parent hive, and the whole -tone, reunited and having for some days no brood to care for, will -constitute a strong colony for storing honey. The super of partly -finished sections should be lifted, bees and all, from the parent hive -and placed on the brood chamber of the new colony. - -The supers should be promptly removed at the close of the honey -harvest, honey boards with bee escapes in them being used to free -them from bees, as described under the head of "Extracting." If the -gathering season for the year has also ended, an examination of -the brood apartment should be made to determine whether feeding is -necessary, either to prolong brood rearing or for winter stores. - - - PRODUCTION OF WAX. - -The progressive apiarist of the present time does not look upon the -production of wax in so great a proportion compared with his honey -yield as did the old-time box-hive bee keeper. The latter obtained much -of his honey for the market by crushing the combs and straining it out, -leaving the crushed combs to be melted up for their wax. Before the -use of supers late swarms and many colonies quite heavy in honey were -smothered by the use of sulphur; the light ones because their honey -supply would not bring them through the winter, and the very heavy -ones because of the rich yield in honey. Frequent losses of bees in -wintering and through queenlessness gave more combs for melting, as -without frame hives; honey extractors, or comb-foundation machines, the -vacated combs were not often utilized again. The wax from the pressed -combs was all marketed, since there could be but little home use for it. - -The bee keeper of to-day, after having removed the honey from the -combs by centrifugal force, returns them, but slightly injured, to be -refilled by the bees, and at the end of the season these combs are -stored away for use in successive years, or he secures the surplus, -also apart from the brood, in neat sectional boxes, to be marketed as -stored--that is, without cutting. - -The wax must therefore come from the cappings of combs where extracted -honey is produced, from occasional broken comb, bits of drone comb -that are cut out to be replaced by worker comb, from unfinished and -travel-stained sections from which the honey has been extracted, or -from old brood combs that need to be replaced. Since the price per -pound of extracted honey is usually not less than one-third and that -of comb honey one-half the price of wax, and it has already been -indicated (p. 28) that some 12 to 15 pounds of honey may in general be -safely reckoned as necessary to produce 1 pound of comb, it can readily -be seen that it is much more profitable to turn the working force, -in so far as possible, to the production of honey rather than wax, -taking only as much wax as can be produced without lowering the yield -of honey; and what wax is taken is practically turned into honey the -following year, for it is made into comb foundation, which, judiciously -used, increases in turn the season's yield of honey. - -Wax being so much more valuable than honey, it behooves the bee keeper -to save even the smallest pieces of comb; but during warm weather they -must not be left long or they will serve as breeding places for the -wax moth, unless fumigated with burning sulphur or exposed to the fumes -of bisulphide of carbon two or three times each month until no more -eggs of the moth remain. - -The old way of rendering wax was to put the combs into a sack made of -some open stuff', weight this down in a kettle of water, and boil for -some time. The wax rose, and when cold was removed in a cake. This -process, besides being dauby, often yielded inferior wax--burned, -water-soaked, or filled with settlings. - -[Illustration: Fig. 61.--The Boardman solar wax extractor. (From -Gleanings.)] - -The most approved method of rendering wax is, for moderate-sized -apiaries at least, by means of the solar wax extractor (fig. 61), -already mentioned under the head of "Implements." Its management is -very simple. The machine is placed in the sunniest spot in or near the -apiary, and all of the wax cappings, after having been drained of honey -or worked over by the bees, as well as bits of comb, are thrown into -the receiver above the wire strainer, the glass is adjusted, and the -whole is turned so that the direct rays of the sun enter. More bits -of comb are added from time to time during the day. The melted wax -trickles through the strainer and collects in a tin placed at the lower -edge of the tank or melter. The cake is removed each morning, it having -cooled and contracted during the night sufficiently to cause the mass -to cleave readily from the vessel. - -The solar wax extractor can be used during four or five months of the -year in the more northern States, and for a longer time in the South. -To render wax at other times steam heat is best. When available a jet -from a boiler may be connected with a barrel or vessel containing the -combs and a large amount rendered in a short time. In smaller apiaries -a steam extractor for use over a boiler on the stove may be employed -(fig. 30). The manner of using these extractors is simple. The cappings -and bits of comb to be rendered are placed in an inside basket made of -perforated metal. Upon placing this over a water boiler, into which it -tits closely, the steam rises through holes in the bottom of the upper -can and readily penetrates the mass. The melted wax runs out through a -spout at the lower edge of the upper can and is caught in a pan partly -filled with warm water. As fast as the mass in the perforated can -settles away more bits of comb are added. The dark residue remaining -is composed of cocoons, pollen, and accidental impurities. These -may, however, contain considerable wax which they have absorbed as it -melted. This waste may be avoided in a great measure if the combs are -broken up and soaked in rain water for twenty-four hours before melting. - -Cakes of wax, if designed for the comb-foundation manufacturer, will -be acceptable just as they come from the wax extractor, but if for the -general market they should all be remelted in order to purify them. -This must be done with care or the wax will be seriously injured. -Iron vessels will discolor it, and as well or spring water frequently -contains iron, the use of rain water, whenever it is to come in contact -with the melted wax, will be found more desirable. It is best to -melt the wax slowly, for if heated too rapidly the particles become -disaggregated and take up a certain quantity of water, the mass loses -its luster, and becomes pale and granular. In this condition its market -value is low. Remelting slowly, especially in a solar wax extractor, -will restore it. - -These difficulties in purifying wax may be avoided if it is melted in -a tin or copper vessel and in a water bath, that is, the melter is to -stand within a larger vessel containing sufficient water to surround -the former. As much wax as possible should be melted at one time, and -when convenient the inner can is left standing in the water, so that -the wax remains liquid some time, permitting the impurities to settle. -These may be shaved from the bottom of the cake and remelted if they -contain much wax. - - - - - CHAPTER IX. - - =REARING AND INTRODUCING QUEENS.= - - -So much of the bee keeper's success depends upon the strength of -his colonies, and this in turn upon the character of the queens -heading these colonies, that he needs to be well informed as to what -constitutes a really good queen and how to produce such, and, having -this knowledge, it will be profitable to be constantly on the alert to -see that all colonies are supplied with the best queens procurable. -With a queen from a poor strain of bees, or an unprolific one from a -good strain, a colony, even in a season of abundant honey secretion, -will give little or no return, while the seasons are not frequent -during which one given a fair start and having a large, prolific queen -of an active honey-producing strain can not collect a fair surplus -beyond its own needs. Admitting this, it will be plain to all that -queen bees differ proportionately in value as much as horses or cattle, -and the keeper of bees who does not know how to select and produce the -best can not be called a bee-master. - -When bees swarm they generally leave a number of sealed queen cells -in the parent colony. With blacks and Italians there are usually 6 to -10; rarely more than a dozen. Carniolans generally construct about -two dozen, but under favorable conditions can be induced to build 75 -to 100 good cells at a time. Fig. 62 represents a comb from a hive of -Carniolans which had built at one time 70 queen cells. Cyprians usually -make 30 or 40 queen cells, but may greatly exceed this number under the -best conditions, while Syrians nearly always exceed it, sometimes even -building as many as 200; and the writer has seen 350 cells constructed -at one time by a single colony of bees in Tunis. It might be thought -that where so many were constructed only a small proportion of them -would produce good queens. Such is not the case, however; for in -general a much larger proportion of the cells formed by these eastern -races produce well developed queens. But in all hives some queen cells -are undersized. This may be because they are located near the bottom -or sides, where space for full development is lacking, but in many -instances it arises from the fact that they are formed last, and larvæ -that are really too old to make full sized, perfect queens have to -be used. These smaller cells are usually smooth on the outside and -show thin walls. In selecting cells only the large, slightly tapering -ones, an inch or more in length and straight, should be saved. Yet -good queens may frequently be obtained from crooked cells, in case the -latter are large and extend well into the midrib of the comb. - -[Illustration: Fig. 62.--Comb showing worker brood and queen cells. -(Original--from photograph.)] - -When a laying queen is removed from a colony during the working season, -eggs and larvæ of all ages are left behind. As indicated in Chapter -II, any egg which has been fertilized may be made to develop into a -queen. So also larva? from such eggs may, up to the third day, be -taken to rear from without danger of producing inferior queens. Cells -in which to produce queens will be started over some of these larvæ -on the edges of the combs, or, by tearing down partitions and thus -enlarging the lower portion of the cell, a beginning is obtained for -a queen cell. Fig. 63 shows such queen cells constructed over eggs -or larvæ originally designed to produce workers. They are known as -emergency cells. The young larva is at once liberally supplied with -a secretion, which is probably a production of the glands of the -head, and which analyses have shown to be rich in nitrogen and fatty -elements, being similar to that given at first to the worker larva. -This is continued throughout the whole feeding period, while, as Dr. -Von Planta has shown, in the case of the workers and drones, after the -third day the proportion of the constituents of the larval food is so -changed that they receive much less albumen and fat and more sugar. -It is chiefly the influence of this food which causes the larva that -would have developed as a worker to become a queen. The latter has -somewhat changed instincts,, and its reproductive system is developed, -instead of abortive as in the case of the worker. The size of the cell, -and, to a less extent perhaps, its position, no doubt influence this -development, but the food seems to be the main factor, for small cells -built horizontally, if their larvæ are supplied with the food designed -for royal larvæ, will be found to contain queens, and frequently these -queens, even though small, are quite prolific, and show in all respects -the instincts of a queen. - -[Illustration: Fig. 63.--Queen cells and worker brood in various -stages. (Original.)] - -It is believed by most queen raisers that in order to secure the best -development of the young queens a colony should be allowed to build but -a few cells at a time. That their belief is not well founded is shown -by the facts just cited concerning the large numbers of well-developed -queen cells which produce also perfect and prolific queens. It lies -within the skill of the bee-master to establish conditions favoring -the production of food for the queen larvæ--the so called "royal -jelly"--and this having been brought about, there need be no hesitancy -in permitting the construction of hundreds of queen cells in one colony -if such numbers are needed. - -It was formerly the plan, after removing the queen from a colony -in order to secure queen cells, to trim the lower edges of the -combs containing eggs or very young larvæ, or to cut out strips of -comb about an inch wide just below worker cells containing eggs or -just-hatched larvæ. This practice gave the bees space in which to -build perfect full-sized cells, but it had certain disadvantages. Good -worker combs were mutilated, often quite ruined, in order to secure -the construction of the cells and also in cutting out the latter. -Cells so formed are often in groups so close together that they can -not be separated without injury to numbers of them, necessitating, if -desirable to save all, a close watch, or at least frequent examination, -for hours or even days, since all the queens are not likely to emerge -at the same time. - -To remedy this Mr. O. H. Townsend, of Michigan, devised a plan which -is described in Gleanings in Bee Culture for July, 1880 (Vol. VIII, p. -322). It consists in cutting combs whose cells contain eggs or freshly -hatched larvæ into narrow strips and pinning or sticking these on -the sides of brood combs in such a manner that the cells containing -the eggs or larvæ from which queens are desired shall open downward. -Mr. Townsend removed the larvæ from some of the cells, believing -that he secured better developed queens by limiting the number, and -also because he could then cut them out more easily for insertion in -separate hives. In the succeeding number of Gleanings (August, 1880), -Mr. J. M. Brooks, of Indiana, illustrated a plan for securing even -greater regularity. This consists in shaving off the cells on one side -down nearly to the midrib of each strip of worker comb containing the -eggs or larvæ selected to rear queens from, and then sticking these -strips on the undersides of horizontal bars nailed in ordinary comb -frames. Mr. Henry Alley, in his work on queen rearing, published in -1883, recommends sticking the prepared strips, shallow cells downward, -on the lower edges of combs which have been trimmed so as to round -downward. This leaves plenty of space for the full development of queen -cells, the eggs or larvæ in alternate cells having been removed as in -the plans previously mentioned. All conditions being favorable, many -cells conveniently located are thus secured, and if the exact age of -the eggs or just-hatched larvæ has been noted the time the young queens -will emerge may be known beforehand, so that preparation can be made -for them. Nuclei--small clusters of bees containing a quart to two -quarts--are to be placed in separate hives and given combs, emerging -brood, and a supply of food, and to each of these a mature cell is to -be given. The nuclei thus prepared may be confined to their hives with -wire cloth and placed in a cellar for two or three days, and when set -out, just at dusk (p. 117), the bees will adhere to their new location. -Full colonies, whose queens it is desired to replace, may also be made -queenless about two or three days beforehand, and when mature the cells -inserted one each in these. In cutting out the cell a small piece of -comb, triangular shaped, 1½ to 2 inches long and about 1½ inches broad -at the top, is to be left attached to it whenever practicable, since -it will then be easy to insert it in one of the combs of the queenless -colony or nucleus, by cutting out a corresponding triangular piece. -Fig. 54 shows a queen cell inserted in a brood comb. It is safest not -to cut the cells out until they are within twenty-four to forty-eight -hours of their full maturity. In case a nucleus or colony has not been -queenless long enough to make it ready to accept a queen cell, the -latter may be placed in a cell protector made of wire cloth or of a -spiral coil of wire and then inserted between the central combs of the -hive. The lower end only of the protector is open, so that the upper -portion of the cell--the part easily bitten open by the workers--is -wholly covered. - -Queen nurseries on the general plan devised many years ago by Dr. -Jewell Davis, of Illinois, are used to hold surplus maturing cells and -the young queens, after emerging, for which colonies or nuclei are not -ready at once. These nurseries consist of compartments about 1½ inches -square, made of wood and wire cloth, and so arranged that they may be -suspended in the center of a colony of bees, a frame being filled with -them for this purpose. Each compartment contains a bit of soft candy to -sustain the life of the queen in case the bees fail to feed her. Spiral -coils of wire somewhat longer than those used as queen-cell protectors -have been arranged with a metal cup for food, so that, in principle, -they are the same as the compartments of the Davis queen nurseries and -are used for the same purpose. - -The young queens will usually mate when from five to seven days old, -flying from the hive for this purpose. If any undesirable drones are -in the apiary they may be restrained from flying by means of excluder -zinc over the hive entrances, permitting only workers to pass in and -out. In a day or two after mating the queen generally commences to -deposit eggs, and is then ready for use in the apiary or to be sent -away as an "untested queen." To enable her to rank as a "tested queen" -it will be necessary to keep her three weeks or a little longer in -order to see her worker progeny and ascertain by their markings that -the queen has mated with a drone of her own race. As both tested and -untested queens are usually raised from the same mothers--the best in -the given apiary--either may be obtained for honey production; but for -use as breeders only tested queens which have been approved in every -way should be purchased, unless, indeed, the purchaser prefers to buy -several untested queens, which can usually be obtained for the price -of one approved and selected breeder, and do his own testing, trusting -that among them one or more may prove valuable as a breeding queen. -"Warranted queens" are untested queens sent out with a guaranty that -they have mated purely. If few or no drones of another race are in the -vicinity of a breeder, he is tolerably safe in doing this. The proper -plan is for the breeder to keep a record of the brood of all such -queens and replace such as show that they have mismated. - -Exact records of the ages of all queens should be kept, and notes on -the qualities of their progeny are desirable, while in some instances -particulars as to pedigrees are valuable. - -[Illustration: Fig. 64.--The Benton cage for transporting a queen and -attendants by mail. (Original.)] - -[Illustration: Fig. 65.--Caging a queen for mailing. (Original--from -photograph.)] - - - MAILING QUEENS. - -Queens are now transported nearly always by mail, and sent to all parts -of the United States, and even to distant foreign countries, the cage -used almost exclusively being the one shown in fig. 64 or some slightly -modified form of the same. No attempt was ever made to patent this -cage, and as the construction is obvious from the figure given here, -anyone who desires can make and use it. The food usually employed in -these cages by queen breeders is a soft candy recommended many years -ago as bee food by the Rev. Mr. Scholz, of Germany. The Scholz candy -is made by kneading fine sugar and honey together until a stiff dough -has been formed. Some think it an improvement to heat the honey before -adding the sugar. The Viallon shipping candy consists of four parts -of brown sugar and twelve of white sugar, with two tablespoonfuls of -honey and one of flour to each pound of the mixed sugars; these, with a -little water added, form a batter, which is boiled until it commences -to thicken, when it is poured into the food compartment of the mailing -cage. Mr. I. R. Good recommended for use in queen cages a mixture -of granulated sugar and extracted honey; hence this candy has since -been known as the Good candy. The bees fed on it leave loose granules -of sugar in the cage, and these becoming moist often daub the whole -interior in such a way as to cause the death of queen and workers. It -is therefore not adapted to long journeys. - -The food for the journey having been placed in the end opposite that -containing the ventilating holes, a bit of comb foundation is pressed -down over it to assist in retaining the moisture, the food compartment -having also previously been coated with wax for the same purpose. The -cover, with perhaps a bit of wire cloth between it and the bees to -give greater security, together with the address and a 1-cent stamp, -completes the arrangement for a queen and eight to twelve attendant -workers to take a journey of 3,000 miles. A special postal regulation -admits them to the mails at merchandise rates (I cent per ounce). For -transportation to distant countries of the Pacific a larger cage and -more care are necessary to success. A recent estimate by one of the -apiarian journals places the number of queens sold and thus transported -in the United States annually at 20,000. - - - INTRODUCING QUEENS. - -Most of the mailing cages are arranged so that when received the -removal of the wooden lid and also of a small cork at one end will -permit the bees to eat their way out when assisted by those of the hive -to which the queen is to be given. The cage is laid, with the wire -cloth down, on the frames of a colony that has previously been made -queenless. In twenty-four to forty-eight hours the queen will usually -have been liberated, but it is safer not to disturb the combs for four -or five days lest the bees, on the watch for intruders when their combs -are exposed, regard the new queen as such, and, crowding about her in a -dense ball, sting her instantly or smother her. - -Colonies having only young bees accept queens readily, so that when a -swarm has issued and the parent stock has been removed to a new stand -the time for queen introduction is propitious. During a great honey -flow queens are accepted without much question, if any at all. They may -at such times nearly always be safely run in just at dark by lifting -one corner of the cover or quilt of a queenless hive and driving the -bees back with smoke. The new queen, having been kept without food and -away from all other bees for a half hour previously, is then slipped -in and the hive left undisturbed for several days. This and similar -methods of direct introduction without cages, having been developed and -advocated by Mr. Samuel Simmins, of England, are known as the Simmins -methods of direct introduction of queens. - -In the fall and at all times when honey is not coming in freely, caging -the queen for a few hours or days is desirable. A cage which permits -the queen to remain directly on the comb itself is infinitely superior -to any other. Fig. 66 shows a pipe-cover cage as made by the author, -the size of which may be greater if circumstances require--that is, -when it seems advisable, with a queen of great value, to include under -the cage a number of cells containing emerging brood. Ordinarily the -size here shown will suffice. The queen is caged before a closed window -on a comb of honey with five or six recently emerged bees taken from -the hive to which she is to be introduced. The comb holding the caged -queen is to be placed in the center of the queenless colony, where the -bees will cluster on it, yet with the end of the cage pressed firmly -against the adjoining comb, so that the cage will remain in place even -though a heavy cluster should gather on it. On the following day, just -before dark, the queen should be released, provided that upon opening -the hive the workers are not packed densely about the cage trying to -sting her through it. In the latter case she should be left twenty-four -or even forty-eight hours longer, and in the autumn it is generally -advisable to keep her caged several days or even a whole week. If left -longer than one day all queen cells should be hunted out and destroyed -a few hours before releasing the queen. Feeding while the queen is -caged is a good plan if gathering is not going on briskly. Upon freeing -the queen, diluted honey drizzled down between the combs will serve to -put the bees in a good humor for the reception of the new mother bee. -The entrance of the hive should be contracted for a short time so that -but a few bees can pass in or out at a time. - -[Illustration: Fig. 66.--Benton queen-introducing cage. (Original.)] - -The conditions necessary to success in introducing queens are complied -with by the above plan, namely: The bees are queenless long enough -to have become fully aware of the fact, yet usually not long enough -to have started queen cells; the strange queen is caged a sufficient -length of time to acquire the peculiar odor of the hive to which she -is to be given; the bees are all at home when the queen is released, -and thus all become thoroughly gorged with food and are well disposed -toward the new queen. No robber-bees come about, and by morning all is -in order. - -As queens mate only once (p. 19), and workers and drones live but a few -weeks or at most a few months (p. 20), if an Italian, a Carniolan, or -other choice queen mated to a drone of her own race, be introduced to a -given colony the bees of this colony will soon be replaced by others of -the same race as the queen introduced. All of the colonies of an apiary -may thus be changed; or, from a single breeding queen the apiary may be -supplied with young queens pure in blood, and, since these (even though -mated to drones of another race) will produce drones of their own blood -the apiary will soon be stocked with males of the desired race. - - - - - CHAPTER X. - - =INCREASE OF COLONIES.= - - - NATURAL SWARMING. - -An abundant secretion of honey and general prosperity of the -colony--with combs crowded with bees and brood--are the immediate -conditions which incite a colony of bees to swarm. If a colony in -prosperous condition be found when the gathering season has fairly -opened, with eggs or larvæ in partly finished queen cells, a swarm -may be expected in a few days should the weather continue favorable. -The first one from a given hive usually issues within twenty-four to -forty-eight hours after the sealing of the first queen cell. In the -case of strong colonies this may occur in favored situations in the -North early in May, in the Middle States in April, and in the extreme -South in March. But most of the swarms will come, in each section, a -month later. When the flow of honey is prolonged the period during -which swarms may issue is also extended, and in case a second flow -occurs in midsummer, after an interruption, a second swarming period -may occur. - -The outward indications immediately preceding swarming are a partial -cessation of field work on the part of colonies that have been -industriously gathering and the clustering or loitering of the workers -about the entrances at times when they have usually been engaged in -collecting and when other colonies no more populous are at work. -Apparently many are awaiting the signal to migrate, while some seem -not to have caught the spirit, but continue their field work. Suddenly -great excitement seizes the workers that happen to be in the hive at -the time. They rush forth pellmell, accompanied by the old queen, and -after circling about for some minutes cluster on some neighboring tree -or shrub. - -It very rarely happens that a swarm fails to cluster before leaving, -but it may do so if it has swarmed before and returned to the hive -because the queen failed to accompany it. Spraying water on the leaders -or advance portion of the swarm from a force pump, firing a gun among -them, or throwing the reflection from a mirror on them will disconcert -the absconding swarm and nearly always cause the bees to settle, but -the remedy must be at hand and applied instantly. - -[Illustration: Fig. 67.--Hiving a swarm. (Original--from photograph.)] - -When a swarm has fairly settled it is best to hive it as soon as -possible, lest others coming out may join it, occasioning a loss of -queens, and sometimes of bees, or much trouble in separating them. -The operation of hiving may appear very formidable to the novice and -attended with great risks, but a little experience will dispel such -apprehensions. The bees before swarming usually fill their sacs with -honey and are quite peaceable, so that by the use of a little smoke -in hiving there is seldom any difficulty. But to be doubly sure the -novice should sprinkle sweetened water over the cluster, and at the -same time wear a veil to protect his face. Of course, the hive has -been ready for some time and has been standing in the shade so it will -not be heated. If the cluster should be on a small limb which can be -readily cut off, it can be laid down in front of the new hive, which -should have a full-width entrance or be raised up in front. The bees -will go trooping in, but if not fast enough gentle urging of the rear -guard with a feather will hasten matters. If the bees have clustered -on a branch which it is desirable to preserve, yet where the hive can -conveniently be placed directly under the cluster and close to it, the -swarm may be shaken into the hive at once (fig. 67); or the hive may -be located on the stand it is to occupy and the bees shaken into a -large basket or into a regular swarm catcher and poured in front of the -hive. If the cluster is on the body of the tree it will be necessary -to place the hive near and smoke or brush the bees into it. They will -go up more readily than down, and may often be dipped with a small tin -dipper or a wooden spoon and poured in front of the hive. Whatever plan -be pursued, expedition is advisable, and it is best before leaving -them to see that nearly all of the bees are inside of the hive: at -least no clusters, however small, should be left on the tree, as the -queen might be among those left behind, in which case the swarm would -desert the new hive and return to the tree or go wherever the queen had -settled, or, failing to find her, would return to the hive whence they -had issued, unless meanwhile some other swarm should issue, which they -would be likely to join. A few bees flying about or crawling excitedly -over the spot from which the main part of the swarm has been removed -need not be heeded. They will find their way back to the stand from -which they came. As soon as the swarm is fairly within the new hive the -latter should be carried to its permanent stand, and well shaded and -ventilated. It is better policy, however, to place the hive containing -the first swarm on the stand of the parent colony at once, removing the -latter to a new location. The new swarm, having the old queen, with -nearly all of the flight bees, will be in prime condition for storing -honey, so that supers may be placed on it as soon as it has made a fair -start in its new home--that is, on the second or third day after the -swarm was hived. If there are uncompleted supers on the parent colony -which has been removed, they should be lifted over to the new hive on -the second or third day, as the parent colony, having parted with so -many of its workers, will not be able to store at once. But the new -swarm, placed in a clean hive with starters only, will be in shape to -store in sections at once and produce the whitest combs and honey which -the source of the yield will permit. - - CLIPPING QUEENS. - -To prevent swarms from absconding and to facilitate the work of hiving -them, as well as to keep track more easily of the ages of queens, many -persons prefer to clip the wings of their queens as soon as mated. The -first season one of the large or primary wings is clipped half away; -at the opening of the second season the Other large wing, and the -third season an additional clip is taken from one of the large wings, -and with it a portion of one of the secondary or smaller wings. With -finely pointed scissors this operation can be performed while the queen -is loose on the combs, but there is much danger of clipping one or more -of her legs also. If she be caught by her wings with the thumb and -first finger of the right hand, and then grasped by the thorax with -the thumb and first two fingers of the left hand, her wings can easily -be reached with the scissors. It will not do to grasp the queen by the -abdomen? and of course there should be but little pressure exerted on -the thorax. There are some objections against clipping. The queens, -being unable to fly, are liable to get lost in the grass or stray into -the wrong hives when they swarm during the absence of the attendant. -They certainly look unsightly when thus maimed, and occasionally the -bees are more disposed to replace such queens than unmutilated ones. It -is of course preferable to lose one of these occasionally rather than -the whole swarm. When the queen is clipped the operation of hiving is -very easy if the bee keeper is on hand to catch the queen as she falls -from the entrance to the ground. When the swarm is fairly out and while -the bees are still circling in the air an empty hive should be set in -place of the one from which the swarm has issued. The bees, missing -their queen, will soon begin to return to their old location and will -shortly crowd the entrance of the new hive. When about one-fourth have -entered the queen may be allowed to run in, and the treatment will then -not be different from that given any newly hived swarm. - - AUTOMATIC HIVERS. - -Thus far the automatic hivers have been only partially successful, so -that the experimental stage has not yet been passed; but the practical -perfection of such a device is looked forward to with considerable -confidence. - - PREVENTION OF AFTER-SWARMING. - -The parent colony, removed from its old hive as soon as the first -swarm issues, will rarely cast a second swarm, especially if a young -queen is at hand to be introduced within a day or two. The surplus -queen cells are likely to be destroyed by this young queen, with the -assistance of the workers. A laying queen will be readily accepted -by a colony which by swarming and removal has lost its old bees, -and ten to fifteen days will be gained in the production of brood. -Unless increase is especially desired it is best to limit it in this -way to first swarms. If still less increase is wanted, methods which -will be referred to later may be followed to prevent swarming as far -as possible, and such chance swarms as do issue may be returned to -the parent hive. If the queens are two or more years old, they may -in most instances be profitably destroyed at this time and young -ones introduced from nuclei; but whether introducing young queens or -returning the swarm with its old queen, great care must be taken to -destroy every queen cell, otherwise the introduced queen may be killed -or the swarm may again issue. If, however, no young queen is at hand -and it is desirable to replace the old queen, all cells but one may be -destroyed, but this must on no account be jarred or dented. The danger -of overlooking a cell where the hive is crowded with bees makes this -method somewhat uncertain: moreover, when the bees have once got the -"swarming fever" they may swarm again without preparation in the way of -queen cells. It is also very troublesome to remove supers to get at the -brood combs. These difficulties will induce many who may wish to limit -the number of their colonies to prefer hiving the swarms on starters -of foundation on the old stands and giving them the supers, while the -parent colonies are placed near them with entrances turned away for -a few days. The flight bees return, of course, to the old stand. The -parent colony should be turned a little each day so as to bring it -in five or six days side by side with the hive containing the swarm, -which is on the old stand, and make its front face in the same way. By -lifting it a day or so later, while the young bees are flying, over to -the opposite side of the old stand and turning its entrance away from -that of the hive on this stand, the bees that are flying, as well as -those that have marked their last location, will join the swarm: and if -the same operation be repeated at the end of another week most of the -remaining bees will find their way within a day or two into the hive on -the old stand. About this time--that is, some fifteen or sixteen days -after the issuance of the first swarm--the young queen will commence -laying and may be put in place of the old one which issued with the -swarm. If honey is still coming in, the young queen, with accompanying -bees, may usually be safely introduced at this time by shaking them in -front of the hive from which the queen has been removed, both lots of -bees having been smoked beforehand so as to get them to fill themselves -with honey: or the two combs between which the queen is found may be -lifted, with adhering bees, and placed in the center of the colony to -which the queen is to be given. Before doing this it is best to smoke -the latter pretty thoroughly, and if two of the brood combs from this -hive have been removed a few hours before and placed, after their -bees have been shaken off, in the colony to be united, and all other -combs taken away from the latter, the bees, with their queen, will -be clustered on these brood combs, and they may be lifted up without -disturbance and placed in the middle of the other hive, whose supers -and cover are to be put in place at once and the bees left to quiet -down and resume storing. Under these circumstances the loss of a queen -will be very rare: nevertheless, in the case of an exceptionally -valuable one, cages and other methods are advisable. (See Chapter IX.) - - - ARTIFICIAL INCREASE. - -The time lost in watching for swarms and hiving them, the occasional -losses of swarms, and the vexations attendant upon their issuance, such -as their clustering in tall trees, uniting and killing queens, and the -delay in their swarming when the time has come for it, have led bee -keepers to devise methods which would save their time and avoid as far -as possible the uncertainties connected with this feature of their -work. Where increase is desired the question is one of considerable -importance. In the more northern States, where the main honey yield -comes on suddenly and is abundant for a short period only, and swarming -is confined mainly to a period of four to six weeks, or even to three -weeks if the colonies are of pretty uniform strength, this question -has less weight; but farther south, where the yield is more prolonged -and the period during which swarms are liable to issue is sometimes -extended over three or four months, it is of considerable moment, and -the bee master who intends to multiply the number of his colonies will -do well to follow some good system of control. - - DIVIDING. - -The simplest method of artificial increase is to lift from the populous -colony a portion of the combs, with adhering bees, and place them in -another hive near the parent colony, taking care that the part without -any queen should have a majority of the bees and should be on the old -stand. If a mature queen cell is at hand to give to this part a day or -two after the division, the new colony will soon have a laying queen, -should all go well. But this last point will need looking after ten -days or so later. Should a laying queen be at hand to supply to the -queenless portion of the divided colony, the queen found in the hive at -the time of the division had better be left in that part of the colony -which remains on the original stand, since the old bees will of course -return to that spot and will not as readily receive a strange queen -as will the removed portion of the colony which has parted with its -flight bees. By introducing a laying queen when the division is made -the deposition of eggs will be begun a week earlier than if a cell only -should be given. At this season of the year this will make a difference -of a good many thousands of workers, and will also prevent the bees -from clogging the brood combs with honey, as they would if left without -a laying queen for a week or more. The supers are to be placed on this -part on the old stand, which, having most of the flight bees, will be -far better able to store surplus than the other portion. The plan of -making the division nearly equal is quite objectionable in case it is -followed closely by the main honey flow of the season, for it places -neither colony in the best condition for immediate storing. But if only -a moderate yet continuous honey flow, followed by a larger yield, is to -be anticipated, both parts will have time to become populous, and the -equal division, if done in time--that is, before the "swarming fever" -has taken hold of the colony--will be likely to prevent swarming. - - DRIVING OR BRUSHING. - -In case, however, some immediate work is expected of either part of -the divided colony, it is preferable to make the division in such a -way as to secure about all of the flight bees as well as most of the -young bees, which will soon become flight bees, in the hive on the old -stand. This may be done by shaking or brushing nearly all of the bees -from the combs of the hive to be divided, or, if the latter is a box -hive, the swarm may be driven into an empty box, as described under -"Transferring," in Chapter VII, and then hived as an ordinary swarm, -the parent colony receiving also the same treatment as described under -"Natural swarming." - - THE NUCLEUS SYSTEM. - -Perhaps the safest plan, considering that the yield, even when one is -acquainted with the flora, can not be foretold, is to follow the plan -of making nuclei, and, as soon as these have laying queens, building -them up gradually to full colonies by adding frames of brood, frames -filled with worker comb, or with comb foundation, or merely starters, -as may seem best. This system, besides being safe, has certain other -advantages. It leaves the parent hives strong for the working season, -yet tends to discourage swarming, because whenever colonies become -overcrowded, and before they have contracted the swarming fever, one or -more brood combs are removed and the colony is thus induced to continue -work in the brood chamber to fill the empty space, while, of course, -they are kept supplied with plenty of storage room above for surplus -honey. Furthermore, it is easy to exchange the young queen of the -nucleus, as soon as she commences laying, with the queen of the full -colony. If the nucleus has been started early, the full colony will -thus secure a queen of the current season's raising sufficiently early -to reduce greatly the probability of its wanting to swarm that year, -even though permitted to get very strong, as it is almost certain to do -under such circumstances. These nuclei build straight combs and may be -relied on to build, even without foundation, worker comb only. - -On the whole, a rational method of artificial increase is preferable to -natural swarming; but experience and judgment in carrying it out are -required to make it advantageous. It should be cautiously undertaken by -the beginner, and the main reliance placed upon natural swarming until -the bee keeper is familiar with the bees' way. - - - PREVENTION OF SWARMING. - -The most commonly practiced and easily applied preventive measure is -that of giving abundant room for storage of honey. This to be effective -should be given early in the season, before the bees get fairly into -the swarming notion, and the honey should be removed frequently, -unless additional empty combs can be given in the case of colonies -managed for extracted honey, while those storing in sections should be -given additional supers before those already on are completed. With -colonies run for comb honey it is not so easy to keep down swarming as -in those run for extracted honey and kept supplied with empty comb. -Free ventilation and shading of the hives as soon as warm days come -will also tend toward prevention. Opening the hives once or twice -weekly and destroying all queen cells that have been commenced will -check swarming for a time in many instances, and is a plan which -seems very thorough and the most plausible of any to beginners. But -sometimes swarms issue without waiting to form cells; it is also very -difficult to find all cells without shaking the bees from each comb in -succession, an operation which, besides consuming much time, is very -laborious when supers have to be removed, and greatly disturbs the -labors of the bees. If but one cell is overlooked the colony will still -swarm. The plan therefore leaves at best much to be desired, and is in -general not worth the effort it costs and can not be depended on. - - DEQUEENING. - -The removal of a queen at the opening of the swarming season -interferes, of course, with the plans of the bees, and they will then -delay swarming until they get a young queen. Then if the bee keeper -destroys all queen cells before the tenth day, swarming will again be -checked. But to prevent swarming by keeping colonies queenless longer -than a few days at most is to attain a certain desired result at a -disproportionate cost, for the bees will not store diligently when -first made queenless, and the whole yield of honey, especially if the -flow is extended over some time or other yields come later in the -season, is likely, or even nearly sure, to be less from such colonies, -while the interruption to brood rearing may decimate the colony and -prove very disastrous to it. The plan is therefore not to be commended. - - REQUEENING. - -Quite the opposite of this, and more efficacious in the prevention -of swarming, is the practice of replacing the old queen early in -the season with a young one of the same season's raising, produced, -perhaps, in the South before it is possible to rear queens in the -North. Such queens are not likely to swarm during the first season, -and as they are vigorous layers the hive will be well populated at -all times and thus ready for any harvest. This is important inasmuch -as a flow of honey may come unexpectedly from some plant ordinarily -not counted upon, and also since the conditions essential to the -development of the various honey-yielding plants differ greatly, their -time and succession of honey yield will also differ with the season, -the same as the quantity may vary. Young queens are also safest to -head the colonies for the winter. The plan is conducive to the highest -prosperity of the colonies and is consistent with the securing of the -largest average yield of honey, since besides giving them vigorous -layers it generally keeps the population together in powerful colonies. -It is therefore to be commended on all accounts as being in line with -the most progressive management, without at the same time interfering -with the application of other preventive measures. - -[Illustration: Fig. 68.--The Simmins non-swarming system--single-story -hive with supers: _bc_, brood chamber; _sc_, super; _st_, starters of -foundation; _c_, entrance. (Redrawn from A Modern Bee-Farm.)] - -[Illustration: Fig. 69.--The Simmins non-swarming system--double-story -hive with supers; _bc_, brood chamber; _sc_, supers; _st_, chamber with -starters; _e_, entrance. (Redrawn from A Modern Bee Farm.)] - - SPACE NEAR ENTRANCES. - -Arranging frames with starters or combs merely begun between the -brood nest and the flight hole of the hive while the bees are given -storing space above or back of the brood-nest (figs. 68 and 69) La -a plan strongly recommended by Mr. Samuel Simmins, of England, and -which has come to be known as "the Simmins non-swarming method," some -features of it and the combination into a well defined method having -been original with him. It is an excellent preventive measure, though -not invariably successful even when the distinctive features brought -forward prominently by Mr. Simmins--empty space between the brood -combs and entrance, together with the employment of drawn combs in the -supers--are supplemented by other measures already mentioned; but when, -in addition to the space between the brood and the flight hole, the -precaution be taken to get supers on in time, to ventilate the hive -well, and to keep queens not over two years old, swarming will be very -limited. If to these precautions be added that of substituting for the -old queens young ones of the current season's raising, before swarming -has begun, practical immunity from swarming is generally insured. - -[Illustration: Fig. 70.--Beehives with Langdon non-swarmer attached: -_A, B_, hives; _S, S′_, supers; _D_, non-swarming device; _e, e′_, -entrances corresponding to hive entrances; _sl_, slide for closing -entrance; _c, c′_, conical wire-cloth bee-escapes; _ex, ex′_, exits of -same. (From Insect Life.)] - - LANGDON NON-SWARMING DEVICE. - -This device (fig. 70, _D_), first described and illustrated in Insect -Life for April, 1893 (Vol. V, No. 4), is designed to do more than -merely prevent swarming. The following claims are made by the inventor: - - (1) It prevents all swarming without caging queens, cutting out - queen cells or manipulation of brood combs. - - (2) Two light colonies that would not do much in sections if - working separately make one good one by running the field force - of both into the same set of supers. - - (3) No bait sections are needed, as the bees can be crowded into - the sections without swarming. - - (4) The honey will be finished in better condition, that is, with - less travel stain, because the union of the field forces enables - them to complete the work in less time. - - (5) There will be fewer unfinished sections at the close of the - honey harvest for the reason just mentioned. - - (6) Also for the same reason honey can be taken off by the full - case instead of by the section or holderful. - - (7) Drones will be fewer in number, as a double handful will often - be killed off in the closed hive while the other is storing - honey rapidly. - - (8) Artificial swarms and nuclei can be more easily made, as combs - of brood and bees can be taken from the closed hive in which the - queen can be found very quickly. - - (9) It enables one to care for more than twice as many colonies as - under the swarming system. - -Results according with the claims mentioned above have been reported -from various localities, but numerous adverse reports have also been -given, the latter indicating clearly that some modification of the -device is necessary if it is to be made generally serviceable. A -further trial of the principle under varying conditions and climates -will also be required to decide its exact value. - -The manner of using the device is simple. Before the colonies swarm -the device is attached to the fronts of two adjacent hives. The slide -(fig. 70, _sl_) having been inserted at one end of the device, the bees -returning from the fields are all run into the other hive, on which the -supers are then placed. Before the colony, thus made doubly populous, -decides to swarm, the slide and supers are both changed to the other -hive. This is repeated every four or five days during the swarming -period. - - SELECTION IN BREEDING. - -Some races of bees show greater inclination than others toward -swarming, and the same difference can be noted between individual -colonies of a given race; therefore, whatever methods be adopted to -prevent or limit increase, no doubt the constant selection of those -queens to breed from whose workers show the least tendency toward -swarming would in time greatly reduce this disposition. Indeed, it is -perfectly consistent to believe that persistent effort, coupled with -rigid and intelligent selection, will eventually result in a strain -of bees quite as much entitled to be termed non-swarming as certain -breeds of fowls which have been produced by artificial selection are to -be called non-sitters. These terms are of course only relative, being -merely indicative of the possession of a certain disposition in a less -degree than that shown by others of the same species. It might never -be possible to change the nature of our honey bees so completely that -they would never swarm under any circumstances, and even if possible it -would take a long period, so strongly implanted seems this instinct. -But to modify it is within the reach of any intelligent breeder who -will persistently make the effort. Such work should be undertaken in -experimental apiaries where its continuance when a single point has -been gained will not be affected by the changes of individual fortunes. - -Many features connected with swarming still remain mysteries. The whole -subject requires still more study, and its full elucidation would no -doubt be of great practical value to apiculture. The field is inviting. - - - - - CHAPTER XI. - - =WINTERING BEES.= - - -There will be little complaint of losses in wintering bees, whether in -a cold climate or a warm one, whether indoors or outside, provided the -following points are observed with each colony: - -(1) _The colony must have a good queen._--By a good queen is meant one -not over two years old and which shows no signs of failure during the -latter part of the season. It is preferable to have a queen of the -current season's raising. Such a queen, if reared from good stock and -under good conditions during the latter part of the summer, will be in -her prime the following spring, and if no other conditions are lacking -will have her colony strong for the harvest. - -(2) _Plenty of good bees._--Bees that are several months old or that -have gathered a heavy fall harvest of honey are not good to depend -upon for the winter. They drop off gradually of old age before there -are young bees to fill their places, and the queen, however prolific, -not having bees enough to cover her eggs, can not bring up, as she -otherwise would, the strength of the colony to a proper standard in -time for the harvest. There should be young bees emerging at all times -up to the month of October, or, in the South, even later. - -(3) _Good food and plenty of it._--Any well-ripened sealed honey -that is not crystallized is good winter food. Honeydew stored by -bees and honey from a few flowers (cruciferous plants, asters, etc.) -crystallizes in the combs soon after it is gathered and the bees are -obliged to liquefy it as they use it. They can not do this well in dry, -cold weather, and dampness within the hive, though it might enable -the bees to liquefy the crystallized honey, is otherwise inimical to -bee life, especially so during winter. Some of the crystallized food -is also wasted; hence the bees may starve even though the fall weight -indicated sufficient stores for winter. Disastrous results are very -likely, therefore, to follow the attempt to winter on such food. - -The removal of all pollen when preparing bees for winter has been -advised by some, who assert that it is unfit winter food and produces -dysentery. It will not, of course, alone sustain the life of the adult -bees, but if all conditions are right no more of it will be eaten than -the bees require to repair the waste of bodily tissue, and this being -slight in winter the consumption is small as long as other food lasts. -The pollen grains which by accident find their way into honey as the -bees gather it would probably be quite sufficient to supply this waste -in the case of the adult workers and no harm would result to these bees -from the substitution of other combs for those containing pollen. But -good colonies should begin brood rearing in January or February, and -pollen or a suitable substitute for it containing nitrogen most then -be present or the nurse bees will be subjected to a fearful drain on -their vitality to supply the rich nitrogenous secretion required by -the developing larvæ; in fact, they can not do so long, and the colony -dwindles. This absurd theory that bees can not have access to pollen in -winter without detrimental results can best be answered by referring to -the well-known fact that a colony in a large box or straw hive, freely -ventilated, yet having some part of the hive protected from drafts -of air and kept dry, will almost invariably come out strong in the -spring if populous in the fall, heavy with honey, and having a young -and vigorous queen. The pollen, it could not possibly be claimed, had -been injurious to such colonies, although they always gather and store -it without restriction, and are not disturbed in the possession of it. -In truth, their stores of pollen have constituted an important factor -in their development, and the strong instinct which they have toward -making accumulations of pollen for winter use and which they have -exercised for thousands of years undisturbed is of great benefit to -them. - -[Illustration: Fig. 71.--Percolator for preparation of winter food. -(Original.)] - -Other conditions being equal, those colonies having the most honey -stored compactly in the brood apartment and close about the very -center where the last brood of young bees should emerge, are the ones -which will winter best. Forty pounds for a northern latitude and 30 -in the middle sections of the Tinted States may be considered only a -good supply. When natural stores are found to be lacking in the brood -chamber, the best substitute is a sirup made of granulated sugar, which -should be fed early in the autumn as rapidly as the bees can manipulate -it and store it away. If given slowly the bees will be incited to rear -brood unseasonably, and will consume much of the food in this way. -If several pounds be given at a time--placed in the top story of the -colony to be fed, just at nightfall--it will be stored away quickly, -so that in a week at most the full winter stores will be completed. -The bees will seal it over better if fed slowly at the last; that is, -after the main feeding. Sirup made by percolation of cold water through -a mass of sugar and then through some porous material, as cotton, is -what is called a completely saturated solution; that is, it contains -all the sugar the water can be made to hold, and will not trouble -by granulation (fig. 71). The same difficulty is avoided by adding -well-ripened honey to moderately thick sirup, about one-fourth or -one-fifth as much honey as sirup. Molasses, brown sugar, glucose, etc., -are not suitable for winter stores for bees. - -[Illustration: Fig. 72.--The American straw hive of Hayek Bros.] - -[Illustration: Fig. 73.--Davis hive with newspapers packed between -inner and outer cases, and brood frames on end for the winter. -(Original.)] - -It is poor policy to permit bees to enter winter quarters without an -abundance of stores--better twice the amount that will be actually -consumed than merely enough to enable them to live through. - -(4) _The bees must be kept dry and warm._--A substantial hive with -a tight roof will keep rain and snow from the cluster; but the bees -must have air even during the severest weather and also when in their -most quiescent state; hence the question of ventilation has to be -considered. It has occasioned more discussion and experimentation -than any other point concerned in the wintering of bees. The amount -of ventilation both indoors and outside, whether upward ventilation -or lower ventilation, or both, and whether through the wooden walls -of the hive alone, have given rise to thousands of experiments based -on all sorts of theories, and innumerable losses have resulted. The -matter is really more complicated than would seem at first thought. The -warm air about the bodies of the bees (the winter temperature of the -cluster being about 72° F.) coming in contact with the cold surfaces -of combs of honey in ordinary hives, or with the inner Avails of such -hives, condensation and deposition of moisture occurs. During severe -weather this accumulates in the shape of hoarfrost, which, melting with -a rise of temperature, trickles down over the combs, the walls of the -hive, and the bees themselves, and, entering the honey cells through -the somewhat porous capping, sours the honey with which it mixes. The -soured food, dampness, and chilling of the bees combine to bring on -diarrhea, which is sure to weaken and decimate the colony if it does -not exterminate it. To avoid these troubles the surplus moisture of the -hive must be carried away by free ventilation, which at the same time -supplies pure air, but which does not create drafts in the hive nor -permit such an escape of heat as will chill the cluster through. Straw -hives (fig. 72) do this well; also the forms shown in figs. 73 and 74 -if well packed over the combs and ventilated above the packing. - -[Illustration: Fig. 74.--Double-walled hive adapted to outdoor -wintering as well as summer use below 40° north latitude in the United -States. Thickness of each wall, ⅜ inch; space between walls, 2 inches, -packed with dry chaff or ground cork. (Original.)] - -(5) _There should be no manipulation out of season._--Breaking up the -cluster and exposing the individual bees and their combs to a low -temperature, as well as causing them to gorge themselves with honey -when an opportunity for a cleansing flight may not occur soon, are also -causes which bring on diarrheal difficulties. Feeding to complete the -winter stores, when necessary, should be done soon after the last honey -flow, so that the bees will settle down for the winter on the approach -of cool autumn days. After this they are better off if left undisturbed -until the final work of preparing them for winter is done, which, if -the hive is well arranged, will be no material disturbance to the bees. -It is always preferable not to be obliged to touch the brood combs or -disturb the cluster when the weather is too cold for the bees to fly -freely. - - - OUTDOOR WINTERING. - -A consideration of the requirements above mentioned leads at once to -the essential features of any plan of outdoor wintering that may be -followed in the colder portions of our country with uniform success, -namely, the presence in the colony of a vigorous queen less than two -years old; a good cluster of healthy bees bred the latter part of the -season, that is, of sufficient numbers so that when closely clustered -during quite cool weather late in October or November not less than six -spaces between the brood combs, and preferably eight or nine spaces, -shall be occupied by a good number of bees, or that the cluster shall -be at such a time not less than 8, and preferably 10 to 12, inches -in diameter; the stores should consist of 30 pounds of well-ripened -honey or thick sugar sirup, stored and mostly sealed over and about -the bees; since in a long, shallow hive the heat is too diffused, -combs much longer than deep should be on end for the winter, to enable -the bees to economize their natural warmth; free access of pure air, -but without the creation of drafts, hence the entrance should be -indirect or screened in some manner; the ventilation should permit the -gradual passing away of the moisture-laden air of the hive, but not -the escape of heat, hence 6 or more inches (in the coldest portions of -the United States 10 or 12 inches) of dry, porous material, soft and -warmth-retaining, should be on all sides of the cluster and near to -it, the whole being protected by waterproof walls from any access of -outside moisture. Care to establish in all cases conditions similar -to the above before bees cease flying in the autumn will insure the -apiarist against any serious losses in wintering out of doors, even in -the severest portions of our country. - -[Illustration: Fig. 75.--An apiary in Vermont--winter view. (Reproduced -from photograph.)] - -In the extreme South, where bees can fly out at any time of the year, -little extra precaution is needed for the winter beyond seeing that the -stores do not become exhausted during a drought or a protracted rain, -when no honey can be gathered. Just in proportion to the severity and -length of the winter season the above general rules may be looked upon -as applicable, always bearing in mind, however, that in the variable -climate of the middle section of the country many of the precautions -strictly essential in a colder climate may still be profitably -followed, although fair results may be expected in the main without -their strict observance. - - - INDOOR WINTERING. - -Dry cellars or special repositories are utilized in those portions -of the country where the cold of winter is extreme and likely to be -somewhat continuous. Economy of food is one of the chief advantages, -but two-thirds as much, or about 20 to 25 pounds per hive, are needed -to bring a colony through if conditions are favorable. The colonies, -prepared as regards bees, queens, character of stores, etc., the same -as for outdoor wintering, are carried into the cellar or repository -just before the first snows come or severe freezing occurs. Caps are -removed or lifted up and cushions or mats laid on the frames. Light is -excluded and all other disturbing influences in so far as possible, -the effort being made to keep the temperature at about 42° F. during -the earlier part of the winter. Later, especially after brood-rearing -may have been begun, a somewhat higher degree is admissible--45° to -46°, some even allowing it to go up to 50°. No definite rule can be -given, however, since much depends upon the humidity of the air, etc. -As long as the bees remain quiet the temperature is not too high and is -preferably to be maintained. Should they become exceedingly restless, -and the opportunity occur during a winter thaw to give them a cleansing -flight, it will be advisable to return them for a few hours or a day or -two to their summer stands, and when they have flown and quieted down, -replace them in the cellar or repository. In the spring there should -not be too great eagerness to get them out of the cellar, provided -they are not restless. Their confinement indoors makes them somewhat -sensitive to the outside cold, and due caution should be observed, else -the ranks of the workers will become greatly decimated before young -ones appear to take their places. - -The same questions regarding ventilation of hives indoors that -puzzle many in the case of those left on their summer stands have -been discussed over and over. All that is necessary, however, is -to consider the same points, the question being less complicated, -though, by reason of the greater uniformity between the temperature -surrounding the cluster of bees and that outside the hive when the -latter is in a suitable winter repository. Some have reported success -in wintering in damp cellars, yet it is probable that such success was -purely accidental, or rather occurred in spite of the dampness of the -repository, the other conditions very likely having all been favorable, -especially as regards ventilation of the cellar, and the important -points of having good stores and an even temperature, which should be -several degrees higher than is required in a dry cellar. Wintering in -a damp repository is, however, attended in general with such risks -that it should by all means be avoided, and the bees, even in a severe -climate, intrusted preferably to their summer stands, if well prepared -as regards their stores and populousness. - - - - - CHAPTER XII. - - =DISEASES AND ENEMIES OF BEES.= - - - DIARRHEA AND DYSENTERY. - -In the chapter on wintering bees allusion has been made to certain -conditions which bring about diarrhea in bees. Not only will soured or -fermented honey produce this disease, but thin honey also, by requiring -too great exertion on the part of the bees to get rid of the surplus -moisture taken into their bodies, may indirectly cause the disease. -Repeated complaints have been made by those located near cider mills -that the apple juice collected by their bees was the cause of diarrhea -and dysentery. Aphidid secretions sometimes have the same effect. -Prolonged and intense cold in the interior of the hive, especially if -the stores are not of the best quality, causes distention and resulting -weakness and soiling of the hive and combs. Dampness and chilling of -individual bees frequently cause it. The effort some make to avoid the -dampness often results in the chilling, for the cover is removed, and -also some portion of the packing or the quilt or honey board to let the -air pass through to dry the interior. The true remedy is a cleansing -flight and warmth in the hive. Should the weather not be favorable -for this out of doors, the hive may be brought into a warm room and a -cage of wire cloth 2 or 3 feet square placed over the entrance. When -thoroughly warmed up the bees will fly in this and find their way back -into the hive. It is best to leave them in the warm room two or three -days, lowering the temperature gradually before returning the hive to -its outside stand. - - - FOUL BROOD. - -This disease, being highly contagious, is dreaded most of all by the -bee keeper. It is due to the presence of minute vegetable organisms -in the body of the bee, the larva, or the egg, which prey upon its -tissues. These, as Prof. Frank Cheshire has shown, are bacilli, which, -multiplying with marvelous rapidity by division and also by spores, -are carried from hive to hive, until from a single infection the whole -apiary is soon ruined. The particular bacillus which is commonly known -as foul brood Professor Cheshire has described as _Bacillus alvei_, -or hive bacillus, as it affects not only the brood but also the adult -bees. (See Pl. XI.) The first symptoms noticeable in the hive are its -lack of energy, then dead larvæ turned black in the cells, and finally -sunken caps, some of them perforated slightly over larvæ and pupæ. - - - Bul. 1, new series, Div. of Entomology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. - - Plate XI. - - [Illustration] - - Bacillus Alvei (Cheshire). - - [Drawn from nature by Frank R. Cheshire for Jour. R. Micr. Soc., and - here reduced one-sixth from the original plate.] - - Fig. 1.--Residue of larva three days dead of _bacillus alvei_; - _b_, bacilli. Spores and degenerated trachæ cover the field. - Fig. 2.--Healthy juices of bee larva. - Fig. 3.--Juices of larva (living) with disease in acute stage; - _a a_, leptothrix forms. - Fig. 4.--Brood cells from a diseased colony; _a a_, cells containing - healthy forms. - Fig. 5.--Cultivation in sterilized agar-agar showing the colony form of - bacillus. - Fig. 6.--Same cultivation twenty-four hours later. - Fig. 7.--Spore changing into bacilli. - Fig. 8.--Bacillus passing into spore condition. - -All of these symptoms may, however, be present when no foul brood -exists; but if, upon opening some of the cells whose caps are sunken -or slightly punctured, a brown, ropy, putrid mass is found, which, -when lifted on the end of a sliver of wood, glides back into the cell -or strings down from the mass like thick sirup, it is pretty certain -that foul brood is present. Caution is necessary or it maybe spread -all through the apiary. The hands, as well as all tools used about -the infected colony, should be cleansed by washing in a solution of -corrosive sublimate (one-eighth ounce dissolved in 1 gallon water) -before going to another hive. If but few are found diseased they should -be burned at once--at night, when all the bees are at home. If all -or nearly all are affected, or if the disease does not seem virulent -and other apiaries in the neighborhood are not endangered thereby, a -cure may be attempted. Removal of all of the combs and confinement -of the bees in an empty box, obliging them to fast until some drop -from hunger, followed after releasing them by liberal feeding, will -frequently effect a cure, as indicated many years since by Mr. M. -Quinby. The hives may be disinfected by washing in carbolic-acid -water and used again. A second removal of the bees and fasting may -be necessary in some cases. It will also be well to feed medicated -sirup--1 part of carbolic acid, or phenol, to 600 or 700 parts of -sirup. Many omit the fasting, but destroy all combs and frames and -supply comb-foundation starters, removing four days later all combs -built and giving a second lot of starters. It is well to supplement -this treatment with feeding of medicated sirup. Phenol having been -suggested to Professor Cheshire as a remedy, he experimented until he -found that if a sirup containing 1 part of phenol to 400 or 500 parts -of the food be poured in the cells adjacent to the brood, and the -diseased brood, after brushing off the bees, sprayed with a solution of -1 phenol to 50 water, a cure was speedily effected. The great risk of -spreading the disease, as well as the time and expense which a cure by -drugs by the fasting process involves, will cause immediate destruction -to be resorted to as the cheapest in the end if taken in time. - -_Bacillus gaytoni_, also described by Professor Cheshire, is -characterized by loss of hairy covering on the part of the workers and -their crawling out of the hives over the ground, constantly wriggling -their bodies until death occurs. It yields, according to Professor -Cheshire, to the same remedies as Bacillus alvei, but having been less -destructive and being far more likely to disappear without effort to -cure it, less attention has been given to it. Lately, however, it -has been alarmingly destructive in some of the extensive apiaries of -California. Colorado, and Texas, so that some simple remedy would be -very welcome. - - - THE WAX OR BEE MOTH. - -The larva of a moth known to entomologists as _Galleria mellonella_ -Linn. gnaws passages through the combs of the bees, especially those -in or near the brood nest, often proving very destructive in weak or -neglected colonies. The popular name, wax moth, was doubtless given -on the supposition that the food of the larva was chiefly wax; but -when an attempt to rear them on this substance in its usual commercial -purity is made slight development only results. Probably chemically -pure wax would not be touched by the larva; but in combs containing the -larval skins left by developing bees, or containing brood or pollen, -they reach their highest development if left undisturbed during warm -weather, finding ample nourishment in the nitrogen-containing pollen -and animal tissues left by the molting larvæ. To protect themselves -from the bees they line their galleries through the combs with a strong -web of silk and are able to retreat or advance rapidly through them -when attacked. The observing bee keeper will occasionally notice the -moths resting during the daytime on the corners of the hives or under -the roof projections or edges of the bottom boards. Its color is dull -or ashy gray, with light and dark streaks, making it so nearly like a -protruding sliver of a weather-beaten board as to protect it materially -from its enemies when resting on any unpainted surface that has been -long exposed. At nightfall the moths may be seen flitting about the -hive entrances, seeking an opportunity to enter and deposit their eggs. -If prevented by the bees, which are then instinctively on the alert, -they deposit in the crevices between the hive and stand or between the -hive and cap. The minute larvæ as they emerge soon make their way into -the interior of the hive. It is possible also that some of the eggs -of the moth may be left where the bees crawling over them carry them -into the hive by accident, the freshly laid egg adhering readily to -any substance it touches. In the northern and middle sections of the -United States two broods are reared, the first appearing in May, the -second and larger brood in midsummer or even August. The eggs deposited -by the last brood develop slowly in the cooler autumn weather, but -usually reach the pupal stage, in which they normally pass the winter. -Individual moths may, however, be seen about the apiary during June and -July, and even into the autumn, so that egg deposition is constantly -going on, and any combs removed from the hive and left unprotected by -bees, especially if in a warm apartment or a closed box, will soon be -in complete possession of the destructive larvæ, which wax fat and -soon reduce them to a mass of webs. The only remedies are to keep the -combs under the constant protection of the bees, or, if the colonies -are not populous enough to cover them fairly, the combs should be hung -so as to leave a space between them in a cupboard or large box which -can be closed tightly, so as to subject them for some time to the fumes -generated by throwing a handful or two of sulphur on live coals, or to -the odors of bisulphide of carbon in an open vial. Caution is needed in -the use of the latter, since it is highly inflammable. - -Oriental races of bees are more energetic than others in clearing out -wax-moth larvæ, and Carniolans and Italians more so than the common -bees. But in colonies always supplied with good queens the wax-moth -larvæ make little headway, and it is therefore only the neglected -hives that are seriously troubled. Moth-trap attachments or moth-proof -hives are therefore of no use, unless, in the case of the former, -larvæ seeking a secure place in which to pupate may be caught; but -that implies frequent examination, and the same or less attention to -the colony itself will suffice to do away with almost any breeding of -moths. Hives proof against the entrance of wax-moth larvæ would, as -the statements here made regarding the breeding habits of the moth -indicate, exclude the bees also. From the foregoing it can be readily -seen that the attentive apiarist no longer regards the wax moth as a -serious pest. - - - BRAULA OR "BEE LOUSE." - -A wingless dipteron, _Braula cæca_ Nitsch, known under the common name -of "bee louse," is a troublesome parasite on bees in Mediterranean -countries, the adults, which are very large in proportion to the host, -gathering on the thoraces of the workers, rarely of the drones, but -in great numbers on the queens. The writer has removed seventy-five -at one time from a queen, though ordinarily the numbers do not exceed -a dozen. When numerous they render the queen weak by the removal of -vital fluids. The insect has frequently been imported to this country -on queens with attendant bees, but thus far has probably gained no -foothold. Likely it will never do so in the North, but the case might -be different in any region resembling southern Europe in climate, and -it is by all means advisable to remove every one from any queen or -worker arriving here infested with them. - - - OTHER ENEMIES. - -_Robber flies, dragon flies, etc._--Several species of _Asilus_ and -related predaceous Diptera do not live upon injurious insects alone, -but also capture and devour honey bees. They are more destructive in -the South than elsewhere. The same is true of the neuropterous insects -known as mosquito hawks, dragon flies, or devil's darning needles. -There seems to be no remedy for any of these except that of frightening -them away when noticed about the apiary. The "stinging bugs," belonging -in the hemipterous family Phymatidæ, often capture and destroy workers -as they visit the flowers. No remedy is practicable. - -_Ants and wasps._--Some of the larger ants and social wasps are very -troublesome to the apiarist in tropical and even in subtropical -regions. They seize the workers and cut them in pieces with their -powerful jaws. Having once reduced the hive defenders, they even make -bold to enter and carry off the queen as well as help themselves to -honey. Trapping them with honey or with meat and killing them, as well -as destroying the nests when found, are the only remedies. The paper -nests are easily burned away, while an effectual remedy against ants is -to open the hill and pour in an ounce or two of bisulphide of carbon. - -_Spiders._--Webs made about hive entrances often capture bees as well -as wax moths, and, notwithstanding this last-mentioned point in their -favor, they had better be removed. - -_Toads and lizards._--These devour many bees, and whenever found near -the hives should be destroyed or removed to the vegetable garden. - -_Birds._--Swallows and kingbirds have been accused of eating many bees. -It is probable that the destruction of injurious insects by them more -than makes amends for the bees taken. This was clearly proven in the -case of the kingbird, stomachs of which, examined at the United States -Department of Agriculture, showed only a very small percentage of honey -bees, and these mostly drones. - - - MAMMALS. - -Mice gaining access to the hive during winter gnaw out among the combs -a nest cavity and eat honey, pollen, and bees. Low entrances, covered, -if found necessary, with a strip of tin, will prevent the mice from -gnawing larger holes, yet permit the bees to pass in and out. Skunks -sometimes disturb hive entrances and catch bees as they come out. This -is particularly vexatious in the winter, when colonies should be left -quiet. In mountain localities, bears, led by their fondness for honey, -still occasionally overturn beehives. The remedies for both of these -are, of course, shooting or trapping. - - - ROBBER BEES. - -When forage is scarce in the field, bees belonging to different -colonies often wage fierce wars over the stores already in hives. -Thousands are killed and the victors relentlessly carry off as booty -every drop of honey from the vanquished hive, leaving its bees to -starve miserably. A great stir and loud buzzing in the hive of the -conquerors attests their rejoicing over the ill-gotten gains. Nor have -they any code of morals which inclines them to select as opponents -forces equal in strength to their own. With them "all's fair in war." -Their only object is plunder, and they therefore select the most -defenseless, a colony disorganized through loss of its queen being an -especial mark for a combined attack. - -Extreme caution to prevent robbing is always advisable. A little -carelessness or neglect in the apiary early in the spring or toward -the latter part of the season may result in much loss. It is easier to -prevent robbing than to check it at once or without loss after it is -well under way. Leaving honey exposed about the apiary often induces -robbers to begin their work; hence extracting and similar work must -be done in bee-proof rooms whenever the bees are not gathering honey -freely. It may at such times be necessary to do all manipulating early -in the morning, before many of the bees have begun to fly, or later in -the day, after they have ceased, or even under a tent made of mosquito -netting and placed temporarily over the hive to be manipulated. -Queenless and weak colonies should be put in order if possible before -the honey flow ceases. In any event the entrances of such hives should -be contracted until but few or even no more than one bee can gain -access to the interior at one time. Professor Cheshire has devised an -excellent entrance block to prevent or check robbing. This is shown in -fig. 70, and is so simple that anyone can make it. When contracted and -placed at the hive entrance it will be seen that the robbers must make -their way through a narrow and bent passage, something they are loath -to attempt, especially if at the first onset they find the passage well -guarded. - -[Illustration: Fig. 76.--Cheshire anti-robbing entrance: _st_, -stationary piece; _s_, slide; _p_, pin or stop. (Redrawn.)] - -If robbing has begun it may sometimes be stopped by throwing coarse -grass or weeds over the entrance of the hive attacked, or by leaning -a pane of glass against its front, the entrance being, of course, -contracted as indicated above. These plans tend to confuse the robbers -for a time, and meanwhile the rightful occupants of the hive may be -able to organize for defense. If convenient the colony attacked may be -moved a distance of a half mile or more and placed as far as possible -from other apiaries until it can recuperate. Another plan in extreme -cases is to put the colony in a dark cellar for a few days, confining -the bees to the hive with wire cloth, so as to allow plenty of -ventilation, as described under the head of "Moving bees." When brought -out of the cellar it is well to place the colony on a new stand, apart -from the other bees, contract the entrance, and lean a board against -the front of the hive. It is also safest to bring it out late in the -day, even just at dusk, so the bees will begin flying from it gradually -and not attract the attention of robbers. It may be well, when removing -a colony from its stand to save it from robbers, to put in its place -a hive with combs containing a little honey and pollen. The robbers, -instead of scattering and entering adjacent hives, will continue to -visit the same stand, their numbers gradually diminishing as the honey -gives out and the pollen is sucked dry. If meanwhile the entrances of -adjoining hives have been contracted and these colonies are fairly -strong and in normal condition, individual robbers will be successively -repulsed as they appear. Quiet will thus be eventually restored. - - - LAYING WORKERS. - -Although laying workers are not strictly enemies of their kind, their -work hastens the extinction of the colony to which they belong, in case -the latter has become queenless and is without the means of rearing -another queen. They cause the expenditure of the stores and strength -of the colonies in a vain though well-meant endeavor to perpetuate -their species; the eggs which laying workers deposit, and for whose -development through the larval stage much honey and pollen are -required, only resulting in the production of a lot of drones, for the -most part weak and dwarfed. - -If not discovered until the hive is nearly depopulated, the remaining -old bees should be brushed off, and the combs, after the sealed drone -brood has been unmapped and jarred out, may be distributed among other -colonies. Should the affected colony still be worth saving, combs -containing emerging bees should be added and a queen introduced a few -days later, or a queen cell inserted, as soon as the added brood has -stocked the hive well with young bees. - - - - - =BOOKS AND JOURNALS RELATING TO APICULTURE.= - -The following are among the leading books and journals relating to -apiculture: - - BOOKS. - - Langstroth on the Honey Bee. Revised edition, 1889. By Chas. Dadant - & Son. - Quinby's New Bee Keeping; or The Mysteries of Bee Keeping Explained. - 1884. By L. C. Root. - The A B C of Bee Culture: A Cyclopædia of Everything Pertaining to the - Care of the Honey Bee. By A. I. Root. - Advanced Bee Culture: Its Methods and Management. 1891. By W. Z. - Hutchinson. - Bees and Bee Keeping, Scientific and Practical. By Frank R. Cheshire. - In two volumes: Vol. I (scientific), Vol. II (practical). Published - in London, England. - The Bee Keeper's Guide; or Manual of the Apiary. By A. J. Cook. - A Modern Bee Farm and its Economic Management. By S. Simmins. Published - in London, England. - The Blessed Bees. By John Allen. - Bee Keeping for Profit. By Dr. G. L. Tinker. - - JOURNALS. - - The American Bee Journal. Weekly. Chicago, Ill. - Gleanings in Bee Culture. Semimonthly. Medina, Ohio. - The Bee Keepers' Review. Monthly. Flint, Mich. - The American Bee Keeper. Monthly. Falconer, N. Y. - The Progressive Bee Keeper. Monthly. Higginsville, Mo. - The Southland Queen. Monthly. Beeville, Texas. - The Western Bee Keeper. Monthly. Denver, Colo. - - - * * * * * - - - Transcriber Note - -Minor typos corrected. Illustrations repositioned where they split -paragraphs. - - - - - - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK USDA, BULLETIN NO. 1. 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